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1743—18938

PROCEEDINGS COMMEMORATIVE

OF THE

One Hunprep ano Firtietu ANNIVERSARY

OF THE FOUNDATION OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA
FOR THE PROMOTION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE

MAY 22-26, 1893

PHILADELPHIA

1894

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TABLE OF CONTENTS.

ADDRESS BY

PAGE.
EOE edeniclkmiraleveesa ley sli gee sess, eden ae saiks 7h) L725, £50) 160
Voie George be banker jee A Nolin Ciola deme iiee 8 ears s es SLOA=IG8
Dire lsaacwNObertSi0. 2.0 . ae Shic Sieben ea Se alycahembx pane a ar AO 7 LOW
Chevalier Rousseau d’Happoncourt. . . 84-96
1D yrs Iona (Ce WilOTaIS CGN Bo eo 76-83
Prof. J. M. Hoppin . ie 56-76
Dr. SamuelvAs iGreen 2 =. = « 42-54
Rt. Rev. John J. Keane. . 33-42
Dr. Daniel C. Gilman. . 33
Prof. Hubert A. Newton. . 29-32
ErofsAlpheusiilyattes-) . =. = 25-29
COMMEMORATION OF THE
One Hundred and Fiftieth Anniversary of the Foundation of the Ameri-
can Philosophical Society, May 22 to 26, 1893. Preambles and Res-
GIT OMS Mea Acarer edie r ete tn cio eM) cy) hy Ucichaa ceeds. ver en 5,6
GREETINGS
From American and Foreign Societies. . . 9-13
List oF DELEGATES
Appointed to represent various Societies and Institutions. . 13-16
LIsT OF SOCIETIES
Sending Congratulations and Regrets .......- ust se oma LOM TTS 54—50
PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE ANNIVERSARY MEETINGS, BY
Prof. Samuel H. Scudder (Tertiary Tipulidze, with Special Reference to
fhaserorMlorissant;Colorad@) <0) ens esses) (sl ees 5 be BMS PY IS,
Mr. Joseph Willcox (Some of the Work of the Wagner Free Institute of
SOME Ct eevee) 6 Ga 6 6 oo aa 6 oo oom oe 245-247

Mr. Lorin Blodget (Catalogue of Works on Atmospheric Physics and

Ciininaiienereag))" ilo gline opteuty Giaty Euloea arms So mtrae cmc a Mmemen stole,

4

PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE ANNIVERSARY MEETINGS, BY PAGE,

Dr. Charles A. Oliver (A Short Note upon So-called ‘‘ Hereditary Optic-
Nerve Atrophy '’—as a Contribution to the Question of Transmission

of structural sPeculiarity))\.-icmemeaeicmns) cist ais lila) <2) (ci ores 269-271
Dr. John A. Ryder (The Adaptive Forms and the Vortex-Motion of the

Substances of the Red Blood-corpuscles of Vertebrates)... . . 272-275
Dr. Alpheus S. Packard (A Study of the Transformations and Anatomy

of Lagoa crispata,a Bombycine Moth). ......... + « « 275-202
Dr, Friedrich S. Krauss (Ein Guslarenlied der slavischen Mohamme-

GAME) Fy 5 salle weet soerar ued oy Fo aa RR ais ieisees (oh. co Somme 293-325

Dr. W. J. Hoffman (Gshicht fun da al’ta tsai/ta in Pensilfani). . . . . 325-331
Dr. J. T. Rothrock (On the Growth of the Forestry Idea in Pennsylva-

VE) WP Re ho ACO MPMM are R UG omic 6..4 6,0 Sigmie sOmemc ac 332-342
Mr. Joseph Wharton (Dust from the Krakatoa Eruption of 1883) . . . 343-345
Dr. Hermann Rollett (Die Forscher). . .. . OO 0,10 o-OnOen Gee © 345-349
Prof. Alpheus Hyatt (Phylogeny of an Acquired Characteristic). . . . 349-640

PRESIDENT’S

AGES OR WEN 5 6 Gon Ab 5 pS oo Wel coh cot ORDO RARE etree 7
ENGOVESS is cose va) cel tae tat cas wiel Fan aes) at Ligilot a> =) Lon ro Neat Reale Meee mode 17-25
(Choshiven 72s lc hese onarah, op cin ct cco! gees Gage Oo 1 159, 160

WEN; Be See. ease AA mioneg “Cc eC ae Cp Oe Rare Porras 6) OA wo 7-13
WIEN Oe ine eerie ach oh he EPO toed Reco mM oo 7 17-32
NEN) CM aeeeamcmenias Lids das oueoOdeicmded Oma o OO Dp 6 5 0d ¢ 33-42
MEI; Oar ie einer eee sora ce mae. th IQs Tk OPO gD c 42-83
INKY! Dole tein nian IMC Cech Origa ceo. Goer ick caoecemnl a Uad foe hc 84-160
RECEPTIONS.
(Griainel (Colles ag oh Bao 5° 0 eee cn tars Pa ce hema ontct ion ase 0. c 42
Renna lube iiss ter eniouistrite th ELON CRORES Mr fol Oo BORIC s 42
Wiversity of Pennsylvania wrens irene) nnn oll io) esheesi erie 83
Milena aver (Ciholo) IBWOESe goin 6 o Oe a Bb Boo 8 Gin o 4% eee 83
(Cheramoreysionjoy MEVKOl Gale ay bd so a deo Cao od Sa Saeke is eG ar roti 160
Union League a eeerey al Whee etait ena ap~ ai ieee ray alae ee a 160
Ari lublot Philadel pice aan: scoerenme eee ant: Mor con. 6 160

Colles OQURMGOEMS 5 5 5 5 64 5 5) 6c fy ied, Sa) cde ee et 160

ied OF “PEATES.

alWvorthe American PhilosophicaliSociety s 4. © 2 «4.0. « Frontispiece

President, Vice-Presidents, Secretaries, Curators, Treasurer, Coun-

GULGESH9 sian. Ree cic se hte os a eo a ., - . . Following p. 4
ISELIN RINGO OMIUNE s tamrcmae spies oe pis Fis hoe Rive ie | go sy son eres, Meee ts is Facing p. 7
BANGUeHM OD NOOMP ge, fils: sis ees aU Ne gee) ees ey whe lid eye be Bl eras Facing p. 42
WieWSrile Vee inone OO Mami colaiusiiel ty) cma. ist se) ia. Seas aua gy simiae an eewes at 3 Facing p. 83
ianl GhevalierRousseaul Di Mapponcourt. 295°. ). 2. 4. es -. & Bacing ps 84

Thirteen Plates, illustrating Dr. Isaac Roberts’ remarks on ‘‘ Illus-

trations of Progress made during recent years in Astronomical

SOMES 5 5 5 4 5c Sic nie) Geta eeaes ve saya k ACIND -pp.'98,. 100) 1O2
WHE LT WS IBN ONS OA eo oO me ovis 28 Ghy. 5.4 sean en . . Facing p. 104
Wile Wal nutieMedoralyery oc.04, estate fy. sigs to) Tibet nls) 2s bre) fe) 6! uleulaces <s Facing p. 160

Nine Plates, illustrating Dr. Samuel H. Scudder’s paper on Tertiary
Tipulide especially of Colorado ......... . Between pp. 242 and 243

Seven Plates, illustrating Dr. Alpheus S. Packard's Study of the Trans-
formation and Anatomy of Lagoa crispata,a Bombycine Moth . . Facing p. 292

Sixteen Plates, illustrating Prof. Alpheus Hyatt’s paper on Zhe Phylog-
eny of an Acquired Characteristic . . . Facing pp. 425, 496, 617, 619, 621, 622,
624, 626, 628, 630, 632, 633, 635, 637, 639, 640

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PROCEEDINGS AM. PHIL. SOC. VOL. XXXII, No. 143.

SECRETARIES:

2—DANIEL G. BRINTON, 1—GEORGE F. BARKER.
4—GEORGE H. HORN, 3—HENRY PHILLIPS, Jr.

PROCEEDINGS AM. PHIL. SOC. VOL. XXXII, No. 1438.

CURATORS:
R. MEADE BACHE. PATTERSON DU BOIS.

J. CHESTON MORRIS.

PROCEEDINGS AM. PHIL. SOC. VOL. XXXII, No. 143.

PRESIDENT:
HON. FREDERICK FRALEY, L.L.D.

PROCEEDINGS AM. PHIL. SOC. VOL. XXXII, No. 143.

VICE-PRESIDENTS:

E. OTIS KENDALL. W. S. W. RUSHENBERGER. J. P: LESEEY.

PROCEEDINGS AM. PHIL. SOC. VOL. XXXII, No. 143.

TREASURER:
J. SERGEANT PRICE.

PROCEEDINGS AM. PHIL. SOC. VOL. XXXII, No. 143.

COUNCILORS:

WILLIAM V. McKEAN, RICHARD VAUX, ROBERT PATTERSON,
RICHARD WOOD, HENRY CAREY BAIRD.

Moot

sh
5
rs
ay

re

PROCEEDINGS AM. PHIL. SOC. VOL. XXXII, No. 143.

COUNCILORS:
WILLIAM P. TATHAM, CHARLES S. WURTS, SAMUEL WAGNER.
GEORGE R. MOREHOUSE, WILLIAM C. CATTELL, THOMAS H. DUDLEY,

WILLIAM A. INGHAM.

1743 COMMEMORATION 1898

OF THE

ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTIETH ANNIVERSARY

OF THE FOUNDATION OF THE

ave RICAN: PHILOSOPHICAL*SOCIETY

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA

FOR THE PROMOTION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE,

May 22d to 26th; 1893."

At a stated meeting of the Board of Officers and Council of
the Society, held on the 13th of May, 1892, Mr. Henry Phil-
lips, Jr., offered the following Preambles and Resolutions,
which were adopted:

Whereas, This Society did in the year 1848 celebrate the Centennial
Anniversary of its foundation by a series of addresses, meetings, recep-
tions, exercises, etc., upon the 25th, 26th, 27th, 28th, 29th and 30th days
of May, the results of which were published in a special volume of
over two hundred pages; and

Whereas, We are approaching the Sesqui-Centennial Anniversary of
the same auspicious event; therefore, be it

Resolved, That the Society will celebrate the same in a worthy and
becoming manner.

6

Resolved, That the President be authorized to appoint a Committee
of five members to make all necessary arrangements for the same and
with full power to act, and that the President be ex officio a member of
said Committee.

At a stated meeting of the Society, held on May 20, 1892,
the Preambles and Resolutions were considered by the Society,
and unanimously agreed to.

The President appointed as such Committee, Mr. Henry
Phillips, Jr., Chairman, and Messrs. J. Sergeant Price, Richard
Vaux, Daniel G. Brinton, M.D., William V. Keating, M.D.,
Frederick Fraley, ex officio.*

*On the Ist of May, 1893, the Chairman of the Committee was attacked by a sudden
and serious illness, and being unable to carry on the duties of the position, Mr. J. Ser-
geant Price, at tae request of the President of the Society, acted in such capacity.

=]

ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTIETH ANNIVERSARY

OF THE FOUNDATION ‘OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Monpay, May 22, 1893, 8 p.m.

The Society was called to order by the President, Hon.
Frederick Fraley, LL.D., who delivered the following address

of welcome:

United Brethren (for so I think I can appropriately address you),
it gives me great pleasure to welcome this goodly company which
has come to us from abroad to the State of Pennsylvania and the
city of Philadelphia, and to the ancient edifice in which we are
now assembled.

I esteem it the crowning glory of a long life to be permitted to
look upon this day. I have been a sojourner on earth for nearly
ninety years, and I have looked upon this goodly world for the last
seventy-five years with a full appreciation of what it contains and
how much good it is possessed of to benefit mankind. Among
those benefits I recognize the existence of our scientific institutions,
which have gradually grown to be numerous in our territory, to be
the correspondents of the older institutions abroad ; and to have the
opportunities occasionally of mingling in such assemblies as this for
the promotion of the common objects they have at heart, for the
general promotion of useful knowledge.

I hope that the occasion in which we have come to take part will
be blessed, as our previous celebrations have been, with a unity of
purpose, with the beginning of friendships that shall endure through
life, with stimulus for the creation of new institutions of similar

8

character, so that, as the years roll on, the circle of science will be
completed and extended, and the benefits arising from a diffusion of
useful knowledge will become more and morea blessing to the world
at large.

It is difficult for me to find words with which I can pour out the
fullness of my heart to you, my brethren, who are here around me,
and I trust from the greetings which I have witnessed this evening,
in the gratulations and friendships which have saluted my ears, that
this occasion will be memorable in the history of our scientific life ;
and that if we have the advantages which seem to me to be prom-
ised to us from this gathering, when we shall separate at the close of
the week there will be not only a union of hearts and a union of
hands, but aunion of common purposes and pursuits. Our country
is so large, our population is so great, our resources of all kinds are so
abundant, that everything which can stimulate the human intellect
to labor, for the increase of knowledge and for the increase of hap-
piness, lies all around us.

While you are here you will, I hope, accept and participate in
those social enjoyments that will be tendered to you outside of the
mere exercises of our meeting, and that you will visit our ancient
University, the Girard College for orphans, the Drexel Institute,
the United States Mint at Philadelphia, and, among others, those
two hives of industry which bear testimony to the great improve-
ments in the extension and perfection of steam machinery, in its
application to naval purposes and to land transportation, the work-
shops of the Cramps and the ‘‘ Baldwin’s.”’

These opportunities are freely tendered to you, and our Commit-
tee of Arrangements will divide themselves into squads and take
charge of you, so far as your individual preferences may choose, for
visiting these different institutions.

Again renewing the cordial welcome that I have given you, I bid
you now, gentlemen, Godspeed in the enterprises in which you may
engage for the coming three days of this week, so that when the
time comes for drawing upon us the curtain of separation, we will
disperse with the conviction that we have added to our knowledge
and to our friendships, and that we have done something for the
benefit of our country and for the world at large.

It will be a great gratification to me personally, and I know that
it will gratify our friends who are here assembled, if some of our

9

guests will say a few words of congratulation to us, I may ask, and
also give the views that they may take of such a celebration as we
propose to hold.

Mayor Stuart, having been introduced by President Fraley,
addressed the Society, as follows:

Mr. President, Guests and Members of the American Philosophical
‘Society :—I had no idea when I came into the room to-night that
I was to say anything in the way of welcoming the guests of this
Society to Philadelphia. My good friend, Mr. Fraley, whom every
Philadelphian loves and respects,. has said far more to you in the few
moments he has spoken than I could say if I were to speak for half
an hour; but I have been requested, on behalf of the Committee,
to say a few words of welcome to the distinguished guests who
have honored our city to-day and this week by their presence,
‘and in the name of the people of Philadelphia, who cherish the
highest regard and respect for this ancient and useful Society, I extend
to you a most heartfelt welcome, hoping that your visit among us
will be as pleasant and agreeable to you all as I know your presence
will be to us.

President Fraley next introduced Hon. Louis Vossion, Con-
sul of France at Philadelphia, who presented the greetings of
the University of Paris to the Society, as follows:

A La SocIETE DE PHILSOPHIE DE PHILADELPHIE—L’ UNIVERSITE DE
Paris.

Messieurs :—\, Université de Paris est heureuse de saluer votre
Société qui cultive, avec tant de succes, les Sciences philosophiques
dans un pays que |’ Europe considére trop souvent comme exclusive-
ment occupé d’affaires industrielles et commerciales.

Il appartenait 4 l’Etat qui a compté parmi ses citoyens un philos-
ophe pratique tel que Franklin de tenir haut et ferme le drapeau de
la philosophie dans les Etats-Unis d’ Amérique.

La France n’oublie pas que la Pensylvanie lui a envoyé ce grand
patriote qui a noué entre votre jeune nation et la vieille France des
relations d’affection et que c’est aux environs de Philadelphie que

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143. B. PRINTED NOV. 21, 1893.

10

La Fayette a scellé de son sang, dés sa premiere bataille, cette ami-
tié impérissable.

Nous aimons aussi 4 nous rappeler que Franklin n’a pas seulement
acquis a son pays les sympathies de la France, mais que par la dig-
nité simple de sa vie, par ses paroles et par ses écrits, il nous a pré-
parés a la liberté en nous montrant qu’ une grande nation peut se
gouverner elle-méme.

Ces souvenirs ineffacables vous assurent, Messieurs, de la sincérité
des vceux que nous formons pour votre Société et pour la Grande
République des Etats-Unis d’ Amérique.

Le Recteur, Président du Conseil général,
EREUD.
Le Secrétatre,
ERNEST LAVISSE.

Prof. William B. Scott was next introduced, who, on behalf
of the University of Princeton, New Jersey, read the follow-

ing address :

SocIETATI PHILOSOPHIA AMERICANA UNIVERSITAS PRINCETONIENSIS.
Sp 125 ID)

Cum hoc quidem semper decet eos qui scientias liberales amore,
labore honore illustrauerint liberali in grata memoria haberi, sic
enim debita immortalitas his rite tribuitur qui scientiam uiuificauer-
unt, tum in presenti preecipue conuenit nos Przesidem et Professores
Universitatis Princetoniensis letos celebrare uobiscum szculares
ferias mox Philadelphiz habendas atque hunc annum centesimum
quinquagesimum Societatis Philosophiz Americanz conditze com-
memoraturas.

Itaque nobis placuit inuitatui uestro amicissimo respondentibus
Guilielmum Berryman Scott, qui apud nos Geologiam Palzonto-
logiamque profitetur, diligere uicarium, cul insuper mandaruimus ut
ipse pro nobis gratias et gratulationes coram reddat.

Datum PRINCETONI# a. d. xiii Kal iun. [SEAL. ]
Anno Salutis MDCCCXCIII.

The following address from the Naturwissenschaftliche Verein
in Kiel was read:

i

DER AMERIKANISCHEN PHILOSOPHISCHEN GESELLSCHAFT ZU PHILA-
DELPHIA ZU IHREM HUNDERTFUNFZIG-JAHRIGEN STIFTUNGS-
FESTE AM 22 MAl, 1893,° GEWIDMET VOM NATURWISSEN-
SCHAFTLICHEN VEREIN IN KIEL.

Ist unser Verein auch durch die raumliche Entfernung gehindert
Ihrer Einladung gemass einen Abgeordneten zu Ihrer Festfeier zu
senden, so sind wir doch nicht verhindert, Ihnen unsere Griisse und
Wiinsche iiber das Meer hin zu schicken.

Ihre Gesellschaft, so viel wir wissen eine Vereinigung mit der von
Franklin begriindeten Gesellschaft Junto, feiert fast genau zu gleicher
Zeit wie eine der altesten deutschen naturwissenschaftlichen Gesell-
schaften, diejenige zu Danzig, das hundertfiinfzig-jahrige Stiftungs-
fest.

In zahlreichen Banden reichen Inhaltes haben diese beiden Ge-
sellschaften die Naturforschung geférdert und der Verbreitung niitz-
licher Kenntnisse zum Besten der Menschheit gedient.

Fast zahllose Gesellschaften sind seitdem Ihrem Vorbilde gefolgt ;
Sie aber kénnen Sich riihmen unser naturwissenschaftliches Zeitalter
vorbereitet zu haben.

Wir senden Ihnen unsere besten Wiinsche fiir das fernere Bliihen
und Gedeihen Ihrer Gesellschaft.

DER NATURWISSENSCHAFTLICHE VEREIN IN KIEL.
Dr. G. KARSTEN, C. REINBOLD, L. WEBER.

Provost William Pepper being next introduced, presented
on behalf of the University of Pennsylvania the following ad-

dress:

SOCIETATI PHILOSOPHICH AMERICAN UNIVERSITAS PENNSYLVANIEN-
SISse Seb):

Magno cum gaudio litteris vestris nuper acceptis intelleximus ap-
propinquare diem natalem Societatis Vestree abhinc annos centum
et quinquagenta condite ; ad quem diem maxima letitia concele-
brandum nos non solum humanitas Vestra in convocando, sed etiam
vel maxime id movet, quod Societatem et Universitatem meminimus
ab uno conditore eodem fere tempore institutas, omnibus enim
notum inter conditas eas annos intercessisse decem vel haud multo
plures. His igitur jam Vobis conjunctos vinculis, tempore, quod

12

et maximum, Franklinio conditore nunc cum maxime juvat illius
hominis, decoris nostra communis, merita commemorare erga nos,
civitatem nostram immo patriam universam, necnon operam egregie
navatam in litteris scientiaque promovendis. Is enim est ille vir,
cul inter nostrates pzene soli hoc contigerit, nullum opus in nostra
urbe, quod ad bonum publicum spectet, non tetegisse, nullum, quod
tetigerit, non auxisse, dignumque esse qui hance laudem audiat,
meliora sevisse quam speraverit vel etiam somniarit. Omnia que
instituit ille, Bibliotheca Philadelphica, Valetudinarium Pennsyl-
vaniense, Universitas Pennsylvaniensis, hodie, quod ad magnitudi-
nem pertinet, adeo sunt aucta, quod ad utilitatem publicam, tantum
ab inittiis illis parvis, ut nobis nunc videtur parumque sunt provecta
quantum nemo, ne in somnio quidem fieri posse imaginaretur.

Nec solum habemus illum, cujus hodie mentionem debeamus
facere: immo quam multi philosophi illustrissimi, Societatis socil,
magna pars fuerunt rerum a Universitate prospere gestarum! Quis
enim est civis noster quem dies hic faustus felix ad commemoranda
non ipse ducat nomina hec clarissima; Franklin, Bond, Bartram,
Hopkinson, Coleman, Alison, inter fundatores venerabiles Vestros ;
—Rittenhouse, Smith, Ewing, Adrian, Morgan, Kuhn, Redman,
Kinnersley, Barton, Coxe, Hare, Patterson, Rush, Wistar, Bache,
Hornor, Wood, Price, Leidy, olim socii illustri Vestri, Curatores,
Professoresque Universitatis nostree honoratissimi! Et in preesenti
eadem communitas atque necessitudo nos feliciter conjungit. Vobis
igitur gloriam per annos centum et quinquagenta conservatam et
auctam sincere gratulamus, optamusque ut illa in omnem posteritam
vigeat ac floreat. Valete!

GUILELMUS PEPPER,
Prefectus.
Curatorum a secrets,
Jesse Y. Burk.
[ SEAL. ] WILLIAM PEppER, M.D., LL.D.

Mr. Price, on behalf of the Committee, then read a number
of telegrams received by the Society from various scientific

societies.
Sr. PETERSBURG, May 20, 1893.

To THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, PHILADELPHIA :
Russisches Geologisches Comité sendet seine beste Gliickwiinsche

15

am bedeutungsvollen Tage Hundertfiinfzig-jahrigen Jubilaums der
Gesellschaft. KARPINSKI.

Moscow, May 22, 1893.
To THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, PHILADELPHIA:

The Imperial Society of Friends of Natural Sciences, Anthropol-
ogy and Ethnography, Moscow, congratulate cordially upon the
great Anniversary, and send the best wishes for the future.

President, ANOUTCHIN.

Secretary, GONDATTI.
Moscow, May 21, 1893.
To THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, PHILADELPHIA:
Société Imperiale Naturalist, Moscow, presente felicitations a
Société Philosoph occasion 150 Annivers de fondation.
President, SLOUDSKY.

ST. PETERSBURG, May 21, 1893.
To THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, PHILADELPHIA:
Imperial Russian Mineralogical Society congratulate Philosophi-

cal Society on 150 years of existence.
Director, JEREMEJEW.

Secretair, TSCHERNYSCHEW.

HELSINGFORS, May 22, 1893.
To THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, PHILADELPHIA:
Geographic Society of Finland and Societas pro Fauna et Flora
Fennica beg to present their respects and congratulations on the
memorable day. BERGBOM PALMEN.

The following list contains the names of the delegates ap-
pointed to represent the various societies and institutions re-

sponding to the Society’s invitation :

Société Entomologique de Belgique, BRUXELLES, BELGIUM :
Capt. Casey, U.S.A., New York.

I. R. Accademia degli Agiati, RovERETO, TYROL : A
Henry Phillips, Jr., Philadelphia.

K. K. Military and Geographical Institute of VIENNA :
Capt. Karl Chevalier Rousseau d’ Happoncourt,
Lieut. Col. Robert Daublebsky von Sterneck.

L’ Université de Paris :
Hon. Louis Vossion, Consul of France at Philadelphia.

14

R. Universita de Bologna, BoLoena, ITALy
Henry Phillips, Jr., Philadelphia.

University of Pisa, Pisa, ITAty :
Henry Phillips, Jr., Philadelphia.

Royal Academy of Papua:
Prof. John James Stevenson, Ph.D., New York.

R. Istituto di Studi Superiori, FLORENCE, ITALY :
Prof. Vincenzo Botta, New York.

R. Academia de la Historia, MADRID, SPAIN :
Henry Phillips, Jr., Philadelphia.

Royal Society, LONDON, ENG. :
Capt. W. de W. Abney, R. E., C. B., K. C. B.

Royal Statistical Society, Lonpon, ENG.:

Royal Institution of Great Britain, Lonpon, ENa.:
Sir Douglas Galton, K. C. B.

Royal Astronomical Society, Lonpon, Ena. :
Isaac Roberts, D. Sc., F. R. S., F. R. A. 8., F. G. 8.

Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Lonpon, ENe :
Prof. Charles R. Lanman, Cambridge, Mass.

Royal Society of Edinburgh, EprINBURGH, ScOTLAND :
Prof. Herbert Anson Newton, New Haven, Conn.

Canadian Institute, ToRoNTO, CANADA :
Nova Scotian Institute, Hanirax, N.§8.:

Harvard University, CAMBRIDGE, MAss.:
Prof. William W. Goodwin, LL.D.

Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, CAMBRIDGE, Mass.:
Prof. George Lincoln Goodale, LL.D.

Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston, Mass.:
Dr. Samuel A. Green.

American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston, Mass.:
Prof. Josiah P. Cooke, LL.D.,
Prof. Alpheus Hyatt, Cambridge, Mass.

Boston Society of Natural History, Boston, Mass. :
Prof. Samuel H. Scudder, Ph.D.

Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.:
Prof. Thomas Messinger Drown.

American Antiquarian Society, WorcESTER, MAss.:
Hon. Henry C. Lea, LL.D., Philadelphia.

Providence Franklin Society, PROVIDENCE, R. I.:
Prof. Levi W. Russell.

15

New Haven Colony Historical Society, New Haven, Conn. :
Prof. James M. Hoppin, D.D.
Yale University, New Haven, Conn.:
Prof. Othniel C. Marsh, LL.D.
American Chemical Society, Brooxiyn, N. Y.:
Prof. George F. Barker, M.D., Philadelphia.
Columbia College, NEw Yor«k:
Prof. Charles F. Chandler, Ph.D.

American Geographical Society, New York :
Prof. William Libbey.

Mathematical Society, NEw York :
Prof. Henry B. Fine.

Oneida Co. Historical Society, Urica, N. Y.:
Gen. Charles W. Darling.

College of New Jersey, PrincETON, N. J.:
Prof. William B. Scott, Ph.D.

Lafayette College, Easton, Pa.:
President Ethelbert D. Warfield, LL.D.,
Prof. Francis A. March, LL.D.

Linnean Society, LANCASTER, Pa.:
Prof. H. F. Bitner, Millersville, Pa.,
Prof. J. H. Roddy, ‘
Prof. 8. M. Sener, Lancaster, Pa.
College of Pharmacy, PHILADELPHIA :
Charles Bullock.
- Academy of Natural Sciences, PHILADELPHIA :
, Gen. Isaac J. Wistar.
College of Physicians, PHILADELPHIA :
Dr. I. M. DaCosta.
Numismatic and Antiquarian Society, PHTLADELPHIA :
Francis Jordan, Jr.
Engineers’ Club, PHILADELPHIA :
Strickland Kneass.
Wagner Free Institute, PHILADELPHIA .
Joseph Wilcox.
University of Pennsylvania, PHILADELPHIA :
Provost William Pepper, M.D., LL.D.
Franklin Institute, PHILADELPHIA :
Dr. Edwin J. Houston.
Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, PHILADELPHIA :
Charles C. Harrison.

16

Johns Hopkins University, BALTIMORE, Mp.:
Prof. Ira D. Remsen.

Maryland Historical Society, BALTIMORE, Mp. :
Rev. John G. Morris, D.D.

Anthropological Society, Wasurnaton, D.C.:
Col. Garrick Mallery, U.S.A.

U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, WasurnaTon, D.C.:
Prof. Charles A. Schott.

Smithsonian Institution, WASHINGTON, D.C.:
Prof. Samuel P. Langley, Ph.D., LL.D.,
Dr. George Brown Goode.

Georgia Historical Society, SAVANNAH, GA.:
Henry Phillips, Jr., Philadelphia.

University of Michigan, ANN ARBor, Mrcu.:
Henry Phillips, Jr., Philadelphia.

University of Indiana, BLoomrnaton, IND. :
Prof. John M. Coulter.

Chicago Academy of Sciences, Cuicaao, IL.:
George H. Hough, LL.D.,
Charles G. Fuller, M.D.

Societies that sent congratulations, but regretted their
inability to send delegates:

Geological Survey of India, CaLcuTTa.

Asiatic Society of Japan, Toxyo.

Tokyo Library, Tokyo, JAPAN.

Royal Society of New South Wales, SYDNEY.

Royal Geographical Society, BRISBANE, AUSTRALIA.

Finska Litteratur-Sallskapet, HmLSINGFORS. 4

K. Siichsische Meteorologische Institut, Cuammnrrz, SAXONY.

K. Sachsische Alterthumsverein, DRESDEN, SAXONY.

K. Norske Frederiks Universitet, CHRISTIANIA, NORWAY.

K. Norske Videnskabers Selskab, THRONDHJEM.

Anthropologische Gesellschaft, VimnNnA, AUSTRIA.

Rheinische Friedrich-W ilhelms- Universitat, Bonn, PRussTA.

Naturhistorische Verein der Preussischen Rheinlande und Westphalens,
BONN, PRUSSIA.

Verein fiir Erdkunde, Mrrz, GERMANY.

Wiirttembergische Verein fiir Handelsgeographie, StuTTGART, GER-
MANY.

Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, FRANKFURT A. M.

Naturwissenschaftliche Verein fiir Schleswig-Holstein, Krmu.

Batavian Society, RorTrERDAM.

wn

Académie Royale des Sciences, BRUXELLES, BELGIUM.

Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, LAUSANNE, SwITZER-
LAND.

Académie des Sciences, Dijon, FRANCE.

Société de Geographie, Paris, FRANCE.

Oxford University, OxFoRD, ENGLAND.

Royal Observatory, EDINBURGH, SCOTLAND.

Literary and Philosophical Society, MANCHESTER, ENGLAND.

University of California, Mount HamiuTon, Cat.

Ohio Archeological and Historical Society, CoLUMBUs.

Georgetown College, West WaAsHINGTON, D. C,

Colorado Scientific Society, DENVER.

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, CHareL Hiuu, N. C.

United States Naval Institute, ANNAPOLIS, MD.

United States Military Academy, West Point, N. Y.

American Museum of Natural History, NEw Yor.

University of North Carolina, CoarEL Hu, N. C.

PHILADELPHIA, Tuesday, May 23, 1893, 11 a.m.

The Society was called to order at 11 a.m. by the President,*
Mr. Fraley, who delivered the following address:

Gentlemen :—In May, 1743, when Benjamin Franklin put forth
his proposals for the establishment of an American Philosophical
Society in Philadelphia, he found, according to his letter, that the
population of the British Colonies in North America had reached
to such proportions, and the examinations that had been made of
their natural resources and the industry and thrift that attended the
whole population, showed that it was a favorable time for bringing
the scientific men of the country into unison, and to establish a
Society having for its model the Royal Society of London.

What thoughts rise in our hearts when we contemplate the bold-
ness of such an undertaking at such a time, and how naturally we
realize the fact that the struggles of the Society for existence and
progress were marked with all the usual infirmities that attend upon
infancy !

During the last half of the eighteenth century, Europe was agi-
tated by bloody and cruel wars, nation waging against ‘nation,

* At this meeting General Isaac J. Wistar appeared, and, as a newly-elected member,
was presented to the President, and took his seat.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143. C. PRINTED NOY. 22, 18938.

18

threatening the overturn of existing institutions, and ultimately
culminating in the establishment of modified institutions and a
gradual approach more and more to democratic organizations. Our
own country, emerging from its colonial state, had made a declara-
tion of independence; had, by great courage, trials and sufferings,
accomplished finally the result of the proposition for free govern-
ment; and, before the close of the eighteenth century, that Consti-
tution of the United States under which, with a few amendments,
we now so happily live and are making such mighty progress as a
great nation, was adopted.

Some of the men who participated in those early struggles in our
country were enrolled as members of this Society, and, among them,
without an attempt to enumerate all, we find of the signers of the
Declaration of Independence, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson,
Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush and several others who were early
_ members of our organization.

In 1769, there was a union of the two Societies for the promotion
of useful knowledge in Philadelphia, and Benjamin Franklin became
the first President, David Rittenhouse the second and Thomas Jef-
ferson the third. Those who followed after have fairly illustrated
what were the objects which were had in view by the founders of
the Society, and how they were prosecuted by the early members ;
and with what success the great objects for the promotion of useful
knowledge were aided, and toa great degree accomplished, through
the instrumentality of the members of our Society.

While the wars which I have referred to disturbed the last half of
the eighteenth century, science, invention, intellectual thought, with
everything that contributes to the elevation and prosperity of man-
kind, were not neglected. The volumes written and printed during
those fifty years, the activity in the development of the constitution
of nature, in the empire of thought, the application of science to
the useful arts and the wonderful achievements of those days, even
when we contrast them with what is now going on around us, are
wonderful in the extreme. Zhe Century of lnventions, published
by the Marquis of Worcester, illustrative of his investigations in
the mechanical sciences, has formed to a certain extent the basis of
the operations and thoughts of our mechanical minds. The simple
steam engine which was in existence at the beginning of the eigh-
teenth century, was gradually developed by new additions to its
structure, promoting its safety and giving it more and more effi-

n9

ciency. By the attention given to mechanical science by the Earl
of Stanhope, and above all by the genius of James Watt, the steam
engine of those ancient days attained a perfection which seemed at
the beginning of the nineteenth century to be such that there was
nothing more for man to invent or to aspire to, to increase his
powers.

But how does this wonderful invention stand at the present day ?
The old, simple-acting atmospheric engines, of which I saw some
remains in my early childhood, have entirely disappeared, except
perhaps in the museums of mechanical objects. The perfected
engine of Watt began to be superseded early in the century by the
invention of Oliver Evans, a citizen of Pennsylvania, who devised
the high-pressure engine, imperfect in the first place in its structure,
but wonderful in its effect. Among the examples of his engines, in
contrast with those of Boulton and Watt, I may be permitted to
call the attention of this meeting to the two engines which for a
number of years stood side by side in the building of the Fairmount
Water Works, which was erected for the purpose of containing the
engines and supplying the city of Philadelphia with water. There
was the complicated and ponderous engine of Boulton and Watt,
with its walking beam and its great fly-wheel, with the improve-
ments that had been made on the sun and planet movement for the
accomplishment of the conversion of vertical power into rotary
power. There was a little engine built by Oliver Evans, occupying
a space of certainly not more than fifteen feet wide by twenty feet
long, with its boiler and all its appendages working under a pres-
sure of 150 pounds to the square inch and performing more work
than the elaborately constructed and perfected engine of Boulton
and Watt.

In this high-pressure engine of Oliver Evans is found the type of
what are now called the compound steam engines of the present
day, the steam entering one cylinder at a very high pressure, grad-
ually emerges from that into a second under a diminished pressure,
and going on until finally, I believe, it is now passed through at
least four cylinders, and terminates at the end of its work under the
pressure with which the Boulton and Watt engines were originally
worked.

I do not think too much praise can be given to our mechanical
inventors. Not only does the steam engine evidence the success
of their inventive genius and their perfected labors, but the machin-

20

ery by which cotton and wool and silk are carded, spun and woven
into the beautiful fabrics of the present day, is the product of the
last one hundred and fifty years. It will be recollected by my
friends who are now here that it was very doubtful towards the
close of the eighteenth century whether cotton could be so treated
as to separate it from the seeds, to be carded and spun into threads
and woven into fabric; but while this doubt was threatening that
great product of nature, Whitney gave us the cotton gin, . which
separated successfully the seeds from the fibres of cotton, preparing
it for the cards and introducing it through the gradually perfected
machinery for drawing and spinning.

The English inventors and factory men had their genius stimu-
lated to the same end, and the spinning jenny, the mule, and the
more elaborate machinery invented by Richard Arkwright, came
into use, and, by improvements on the original structures, have
_ arrived at the perfection with which our factories are now equipped
and perform their work.

If we turn to other branches of useful knowledge and of science,
the first that make an impression on my mind are the wonderful
discoveries in astronomy. ‘The old plan of searching the heavens
by imperfect instruments has given place to the magnificent tele-
scope of the present day. Photography has come in to the aid of
the astronomer, and while his telescope searches out the stars and
keeps his instrument in continued harmony with their motion, pho-
tography copies the picture of the heavens and opens to us a world
not only of knowledge but of imagination.

The chemistry of the world has also undergone great changes.
The middle of the eighteenth century was illustrated by the discov-
ery of oxygen gas by Dr. Priestly, and that discovery influenced the
science of chemistry to a very great extent in the early years of its
progress. But Sir Humphrey Davy and the other later chemical
philosophers found out that there were other supporters of combus-
tion than oxygen, and by the combination of those other supporters
of combustion we get the basis with which it is possible to combine
those gases in the manufacture of important acids.

The whole science of chemistry has been revolutionized, and now
the chemists who survive and who received their instructions in the
early years of the present century, not only cannot realize what the
status of chemistry is at the present day, but are lost in amazement

21

at the contemplation of the arts by which such revolution and such
changes have been accomplished.

In mathematical science the development has, I think, been found
equally progressive. We must recollect, in this connection, that
while planets used to be discovered by accident and by the visual
inspection of the starry heavens, this age has been celebrated by
the discovery of a planet purely accomplished by mathematical
computation. The great planet Neptune bears testimony to the
accuracy of such mathematical formule, and perhaps it may not be
too much to say that, as years roll around, other great planets may
be added to our solar system and the study of the inferior ones will
become more nearly perfect by the aid of improved telescopes
and the application of photography, so that we may penetrate into
the recesses of those planets and perhaps discover that, like our
own, they are populated by intelligent beings pursuing, according
to the blessings that may be vouchsafed them, the study of’ what
they are capable of in the development of their condition ; and
possibly, if it is not too much a flight of fancy, that the inhabitants
of the earth may develop some machine or instrument by which
the gravity of our planet may be overcome and we may go on a
voyage of discovery to Venus or Mars.

In medicine, what progress has been made? The old, simple
methods followed by a physician, when he was called in to attend
a patient, in endeavoring to ascertain the cause of the disease with
his imperfect knowledge, reducing inflammation by bleeding, afraid
to embark upon any capital surgical operation for fear of disastrous
results, have been replaced with greater knowledge. Now the
accomplished physician and surgeon steps in and in a very few
hours or a very few days determines what is the affliction of his
patient and applies the appropriate remedy for changing the con-
stitution of the fluids of the body, and, if need be, courageously .
takes out his knife and extirpates a tumor, dissevers an arm, opens
the throat or the body and by actual inspection of what is the mat-
ter lays open the whole case for the application of his remedy, and
saves perhaps ten lives at the. present day from the inroads of dis-
ease, where one life was saved at the beginning of our present cen-
tury.

In geographical investigation what marvels have the explorations
of our travelers exhibited? How more and more are we becoming
familiar with the conditions of uncivilized life, the temperature of

22

the regions it occupies, the products which are yielded by their
soil, the direction in which their rivers run, and the whole phe-
nomena of geographical investigation, beginning not only with the
appearance of the topography of the earth, its mountains and val-
leys, but its meteorological conditions and the influences that those
conditions have in modifying climatic influences, and either tending
to the increase of the natural productions of the soil or interfering
with their growth, and admonishing man that there are certain pas-
tures upon which he cannot venture.

What is the geology of the present day as compared with that
which prevailed one hundred and fifty years ago? The great
geological surveys that have been going on, not only in Europe but
in our own country, have developed an amount of knowledge as to
the structure and contents of the rocks which strikes us all with
admiration. One discovery after another is presented. Men are
- tracing the various stages of the earth through the fossils which the
rocks contain, and while their speculations are not always conclu-
sive on our judgment, yet they open to us fields for contemplation
and thought which we all may pursue with intelligence and profit.

We are endeavoring now to unroll the history of the past by the
excavations which reveal the ancient temples and the depositories
of the knowledge of those who have passed into history, and day
by day some tablet, or cylinder, or mummy, is brought forth and
the contents of the cylinder or tablet and the wrappings of the
mummy give us lessons in the history of man which compel us to
say in our hearts: There is nothing new under the sun,

I have referred to photography. At the centennial celebration
of this Society, in the year.1843, one of the papers which was pre-
sented was a sketch given by Dr. Paul B. Goddard of his investi-
gations in what might be the outgrowth of photography from the
daguerrotype process. At that time photography was in its embryo
state; very little was known of it. The experiments which he de-
scribed as to the possibility of transferring upon printed pages or
metallic plates the impressions that were taken, showed the dawn-
ings of this great art which, perhaps, I ought to dignify with a
higher name and call it science. Look around you now, my friends,
at the manifestations of this art which meet you at every step of
your progress through the streets of a great metropolis. The famil-
iar features of your friends and children, of the distinguished men
of the country and the great natural objects which attract our

23

attention, are brought forth with a precision and certainty that
does not admit of a doubt of their recognition, and in many in-
stances so rounded off by art that they as far excel the productions
of the pencil or the brush as the monumental pictures which the
God of Nature has planted on the surface of the earth in trees and
flowers, valleys and mountains, rivers and lakes, excel those which
it is possible by the skill of man in any other direction to produce.

Now we sit at home and we hear the clicking of the telegraph,
and it brings us a message from three thousand miles distance in a
very little time. We put our mouth to the instrument of the tele--
phone and speak in a natural voice to a man at a hundred yards or
a hundred miles or even a thousand miles distant, and there the
voice is heard, the interrogatory is answered, and the answer is
flashed back before one would think the words had escaped the lips
of the interrogator.

So that other marvelous instrument, the phonograph, takes down
the very tones of our voice, engraving the words on cylinders of
wax, which may be laid by in the closet and after a long interval
of time be taken from its recesses and placed again in the machine,
and, if the man and his voice have disappeared from the earth and
his spirit gone to the God who gave it, that voice can be reproduced
and be heard, and the lessons of philosophy perhaps contained in
the engraved words may be read for the remembrance of his fellow-
beings and fellow-workers, and, more than that, may be preserved
and read for the use of the future.

When I think of these marvelous inventions, and turn my thoughts
next to what has been accomplished while I have been partaking in
the affairs of the world and endeavoring to learn my own lessons of
what is going on around me, I marvel more and more at the bless-
ings which have thus been vouchsafed to me. I feel from my knowl-
edge of the men who have grown up and been around me, and lived
with me, and participated in the pursuits in which I have engaged,
that all this glorious company has been educated up to a higher
level than we had any reason to anticipate in our early life, and
that we may safely cherish the hope that the good work which has
been accomplished is not to terminate with our earthly career, but
is to be enlarged, fortified, extended and multiplied for the blessing
of the human race, and for the promotion of knowledge and pros-
perity throughout the earth.

Here I feel that I ought to stop, but I may give one more word,

24.

I think, of encouragement to what has been accomplished by your
skill. The old methods of transferring power by means of cog-
wheels and ratchets has given way to the utilization of power by
means of the pulley and the belt. You enter a factory now and see
whirling around you what appears to be simply a loose strap passed
over a pulley, with ponderous masses of machinery driven for the
production of objects that are useful to mankind, some of them of
prime necessity, and all of them recognized as great coadjutors in
the work of practical education.

In every large machine shop that we enter we see the evidences
of the invention of instruments of precision by which the labors of
the mechanician are rendered more easy and more perfect ; the plan-
ing machine supersedes the old attempt to form a level surface by
the application of the hand plane; the turning-lathe accomplishes
the formation of very complex forms, far differing from the original
cylinder or cone that was the marvelous product of the lathes of
old ; the gunstock, or the last for a shoe for the human foot, or any
complicated form of object, is turned out as if by magic in the im-
proved lathes of the present day, and thus enters into the general
mass of useful objects and the evidences of profound invention and
skill.

And now, my friends, while I have not especially referred to the
history of the American Philosophical Society, I will give youa
reason for it, in the fact that it has already been given to you
with such marvelous fidelity and truth by the public press that I
could add no words to make the record which they have trans-
cribed more complete or full. But I will say in conclusion,
that one of the most useful applications of knowledge that these
two centuries have witnessed, is the progress of the printing
press. In the hall of the child of this Society, the Franklin
Institute of Pennsylvania, stands the original printing press of
Benjamin Franklin. Contrast that old but powerful instrument of
its day with the steam presses that are rattling with their machinery
and the operation of their contrivances every hour through the ex-
isting busy day. ‘Their work and the result of their labors seems
even to exceed what we have witnessed by the utilization of light
and electricity. Light and electricity contribute no doubt to the
vitality of their existence, but I think one of the most marvelous
things for study is to visit the interior of a large, well-equipped
printing office of the present day, and see with what rapidity the

25

notes of the stenographer are turned into the text which appears in
the newspaper article of the next day or the magazine article of the
next month, the ponderous chapter of the history of inventions, or
the treatise on mathematics or chemistry or geology or any other
of the kindred sciences; how the text is reduced to printed matter,
the type set up, the matrix in which a whole cylinder of matter can
be at once developed, formed and put on the whirling cylinders of
the press and printed and sped on the wings of the wind throughout
the universe.

Such, my friends, is the simple tribute that I am able to pay to
this intelligent audience, and the testimony which I am constrained
to bear that this earth is gradually growing better and wiser, and
that men are beginning to understand more fully the objects for
which they were created and to be more helpful to their fellowmen,
to prepare us for that higher and more blessed immortality which is
promised to the faithful.

President Fraley then presented Prof. Alpheus Hyatt, of
the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston, Mass.,
and spoke as follows:

The American Academy of Arts and Sciences, at Boston, is the
sister of this institution, ours having been established in 1743 and
the Boston Academy in 1780. They celebrated their centennial in
1880, and no doubt will emulate us in celebrating their one hun-
dred and fiftieth anniversary in 1930; and when that time comes
around they will make up the glorious record more fully of that
which has been accomplished and also realize the truth of the
motto which they bear on their seal.

Prof. Alpheus Hyatt, of the American Academy of Arts
and Sciences, Boston, Mass., addressed the Society as fol-
lows:

Mr. President and Members of the American Philosophical So-
ctety -—I came this morning intending, of course, to listen to the
two gentlemen who had been announced to speak, with no antici-
pation whatever that I should be called upon to give anything
more than perhaps a mere statement of the subject of my paper.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XxxII. 148. D. PRINTED NOV. 22, 1893.

26

I labor under the double disadvantage of having prepared there-
for no specimens, having brought before you nothing to make my
theme comprehensive, and also the final disadvantage of having no
blackboard ; but I will do the best I can to make my point com-
prehensible.

The subject which I proposed to present to the Society is what I
should call the ‘‘ Phylogeny of an Acquired Characteristic,’’ the his-
tory of one single characteristic followed out from its earliest inception
in the type of cephalopods through various stages of its evolution to
its final disappearance in the same type. The object is to give asolid
basis to certain theories of evolution.

You all, of course, know that in the present treatment of the
problem of evolution everything depends on having some specific
object. It is well enough to speculate, it is well enough to state
the Darwinian hypothesis, it is well enough to have this hypothesis
or that point of view and to argue about them, but to come down
to the facts which lie at the bottom of these, and to follow them
through all the phases of their evolution is, of course, difficult and
largely a matter of chance in every department of research.

In this case, one characteristic happens to be provable, and fur-
nishes the subject which I have in hand for special investigation.
The earliest shells, those which are primitive in shape, are cones
like this. (lIllustrating.) They are divided by partitions and have
certain internal characteristics which distinguish them. The next
shape is bent, as if I were to take this cone and bend it without
crushing in one side. The next form is loosely coiled, as if I
doubled this paper cone without depressing one side, the cone not
coming in contact. The next stage of evolution is one in which
the cone not only doubles on itself by growth, but doubles so closely
that it actually flattens this inner side, and then, in place of being
able to see these inside convolutions in the next state of evolution,
they are concealed by the downward growth of the outside. So
that the shell, growing gradually, first like a rope coiled up, and
then eventually, if you can imagine the sides of the coil growing
inwards as they progress, so as to cover up the interior, you would
see the last or outside convolution with a depression like that (illus-
trating) in a horseshoe shape, on the inner side. These whorls, the
first of them: in the Devonian and Silurian period, are always
rounded, so that the section is very much like a section of the end
of that cone, it has no depression on the inside. ‘Then, as the

27

forms coil tighter and tighter, one whorl lying over the other, the
inner whorl presses upon and obliges the outer whorl to form this
depression on the inner side. When the shell gets old the whorl
quits the spiral and grows out straight, and when that period begins
in old age this depression, which is formed where the whorls close
up, gradually disappears, so that in extreme old age you get a return
to the rounded outline.

Thus you get throughout the earlier systems in the earth’s history,
throughout the Silurian and Devonian period, a transient condition.
You will find that whenever this depression occurs it 1s always
because one whorl laps over another. When, in the course of growth,
the shell passes by the whorl, that bay or depression disappears, so
that you get in every fossil the proof that this characteristic is a
transient one, that when it occurred it was through the mechanical
action of the growth of one whorl of the shell over another, as much
so asa dent in a piece of putty when you put your fist in it ; in other
words, it is not in the organism and in any shape which would en-
able us to say it was inherited. The Weissman hypothesis is that
evolution has taken place by other forces than those which modify
the organization from the exterior. He says that no characteristic
which is acquired in this way, mechanically, by growth or the
action of the externals in any way on the animal, can be inherited.
It is not inherited. It makes no impression on the organism so
that it can be inherited.

We can get the history of this characteristic throughout the
earlier periods and it justifies the hypothesis. It was supposed by me
for several years to be one of the strongest points in favor of the
hypothesis, that an acquired characteristic made no impression
on the germ and was, in fact; non-inherited.

This last winter, following out an investigation begun in connec-
tion with the geological survey of Texas in the carboniferous de-
posits of that region, I was led to extend my investigation in regard
to their development and general history. The result was the
finding that in certain series of the carboniferous this characteristic
was indubitably inherited. I found in the young of close-coiled
carboniferous forms, shells which were unquestionably close coiled
in their adult condition, that in the young of these there was a repeti-
tion of the characteristics of the adults of the Silurian and Devonian.
In these very young forms the whorls do not touch when they first
begin to grow, but are all open, as much so as if I bent this piece

28

of paper this way and simply curled it in that shape. (Illustrating. )
The young of these carboniferous forms are formed like that; the
whorls do not touch. When you take a young cone like that and
examine this portion of it you find this depression, which was
purely mechanical in origin throughout the Silurian and Devonian,
and dependent upon close coiling is here inherited before the
whorls touch.

That, then, seems to be as far as possible, without demonstration
by experiment, a clear case of the acquisition of a characteristic in
the earlier periods of the evolution of a group, through the purely
mechanical effect produced by the mode of growth of the shell, and
then the inheriting of the same in the young of carboniferous forms
before any of those mechanical causes which originated this charac-
teristic could have their influence on the growth ofthe shell. While
it was still young, still uncoiled, still like its ancestors in every
- way, it inherits this acquired character, which never appeared in
them until later in life, and was retained in them only so long as
the originating mechanical causes continued to bear on the shell
during its growth.

Then to complete the history after the carboniferous, I have inves-
tigated the different forms to see if it were continuous. We find it
is present in the same type throughout the jura, cretaceous and
trias, and finally, examining the last existing forms, of which there
are only four species, of nautiloids now living, the same character-
istic is well developed in the young.

Then following up another line, taking the Ammonoids, which is
the more complicated type, and which terminates in the cretaceous,
we can pass through the entire group, and we find this character-
istic increasing and becoming more and more important. Finally,
we strike in the jura certain degraded forms, and ultimately in the
cretaceous forms which are the reverse of those with which they began.
Just asin old age we are ina measure the reverse of our adult period,
just as in that condition we put on certain infantile characteristics,
which are produced by the wear and tear of life, these types through
their evolutionary history go back on their history, and part with
characteristics that distinguish their higher development and become
simpler. Instead of being coiled up they become uncoiled, having
young which are coiled up and adults which are uncoiled, and in
following this characteristic through that long reverse series of
forms it is found to disappear precisely in accordance with certain

29

laws, which show that in the degeneracy of types, as well as in the
old age of individuals, there is a decrease and a final disuse of char-
acteristics which have been introduced during the rise of the group.

The history of this characteristic follows the same law, and is pre-
cisely in accordance with the history of other parts of the animal,
and° precisely parallel with those which no one can deny to be
hereditary. It will be very difficult for those who take the view that
acquired characteristics cannot be inherited, to prove that this is
not an acquired characteristic or that it is not inherited. It seems
to me, as far as can be shown, without, of course, the direct demon-
stration of experiment, that it is an acquired characteristic of
purely mechanical origin which becomes inherited in the carboni-
ferous.

A Memeer: I should like to know what is the natural size of
these shells.

Pror. Hyatr: They are of all sizes. The largest of those
described perhaps are three inches in diameter, others when full

grown being much larger. ‘They are all of good size for obser-
vation.

Prof. Hubert A. Newton, of New Haven, Conn., represent-
ing the Royal Society of Edinburgh, next addressed the Soci-
ety, as follows:

I have to apologize somewhat in that I came to the rooms not
expecting to speak to you. I have, however, one point which I
think will interest the members of this Society if they will give me
a few minutes to develop it, and that is, the force which acts on the
small bodies sent off from comets and which form our shooting stars.

There are in the comets so many questions that we cannot answer,
so many curious and wonderful phenomena that are unexplained,
that I am sure you will accept any explanation of any of them that
seems plausible, as a matter of interest. From a comet there is con-
tinually driven off matter forming the tail, a light substance, and as-
tronomers are agreed that the force that acts on the matter which
forms the tail is a repulsive force from the sun acting inversely as the
square of the distance, the force of the repulsion being greater than
that of attraction.

Not only is this true, but different parts of that tail are acted
upon by repulsive forces of different powers; otherwise the tail

30

would form across the sky a single line instead of a broad, expand-
ed mass of light such as we see. From the comet, however, there
are driven off also, or there are separated other things entirely dis-
tinct from the tail, small bodies, which are not thus driven away,
which are not visible, but follow along closely in the path of the
comet, and whenever the occasion comes, that is when we go through
a group of them, those give us our shooting stars.

The Biela comet, in the period about 1840, passed near to
Jupiter. At that time it was turned pretty sharply out of its orbit,
the inclination of the orbit being turned several degrees, and the
node being carried forward also several degrees, represented by
several days in the time at which we crossed the path of the comet.

After 1840 the bodies which formed the meteors that were met in
1872 and in 1885 were separated from one or other parts of the
Biela comet. I say after 1840, because if they had been separated
earlier they would have given us a different radiant in the skies,
the one given by the Biela meteors of 1838. The radiant was
changed, the node was changed, all to correspond to the new orbit,
and these bodies could not have been turned in that way had they
been before scattered, because the force that acted on them, the attrac-
tion of Jupiter, would have scattered the group instead of giving us
that single compact group through which we passed in 1872 and 1885
in the course of four or five hours, and the bulk of them even in two
hours.

In 1872, the comet was something like 200,000,000 miles away
from the bodies that we met as we passed through them on the 27th
of November, giving us a brilliant shower. ‘Thirteen years later we
passed through the group again, and then the comet was something
like 300,000,000 miles ahead of the group. So that some of the
particles, leaving the comet between 1840 and 1870, had gained
and others between 1840 and 1885 had fallen behind.

What should separate those particles ? What are the forces which
carried off those particles so many miles—200,000,000 miles on the
one hand and 300,000,000 miles on the other, in round numbers ?
The force that acts on them must be a force acting in one plane,
that is, the plane of the orbit of the comet. Any force acting in
other planes would have scattered the group and we would not have
met them as a single definite group at the times named; but if it
acts in the plane, only scattering them on the plane, they would be
together as we saw them.

31

In that plane, it must be either an impulsive force acting once or
it must be a constant force acting continually. ‘The only bodies in
that plane are the comets and the sun, and if the force is a continu-
ous force it must be from the comet or from the sun. It is almost
inconceivable to suppose that the comet could have sent them off,
either impulsively or continuously, in such a way as to give us the
distance of 200,000,000 and 300,000,000 miles in the course of
thirty years; it would require far more than any velocity that
we Can give in our terrestrial experiments, and we have no reason
to suppose that there is any such power of impulsion. Moreover,
if the impulsion came from the comet, they would go in all direc-
tions and their character, as being in a plane, would have been en-
tirely lost.

We are then thrown back on this one hypothesis, that the sun is
the source of that force. In other words, we are led to extend the
idea that I gave you in the beginning, and which is accepted by
astronomers, that the material which goes off from the comet, after
it leaves it, is subject to a force like that of attraction but differing
in its intensity. In the case of the tail, it is a repulsive force.
To satisfy these conditions of separation, part in one direction and
part in the other, from the comet, we must have an attraction in
the one case exceeding the attraction of gravitation and, in the
other, an attraction less than the attraction of gravitation. In
other words, these little bodies of hard matter that go off from the
comet and follow very nearly in its train are acted on not in pro-
portion to the force that steadily acts on the planets in their orbits.

I see no escape, myself, from this conclusion. What it means, I
must leave to you to decide. Our experiments make it very improba-
ble that the attraction of matter differsin any way from proportion to
the mass. It looks to me as though the more natural explanation
is that, in some way, the materials which go off from the comet
carry with them a load of electricity, or something of that kind, by
which they have a permanent repulsion or permanent attraction
sufficient to change the orbit altogether, not in kind, but in a
steady change, throwing them into a new orbit with a new period,
and thus scattering them.

What that added force must be, we cannot very well tell, because
it differs according to the place in the orbit where the disintegra-
tion takes place. If that disintegration takes place near the sun,
it is one thing; if it takes place near Jupiter, it is another. It

32

looks more to me as though there was a disintegration all along the
line of the comet’s orbit, giving us small particles with all sorts of
loads of electricity and all sorts of differences of central attraction
and differences of orbits, and thus they get widely scattered so
as to give us the showers a long distance from the comet itself.
The amount of this change would have to be something like the
tenth part, possibly, or something less than that. J should think
that all the phenomena could be explained by a change amounting
to one-tenth of the attraction; that is, if the small particle carries
a load of electricity such as to diminish the attraction to say nine-
tenths of the original attractive force of the sun, or increase it to
eleven-tenths, it will explain the phenomena.

If that is the explanation, we come to this further conclusion of
interest, that the space through which these comets move is not
such that the electricity which the particle carries can be lost. An-
other practical point would be that, in the discussion of the sepa-
ration of these comet masses that through the telescope we see
going on as the comets pass the sun, there might fairly be intro-
duced an unknown correction of the force of central attraction.

A Memper: Haye you gentlemen, who have made a study of
this very interesting subject which you have been discoursing on,
arrived at any hypothesis as to what broke up the Biela comet?

Pror. Newton: I -can only answer as a working hypothesis,
in my own mind, is that a mass, not surrounded by an atmosphere,
coming down from the cold into a warmer region near the sun, be-
comes heated up, and in that heating there is a disintegration going
on. If you put the pieces of a meteorite into a vacuum, and heat
them, you will get gases that will be something like those which
are thrown off from the tail of a comet, and the comet coming
down near the sun, with the hot, scorching effect entirely undimin-
ished by a thick atmosphere, would have pieces broken off, giving
fresh surfaces. An immense amount of action of some sort follows,
and those pieces would naturally go off under such excitement, car-
rying with them, as I conceive, a load of electricity. The process
goes on in almost all our comets. It is not in Biela alone that we
see comets going off to pieces. Scores of comets have shown that
same breaking up under the telescope.

Adjourned.
In the afternoon the Society and guests attended a reception
tendered by the Drexel Institute.

33

PHILADELPHIA, Wednesday, May 24, 1893, 11 a.m.

The Society was called to order at 11 a.m. by President
Fraley, who presented Dr. Daniel C. Gilman, President of
the Johns Hopkins University, who read an address on the
“ Present Aspects of Science in America.”

After presenting the congratulations of the Johns Hopkins
University to the American Philosophical Society, he pro-
ceeded to discuss the various agencies which are concerned in
the advancement of knowledge, namely, museums and libra-
ries, universities and colleges, scientific instruments and ap-
paratus, agencies for the encouragement of research, and
publications. Under each of these five heads, the speaker
considered the actual condition of science in America, adding
occasional historical illustrations. The paper included a sketch
of the contributions made to each of the principal branches of
natural science by American investigators.

President Fraley next introduced Rt. Rev. John J. Keane,
President of the Catholic University of America, at Washing-
ton, who addressed the Society upon the subject of “ Philoso-
phy’s Place Among the Sciences,” as follows:

Mr. President and Fellow-members of the American Philosophical
Society, Ladies and Gentlemen :—In the name of one of the very
youngest of our American institutions of learning, I offer the tribute
of my respect and reverence to the first association of the kind in
our country. In our New World a century anda halfisa very hoary
old age, and a society that has with honor lived during that period
can very well look down in a spirit of patriarchal dignity and superi-
ority on every other institution that sets to work under its guidance
and in pursuance of its example.

I say in the name of our young institution in Washington that to
follow that guidance shall be our constant endeavor and our highest
ambition. We have long since come to the conviction, so well

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 148 HE. PRINTED NOY. 22, 1893.

d4

stated just now by Dr. Gilman, that between science and religion
there cannot be an antagonism, only we go a step farther than that
which he indicated : We are not willing merely to regard science as
the handmaid of religion, but we look upon science as the sister of
religion ; they are both from the same Father, and He has not made
one the servant of the other ; He has made them sisters one to the
other, and it is in that spirit of sisterhood that in our institution
they are to march hand in hand through the generations to come,
and in doing that we are always going to keep our eye on the grand
old association in Philadelphia. We are going to have its object of
extending the boundaries of human knowledge and of bringing its
treasures within the reach of the largest possible number, and in
pursuance of that we shall always promise the tribute of our rever-
ence and our loyalty to the grand old pioneer,

Yesterday, the keynote to this centennial Peleimation was given

in the address of our venerable President. He showed us that the
century and a half during which this Society has lived has been a
period of progress along all the lines of human knowledge and of
human activity. As lovers of mankind, we rejoice in that perspec-
tive and we give thanks to the Author of all good gifts, to the
Father of Lights, who has so guided the researches of the past and
led them to results that are so conducive to human utility.

To-day, as Americans, we look on that same perspective with
honest pride, listening to the admirable presentation made by Dr.
Gilman of what America has done in helping on that progress in
the lines of science, and it could be shown by other specialists
how America, in every other field of human thought and action,
has taken her part nobly.

There is one department, however, in which it might be alleged
that America has been rather in the background. America has
added very little, comparatively, to the world’s stock of philosophic
thought. This is not owing to any want of philosophical ability
or of what may be termed the philosophic spirit in our country,
but it is because the energies of a new country have naturally been
taken up in the tremendous development of her growth. Now that
that growth is approaching its maturity, the natural tendency to
philosophize asserts itself ; but it behooves us, looking at the pres-
ent and glancing forward to the future as far as we can, to provide
that the philosophizing of the present and of the future shall chime
with all the advance of human thought and of human knowledge.

35

We do not want a philosophy that will ignore any acquisition of
human knowledge. Hence, it becomes. of great importance that
we should rightly estimate the relations that exist and must exist
between science and philosophy.

In glancing over the sum of human knowledge, there are two
things that strike us with almost equal force—we cannot but wonder
at how little we know and we cannot but wonder at how much we
know. Paschal has said very truly that that man has advanced but
a short way in the road of knowledge who has not discovered that
the amount which he does not know incomparably surpasses the
amount he does know. There are still infinities of things that are
beyond the reach of our ken, and yet we cannot but marvel at the
amount of knowledge that we have drawn from the facts that are
within our reach. The reason of that is because, as Schelling says,
knowledge has two poles, the objective and the subjective poles, of
cognition. The object of cognition may remain the same; the
subjective conditions vary infinitely—subjective aptitudes, subjec-
tive fitnesses. The dewdrop has a message for the poet that the
scientist may have no ears to hear, and the dewdrop has revelations
for the physicist to which the poet may be absolutely impervious.
The vibrations of air are one thing for Helmholtz; they are quite
a different thing for Wagner. We remember how, in our child-
hood, we played with our kaleidoscopes and saw how the same little
bits of broken glass, continuously assuming their varied forms,
could give us infinities of beauty, and that was not, by any means,
only a work of imagination. So the facts that stand before us are
many sided in their phases, and every phase appeals to some aspect
of human intelligence, and when we put into combination the end-
less variety of phases of things, and the endless variety of intellec-
tual capabilities, then we come to understand how it is that, from
the facts within our reach, the sum total of human intelligence has
grown so tremendous.

This variety of human capabilities coming in contact with the
intelligibility of things, is not only a legitimate and an unquestion-
able fact, but it is an ultimate fact, a fact whose consequences im-
pose themselves upon us, not with a necessity that is regardless of
distinction between true and false, but with the necessity of the
truth. The consequences of that endless variety of human capa-
bilities are in the sum total of knowledge an endless harmony,
although in the comparison of individual fitnesses and individual

36

intellectual activity it may often seem to lead to contradiction.
Why should it lead to real or to apparent contradiction ?

Even within the limits of severe knowledge, laying aside fancy
and poetry, there is an immense difference between, leading to a
divergence between, experimental observation and philosophic or
speculative thought. Some minds are made for the one, some
minds are made for the other. It is only the rarer minds, the im-
mensely comprehensive minds, that seem capable of fully combin-
ing these two qualities in perfection. We know that this combina-
tion did exist in Aristotle—equally wonderful, equally admirable as
a scientific observer and asa philosophic speculator; but in the
average of men the one or the other fitness is very apt to predomi-
nate, and, if it is predominant, is apt to run into exclusiveness,
and, if that tendency to exclusiveness be not counteracted, after
awhile the scientific observer and the philosophic thinker may have
drifted so far apart that they seem to be in conflict, in contradic-
tion, that they may seem to find it impossible to come into agree-
ment or even to find a common ground for argument.

When both gifts are combined in some great man, then it be-
comes evident to him, and his experience serves as a demonstration
to others, that between the two—between the scientific and the
philosophical—there cannot be a contradiction. But whenever the
speculative or the experimental claims for itself exclusiveness, then
the result is one-sidedness, and the one-sided thinker is apt to tum-
ble over into chaos, or, what is almost equally bad, to rebound
to an opposite extreme. So it is with individuals, so it is with
epochs, with generations. Some great man puts the stamp of his
mind on his epoch, and it is philosophic or it is positivist and
scientific ; and in the epoch even more than in the individual, be-
cause the epoch has time to work out the logic of things which may
not be given to the individual, extremism or one-sidedness is cer-
tain to lead to a rebound, to a reaction that tends towards and may
reach the opposite extreme.

During our century and a half, this has been made abundantly
evident to the world. When our Society began, Kant was calmly
investigating the value and the limits of human knowledge, work-
ing out what posterity recognized to be objective scepticism, It
led to the rebound of extreme idealism, led by such men as Fichte,
Schelling and Hegel, and that idealism went to such extremes as
simply to bring philosophy into contempt. It led to the opposite

av

rebound of materialism, reaching its climax in the positivism of
Auguste Comte, and the extremes of that idealism have almost
justified the extremes, also, of the empirical school. ‘

At present we see a rebound from materialism and empiricism.
The result is twofold. Wherever philosophic thought has grown
languid and weak under the opiate influences of materialism and
skepticism, wherever it merely has power to lift itself up and be
heard, it seems to totter into mere agnosticism; but wherever, on
the contrary, philosophic thought has retained some of the manly
vigor which recognizes that the human intellect is not made for
nescience but for knowledge, not made for darkness but for light,
then philosophy stands up and asserts itself, asserts its right to re-
mind science that it does not fill the whole world of human thinking,
and demands that those relations between science and philosophy
shall be remembered and shall be observed, upon which the reason-
ableness or utility of both equally depends.

What are those relations? Science works according to certain
principles which it presupposes. ‘These principles are very ele-
mentary. The whole is, and must be, greater than any of its parts.
All the operations of nature take place, and must take place, in
space and intime. Every effect presupposes, and must presuppose,
a cause; and is, and must be, proportionate to its cause. Nature
itself is a reality and not a fiction. It has in it those elements that
make it possible for a man from facts to rise to laws and from laws
to build up systems. All the notions of equality and inequality, of
proportion and relation—all these things science works with, all
these things science presupposes. Science did not make them,
science did not discover them, science did not receive them even
from mathematics. Mathematics, itself, presupposes them and
works with them. Where do they come from? The scientist may
accept these principles unconsciously, he may forget his debt to
philosophy, but he does not by that forgetfulness cancel the debt.

More than that, when a science has done its best, and by the
application of these principles has made and tested its methods,
carried on its observations and then tested its results, all is not
done. ‘These single facts have to be woven, have to be fixed into
the great mosaic of truth. Science stands side by side with other
sciences, and the scientist in any department must every now and
then, if he is loyal to human intelligence, look over the fence of his
own narrow boundary, recognize the fields of thought that are beyond

38

' him, estimate the relation and agreement between his results and
those which they are working out, and not merely try to estimate
how it is as between him and his nearest neighbor in the depart-
ments of science, but how it is between him and them all.

Who is going to do this? No individual science can do it; no
mere coming together of all the sciences can accomplish it. An
arbiter is needed, an arbiter that can stand on a hilltop and survey
all; and that arbiter of all the sciences—the one that stands on the
hilltop and corrects blunders and utters notes of warning, and
knows how, from hypotheses, to sift out certitudes and from mis-
takes to sift out truths, and to take all the little bits that each sup-
plies and weave them in the harmony of truth—is philosophy; and
the fact that her point of view is so much higher and so much
more comprehensive than that of any science in particular, enables
her to direct the sciences in their work and to point out any part
of the great horizon in which the light is seen to be breaking forth.

Such is the natural relation between science and philosophy, the
relation that they must have in the nature of things. How is it de
facto in the age in which we live? "It is a noteworthy fact that, in
our age, so many scientific men are developing into philosophic
thinkers. Wundt, after writing on physics, physiology and experi-
mental psychology, gives us his system of philosophy. Mivart,
while plying his scalpel, learns for himself and publishes to the
world the deeper lessons from nature and the higher meaning of
truth and the value and method of reasoning. From the phys-
iological laboratory Du Bois Raymond surveys the Seven World
Riddles, and Lewes launches out into the problems of life and
mind.

These facts, simple indications of multitudes that might be enu-
merated, show that the most accurate scientific research is compati-
ble with the profoundest philosophic thinking. Nay, more, it
shows that science—when it is loyal to truth, when it is logical,
when it is consistent, when it is human—must lead up to philo-
sophic thinking. The same appears when we institute a compari-
son between the methods of science and of philosophy. First of
all, let us observe that every science has its own specialties of
method which no other science may share with it. The physicist
has one method, the chemist has another, so have the biologist and
the astronomer.

But these differences of detail in the methods of the individual

39

‘sciences do not, by any means, prove any incompatibility between
the sciences or their general methods. Apply the truth, and we
recognize at once that, while there must exist distinctive differences
between the methods of any science, or of all the sciences, and the
methods of philosophy, these distinctive differences are no proof of
incompatibility between philosophy and sciences or between their
methods.

More than that, the method observed by all sciences is, in its
ultimate analysis, generalization, which is a process of abstraction.
Without generalization, without abstraction, it would be simply
impossible to rise from the notion of fact to the notion of law.
When the chemist finds that this oxygen, in this balloon, takes just
so much of this hydrogen in this balloon in order to combine into
water, he extends this proportion to all oxygen and all hydrogen,
and to all experiments with them—past, present and to come—not by
scientific observation, but by generalization, by abstraction, by the
fundamental process of all thinking. When the physicist finds that
this piece of spar gives double refraction, he concludes the same of
all samples of that substance, and that without at all needing to
experiment with the rest. When the physiologist finds that the
blood in this man is composed of white and red corpuscles, he
does not need to dissect all mankind in order to reach the conclu-
sion that the blood of every man is composed in the same way.
Thus we recognize that science is constantly making use of one
great operation, which is the fundamental unity of all scientific
method, and that is generalization, abstraction.

Then comes the mathematician, whose method means abstraction
on ahigher plane. He shows that two and two make four, whether
it be two and two atoms, or two and two planets, or two and two
ideas; and he applies his principles of number and weight and
measure, his notions of quality and equality and proportion, to all
things, and works out at his desk the system of the universe. It is
a remarkable fact that the great fundamental, dominant principle
of all physical science in our age, the conservation of force, was
wrought out mathematically, by Leibnitz, one hundred and fifty
years before it was proved experimentally by Joule.

One step more up that ladder of abstraction and we reach the
operations of philosophy. It widens our view, giving us not merely
the perspective of this science and of that science and of all sci-
ences lying side by side, interlacing and working together in the

40

production of the world’s harmony, but it opens before us a per-
spective that embraces all things, a perspective embracing the infi-
nite and the atom, with all the intervening grades of force and
of life, the grand hierarchy of being, of causing, of becoming ;
therefore, the advance from science to philosophy is but an ascent
from one grade of abstraction to another, without jar or hindrance,
for those whose minds are keen enough for analysis and broad enough
for synthesis.

Yet another motive which leads, or rather forces, the logical sci-
entist into philosophy is the fact that problems exist and demand a
solution which no amount of scientific research can solve. What is
the origin of all? What is the aim of evolution? What is the
nature of the human soul, its whence, its whither? What is the
real value of human life? What are its duties, its rewards, its des-
tiny? Any individual scientist may brush these questions aside,
but there they stand, they confront mankind, they ever have con-
fronted mankind, they ever have forced mankind to its highest
and its deepest and its noblest thinking. ‘They demand a reply,
they prove with the very evidence of intuition that a reply to these
problems is of greater importance than a reply to any of the prob-
lems ever started by physics or by chemistry ; and just in proportion
as special research drifts away from facing these problems they cry
out all the more loudly in the ear of humanity and tell man that he
dare not ignore them. The man who stands ankle deep in the riv-
ulet may laugh at the shallowness of the little stream, but his merri-
ment does not fathom the sea into which that stream and a thousand
others are pouring ; and to sound the depths of that all-comprising
truth into which the separate branches of knowledge empty their
threads of facts is the proper office of philosophy.

What system of philosophy is going to do this? What system of
philosophy can we Americans at the close of the nineteenth century
accept? It must be a philosophy that shall have an eye on the past
and an eye on the future ; that is to say, first, it must be a fair and
balanced philosophy that shall avoid extremes, extremes which are
fatal alike to empirical and to speculative thought. It must avoid
one-sidedness, it must keep clear of materialism and of idealism, of
skepticism and of dogmatism, of pantheism and of atheism; it
must be balanced, it must be an all-around philosophy, it must be
the wa media. Secondly, it must be adaptable, it must be firm
enough to hold fast to every addition which science may make to

4]

the sum total of human knowledge, fearless enough to welcome
them all, knowing that fact can never contradict fact and that
truth can never be in antagonism to truth; and it must be elastic
enough to meet the result of philosophic research, holding on to
what is, pressing on to what is to come. It must be, in the third
place, a reflection of all those elements which in the development
of thought persist because true.

We have men around us building up grand systems of philosophy
and those systems die one after another, and yet, as the scientist
shows us to-day the structure of the beings that lived ages and ages
ago and left a substratum of fact after them, so these systems of
thought that come and goand die leave something after them. No
system of thought is totally false, though few systems of thought
can claim to be totally true. And so our system of philosophy
must be able to hold on to all that is true, no matter where it comes
from, ta hold on to the persistent, to hold on to that which is
eternal because it is true. :

May I be permitted in conclusion to ask your attention to what
some may consider a singular fact in the world of thought at the
close of the nineteenth century. Let me ask your attention to that
grand old man whom we Catholics I think have a right to be proud
of, Leo XIII, who on the one hand calls the world again to study
the old scholastic philosophy, and, on the other hand, endows out
of his own means astronomical observatories and laboratories of
physics and of chemistry. That man is convinced that there is in
that old philosophy a body of principles that are the truth, a body
of principles that therefore are everlasting, a body of principles
that therefore can guide science as well at the end of the nineteenth
century as they did in the middle of the thirteenth. He shows
that that philosophy is not a fossil, but a system of living principles
ready to take in all that the scalpel, the retort and the lens can
ever show us, and to teach all the wondrous progress of the science
of the future how it is to weave itself into the great harmony of
truth and is yet to shed its refulgence on the world. He shows us
that it is possible for a system devised by Aristotle and developed
by Aquinas to receive yet further development, and to answer yet
or to help mankind to answer all the mighty problems in nature and
above it that press upon the mind of man.

Shall not America do something towards helping the world to

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143. F. PRINTED NOV. 22, 1893.

42

such a philosophy? America aims at giving to the world not only
the best machines the world has ever seen, but the best men the
world has ever seen ; Americans make the best men that civilization
has yet produced. She is therefore to help the world on to the best
thought that the world has ever yet beheld. I hope we recognize
that human thought will not be at its best until scientific thought
and philosophic thought are wedded together in proper harmony ;
and shall not this grand old Society, which has so beautifully guided
America in her thinking and researches of the past, guide and help
America in the study of that glorious problem which she in the
future must help the world to solve ?

Adjourned.

Wednesday, May 24—3 o'clock p.m. Reception by the
Board of Directors of Girard College at the College.
9 o'clock p.m. Reception by the “ Penn Club.”

PHILADELPHIA, Thursday, May 25, 1893, 11 a.m.

The Society was called to order by Dr. Ruschenberger, who
presided over the meeting.

Dr. Samuel A. Green having been introduced, read a paper
on “ Benjamin Franklin, Printer, Patriot and Philosopher,” as
follows:

At this anniversary meeting of the American Philosophical Soci-
ety the name of the founder readily suggests itself; and for that
reason I have taken as the subject of my paper the career of Ben-
jamin Franklin, who was during his lifetime, with possibly a single
exception, the most conspicuous character in American history.

Whether considered as a printer, a patriot, or a philosopher,
Franklin challenges our highest regard and our deepest admiration.
Taking him for all in all, in his moral and intellectual proportions,
he is the most symmetrically developed man that this country has
produced. In popular phrase he was a great all-round man, able
to meet any emergency and ever ready to cope with any situation.
In many ways he has left behind him the imprint of his mind and

PROCEEDINGS AM. PHIL. SOC.

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43

of his work on the activities of the present day, to an extent that
is unparalleled. To a large degree he had a knack of doing the
right thing at the right time, which is epitomized by the American
people as horse sense, —a quality which justly assigns him to a high
place among men of worldly wisdom. He had a faculty of per-
forming the most arduous labors on the most momentous occasions
in such a quiet way that even his nearest friends often were entirely
ignorant of his agency in the matter; and little did he care whether
the credit of the deed came to him or went elsewhere. He seemed to
turn off work of the highest order as easily as the sun shines or the rain
falls, and just as unconsciously. A marked peculiarity with him was
doing his whole duty on all occasions, without making a fuss about it.
An estimate of his father’s character, given in Franklin’s own
words, would apply equally well to himself: ‘‘ His great excellence
was his sound understanding, and his solid judgment in prudential
matters, both in private and public affairs.’’

In order to trace some of these qualities towards their source, it
is necessary to examine the causes at work during Franklin’s early
life, and even to go back still further and learn what influences had
been brought to bear on his ancestors ; since the influence of hered-
ity must in this, as in every such case, be considered. It has been
wittily said by a writer—so distinguished in many ways that I
hardly know whether to speak of him as a poet or a physician, but
whom all will recognize as ‘‘ the Autocrat of the Breakfast Table ”’
—that a man’s education begins a hundred years before he is born.
I am almost tempted to add that even then he is putting on only
the finishing touches of his training. A man is a composite being,
both in body and soul, with a long line of ancestry whose begin-
ning it is impossible to trace ; and every succeeding generation only
helps to bind and weld together the various and innumerable quali-
ties which make up his personality, though they be modified by
countless circumstances that form his later education, and for which
he alone is responsible. Of Franklin it may be said that he came
of sturdy stock, none better in New England, poor in this world’s
goods, but rich in faith and the hope of immortality. On both
sides of the family his ancestors, as far back as the records go, were
pious folk, hard-working and God-fearing. They knew the value of
time and money, and they also placed a high estimate on learning
and wisdom. From such a source it fell to his lot to inherit life,
and his heritage was better than silver or gold.

44

Benjamin Franklin was born on January 6, 1706,—according to
the old style of reckoning time,—in a modest dwelling near the head
of Milk street, Boston. Just across the way was the South Meet-
ing-house, belonging to the Third Church of Christ, of which
Franklin’s parents were members, and at its services were constant
attendants. In this sanctuary the little infant, on the day of his
birth, was baptized by Samuel Willard, the minister, who duly en-
tered the fact in the church record. With our modern ideas of
sanitary precaution, it might now seem to us somewhat imprudent to
take into the open air, even for a very short distance, a delicate
neonatus, whose earthly pilgrimage was spanned by an existence of
only a few hours, and to carry him to an unwarmed meeting-house,
in the midst of a New England winter, even for the purpose of re-
ceiving the rite of Christian baptism; but our pious forefathers
thought otherwise. At the same time, prayers were offered up for
the speedy recovery of the mother; and the knowledge of this fact
was a source of great comfort and consolation to the family house-
hold.

Benjamin’s father, Josiah Franklin, was English-born,—coming
from Northamptonshire, where the family had lived for many gene-
rations; the same county from which also the family of George
Washington came. For a long period the men had been rigorous
toilers, earning their livelihood by the sweat of their brow, and
many of them were blacksmiths. Benjamin’s mother, Abiah Folger,
was a native of the island of Nantucket, and his father’s second
wife. Her father, Peter Folger, was a man of such distinguished
probity that when he was acting as one of five commissioners ap-
pointed to measure and lay out the land on that island, it was de-
creed that any three out of the five might do the business provided
he was one of them. What a commentary on his integrity, and
what a tribute to his personal worth! ‘The resemblance between
the philosopher and Peter Folger, a later kinsman, as seen in his
portrait, is very striking; and it may well have been said by his
neighbors that in his younger days Benjamin favored his mother’s
family in looks.

Franklin’s father owned a few books, mostly theological, and on
these the lad used to browse, and pick up whatever he could in
order to satisfy his inquiring mind, though he found it dry picking.
There is no better exercise for a bright boy than to turn him loose

45

in a library, and let him run, day after day and week after week,
nibbling here and tasting there, as whim or fancy dictates.

Franklin’s early surroundings were of a humble character, and
his chances of brilliant success in life, as seen from a worldly point
of view, were slim and discouraging. Asa boy he played in the
street, went barefooted in summer, fished from the wharves at flood
tide, and snow-balled on the Common in winter; and he got into
petty scrapes, just as other youngsters of that period did, and just
as they ever will do, so long as boys are boys, because boyhood is
brimful of human nature. He was no exception to the general run
of youthful humanity, any further than that he was a bright, clever lad,
with a good memory, and that he was fond of reading and always
hated shams. He would never have been picked out of a group of
urchins as one ordained to help mold the destiny of a new nation, or ‘
as one likely to stand before kings. But is it not written, ‘‘Seest
thou a man diligent in business? he shall stand before kings’’ ?

Early accustomed to habits of strict frugality, Franklin also im-
bibed those peculiar notions which laid the foundation of a remark-
able and distinguished career. Brought up to work, he was not
afraid of labor when apprenticed as a boy in the printing-office of
his brother James, the owner and editor of Zhe Mew-England Cou-
rant, where he often did a man’s stint. His early advantages at
school were very limited, being confined to a period of less than
two years, and that, too, before he was eleven years of age. An
apprenticeship in a printing office at any time is a good school of
instruction, though one hundred and seventy-five years ago Franklin
did not find it anagreeable one. His experience at that time, how-
ever, stood him in good stead on many later occasions.

The question naturally comes up, ‘‘ What special influences were
brought to bear on the young apprentice during the plastic period
of his life which made him afterward the great philosopher and the
sagacious statesman, and above all the apostle of common sense ?”’

Thisis answered in part by himself in his charming Aufobiography,
where he speaks of his fondness for reading, and of the difficulty he
experienced during his younger days in getting the right kind of
books. He mentions by title Defoe’s Lssays on Projects, and Cot-
ton Mather’s Essays to do Good, otherwise called Bonifacius, as two
works which had a lasting influence on his after-life. Defoe’s book
is a very rare work, so rare, indeed, that its very existence has been
doubted, and it has been even asserted positively that no such book

46

was ever written; but the assertion iswrong. It has been said, too,
that Franklin had in mind, when he wrote this part of his Auzodi-
ography, Defoe’s Complete English Tradesman, and that he was
then thinking of this work; but it was not so. The great printer
in his younger days had handled too much type to make a mistake
in the title of a book. Eight or nine years before his birth 4z
Essay upon Projects was published in London, written by the same
author who afterward wrote that prose epic Aodinson Crusoe, which
charmed us all so much in our boyhood. In the introduction to
the Essay the author terms the age in which he wrote ‘‘ the project-
ing age,’’ and in the body of the work he refers to many schemes
which have since crystallized into practical projects, and are now con-
sidered necessary institutions of the present age. Besides other
subjects he refers to Banks, Highways, Assurances, Pension Offices
or Savings Banks, Friendly Societies, and Academies, all which
to-day are recognized as actual problems in business life. In his
chapter on ‘‘ Assurances ’’ is found the origin of modern Fire Insur-
ance companies ; and in that on ‘“ Fools,’’ or Idiots, there is more
than a suggestion of Insane Asylums and other institutions for the
care and comfort of persons who are mentally unsound. The Essay,
or collection of Essays, is well written, and in style furnished a good
model for the readers of that century, although now it would
hardly be considered an attractive book for boys. It may be as-
serted, in the light of Franklin’s statement, that this work gave
the young philosopher a turn of thought which ever afterward he
followed. In the treatment of the various subjects of the different
chapters there is a decided flavor of practical wisdom for everyday
use, which seems to have clung to Franklin during his whole life.

The other little book mentioned in the Autobiography was first
published in the year 1710; and, as the author was settled as a
colleague pastor over the church where the Franklin family after-
ward attended worship, it seems natural that the work should
have been introduced at an early period into the Franklin house-
hold, where it surely found eager readers. The book is scarcely
ever looked at nowadays, much less is it ever read ; but it contains
some grains of wheat scattered through the chaff. The following
extracts from its pages are quite Franklinesque in their character :

Take a Catalogue of all your more Distant Welatives. ...
Think ; Wherein may I pursue the Good of such a Relative (page 72)?

47

Have alwayes lying by you, a List of the Poor in your Neighbour-
hood (page 75).

You must not think of making the Good you do, a pouring of
Water into a Pump, to draw out something for your selves (page 78).

Do Good unto those Neighbours, who will Sfeak // of you, after
you have done it (page 80).

Often mention the Condition of the Poor, in your Conversation
with the “ch (page 100).

The Wind teeds no body, yet it may turn the A4/2, which will
grind the Corn, that may Feed the Poor (page ror).

To Bear Evil is to Do Good (page 103).
One Small Man, thus Wicking the Time for it, may do wonders
(page 179)!

At a very early period in his life Franklin had acquired a great
mastery of language, and an excellent style in writing. It was clear
and terse, and left no doubt as to the meaning he intended to con-
vey. This high art is rare, and more easily recognized than de-
scribed. In many ways it is the man himself, and shows him off
from every point of view. It is never learned by rote, but comes
largely by practice, and also by familiarity with the works of good
writers. Franklin was a close reader, and in his boyhood devoured
everything in the shape of a book within the reach of his limited
means. He studied Locke’s Zssay on the Human Understanding,—
a work to which many a man has acknowledged a debt of gratitude
for its help in mental training. He had also read Bunyan’s P2/-
grim’s Progress, and a stray volume of Zhe Spectator, both excellent
models for a young man to copy. In one of his Almanacks,
Franklin says that Addison’s ‘‘ writings have contributed more to
the improvement of the minds of the #rztish nation, and polishing
their manners, than those of any other Azg/sh pen whatever.’’
While yet a printer’s apprentice he wrote articles for his brother’s
newspaper, the authorship of which was at first unknown to the
editor ; and he also wrote doggerel rhymes, in those days often
called ‘‘ varses,’’ which he hawked about the streets of Boston and
sold for a trifle. In this modest way he earned a few extra shillings
and laid the foundation of a brilliant career. Who can say now
that his success in after-life was not in some manner connected with
the narrow circumstances of the young ballad-maker ?

As at that time the drama was not regarded with favor by the
good people of Boston, I have often wondered if Franklin in his

48

boyhood had ever read any of Shakespeare’s plays. The original
settlers of Massachusetts abhorred playwrights, and looked with
distrust upon everything connected with the theatrical stage. Even
in his boyhood Franklin had such a keen appreciation of what
is great and grand, and such a lively concern for all things human,
that it would be of interest now to know that he, too, had paid
silent homage at the shrine of the ‘‘ sweet swan of Avon.’’ In Zhe
New-England Courant of July 2, 1722, there is a bare allusion to
‘¢ Shakespear’s Works,’’ which is probably the first time that the
name of the great dramatist is mentioned in New England litera-
ture. It occurs in a list of books made by an anonymous corre-
spondent, as belonging to himself, which would come handy ‘in
writing on Subjects Natural, Moral, and Divine, and in cultivating
those which seem the most Barren.’? The whole communication
reads not unlike the effusions of the young printer, and may have
been written by him. :

The circumstances under which Franklin left home are too well
known to be repeated here. Youthful indiscretions can never be
defended successfully, but they may be forgotten, or passed over in
silence.

From his native town Franklin went to Philadelphia, with no
recommendations and an utter stranger; but fortunately before
leaving home he had learned to set type. The knowledge of this
art gave the friendless boy a self-reliance that proved to be of prac-
tical help, and laid the foundation of his future fame. During a
long life he never forgot the fact that he was a printer first, and
Minister Plenipotentiary from the United States of America to the
Court of France afterward ; and still later President of the State of
Pennsylvania. In his last will and testament he sets forth these
distinctive titles in the order given here; and in his own epitaph,
which he wrote as a young man, he styles himself simply ‘‘ Printer.’’
This epitaph is a celebrated bit of literature, quaint and full of
figurative expression, and has often been re-printed. It bears a
remote resemblance to some lines at the end of a Funeral Elegy en
John Foster, a graduate of Harvard College and the pioneer printer
of Boston, who died on September 9, 1681. The Elegy was written
by Joseph Capen, then a recent graduate of the same institution,
and was first published as a broadside. Perhaps the lines suggested
to Franklin his own epitaph. Asa bright boy with an inquisitive
turn of mind, he was familiar with the main incidents in the life of

a

Foster, who set up the first printing-press in Boston, and was prob-
ably the earliest engraver in New England.

After Franklin had become fairly domiciled at his new home in
Philadelphia, one of his chief aims was to make himself useful not
only to his fellow-artisans, but to the community at large. In divers
ways he strove to raise the condition of young men, and to impress
upon them the responsibilities of life and the duty they owed to
others.

In the year 1732 Franklin began to publish Poor Richard’s Al-
manack, which not only put money in his purse but made his name
a household word throughout the land. It soon reached a wide
circulation, and was kept up by him for twenty-five years. It was
largely read by the people of the middle colonies and had great
influence over the masses. From every available source he selected
shrewd and homely maxims, and scattered them through the pages
of the publication. So popular did these sayings become that they
were reprinted on sheets, under the title of ‘*‘ The Way to Wealth,”’
and circulated in England as well as in this country, and were even
translated into French and sold in the streets of Paris. They are
not so highly thought of now as they once were; and the more the
pity. The present age likes show and style better than quiet ease
and domestic comfort, and is sometimes called the gilded age, to
distinguish it from one that is not veneered. The pseudonym of
authorship on the title-page of the A/manack was Richard Saunders,
and in quoting these maxims the public often used the expression,
**as Poor Richard says,’’ referring to the pseudonym; and in this
way the name of Poor Richard has become inseparably connected
with that of Franklin. During the latter part of the seventeenth
century there had been printed in London an almanack by Rich-
ard Saunders, and Franklin, doubtless, there found the name. In
fact his own title-page begins, ‘‘ Poor Richard improved ;’’ show-
ing that it had some reference to a previous publication.

A curious circumstance, connected with the translation of these
proverbs into French, may be worth narrating. The translator
found a difficulty in rendering ‘‘ Poor Richard’’ into his vernac-
ular tongue, as Azchard in French means a rich man; and to
give a poor rich man as the author of the sayings was an absurdity
on the face of it. So the translator compromised by rendering
the name of the author as ‘‘ Bon-homme Richard ;’’ and Paul Jones’

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143. G. PRINTED NOV. 27, 1893.

50

famous ship was so called in honor of the Boston printer and the
Philadelphia philosopher.

Franklin never accepted results without carefully examining rea-
sons, and even as a boy was slow to take statements on trust,
always wanting to know the why and wherefore of things. By
temperament he was a doubter; but in the end such persons make
the best believers. Once drive away the mist of unbelief from
their minds, and the whole heavens become clear. With the eye
of faith they then see what has previously been denied to them.
Franklin did not set up for a saint, or pretend to be what he was
not; and his friends have never claimed that he was free from
human failings. They have always looked with regret at his
youthful errors, and would willingly blot them out; but he himself
has freely confessed them all. It is on his own testimony alone
that the world knows his worst faults. ‘* To err is human, to forgive

divine.”’

Franklin was a voluminous writer on a large variety of subjects,
but of all his works the Autobiography has been the most widely
circulated. ‘This book was first published soon after his death, and
has since passed through many editions. It has been translated
into numerous languages and been read throughout Christendom,
where it has charmed both the old and the young; and the demand
for it still continues. For close, compact style and for general
interest it has become almost a classic work in the English lan-
guage. The bibliographical history of the book is somewhat pecu-
liar, and makes a story worth telling.

Presumably an Autobiography, published after the death of the
writer, would remain substantially unchanged; but it was not so
with Franklin’s. At four different times there have appeared in
English four versions of the Auéodiography, each one varying from
the others, —though they have not always covered the same period
of time,—thus making great and decided changes throughout the
book. ‘The explanation of this anomaly may be found in the fol-
lowing statement. ‘The narrative was written at various times and
places, and the author has given some of the circumstances under
which it was prepared. The first part, coming down to his mar-
riage in the year 1730, was written at Twyford, England, in 1771,
while he was visiting at the house of his friend, Dr. Jonathan Ship-
ley, Bishop of Saint Asaph, with whom he was on terms of close
intimacy. It was begun for the gratification of his own family, and

51

intended for them alone; but afterward it took a wider scope, and
was then evidently meant for publication. He did not resume
work upon it until 1784; but in the meantime the incomplete
sketch had been shown to some of his friends, who urged him
strongly to go on with it. The second part of these memoirs,
written while Franklin was living at Passy, near Paris, is short and
made up largely of his ideas on life rather than by the recital of
events. When he began this portion of the narrative, he did not
have the former part with him, which accounts for a break in the
thread of the story. The third part was begun in August, 1788,
while Franklin was in Philadelphia, and is brought down to the
year 1757. This portion ended the Autobiography, as formerly
printed in English. About a year after Franklin’s death there was
published in Paris a French translation of the first part of the
memoirs. It is a little singular that the principal portion of the
Autobiography, which was destined to have so great a popularity,
should have been printed first in a foreign land and in a foreign
tongue; and it has never been satisfactorily explained why this was
so, nor is it known with certainty who made the translation from
the English into the French.

In 1793, two years after the appearance of the Paris edition, two
separate and distinct translations were made from it and published
in London,—the one by the Messrs. Robinson, and the other by
Mr. J. Parsons. Both editions appeared about the same time ; and
probably some rivalry between two publishing firms was at the
bottom of it. They were English translations from a French
translation of the original English; and yet, with the drawback
of all these changes, the book has proved to be as charming as a
novel.

In 1818 William Temple Franklin, while editing his grand-
father’s works, brought out another edition of the Autobiography,
which seemed to have the mark of genuineness; and for half a
century this version was the accepted one. But in 1868 even
this edition had to yield to a fourth version, which gave the zszs-
sima verba of the great philosopher. During that year another
edition was published from Franklin’s original manuscript, which
a short time previously had fallen into the hands of the Hon.
John Bigelow, while he was United States Minister at the French
Court ; and by him it was carefully and critically annotated. This
version now forms the standard edition of the Autobiography, and

52

easily supersedes all former versions. It contains, moreover, six or
eight additional pages of printed matter from Franklin’s pen,
which had never before appeared in English. It is also a curious
fact in the history of the book that there are no less than five
editions in French, all distinct and different translations.

The limits of this paper will not allow me to follow Franklin in
his various wanderings either back to his native town or across the
ocean to London, where he worked as a journeyman printer. Nor
can I even mention the different projects he devised for improving
the condition of all classes of mankind, from the highest to the
lowest, and thereby adding to the comforts and pleasures of life.
The recollection of his own narrow circumstances during his

younger days always prompted him to help others similarly placed ; -

and the famous line of Terence applied to him as truthfully as to
-any other man of the last century. In brief, it is enough to say
that on all occasions and at all times his sympathies were with the
people. In the great political contest which really began on the
passage of the Stamp Act, and did not end until the Declaration of
Peace in 1783, he was from the first on the side of the Colonists,
and one of their main supports. During the War of the Revolu-
tion he was a venerable man, the senior of General Washington by
more than twenty-five years, and the leaders all looked up to him
for advice. In such an emergency it is young men for action, but old
men for counsel ; and on all occasions he was a wise counselor.

Franklin’s services in Europe as one of the Commissioners of
the United States were as essential to the success of the patriots as
those of any military commander at home; and he gave as much
time and thought to the public cause, and with as marked results,
as if he had led legions of men on the battlefield. The pen is
mightier than the sword, and the triumphs of diplomacy are equally
important with those of generals who lead armies on to victory.

I regret that the space of time allowed forbids me to dwell, as I
should like to do, on Franklin’s brilliant career as a philosopher.
From early boyhood his inquiring mind had led him to study the
lessons of Nature and to learn the hidden meaning of her myste-
ries. It is easy to understand how, while yet a young man, his
youthful imagination became excited over the wonders of the
heavens, when the lightning flashed and the thunder pealed ;'and
how he burned to find out the causes of the phenomena. By his

OE ———————

pp"

ingenious experiments in the investigation of these matters, and by
his brilliant discoveries made before he had reached the middle
period of his life, he acquired throughout Europe a reputation as a
philosopher; and the results of his labors were widely published in
France and Germany, as well as in England. In his memoirs he
gives a brief account of the way he was drawn into scientific stud-
ies, and how the seed was sown which brought forth the ripened
fruit ; but the preparation of the soil in which the seed was planted
dates back to his childhood, when he was reading Defoe, Mather,
and other writers, or even to an earlier period. For a full quarter
of a century before the Revolutionary War broke out, he had
gained such fame in Europe for his attainments, and was so widely
known for his fairness, that, when acting as a diplomatist during
the political troubles of the Colonies, great weight. was always given
to his opinions.

By the help of that subtle power which Franklin’s genius first
described, audible speech is now conveyed to far distant places,
messages are sent instantaneously across the continent and under
the seas, and the words of Puck have become a reality:

«Tl put a girdle round about the earth
In forty minutes.”

Through the aid of this mysterious agency, dwellings and thor-
oughfares are illuminated, and means of transit multiplied in the
streets of crowded cities, where it is made to take the place of the
horse; and yet to-day mankind stands only on the threshold of
its possibilities.

Whether the career of the practical printer or of the sagacious
statesman or of the profound philosopher be considered, Franklin’s
life was certainly a remarkable one. It would be difficult, if not
impossible, to name another man so distinguished in a triple char-
acter and so fully equipped in all his parts. By dint of genius
alone, he arose to high eminence, and took his place with the great
men of the age, where he was easily their peer, and where he main-
tained his rank until the day of his death.

One of Franklin’s early acts, fraught with great benefit to schol-
arship, was the founding, one hundred and fifty years ago, of the
American Philosophical Society, the oldest scientific body in
America and one of the oldest in any country,—whose numerous
publications, covering a broad variety of subjects and extending

\

54

over a period of nearly its whole existence, have won for it a
proud eminence, and given it high rank among the learned societies
of the world.

On this interesting anniversary it falls to my lot to bring to you
the felicitations of the Massachusetts Historical Society, which was
founded in Franklin’s native town and is the oldest association of
its kind in the United States. The younger sister on this occasion
sends her warmest greetings, and instructs me to express the hope
that the same success and prosperity which have followed your
growth during a long life of honor and usefulness may continue to
abide with you, undiminished and unabated, for long generations
to come.

The President next introduced Chevalier Rousseau d’Hap-
poncourt, K. K. Navy, who presented the congratulations of
the Imperial Royal Academy of Vienna to the American Phil-
osophical Society, as follows :

SOCIETATI PHILOSOPHA PHILADELPHIENSI, C&SAREA ACADEMI& LIT-
TERARVM, VINDOBONENSIS, SODALES S.

Qvanti philosophiam qvam merito Cicero omnivm bonarvm arti-
vm procreatricem et qvasi parentem esse dixit maiores vestri zesti-
maverint ex eo colligitvr qvod iam ante hos annos centvm et
qvinqvaginta Beniamin Franklinio dvce et avspice illam qvz nvne
vestris consiliis regitvr societatem condidervnt ad eam disciplinam
excolendam et promovendam. Probe enim intellexerant singvlorvm
hominym doctorvm operam angvstis finibvs cirevmscriptam esse iis
avtem in vnym corpvs conivnctis id effici vt lativs propagentvr
stvdia ac permvitorvm animi ad satvs illos felicissimos excipiendos
preparentvr. Ab his igitvr profecta initiis societas vestra non
solvm de philosophia excolenda egregie mervit sed totam de rervm
natvra doctrinam preclaris et laboriosis libris illvstravit lingvarvm-
qve mvltarvm origines et rationes feliciter indagavit atqve diligenter
explanavit. Merito igitvr diem qvem vtpote natalem societatis ves-
tree vno et dimidio secvlo symmo cvm honore peracto sollemniter
agitis vobiscvm celebramvs congratvlantes optimisqve votis vos atqve
institvtvm vestrvm proseqventes. Firmissimo enim vobiscvm
conivncti svmvs vincvlo pio litterarvm amore et svmmo stvdio iis

55

enixe cvltis omnivm hominvm salvtis promovende. Valete viri
doctissimi nobisqve favete.
Dabamvs VinDOBON# Die iii, Mensis Mai,
Anni MDCCCLXXXXIII.
C. SUEss,

Ces. Acad. Litt. Vindob., Totivs A Commentarits.
A. ARNETT, .
Cas. Acad. Litt. Vindob., Preses.

Reading the same to the meeting in German, as follows:

Diz MITGLIEDER DER K. uND K. AKADEMIE DER WISSENSCHAFTEN
IN WIEN AN DIE PHILOSOPHISCHE GESELLSCHAFT IN PHILADEL-
PHIA:

Wie sehr Euere Vorfahren die Philosophie gepflegt haben, von
welcher Cicero sagt, dass sie Mutter und Amme aller Wissenschaft
ist, folgt daraus, dass Euer gelehrtes Wirken schon vor 150 Jahren
von Benjamin Franklin eingeleitet und seither durch Euch fort-
gesetzt wurde. Euere Vorfahren haben erkannt, dass auf dem Gebiete
der Wissenschaft der Arbeit des Einzelnen enge Schranken gesetzt
sind, dass aber eine Vereinigung machtig zur Erzielung und For-
derung des menschlichen Geistes beitragt. In dieser Erkenntniss ist
Euere Gesellschaft entstanden, welche nicht allein das Studium der
Philosophie geférdert, sondern auch die Naturwissenschaften durch
griindliche und vorziigliche Werke bereichert und Ursprung und
Zusammenhang vieler Sprachen durch fleissige Arbeit gliicklich ge-
funden hat. Wir fiihlen uns daher gedrangt, die 150. Wiederkehr
des Griindungstages Euerer Gesellschaft feierlich mit Euch zu bege-
hen und begliickwiinschen Euch und Euere so herrlich fortgeschrit-
tene Anstalt. Wir sind mit Euch verbunden durch das gemeinsame
Band der Liebe zur Wissenschaft, welche das Wohl der Menschheit
in hohem Masse geférdert hat.

Lebet wohl und behaltet uns in Euerer Gunst.

SUESS,
Secretar.
ARNETT,

Président.
WIEN, 3. Mai, 1893.

56

Also a translation of the same made by himself, as follows:

THE MEMBERS OF THE IMPERIAL AND ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
IN VIENNA TO THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, GREET-
ING :

How much your predecessors cultivated philosophy, of which
Cicero says that it ‘‘is the mother and nurse of all sciences,’’ is
shown by the fact that, so far back as 150 years ago, Benjamin
Franklin introduced the study, which has since then been continued
by you. Your predecessors recognized that in the domain of science
narrow bounds are set to the pursuit of individuals, but a union be-
comes mighty in gathering and furthering what concerns the human
mind. Recognizing this fact has your study arisen, which not alone
encouraged the study of philosophy, but of the natural sciences as
well, and by original publications, discussions and collections prove
your active work.

We feel ourselves therefore called upon to join with you in the
celebration of your One Hundred and Fiftieth Anniversary, and
congratulate you and yours upon your grand progressive institution.

We are connected with you by the common bonds of love for
knowledge, which has in a great measure helped the welfare of hu-
manity. :

Farewell, and keep us in your memory.

SUESS,

Secretary.
ARNETT,

President.
VIENNA, May 3, 1893.

The President next introduced Prof. J. M. Hoppin, who
read to the Society an address on “The Philosophy of Art.”

The subject of the paper which I have the honor to present is
‘‘The Philosophy of Art,’’ and as this would seem to be in accord
with the object of your venerable Society, devoted to philosophic
inquiries, as well as in the line of my own pursuits, I have presumed
on its fitness for this occasion. And, might I be allowed also to
say, that the present is a favorable time to discuss art while we are
having the great Exposition in which art holds so conspicuous a

ee ee

57

place. In looking at the buildings erected on the Fair grounds, at
Chicago, I could not but think that architecture, at least, would
receive a vigorous impulse in our land; for in these buildings
there is an originality, a sense of creative power, a pregnant sug-
gestion of something new, of a style more truly American than
that of the Middle Ages and better suited to express the breadth
and simplicity of our democratic ideas, which will doubtless be
worked out by American genius into a national architecture of
noble design, of which we need not be ashamed and can claim as
our own. But my object at present is purely theoretic rather than
practical. It will dwell more on the idea than on the expression
of art.

The subject of the philosophy of art may be still more. briefly
comprehended in the term ‘‘ #sthetics.’’ A%sthetics, from a
Greek word of subtle meaning, was first used comparatively re-
cently in Germany to signify the philosophic classification of those
mental faculties with which we perceive and are pleasurably affected
by the beauty of the world, and was thus made to comprise more
than the term fairly means, viz., the whole theory, production and
criticism of art; and yet this word, ‘‘ zsthetics,’’ happily empha-
sizes one important element of art—feeling, or the sense of delight
in the perception of beauty—for art springs chiefly from the emo-
tions and love, just as in the ‘‘ terribleness’’ of Michael Angelo’s
nature averse to delights there was one spring of joy—the love of
his art and beauty; and so, too, after the influence of the skeptical
philosophy of the early part of the eighteenth century, that dried
up the spiritual emotions, the new feeling for the beautiful opened
by the movement of romantic literature, produced such works as
Faust and Wallenstein.

The philosopher, Hegel, in treating esthetics as a branch of psy-
chology, set to work to explore the laws of spirit which constitute
mind and to construe nature and art by means of universal ideas,
on the principle assumed by the German transcendental philosophy
of the subjectivity of all knowledge, regarding nature as the uncon-
scious realization of spirit in time and space, and, in the same way,
viewing the genesis of every human institution, science and art as
spiritual expressions. He sought to trace through its various stages
the philosophy of culture, and to develop @ grzori the history of
human consciousness in its growth from the first crude ideas to the

PROC, AMER. PHILOS. 80C. XXXII. 143. H. PRINTED NOV. 27, 1893.

58

most advanced theories that shape our modern civilization. Civili-
zation, in his application of philosophic analysis, is the mind real-
izing itself. Human consciousness perceives the ideal form which
measures and moulds the phenomenal world, although this con-
sciousness is not awaked at once, and only gradually awakes to find
itself contemplating its ideal prototype, its absolute personality,
which thus becomes self-consciousness ; and this rousing of self-
consciousness constitutes the intellectual progress of the race. It
sees its ideas realized, or reflected, in art as well as nature, and
makes at each step an advance in civilization. Hegel’s philosophy
was the revelation, in the world of time and space, of self-con-
sciousness, of the personality of the absolute, of the advancement
of humanity in the consciousness of its unity and perfection, of the
gradual merging of the individual into the universal, which univer-
sal consciousness is the progress of thought from nature to spirit,
from the sensual to the ideal, from the objective to the subjective ;
and, under this system, art is an expression of the spiritual, a mani-
festation, more or less clear, of the etern'al idea which measures the
outer and phenomenal, recognizing in the external world the image
of itself and comparing all things to this inner form, this self-
determined and abiding idea, which is the absolute, the ego, the
rational totality of the race, the spiritual personality. The reality
of things—art among them—is in the idea, while all else is show
and changing phenomena. ‘‘ The real world,’’ says an Hegelian
writer, ‘“‘is the spiritual world ; things exist because spirits expe-
rience them, and spirits experience them because, as parts of the
complete life, it is their interest to be as manifold and wealthy in
their self-realization as possible.’’

In a word, idealism, in which the world of nature and art is the
evolution of spiritual existence—this is the basis, the road-bed, so
to speak, in which Hegel’s esthetics is planted; and it must be
confessed that it is an admirable foundation of art, going beneath
the superficial theories now prevailing, most of which regard art as
a mere fashion to catch, like a mirror, the flitting reflections of the
outward, and to decorate life and amuse the senses ; and also going
beneath that false realism which lies in the physical merely, and
not in the mind that contains the unchangeable types of beauty.
Art, according to Hegel, is the discovery of the type-ideas upon which
nature and all things are formed and which must be sought within,
not without, so that self-apprehension is the artist’s highest law,

—————— ae

59

and that by which he seizes the universal, the absolute beauty.
Nature acts as a medium of the manifestation of the ideas, or idea,
of beauty, and is the objective form of a subjective fact. The art-
ist studies nature, viewing it as an intermediary of the spiritual per-
fect truth, and not as perfect in itself; for perfection is in the idea
consciously apprehended.

Mr. Stillman, in a recent article in the Atlantic Monthly, entitled
‘©The Revival of Art,’’ has favored this Hegelian theory of art,
carrying it, however, so far as to make the artist wholly an idealist
inspired by that beauty which he sees in his mind, and he seems to
give but little value to the inspiration and study of nature, quoting
Turner’s saying that ‘‘ nature puts him out.’’

The truth, I believe, would hold nature as that which mediates
between and unites the ideal and the real, the subjective and the
objective. The true idealist is he who has the deepest knowledge
of nature, and who can use this knowledge in the formulation of
his own conceptions.

But, even before Hegel, Schelling attempted to construct an es-
thetic philosophy. His poetic temperament led him to look on
nature as unconscious art, and to believe that material forms sym-
bolize spiritual processes, so that in nature our ideals are expressed.
He said that ‘‘ artists were often unconscious philosophers and that
the greatest philosophers were consummate artists.’’

Singularly enough, too, the pessimistic philosopher, Schopenhauer,
set forth one of the most consistent, if but partial, theories of es-
thetics of any of the school of the German idealists; for while
himself belonging to this school, instead of Hegel’s ego, or spirit-
ual personality representing the absolute, he regarded the ‘* world-
will,’’? or the concentrated power of all world-activities, as the
capricious and accidental but real creator of the phenomenal world
of nature, which ‘‘ world-will’’ and its ideas we interpret by expe-
rience. Our intelligence, as also a creature of the Wedtgeist or
Weltwille, penetrates to the inner will of nature, and ‘‘ reaches its
perfection in the power of contemplation that sinks into the depths
of nature, and which belongs, above all, to the temperament of the
productive artist.’’ Art, then, according to Schopenhauer, is ‘‘ the
embodiment of the essence of the ‘ world-will,’ as seen or interpre-
ted, by the artist’s intelligence. The world-will has fashions of
expressing itself, kinds and degrees of self-objectification, and these,
in so far as contemplation can seize them, are ultimate types or

60

ideas exemplified in space and time by individual objects.’? They
are the embodiments of the world’s desire, of the world’s passion
and longing, the forms of the whole world’s will that exist. Art
grasps these world-forms, these types of creation, action and desire,
and exhibits them in artistic forms; for an example, architecture
(as a commentator of this philosophy says) ‘‘ portrays the blind
nature-forces or longings of weight and resistance ;’’ or, as I ven-
ture to add, the harmonious arrangement of matter and mass, par-
alleled by the scientific theory of the rhythmical disposal of
molecular atoms. Art is the universal appreciation of the essence
of the ‘‘ world-will’’ from the point of view of an intelligent on-
looker, above all, artist ; and thus art, while embodying the world’s
desire or will, is not itself the victim of passion. Of all the arts,
according to Schopenhauer, ‘‘ music most universally and many-
sidedly portrays the essence of the world-will, the soul of desire,
the heart of this passionate, world-making, incomprehensible inner
nature ;’’ and listening to the longing and oft abrupt strains of
Wagner’s music, I have been sometimes startlingly reminded of
Schopenhauer’s ‘‘ world-will,’’ or desire, so wistful, passionate, ob-
jectless and chaotic, and finding its utterance in those weird and
changeful harmonies. ‘‘ The opposition between will and contem-
plation’’ reaches, indeed, its most systematic statement in the
philosophy of Schopenhauer; but the difficulty remains that the
‘¢ world-will’’ of Schopenhauer is at best ‘‘ a simple desire and selfish
striving,’’ and the longing after perfection even is only an accidental
and changing will, whereas human life has a spiritual centre (¢5y7),
as the material universe has a physical centre, from which ever-
recurring influences and attractions spring, that tend to the recog-
nition of unchangeable and eternal ideas of beauty—a will lying
back of the phenomenal world in the spiritual ; and in this Hegel
is truer in his zsthetic philosophy than Schopenhauer. _

Leaving these speculations of the German idealists, let me offer
some thoughts, imperfect though they may be, on the philosophy
of art as a good theme to theorize upon, and tending to promote
the best interests of art, which is assuming, together with physical
science and literature, its own great place in modern civilization as
well as in modern education ; and suffer me to follow out here for
a moment this suggestion in regard to education. It might be
taken for granted that the training of the knowing powers makes
education mean nothing unless it mean the development of the

61

intellectual faculties ; but this surely is not all in education. There
is left a portion of the being which is more peculiarly the region of
esthetic power, and in which are the sources of the beautiful; and
how broad a region and how narrow the view which would suffer
this part of our nature, the truly human part, to lie barren! It is
the -zsthetic power that reconstructs and makes all new; it is the
creative power. It is that which gives one man’s speech a freshness
that another’s of equal force of thought does not possess. Asthetic
culture should be introduced into education also, because art com-
prises so great a portion of the life of mind. It needed mind to
build St. Peter’s dome and to compose the music of Sebastian Bach,
as truly as to compose the Principia or the Mechanigue Celeste ;
and we are not confined to architects, musicians, painters and
sculptors, but may reckon in as artists the poets who body forth
ideas of beauty reflecting spiritual types. Itis the province, too,
of education to bring out the lovely perfection of truth, so that it
shall meet the desires of the mind and be followed freely; yet asa
people we have freedom much on our tongue, but not so much in
our spirit. We have brought down everything to the dead level of
the actual. It is the thing which answers the present use, the pres-
ent success, and not the thing which should be, or the ideal; and
while we would not weaken this noble, practical, American quality,
we would counteract its current towards an utterly earthly concep-
tion of life and thought; and art would help in this struggle to de-
liver ourselves from the crass bondage of materialism and to give
play to spiritual ideas. Art would likewise afford a counterpoise to

certain narrowing tendencies in education by presenting truth in
" more natural and vital forms. The purely scientific process, it is
true, comes first. The mind must learn to investigate and reason.
First fact, then beauty. But the scientific process has its dangers
unless guarded against, dealing as it does almost entirely with an-
alysis, and may tend to lose the living synthesis of truth, and not
to come, after all, to the unity. of knowledge and the perfection of
truth. Art through its intuition arrives often at truth’s wholeness
when science sees but in part. Art aims at unity, the beautiful
whole, the perfect form of nature and spirit, and its influence is
towards the introduction of a living variety into educational pro-
cesses, so that young men may come out of the university not mere
scholars, but men of broad, alert and independent minds, with the

62

eye open to see the beauty and glory of the universe. But to re-
turn from this digression.

We sometimes hear it said that man isa religious animal, and yet
it might just as well be said that man is an artistic animal—artistic
in the constitution of his mind. Metaphysicians commonly divide
mental faculties into reason, sensibility and will. This metaphysics
—whose tendency is to view mind by sections, as it were, or as a
congeries of faculties, each distinct from each, and which assigns its
own value to different powers, giving to some an undue value—is
apt to make the so-called intellectual faculty an exclusive object of
consideration, losing sight of the truth that the mind is one and
indivisible, that it acts as a whole, and that, in every act, all its
energies enter, some more and some less ; that there is a vital inter-
play of functions in mental acts, intellect in feeling and feeling in
intellect, the rational nature resting on the moral and the moral
moved to activity and choice by the sensibilities and imagination,
so that, however convenient this metaphysical classification may be
for the analysis and study of philosophical concepts, you cannot
erect such distinctions in the inner spiritual substance of the mind,
and to do this sometimes leads to grave errors; for you cannot
really say that any one part of the mind is of more value than an-
other and that any part of the mind can be ignored, or affirm that
it does not belong to mind as mind, and therefore deserves no spe-
cial attention. Shall we neglect that rich domain where lie the
springs of feeling for the beautiful, the productive powers in the
achievements of art? In this realm, called, in metaphysical lan-

guage, the sensibility, is found mainly the domain of art, though it |

is by no means confined to this, since all the faculties are involved
in art—reason, invention, will, the use of the intellectual and logi-
cal faculty that pervades a work of art, the judgment as well as
feeling. But there is, nevertheless, a quality of sensibility, of emo-
tional susceptivity, which is the mind’s power of receiving impres-
sions from the outward world and its beauty. This feeling is not a
mere excitation of the senses, the sensual nature, but it is a mental
susceptibility which not only feels but acts, and, when roused to act
by impressions from objects, it becomes a power of self-differentia-
tion, or a power of contemplating itself, a power capable of recog-
nizing its cwn acts and impressions made on it, and of reproducing
these impressions, being the correspondent within to the nature
without; and it is thus a permanent quality, to which we give,

eh mn

63

with other elements combined, the name of ¢he esthetic sense, or,
from the faculty through which this instinct chiefly operates, the
perception or sense of the imagination. The imagination is the
idealizing, the image-making power—the power that receives and
communicates the form of things (form-sinn, as the Germans name
it), even as the intellectual faculty receives and communicates the
truth of things. This esthetic power of the imagination, when
acted upon by correspondent objects in nature that are sympathetic
to man’s spiritual conditions, seeks to reproduce the essential form
of these objects, since they exist in the mind only in their forms—
some philosophers deny any other real existence to objective matter
—and on seeking thus to reproduce the forms of things, by a law
of the mind it strives to reproduce the perfect form in which the
mind delights and was made to delight. The mind’s susceptibility
to be impressed by the world of nature through the organ of the
imagination, which not only receives but imparts impressions of
objects, since it is full of energy and creative power, is the mind’s
function of form, and, necessarily, in a rational nature, of perfect
form or beauty, and here dwell the ideas of beauty in the mind.
If the imagination works simply in order to body forth the form of
things as an ‘‘idealized imitation,’’ to interpret nature in all its
forms, it works artistically and its products are what are termed
‘‘art.’’ The artist, in fact, is the poet ; he is poet of another sort,
who tells in line, form and color, as the poet in words, what nature
tells him ; and this is the more important because we ourselves are
parts of this nature, inframed in her subtle organism. ‘The artist,
by his imaginative or guasz creative power, reconstructs nature, be-
comes nature’s interpreter, and finds in nature the responsive image
of the soul. Art is poetry, mainly poetry—I believe this.

We see thus in all mind, though in a less degree in most men,
but especially, and sometimes supremely, in the artist, this esthetic
power, this artistic faculty, by which it must and will express itself
in the sphere of art as surely as the mind must and will express
itself in the sphere of knowledge, and, indeed, so related are the
mental powers that, as we cannot keep out any of them from the
esthetic faculty, so we cannot keep out the esthetic sense from any
of these, and we cannot say—in the investigation of truth, the
highest truth, which is moral—that the imagination, which is the
organ of the sensibility, can be excluded, for here dwell the forms
of truth and beauty. Iama Platonist. I believe art belongs to

64

the spiritual powers, and is, in some sense, spontaneous—a law to
itself. Schiller says: ‘‘ The artist (meaning the poet or creator) is
no doubt the son of his time. But ill is it for him if he be also its
pupil or darling. A beneficent divinity snatches the suckling in
time from his mother’s breast, nourishes him on the milk of a bet-
ter age and lets him ripen under distant Grecian heavens to his
maturity. Then, when he has grown into manhood, he returns to
his own country in the image of a stranger, not always to please it
by his presence, but, terrible as the son of Agamemnon, to purify
it. The substance of his work he will take from the present, but
the form of it from a nobler time, yea, from beyond all time, out
of the essential, invariable individuality of his own being.’’ *

The highest conception of art is that it is the interpretation of
the spirit in its varied forms, feelings and experiences, and of those
eternal ideas of beauty that are in the soul and belong to absolute
mind; but this admits, of course, of modification when other

faculties and qualities of our nature—above all, the sensuous—
come into view. The senses play their part in art, and a great deal of
art is on this lower and not unnatural plane. What a world, that of
color! Color hasastrong, sensuous appeal, as in nature, but is some-
times too pronounced in art, as in the luxurious warmth of Rubens,
the fiery tones of Raphael’s greatest pupil, Giulio Romano, the vio-
lent contrasts of the Spanish school of painters.

Now to discuss this subject in a direct manner, What is art?
But we can only approximate to a definition. It is impossible to
give a rigid definition of art. It bursts from our formulas like an
uncontrolled spring. It is indefinable because it is a truth rather
than a term; and yet we may do something towards a definition by
separating art from truths closely akin to it. Art, for example, is
not nature, while it is nothing without nature, as Shakespeare says:

« There isan art
Which doth mend nature—change it rather, but
The art itself is nature.”

Nature, in a general way, is all that is not art—all that is created,
not made. Nature is the substance, physical and spiritual, out of
whose depths art arises like an exhalation of beauty. It comprises
the forces at work to produce the phenomena of the world and their
laws outside of human agency. Those phenomena in ourselves

* Esthetic Education of Mankind (ninth letter),

65

and the world ‘‘which we do not originate but find’’ repre-
sent nature; those ‘‘ which we do not find but originate’’ repre-
sent art. Thus the human element comes into art to mold nature
to its purposes. Art, too, is not science. Science concerns itself
with knowledge and the investigation of truth, and it may be said
to be the law of knowing, dealing with the facts of the universe, its
chief instrument being the reason whose special function is analysis.
Art has also to do with knowledge, and art may aid in the search of
truth; but it does not end in knowing. Art is, in fact, a science
as far as its methods of ¢echnigue are concerned, and it applies sci-
ence to its own methods, but its end is farther on in the perfect
and joy-giving work touching profounder emotions, rather than in
scientific knowledge or the technical process. Art, in like manner, is
not philosophy, nor religion, nor morality ; and it does not pretend
to overtop, oppose, usurp or meddle with these while keeping to its
own sphere, and much confusion has been caused (and no one has
done more of this than Mr. Ruskin) by mixing these; but the dif-
ference in such cases is obvious. Art, however, is no negative
thing, but is a most positive reality, in that it implies the existence
of natural material on which to work and out of which to create its
results, requiring at the same time a principle of susceptive thought
that understands and orders nature for its conscious ends. In every
work of art, its original material of nature, the subjective idea
which calls it forth, and the form which is complete in itself like a
divine creation, are comprehended. This applies to all forms of
art, even the most mechanical ; and, first, the term doubtless meant
the arts of bare existence, first of all, probably, the art of agricul-
ture—the ‘‘ coarse arts’’ as Emerson called them in contradistinc-
tion to the ‘* fine arts’’—so that the useful was the first idea, and,
indeed, what is not intrinsically useful is worthless now in art, in the
highest art, which belongs to the highest needs of being, and com-
pared with which its commoner uses are as earth and clay. But as
new methods of civilization arose, art came up into its more spirit-
ual spheres. Nature was studied ; her subtle laws of working were
lovingly observed ; finer natures were touched to finer issues ; and
the arts which have in them a thoughtful element, which spring
,from an idea, succeeded the arts of mere existence, until ‘‘ art’’
won a peculiar meaning, limited to the production which has in it
the love of perfect creation, of beauty, which Plato says is the most

PROC. AMER, PHILOS. SOC. XxxtI. 143 1. PRINTED NOV. 28, 1893.

66

manifest and desirable of things. But while the artist represents
the beautiful object that he sees in his mind’s eye, and paints from
this mental image, art is never simply a mental act. Hegel con-
tended for this. Art, without the mediation of objective form, he
said, was an empty thing. ‘‘ The art-idea is not a mere conception
—‘ist niemals ein Begriff’ —inasmuch as the latter is a frame into
which different phenomena may fit, whereas the artistic idea must
stand in the most intimate agreement with the particular form of
the work.’’ The subject must be conceived in the object; there
must be the manifestation of the idea, which is its expression, as in
nature, and which expression must accompany the conception.
Expression, in fine, reveals the artist and is another word for his
art; for if it be true that

«Many are the poets sown by nature,
Yet wanting the accomplishment of verse,”

it can hardly be said that the power of vision in the artist is ever
unaccompanied by the power of expression, though the two may be
unequally distributed. ‘The bes reliefs on the pediment of the
temple of Zeus, at Olympia, which Pausanias ascribes to the Attic
sculptors, Alkamenes and Paionios, are conceived with the utmost
dramatic power, but are stiffly and rudely executed ; probably the
conception was that of the great artist and the work that of the
local artist. What wonderful power of expression, for another ex-
ample, is in Rembrandt’s painting of ‘‘ Abraham’s Sacrifice,’’ now
in the Hermitage, at St. Petersburg—the obedience of a servant,
the heart-rending grief of a father, the mysterious awe which the
celestial messenger inspires! Here the great artist is seen, and
great artists exist because they cannot help being so any more than
the roots of a willow-tree can help running to the water. Da Vinci
and Correggio were predestined artists as truly as Isaiah and Martin
Luther were predestined prophets and Dante and Tennyson predes-

tined poets; fer the spiritual conceptions and yearnings in them,

the strivings for universal beauty, found their only expression in
art-forms.

Art, therefore, if we should attempt to define the indefinable,
might at least be described in its works as the power of represent-
ing, like a new creation, in form, line and color, the object pre-
sented to the mind, or, more specifically, to the imagination, which
is awakened to act by a joyful and loving sympathy with nature in

—_—

67

all her forms—it may be ugly as well as beautiful—but more espe-
cially with what is beautiful and perfect in nature, as that for which
the mind was originally made or adapted.

1. Art, though having to do with the perceptive faculties and the
senses, is spiritual in its essence and has its foundation in an inner
susceptibility of the soul, which corresponds to outward forms.
There is a power in the mind of receiving impressions correspond-
ing to the power that impresses. ‘There is more than this. The
mind contains the very ideas, in their conceptual mold, in which
the forms of natural objects are cast, and is fitted to comprehend
them, so that art is the condition under which the sensibility for
impression is excited when the object and subject become identified.
The German philosopher, Lotze, indeed says that ‘‘ the impression
of beauty cannot be referred to a uniform standard in us, to a
spiritual organization actually existing in all individuals, but to one
that has first to be realized in each person by means of develop-
ment, and realized in each only in an imperfect and one-sided
way;’’ but, though this opinion of Lotze’s may be true, that the
perfect standard is not realized in every mind, or in the artist him-
self, yet for it to be realized at all, there must be the organization,
the susceptibility in every mind as mind, and the imperfection of
its development does not militate against the truth that there is an
ideal condition, like the plate delicately prepared to receive im-
pressions of objects, and without which the actualization of any
form of beauty would be lost and objects would remain without
form and void. A mountain is a pile of rocky matter of a certain
geologic period, as science teaches, until thoughts of majesty, unity,
power, are developed in its impingement on the ideal sense. The
beauty of nature is only to him who appreciates it; but we are all
of us inframed_in this natural kosmos as an organism itself designed
to be that through which the soul realizes its ideas, and without
which the mind could not formulate them, and this is the most
important part nature plays in art. In like manner the ethical
sense is a permanent condition of the soul, but the ideas of justice,
right, duty, are not developed except in the actual relations of our
natural life.

Call the beautiful an intuition or not, man, I contend, has an
esthetic sense, the outcome of whose formulated ideas is art, and
which is capable of recognizing and expressing the objective view
and beauty of the universe. We are subjects of impressions which

68

do not always find expression, and only do so when they impress
with sufficient power to form distinct conceptions. We may feign
an appreciation and enjoyment of nature that we do not feel.
There is an esthetic cant as nauseating as any other cant. The
first hunter who saw Niagara was doubtless overpowered by its ter-
rorizing sublimity, but, it may be, his uncultured mind soon recov-
ered its ordinary apathy, and he saw nothing in the stupendous
phenomenon to give him delight, and made his preparations to
cook his dinner on the edge of the cataract as coolly as ever. With
an Audubon it would have been different.

“If the eye had not been sunny
How could it look upon the sun?”

I have, however, guarded against the theory that art exists solely
in the mind, solely in the idea, and that there is no intrinsic beauty
in natural objects but what the mind creates in them.

2. Art is the interpretation of the significance and beauty of
nature. The product of the subjective capacity when drawn forth
by the beauty of nature becomes the Janguage of art. Some think
of nature only for scientific and practical uses, but ‘‘ nature,’’ says
Canon Mozley, ‘has two revelations—that of use and that of beauty.
The beauty is just as much a part of nature as the use; they are
only different aspects of the self-same facts, the usefulness on one
side is on the other beauty. The colors of the landscape, the tints
of spring and autumn, the lines of twilight and dawn—all that
might seem the superfluity of nature—are only her most necessary
operations under another view ; her ornament is another aspect of
her work ; and, in the act of laboring as a machine, she also sleeps as a
picture. The same lines which serve as the measure of distance to
regulate all our motions also make the beauty of perspective.’’ But
beyond this idea of Canon Mozley’s, itis my belief that there is actual
contrivance in nature for an appeal to the zsthetic sense. Moun-
tains that surround a valley ‘ like a chorus of hills,’’ by their fusion
of noblest forms with finest tints, speak directly to the mind, as do
the powerful words of a chorus in a Greek drama; and there is
found also in nature every secret, even the subtlest, for the result of
beauty, so as to produce the effect of beauty and power on the
mind of the beholder. This is nature’s art. What Venetian blue
is like the blue of the Rosenlaui glacier? What painting ever ex-
celled the splendors of

“ The fiery noon, and eve’s one star ?”

i at ie

69

He who begins to study nature, who observes trees or a single leaf,
who looks closely at the minute grass-spires under his feet that cover
the whole earth, who notices the tricksy. play of light and shadow,
who watches the sky, ‘‘sometimes gentle, sometimes capricious,
sometimes awful, never the same for two moments together, almost
human in its passions, almost spiritual in its tenderness, almost
divine in its infinity,’’ he must believe that there is in nature that
which is designed to convey thoughts to the human soul beyond
those of mere sense. Art interprets this higher truth. ‘‘ The aim
of art,’’ says Taine, ‘‘is to manifest the essence of things.’’ Art,
indeed, seeks for the means of the highest effects. It dependsona
penetrative study of nature’s principles, and here it still may be
original. Here the Yankee artist has as good a chance as the
Greek. Here American art may'prove its claim to originality as
truly as Dutch art has done. ‘The artist, to be an interpreter, must
have knowledge, whether gained by study or instinct. He goes
lovingly whére nature leads him, and enters this kingdom of art by
becoming a little child, until, through long discipline and patient
watching, he sees ‘‘ the most essential quality of things ;’’ he grows
into such intimacy with nature that he comes to interpret the
thoughts of nature and also the thoughts of the human heart. The
group of the ‘‘ Niobe’’ came out of the profoundest depth of human
experience—there is, morally, nothing more suggestive than this
sculpture in modern art—as the Greek poet, Meleager, in his poem
on the ‘‘ Niobe,’’ believed and proved this in ancient art. There
is a fragment of the Reformation in the works of the satiric, keen-
eyed painter, Holbein. There is much of the splendid but corrupt
sensuousness of the neo-pagan Renaissance period, under Christian
forms of humanity, represented in Titian’s voluptuous pictures ; for
art is a reflection of life and its multiform phases, fascinating or
terrible as the ages march on, and of the life of the soul.

3. Art finds its laws and principles primarily in nature. It can-
not go astep independently of these and remain art. Michael Angelo
seemed to lose his creative power, and virtue went out of him the
moment he left nature and began to work from a dry scheme of
abstract form.

There is, for instance, the fundamental law of truth, which in-
volves the idea upon which the universe was built. There must be
a sensitive relation in the artist’s mind to this law, without which
art is artifice or sham. But art, as has been said, is not nature, nor

70

does the artist, in Coleridge’s words, ‘‘ pick nature’s pockets.’’ Na-
ture is inimitable; for how can a little square of painted canvas
convey the infinitude of mountain scenery whose power is revealed
like a divine inspiration? Yet nature in her commoner moods, if
still inimitable, is genial and accessible. She is odd and humorous
at times, with a fancifulness full of grotesque irony. She does not
hide her winsome face. She invites us to sit at her feet and learn
of her. She will herself teach us. We cannot follow her instruc-
tions too closely, nor imitate her too minutely. Not a leaf but is
a map of the boldest and most complicated pattern. Nature fur-
nished the originals of Greek forms of every sort. But the artist
must go beneath the surface of things to the plastic laws of these
forms, else imitation would be untrue. He must discover, as it
were, nature’s own law of creation. A picture is an illusion, but it
is not a delusion, for its end is not imitation, which would be some-
thing unreal and an absurdity, but it is the production of similar
effects of nature’s beauty and power so as to speak to the mind in
some sense as nature speaks. While the artist is not to leave nature
and lapse into a dreamland of his own, while he is to seek truth,
yet by his thought, by separating the natural object from its acci-
dental circumstances and conceiving it as a whole, by so painting
the tree, the flower, the man, that the true form is seen, that the
type is brought out in which the properties of the species are devel-
oped and in which it is best fitted to discharge the functions for
which it was made—this shows the highest skill ; for here is the ac-
tion of the artist’s soul which gives to his works the appearance of
fresh creations. This is the ideal in art. This is the law of mental
selection and probably was coeval with the law of imitation even, and
accompanied the earliest art, savage and archaic art, since no art,
even the most primitive, could have been entirely imitative.

‘In the effort to imitate the human figure the process of thought
and sympathy becomes apparent ; and where this process of con-
trolling power begins there the ideal in art begins. Whenever this
isolated position, or scene, or action of nature is taken, it cannot
be truly represented unless by an act of thought it is connected
with the whole. The idea, or the whole, to which it belongs as a
part, must enter into it and transfuse it.’’*

Yet be it noted that the ideal does not exist without the real
passing into it like a life, even as mind works on facts and molds

*A.S. Murray, Hist. Gr. Sculpture.

TL

them, and this might be called ‘‘ the idealized real.’’ The real is
the working basis of the ideal, even as the sculptor puts his thought
first into a clay model and works from that. The poetic super-
structure is grounded in the soil of the actual. ‘‘ The beautiful is
the real,’’ was the Florentine sculptor Dupré’s motto. Imitation
is not the object of art, or is, at best, a low idea of it; yet how
can a picture or sculpture be too true to nature? Were the best
Greek sculptures? You may be sure that it was not the close imi-
tation only in the old familiar story of the grapes that made the
birds peck at them, but it was chiefly the truth. It was the real -
life of natural objects that the artist of poetic genius had caught.
It was a picture and not acopy. A portrait—what is it worth if it
be not real and rugged as life is; otherwise it would become like
the many unauthentic portraits of Columbus—a specimen of what
has been called ‘‘ artistic subjectivity ?’’ This realness is the test
of artistic excellence. ‘‘ The more nearly and truly a picture ap-
proaches the exact colors and forms of nature, the greater will be
the effect.’’ There is no excuse for false drawing. The healthy
tendency of art, then, is to become more and more real, which is
in the true line of progress. The vigorous revival of art in the
Netherlands in the first half of the seventeenth century, which cre-
ated the Flemish and Dutch schools, to which the names of Rem-
brandt, Franz Hals, Terburg, Jan Steen belong, was nothing more
than a return to realistic art from the feeble conventionalism of
decadent Italian classic art. But rashness in theory makes a one-
sided development, and the attitude of the artistic mind should be
ever that of a thoughtful receptivity. All great painters have been
realistic painters, but that is not all that they were. They painted
from an idea. Velazquez, the greatest of artists both in technique
and expression, did not paint the architecture of a face, but its char-
acter, its character drawn from his creative conception of aman. So
art must continue to have in it these two elements of the real and
the ideal, or it will run into something analogous to that coarse
realism in literature, whose works, viewed as works of art, are only
pieces of loose real life, without unity and plan; or, on the other
hand, that subjective school of poets illustrated by Dante Ga-
briel Rossetti, ravishing as it is, but neither of them complete in
itself. Art would die out, since some essential quality of life would
be lost. It would either drop the element of truth to nature or the
element of thought. The canons of universal art must not be

72

swamped in the turbid deluge of French realism; though in regard
to French impressionism, which is the tendency of modern art,
when not carried to an absurd extreme, I have a good word, as in-
fusing new life into painting, catching the light and atmosphere of
heaven, and promising a true advance in landscape art. But it is
well to remember, in this realistic age, that art has a spiritual side
allying it with poetry and with the loftiest achievements of the
mind, in which the beauty that lives in the idea and in the univer-
sal and spiritual is expressed. All true art in every age catches a
spark of this unfading glory of the beautiful ; and yet I do not say
that there is no true art which does not aim-so high as this, as wit-
nessed in the hundred forms of unambitious art, the crude but honest
efforts of beginners, the drawing which aims only at correct imitation,
the pictures of many realistic artists painting nature as it isand not
so much in minute detail as in whole true impressions, the graphic
illustrations of literature carried to such excellence at the present
time, the rich field of decorative design which is mainly scientific—
all this is pleasing and laudable and having its genuine place in art,
but I speak now of art in its enduring forms, which, like the best
poetry, is of ‘‘imagination all compact,’’ and must spring from
the love and idea of beauty. This innate sensitiveness of the Greek
mind to Jeauzy made it to differ from Egyptian, Roman, and almost
every other national art, and constituted it the standard of art for
all time. But the Greek sense of beauty was a thoughtful quality
of a thoughtful people; since the sensual, strong in the Greek, was
subordinated to the intellectual and moral in this finely attempered
race. Its line of beauty was a line of strength. Beauty was
another word for perfection. ‘‘ Beauty with the Greek,’’ says
an English writer, ‘‘ was neither little nor voluptuous; the soul’s
energies were not relaxed but exalted by its contemplation. The
service of beauty was a service comprehending all idealisms in one,
demanding the self-effacement of a laborious preparation, the self-
restraint of a gradual achievement. They who pitched the goal of
their aspiration so high knew that the paths leading up to it were
rough, steep and long; they felt that perfect workmanship and
perfect taste, being supremely precious, must be supremely difficult
as well; yadsexdy té zadov, they said, the beautiful is hard to win
and hard to keep.’’* Thus beauty, with the Greeks, was the mani-
festation of their ideal self-development, the working out of a pro-

* Westminster Review.

tee ll et 0g

a a ed

13

found principle of culture, and this made their art so noble; and
it is this by which, in presence of their serious sculptures, our spirits
grow calm, and we feel the truth and moral power of the Greek
conception of beauty, raising us above our littleness into a region
of higher thought and feeling.

So there are other laws of nature besides truth which enter into
art, such, for example, as order, which belongs not only to the
structure of the world, but of the mind and its structures ; as unity,
or that consistency of parts with the whole which gives delight in
a beautiful object ; as proportion, which is the outcome of a sym-
metric mind; moderation, which is the continence of conscious
spiritual strength; grace, which flows from inward sympathy and
freedom ; character, or individuality, or expression, so variously
named, which, indeed, is much the same as ideality, by which the
artist expresses his own thought and personality, and by which also
a distinctive spirit of the period and history of the work is stamped
on it ; and not to mention more of these laws, above all, the great
law of form, to which everything in art comes, which is the highest
intellectual expression of art, so that sculpture, perhaps, is the pur-
est art manifestation ; and it is by studying these laws that we come
at the principles of art criticism, and through the ignorance of
which there is often shown a want of judgment in matters of art,
betokening false standards drawn, it may be, from metaphysics or
political economy rather than nature, making to be measures of
art productions such qualities as logic, difficulty, cost, prettiness,
melodramatic effect, bulk, warm coloring, elaborate though sense-
less detail—instead of the true and invariable standards of nature,
by a return to which through the clear instinct of zsthetic genius
lies the only road to reform and advancement.

4, Art in its source is divine. ‘The divine ideal has not been
perfectly attained, but ever beckons on like a star. Nature is a
projection of divine ideas of beauty into time and space; and the
human mind, which could know nothing objectively unless the same
existed subjectively in itself, can read these types of beauty, or, as
Ruskin calls them, ‘‘ the eternal canons of loveliness,’’ in its con-
sciousness. Ruskin classes among spiritual ideas typical of divine
attributes such purely zsthetic conceptions as unity, perfection, in-
finity, order, repose, moderation, purity, truth. These are moral
as weil as zsthetic qualities; and I was greatly pleased to come

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143. J. PRINTED NOV. 28, 1893.

74

across this passage spoken to the students of Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity, from a poetic point of view, by an American poet—
poet of the salt-sea marshes—Sidney Lanier: ‘‘ Cannot one say
to the young artist, whether working in stone, in color, in tone, or
in character-forms of the novel: So far from dreading that your
moral purpose will interfere with your beautiful creation, go forward
in the clear conviction that unless you are suffused—soul and body,
one might say—with that moral purpose that finds its largest expres-
sion in love ; that is, the love of all things in their proper relation ;
unless you are suffused with this love, do not dare to meddle with
beauty ; in a word, unless you are suffused with true wisdom, good-
ness and love, abandon the hope that the ages will accept youas an
artist.’” Would that Lanier could have lived longer to have out-
lived some superficial defects of style, to have chastened his luxuri-
ant imagination, and to have carried out his own noble theory of
art !

Thus art has a vital beauty belonging to divine things.

The total sensualization of art characterizing a great deal of our
modern art, forgets the truth that, though art lies partly in the
sphere of the senses, in which ‘‘ ideas take their plastic embodi-
ment,’’ it has a spiritual source which makes the artist a priest of
the divine. ‘‘ The artist paints with the brain and not with the
hands,’’ said Michael Angelo contrary to Courbet’s saying.

The noble young science of archeology, which has made such
marvelous progress of late, but which, after all, is the serviceable
handmaid of art and not art itself, this science, so helpful to art,
so indefatigable in its research, so interested, and rightly, in the
orientation of every exhumed stone, and so furiously combative in
the claims of space occupied by the orchestra and proscenium of a
Greek theatre—notwithstanding its brilliant discoveries, has served
imperceptibly and unconsciously to set learning before beauty and
thus obscure or render secondary the intrinsic idea of art.

Looking at these four principles, viz., that art has its foundation
in an innate spiritual susceptibility which corresponds to outwaid
objects and forms; that art is the interpretation of the idea, beauty
and perfection of nature; that art finds its laws primarily in nature;
and that art in-its source is divine; we may judge somewhat, from
these rough pillars, what is the vast scope of art, how it reaches into
heaven as well as makes our own thought higher, our life sweeter
and this earth lovelier. And when we come to consider further

75

(which investigation I shall not, however, be able to follow out)
the philosophical classification of art, this brings out more clearly
its theoretic principles; for each form of art is grounded on a rea-
son in the mental constitution, and depends primarily on the nature
of the idea which strives for representation, so that every art has
a body, as it were, in which its life freely develops itself, and in no
other. The arts of expression by language differ from the arts of
expression by form and color, and cannot be combined on the
same lines of representation. Sculpture cannot perfect itself in the
principles that apply to painting ; and a familiar example of this is
the beautiful gate of the Baptistry of San Giovanni, in which the
sculptor, by trying to unite the plastic and the graphic elements, or
not keeping them distinct, fails of the highest effect. Yet the prin-
ciples of all the arts are, in a measure, interchangeable, just as the
laws of construction in architecture, bringing into play such ana-
lytic qualities as order, mass and combination, may enter with
effect into the composition of a picture and lend it unity of design
and firmer tone.

One German writer classifies artistic forms into two—the mathe-
matic and the organic; in this way art appears, as it were, a second
nature, which represents and reviews her processes. Mr. Hay, in
his Science of Proportion in Greek Art, goes so far as to say that
“¢all fundamental beauty of form is derived from the vibrations of
the musical chord, and is geometric or harmonic in its development,
and cannot fail to be reducible to mathematical law.’’ Rhythmic
arts, at least, are governed by mathematical laws like architecture
in its form in space, and music in its movement in time ; poetry
also partakes of this regulated character. On the other hand, the
arts which represent life, free life, such as landscape, animal exist-
ence, and, above all, forms of human life in historic, gezre, and
portrait painting, and especially in sculpture, come under the class
of organic art, which arts are essentially imitative, but at the same
time they stand in connection with higher ideas. Yet here, too, it
is difficult to draw distinctions. Painting expresses, above all, qual-
ity and character; and yet in music there is as truly quality as
quantity of sound, character as well as harmony. Colors have a
genuine resemblance to tone, and colors form an octave which pro-
duces concord or discord, and gives rise to as various sensations.
Architecture, which is abstractly geometrical, becomes also highly

76

expressive of thought, feeling and character, almost as much so as
painting and sculpture.

Another classification separates all art into groups of technic, es-
thetic and phonetic, the first being those that minister to the pri-
mary wants, the second to the esthetic, and the third to those that
express ideas by colors, forms and words—in fact, language. But,
actually, no positive limits can be assigned to these varieties as a
question of fact, and it is rather a matter of degree than of classifi-
cation. While it is highly productive of thought to make this
effort to classify, and is useful as bringing out more clearly the
underlying principles of art, it is evident that a deep-grounded
philosophic classification has not as yet been reached.

Dr. John G. Morris, having been next introduced, presented
a paper on “The Nature and Design of the Historical Societies
of Our Country, and the Invaluable Benefit They Have Con-
ferred on the Community,” which is as follows:

No one can reasonably object when a public speaker employs the
heaven-inspired language of the Hebrew poet in illustration of a
subject altogether secular and historical. In the loftiest strains
which his language afforded, he invites all men of religious taste
and piety to visit the magnificent house of worship at Jerusalem—
to extend their walk around the impregnable walls and their massive
abutments—to measure by the eye their height and thickness—to
look upon the tall towers and their broad bulwarks—the ponderous
gates of brass and all the other external wonders of that wonderful
edifice—but the admiring visitor is invited to pass through the gates,
and to contemplate the magnificent structures erected around the
sanctuary, the grandest of all, and then to gaze with rapture on the
unsurpassed splendor and ravishing architectural glories of that
house of God—and why all this? Not merely to gratify a culti-
vated taste, but to tell it to the generation following—to write the
history of it that subsequent ages might know what had been done
by their fathers.

And this is the province of the historian of to-day, as it has been
of all preceding times—to verify doubtful facts, to develop and re-
cord unwritten events, to correct popular errors, to authenticate dis-

17

puted dates, to delineate the character, influence and deeds of
illustrious men; in a word, ‘‘ to walk about the towers thereof, to
mark well her bulwarks and consider her palaces, that he may tell it
to the generations following.”’

This is the design of all historical societies, and many of them
have already contributed much to the consummation of it.

Allow me then, ye men of philosophy, on this auspicious day on
which you will hear much of what your ancestors have told to the
generations that came after them, and of what you are gathering
for the benefit of those who will follow you, to speak of a theme
closely allied to that which you cultivate. Philosophy and history
are sisters, of whom /zsfory is the older, for history began in the
primeval Eden. They tell us that some ancient writer hassaid that
history is philosophy teaching by example; but history furnished
the examples before philosophy or science could utilize them.
Macaulay was of the same mind when he says: ‘ History, as it
lies at the root of all science, is also the first distinct product of
man’s spiritual nature ; his earliest expression of what can be called
thought. Before philosophy can teach by experience . . . . the
experience must be gathered and intelligibly recorded.’’ And
that’s history.

I have thought that it would not be inappropriate on this occa-
sion to present a brief dissertation on ‘‘ The Nature and Design of
the Historical Societies of our Country, and the Invaluable Benefit
They Have Conferred upon the Community.’’ Of late years they
have contributed marvelously to the illustration of our older history
and are constantly piling up much rich material for future writers.

The design of such foundations is not primarily to write history so
much as it is to collect, arrange, classify, describe and preserve authen-
tic materials of whatever kinds they may be, out of which history may
be written. It is true, societies may publish what an individual or a
committee has elaborated, and many local histories and cognate
papers or treatises have been thus published, but, after all, the main
design is to collect the timber, stone, and everything else out of
which the historic edifice is built by the master workman, and this
most useful work our principal societies have diligently and success-
fully performed. They are composed of that class of men whom
Bacon designates as ‘‘ industrious persons who, by an exact and
scrupulous diligence and observation, out of monuments, names,
words, proverbs, traditions, private records and evidences, frag-

78

ments of stories, passages of books, . . . . and the like, do save
and recover much from the deluge of time.’’

A historical society should be a ‘‘snapper up of unconsidered tri-
fles, and should not disdain to gather even the bubbles that float on
the stream of current history, prizing them as the world will one
day prize the gems into which they will be transferred by the magic
of time.’? There are thousands of printed documents of one kind
and another which féw persons think of saving, but which if pre-
served and systematically arrauged into sets become valuable for
reference in a very few years, and this is a kind of work requiring
painstaking and patience, rather than the expenditure of much
money. ‘The breaking up of private collections is the great oppor-
tunity of the historical librarians and members, who should always
be on the alert for such chances. No scrap which contains a word
or name or date of historic value should be allowed to be destroyed
or to be thrown into the rag bag or sold to the gatherer of materials
for the paper mill.

Whilst the American antiquarian must necessarily feel deeply
concerned in whatever relates to the history of the aborigines of our
country, and we all know to what extent that subject has been illus-
trated, especially in the Government publications, yet it is not the
history of the Indians in our respective States that has engaged the
special attention of our historical societies—though not entirely
overlooked, especially by the societies in the Western and newer
States—our main purpose is to rescue from oblivion the history of
the first settlers of the country, the manners, habits, opinions,
deeds, primitive institutions, the early establishments, their family
papers, their schools and churches, parish records or newspapers
and books, their roads, their country frolics, their holidays and di-
versions, their civil and social condition, their town meetings and
country fairs, their old family pictures, their great men and noble
women in every department of active life. It is literally carrying
out the capital motto of the Maine Historical Society, ‘‘ Antiquita-
tis monumenta colligere.’’

It is the province of the societies to collect and safely keep ac-
count of all these and of many other things. A historical society
need and should not collect a library of miscellaneous books, nor
spend any money on an ornamental picture gallery or a museum of
curiosities which do not illustrate the history of the State. If such
objects are donated to the society as decorations, and the society

79

has room to exhibit them, they must not be refused, especially if
with the donation provision is made for their safe keeping; but a
general picture or a statuary gallery is a very different thing from a
collection of historical portraits or other pictures representing great
historical events. Such a collection it is desirable to have. Popu-
lar and miscellaneous books as well as most of the illustrated maga-
zines and newspapers and quarterlies and monthlies must be sought
for in libraries designed for more general use. A museum of house-
hold relics of colonial and Revolutionary times, of old documents,
ornaments, dress, weapons, furniture and many other things, such
as we have lately had exhibited in Baltimore, will teach more history
in an hour than a mere fancy picture gallery, of whatever extent or
estimated value, will do in a week. .

What a fresh impetus has been given to the study of our national
history within the last hundred years! It has been estimated by
those capable of forming a correct judgment, that since the organiza-
tion of the Government in 1789, under the Constitution, more than
two hundred historical societies have been organized, the greater
number of which continue in active existence. Most of them aim
at the elucidation of the State or county or town in which they
have been formed, and the principal means employed for accom-
plishing the object has been the collection of historical books, of
manuscripts, of museums, of historical memorials—in some instances
including the natural history of the region, and the printing of
historical documents.

All these collections are rendered accessible to the public, and
persons devoted to such studies have every desirable opportunity of
gratifying their tastes, and every facility should be afforded. The
red tape tying the documents should be short and the knot very
loose. No student need go far to find everything that has been
published concerning his own State, besides numerous valuable
documents which have not yet been put in print, and to these he
should have free access under liberal limitations. Of what use are
such historic treasures to any body if they are to be locked up in
a fireproof vault, and the use or exhibition of them environed
with discouraging difficulties ?

Several of the States, as Maryland and Georgia, and perhaps
some others, have made their library rooms or vaults of their State
societies, places of deposit of valuable State historical records, at
least to some extent, and it would have been well if our own State

80

of Maryland had adopted that wise precaution long ago. Many
precious documents would have been saved which are now irrecov-
erably lost. This measure, of course, is not necessary where the
capitol of the State has fireproof vaults in which such treasures may
be safely kept, or where other measures of security are adopted,
which is not the case in some State Houses we know.

Some State societies have called the attention of their Legisla-
tures to the propriety of publishing the colonial and other early
records, to which they have liberally responded, and a few of them
have even gone so far as to send competent agents to Europe to
secure copies of old papers or catalogues of them from the record
offices. Private munificence, in several instances, has rendered the
same service, of which we have a notable example in our own col--
lection in Baltimore, as a gift from George Peabody, to whom we
are indebted for other similar favors.

State societies have been established in more than half of the
States, and they are designated S/aze societies as different from local
societies, either because they derive support from the State, or from
the prominence which they give to the history of the State in their
collections and printed contributions. Their place of meeting,
their libraries and collections, and the principal seat of their opera-
tions are usually at the capital of the State or in the largest city,
and hence they are distinguished as S/aze societies.

There are some, also, which limit their collections to the records
of the church denominations of their preference. Some of them
have formed denominational libraries, and collections of ecclesias-
tical relics, manuscripts, pictures, Church journals, synodical pro-
ceedings, photographs of their clergy, histories of individual
congregations or parishes, busts of some of their distinguished
ministers, catechisms, hymn books, catalogues of their schools and
colleges, reports of their benevolent and missionary societies, all
the writings of their authors in this country, and even the old furni-
ture of the fathers of their Churches. Two of the most notable of
these denominational historical societies, embracing all and even
more of the specific subjects enumerated, which come within my
personal knowledge, are those of the Moravians at Wazareth, and
of the Lutherans at Gettysburg. There are some other Church
historical societies, but they are almost exclusively confined to the
collection of books and manuscripts.

How are historical societies in general supported? Some have

81

endowments or other property from which they draw interest
or rent—such as those of Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania,
and a few others. A few, such as Iowa, Minnesota and Wisconsin,
and probably others, have special annual grants from their State
Legislatures ; a few are provided with apartments in the State cap-
itol- rent free, which is to that extent an appropriation, but the
majority, I presume, are mainly supported by the membership fee,
with occasional special contributions.

It is natural to presume that American energy would produce im-
portant and valuable vesz/¢s from such institutions. We, as a peo-
ple, have never yet failed to bring something good out of material
capable of being manipulated. The labors which most of these
associations have performed are simply marvelous, and the good
they have achieved is worthy of all admiration. Not only have
many of them acquired by purchase, or donation, or bequest, splen-
did edifices, or, at least, most spacious and commodious buildings,
in which they have gathered libraries, pamphlets, manuscripts, rec-
ords, historical relics, museums of State antiquities and other
treasures of priceless value, and have saved from destruction histor-
ical monographs, biographies and genealogies. They have enriched
the literature of history with hundreds of volumes of useful books,
containing many rare documents, of which but few knew anything
before, but which are now open to all investigators, and many a
precious book, which the poor student could not purchase, is now
freely laid on the library table whenever he wishes to consult it.
They have ransacked old depositories, and have rescued from dust
and dampness and destruction many State and family records; they
have unearthed many buried treasures of more value than heraldic
escutcheons or baronial insignia. They have awakened an interest
in historical research before unknown, or at least not concentrated
and systematic ; they have stimulated the zeal and encouraged the
efforts of many a solitary student or obscure investigator; they
have fostered the establishment of local and county societies in vil-
lages where intelligent persons cannot attend the meetings of the
State societies.

But we dare not omit mentioning another result not less import-
ant, and that is, the formation of /adfes’ societies with the same
general purpose in view. ‘There are now eight or ten societies of
Colonial Dames in this country, and although their researches are

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143. K. PRINTED DEC. 1, 1893.

82

confined to the colonial period alone, yet they have done good ser-
vice. ‘They have not yet published the result of their studies, yet
papers have been read, and it is presumed that the public will soon
have the benefit of them. These patriotic American women are
not out of place when hunting up the musty documents of early
American history; their nimble fingers can gather the loose or tan-
gled threads of ante-Revolutionary fragments, and weave them into
beautiful historic tapestry.

But it is not only general American history that engages the dili-

gent study of many of these investigators, but there is another
branch which, of later years, has gained many ardent votaries, and
that is, family history or genealogy. Old parish records, lists of
emigrants, rolls of regiments, rosters of officers, old city directories
and almanacs, and every conceivable ancient document that can
throw a gleam of light on a family name, a disputed date, a place
of residence, a clue to title or rank, is examined with painstaking
assiduity. Those of us who have the management of historical
libraries receive numerous letters making inquiries into family
history. People from far and near want to know all about some
relative concerning whom they know little themselves, but presum-
ing that we know all about them, or can easily learnit. The
investigation of some cases would require hours of patient labor,
and to all excepting such all possible aid should be given.

I have playfully advised some of our resident investigators not to
go too far back lest they might encounter ancestors whom they
would not like to recognize, and in reply to that a bright lady from
a neighboring county observed that she found the farther back she
went the better her ancestors became, which pleased her vastly, for
she thought some of those not far behind her were no better than they
should have been. ‘There are very few who go so far asit is said Dr.
Johnson once did, although the same assertion is credited to some
others ; when he was asked about his ancestors he gruffly replied:
«« That all he knew about them was, that some of them were hung,
and the rest should have been.’’ But it is true that no one not en-
gaged in a historical library can have any conception of the number
and character of the people who are inquiring into the history of
their forefathers. One fact will show the interest which this subject
has awakened. Before the year 1845 the whole number of genea-
logical societies in New England alone was not over thirty, and
twenty years after that there were 4oo, and since that the number

Ge ee

PROCEEDINGS AM. PHIL. SOC. VOL. XXXII, No. 143.

4.
JF SACHSE\ 93.

VIEWS IN MEETING ROOM.

HUMBOLDT (cameoin.) JEFFERSON (sutty.)
WASHINGTON (stuart.) AN ANCIENT TELESCOPE.
DUFFIELD CLOCK, 1768. RITTENHOUSE CLOCK, 1755.
LAFAYETTE (Houpon.) FRANKLIN (mancont.)

FRANKLIN’S CHAIR.

83

has increased in other States also. It has been estimated that
over 400 volumes, of 300 pages each, have been published by the
various societies, and a much larger number of pamphlets and dis-
tinct family monographs.

The genealogies of not a few private families of distinction have
been privately published, some of which are sent as donations to
our libraries.

The existence of many ancient documents and relics of all other
kinds which are locked up in the closets of many private families is
shown on the occasion of public exhibitions for the benefit of some
Jaudable object. We had a notable example of this in Baltimore
during Easter week. There was a grand display of Revolutionary
relics, and yet it is presumed that not half of similar articles exist-
ing in the State was sent to that exhibition, and the same may be
said of some other States. We all remember what a collection was
exhibited in the old State House, in Philadelphia, in 1876, and I
believe all those objects were furnished by Pennsylvanians exclu-
sively.

To maintain a historical completeness in this paper, this would
be the place to notice the principal historical societies of our country.
The number of them is so large, and their history is so extensive,
that it would require a volume to describe them, so that not even a
beginning can here be made.

Adjourned.

Thursday, May 25—4 to 6 o’clock P.M. Reception by the
University of Pennsylvania at the Library Building of the
University. In the afternoon the Society and guests attended
a reception and garden party, given at Manheim Club House
by Charlemagne Tower, Esq.

84

Fripay, May 26, 1893, 11 a.m.

President Fraley introduced Capt. Rousseau D'Happoncourt,
who read a paper “On Determination of Gravity by Means of
a Pendulum Apparatus,” which is as follows:

Die Bestrebungen, die Gestalt der Erde aus den Schwerebestim-
mungen abzuleiten, sind verhaltnismiassig neu, sie geh6ren fast aus-
schliesslich unserem Jahrhunderte an. Wahrend die Gradmes-
sungen sich allmahlich innerhalb 2000 Jahren vom ersten Erkennen
der Kugelgestalt der Erde bis zum heutigen Stande der Geodasie
entwickelten, lieferten die Schwerebestimmungen gleich nach ihrem
Entstehen ein vollkommen verlassliches Beobachtungs-Materiale zur
Bestimmung der gesuchten Erdgestalt, denn es standen denselben
bereits die hochentwickelten Theorien der Geodasie hilfreich zur
Seite. :

So kommt es denn auch, dass wir heute am Schlusse desselben
Jahrhunderts, bei dem Studium iiber die Schwere auf der Erde, das
am Anfange dieses Jahrhunderts geschaffene Materiale noch ver-
wenden kénnen, ja sogar fast ausschliesslich verwenden miissen, da
ein neueres Materiale nur spiarlich vorhanden ist, und dieses nicht
immer das alte an Giite und Verlasslichkeit iibertrifft.

Wir kénnen in dem Bestreben, die Schwerebestimmungen der
Geodasie nutzbar zu machen, zwei Perioden: eine am Anfange und
eine am Ende unseres Jahrhunderts, unterscheiden. Dieselben sind
durch eine lange Pause von einander getrennt, wahrend welcher
nichts oder nur sehr wenig Brauchbares geleistet wurde.

In die erste Periode fallen jene zahlreichen vorziiglichen Schwere-:
bestimmungen, welchen wir zum gréssten Theile unser heutiges
Wissen iiber die Erdgestalt, wie dieselbe aus Schwerebestim-
mungen sich ergibt, verdanken, und welche uns auch iiber die Ver-
theilung der Schwere auf der Erde iiberhaupt Aufschluss geben.

Die Namen jener Manner, welche dieses wichtige und werthvolle
Materiale der Wissenschaft geliefert haben, sind wohl Allen ge-
laufig.

Mit den grundlegenden Arbeiten Bessel’s findet diese fruchtbare
Periode ihren, man kann sagen plétzlichen Abschluss.

Erst durch die europaische Gradmessung, jetzt internationale
Erdmessung, welche die Schwerebestimmungen in ihr Programm

PROCEEDINGS AM. PHIL. SOC. VOL. XXXII, No. 143.

KARL CHEVELIER ROUSSEAU D’HAPPONCOURT.

85

aufgenommen hat, entwickelte sich die zweite Periode dieser Arbeiten,
in welcher wir uns eben befinden.

Wenn in Europa im Anfange dieser Periode die neueren Schwere-
messungen nur wenig gute Resultate lieferten, welche jenen der
ersten Periode beziiglich der Genauigkeit nachstehen, so hatte dies
seinen Grund darin, dass man glaubte, die so verlasslichen relativen
Bestimmungen durch absolute ersetzen zu kénnen. Médgen jedoch
die absoluten Messungen noch so genau ausgefiihrt werden, immer
haften denselben mehr, und meist auch gréssere Fehler an, als den
_relativen; sie eignen sich demnach nur wenig oder gar nicht zur
Erforschung von Details; denn die unvermeidlichen Fehler der
absoluten Bestimmungen sind meist grésser, als die zu suchenden
sehr kleinen Unterschiede. Ueberdies hafteten den verwendeten
Apparaten Mangel an, durch welche die Ungenauigkeit der Resul-
tate meist in ganz unbestimmbarer Weise vergréssert wurde.

Erst 1876 hat Peirce einen der wichtigsten dieser Mangel, nim-
lich das Mitschwingen des Stativs der Pendel-Apparate erkannt,
und dem Einflusse desselben auf die Resultate Rechnung getragen.

Von dieser Zeit an war man bemiiht, entweder den Einfluss des
Stabilitats-Mangels des Pendelstatives durch anderweitige Messungen
zu ermitteln, und dieserwegen die gefundenen Resultate zu corrigi-
ren, oder, was viel natiirlicher ist, durch neue, bessere Constructi-
onen der Apparate diesen schadlichen Einfluss gianzlich zu _ beseiti-
gen.

Diese Bemiihungen kénnen bei uns als der eigentliche Beginn
der zweiten Periode angesehen werden, in welcher neuester Zeit die
relativen Schwerebestimmungen wieder den ihnen gebiihrenden
ersten Platz einzunehmen beginnen.

Im Grossen und Ganzen sind es dieselben Ziele wie friiher, die
wir auch jetzt verfolgen, namlich die Erforschung der wahren Erd-
gestalt; nur stehen uns gegenwartig viele Erfahrungen zur Seite,
die uns den Weg vorzeichnen, welchen wir zur Erreichung dieses
Zieles einzuschlagen haben.

Friiher suchte man wesentlich die Abplattung der als Ellipsoid
gedachten Erde zu bestimmen. Es hatten demnach die Messungen
den Zweck, die Constanten eines schon vorher als Erdgestalt defi-
nirten analytischen Ausdruckes zu bestimmen, Strenge genommen
geniigten hiezu selbst nur zwei Bestimmungen ; in jedem Falle war
die Aufgabe durch eine verhaltnismassig geringe Anzah! Beobach-
tungen lésbar.

86

Heute ist es nicht mehr die Abplattung allein, welche wir durch
die Schwerebestimmungen ermitteln wollen, sondern es ist wesent-
lich der Verlauf des Geoides, welchen zu erforschen wir uns zur
Aufgabe gestellt haben. Das Geoid ist jedoch eine sehr unregel-
missig verlaufende Flache, welche sich bekanntlich durch keinen
analytischen Ausdruck darstellen lasst.

Wir kénnen demnach ihren Verlauf nur dadurch kennen lernen,
dass wir die Coordinaten einer sehr grossen Anzahl von Punkten
derselben bestimmen ; und es ist daher im Gegensatze zu den friihe-
ren Bemiihungen jetzt nothwendig, auf einer mdglichst grossen
Zahl iiber die ganze Erde gleichmassig und dicht vertheilter Orte
die Intensitat der Schwerkraft kennen zu lernen.

Wieder sind es die relativen Bestimmungen, welchen der groésste
Antheil an der Lésung dieser umfangreichen Aufgabe zufallt, und
es treten die absoluten Bestimmungen immer mehr in den Hinter-
grund ; denn die Geodasie verlangt nur die Vergleichung der Inten-
sitat der Schwerkraft fiir méglichst viele Punkte der Erdoberflache,
keineswegs jedoch eine sehr grosse Genauigkeit in der Bestimmung
ihres absoluten Werthes. Wir kénnen den Werth der Beschleunig-
ung (g) der Schwere um roo Einheiten der 5. Decimale andern, ohne
dass dadurch die Resultate der Vergleichung, auf die es ankommt,
merklich afficirt werden.

Ob zwar wir daher den absoluten Werth der Schwere im Allge-
meinen schon als bekannt ansehen kédnnen, so sollen doch dieser-
wegen die Bestimmungen desselben noch nicht als abgeschlossen
betrachtet werden, umsoweniger, als die bisherigen Angaben fiir
denselben noch betrachtlich von einander abweichen. Dies zeigte
sich deutlich durch eine in neuester Zeit ausgefiihrte Untersuchung.
Es wurden namlich von Wien ausgehend, sehr genaue relative
Schwerebestimmungen auf mehreren Orten ausgefiihrt, auf denen
der absolute Werth der Schwere friiher schon bestimmt war. Die
grosse Verlasslichkeit der Resultate dieser relativen Bestimmungen
zeigte sich gelegentlich einer Wiederholung derselben, mit ver-
schiedenen Apparaten, zu verschiedenen Zeiten, und durch ver-
schiedene Beobachter, welche das gleiche Resultat ergab.

Waren die verschiedenen 2bsoluten Bestimmungen vollkommen
richtig, so miissten die von ihnen mittels der gemessenen Unter-
schiede fiir Wien, geographisches Institut, abgeleiteten Werthe alle
gleich sein.

87

Die Lange des Sekundenpendels Lw. fiir Wien, geographisches
Institut, ergibt sich jedoch aus den Bestimmungen von:

MM.

I. Peters in Berlin, 1870, mit Lw. = 993.745
2. Lorenzoni “ Padua, 1885, L == 1750
3. Anton “ Berlin, 1878, “ =e 00
AS Peters « Altona, 1869, “ — -763
5. Mahlke «© Hamburg, 1891, « =. 702
6; Peirce; « Berlin, 1876, «“ = 791
7. Bessel, « Berlin, 1835; “és = .804
8. Biot, « Padua, 1820, “ = 805
g. Sabine, « Altona, 1828, “ == .810
10. Oppolzer, ‘“ Wien, 1884, “6 = 834
(Tiirkenschanze)
It. Defforges, <‘* Paris, 1884, “ — 835
12. Orff, «© Miinchen, 1877, “ = esisy/

Wie wir sehen, zeigen die Resultate nicht unbedeutende Differen-
zen, welche von systematischen Fehlern herzuriihren scheinen.
Der Unvollkommenheit der Vergleiche der zu den absoluten
Bestimmungen verwendeten Maassstabe, diirfte ein erhelicher An-
theil an denselben zuzuschreiben sein.

Es zeigt sich demnach die Nothwendigkeit, dass dieses fast aus-
schliesslich in das Gebiet der Physik gehérende Problem, die abso-
luten Bestimmungen der Intensitat der Schwerkraft, nach méglichst
verschiedenen Methoden der Loésung zugefiihrt werde. Hiebei ist
es ganz gleichgiltig, an welchen Orten die Bestimmungen vorge-
nommen werden, da die erhaltenen Resultate stets mittels relativer
Bestimmungen untereinander scharf verglichen werden kénnen.

Mit dem Bestreben, den Verlauf der Geoidflache aus den
Schwerebestimmungen ableiten zu kénnen, ist die Lésung mancher
schwierigen Aufgaben eng verbunden.

Sowohl die Discussion der alteren Pendelbeobachtungen, als auch
die Ergebnisse neuerer Bestimmungen haben uns namlich belehrt,
dass der Verlauf der Schwerkraft auf der Erdoberflache kein regel-
massiger sei; dass sowohl lokale als auch regionale Stérungen der-
selben vorkommen und es erscheint unerlasslich, das Wesen dersel-
ben genau kennen zu lernen.

Wir kennen heute noch sehr wenig den Einfluss, welchen die
Continente und Meere, die Gebirge, Hoch- und Tiefebenen, sowie
die verschiedenen geologischen Formationen auf die Schwere aus-
iiben.

88

Die Reductionen, mittels welchen die Beobachtungen nothwen-
digerweise vergleichbar gemacht werden miissen, sind uns gleichfalls
nicht vollkommen bekannt, wenigstens weichen diesbeziiglich die
Meinungen noch sehr voneinander ab; endlich gibt es noch eine
ganze Reihe von hdéchst interressanten, doch noch unerforschten
Problemen, welche mehr in das Gebiet der Geophysik gehéren, die
jedoch gleichfalls nur durch Schwerebestimmungen gelést werden
kénnen ; so z. B. das Verhalten der Schwere beim Eindringen in
die Erde, also in den Schachten der Bergwerke, Tunnels, etc. Erst
an drei Ortlichkeiten sind iiber diese interressante Aufgabe Versuche
unternommen worden, namlich in den Bergwerken zu Harton in
England, Pribram in B6hmen, und Freiberg in Sachsen.

Wie wir sehen, ist die durch Schwerebestimmungen zu lésende
Aufgabe eine sehr grosse ; denn abgesehen von den sehr zahlreichen
iiber die ganze Erde vertheilten Beobachtungen, welche uns das
Materiale zur Bestimmung des Verlaufes der Geoidflache zu liefern
bestimmt sind, bendthigen wir auch eine grosse, nach Tausenden
zihlende Zahl meist dicht beieinander gelegener Beobachtungs-
Stationen, zur griindlichen Erforschung der mit dieser Aufgabe im
Zusammenhange stehenden Probleme.

Mit den bis vor kurzer Zeit im Gebrauche gestandenen Appara-
ten dieses Ziel zu erreichen, war aussichtslos, denn die Beobach-
tungen waren sehr miihsam und zeitraubend, daher auch sehr kost-
spielig.

Mit Hilfe des neuen Sterneck’schen Pendelapparates, der in
vielen Staaten bereits in Verwendung ist, ist es méglich, mit Aus-
sicht auf Erfolg, die Erreichung dieses Zieles anzustreben, indem
die Beobachtungen bei sehr grosser Genauigkeit wesentlich verein-
facht sind, und iiberall, auch auf schwer zuginglichen Orten leicht
ausgefiihrt werden k6nnen.

Mit demselben war es in jiingster Zeit erméglicht, dass in Oster-
reich Ungarn seitens des k. u. k. militar-geographischen Institutes
die ersten detaillirten Untersuchungen iiber das Verhalten der
Schwere in verschiedenen Terrain- und geologischen Formen aus
gefiihrt werden konnten.

Es wurden die Alpen, die Karpaten, die ungarische Tiefebene,
das Bihiar-Gebirge und noch andere interressante Ortlichkeiten mit
einer Reihe von mehreren hundert enganeinander liegenden Schwere-
stationen durchguert und hiedurch viele wichtige und interressante
Aufschliisse iiber das Verhalten der Schwere erzielt.

89

Massendefecte und Massenanhaufungen under der Erdoberflache
wurden constatirt, systematische Unterschiede der Schwere iiber
primare Formen und Sedimenten aufgefunden, etc.

Jedes einzelne verhaltnismassig leicht und schnell auf diesem
noch unerforschten Gebiete zu erwerbende Resultat ist interressant,
lehrreich und wichtig, u. z. nicht nur fiir die Geodasie, sondern
auch fiir Geophysik und Geologie; ja es kann heutzutage das Pen-
del auch als ein unerlassliches geologisches Instrument angesehen
werden.

Derartige Apparate wurden bereits in grosser Anzahl von Wien
aus nach vielen Staaten geliefert ; bei jedem einzelnen wurden die
Constanten und die Schwingungszeiten der Pendel genau ermittelt,
und zwar an jenem Orte in Wien, wo Oppolzer den absoluten
Werth der Schwere sehr genau bestimmt hat. MHiedurch ist eine
grosse Vereinheitlichung beziiglich der Angaben fiir die Schwere
angebahnt.

Gewiss wird sich binnen kurzer Zeit unser Wissen iiber diese und
abnliche Verhaltnisse klaren, umsomehr, wenn einmal, was in
nachster Zeit zu erwarten ist, in mehreren Staaten an verschiedenen
Orten ahnliche Detailstudien ausgefiihrt sein werden. Durch die-
selben werden wir erst im Stande sein das zahlreiche iiber die ganze
Erde vertheilte Beobachtungs-Materiale richtig zu verwerthen.

Dieses zu beschaffen, ist gegenwartig die wesentlichste Aufgabe.
Denn das von unseren Vorfahren ererbte Materiale, aus dem An-
fange dieses Jahrhunderts ist viel zu sparlich und nicht immer
strenge vergleichbar.

Es muss ein neues, gleichmiassig iiber die ganze Erde vertheiltes,
gleichwerthiges, Tausende von Stationen umfassendes Materiale zum
Zwecke der Erforschung der wahren Erdgestalt geschaffen werden.

Wenn auch zu hoffen is, dass bei dem regen Interresse, welches
sich gegenwirtig, nach so langer Zeit, allerorten fiir die Schwere-
messungen wieder kundgibt, auf dem Festlande bei allen Cultur-
staaten in nicht allzu langer Zeit sehr zahlreiche Messungen aus-
gefiihrt sein werden, so reprasentirt die hiedurch untersuchte Flache
doch nur einen geringen Theil der gesammten Erdoberflache. Der
weitaus grésste Theil derselben ist uns nur durch weite Reisen
zuganglich, die Ausfiihrung der Beobachtungen daher fiir den Ein-
zelnen viel zu zeitraubend und kostspielig.

In richtiger Erkenntniss dieser Verhaltnisse und stets bestrebt

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXxII. 143. L. PRINTED DEC. 1, 1893.

90

die Reisen Sr. Majestat Kriegsschiffe auch der Wissenschaft még-
lichst nutzbar zu machen, hat sich die k. u. k. Osterreichisch-unga-
rische Kriegs-Marine-Verwaltung aus eigener Initiative bewogen
gefunden, die Schwerebestimmungen in das Reise-Programm der
Kriegsschiffe aufzunehmen.

Es wurden zu diesem Zwecke zwei Sterneck’sche Pendelapparate
angeschafft und Seeoffiziere im k. u. k. militar-geographischen In-
stitute mit der Ausfiihrung der Schwerebestimmungen griindlich ver-
traut gemacht. Gegenwartig befinden sich bereits zwei Schiffe mit
completten Apparaten ausgeriistet in den ostasiatischen Gewassern,
und ist die Ausriistung eines dritten Schiffes fiir das mittellandische
Meer bereits im Zuge.

Auf zahlreichen Stationen werden Beobachtungen ausgefiihrt
werden, und lasst das grosse Interresse der Seeoffiziere an der
Sache, die gute Schulung derselben, sowie die Einfachheit des
Apparates und der Beobachtungen den besten Erfolg erhoffen.

Hiemit hat die k. u. k. Kriegs-Marine den richtigen Weg gezeigt,
auf welchem es méglish ist, in relativ kurzer Zeit das fiir die Wis-
senschaft nothwendige, reichhaltige Materiale zu beschaffen.

Mo6ge ihre Initiative auf die anderen seefahrenden Nationen an-
regend wirken, und eine baldige allgemeine Betheiligung an diesem
Unternehmen zur Folge haben. Dann kénnen wir hoffen, trotz
der vielen Schwierigkeiten doch das angestrebte schéne Ziel zu
erreichen, denn was der Einzelne nicht vermag, gelingt leicht mit
vereinten Kraften.

R. v. STERNECK, Oderstlieutenant.
WIEN, im Januar 1893.

Chevalier D’Happoncourt then read the following transla-
tion prepared by himself:

The attempts which have been made to ascertain the figure of the
earth from determinations of gravity are of comparatively recent
date, and belong almost exclusively to the present century. The
measurement of the lengths of degrees of the meridian has gradu-
ally developed itself during 2000 years, from the first discovery of
the rotundity of the earth up to the present position of the science
of geodesy, but gravity observations, from the time of their com-

ot

mencement, have supplied fairly reliable data for the determination
of the earth’s figure, for they were already assisted by the highly
developed theories of geodesy.

Thus it comes about that even now, at the close of the same cen-
tury, we can still use, for the study of gravity on the earth, the
material obtained at the beginning of this century; indeed, it is
almost all that we can use, for new material only exists to a small
extent, and this does not always exceed the old data in quality and
trustworthiness.

In the attempts to make gravity determinations useful to geodesy,
two periods are to be distinguished ; one at the beginning, and one
at the end of our century. These are separated from each other by
a long interval, during which nothing, or very little of any use,
was accomplished.

In the first period are included those numerous and excellent de-
terminations of gravity to which we owe, for the most part, our
present knowledge of the figure of the earth as indicated by grav-
ity determinations, and which also afford us information as to the
distribution of gravity over the earth generally.

The names of those men who have furnished these important and
valuable materials to science are well known to every one.

This fertile period comes, we may say, to a sudden termination
with the fundamental investigations of Bessel.

The second period of these inquiries, which brings us down to
the present time, was developed, first, by the measurement of de-
grees of the meridian in Europe, which has now become the inter-
national measurement of the earth, and has included gravity
determinations in its programme.

During the second period of these inquiries, the determinations of
gravity in Europe have yielded but few good results, inferior to those
of the first period as regards accuracy, because it was supposed that
the relative determinations which were previously employed, and
which are so trustworthy, might be replaced by absolute measure-
ments. But however accurately adso/ute measurements are carried
out, they are always affected by numerous, and for the most part
also by greater, errors than the relative ones; they are therefore but
little, if at all, suited for the investigation of details; for the un-
avoidable errors of the absolute determinations are mostly larger
than the very small differences which they are intended to ascertain.
Moreover, there exist in the apparatus employed defects by which

92

the inaccuracy of the results is increased in a way which it is gener-
ally quite impossible to determine.

In 1876, Peirce first perceived one of the most important of these
defects, viz., the oscillation of the framework of the pendulum ap-
paratus, and took that in account upon the results he obtained.

From this time it has been endeavored either to deduce the
influence of the want of stability of the pendulum framework by
further measurements, and by these means to correct the results ob-
tained, or, what is more natural, to remove altogether this injurious
effect by a better construction of the apparatus.

We may regard these efforts as the beginning of the really valu-
able work of the second period, in which ve/ative determinations of
gravity resumed the first place, which properly belongs to them.

On the whole, we still pursue the same object as before, viz., the
investigation of the true figure of the earth, but we have now the
advantage of much experience which indicates to us the line that
we should follow for the attainment of the object in view.

Formerly, we really endeavored to determine the difference be-
tween the longest and shortest diameters of the earth, which was
considered to be an ellipsoid. Accordingly the object of the meas-
urements was to determine the constants of an analytical expression,
previously defined as the figure of the earth. Theoretically speak-
ing, two determinations were quite sufficient for this purpose; and
in any case the problem could -be solved by a relatively limited
number of observations.

At the present day it is not only the oblateness that we wish to
deduce by determinations of gravity, but it is really the shape of the
geoid which we have set ourselves the task of investigating. The
geoid is, however, a surface which is very irregular in shape, and
which we know will not admit of representation by any analytical
expression.

Thus we can only ascertain its course by the determination of the
coérdinates of a very large number of points; and it is therefore
now necessary, contrary to former efforts, to ascertain the intensity
of the force of gravity at as great a number of places as possible,
uniformly and closely arranged over the whole earth.

It is, again, the relative determinations to which the greatest
share in the solution of this comprehensive problem falls, and the
absolute determinations continually recede into the background ; for
geodesy requires only the comparison of the intensity of the force

93

of gravity at as many points of the earth’s surface as possible, but
in no wise very great accuracy in the determination of their abso-
lute value. We may change the value of the acceleration (g) of
gravity by 1oo units of the fifth decimal, without thereby percep-
tibly affecting the results of the comparison on which it depends.

Although, therefore, we may regard the absolute value of gravity
in general as already known, yet we must not on this account con-
sider its determination as definitely set at rest, especially as the re-
sults hitherto obtained still differ considerably from each other.
This is clearly shown by the following investigation, carried out
quite recently. Starting from Vienna, very accurate relative deter-
minations of gravity were carried out at many stations at which
the absolute value had been already previously determined.

The thorough trustworthiness of the results of these relative de-
terminations was proved on the occasion of their repetition with
different apparatus, at different times, and by different observers,
which led to the same result.

If the various absolute determinations had been perfectly correct,
the results deduced from them by means of the differences deter-
mined for Vienna Geographical Institute must all be the same.

The results are as follows, expressed in the lengths of the seconds
pendulum L.W., for Vienna Geographical Institute, as deduced
from absolute determinations by

MM.
I. Peters in Berlin, 1870, L.W. = 993-745
2. Lorenzoni “ Padua, 1885, coc = 750
3. Anton « Berlin, 1878, 6. Fh 2.60
4. Peters « Altona, 1869, 668 | 9 = .763
5: Mahlke « Hamburg, 1891, CONE MR ko
6. Peirce « Berlin, 1876, a -791
7. Bessel « Berlin, 1835, a .804
8. Biot « Padua, 1820, 5c 805,
g. Sabine « Altona, 1828, a .810
Io. Oppolzer < Vienna, 1884, ip OBA:
(Tiirkenschanze)
11. Defforges < Paris, 1884, te a 835
12. Orff «¢ Munich, 1877, rete Rey

As we see, the results exhibit some important differences, which
appear to be attributable to systematic errors. We may put down
some of them to imperfection of the comparisons of the scales used
for the absolute determinations.

94

This shows the necessity of referring this problem, viz., the adso-
Jute determination of the intensity of the force of gravity, which
belongs almost exclusively to the domain of physics, to as many
different methods of solution as possible. For this purpose it does |
not matter at which places the determinations are made, as the
results obtained can always be closely compared with each other
by means of relative determinations.

The solution of many difficult problems is closely connected
with the endeavor to ascertain the form of the geoid surface by
means of gravity determinations.

The discussion of the older pendulum observations, as well as the
results of more recent determinations, have taught us that the distri-
bution of the force of gravity on the surface of the earth is not
regular, but that local and regional disturbances occur, and it ap-
pears indispensable to ascertain their nature accurately.

Even at the present time we know little about the influence
which. the continents and seas, the mountains, plateaus and low
plains, as wellas the various geological formations, exert upon gravity.

The reductions which must necessarily be applied to the obser-
vations, in order to make them comparable with each other, are
not thoroughly understood ; at least, opinions about them still dif-
fer considerably. Jastly, there is still a whole series of highly in-
teresting but yet unexamined problems, which belong more to the
domain of terrestrial physics, but which can also only be solved by
determinations of gravity; so, for instance, the behavior of gravity
beneath the surface of the earth, such as in the shafts of mines, in
tunnels, etc. Experiments have been undertaken in this interest-
ing problem in only three localities in Europe, viz., in the mines
at Harton in England, Pribram in Bohemia, and Freiberg in
Saxony.

As we see, the problem to be solved by determinations of gravity
is a very serious one; for, apart from the very numerous observa-
tions distributed over the whole earth which are available for fur-
nishing materials for the determination of the form of the surface
of the geoid, we require for the thorough investigation of the prob-
lems in connection with this subject, a large number of observing
stations, amounting to thousands, and in close proximity to each
other. It was impracticable to attain this end with the apparatus
in use up to ashort time ago, for the observations were very trouble-
some, and required much time, and were consequently costly.

95

By the help of Sterneck’s new pendulum apparatus, which is
already in use in many countries, it is possible to aspire to the
attainment of this object with a prospect of success, as observations
are materially simplified and yet possess very great accuracy and
can be easily made everywhere, even at places which are difficult of
access.

With this apparatus it was practicable, quite recently, for the
Vienna Military-Geographical Institute to carry out in Austro-
Hungary the first detailed investigations on the distribution of
gravity in various soils and geological formations.

A series of several hundred closely connected gravity stations
was established in the Alps, the Carpathians, the Hungarian low-
lands, the Bihar mountains, and other interesting localities, and
by this means many important and interesting results relating to
the distribution of gravity were obtained.

The existence both of deficiency and of excess of mass beneath
the surface of the earth was proved; systematic differences of gray-
ity over primary formations and sedimentary deposits were discov-
ered, etc.

Every individual result which is relatively easily and quickly
obtainable in this yet unexplored domain is interesting, instructive
and important, not only as regards geodesy, but also for terrestrial
physics and geology; in fact, the pendulum may, at the present
day, be regarded as an indispensable geological instrument.

Instruments of this pattern are already supplied in great numbers
from Vienna to several countries; the constants of each, and the
vibration times of the pendulums, are accurately determined at the
place, in Vienna, where Oppolzer has very accurately determined
the absolute value of gravity. By this means, a great uniformity
of results is effected.

Within a short time, our knowledge of these and similar condi-
tions will certainly be more definite if similar detailed experiments
are carried out at different places in several countries, which may
shortly be expected. By these means we shall, for the first time,
be in a position to utilize properly the numerous data distributed
over the whole earth.

This is the most essential task at the present day; for the mate-
rials inherited from our predecessors since the commencement of
the present century are far too scanty and are not always strictly
comparable with each other.

96

For the purpose of determining the true figure of the earth, we
must obtain a mass of new material of uniform character, uniformly
distributed over the whole earth, and representing thousands of
stations.

If, as it is to be hoped—owing to the keen interest which, after
so great a lapse of time, is again exhibited on all sides with regard
to determinations of gravity—very numerous measurements are
undertaken at no very distant period by all civilized countries on
the continent of Europe, the area thus investigated only represents
a small portion of the whole surface of the globe. By far the
greatest part of the globe is only accessible by distant voyages, and
the execution of the observations by means of private persons
would take too much time and money.”

The Austro-Hungarian Admiralty has always had a true percep-
tion of the circumstances above mentioned, and has taken the
initiative by including observations of gravity among the duties to
be performed by ships at foreign stations, in order to make the
voyages of the ships belonging to their navy as useful to science as
possible. For this purpose two of Sterneck’s pendulum instru-
ments have been procured, and the officers of the navy have been
made thoroughly familiar, at the Vienna Military Geographical In-
stitute, with the carrying out of gravity determinations. At the
present time, there are already two ships in the China seas which
are furnished with complete apparatus, and the equipment of a
third vessel for the Mediterranean is already in progress.

Observations will be taken at numerous stations, and we may
fairly hope for very good results, from the great interest the officers
have taken in the subject and their good education, as well as from
the simplicity of the apparatus and of the observations themselves.

The Ministry of Marine has thus shown the right way by which it
is possible to secure for science, in a relatively short space of time,
a copious amount of necessary data.

I may, in conclusion, express the hope that their initiative may
stir up other maritime powers and result in a speedy, general par-
ticipation in this undertaking. We may then hope that, in spite of
the many difficulties, the important object in view may soon be
attained ; for what individuals cannot do may be easily accom-
plished by united forces,

(Signed) R. v. STERNECK, Oberst Lieutenant.

VIENNA, January, 1893.

ai

President Fraley next introduced Dr. Isaac Roberts, who
addressed the Society as follows:

IT am delegated by the Royat Astronomical Society of England to
convey to you their hearty good wishes on this anniversary of your
Society, and hope that your career in the future will be even more
prosperous than in the past.

I have brought with me a few specimens of the work that has been
done in England, so that those present at the meeting may have an
opportunity of judging somewhat of the way in which we work there.
The subject involves a series of photographs, and the most convenient
place for exhibiting them happens to be at the back of this room ; it is
therefore probable that the audience will desire to turn their backs on
you, Mr. President, for a while, so that they may see on the photo-
graphs the references which I may have to make, and, with your
permission, I shall have to be within reach of the photographs so
that I may point them out.

My remarks may be entitled, ‘‘ Illustrations of Progress Made
During Recent Years in Astronomical Science.’’ Iam rather at a
disadvantage in not knowing to what extent the field of astronomical
science has been exhibited to you at the meetings which have pre-
ceded this one, and I therefore feel the risk that I incur of repeating
much of what may have been already laid before you in form and
substance better than I can submit it. I shall, therefore, assume
that reference to the progress made in astronomical science between
the time of the foundation of this Society and about the year 1850
may by me be omitted.

The selection of the year 1850 as the time for the commencement
of my narrative will be appreciated, because it was in that year that
your illustrious countryman, George P. Bond, produced with the
fifteen-inch Harvard refractor, a very successful photograph of the
moon, which was exhibited at the great Exhibition in London, in
1851. Another of your illustrious countrymen, Dr. J. W. Draper,
of New York, had, as early as the year 1840, taken photographs of
the moon, and in the subsequent year he succeeded in the appli-
cation of the photographic method to the delineation of the solar
spectrum. Bond also, in 1850, photographed, with the fifteen-inch
Harvard refractor, the bright stars Castor and Vega, and, in 1857,
initiated the photography of double stars.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXxII. 148. M. PRINTED DEC. 14, 1893.

98

Of course, in England and in France, celestial photography was
successfully carried on concurrently with similar work in America,
and it would be difficult to assign a sharp line of demarcation which
would place any one of these countries far in advance of the others
in the keen but noble efforts to enlarge the boundaries of knowledge
by the application of the newly-discovered powers of photography.
Warren De la Rue, in England, in 1853, produced excellent photo-
graphs of the moon, and, in 1858, instituted the method of photo-
graphing sun spots, which was effected continuously until 1872. In
France, Foucault and Fizeau also photographed the sun, in 1845 ;
and in America, Rutherford, in 1864, made an important step in
advance by the construction of a telescope with an objective of
eleven and a half inches aperture, corrected, not for visual observa-
tion, but exclusively for photographic work. This was improved, in
the year 1885, by the brothers Henry, of Paris, who constructed a
photo-telescope of thirteen inches aperture, and with it succeeded
in photographing stars of the sixteenth magnitude, in May, of that
year ; and it so happened that I also had a reflecting telescope made,
having an aperture of twenty inches, with which I commenced, in
May, 1885, to chart the stars in the Northern hemisphere of the sky
on a scale about double that adopted by Argelander. But Dr. Gill,
the Director of the Cape Observatory, and the late Admiral
Mouchez, Director of the Paris Observatory, proposed and admir-
ably carried into execution a scheme of charting the stars by photo-
graphic instruments of identical aperture, focal length and chro-
matic corrections as those adopted in the Paris instrument made by
the Henrys. ‘There are now eighteen of those telescopes in obser-
vatories, situated in different parts of the world, regularly engaged
in taking photographs of the sky, so as to produce a great chart of
all the stars down to the fourteenth magnitude. Therefore, the
charting which I had commenced is superseded by a more efficient
method, and my twenty-inch reflector, practically, is turned to use
in photographing nebule and clusters of stars, an employment for
which it is better adapted than the thirteen-inch photo-refractors
used in the charting.

The merits of the reflector in photographing faint stars and faint
nebulosity was pointed out by Dr. Common, in England, in the
year 1883, and my experience since fully confirms his. I must not
here attempt even a cursory description of the great work done dur-
ing recent years in the photographing of solar, stellar and nebular

ERRATA in the Orientation and Order of the Plates,

PLATES L., iv., viil., ix., Xi., Xii., xiii. /Vor¢’ point at the bottom ; Soz¢/ at the top;
West to the left hand; £as¢ to the righthand. This corresponds to the
orientation of the object as viewed in an astronomical telescope.

PLATES y., vi., x.—JVorth point at top; Sow at bottom; Las¢ to the left hand;
West to the right hand. ;

PLATE ii.—for M 13 Herculis read M 15 Pegasi. Vorth point is midway
between bottom and left hand; Sow/i midway between top and right
hand; Vest between top and left hand; Las¢ between bottom and
right hand.

PLATE iji.— for M 15 Pegasi read M 13 Herculis. orth point is at right-hand
side; South at the left hand; West at the bottom; /as¢ at the top.

PLATE viil.—/Vorth point is midway between bottom and left-hand side; Sozth
between top and right hand; Wes¢ between top and left hand; Zas¢
between bottom and right hand.

T * f * »y Ay
rent ite rn tt are

, a

ex

4
re we tr,

ory rh

Proceedings Amer, Philos, Soc, Vol XXXII; No, 143,

Plate I (Roberts).

Proceedings Amer. Philos, Soc, Vol. XXXII, No, 148,

M. No. 18, HERCULIS.

Plate II (Roberts).

Se)

spectra. The field is too extensive and the ardent workers too
numerous for inclusion in this brief statement. I shall, therefore,
as the representative of the Royal Astronomical Society of England,
introduce to your notice a selection of thirteen photographs, which
are copies of some which have been presented to the Society and
described at the meetings of the Fellows at various times during the
past’ seven years, and I may be permitted to add, that they represent
the fullest information we yet possess concerning the objects they
portray.

The first (Pl. i.) is a photograph of the stars in the Milky Way
in Cygnus. When you examine it closely, you will find it is almost
covered with stars, not one of them visible to the sight without the
aid of the telescope, many of them invisible even with powerful
telescopes. ‘This is an area of the sky that would be covered by one
of your smallest silver coins, held between the finger and thumb, at
arm’s length, between the eye and the sky; the area of sky covered
by such a piece would be about equal to what this photograph rep-
resents. The centre of the photograph is in R..A. 19 h. 45 m.,
decl. N. 35 deg. 30 m., and covers a sky area of about 2 deg. 3 m.
by 1 deg. 45 m. It has been enlarged from the negative to a scale
of 26 seconds of arc to 1 millimeter, and was taken with the
twenty-inch reflector, on August 14, 1887, with an exposure of sixty
minutes. A photograph comparable with this, was taken by the
brothers Henry, in Paris, in August, 1885, with the thirteen-inch
photo-refractor, and was one of the early marvels of celestial pho-
tography. It showed about 3000 stars on the sky area just described,
but the photograph taken with my twenty-inch reflector, and now
exhibited, shows no less than 16,000 stars on the same coincident
area of the sky. Allowing for difference in aperture between the
two telescopes, there is still a wide margin in favor of the reflector
for this kind of work.

The next photograph (PI. ii.) is known as M. 15, in the constel-
laioneeeseasus, im ho Aare 25 m...decl. N..rr deg).4n m...-The
scale is 6 seconds of arc to t millimeter, and the field is 18 minutes
of arc indiameter. The photograph was taken with the twenty-inch
reflector, on November 4, 1890, with an exposure of two hours, and
shows a fine example of a globular cluster, but the written descrip-
tions of it, from eye observations, do it scant justice, and there are
no drawings available for comparison. The photograph shows the
central part of the cluster to be involved in nebulosity, as is also

100

the case with other globular clusters. Surrounding the cluster are
curves and festoons of stars, which is a characteristic of these objects.
Eye observations do not reveal the existence of the involved nebu-
losity which, on the plate, is sufficiently dense to obscure the stars,
though they are visible through the nebulosity on the negative.

The next photograph (PI. ii.) is of the cluster known as M. 13,
in the constellation Hercules, and isin R. A. 16 h. 38 m., decl. N.
36 deg. 39 m. The scale is 6 seconds of arc to 1 millimeter, and the
field or circle is r8 minutes of arc in diameter. The photograph
was taken with the twenty-inch reflector and an exposure of one hour,
on May 22, 1887, and delineates one of the finest globular clusters
in the heavens, containing thousands of «tars densely packed
together at the centre and with curvilinear streams of stars radiating
from it. Lord Rosse detected three dark lanes or rifts in its interior,
forming something like the letter Y, which is distinctly shown on
the photograph and more strikingly visible on the negative. No
drawing can possibly do justice to an object like this, which is por-
trayed by photography in one hour. Moreover, it shows the cluster
involved in nebulosity obscuring the stars at the centre, a fact which
observers had hitherto failed to perceive.

The next photograph (Pl. iv.) is known as Herschel VI., No. 33
and No. 34, in Perseus, having R. A. 2h. 11 m., decl. N. 56 deg.
38m. The scale is 24 seconds of arc to 1 millimeter, and the pho-
tograph covers the sky area of 1 deg. 54m. by 1 deg. 38m. It
was taken with the twenty-inch reflector, on January 13, 1890, with
an exposure of three hours. These gorgeous clusters, in the sword-
hand of Perseus, reveal one of the most brilliant objects in the
heavens. ‘To chart their component stars by eye observations and
measurements would be an exceedingly protracted task, and even
then it would only be imperfectly done. The photograph gives a
perfectly accurate picture of these thousands of stars in a very short
time, the relative position and magnitude of each one being cor-
rectly delineated, so as to form a reliable basis for future investiga-
tion concerning their variability and relative movements.

Next (Pl. v.) is a photograph of the ring nebula, M. 57 Lyre.
It isin R. A. 18 h:-49'm., decl-N. 32 deg. 52 m. The sealegaee
seconds of arc to 1 millimeter, and the diameter of the field is 12
minutes of arc. The photograph was taken July 27, 1891, with the
twenty-inch reflector and an exposure of thirty minutes. The
nebula is the best known and brightest of the class of annular

Proceedings Amer, Philos, Soc Vol, XXXII; No. 148

CraB NEBuL&, M. 1, Tauri.

Plate VI (Roberts).

Proceedings Amer. Philos, Soc, Vol, XXXII) No, 148,

SprraL Nesuna, M. No. 51, Canum.

Plate VIT (Roberts).

Proceedings Amer, Philos, Soc, Vol, XXXII, No, 148,

NEBULA IN Ursa Masor.

Plate VIII (Roberts).

Proceedings Amer, Philos, Soc, Vol. XXXII, No. 143,

CiLusTER M, 15, PEGASI.

Plate III (Roberts).

Proceedings Amer, Philos, Soc, Vol, XXXIL, No. 149,

HERSCHEL VI, Nos. 33 anp 34.

Plate IV (Roberts).

a4 +R rane r
cote rt,

Proceedings Amer, Philos, Soc Vol. XXKI, No. 143,

Rine Nesuna, M. 57, Lyra.

Plate V (Roberts).

101

nebulz, and the photograph confirms in general outline the obser-
vations of Herschel and Lord Rosse, but there is no indication of
the filamentous projections shown on one of the drawings. On the
other hand, the central star inside the ring is conspicuous on the
photograph though not shown on the drawings.

The next photograph (Pl. vi.) is that of the crab nebula, M. 1,
in the constellation Taurus. This nebula isin R. A. 5 h. 28 m.,
decl. N. 21 deg. 57m. ‘The scale is 8 seconds of arc to 1 millime-
ter, and the field is 24 minutes of arc in diameter. The photo-
graph was taken with the twenty-inch reflector, on February 2, 1892,
and an exposure of three hours. In Lord Rosse’s drawing, which
is familiar as a popular illustration, the nebula somewhat resembles
a pineapple, with hair-like appendages ; but the photograph shows
it to be irregular, oval in outline, with a deep indentation on the
following side, and immediately opposite to this is a protuberance
of faint nebulosity. The nebula, generally, is very bright and
granular in structure, with patches of unequal density involved, and
the outer margin is faint and ill-defined.

Next is the photograph (Pl. vii.) of the spiral nebula, M. 51
Canum. This nebula isin R. A. 13 h. 25 m., decl. N. 47 deg. 45
m. ‘The scale is 8 seconds of arc to 1 millimeter, and the field is
24 minutes of arc in diameter. It was taken with the twenty-inch
reflector, April 28, 1889, with an exposure of four hours. This
nebula is the most striking of the spiral form, and the published
drawings of it by Lassell and Lord Rosse are, perhaps, the best
known and in outline are in fair agreement with the photographs.
Both the drawings, however, fail to give an adequate idea of the
real structure of this remarkable object, which is here correctly
depicted for the first time. The stars and condensed patches of
nebulosity follow closely all the whorls of the nebula, and are strik-
ingly seen on the photograph, though only imperfectly shown on
the drawings.

Next is the photograph (PI. viii.) of the nebulae, M. 81, 82, and
a nebulous star in Ursa Major, with centre in R. A. 9h. 46 m.,
decl. N. 69 deg. 39 m. The area of the sky included is about 1
deg. 16m. by 1 deg. 4 m. The scale is 16 seconds of arc to 1
millimeter. The photograph was taken with the twenty-inch
reflector, March 31, 1889, with an exposure of three hours and
thirty minutes. The nebula south is M. 81, which is on this pho-
tograph shown for the first time to be a spiral with a dense nucleus.

102

The nebula on the north is M. 82, and appears as a bright ray,
due to its being viewed edgewise from our position on the earth.
A nebulous star is also visible on the south, near the edge of the
plate.

Next is the photograph (Pl. ix.) of the dumb-bell nebula in Vul-
pecula, -Jt is in R.A. 19 h. 255. m.,.decl. N.. 22 dep /2eanuaaaan
covers a sky area of 1 deg. 26 m. by 1 deg. 13m. ‘The scale is 18
seconds of arc to 1 millimeter. It was taken with the twenty-inch
reflector, on October 3, 1888, with an exposure of three hours.
The drawings of the nebula by Herschel and Lord Rosse are famil-
iar as illustrations in text-books, but when they are compared with
the photograph they fail to show the outlines and details which it
reveals. The brighter part is not shown in the shape of a dumb-
bell, strictly, but as a vast, globular mass, surrounded by a wide,
nebulous ring, which is seen as a projection at both sides and
encroaching on the globular mass, which is also broken up into
flocculent patches.

Next is the photograph (Pl. x.) of the nebule in the Pleiades.
The sky area shown is 1 deg. 26 m. by 1 deg. 13 m., on a scale of
18 seconds of arc to 1 millimeter. The photograph was taken with
the twenty-inch reflector, December 8, 1888, with an exposure of
four hours. ‘The stars visible to the eye in the Pleiades are five in
number, and in 1859 Tempel discovered that the star MWerope was
involved in faint nebulosity. Some further traces of nebulous light
in the group were suspected in a vague, indefinite way, by Weiss
and other observers using large telescopes. In 1885, the Henrys
obtained a photograph which showed a trace of nebulosity near
three of the bright stars ; namely, three streamers across MWerope,
and a little projection from AZaza, also a horn-like projection from
Lilectra. My first photograph—taken in December, 1886, with
three hours’ exposure—proved the existence of extensive nebulous
patches and streamers scattered over the whole group and probably
forming parts of one vast nebula. The present photograph exhibits
these features as far as they are at present known.

Next are two photographs (Pls. xi. and xii.) of the great nebula
in Orion. ‘The sky area covered is 1 deg. 16 m. by 1 deg. 4 m., on
a scale of 16 seconds of arc to 1 millimeter. Pl. xi. was taken with
the twenty-inch reflector, December 24, 1888, with an exposure of
eighty-one minutes. ‘The other (PI. xii.), with an exposure of three
hours and twenty-five minutes, was taken on February 4, 1889,

Proceedings Amer, Philos, Soc, Vol, XXKII, No, 143,

DUMBBELL NEBULA M. 27, VULPECUL.

Plate IX (Roberts)

Proceedings Amer, Philos Soc, Vol, XXXII, No, 148,

NEBUL& IN THE PLEIADES.

Plate X (Roberts).

ay
Byes

eet

+h
z,
4

i
i

“ae

Proceedings Amer. Philos, Soc Vol, XXXII, Wo. 149,

GREAT NEBULA IN ORION.

Plate XI (Roberts).

‘
add ip eny rt 5, ee <

oo Heer 7) ORR een epee alam | ef cet cd

Proceedings Amer, Philos, Soc, Vol, XXXII; No. 443,

GREAT NEBULZ IN ORr0N.

Plate XIT (Roberts).

ee
+

Tes Ree che Fae

atten

“ee

a

Proceedings Amer, Philos, Soc. Vol, XXXII, No, 143,

GREAT NEBULA IN ANDROMEDA.

Plate XIII (Roberts).

»

SER SA ern Ae ernie ma

or Bite at

103

shows the structure and details of the central nebulosity with greater
clearness than the first. ‘The second shows vastly more extensive
nebulosity than the first, but the central part is too dense on the
negative to print on the paper enlargement. ‘The stars and all
details of the central nebulosity are, nevertheless, clearly visible on
the negative. These two photographs, when correlated with each
other, show the great nebula more completely and truly than it was
previously known; and, though many drawings have been made and
ably discussed by Prof. Holden in his elaborate monograph on the
Orion nebula, they only show how utterly untrustworthy eye obser-
vations are. ‘The first photograph of this object was obtained by
Dr. Draper, in 1880, with an eleven-inch refractor, his best one
being obtained in March, 1882, with an exposure of 137 minutes.
The next advance was by Dr. Common, in 1883, with his three-
foot reflector and an exposure of 37 minutes. ‘This, in turn, has
been much distanced by the present photograph, which shows an
enormous extension of nebulosity and much delicate detail not
before seen.

On the photograph of the great nebula in Andromeda (PI. xiil.),
the sky area covered is 1 deg. 54 m. by 1 deg. 38 m., on a scale of
24 seconds of arc to 1 millimeter, and was taken with the twenty-
inch reflector, December 29, 1888, with an exposure of four hours.
The nebula is one of the largest in the heavens, and has been known
ever since the invention of the telescope as a long, oval nebulosity,
ill-defined at the margin. Bond, in 1847, and Trouvelot, later,
with the fifteen-inch Harvard refractor, detected two large, longi-
tudinal rifts on one side of it. No advance was made beyond this
until my photograph, taken on October ro, 1887, revealed its true
form for the first time. The nebula is shown to be symmetrically
oval and encompassed by elliptical rings, separated by dark divi-
sions extending completely around it. ‘There are a great many stars
involved, apparently, in the nebula, which the photograph shows in
their true relative positions, together with the structure and details
of the nebulosity.

In conclusion, I shall only be uttering a truism when I say that
we are yet only at the threshold of knowledge of the stellar universe,
though the progress made during the past ten years encourages us
to hope that ere the Two Hundredth Anniversary of the Philosoph-
ical Society of Philadelphia shall be held much will be known con-
cerning the movements of the solar system in space, the general drift

104

of the stars, the changes in star clusters and in nebule, together
with solutions more or less complete of many other questions that
are now obscure to us. The material which we are now laboriously
accumulating will then be available in reliable form to unravel the
knowledge that is now beyond our grasp.

May I ask you, Mr. President, to accept these photographs for the
library of the American Philosophical Society, with the best wishes
of the Royal Astronomical Society of England; and, if you can
make them available to those who are teaching the science among
you, so that they may be able to make, say, lantern slides for lecture
illustrations from them, they are entirely at your service, subject
only to such restrictions as you and the Council may choose to
exercise.

PRESIDENT FRALEY: I accept them on behalf of and with the
thanks of the American Philosophical Society.

_ Prof. George F. Barker next read to the Society a paper on
“ Hlectrical Progress since 1743.”

Mr. President and Gentlemen :—I take great pleasure in respond-
ing to the invitation of the Committee of Arrangements to prepare
for the Sesquicentennial Anniversary of the American Philosophi-
cal Society a paper upon the development of electrical science since
1743, with especial reference to the part taken in this development
by the members of this Society.

Surrounded as we are to-day with the numberless applications
which have been made of electricity to the wants of man, it is not
easy to go back one hundred and fifty years and to realize the
actual condition of the science of electricity at that early date. It
is true that Gilbert had already shown, in his remarkable book, De
Magnete, published in 1600,* that “not only amber and agate
attract small bodies, but diamond, sapphire, carbuncle, opal, ame-
thyst, Bristol gem, beryl, crystal, glass, glass of antimony, spar of
various kinds, sulphur, mastic and sealing wax’’ do so also. He
had already invented the words, “electricity ’’ and “< electriealeny
and had differentiated between electric and magnetic forces by

* De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus et de Magno magnete tellwre, Londini, Anno MDC.

PROCEEDINGS AM. PHIL. SOC. VOL. XXXII, No. 143.

VIEWS IN THE LIBRARY.
FRANKLIN (Houpon )

105

showing that the electric force attracts all light bodies while the
magnetic force attracts iron only. If, now, to these observations
of Gilbert we add those of Von Guericke, in 1672,* that electrical
repulsion exists as well as attraction ; of Boyle, the same year,} that
the attraction between the electrified body and the light body is
mutual; and that of Newton, in 1675,f, that the electric action
will pass through glass, we have before us an epitome of electric
science at the close of the seventeenth century.

But the era of activity had begun. The light and sound of the
electric spark were observed as early as 1708, by Wall,§ and their
resemblance to lightning suggested. Hawksbee noticed, in 1709,||
the light which is produced when mercury is shaken in a glass tube,
and had improved on the electrical machine of Von Guericke by
using a globe of glass in place of one of sulphur. Gray, in 1729,9/
discovered the property of conduction, and divided bodies into
electrics per se and non-electrics or conductors. Dufay discovered,
in 1733, ‘‘that there are two kinds of electricity, very different
from one another; one of which I call vitreous, the other vesznous,
electricity. The characteristic of these two electricities is that
they repel themselves and attract each other.’’ **

This, then, constituted substantially the whole of the electrical
- knowledge of the world when the American Philosophical Society
was established. Franklin, himself, took up the subject a few years
later. He tells us that, ‘‘in 1746, being at Boston, I met there
with a Dr. Spence, who was lately arrived from Scotland, and
showed me some electrical experiments. They were imperfectly
performed, as he was not very expert; but, being on a subject quite
new to me, they equally surprised and pleased me. Soon after my
return to Philadelphia, our library company received from Mr. Peter
Collinson, F.R.S., of London, a present of a glass tube, with some
account of the use of it in making such experiments. I eagerly
seized the opportunity of repeating what I had seen at Boston,
and, by much practice, acquired great readiness in performing

* Experimenta Magdeburgica, Amsterdam, 1672, lib. iv, ¢. 15.

+ Boyle’s Works, Vol. iv, p. 352 (edition of 1772, published in London in six volumes).

{ Philosophical Transactions, 1675. Wiedemann, ‘‘ Lehre von der Electricifdt,” Vol. i,
p. 4, 1882.

2 Phil. Trans., v, 409, 1708.

|| Physico-mechanical Experiments, 1709.

{ Phil. Trans., vii, 449, 1727.

** Mémoires de V Academie des Sciences, 1738, p. 457.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS, SOC. XXXII. 143. N. PRINTED DEC. 14, 1893.

106

those also which we had an account of from England, adding a
number of new ones. I say much practice, for my house was con-
tinually full for some time with persons who came to see these new
wonders. ‘To divide a little this incumbrance among my friends,
I caused a number of similar tubes to be blown in our glass house,
with which they furnished themselves, so that we had, at length,
several performers. Among these, the principal was Mr. Kinnersly,
an ingenious neighbor, who, being out of business, I encouraged to
undertake showing the experiments for money, and drew up for
him two lectures in which the experiments were ranged in such
order and accompanied with explanations in such method as that
the foregoing should assist in comprehending the following. He
procured an elegant apparatus for this purpose, in which all the
little machines that I had roughly made for myself were neatly
formed by instrument makers.’’* He continues: ‘‘ Obliged as we
were to Mr. Collinson for the present of the tube, etc., I thought
it right he should be informed of our success in using it, and wrote
him several letters containing accounts of our experiments.’’
Franklin’s first letter to Collinson is dated July 11, 1747. In it
he says: ‘* We rub our tubes with buckskin and observe always to
keep the same side to the tube and never to sully the tube by hand-
ling; thus they work readily and easily, without the least fatigue,
especially if kept in tight pasteboard cases, lined with flannel and
fitting close to the tube.’’ In a footnote he adds, ‘‘ Our tubes are
made here of green glass, 27 or 30 inches long, as big as can be
grasped.”’

* Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Benjamin Franklin, LL.D., F.R.S. Written by
himself to a late period and continued to the time of his death by his grandson, William
Temple Franklin. Third edition, in six yolumes. London, 1818. Vol. i, p. 237.

+ New Experiments and Observations on Electricity, made at Philadelphia, in America,
by Benjamin Franklin, LL.D and F.R.S. London, 1769. Franklin himself says of these
letters: ‘‘ Mr. Collinson gave them to Cave for publication in his Gentlemen's Magazine ;
but he chose to print them separately in a pamphlet and Dr. Fothergill wrote the Preface.”’
In this Preface Dr. Fothergill says : ‘‘ The experiments which our author relates are most
of them peculiar to himself; they are conducted with judgment and the inferences from
them plain and conclusive ; though sometimes proposed under the terms of suppositions
and conjectures. ....

‘“‘ He exhibits to our consideration an invisible, subtle matter, disseminated through all
nature in various proportions equally unobserved, and, whilst all those bodies to which it
peculiarly adheres are alike charged with it, inoffensive.

‘He shows, however, that if an unequal distribution is by any means brought about;
if there is a coaceryation in one part of space, a less proportion, vacuity or want in
another; by the near approach of a body capable of conducting the coacervated part to
the emptier space, it becomes, perhaps, the most formidable and irresistible agent in the

universe. Animals are in an instant struck breathless, bodies almost impervious by any
force yet known are perforated, and metals fused by it in a moment.”

107

The precise form of the electrical machine used by Franklin ap-
pears to be a matter of some doubt. Parts of several machines are
known, all reputed to have belonged to Franklin. ‘Three or four
quite similar frames are in existence, all provided with multiplying
wheels for giving rotation to the electric used, which was mounted
upon an axis placed above the wheel. One of these frames is in
possession of the Franklin Institute, another is owned by the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, and a third is in the physical cabinet of
the College of New Jersey, at Princeton. In only the first of these,
however, is the electrical portion preserved. The electric isa glass
globe, having a leather cushion for its rubber and provided with a
curved rod for the collector. Moreover, these frames or stands all
resemble very closely that which is described and figured as ‘‘ the
cylindrical machine as constructed by Franklin,’’? in Snow Harris’
Frictional Electricity.* But, as shown, this latter machine is pro-
vided with a cylinder as the electric, and not a globe. Again, in
January, 1879, Miss Mary D. Fox presented to the University of
Pennsylvania several pieces of electrical apparatus, said to have be-
longed to Franklin, and to have been deposited at the house of her
father, George Fox, at Champlost, to whom they were bequeathed
by William Temple Franklin, the grandson of Benjamin Franklin,
together with many of his valuable papers, now in possession of the
American Philosophical Society.t One of these pieces of apparatus
I have the pleasure of exhibiting. It is evidently the collector (or
prime conductor, as it was formerly called) of an electrical ma-
chine; and, as is evident from its construction, could have been
used only with a machine provided with a plate electric.

In the earliest electrical machine, made in 1672 by Von Guer-
icke, the electric consisted of a globe of sulphur, mounted on a
horizontal axis and rubbed with the hand. In 1709, Hawksbee
replaced the sulphur globe by one of glass. Franklin, in his first
letter to Collinson, thus speaks of his electrical machine: ‘‘ Our
spheres are fixed on iron axes which pass through them. At one
end of the axis there is a small handle with which you turn the
spbere like a common grindstone. ‘This we find very commodious,
as the machine takes up but little room, is portable and may be en-

* A Treatise on Frictional Electricity in Theory and Practice, by Sir William Snow Harris,
F.R.S., London, 1867, p. 104.
+See Proceedings Amer. Philos. Soc., i, 253, July 17, 18:0. ‘‘The Franklin papers were

bequeathed by will to George Fox, father of C. P. Fox, by Temple Franklin, grandson of
Benjamin Franklin.”

108

closed in a tight box when not in use. ’Tis true the sphere does
not turn so swift as when the great wheel is used; but swiftness we
think of little importance, since a few turns will charge the vial
sufficiently.’’ He adds, in a footnote: ‘‘ This simple and easily
made machine was a contrivance of Mr. Syng’s.’’

The addition of a metallic collector to the globe machine was
made by Boze in 1742,* and the use of a leather cushion as the
rubber was introduced by Winkler in 1744.+ And, although
Hawksbee had used a cylindrical electric, yet it did not come into
use apparently until Wilson again made use of it in 1752.{ It was
not until 1756 that De la Fond § made a machine having a plate
electric ; in which he was closely followed by Ingenhaus (1764),||
Cuthbertson (1770),4] and Le Roy (1772).** The addition of a
multiplying wheel is generally attributed to Nollet, in 1746.,f

In this connection, it is interesting to note that, with the elec-
trical apparatus given to the University by Miss Fox, there was a
set of copper-plate impressions of certain experiments in heat and
electricity. As these engravings could not be identified with any
of the researches made by Franklin, it was for some time doubtful
what their origin was and what their connection with Franklin
himself. Finally, several years later, in looking over the very com-
plete antiquarian scientific library of Prof. H. Carrington Bolton,
of New York, the writer observed that facsimiles of these plates
served as the illustrations of a book entitled, ‘‘ Recherches Physiques
sur le Feu. Par M. Marat, Docteur en Médecine et Médecin des
Gardes du Corps de Monseigneur le Comte d’Artois. A Paris, Rue
Dauphine, MDCCLXXxX, pp. 204 avec VI planches.’’ Thus estab-
lishing the fact of scientific intercourse between Franklin and
Marat, afterwards one of the chief actors in the French Revolu-
ion.tt
tion. tt

* Die Electricitdt nach ihrer Entdeckung und Forgang, ete., Wittenberg, 1714.
+ Gedanken von den Eigenschaften . .. . nebst Beschreibung zweyer neuen electrischen
Maschinen, Leipzig, 1744.

{A Treatise on Electricity, London, 1752.

2 Precis des Phénomenes Electriques, 1754, 2d ed., p. 47.

| Phil. Trans., xiv, 598, 1779.

4 Harris’ Frictional Electricity, p. 68.

*& Mémoires del’ Academie, Premiére Partie, p 499, 1772.

+} Lecons de Physique, Paris, 1767.

ttIn a memorandum made at Passy, December 13, 1778, Franklin says: “Received a
parcel from an unknown philosopher [afterwards discovered to be Marat, of subsequent
notorious memory], who submits to my consideration a memoir on the subject of elemen-
tary fire, coutaining experiments in a dark chamber. It seems to be well written, and is

in English, with a little tincture of French idiom. I wish to see the experiments,
without which I cannot well judge of it’’ (Memoirs, Vol. ii, p. 90).

109

It appears, then, that in scarcely more than a year Franklin had
mastered the theory and practice of electrical science and had be-
come an investigator. In his letter to Collinson of July 11, 1747,
he describes an experiment showing ‘‘the wonderful effect of
pointed bodies both in drawing off and in throwing off the electri-
cal fire.’’ Moreover, it is in this first scientific letter that he pro-
pounds his theory of electricity. ‘* We say B (and bodies like
circumstanced) is electrified fosctively ; A, negatively. Or, rather,
B is electrified plus ; A, minus. And we daily, in our experiments,
electrize bodies p/zs or minus, as we think proper. To electrize
plus or minus, no more needs to be known than this, that the parts
of the tube or sphere that are rubbed do, in the instant of the fric-
tion, attract the electrical fire and therefore take it from the thing
rubbing ; the same parts, immediately as the friction upon them
ceases, are disposed to give the fire they have received to any body
that has less.’’

In 1745, Kleist,* and, in 1746, Cuneus,} had observed the phe-
nomena of electrical condensation, and Muschenbroek had con-
structed the Leyden jar. The experiments of Franklin, made in
1747, showed that ‘‘ at the same time that the wire and top (inside)
of the bottle is electrified posctively or plus, the bottom of the bottle
(outside) is electrified zegatively or minus in exact proportion; 7Z. é.,
whatever quantity of electrical fire is thrown in at top, an equal
quantity goes out of the bottom.’’ ‘‘ None can be thrown into
the top when none can get out at the bottom.’”’ . .. . ‘* Again,
when the bottle is electrified, but little of the electrical fire can be
drawn out at the top by touching the wire unless an equal quantity
can at the same time ge¢ zz at the bottom.’’ By these and similar
experiments he completely analyzed the phenomena in question.
He continues: ‘‘ So wonderfully are these two states of electricity,
the pus and minus, combined and balanced in this miraculous bot-
tle, situated and related to each other in a manner that I can by no
means comprehend! If it were possible that a bottle should in
one part contain a quantity of air strongly comprest, and in another
part a perfect vacuum, we know that the equilibrium would be in-
stantly restored wzthin. But here we have a bottie containing at
the same time a A/enum of electrical fire and a vacuum of the same
fire; and yet the equilibrium cannot be restored between them but

* Versuche u. Abh. d. Naturf. Gesellsch., Danzig, 1745, Vol. ii, p. 408.
+ Mémoires del Academie des Sciences, 1746, pv. 2.

110

by a communication without ; though the A/enum presses violently
to expand and the hungry vacuum seems to attract as violently in
order to be filled.”’

Again, Franklin was the first to prove that the phenomena of
condensation have their seat in the dielectric and not in the metal-
lic coatings. ‘‘ The whole force of the bottle and power of giving
a shock,’’ he says, ‘‘is in THE GLASS ITSELF; the non-electrics, in
contact with the two surfaces, serving only to give and receive to
and from the several parts of the glass; that is, to give to one side
and take away from the other.’’? This opinion he supports by
striking and conclusive experiments, ‘‘It is amazing,’’ he con-
tinues, ‘‘ to observe in how small a portion of glass a great electri-
cal force may lie. A thin glass bubble, about an inch diameter,
weighing only six grains, being half filled with water, partly gilt
on the outside and furnished with a wire hook, gives, when electri-
fied, as great a shock as a man can well bear. As the glass is thick-
est near the orifice, I suppose the lower half—which, being gilt,
was electrified and gave the shock—did not exceed two grains; for
it appeared, when broke, much thinner than the upper half.”’....
“‘ Allowing that there is no more electrical fire in a bottle after
charging than before, how great must be the quantity in this small
portion of glass! It seems as if it were of its very substance and
essence. Perhaps if that due quantity of electrical fire, so obsti-
nately retained by glass, could be separated from it, it would no
longer be glass; it might lose its transparency, or its brittleness, or
its elasticity. Experiments may possibly be invented hereafter to
discover this.’’ (Can we state to-day, in any clearer language, the
electrical condition in the Leyden jar?

At the close of this investigation, he writes as follows: ‘‘ Cha-
grined a little that we have been hitherto able to produce nothing in
this way of use to mankind; and the hot weather coming on, when
electrical experiments are not so agreeable, it is proposed to put an
end to them for this season somewhat humorously in a party of
pleasure on the banks of Skuy/ki/. Spirits, at the same time, are
to be fired by a spark sent from side to side through the river, with-
out any other conductor than the water; an experiment which we
some time since: performed to the amazement of many. A turkey
is to be killed for our dinner by the e/ectrica/ shock and roasted by
the electrical jack before a fire kindled by the electrified bottle ;
when the healths of all the famous electricians in Lxgland, Holland,

111

.

France and Germany are to be drank in electrified bumpers under
the discharge of guns from the electrical battery.”

It was in 1749 that Franklin came to the conclusion that light-
ning and the electrical fire are identical. ‘‘To determine the
question,’’ he says,* ‘‘whether the clouds that contain lightning
are electrified or not, I would propose an experiment to be try’d
where it may be done conveniently. On the top of some high
tower or steeple place a kind of centry box big enough to contain
a man and an electrical stand. From the middle of the stand let
an iron rod rise and pass, bending, out of the door and then up-
right twenty or thirty feet, pointed very sharp at the end. If the
electrical stand be kept clean and dry, a man, standing on it when
such clouds are passing low, might be electrified and afford sparks,
the rod drawing fire to him from acloud. If any danger to the
man should be apprehended (though I think there would be none),
let him stand on the floor of his box and now and then bring near
to the rod the loop of a wire that has one end fastened to the leads,
he holding it by a wax handle; so the sparks, if the rod is electri-
fied, will strike from the rod to the wire and not affect him.”’

On the roth of May, 1752, M. D’Alibard, the translator of Frank-
lin’s letters to Collinson, placed in a garden at Marly, near Paris, a
pointed bar of iron, forty feet high, supported upon an electrical
base. At twenty minutes past two in the afternoon, a storm cloud
passed over the rod, and the observers drew sparks from it and ob-
tained with it all the common electrical phenomena. tf

Shortly after, M. DeLor, who had repeated many of Franklin’s
experiments before the king, Louis XV, raised at his house, in
Paris, a bar of iron ninety-nine feet high, placed upon a cake of resin
two feet square and three inches thick. On the 18th of May be-
tween four and five in the afternoon, a storm cloud passed over the
bar, and M. DeLor drew sparks from the bar which produced the
same noise, the same fire, and the same crackling ; the longest of
these sparks being nine lines.

On July 20, Canton erected upon his house in London, a tin
tube between three and four feet in length, fixed to the top of a
glass one of about eighteen inches. To the upper end of the tin
tube, which was not so high as a stack of chimnies on the same

* New Observations and Experiments on Electricity, p. 66.

+See the letter of the Abbe Mazeas, New Experiments and Observations on Electricity,
p. 107.

112

house, he fastened three needles with some wire; a tin cover being
soldered to the lower end to keep the rain from the glass tube,
which was set upright in a block of wood. No electrification ap-
peared upon this apparatus during “the storm until after the third
thunder-clap. Then, on applying his knuckle to the edge of the
cover, Canton felt and heard an electrical spark, the length of
which was about half an inch; the experiment being repeated four
or five times in the space of a minute.

On August 12, Mr. Wilson, of Chelmsford, in Essex, during a
thunder-storm, about noon, observed several electrical snaps from
an iron curtain rod, one end of which he had put into the neck of
a glass phial held in the hand, and to the other end of which he
had fastened three needles. The sparks were taken from the rod to
the finger of one hand, the other hand supporting the rod.

In communicating these experiments of Canton and Wilson to
the Royal Society,* Watson says: ‘‘ After the communications which
we have received from several of our correspondents in different
parts of the continent, acquainting us with the success of their ex-
periments last summer in endeavoring to extract the electricity from
the atmosphere during a thunder-storm, in consequence of Mr.
Franklin’s hypothesis, it may be thought extraordinary that no
accounts have been yet laid before you of our success here from the
same experiments.’’ And he then proceeds to state that, ‘‘ though
several members of the Royal Society, as well as myself, did, upon
the first advices from /vrance, prepare and set up the necessary ap-
paratus for this purpose,’’ they were defeated in their expectations
because of the uncommon coolness and dampness of the air in
London ; only one thunder-storm, that of July 20, having occurred
during the season.

The celebrated kite experiment was made during the summer of
1752, in Philadelphia. Dr. Franklin, himself, thus describes it:
** Make a small cross of two light strips of cedar, the arms so long
as to reach to the four corners of a large, thin silk handkerchief
when extended ; tie the corners of the handkerchief to the extremi-
ties of the cross, so you have the body of the kite; which, being
properly accommodated with a tail, loop and string, will rise in
the air like those made of paper; but this, being of silk, is fitter
to bear the wet and wind of a thunder gust without tearing. To

* Phil. Trans., xlyii, 1752. See also New Experiments and Observations on Electricity,
p. 109.

113

the top of the upright stick of the cross is to be fixed a very sharp-
pointed wire, rising a foot or more above the wood. To the end
of the twine, next the hand, is to be tied a silk ribbon, and where
the silk and twine join a key may be fastened. This kite is to be
raised when a thunder gust appears to be coming on, and the per-
son who holds the string must stand within a door or window, or
under some cover, so that the silk ribbon may not be wet; and
care must be taken that the twine does not touch the frame of the
door or window. As soon as any of the thunder clouds come over
the kite, the pointed wire will draw the electric fire from them, and
the kite, with all the twine, will be electrified, and the loose fila-
ments of the twine will stand out every way and be attracted by an
approaching finger. And when the rain has wet the kite and twine
so that it can conduct the electric fire freely, you will find it stream
out plentifully from the key on the approach of your knuckle. At
this key the phial may be charged; and, from electric fire thus
obtained, spirits may be kindled and all the other electric experi-
ments be performed which are usually done by the help of a rubbed
glass globe or tube, and thereby the sameness of the electric matter
with that of lightening completely demonstrated.’’ *

“‘In September, 1752, I erected an iron rod to draw the light-
ening down into my house,’’ Franklin writes to Collinson, a year
later, ‘‘in order to make some experiments on it with two bells, to
give notice when the rod should be electrify’d, a contrivance ob-
vious to every electrician. I found the bells rang sometimes when
,there was no lightning or thunder, but only a dark cloud over the
rod ; that sometimes, after a flash of lightning, they would sud-
denly stop, and at other times, when they had not rang before,
they would, after a flash, suddenly begin to ring; that the elec-
tricity was sometimes very faint, so that when a small spark was
obtain’d another could not be got for some time after; at other
times the sparks would follow extremely quick ; and once I had a
continual stream from bell to bell the size of a crow quill. Even
during the same gust there were considerable variations.’’ The fol-
lowing winter he charged two phials, one with lightning from the
iron rod, the other, equally, by the electric glass globe, and sus-
pended acork ball between the wires issuing from the top. He
observed the cork ball play briskly between them, proving the

*New Experiments and Observations on Electricity, p.111. Letter of date October 19, 1752

PROC. AMER, PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 1430. PRINTED DEC. 18, 1893.

114

charge from the clouds to be negative. Subsequent experiments
showed that while in general the charge from the clouds is
negative, it is sometimes positive.

In 1749, Franklin applied his knowledge of the power of points
to the practical protection of buildings. Hesays: ‘‘If those things
are so [z. ¢., ‘if the fire of electricity and that of lightning be the
same’] may not the knowledge of this power of points be of use
to mankind in preserving houses, churches, ships, etc., from the
stroke of lightning by directing us to fix on the highest points of
those edifices upright rods of iron, made sharp as a needle, and
gilt to prevent rusting, and from the foot of those rods a wire
down the outside of the building into the ground, or down round
one of the shrouds of a ship and down her side till it reaches the
water? Would not these pointed rods probably draw the electrical
fire silently out of a cloud before it came nigh enough to strike,
and thereby secure us from that most sudden and terrible
mischief ?”’

In 1753, Franklin formally recommended that pointed rods be
placed on buildings to prevent their being struck by lightning.
But the suggestion does not seem to have come very rapidly into
favor, since in a subsequent letter to Kinnersley, written from
London, in 1762, Franklin says: ‘* You seem to think highly
of the importance of this discovery, as do many others on our
side of the water. Here it is very little regarded; so little that
though it is now seven or eight years since it was made public, I have
not heard of a single house as yet attempted to be secured by it.’’*
In 1777, at a meeting of the Royal Society Wilson protested
against the pointed conductors of Franklin, and endeavored to
prove the superior advantages of knobs to points, and the greater
safety to be derived from blunt as compared with sharp lightning
conductors. His experiments attracted considerable attention and
evoked sharp discussion ; and during this discussion ‘‘ the pointed
lightning conductors were taken down from the queen’s palace.’’ f
They were never replaced, notwithstanding the condemnation of the
pretended improvement by the Royal Society in their reports in favor
of pointed conductors, and their being consequently generally em-
ployed for the protection of the powder magazines throughout the
country. On being urged to reply to Wilson’s assertions, Franklin

* New Experiments and Observations on Electricity, p. 416.
+ Memoirs, Vol. ii, p. 79

115

replied: ‘‘I have never entered into any controversy in defense of
my philosophical opinions. I leave them to take their chance in the
world. If they are zzgh¢, truth and experience will support them ;
if wrong, they ought to be refuted and rejected. Disputes are apt
to sour one’s temper, and disturb one’s quiet. I have no private
interest in the reception of my inventions by the world, having
never made, nor propose to make, the least profit by any of them.
The king’s changing his pointed conductors for blunt ones is,
therefore, a matter of small importance to me. If I had a wish
about it, it would be that he had rejected them altogether as inef-
fectual. For it is only since he thought himself and family safe
from the thunder of heaven that he dared to use his own thunder in
destroying his innocent subjects.’’*

These scientific and political conditions acting together, gave
rise to the well-known and pointed epigram :

«« While you, Great George, for safety hunt,
And sharp conductors change for blunt,
The empire’s out of joint.
Franklin a wiser course pursues, é
And all your thunder fearless views
By keeping to the foznt.”

It was in recognition of the importance and value of Franklin’s
electrical investigations that the Royal Society not only elected
him a member of that learned body, but also awarded to him the
Copley gold medal. +

Of similar interest are Franklin’s experiments on the physiologi-

* Memoirs, Vol. ii, p 81.

} Franklin’s own account of the action of the Royal Society is as follows: ‘‘ Dr.
Wright, an English physician, when at Paris, wrote to a friend who was of the Royal
Society an account of the high esteem my experiments were in among the learned
abroad, and of their wonder that my writings had been so little noticed in England.
The Society on this resumed the consideration of the letters that had been read to them ;
and the celebrated Dr. Watson drew up a summary account of them and of all I had
afterwards sent to England on the subject; which he accompanied with some praise
of the writer. This summary was then printed in their Transactions; and some
members of the Society in London, particularly the very ingenious Mr. Canton, having
verified the experiment of procuring lightning from the clouds by a pointed rod, and
acquainted them with the success, they soon made me more than amends for the slight
with which they had before treated me. Without my having made any application for
that honor, they chose me a member, and voted that I should be excused the customary
payments, which would have amounted to twenty-five guineas; and ever since have
given me their Transactions gratis. They also presented me with the gold medal of Sir
Godfrey Copley for the year 1753, the delivery of which was accompanied by a very
handsome speech of the President, Lord Macclesfield, wherein I was highly honored”’
(Memoirs, Vol. i, p. 241).

116

cal action of the electric discharge. In a letter to the Royal
Society he gives an account of these experiments.* ‘‘ He made
first several experiments on fowls, and found that two large, thin
glass jars gilt, holding each about six gallons, were sufficient,
when fully charged, to kill common hens outright ; but the turkeys,
though thrown into violent convulsions, and then lying as dead for
some minutes, would recover in less than a quarter of an hour.
However, having added three other such to the former two, though
not fully charged, he killed a turkey of about ten pounds weight,
and believes that they would have killed a much larger. He con-
ceited, as himself says, that the birds killed in this manner eat un-
commonly tender.’’ ‘‘ In making these experiments he found that
a man could, without great detriment, bear a much greater shock
than he had imagined ; for he inadvertently received the stroke of
two of these jars through his arms and body, when they were very
nearly fully charged. It seemed to him an_ universal blow
throughout the body from head to foot, and was followed by a vio-
lent, quick trembling in the trunk, which went off gradually in a
few seconds. It was some minutes before he could recollect his
thoughts, so as to know what was the matter; for he did not see
the flash, though his eye was on the spot of the prime conductor
from whence it struck the back of his hand; nor did he hear
the crack, though the bystanders said it was a loud one; nor
did he particularly feel the stroke on his hand, though he afterward
found it had raised a swelling there of the bigness of half a pistol
bullet. His arms and the back of the neck felt somewhat numbed
the remainder of the evening, and his breast was sore for a week
after, as if it had been bruised. From this experiment may be
seen the danger, even under the greatest caution, to the operator,
when making these experiments with large jars, for it is not to be
doubted but several of these fully charged would as certainly, by
increasing them in proportion to the size, kill a man as they before
did a turkey.”’

With reference to the practical application of these experiments,
Franklin subsequently wrote the following letter to MM. Dubourg
and D’Alibard: + ‘* My answer to your questions concerning the
mode of rendering meat tender by electricity, can only be founded
upon conjecture ; for I have not experiments enough to warrant the

* New Experiments and Observations, p. 253.
+ Memoirs, Vol. vi, p. 228.

117

facts. All that I can say at present is that I think electricity
might be employed for this purpose ; and I shall state what follows
as the observations or reasons which make me presume so. It has
been observed that lightning by rarefying and reducing into vapor
the moisture contained in solid wood, in an oak for instance, has
forcibly separated its fibres and broken it into small splinters ; that
by penetrating completely the hardest metals, as iron, it has sepa-
rated the parts in an instant so as to convert a perfect solid into a
state of fluidity; it is not then improbable that the same subtile
matter passing through the bodies of animals with rapidity should
possess sufficient force to produce an effect nearly similar.

‘“‘ The flesh of animals killed in the usual manner is firm, hard,
and not in a very eatable state because the particles adhere too
forcibly to each other. At a certain period the cohesion is
weakened, and in its progress towards putrefaction, which tends to
produce a total separation, the flesh becomes what we call tender,
or is in that state most proper to be used as our food.

“It has frequently been remarked that animals killed by lightning
putrefy immediately. This cannot be invariably the case, since
a quantity of lightning sufficient to kill may not be sufficient to tear
and divide the fibres and particles of flesh, and reduce them to that
tender state which is the prelude to putrefaction. Hence it is that
some animals killed in this manner will keep longer than others.
But the putrefaction sometimes proceeds with surprising celerity.
A respectable person assured me that he once knew a remarkable
instance of this. A whole flock of sheep in Scotland being closely
assembled under a tree, were killed by a flash of lightning ; and it
being rather late in the evening, the proprietor, desirous of saving
something, sent persons early the next morning to flay them; but
the putrefaction was such and the stench so abominable that they
had not the courage to execute their orders, and the bodies were
accordingly buried in their skins. It is not unreasonable to pre-
sume that between the period of their death and that of their
putrefaction a time intervened in which the flesh might be only
tender, and only sufficiently so to be served at table. Add to this
that persons who have eaten of fowls killed by our feeble imitation
of lightning (electricity) and dressed immediately, have asserted
that the flesh was remarkably tender. ... .

‘As this kind of death is nevertheless more sudden and conse-
quently less severe than any other, if this should operate as

118

a motive with compassionate persons to employ it for animals
sacrificed for their use, they may conduct the process thus:
‘‘Having prepared a battery of six large glass jars (each from
twenty to twenty-four pints) as for the Leyden experiment, and
having established a communication as usual from the interior sur-
face of each with the prime conductor ; and having given them a
a full charge (which, with a good machine, may be executed in a
few minutes, and may be estimated by an electrometer), a chain
which communicates with the exterior of the jars must be wrapped
round the thighs of the fowl; after which the operator, holding it
by the wings turned back and made to touch behind, must raise it
so high that the head may receive the first shock from the prime
conductor. ‘The animal dies instantly. Let the head be immedi-
ately cut off to make it bleed, when it may be plucked and dressed
immediately. This quantity of electricity is supposed sufficient for
a turkey of ten pounds weight, and perhaps for a lamb. Experi-
ence alone will inform us of the requisite proportions for animals of
different forms and ages. Probably not less will be required to ren-
der a small bird which is very old tender than for a larger one which
is young. It is easy to furnish the requisite quantity of electricity by
employing a greater or less number of jars. As six jars, however,
discharged at once are capable of giving a very violent shock, the
operator must be very circumspect lest he should happen to make
the experiment on his own flesh instead of that of the fowl.”
Franklin’s experiments upon the effect of the electric discharge
upon the human subject he thus describes in a letter to a friend in
Charleston, S. C., written in 1755: * ‘* The knocking down of the
six men was performed with two of my large jars not fully charged.
I laid one end of my discharging rod upon the head of the first ;
he laid his hand on the head of the second ; the second his hand
on the head of the third ; and so to the last, who held in his hand
the chain that was connected with the outside of the jars. When
they were thus placed, I applied the other end of my rod to the
prime conductor and they all dropt together. When they got up
they all declared they had not felt any stroke, and wondered how they
came to fall; nor did any of them either hear the crack or see the
light of it. You suppose it isa dangerous experiment; but I had
once suffered the same myself, receiving by accident an equal stroke

* Letters and Papers on Philosophical Subjects. New Experiments and Observations on
Electricity, p. 324.

119

through my head that struck me down without hurting me. And I
_ had seen a young woman that was about to be electrified through
the feet (for some indisposition) receive a greater charge through
the head by inadvertently stooping forward to look at the placing
of her feet, till her forehead (as she was very tall) came too near
my prime conductor: She dropt, but instantly got up again com-
plaining of nothing. A person so struck sinks down doubled or
folded together as it were, the joints losing their strength and stiff-
ness at once, so that he drops on the spot where he stood, instantly,
and there is no previous staggering, nor does he ever fall length-
wise. Too great a charge might indeed kill a man, but I have not
yet seen any hurt done by it. It would certainly, as you observe,
be the easiest of all deaths.’’

If the condition of electrostatic science when the American Phil-
osophical Society was founded was as primitive as we have above
pointed out, that of the other departments of electricity was far
more so. Galvani had not observed the twitching of the frog’s
legs as, suspended by a copper wire, they swung to and fro against
the iron railing of his laboratory baleony. Volta had not made
his important discovery that the contact of two metals developed
electrification ; and hence had not at this time constructed his cele-
brated pile. True, metals had been fused by the discharge of the
electric battery, needles had been magnetized by it, and animals
had been shocked and even killed by it, as in the experiments made
by Franklin and others soon after 1743. But now various other
modes of electrification were to be discovered and coérdinated and
the identity of the result, by whatsoever means obtained, was to be
experimentally established.

Among the members of this Society whose names appear promi-
nent as investigators in these new fields we should mention Robert
Hare, Joseph Henry, Joseph Saxton, David Rittenhouse and Alex-
ander Dallas Bache.

Robert Hare was elected a member of the American Philosophi-
cal Society in 1803. In 1821 he published an important paper
“©On Some New Modifications of Galvanic Apparatus.’’ * In this
paper he states that he had observed that, while the maximum effect
of a single galvanic pair was reached as soon as the plates were
immersed in the liquid, a series of troughs which had to be succes-

* Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, iii, 105, 1821.

120

sively immersed never reached their maxima together, the effect of
the earlier ones being lost before that of the later ones came on.
In order to remedy this difficulty, he prepared eighty concentric i
coils of copper and zinc plates and attached them to a system of
levers so that they could be simultaneously immersed. The zinc
sheets were nine inches by six in size, and the copper sheets four-
teen inches by six, a quarter of an inch interval being left between
them. Each pair, as rolled up, was two and a half inches in diam-
eter, and eighty glass jars were arranged to receive the eighty coils
of plates when they were lowered. A piece of charcoal a quarter
of an inch thick and one and a half inches long was inserted be-
tween the ends of the lead pipes which served as conductors. On
lowering the plates ‘‘ no vestige of the charcoal could be seen. It
was ignited so intensely that those portions of the pipes by which
it had been embraced were destroyed.”’

He then had a trough constructed having a partition through the
middle. In this trough he placed the eighty coils, forty of them
being’ on each side of the partition. Although, when in action,
this battery produced only a moderate sensation, and did not ignite
charcoal as easily, a most intense ignition took place whenever a
metallic point on one pole was brought in contact with a piece of
charcoal on the other. And when a cylinder of platinum, nearly
a quarter of an inch in diameter and tapering a little at the end,
was placed in the circuit, it was at once fused and burned so as to
sparkle to a considerable distance around and to fall in drops.
When the two troughs were separated by an interval of four inches,
so as to improve the insulation, charcoal was so vividly ignited that
the eyes of the experimenter were affected for forty-eight hours, the
charcoal assuming a pasty consistence.

In accordance with the theory which he had propounded in 1818,*
Dr. Hare explained these differences in effect by the hypothesis
that the fluid extricated by Volta’s pile is a compound of caloric
and electricity. According to this theory, ‘‘the galvanic fluid,’’
he says, ‘‘ owes its properties to caloric and electricity, the former
predominating in proportion to the size of the pairs, the latter in
proportion to the number, being in both cases excited by a power-
ful acid. Hence in batteries which combine both qualifications
sufficiently, as in all those intervening between Children’s large

* Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, i, 418, 1818.

121

pairs of two feet eight inches by six feet and the two thousand
» four-inch pairs of the Royal Institution, the phenomena indicate
the presence of both fluids. In De Luc’s column, where the size of
the plates is insignificant and the energy of interposed agents feeble,
we see electricity evolved without any appreciable quantity of cal-
oric. In the calorimotor, where we have size only, the number
being the lowest possible, we are scarcely able to detect the presence
of electricity. When the fluid contains enough electricity to give
a projectile power adequate to pass through a small space in the air,
or through charcoal, which impedes or arrests the caloric and favors
its propensity to radiate this principle, heat is evolved. This ac-
counts for the evolution of intense heat under those circumstances
which rarefy the air, so that the length of the jet from one pole to
the other may be extended after its commencement. Hence, the
portions of the circuit nearest to the intervening charcoal or
heated space are alone injured ; and even non-conducting bodies,
as quartz, introduced into it are fused, and hence a very large wire
may be melted by the fluid received through a small wire impercep-
tibly affected.”

To these two forms of galvanic generators, which differed as ma-
terially in the effects which they produced as they did in their con-
struction, Dr. Hare gave the names ‘calorimotor’’ and ‘ defla-
grator.’’ The calorimotor was constructed first in 1818. He was
led to this form of instrument by reflecting that, ‘‘as the number
of pairs in Volta’s pile had been extended, and their size and the
number and energy of interposed agents lessened, the ratio of the
electrical effects to those of heat had increased till, in De Luc’s
column, they had become completely predominant ; and, on the
other hand, when the pairs were made larger and fewer (as in Chil-
dren’s apparatus) the calorific influence had gained the ascendency ;
he was, therefore, led to go farther in this way and to examine
whether one pair of plates of common size, or what might be
equivalent thereto, would not exhibit heat more purely and demon-
strate it to be, equally with the electric fluid, a primary product of
Galvanic combinations.’’* This conception he put into practice
by constructing a single galvanic pair, consisting of twenty copper
plates, each about nineteen inches square, all soldered to the same
metallic bar, so as to constitute, electrically, a single copper plate,

* Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, i, 416, July, 1818.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 148. P. PRINTED DEC. 18, 1893.

122

alternating, at intervals of half an inch, with twenty similar zinc
plates, all united to another metallic bar. He found, on immersing °
these plates in the same portion of acid contained in a vessel with-
out partitions, that, while a wire connecting the poles was intensely
ignited, only a slight taste was produced on the tongue, not greater
than that produced by a piece of silver and one of zinc an inch
square. Hence he concluded that when the plates are arranged
without alternation the effect is no greater than might be expected
from one pair of plates. He then caused ten of the zinc plates on
the one side to be connected with ten of copper on the other, the
ten remaining plates of the same name on each side being connected
with each other; the connection between these large plates, one of
copper and the other of zinc, being effected by a wire. When
these two alternating pairs were plunged in acid, in a common ves-
sel without partitions, the wire became vividly ignited. Substan-
tially, this arrangement was adopted in the construction of a large
calorimotor ordered by Prof. Silliman for the laboratory of Yale
College and made under Dr. Hare’s direction. The plates were
eighteen inches square; nine of zinc, on one side, alternated with
ten of copper, and ten of zinc, on the other side, alternated with
eleven of copper; the entire forty plates having in all ninety square
feet of surface. The plates of the same name were connected by
large bars of tin, the whole being supported on a balanced frame
so as to be lowered readily into a cubical box without partitions.
‘¢ This instrument,’’ says Prof. Silliman, ‘‘ gives no shock, produces
no chemical decompositions, and does not move the gold-leaf
electrometer, nor does it ignite charcoal points, however small,
although in close contact, or strike through the smallest layer of air
_ to pass even to the best conductor. But when any metallic substance
with a bright surface is brought into perfect contact, by screwing it
firmly into the jaws of the vices that terminate its poles, and the
plates are then immersed in the acid, intense ignition follows and
combustion also, if the metal is combustible in common air. Plat-
inum wire is instantly ignited and melted, a large steel knitting
needle is destroyed before the plates are half immersed, and, by a
full immersion, iron nails of the size called ninepenny and tenpenny
are ignited and burn vividly till the connection is destroyed by
burning in two.’’* Further, it was observed that the calorimotor
produced fine magnetic effects.

* Elements of Chemistry, Vol. ii, p. 670, New Haven, 1831.

123

The deflagrator of Dr. Hare was first described in 1821,* and as
above mentioned consisted of eighty concentric coils of copper and
zinc, each coil having its glass jar of acid; the coils being attached
to a common beam which was raised and lowered by means of levers.
Subsequently he adopted the form of flat, hollow, copper cascs into
which the zinc plates were made to slide, being secured in their
places and prevented from actual contact with the copper by
grooved pieces of wood which receive the edges of the zinc and
rest against the inside of the copper cases ; each zinc plate being
connected to the next copper case by a metallic strip. These cases
were supported in frames and well insulated from one another, these
frames being movable and capable of being lowered into the troughs
containing the acid, or being stationary, and the troughs raised in
order to immerse the plates. ‘This construction was the one adopted
in the deflagrator made by Dr. Hare for the laboratory of Yale Col-
lege. In his last form of instrument, called the Cruikshank defla-
grator, the copper and zinc plates, soldered together in pairs at their
edges, were fixed in a box supported on pivots; so that by rotating it
through go°, the acid surrounding the plates flowed into a second
and similar box attached to the first and at right angles to it. By
reversing the motion the acid flowed again upon the plates.+
‘‘ Both in producing ignition and combustion,’’ says Prof. Silliman,
“‘the deflagrators far surpass any other form of galvanic instru-
ments. Combustion is exceedingly vivid ; the metallic leaves van-
ish in splendid coruscations ; a platinum wire several feet in length
fixed between the poles while the metals are in the air becomes red
and white hot, and melts the instant they are immersed ; the largest
wire of this metal fixed in one pole and touched to charcoal in the
other, melts like wax in a candle and is dissipated in brilliant scin-
tillations; a watch-spring or a large steel knitting-needle fixed in
the same manner and touched to the charcoal point burns com-
pletely away with a torrent of light and sparks; a stream of mer-
cury fiowing from a funnel is deflagrated with brilliant light, and
an iron wire is fused and welded to another under water.’’ { It was
with this instrument that Prof. Silliman, in 1821, observed for the
first time the transfer of the carbon from the positive to the nega-
tive pole, this carbon rapidly collecting on the negative side into a

* Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, Vol, iii, p. 105, 1821.
+ Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, Vol. vii, 347 (1824) ; Vol. xxxii, 285 (1837).
t Elements of Chemistry, Vol. ii, p. 672, 1831.

124

knob or projecting cone or cylinder, which frequently becomes
half an inch or more long before it falls and gives place to another.
On the positive pole a corresponding cavity is formed, out of which
the vaporized matter rises and collects upon the negative pole.
The carbon thus deposited ‘is in shining, rounded masses, aggre-
gated often like a cauliflower. It has a semi-metallic appearance,
is harder than the charcoal, heavier, much less combustible, and
burns away slowly when ignited in the air.’’

In the light of the electrical science of those days, these con-
structions by Dr. Hare, the results obtained by their means and the
theories which he offered in explanation of the phenomena, are all
of very considerable interest. The principal effect of the calori-
inotor, obviously, was to produce a great flow of heat with very .
little electrical excitement. But experiment had pointed out that
not only alternation of the plates but a repetition of the pairs to at
least two was necessary to produce an intense calorific effect ; the
quantity being as the size and the intensity as the number of the
series. True, Davy had shown in 1808 this necessity of repetition,
and had stated that ‘‘ the intensity increases with the number and
the quantity with the extent of the series.’’* And Children the
following year f had confirmed this view and elaborated it. ‘‘ The
absolute effect of a voltaic apparatus,’’ he says, ‘‘seems to be in
the compound ratio of the number and size of the plates, the in-
tensity of the electricity being as the former, the quantity given
out as the latter ; consequently regard must be had in its construction
to the purposes for which it is designed. For experiments on per-
fect conductors very large plates are to be preferred, asmall number
of wicks will probably be sufficient ; but where the resistance of im-
perfect conductors is to be overcome the combination must be great
but the size of the plates may be small; but if quantity and inten-
sity be both required, then a large number of large plates will be ne-
cessary.’’ It should be remembered, moreover, that the law of Ohm
was not enunciated until 1827,{ and that of Joule not until 1841.§
And, further, that we owe to these laws the simplification of the
ideas upon the subject of the energy relations of electricity which
existed before they were discovered. Ohm's law teaches us that the

* Philosophical Transactions, 1808, p. 3.

+ Ib., Vol. ix, p. 82 (1809).

t Die galvanische Kette mathematisch bearbeitet, Berlin, 1827.
_¢Phil. Mag., xix, p. 260 (1841).

125

current which flows through any circuit depends directly upon the
electromotive forces contained in the circuit and inversely upon
the resistances of the circuit. Evidently, therefore, when a con-
siderable resistance is to be overcome, as when a long, fine wire is
in circuit, the current necessary to fuse this wire, for example, can
be secured only by increasing proportionately the electromotive
force, z. e., by increasing the number of pairs in series in the bat-
tery. While, when the external resistance is small, as is the case
when a large metallic wire joins the terminals, very little electro-
motive force, and therefore only a few pairs, is required ; but by
making the plates large the resistance of the battery is diminished,
and so the current in the entire circuit is increased. In the defla-
grator then, the result was attained by increasing the number of
the plates in order to secure a high electromotive force. In the
calorimotor the size was increased in order to decrease the total re-
sistance and so to increase the current. Again, the law of Joule
gives us the relation between the amount of current flowing through
a circuit and the development of heat in it ; asserting that the heat
thus developed is directly proportional to the resistance in the cir-
cuit and to the square of the current. Consequently the heating
effects of Dr. Hare’s calorimotor are due to the large current which
it was the object of its construction to produce. While in the
deflagrator, although the current is less, and therefore the total
heating effect is less also, yet the current is urged by a greater pres-
sure and hence exerts a greater disruptive effect. Another point
should be noted in connection with these distinctions thus empha-
sized in Dr. Hare’s generators. Electrical energy may be repre-
sented by the product of the current and the electromotive force.
To transmit a given amount of this energy to a distance, either a
strong current having a low electromotive force may be employed, or
a weak current having a high electromotive force, provided the pro-
duct be the same in both cases. But by the law of Joule, the en-
ergy dissipated as heat, being proportional to the square of the
current, would entail a serious lossin the former case. Hence the
economical transmission of electrical energy requires the use of
generators developing a high electromotive force.

Joseph Henry became a member of the American Philosophical
Society in 1835, although it was ten years earlier than this that he
began his electrical researches at the Albany Academy. Oersted,

126

in 18rg,* had observed the tendency of a magnetic needle to place
itself perpendicular to a wire conveying an electrical current.
Ampérey had studied the mutual action of currents upon each other,
and had thus created the science of electrodynamics. Schweigger
had multiplied the number of convolutions of the wire about the
needle, increasing proportionately in this way the effect.t Arago
had succeeded in producing magnetism from an electrical current
by winding the wire carrying this current in a loose helix and
placing pieces of iron wire in the axis of this helix; thus creating
the ‘‘electromagnet.’’§ Sturgeon had further developed this idea
by coating the iron bar, which was bent into ahorseshoe form, with
a non-conducting substance, and winding the wire directly on the
bar, thus increasing the closeness of the contact.|| Henry’s first
paper in electric science was a communication made to the Albany
Institute, October 10, 1827, ‘‘On Some Modifications of the Elec-
tromagnetic Apparatus.’’4] In this paper he suggested several im-
provements in the construction of the electromagnet, which greatly
increased its efficiency. In the first place he adopted the multiple
arrangement of turns proposed by Schweigger in his galvanometer ;
and in the second, instead of insulating the bar to be magnetized,
he insulated the conducting wire itself, covering the whole surface
of the iron with a series of coils in close contact. Sturgeon’s
electromagnet of 1825 consisted of a stout iron wire bent into a U
form, having a copper wire wound loosely round it, forming
eighteen turns. Henry’s electromagnet of 1829 was made of
a piece of round iron about one-quarter of an inch in diameter,
bent into the form of a horseshoe, and tightly wound with
thirty-five feet of wire covered with silk, forming about four
hundred turns. Later in the same year, Henry still further
increased the power of his electromagnet, by winding the wire
upon the iron core, not in a single strand, but in several; the
current flowing simultaneously through the different strands.
Using a U-shaped bar of iron, half an inch in diameter and
about ten inches long, wound with thirty feet of tolerably fine
copper wire, he observed that with a cell containing two and

* Schweigger, J., XXix, 273, 1820; Gilb. Ann., 1xvi, 295, 1820.

t Ann. Chim. Phys., xv, 59, 170, 1820; xviii, 88, 813, 1821; xxvi, 390, 1824.

{ Allgem. Literaturzeitung, No. 296, Nov., 1820; Schweigg., J., xxxi, 12, 1826.

2 Ann. Chim. Phys., XV, 93 (1820).

|| Trans. Soc. Encour. Arts, xliii, 38 (1825).
{ Trans, Albany Institute, Vol. i, pp. 22, 23 (1827).

127

a half square inches of zinc surface, this magnet would sustain four-
teen pounds. He then wound upon the core a second and similar
wire, the ends of which were connected to the same cell; and now
the magnet lifted twenty-eight pounds. With a single pair of
plates 4x6 inches this magnet lifted thirty-nine pounds, or more
than fifty times its own weight. This increase of power by multi-
plying the number of wires without increasing the length of each,
as Henry points out, produces its effect in two ways: ‘first, by
conducting a greater quantity of galvanism, and secondly, by giving
it a more proper direction.’’** Thus was constructed what Henry
called his ‘‘ quantity ’’ magnet.

Still larger electromagnets were constructed upon this plan
in 1830 and 1831. The former magnet consisted of a bar of soft
iron two inches square and twenty inches long, bent into the form
of a horseshoe, and weighing twenty-one pounds. Around this was
wound five hundred and forty feet of copper wire arranged in nine
coils of sixty feet each; each strand being coiled in several
layers, and occupying about two inches of the length of the core.
The ends of these coils being left separate and numbered,
the coils could be combined in any way desired so as to form one
continuous coil, or a double coil of half the length, a triple coil
one-third the length, etc. When a single pair of coils were put in
series the electromagnet lifted sixty pounds; but when the coils
were arranged in multiple, forming a double circuit, a lifting power
of two hundred pounds was developed. ‘The cell used with this
magnet was composed of two concentric cylinders of copper, having
a zinc cylinder between them ; the exposed zinc surface being about
0.4 square foot, and the acid required about half a pint. With all
the coils in parallel the magnet with this battery lifted six hundred
and fifty pounds; and with a pair of plates exactly an inch square
the magnet lifted eighty-five pounds.f

The 1831 magnet was made for the laboratory of Yale College.
The iron horseshoe was about a foot in length, and was made from
a bar of octagonal iron three inches in diameter. It was wound
with twenty-six strands of copper wire, each about twenty-eight feet

* Am. Jour. Science and Arts, xix, 402, Jan., 1831.

+Am. Jour. Science and Arts, xix, 404, 405, 1831. See also the excellent memorial ad-
dress on ‘‘The Scientific Work of Joseph Henry,” delivered before the Philosophical
Society of Washington, Oct. 26, 1878, by Wm. B. Taylor, to which the author would here
acknowledge his indebtedness. Bull, Phil. Soc., Washington, Vol. ii, p. 230.

t Am. Jour. Science and Arts, xx, 201, April, 1831.

128

long. With asingle cell of the construction just described, and
exposing about five feet of active zinc surface, this magnet lifted
twenty-three hundred pounds. It was of this magnet that Sturgeon
himself wrote thus: ‘‘ By dividing about eight hundred feet of con-
ducting wire into twenty-six strands, and forming it into as many
separate coils around a bar of soft iron about sixty.pounds in weight,
and properly bent into a horseshoe form, Prof. Henry has been
enabled to produce a magnetic force which completely eclipses every
other in the whole annals of magnetism; and no parallel is to be
found since the miraculous suspension of the celebrated Oriental im-
postor in his iron coffin.’’*

In his ‘‘ quantity’? magnet Henry sought to reduce the resistance
to a minimum, and so to obtain a very considerable current even
from a very small pair of plates. But he perceived that this was
not the whole truth. And in January, 1831, he published a re-
markable paper ¢ in which he showed for the first time that a coil
composed of several short circuits in parallel, while least effective
with a battery of many pairs of plates, was most responsive, on
the contrary, to a single voltaic cell ; and, on the other hand, that a
coil whose parts were all in series, which produced only trifling
effects with a single pair, was highly effective with a battery of
many pairs. Employing for example a small electromagnet having
a core of quarter inch iron wound with about eight feet of copper
wire, Henry found that with a single zinc plate, exposing about
fifty-six square inches of surface, this magnet lifted four and one-
half pounds. On interposing five hundred feet of copper wire be-
tween the magnet and the cell it lifted only two ounces; and with
one thousand feet interposed only half an ounce. On using a
trough battery of twenty-five pairs of plates, on the other hand,
the zinc surface exposed being the same as before, the magnet lifted
only seven ounces when directly connected. But when the one
thousand feet of wire was interposed the magnet sustained eight
ounces. In other words, the current from the battery produced
a greater magnetic effect after traversing this length of wire than it
did without it. He calls an electromagnet having its coil contin-
uous in length an “intensity ’’ magnet; and he says: ‘‘In de-
scribing the results of my experiments, the terms ‘ intensity’ and
‘quantity ’ magnets were introduced to avoid circumlocution, and

* Phil. Mag. and Annals of Philosophy, xi, 199, March, 1832.
+ Am. Jour. Science and Arts, xix, 400, Jan., 1831.

129

were intended to be used merely in a technical sense. By the
intensity magnet I designated a piece of soft iron so surrounded
with wire that its magnetic power could be called into operation by
an ‘intensity’ battery, and by a guwant:ty magnet a piece of iron
so surrounded by a number of separate coils that its magnetism
could be fully developed by a ‘quantity’ battery.’’* Clearly,
therefore, we owe to Henry the credit of having first worked out
practically the functions of two entirely different kinds of electro-
magnets ; one having several separate coils of no great length, desig-
nated as a ‘‘ quantity ’’ magnet, the other provided with a continu-
ous coil of very considerable length, designated as an ‘‘ intensity ’’
magnet. ‘‘ The latter and feebler system (requiring for its action
a battery of numerous elements) was shown to have the singular
capability (never before suspected or imagined) of subtle excitation
from a distant source. Here for the first time is experimentally
established the important principle that there must be a proportion
between the aggregate internal resistance of the battery and the
whole external resistance of the conjunctive wire or conducting
circuit ; with the very important practical consequence that by com-
bining with an ‘intensity’ magnet of a single extended fine coil
an ‘intensity’ battery of many small pairs, its electro-motive
force enables a very long conductor to be employed without diminu-
tion of the effect. This was a very important though unconscious
experimental confirmation of the mathematical theory of Ohm,
embodied in his formula expressing the relation between electric
flow and electric resistance, which, though propounded two or three
years previously, failed for a long time to attract any attention
from the scientific world.’’+

The practical outcome of these experiments was a most important
one. Although Ampére, at the suggestion of Laplace, had exam-
ined the question and had shown the possibility of making a tele-
graph by deflecting a needle through a long length of conducting
wire, yet further experiments by Barlow proved that lengthening
the conducting wire did actually produce a diminution of the effect.
Even with only two hundred feet of wire he found such a sensible
diminution as to convince him of the impracticability of the scheme.
From Henry’s experiment just described, however, ‘‘ it appears that

* Smithsonian Report for 1857, p. 108.
+ W. B. Taylor’s address, Memorial of Joseph Henry, published by order of Congress,
Washington, 1880, p. 227.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143. Q. PRINTED DEC. 18, 1893.

130

the current from a galvanic trough is capable of producing greater
magnetic effect on soft iron after traversing more than one-fifth of a
mile of intervening wire than when it passes only through the wire
surrounding the magnet.’’ In speculating on a result apparently so
paradoxical, Henry suggests that the ‘‘ current from a trough pos-
sesses more ‘projectile’ force (to use Prof. Hare’s expression) and
approximates somewhat in ‘intensity’ to the electricity from the
common machine.’’ ‘* But be this as it may,’’ he concludes, ‘‘the
fact that the magnetic action of acurrent from a Zrvovgh is at least not
sensibly diminished by passing through a long wire is directly appli-
cable to Mr. Barlow’s project of forming an electromagnetic tele-
graph ; and it is also of material consequence in the construction
of the galvanic coil. From these experiments it is evident that in
forming the coil we may either use one very long wire or several
shorter ones, as the circumstances may require; in the first case, our
galvanic combination must consist of anumber of platesso as to give
‘projectile’ force; in the second, it must be formed of a single
pair.” *

In 1832, Henry described the production of electrical effects
from the action of magnets.t Having wound upon the middle of
the soft iron armature of his large electromagnet an insulated
copper wire about thirty feet long, he observed that whenever the
magnet was charged by the battery current a deflection of about
30° to the west took place on a galvanometer connected with the
ends of this wire. This deflection was but momentary, however,
the needle returning to zero, although the magnet remained excited.
On opening the circuit, a momentary deflection to the east took
place. ‘‘ From the foregoing facts,’’ he says, ‘‘it appears that a
current of electricity is produced for an instant in a helix of copper
wire surrounding a piece of soft iron whenever magnetism is in-
duced in the iron, and a current in an opposite direction when the
magnetic action ceases; also that an instantaneous current in one
or the other direction accompanies every change in the magnetic
intensity of the iron,’’

It was while engaged in these experiments that Henry observed
the phenomena due to the induction of one portion of the wire
upon another, now called ‘‘self-induction.’’ He says: ‘‘ When a
small battery is moderately excited by diluted acid, and its poles

* Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, xix, 403, 404, Jan., 1831.
+ Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, xxii, 403, July, 1832.

131

(which should be terminated by cups of mercury) are connected by
a copper wire not more than a foot in length, no spark is perceived
when the connection is either formed or broken; but if a wire
thirty or forty feet long be used (instead of the short wire) though
no spark will be perceptible when the connection is made, yet when
it is broken by drawing one end of the wire from its cup of mer-
cury, a vivid spark is produced.’’ ‘‘ The effect appears somewhat
increased by coiling the wire into a helix ; it seems also to depend
in some measure on the length and thickness of the wire. I can
account for these phenomena only by supposing the long wire to
become charged with electricity which by its reaction on itself pro-
jects a spark when the connection is broken.’’*

In 1875, at the meeting of the National Academy in Philadel-
phia, I showed to Professor Henry the large electromagnet then re-
cently acquired by the University of Pennsylvania. I asked him
to place one of his hands upon one of the magnet-terminals, and
then, holding the conductor in the other, to break the circuit. He
did so, and, naturally, received a decided shock. He looked at me
rather reproachfully, as I thought, for the advantage I had taken of
him, ‘‘ Pardon me, Professor Henry,’’ I said, ‘‘ but I desired to
intreduce to you one of your own children. He was a little fellow
when you knew him and was quite unable to assert himself. But
now he has grown to man’s estate and is capable, as you see, of deal-
ing a pretty vigorous blow.’’ With a genial smile, he granted me
complete absolution.

One of the most important of Henry’s investigations, made after
he removed to Princeton, was his research on successive induction,
an account of which was published in the Proceedings of the Amer.
Philos. Soc. for November, 1838. In this research he employed
five annular spools of different sizes of fine wire (about one-fiftieth
of an inch thick) varying from one-fifth of a mile to nearly a
mile in length (which might be called intensity helices); and six
flat spiral coils of copper ribbon, varying from three-quarters of an
inch to one inch and a half in width and from sixty to ninety-three
feet in length (which might be called ‘‘ quantity’’ coils). ‘* With
the single larger ribbon coil in connection with the battery, and
another ribbon coil placed over it, resting on an interposed glass
plate, at every interruption of the primary circuit an induction
spark was obtained at the rubbed ends of the second coil, though

* Amer. Jour. Science and Arts, xxii, 408, July, 1832.

132

the shock was feeble. With a double wire spool (one within the
other) of 2650 yards, placed above the primary coil (having about
the same weight as the copper ribbon), the magnetizing effects dis-
appeared, the sparks were much smaller, ‘ but the shock was almost
too intense to be received with impunity.’’’ * Evidently, the in-
duced secondary in this case was a current of great ‘‘ intensity ’’
and of proportionately small ‘‘ quantity.’’ Hence these experi-
ments showed that it is possible to induce an intensity current from
one of quantity and a quantity current from one of intensity, a
principle underlying our modern induction coils and transformers.

Further, Henry used the secondary induced current as an initial
current, and so induced from it a tertiary current. ‘‘ By connect-
ing the secondary coil with another at some distance from the pri-
mary, so as not to be influenced by it directly, but forming, with
the secondary, a single closed circuit, not only was the distant coil
capable of producing, in an insulated wire helix placed over it, a
distinct current of induction at the interruption of the primary,
but sensible shocks were obtained from it.’’ ‘By a similar but
more extended arrangement, shocks were received from currents of
a fourth and a fifth order; and, with a more powerful primary cur-
rent and additional coils, a still greater number of successive in-
ductions might be obtained.’’ ‘It was found that, with the small
battery, a shock could be given from the current of the third order
to twenty-five persons joining hands; also shocks perceptible in
the arms were obtained from a current of the fifth order.’’ + As
Henry, himself, remarks, ‘‘ The induction of currents of different
orders of sufficient intensity to give shocks could scarcely have been
anticipated from our previous knowledge of the subject.’’ By in-
geniously introducing a small magnetizing helix into each circuit,
Henry found that the direction of these successive currents was
alternately reversed with reference to each other.

It was while endeavoring to repeat these successive inductions by
means of ordinary electricity that Henry was led to one of his most
important discoveries. His apparatus consisted of an open glass
cylinder, about six inches in diameter, provided with two long
narrow strips of tin foil pasted around it in corresponding heliacal
courses, one of these strips being on the outside and the other on
the inside, directly opposite to the first. The extremities of the inner

* Memorial of Professor Henry, p. 247.
+ Trans. Amer. Philos, Sozc., Vol. vi (N. S.), p. 308, 1888,

133

strip were connected to a small magnetizing helix, while the ends
of the outer strip were arranged so that the discharge of a half-
gallon Leyden jar could be passed through the strip. The magneti-
zation of a needle in the helix indicated an induced current through
the inner tin-foil ribbon, and the direction of this magnetization
showed the direction of this current. By means of a second and a
third cylinder, provided with heliacal tin-foil ribbons, Henry was
able to show the production of induced currents of the third and
even of the fourth order.

While the results in general were quite similar to those obtained
with the voltaic current, a puzzling difference was observed with
reference to the direction of the currents of the different orders, as
shown by the magnetized needles. ‘‘ These currents,’’ he says,
‘in the experiments with the glass cylinders, instead of exhibiting
the alternations of the galvanic currents, were all in the same direc-
tion as the discharge from the jar; or, in other words, they were
all plus.’’? By suitably varying the experiments, the direction of
the induced currents was found to depend notably on the distance
between the conductors, the induction ceasing at a certain distance
(depending upon the amount of the charge and the character of the
conductors), and the direction of the induced current beyond this
critical distance being contrary to that of the primary current.
‘With a battery of eight half-gallon jars,’’ he says, ‘‘and parallel
wires about ten feet long, the change in direction did not take place
at a less distance than from twelve to fifteen inches, and, with a still
larger battery and longer conductors, no change was found, although
the induction was produced at the distance of several feet.’’ Using
Dr. Hare’s battery of thirty-two one-gallon jars and a copper wire
about one-tenth of an inch thick and eighty feet long, stretched
across the lecture room and back on either side towards the battery,
a second wire stretched parallel with the former for about thirty-
five feet and extended to form an independent circuit (its ends con-
nected with a small magnetizing helix) was tested at varying dis-
tances, beginning with a few inches until they were twelve feet
apart; at which distance the induction in this parallel wire, though
enfeebled, still indicated, by its magnetizing power, a direction
corresponding with the primary current.*

Continuing his researches in this direction, Henry presented a
paper to the American Philosophical Society, in June, 1842, giving

* Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., vi (N.S.), Art. ix, p. 303, 1838.

134

an account of these anomalies in electrical induction and the re-
sults of his investigation of them. While, with the larger needles
subjected to the magnetizing helix, the polarity was always con-
formable to the direction of the discharge, he found that when very
fine needles were employed an increase in the force of the electricity
produced changes of polarity. In these researches not less than a
thousand needles were magnetized in the testing helices. This per-
plexing phenomenon was finally cleared up by the important dis-
covery that an electrical equilibrium was not instantaneously effected
by the spark, but that it was attained only after several oscillations
of the flow.

Ina recent lecture before the Royal Institution of Great Britain,
Dr. Oliver Lodge says, in speaking of the oscillatory character of a
Leyden jar discharge: * ‘‘ It was first clearly realized and distinctly
stated by that excellent experimentalist, Joseph Henry, of Wash-
ington, a man not wholly unlike Faraday in his mode of work,
though doubtless possessing to a less degree that astonishing insight
into intricate and obscure phenomena; wanting also in Faraday’s
circumstantial advantages. This great man arrived at a conviction
that the Leyden jar discharge was oscillatory by studying the singu-
lar phenomena attending the magnetization of steel needles by a
Leyden jar discharge, first observed in 1824 by Savary. Fine
needles when taken out of the magnetizing helices were found to
be not always magnetized in the right direction, and the subject is
referred to in German works as ‘anomalous magnetization.’ It is
not the magnetization which is anomalous, but the currents which
have no simple direction ; and we find in a memoir published by
Henry in 1842 the following words:

*¢ «This anomaly, which has remained so long unexplained, and
which at first sight appears at variance with all our theoretical ideas
of the connection of electricity and magnetism, was, after consider-
able study, satisfactorily referred by the author to an action of the
discharge of the Leyden jar which had never before been recognized.
The discharge, whatever may be its nature, is not correctly repre-
sented (employing for simplicity the theory of Franklin) by the sin-
gie transfer of an imponderable fluid from one side of the jar to
the other ; the phenomenon requires us to admit the existence of
a principal discharge in one direction and then several reflex actions
backwards and forwards, each more feeble than the preceding, until

* Modern Views of Electricity, p. 369, London and New York, 1889.

135

the equilibrium is obtained. All the facts are shown to be in ac-
cordance with this hypothesis, and a ready explanation is afforded
by it of a number of phenomena which are to be found in the older
works on electricity, but which have until this time remained unex-
plained.’ ’’ *

Dr. Lodge continues: ‘‘If this were an isolated passage it might
be nothing more than a lucky guess. But it is not. The conclu-
sion is one at which he arrives after a laborious repetition and seri-
ous study of the facts, and he keeps the idea constantly before him
when once grasped and uses it in all the rest of his researches on
the subject. The facts studied by Henry do, in my opinion, sup-
port his conclusion, and if I am right in this, it follows that he is
the original discoverer of the oscillatory character of a spark,
although he does not attempt to state its theory. That was first
done, and completely done, in 1853, by Sir William Thomson ;
and the progress of experiment by Feddersen, Helmholtz, Schiller
and others has done nothing but substantiate it.’’ +

These investigations of Henry established the fact that ‘‘ in every
case of the electrostatic discharge the testing needles were really
subjected to an oscillating alternation of currents and consequently
to successive partial demagnetizations and remagnetizations.’’ He
at once made use of this singular reflux of current to explain the
apparent change in the inductive action caused by distance. If
‘«the primitive discharge wave be in excess of the magnetic capacity
of the needle in a given position, the return wave might be just suf-
ficient to completely reverse its polarity and the diminished succeed-
ing wave insufficient to restore it to its former condition ; while at a
greater distance the primitive wave might beso far reduced as to just
magnetize the needle fully, and the second wave, being still more en-
feebled, would only partially demagnetize it, leaving still a portion
of the original polarity ; and so for the following diminished oscil-
lations.’’ f

‘‘Qne more extract I must make from that same memoir by
Henry,”’ says Dr. Lodge, ‘‘ and it isa most interesting one ; it shows
how near he was or might have been to obtaining some of the results
of Hertz; though, if he had obtained them, neither he nor any other
experimentalist could possibly have divined their real significance.

* Proceedings Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol. ii, p. 193, June 17, 1842.
+ Modern Views of Electricity, p. 370, London and New York, 1889.
}W. B. Taylor, loc. cit., p. 255.

136

It is, after all, the genius of Maxwell and of a few other great theo-
retical physicists, whose names are on every one’s lips, which
endows the simple induction experiments of Hertz and others with
such stupendous importance. Here is the quotation:

“¢«Tn extending the researches relative to this part of the investi-
gations, a remarkable result was obtained in regard to the distance
at which induction effects are produced by a very small quantity of
electricity ; a single spark from the prime conductor of a machine
of about an inch long, thrown on to the end of a circuit of wire in
an upper room, produced an induction sufficiently powerful to mag-
netize needles in a parallel circuit of iron placed in the cellar be-
neath at a perpendicular distance of thirty feet, with two floors and
ceilings each fourteen inches thick intervening. The author is dis-
posed to adopt the hypothesis of an electrical p/enum’ [in other
words, of an ether], ‘and from the foregoing experiment it would
appear that a single spark is sufficient to disturb perceptibly the
electricity of space throughout at least a cube of 400,000 feet of
capacity; and when it is considered that the magnetism of the
needle is the result of the difference of two actions, it may be fur-
ther inferred that the diffusion of motion in this case is almost com-
parable with that of a spark from flint and steel in the case of
light.’ Comparable it is indeed,’’ says Lodge, ‘‘ for we now know
it to be the self-same process.”’

A few months later Henry ‘‘ succeeded in magnetizing needles by
the secondary current in a wire more than three hundred feet distant
from the wire through which the primary current was passing, ex-
cited by a single spark from an electrical machine.’’* The primary
wire used for this purpose was the telegraph line which he had
stretched seven years before across the campus of the college
grounds in front of Nassau Hall; the secondary or induction wire
being suspended in a parallel direction across the grounds in the
rear of Nassau Hall, its ends terminating in buried metallic plates.
The building itself intervened between the wires.

Moreover, Henry studied induced currents produced by atmos-
pheric electricity. By avery simple arrangement he was enabled
to magnetize needles strongly in his study, whenever a lightning
flash took place within a radius of twenty miles and when the thun-
der was scarcely audible. ‘‘ The inductions from atmospheric dis-

* Proceedings Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol. ii, p. 229, Oct. 21, 1842. Vol. iv, p. 260, June 19, 1846,

137

charges were found to have the oscillatory character observed with
the Leyden jar; and by interposing several magnetizing helices
with few and with many convolutions, Henry was enabled to get
from a needle in the former the polarity due to the direct current,
and in the latter that due to the return current, thus catching the
lightning, as it were, upon the rebound.’’ In speaking, subse-
quently, of the phenomena attending electrical oscillation in dis-
charge, extending as they do to a surprising distance on all sides,
Henry remarks: ‘‘ As these are the results of currents in alternate
directions, they must produce in surrounding space a series of plus
and minus motions analogous to, if not identical with, undula-
tions ;’’ * a reference to modern theories clearly prophetic. In
1845, he showed that the charge passed along the surface of the
wire and not through its whole mass.

As a fitting sequel to the investigations of Hare and of Henry
which have now been detailed, and especially to the experiments of
the former on ‘‘quantity’’ and ‘‘intensity’’ batteries, taken in
connection with those of the latter on ‘‘ quantity ’’ and ‘‘ intensity ”’
magnets, it is interesting to notice the experiments upon the elec-
tromagnetic telegraph which were subsequently made by two other
members of the American Philosophical Society, John William
Draper (elected in 1844) and Samuel Finley Breese Morse (elected in
1848). The story is told by Professor Draper himself, in an address
delivered, in 1853, to the alumni of the University of the City of New
York. He says: ‘‘ Fourteen years ago, there stood upon the floor
of the chemical laboratory of our University a pair of old-fashioned
galvanic batteries. Like the cradle of a baby, they worked upon
rockers, so that the acid might be turned on or off. A gray-haired
gentleman had been using them for many years to see whether he
could produce enough magnetism in a piece of iron, at a distance,
to move a pencil and make marks upon paper. He had contrived
a brass instrument that had keys something lke a piano in minia-
ture, only there was engraven on each a letter of the alphabet.
When these were touched, the influence of the batteries was sent
through a copper wire and a mark answering to a letter was made a
long way off. .... But, long after the telegraph instruments were
perfected, it was doubtful whether intelligence could be sent to any
considerable distance. It is one thing to send an electric current

* Proceedings Amer. Assoc. Adv. Science, Albany meeting, 1851, p. 89.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 148. R. PRINTED DEC. 18, 1893.

138

a few yards and a totally different affair to send it a thousand miles.
Experiments which had been made under the auspices of the Russian
government, by Professor Jacobi, of the University of Dorpat, had
led to the inference that the law of the conducting power of wires
originally discovered in Germany was correct; and, in addition,
a corroborative memoir had been read by Lenz before the Imperial
Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg. At this time, so little was
known in England as regards this important point, that some of
the most eminent natural philosophers connected with universities
there embraced the opposite view. I may not be able to make the
precise point in dispute clear; it was this: A current passing
through a certain length of wire suffers a certain amount of loss. If
it should go through a wire a thousand times as long, will the loss
be a thousand times as great? The Russians said, yes; the Eng-
lish said, no. If the former was the case, it was universally con-
cluded that the electric telegraph would not be practicable for any
considerable distance. A series of experiments was made in the
University of New York which established beyond all question the
truth of the Russian view. But at that time the higher mathemat-
ics were cultivated in our laboratory as well as mere experimenting ;
and, on submitting the results to such a mathematical discussion,
the paradoxical conclusion was brought out that it is a necessary
consequence of that law that, after a certain length of wire has
been used, the losses become imperceptible. Encouraged by this,
a party of gentlemen went with the inventor of the telegraph to a
rope-walk, near Bloomingdale, one summer morning and there
tested the truth of these conclusions on lengths of wire varying
from one to some hundreds of miles. The losses of the currents
were measured by the quantity of the gas set free in the decompo-
sition of water. The result was completely successful, and tele-
graphing for any distance became an established certainty.”’

Joseph Saxton was elected a member of the American Philosoph-
ical Society on October 20, 1837, shortly after his return from
London to assume the office of constructor and curator of the
standard weighing apparatus of the Philadelphia Mint; a position
which had been tendered to him by the Director, Dr. R. M. Patter-
son. Before going abroad he had made several inventions of note,
and, in association with Isaiah Lukens,* had constructed the clock

* Elected to the Amer. Philos. Soc., October 20, 1820.

139

which still occupies the belfry of Independence Hall. He reached
London in 1831 and shortly afterwards became connected with the
Adelaide Gallery of Practical Science, having charge of its exten-
sive collection of philosophical apparatus. It was here that he met
Telford, Brunel and other eminent English engineers. By them
he was introduced to the meetings of the Royal Institution and was
admitted into friendly relationship with its Fullerian professor of
chemistry, Michael Faraday. ‘The primary facts of magneto-elec-
tric and of dynamo-electric induction had already been discovered
by Faraday in 1831. Saxton took a great interest in these discoy-
eries and followed them up by constructing the first operative mag-
neto-electric machine. In his appreciative biographical memoir of
Mr. Saxton, Professor Henry thus speaks of his great scientific in-
vention :

“«Tt was a part of the general principle discovered by Mr. Far-
aday that, if an insulated or coated wire were wound with many
coils around a cylinder of soft iron, which is suddenly magnetized
by touching its ends with a magnet, the same effect would be pro-
duced as that described by thrusting in and drawing out a perma-
nent magnet. A current in one direction would be excited in the
coil when the core became magnetized, and a current would be
produced in an opposite direction the moment the magnetism
ceased. Mr. Saxton adopted for the inducing magnet to be em-
ployed in his machine a compound one, consisting of a number of
steel bars bent into the form of a horseshoe, magnetized separately,
and then screwed together so as to form one powerful combination.
For the inducing part of the apparatus he bent a cylindrical rod of
iron of about three-fourths of an inch in diameter twice at right
angles so as to produce the form of a U, the parallel legs of which
were at the distance of that of the centres of the two poles of the
permanent magnet. Around each of these legs he wound thirty or
forty yards of insulated copper wire. Now it is evident from the
principle before stated that when the two ends of the legs of this U
of soft iron are brought in contact with the poles of the permanent
magnet, an instantaneous current will be produced in the natural
electricity of the wires, each in a direction opposite to the other.
Again, when the soft iron U is drawn suddenly away from the
poles of the permanent magnet, a reverse current will take place in
each of the coils. But a more intense effect will be produced
if the legs of the soft iron horseshoe or U be made to rotate before

140

the face or poles of the permanent magnet so as to slide off of one
on to the other. In this case the effect will be double that of sep-
arating it from a single pole; since if, in passing from the first pole
it loses its magnetism, in passing on to the second it may be con-
sidered as being demagnetized still further, since it is changed into
the opposite magnetism. A similar result will be produced with the
other leg of the horseshoe. To excite, therefore, the greatest
possible amount of electrical induction, Mr. Saxton fastened the U
to a revolving axis passing through its crown, to which a rapid ro-
tation could be given by means of a driving wheel and pulley. In
order, however, to obtain manifestations of the induced currents
produced in the copper wire, the two ends of the coils were so
soldered together as to give a single current in one direction through
the entire length of the coils. One of the remaining ends was then
permanently soldered toa circular disk fastened concentrically to the
revolving axis by an insulating collar, with its plane perpendicular
to it. This plate dipped into a cup of mercury. The other end
of the wire was soldered directly to the revolving shaft or axis. In
this arrangement the insulated disk formed one pole of the long
wire and the revolving shaft the other; but as they were not con-
nected no electrical excitement was observed when the bobbins
were revolved. To make and break the connection at the proper
moment, two wires were soldered diametrically opposite each other
on a ferule which fitted tightly with friction on the revolving shaft.
These wires standing out at right angles to the shaft were cut off at
such a length that at each revolution the ends would plunge into
the same cup of mercury with the revolving disk, and thus complete
and break the circuit twice with each revolution of the bobbins.
These wire points were then so adjusted by turning the ferule on
the shaft as to cause them to enter and leave the mercury at the
moment when the magnetism was increasing or diminishing most
rapidly, and consequently when the current had the greatest in-
tensity.

*« With this instrument he was able to exhibit a brilliant electrical
spark, to decompose water, to show the electrical light between
charcoal points, and to give a rapid series of intense shocks. The
instrument was exhibited to the public for the first time at the
meeting of the British Association at Cambridge, in June, 1833,
where it excited much interest. It was permanently placed in the
Adelaide Gallery in August of the same year. The poet Coleridge,

141

who was present at its exhibition in Cambridge, spoke with en-
thusiasm not only of the magnitude of the discovery of the in-
ductive electrical effects of magnetism—one of the claims of Fara-
day to imperishable reputation—but also of the ingenious invention
of Mr. Saxton by which the transient electrical currents might ex-
hibit their effects in so brilliant and so powerful a manner.’’ *

‘ Notwithstanding the attention which this machine of Saxton’s
received in scientific circles, no description of it was published
until 1836. In October of that year a philosophical instrument
maker of London, named Clarke, published a description of a
magneto electrical machine practically identical with that of Sax-
ton, and differing only in the fact that the magnet was placed ver-
tically, with the poles downward, instead of horizontally. Not
only does he not mention Mr. Saxton by name, nor even allude to
his machine, publicly exhibited three years before, but he says with
great affectation of originality: ‘‘ From the time Dr. Faraday first
discovered magnetic electricity to the present my attention has
been entirely devoted to that important branch of science, more
especially to the construction of an efficacious magnetic electrical
machine, which after much anxious thought, labor and expense, I
now submit to your notice.’’+ Naturally Saxton was prompt to
take notice of this disingenuous statement. In the next number of
the same journal he says, referring to Clarke’s paper: ‘‘ A reader
unacquainted with the progress which magneto-electricity has made
since this new path of science was opened by the beautiful and un-
expected discoveries of Faraday, might be misled, from the paper
I have alluded to, to believe that the electromagnetic machine there
represented was the invention of the writer, and that the experi-
ments there mentioned were for the first time made by its means.
No conclusion, however, would be more erroneous. The machine
which Mr. Clarke calls Acs invention differs from mine only in
a slignt variation in the situation of its parts, and is in no respect
superior to it. The experiments which he states in such a manner
as to insinuate that they are capable of being made only by his ma-
chine, have every one been long since performed with my instru-
ment, and Mr. Clarke has had every opportunity of knowing the
truth of this statement.

* Memoir of Joseph Saxton,’ by Joseph Henry, Biographical Memoirs Nat. Acad. of

Sciences, Vol. i, pp. 287-317, Washington, 1877.
{ Philosophical Magazine, II{, ix, 262, October, 1836.

142

*¢ Though my machine is tolerably well known to the public from
its constant exhibition at the Adelaide-street Gallery since August,
1833,’ Saxton continues, ‘‘ and my claims as its inventor have been
acknowledged by Professors Faraday, Daniell and Wheatstone, in
papers of theirs published in the Philosophical Transactions, yet as no
description of it has yet been published I will thank you to insert
the following in the ensuing number of the PAz/osophical Magazine.’’*
Then follows an illustrated description of the Saxton machine
of 1833.

In this article he says: ‘* The first electromagnetic machine,
that is, an instrument by which a continuous and rapid succession
of sparks could be obtained from a magnet, was invented by M.
Hypolite Pixii, of Paris, and was first made public at the meeting
of the Academie des Sciences on September 3, 1832. .... It
differs from mine principally in two respects: first in M. Pixii’s
instrument the magnet itself revolves and not the armature; and
secondly, the interruptions instead of being produced by the revo-
lution of points, were made by bringing one of the ends of the
wire over a cup of mercury, and depending on the jerks given to
the instrument by its rotation for making and breaking the contact
with the mercury.’’ With regard to the double armature in his
machine, Saxton says that he was led to it by the following circum-
stances: ‘‘ In November, 1833, Count di Predevalli brought from
Paris one of M. Pixii’s machines, and it was sent to the Adelaide-
street Gallery in order that its effects might be compared with
those of mine. Mine was found to excel in the brilliancy of the
spark, while M. Pixii’s machine was more effective in giving the
shock and affecting the electrometer. M. Pixii’s machine had a
larger keeper and a much greater extent of copper wire. Shortly
after Mr. Newman, of Regent street, made a smaller instru-
ment on my construction, which gave the shock more power-
fully than my large one did; this also had a greater length of coil,
but the effect was at that time partly attributed to the better insula-
tion of the wire. I then convinced myself by some experiments
that the increased shock solely depended on the length of the
wire. ‘The cause of the difference of effect in the two cases ad-
mitted no longer of dispute after the publication of the experi-
ments of Dr. Henry, of Philadelphia, of Mr. Jennings and of Dr.
Faraday ; as their investigations fully proved that the spark is best

* Phil, Mag., III, ix, 8360, November, 1836.

143

obtained from a magneto-electric coil when short, and the shock
when it is long.’’

Many other ingenious instruments were constructed by Saxton
while he was connected with the Adelaide Gallery. He made the
apparatus with which Wheatstone’s celebrated experiment of meas-
uring the speed of electric transfer through a wire was performed,
by which was established the fact that this transfer requires time for
its accomplishment. He constructed for the Gallery a compound
steel magnet which sustained the weight of five hundred and twenty-
five pounds; and also a magnetic needle several feet in length, hav-
ing a mirror on its end, by which he exhibited for the first time on
a magnificent scale the daily and hourly variations of the magnetic
force of the earth by the movements of a reflected beam of light.
This use of the mirror, however, he -had made use of as early as
1825, thus anticipating the similar application made by Ganss. One
modification of the revolving mirror thus early used by Saxton con-
sisted in fastening a small mirror to a rotating axis obliquely, so
that when a beam of light was thrown upon the mirror, and suff-
cient speed given to it, a large circle of light would be projected on
the ceiling. When, by a powerful train of wheel work, very rapid
rotation was produced, any fluctuations taking place in the inten-
sity of the light could at once be detected. He showed, for exam-
ple, that when the light came from charcoal points forming the
poles of a voltaic battery, the circle of light exhibited a mottled or
dotted appearance, indicating a rapid alternation of intensity in
the electrical discharge.

In a diary kept by him during his residence in London, he gives
‘‘a method of determining the position of the interior magnetic
poles of the earth by projecting, in the form of a large circle, a
section of the earth through the magnetic meridian. On the cir-
cumference of this drawing he next projected the dip of the needle
in different latitudes from the equator to the pole, and by prolong-
ing these projections until they meet in the interior of the earth,
determining the positions of the centres of magnetic influence in
the two hemispheres. By this process he arrived at the conclusion
that the magnetic polarity of the earth is deeply seated in the in-
terior, and that consequently the magnetism of the globe may be
represented by a comparatively short magnet, the axis of which
passes through the centre of the globe.’’ Moreover, he made ‘‘a
drawing of an arrangement of apparatus for obtaining an electrical

144

spark from the magnetism of the earth. This consists in the rapid
revolution of a large bar of soft iron on a horizontal axis at right
angles to its length, in the plane of the meridian, the bar being
surrounded with a very long wire insulated with a covering of silk,
an arrangement being made to break the circuit at the instant of
the bar receiving the greatest amount of magnetic induction. He
succeeded, by this arrangement, in producing currents of electricity
of considerable power, but for the want at the time of a sufficient
length of insulated wire, he was unable to increase the intensity suffi-
ciently to produce the spark.’’ *

Although Saxton’s preéminent ability as a mechanician had se-
cured for him the tender of the office of director of the printing
machinery of the Bank of England, he preferred to return to the
United Siates and to accept the office of constructor and curator of
the standard weighing apparatus of the Philadelphia Mint. During
his connection with the Mint he constructed ‘‘ the large standard
balances still used in the annual inspection of the assays and the
verification of the standard weights for all the Government assay
and coining offices in the United States. The knife edges of these
implements are of the hardest steel, turning upon plates of agate ;
and such sensibility has the apparatus that when loaded with fifty
pounds it turns with one-tenth of a grain; or, in other words, with
the three-millionth part of its load.’’

Already, in 1834, he had been awarded the John Scott medal of
the Franklin Institute for a reflecting pyrometer, in which he had
utilized the mirror method of observation to determine the temper-
ature by means of the linear expansion of a metallic rod when
under the influence of heat. In 1843, upon his appointment by
Professor A. D. Bache to the office of Superintendent of Weights and
Measures, he applied this mirror method to the construction of the
standard bars used by the Coast Survey in such a way as to secure
an unvariable length in the bar when subjected to different temper-
atures. This was done so successfully that the different measure-
ments of a base line five miles in length did not differ by more
than half an inch.

In 1858, Saxton presented to the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, at its Baltimore meeting, a paper giving
an account of the principal applications which he had made of the

* Henry’s Biographical Memoir, loc. cit., p. 303.

145

revolving mirror to minute measurements. In applying this prin-
ciple to the adjustment of the measuring rods of the Coast Survey,
as well as for certain other minute measurements, he had made use
of a graduated scale instead of a beam of light, the reflected image
of which, considerably magnified, was observed by means of a
telescope. With this improvement, an elongation which does not
exceed the one hundred thousandth part of an inch becomes a very
distinct and measurable magnitude. The same apparatus was ap-
plied, at the request of General Meigs, to determine the expansion
of different specimens of marble cut into prisms of the same length
and cross section. The principle involved is evidently applicable
in all cases where changes in length, in angle or in position are to
be determined. Saxton himself applied it in the Magnetic Observ-
atory of Girard College to indicate changes in the magnetic dip
and also to magnify the motion of the axis of an aneroid barome-
ter. For this latter purpose, the case of the instrument is removed
and a mirror about one-half an inch square is attached to the first
axis of motion. The aneroid is then fastened to a bracket on the
wall, the axis carrying the mirror being placed horizontally. At a
distance of about fifteen feet from the mirror a telescope is perma-
nently adjusted, so that the image of a divided scale placed imme-
diately below the object glass can be seen in the mirror. With this
arrangement, the slightest change in the pressure of the air becomes
apparent. The opening or closing of a door, or a gust of wind over
the house, produces marked disturbances in the pressure of the at-
mospheric column, the extent of which can be readily measured.*

Besides the representative investigations of Franklin in Electro-
statics, of Hare in Electrokinetics, of Henry in Electromagnetics,
and of Saxton in Magneto-electrics, which have now been con-
sidered, members of the American Philosophical Society have
made important researches in Magnetism, and especially in the
magnetism of the earth.

David Rittenhouse became a member of the Philosophical
Society on the roth of January, 1768. On the 6th of February,
1781, he read a paper before the Society, entitled ‘‘ An Account of
Some Experiments on Magnetism,’’f in which he set forth his
theory of the magnetism of iron. In this paper he says: ‘‘Isup-

* Henry’s Biographical Memoir of Saxton, loc. cit., p. 312.
+ Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1, ii, 178, 1781.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC, XxxtI. 148. 8. PRINTED DEC. 28, 1893.

146

pose then that magnetical particles of matter are a necessary con-
stituent part of that metal which we call iron, though they are
probably but a small proportion of the whole mass. These mag-
netical particles, I suppose, have each a north and asouth pole, and
that they retain their polarity however the metal may be fused or
otherwise wrought. In a piece of iron which shows no signs of
magnetism, these magnetical particles lie irregularly with their poles
pointing in all possible directions; they therefore mutually destroy
each other’s effects. By giving magnetism to a piece of iron we do
nothing more than arrange these particles, and when this is done
it depends on the temper and situation of the iron whether that
arrangement shall continue, that is whether the piece of metal shall
remain for a long time magnetical or not..... By applying
a magnet to a piece of iron,’’ he continues, ‘‘ it becomes mag-
netical ; for the magnet acting strongly on the above- mentioned par-
ticles, that action arranges them properly ; overcoming the resistance
of the surrounding parts of the iron, and this resistance afterwards
serves to secure them in their proper situations and prevents their
being deranged by any little accident.’’ Moreover, ‘‘ iron or soft
steel receives magnetism more easily than hardened steel, but will
not retain it. May not this be,’’ he suggests, ‘‘ because the magneti-
cal particles are not so closely confined in soft as in hardened steel,
and on that account more easily admit of arrangement or derange-
ment?’’ In one of his experiments, Rittenhouse took a soft steel
ramrod, having no sign of magnetism, and, holding it in the line
of the dip, struck it on one end with a hammer. The lower end
became a north pole, and when laid on a watch crystal ‘‘it
traversed very well.’? ‘ From all this,’’ he reasons, ‘‘ does it not
seem very probable that during the concussion of the stroke and
whilst the magnetical particles of the rod were most disengaged
from the surrounding matter, the active power above mentioned
seized them and arranged them properly, where being confined, the
rod afterward remained magnetical.’’ With reference to this
“active power,’’ he says in a footnote: ‘‘ There is some power,
whencesoever derived, diffused through every part of space which
we have access to, which acts on these magnetical particles, impelling
one of their poles in a certain direction with respect to the earth,
and the other pole in the opposite direction. The direction in
which this power acts I take to be the same with that of the dip-
ping needle.’’ |

147

In his article on ‘‘Magnetism,’’ published in the Axcyclopedia
Britannica, Professor Chrystalsays: ‘‘ The notion of molecular mag-
nets seems to have been suggested by Kirwan ; but it was not until a
definite form was given to it by Weber that it acquired any impor-
tance.’’ The views of Kirwan here referred to are contained in
a paper entitled ‘‘ Thoughts on Magnetism,’’ published in the
Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy for 1797. In this paper
Kirwan states as follows: ‘‘ A magnet therefore is a mass of iron or
of iron ore, whose oxygenation does not exceed twenty per cent. or
thereabouts, whose particles are arranged in a direction similar to
that of the great internal central magnets of the globe. ‘This I call
the magnetic arrangement. .... Hence a magnet attracts tron
when within the sphere of its action by forcing, in virtue of its at-
tractive power, a certain proportion of its integrant particles into a
disposition and arrangement similar to that of its own.....
The disposition of parts in a particular magnet, being similar to
that which obtains in the great internal general magnet, extends in
the direction of from north to south. Hence magnets, when
at liberty to move with a certain degree of freedom, and iron
when a sufficient number of its particles are arranged in that
direction, and has sufficient liberty to conform to it, points to those

poles. Hence this property is called polarity. .... The mag-
netic power is greater or lesser according to the number and homo-
geneity of the particles s¢m/arly and magnetically arranged. ... .

The power of a magnet (everything else being equal) depends on
the number of its surfaces magnetically arranged and the accuracy
of that arrangement. ... ... The arrangement is accurate when
the synonymous surfaces are exactly parallel to each other and
originally conformed to and parallel with those of the great
general magnet. . . . . Amy motion communicated to the integrant
particles of iron placed in a proper situation helps them to assume
the magnetic disposition already impressed upon them by the great
general magnet.’’*

These quotations from Kirwan’s paper appear to show that
the views he held on the nature of magnetism were vague and in-
definite ; and therefore seem to justify Prof. Chrystal’s conclusion
that the molecular theory in the form proposed by Kirwan did not
acquire any importance. Especially would this be so in view
of the fact that in 1600 Gilbert, in his book ‘‘ De Magnete,”’

* Trans. Royal Irish Acad., vi, 177, 1797.

148

showed that if a magnet be broken each piece becomes a complete
magnet. The opinions of Rittenhouse, however, seem to be
greatly more clear and precise. The idea of ‘‘ magnetical
particles ’’ each having a north anda south pole, and each retaining
its polarity, even when the metal is fused, is a perfectly definite one.
When a piece of iron shows no magnetism, it is because the
particles lie irregularly, and mutually neutralize one another’s
action; the process of ‘magnetization consisting simply in
arranging these particles so that their similar pcles face similarly.
If now we take into the account the fact that the paper of Ritten-
house antedates that of Kirwan by about sixteen years, it would
seem clear that to our fellow-member belongs indisputably the
credit of the origin of the molecular theory of magnetism.

Alexander Dallas Bache was elected a member of the American
Philosophical Society, April 17, 1829; only a few months after he
had taken up his residence in Philadelphia as Professor of Natural
Philosophy and Chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania. His
attention was early directed to the subject of Terrestrial Magnetism
by the remarkable investigations in this direction made by Gauss
and Weber. And, in 1830, he erected and equipped a little mag-
netic observatory in the garden attached to his residence, in which
observations were made regularly for a period of four or five years.
It was in this observatory that, aided by his wife and by his pupil,
John F. Frazer, he determined with accuracy, for the first time in
this country, the periods of the daily variations of the magnetic
needle. Here, also, by another series of observations, he deter-
mined the connection of the fitful variations of the direction of the
magnetic force with the appearance of the aurora borealis. His
first memoir on the subject was presented to the American Philo-
sophical Society in November, 1832, and contains the results of
hourly observations on the declination.* These observations were
made with a very long needle provided with a graduated arc at each
end. ‘Terrestrial magnetism soon became with him a favorite sub-
ject and one to which he continued to make valuable contributions
at intervals during his whole life. Even in his journeys he carried
with him portable instruments with which he ‘determined the mag-
netic constants of the points he visited. ‘‘ What he accomplished
in later years for this favorite branch of science,’’ says Dr. Gould,

**“On the Diurnal Variation of the Magnetic Needle,” Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc. (New
Series), Vol. v, p. 1.

149

‘¢the world knows; and it is certainly not too much to say that, of
what we know to-day of the distribution, intensity and periodic
and secular changes of terrestrial magnetism, we are indebted quite
as much to Bache as to any other one man.,’’

In connection with his colleague, Courtenay, then Professor of
Mathematics in the University of Pennsylvania, he undertook an
elaborate investigation of the value of the dip and the horizontal
intensity of the earth’s magnetism at several places in the United
States, the results of which were published in two extended memoirs
printed in the Zransactions of the Society.*

On his thirtieth birthday, July 19, 1836, Bache was elected Pres-
ident of Girard College, then about to be put into operation under
the provisions of the will of Stephen Girard; and, receiving in-
structions to visit Europe in order to examine similar institutions
there, he resigned his chair in the University and spent two years
abroad. While in Europe he found opportunity to determine the mag-
netic dip and horizontal intensity at twenty-one stations, with the
same apparatus and by the same methods which he had employed in
America; the results of which determinations he communicated to
the Society in a paper entitled, ‘‘ Observations of the Magnetic
Intensity at Twenty-one Stations in Europe.’’ + These observa-
tions were made with the view of ascertaining the relative direction
and strength of the magnetic force in Europe and America by the
comparison of parallel series of observations in the two countries
with the same instruments. ‘They also served, in most instances, to
settle with greater precision than had previously been attained the
relative magnetic condition of the stations at which they were
made.

It was while waiting for the College to go into operation that
Prof. Bache entered into active codperation with the great under-
taking of the British Association, ‘‘ to determine, by contempora-
neous observations at widely separated points, the fluctuations of the
magnetic and meteorological elements of the globe. This codper-

* “Observations to Determine the Magnetic Dip at Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York,
West Point, Providence, Springfield and Albany,” Trans. Amer. Phitos. Soc. (New Series),
V, 209, 183-4.

“‘On the Relative Horizontal Intensities of Terrestrial Magnetism at Several Places in
the United States, with the Investigation of Corrections for Temperature and Comparisons
of the Methods of Oscillation in Full and Rarefied Air,” Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc. (New
Series), v, 427, 1836.

+ Trans. Amer. Philos. Suc. (New Series), vii, 75, 1840 ; Proceedings Amer. Philos. Soc., i, 185.

150

ation, in which, no doubt, a feeling of national pride mingled itself
with his ardor for the advancement of science, consisted primarily
in the establishment of an observatory, to which the trustees of
Girard College contributed a full set of instruments, combining all
the latest improvements, and which was supported by the American
Philosophical Society and by a number of liberal and intelligent in-
dividuals. The observations which were here continued at short
intervals, both by day and night, for five years, form a rich mine
of statistics from which, until within the last few years of his life,
the professor drew a highly interesting series of results without
exhausting the material.’’* Of this Girard College Magnetic Ob-
servatory, in which, by the untiring labors of Professor Bache him-
self and his efficient assistants, this great wealth of valuable scientific
material was gathered, no vestige remains. Not only is there no
trace of the building itself or any of its parts to be found within
the walls of that institution, but there is even a considerable differ-
ence of opinion as to its exact location. No single spot in Phila-
delphia surpasses this in scientific interest. May we not hope that
the trustees of Girard College will see to it that the exact site of
this observatory is accurately determined and that at least a tablet
be placed thereon to mark a spot so important as a magnetic cen-
trey

In November, 1843, Professor Bache was appointed Superintend-
ent of the Coast Survey of the United States; and, a month later,
Superintendent of Weights and Measures. ‘‘ The volume of testi-
monials and recommendations,’’ says Dr. Gould, ‘‘upon the
strength of which this appointment was made, has been shown me;
and their number and character has madea deep impression. I
cannot believe that such a weight of recommendation was ever
brought at any time in support of a candidate for office on purely
intellectual grounds. I can think of no man in the country, emi-
nent in physical science, or holding a prominent scientific position,
whose name was not signed to some one of that voluminous mass of
memorials asking the appointment of Professor Bache. All the sci-

* “Biographical Memoir of Alexander Dallas Bache,’’ by Joseph Henry, Biographical
Memoirs Nat. Acad. Sciences, Vol. i, p. 181 Read April 16, 1869.

+ Mr. Charles H, Cramp, of this city, and Mr. George Davidson, of San Francisco, both
members of the American Philosophical Society, were assistants to Prof. Bache in this
observatory. Mr. Cramp recently gave to the writer an extremely interesting account of
the building and of the instruments contained within it, as well as of the methods of
observation which were pursued in the determinations.

151

entific societies and colleges, together with several of the learned
associations of Europe, gave their influence and added their
endorsement fo the request.’’* It is gratifying to know that his
appointment to this position was first suggested by the members of
the American Philosophical Society.

Among the many directions in which the operations of the Coast
Survey were now to be extended, Professor Bache very naturally in-
cluded terrestrial magietism ; observations of the dip and the varia-
tion of the needle and of the intensity of the earth’s magnetism
being introduced as a part of the regular routine. He retained his
own personal interest in these matters, and contributed from time
to time scientific memoirs upon them to the learned bodies of which
he was a member.

Of the memoirs thus communicated.a few may here be men-
tioned. At the Albany meeting of the American Association, held
in 1856, a paper was presented by Professor Bache, in conjunction
with J. E. Hilgard, ‘‘ On the General Distribution of Terrestrial Mag-
netism in the United States, from Observations Made in the United
States Coast Survey and Others.’’ At that time the number of
magnetic stations established by the Survey amounted to one hun-
dred and sixty, distributed, though somewhat irregularly, along the
entire sea coast of the United States, on a great portion of which
magnetic observations were now made for the first time. The
object of the paper was to deduce from the Coast Survey observa-
tions, in connection with others of recent date, the general distri-
bution of terrestrial magnetism in the United States, as far as the
data available will warrant the conclusions. With regard to the
method and instruments used, only a brief notice is given. ‘In
observing the dec/ination, the magnetic meridian has generally been
obtained by means of collimator magnets, using Gauss and Weber’s
transportable magnetometer; while the astronomical meridian was
derived from the triangle sides of the Coast Survey or obtained
by direct observations. The df has been observed with needles of
from six to ten inches in length, made by Gambey and by Barrow.
Two needles have generally been used, or, when only one was
employed, it has been carefully tested and compared. The hori-
zontal intensity has been determined in absolute measure by vibra-
tions and deflections, according to the methods of Gauss and La-
mont. The units of measure are those used in the British surveys.

*“ Address in Commemoration of Alexander Dallas Bache,’’ by Benjamin Apthorp
Gould, Proceedings Amer. Assoc, Adv. Science, Chicago meeting, 1868, Vol. xvii, p 1.

152

From the agreement of repeated observations, it is inferred that
the uncertainty of the observations at a particular spot does not
exceed one or two minutes of arc in the declinatior and dip and
one five-hundredth part of the horizontal force.’’ The results ob-
tained are given in a table, showing, in parallel columns, ‘ the
- Jatitude and longitude of the stations, the declination, dip and
horizontal intensity of the earth’s magnetic force, the date of the
observations and a reference to the particular locality, its geology
and other attending circumstances.’’ *

At the Springfield meeting in 1859, Professor Bache presented
to the American Association a paper entitled ‘‘ General Account of
the Results of the Discussion of the Declinometer Observations
made at Girard College, Philadelphia, between the Years 1840
to 1845, with Special reference to the Elevén-Year Period.’’
‘“‘In codperation,’’ he says, ‘‘with the scheme adopted at
the British colonial observatories, a series of magnetic and meteor-
ological observations were made at the Girard College Observatory
with instruments purchased under the direction of the trustees of
the College, the observations being made under the patronage
of the American Philosophical Society, and finally completed for
the use of the Topographical Bureau of the War Department.
These observations were made under my direction and superin-
tendence. ‘The series commenced in May, 1840, and, with short
interruptions, terminated in June, 1845; thus furnishing a five
years’ series of magnetic observations taken bi-hourly up to
October, 1843, and after that date hourly. .... It is proposed
especially to investigate the law of the eleven-year period, or, as it
is more frequently called, the decennial period, there being yet an
uncertainty as to its precise length. It is supposed to have some
direct or indirect connection with the solar spot period, which cor-
respondence, according to late investigations by Prof. R. Wolf, is
so close as to exhibit even analogous disturbances.’’+ Mr. Schott’s
mathematical discussion of these observations gave results showing
plainly the inequality constituting the ten or eleven-year period,
the year 1843 being directly indicated as the a) of the minimum
range of the diurnal fluctuation.

Two papers dealing with the phenomena of Terrestrial Magne-
tism were presented by Professor Bache to the American Association
at its meeting in Newport in 1860. The first of these was a ‘‘ Gen-

* Proc, Amer. Assoc. Adv. Science, x, 187, 1856.
+ Ibid., xiii, 248, 1859.

153

eral Account of the Results of Part II of the Discussion of the
Declinometer Observations, made at the Girard College, Philadel-
phia, between 1840 and 1845, with Special Reference to the Solar-
diurnal Variation and its Annual Inequality.”’ The results of this
discussion are thus given: ‘‘ The general character of the diurnal
motion is nearly the same for the summer half year, for the winter
half, and therefore for the whole year. The greatest eastern de-
flection is, at a mean, reached at a quarter before eight a.M., being
a quarter of an hour earlier in the summer, and half an hour later
in the winter. Near this hour the declination isa minimum. The
greatest western deflection is reached, at a mean, at a quarter after
one o’clock p.M., a few minutes earlier in both the summer and
winter. At this hour the declination isa maximum. ‘The diurnal
curve presents but a single wave, slightly interrupted by a deviation
occurring during the hours near midnight, or from ten P.M. to
one A.M., when the magnet has a direct or westerly motion.
Shortly after one a.m. the north end of the magnet moves easterly,
completing the cycle and arriving at its eastern elongation shortly
before eight a.m. This nocturnal deviation is well marked in
winter, vanishes in summer, and is but slightly perceptible in the
annual curve.’’*

The second paper is an ‘‘ Abstract of a Discussion of the
Influence of the Moon on the Declination of the Magnetic
Needle, from the Observations made at the Girard College, Phil-
adelphia, between the Years 1840 and 1845.’’ In the previous
discussions of the Philadelphia observations of magnetic de-
clination, Professor Bache had shown how the influence of magnetic
disturbances, of the eleven-year period, of the solar diurnal
variation and its annual inequality, of the secular change and
of the annual variation might be severally eliminated, leaving
residuals from which the lunar influence is to be studied. ‘‘ One
of the first questions to determine is, how many of these residuals
must be used to give a definite result ? and another one is whether
numbers deduced from different parts of the series would give har-
monious results? ‘To test both of these the observations were
formed into three groups, one containing four thousand nine
hundred in nineteen months of 1840 and 1841; another, six
thousand seven hundred and fifteen results in twenty-one months
of 1842 and 1843; and a third, ten thousand and twenty-nine

* Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Science, xiv, 74, 1860.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143. T. PRINTED DEC. 28, 1893.

154

results in eighteen months of 1844 and 1845; in all twenty-one
thousand six hundred and forty-four results.’”’ The curves obtained
by discussing these groups ‘all agree in their distinctive character,
and show two east and two west deflections in a lunar day, the
maxima W. and E. occurring about the upper and lower culmina-
tions, and the minima at the intermediate six hours. The total range
hardly reaches 0.5’. These results agree generally with those
obtained for Toronto and Prague. From eight thousand to ten
thousand observations seem to be required to bring out the results
satisfactorily, and the best results are derived from the use of both
groups.’’*

These discussions of the magnetic and meteorological observations
made at the Girard College Observatory, were published zm extenso
in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, and also in the
Reports of the Coast Survey. Besides the three parts above men-
tioned, nine other parts were issued, the last in 1864; all covering
the time from 1840 to 1845, and including only the observations
made in that single observatory.

I have now accomplished the task which has been assigned to me
by your Committee. I have endeavored to sketch briefly but
clearly the progress which has been made in electrical science since
this Society was founded, and to present the steps of this progress
in the form of epochs, each typified by the work of one of the
eminent men of science whose names have shed lustre upon
the roll of its membership. The labors of these men have
mightily contributed to advance the development of scientific
thought throughout the world, and so to bring about that
exceptional evolution of electrical facts and theories which is
the distinguishing feature of the science of the nineteenth century.
Space has not allowed me to recount all that has been done by the
members of this Society, even in this single direction. Many
of them are still actively pushing outward the boundaries of
knowledge, and are laying the foundations of yet more remarkable
achievements. The work of these men it will be the privilege
of some future historian of the Society to chronicle. May the
record of the contributions made by the American Philosophical
Society to the progress of science, in the time to come, be as
rich and as brilliant as is its record since it first came into
existence in 1743.

* Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Science, Xiv, 83, 1860.

APPENDIX.

List of Papers on Electricity and Magnetism Published by the American

10,

II.

12.

13;
i4.

15.

16,

Philosophical Society.

I. TRANSACTIONS (OLD SERIES).

. Theory of Thunder and Lightning Storms. Azdrew Oliver..
. Account of an Electrical Eel or Torpedo from Surinam. Wé7/-

GUCHED PEA AIL tava! alm a epNaleiate @tecar dia ncm Doi siak alal atchn me cleye ats

. Observations on the Numb Fish or Torporific Eel. Henry

Collins Flagg.....+. pan debaceuccce AIC CAO ho SOOO CAL

. Experiments in Magnetism. JD. Rittemhouse......c0-sce00
. Observations on the Aurora Borealis. Feremy Belknap......
. Easy and Accurate Method of Finding a True Meridian Line

and Thence the Variation of the Compass. 2. Patterson

. Queries Relating to Magnetism and the Theory of the Earth.

JBI NOAA OIA MLA SOE COO TE OOD e ests

. Magnetic Observations at the University of Cambridge, Massa-

chusetts, in the Year 1783. Rev. Samuel Williams....

. Account of Several Houses in Philadelphia Struck by Light-

ning on June 7,1789. WD. Rittenhouse and Fohn Fones.
Account of the Effects of a Stroke of Lightning on a House
Furnished with Two Conductors. D. R2zttenhouse and
ES FLOPS OF idea sa Sita, Ne are. 0 Ristenelate rots aysieieiates ieleys
Improvement on Metallic Conductors or Lightning Rods.
LG PLEET Ob CG EOE Al ComE SSciboooodd comet Slesewiste
Experiments in Magnetism. Rev. ames Madison..,.....+

II. TRANSACTIONS (NEW SERIES).

On the Diurnal Variation of the Needle. 4. D. Bache......
Observations to Determine the Magnetic Dip at Baltimcre,
Philadelphia, New York, West Point, Providence, Spring-
heldpandeAlbanye e-An yA CLE. crave eiaiete © e7ecic.o« a's sare
Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism—No. 1. Descrip-
tion of a Galvanic Battery for Producing Electricity of
Diterene MMtCNsiteS me mLOSeAe ICAI ale late dieters o/eisiala/e¥e
Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism—No. 2. On the
Influence of a Spiral Conductor in Increasing the Inten-
sity of Electricity from a Galvanic Arrangement of a Sin-
Ce Lait: KS OSEL ALOBTVEG) casi dercnadeeltiea bess eee wares

ii, 74

Vv, 209

V; 217

V, 223

17.

18,

19.

20.

21.

22.

28.

29.

156

‘Description of an Electrical Machine with a Plate Four Feet in

Diameter .... also of a Battery Discharger... . and
Some Observations on the Causes of the Diversity in the
Length of the Sparks, erroneously distinguished by the
Terms “ Positive” and “Negative.” Rodert Hare......
On the Relative Horizontal Intensities of Terrestrial Magnet-
ism at Several Places in the United States, with the Inves-
tigation of Corrections for Temperature and Comparisons
of the Methods of Oscillation in Full and Rarefied Air.
bP, BLCHE'S seen 0\0\ a vseis's Sm ni eteleiealaetae ==) =\° Rao Se
Onthe Magnetic Dip at Scveral Places in the State of Ohio,
and on the Relative Horizontal and Magnetic Intensities of

Cincinnati and London. ohn Locke...... donongonods
Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism—No, 3. On Elec-
tro-dynamic Induction. Foseph Henry..... SSSR RE IRIC

Engraving and Description of a Rotary Multiplier, or One in
which One or More Needles are Made to Revolve by a

Galvanie/Current. § e072 jesienleeeioeierets padencanc
Observations to Determine the Magnetic Dip at Various Places
in Ohio and Michigan. £. Loomiis...... hee

. Observations of the Magnetic Intensity at Twenty-one Stations

HO Di ae Welk VON ISAC Ga ae oa O OU SHdoo cocoanut

. Contributions to Electricity and Magnetism—No. 4. On Elec-

tro-dynamic Induction. ‘oseph Henry...ccesccececrece

. Observations to Determine the Magnetic Dip at Various Places

in the United States. £. Loomis.......... oe EN anes

. Additional Observations on the Magnetic Dip in the United

States: “25 Loomis ys ae revelers) slaveusisteteve ove sveverevetatenererene

. Observations Made in the Years 1838-1843 to Determine the

Magnetic Dip and Intensity of Magnetic Force. ohn

ETB CE a eietalay seca are tam cientaraeece ee ete Spas wheat
Observations on the Magnetic Dip Made in the United States
AILSA. fee LVeCOLELE 3 - sy pdccudcnosonaoddbor

Observations of the Magnetic Dip Made at Several Fasitions,
Chiefly on the Southwestern and Northeastern Frontiers of
the United States, and of the Magnetic Declination at the
Positions on the River Sabine, in 1840. Yames D. Gra-

QUE sears setts auslauart pate tanelavante p.ahaypreteineee Blateteravats.a.mipia-e a's

. Observations of the Magnetic Dip of the United States. ZZ.

LOOMIS: aes aia eke eee anehs njijaj sve; oie'e eicterpenats MiaLavars e.apiahave

III, PROCEEDINGS.

. Magnetic Experiments: ): Fakes ech. J eivcetins sc snes als :
. Sherwood’s Discoveries in Magnetism. &. MZ. Patterson....
. Electro-dynamic Induction. oseph Henry. ...ccceccvccece
. Rock Blasting by Galvanism. odbert Hare.........yec0ce

Vv, 365

viii, 283

vill, 317

ix, 329

xi, 181

i} (2a
ees
i, 54, 315
i, 99

35. Aurora of September 3, 1839. S. Alewander......seseesss i, 132
36. Discovery of Two Kinds of Dynamic Induction by a Galvanic

Current. Foseph Henry....secoee SO boob eobrks SOODOL i, 135
37. Magnetic Dip. £. Loomis...cecessesee- Suede vCsesesive ce i, 144, 308
38. On the Magnetic Dip. A. D. Bache. ..ccscseseeeececeeeee i, 146, 151
39. Magnetic Observations. A. D. Bache........+seeeeeeeee oe 01, B85; 204
40. Galvanic Influence Through Wire Coil. odert Hare...... i, 199
4¥. Galvanic Deflagration. Robert Hare..ccccvececsccevesecs 1,, 253
42. Electricity from Steam, 2. MZ. Patterson. .ceveeseeeeeeess i, 320
43. Electricity from Steam. G. Emerson ..ccccsceeseveeeeeees figees
44. Magnetic Observations. ohn Locke.......1.+eeeeee Scie li, 35
45. Magnetic Observations, A. D. BORE antes sene ek e's li, 69, 83, IOI, 150
46. Magnetic Observations. F. D. Graham ..resssevecesesees li, 84
47. Magnetic Distribution. oseph Henry. ..cccseeseeescccees li, 111
48. Magnetic Observations. LZ. Loomts..cccoccssceessecees ii, 114, 176, 185
49. Electrical Induction. FYoseph Henry ...cccceeesssceccceens ii, 122, 229
50. Magnetic Meridan. MOT BACKERS) aia tineisia» ae a Bikes Ns Keg7
51. Non-electricity of Nascent Steam. Robert Hare..........+. ii, 160
52. Induction Inclinometer. 4. D. Bache .......... sratetevere sieie il, 237
53. Inclinometer. HY. Lloyd......... Saseee aera nis are niente il, 237
54. Magnetic Observations. 4. D. Bache.......+.0+. Siaeenves lii, 90, 175
55- On the Magnetic Dip. 4. D. Bache..cccccessseeseesesees V5 nr0
56. Terrestrial Magnetism. ohn Locke.......ee.eeseereecees iv, 63
57- Magnetic Observations. ohm Locke..........-seee ee eeeee iv, 109
58. Lightning Protectors. Yoseph Henry.ceccerseeesees anions iv, 179
59. Observations on the Magnetic Dip. F D. Graham........+ lv, 205
60. Experiments on Electricity. oseph Henry...cccccaceacess iv, 209
Gis Oi Wib RINE WGA FON Cassadas cae ae HOON beRC OCHO Or iv, 218
Goaeholarizanonol Waters (OSC LLE7F) x eiela'e e\vicisieis.0 cc) ele.ae sec iv, 229
63. Effect of Lightning on Telegraph Wires, S. D. /ugham.... iv, 259.
64. Effects of Lightning on Telegraph Wires. Foseph Henry.... lv, 260
65. A New Telegraphic Clock. ohm Locke ...ccceeeeseesceee Vv; 51, 206
66. Telegraphic Operations of the United States Coast Survey. S.

CEVA EOI AA PAE we S aiare, of sede oh Sie as Shahad wale sere ewieiats Vara:
67. Telegraphs for Railroad Uses. Zantedescht........ alere shecbre vi, 266
68. Duplex Transmission. Zantedeschi.,..... ec ccececcccscccs vi, 267
69. Measure of Electrical Nervous Muscular Sensibility. Zazz¢e-

ESCHER eaters Gon S0oopolUbS CoNeueRodoe nlaletehovavelsheler <i vi, 291
70. Remarkable Electrical Phenomena. ohn C. Cresson........ vil, 385
71. Heights of Auroras. B. V. Marsh........ Sta divs daransreels x24.
72, Diamagnetism. John C. Cresson....... ee TaD Te eysichetavecare x, 199
va Effects of Lightning in Deep Mines. Dock... .sancseescer x, 288
74. Recent Auroras. ohn C. Cresson..... Balai ent aieiaie scncela siete xi, 522
75. Spectroscopic Examination of the Aurora, April 10, 1872, /.

Te a Tae oat ed oe Scapa xii, 579
76. Electric Spectra of Metals. 4. £. Outerbridge...cccvesscees xiv, 161

157

158

77. A New Vertical Lantern Galvanometer. G. /. Barker..... xiv, 440
78. Effect of Magnetic and Galvanic Forces on Iron and Steel.

CMG CRESS. a casera svi dcaajateyatmete hs iste shasta aatete xvi, 603
79. Theory of Magnetic Declination. Frazer..... ni eistelshaieieters xvi, 642
So;ielesraphic Overtones: | 20/7226 amet steinieicicion etenieate XVill, 39
81. Electrolytic Estimation of Cadmium, 2. F#. Smith........ xviil, 46

82. Circumstances Influencing the Efficiency of Dynamo-electric

Machines. £. Thomson and £. F. Houston....e.ceees xviii, 58
$3) Obituanysof Joseph) Elenty. sa Comensmerertelsarcietelaiete eee xviii, 461
84. The Aurora of April 19, 1882. A. C. Lewis...... leo e-alela'a's ) Ry Seems
85. New Standard Cell. G. 7. Barker....... solos a/eiavs syetnale eet EX GROSSMOAG
86. Effects of a Secondary Battery. Russell Thayer....... Seah XX, 639
87. On the Synchronous Multiplex Telegraph. Lawin $. Hous-

LOM i.e lavdiis's skieie ca AIN'T eke Sen Hie eae NR RT te Ste We xxi, 307, 326
88. Photography by a Lightning Flash. Ldwin F. Houston .....xxiii, 257, 318
89. Ona Non-magnetizable Watch. LZdwin $. Houston........ xxiv, 418
go. Electrolysis of Lead Solutions. Adgar F. Smith........05 xxiv, 428
gt. Muscular Contractions Following Death by Electricity. Zd-

LUZIEN J NLL OUSLOT 1, ais asa) soe A OMG RTO ORCL xxviii, 36
92. Scientific Work of Benjamin Franklin. ¥% W. Holland..... XXvlil, 199
93. The Electrolysis of Metallic Formates. ZH. S. Warwick..... Xxix, 103

Mr. Wharton next addressed the Society as follows:

Gentlemen :—A few years ago it was not known that any other
substance but iron possessed the power of acquiring permanent
magnetism, though it was of course known that nickel and cobalt
were magnetic metals. The fact that they themselves could be
made into magnets was never known until I myself, with my own
hands, hammered out the first magnetic needle that ever had been
made of any other substance than steel, which I think was in the
year 1874. I had after a short time several compasses constructed,
furnished with needles made of nickel. One of them I sent to the
Russian Government, one to the French Government, one to the
British Government and one to our own, in order that they might
be sent to sea and experimented with. The British Government
and the American Government took no notice of it, but the Russian
and French Governments investigated the subject very thoroughly
and made reports on it. Lord Kelvin, then Sir William Thomp-
son, investigated the properties of sheet nickel, I furnishing him a
piece of sheet nickel with which he investigated the properties of

159

nickel in that form as compared with iron in that form, for the pro-
duction of galvanic currents. Several years later, in order to in-
crease what is called the magnetic quality of nickel, which you no
doubt know is much feebler than that of steel, I had a series of bars
made of alloys of nickel and tungsten, as, it being known that
tungsten increases the magnetic quality of steel, I thought it might
act the same with nickel. With those bars I investigated and found
that the hypothesis which I had formed was correct, and I had a
series of those made with progressive increases of the alloy of tung-
sten, and the result of all that has been published and I will not de-
tain you with it. Those series of bars unfortunately were lost, as I
sent them to the Exhibition at Paris, and they were never returned.
One of the ship’s compasses which were magnetized, I think in the
year 1874, I lately investigated and found that the magnetism re-
mained apparently about as strong as it was in the beginning, show-
ing that the magnetism of a magnetic needle composed of pure
nickel is permanent.

President Fraley then made the following closing address :

The programme for the celebration of our 150th anniversary is
now literally completed. I cannot say farewell to you, for what I
have felt here in meeting so many new and so many old friends does
not permit me to entertain the thought that I must part from them.
All I can say is that we have been signally blessed in this celebra-
tion. We have not only had a perpetuation of good words and
perpetuation of good cheer, but the beginning of friendships which
will last certainly so long as we are permitted to tread the earth. I
thank you all for what has been given to us upon this occasion, hop-
ing, as Prof. Barker has expressed the hope, that the good work for
the promotion of science will go on for a series and series and series
of 150 years; that not only our own institution may take its part
in the great work of promoting useful knowledge, but all the insti-
tutions that are represented here and all others who are not and
have tendered their congratulations will equally continue at work,
and that those who come, I will say 150 years hence, but I will
shorten the period and say all those who may come here fifty years
hence, will find the old hall standing on its foundation with accu-
mulated treasures within its walls and precious memories encir-
cling the hearts of all those who have been in the past members

160

of the Society and who are now its present members, all those who
have been correspondents of the Society in the past and are present
correspondents, and that it will be followed by a perpetuity of ex-
istence and a perpetuity of correspondence that will endure forever.

So 1 shall not say farewell, but I will announce that so far as I am
concerned this body shall be continued in session until another fifty
years roll around, and ask that you will make the advent of such a
coming a welcome to every one.

Adjourned.

Friday, May 26—3 o’clock p.m. Through invitation of Mr.
Charles H. Cramp, the Society and guests visited Cramp’s bee
yard and inspected the plant.

The Union League and the Art Club of Philadelphia opened
their Houses for the use of the delegates and members during ~
their stay in the city.

The rooms of the College of Physicians were opened daily
for the use of the guests and members of the Society, from
10 a.M to 6 P.M.

PROCEEDINGS AM. PHIL. SOC. VOL. XXXII, No. 143.

t

_ ye Ei ry

IESMUSEA; SO

VIEW IN LIBRARY.
JEFFERSON’S CHAIR IN WHICH HE WROTE THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.

APPENDIX.

PAPERS PRESENTED DURING. THE
ANNIVERSARY.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143, U. PRINTED JAN. 5, 1894,

163

Tertiary Tipulidae, with Special Reference to those of Florissant,
Colorado.

By Samuel H. Scudder.

Plates I-9.
I. Introduction. IV. Tabular View of Tertiary Tipuli
II. Historical Account of the Euro- dz, Systematically Arranged.
pean Tertiary Tipulidze, with V. Note on Pretertiary Tipulidz.
Comments. VI. Family Tipulidee.

III. Alphabetical List of European VII. The Subfamily Limnobinz.
Tertiary Tipulide, with their | VIII. The Subfamily Tipulinz.
Probable Systematic Position.

I. INTRODUCTION.

The occasion of the present memoir is the wish to bring to pub-
lic attention a portion of the remarkably preserved remains ot
insects at Florissant, Colorado, in a lake deposit adjudged to
be of oligocene age. The locality is already famous for the extra-
ordinary abundance and variety, as well as the excellent condition,
of the insect remains therein entombed, and perhaps no group of
insects shows this more strikingly than the family of ‘‘ Crane-flies ’’
or ‘* Daddy Long-Legs.”’

Several hundred specimens have been collected there, and in a
very considerable number of them, representing many species, as
the accompanying plates * will testify, not only is the venation
of the wings completely represented, with all their most delicate
markings, but also the slender and fragile legs with their clothing
of hairs and spurs, and to some degree, at least, the antenne and
palpi. Even the facets of the compound eye are often preserved as
in life. Previous illustrations of fossil Tipulidz have rarely repre-
sented more than the wings, and even these generally in a very
insufficient manner; so that merely as illustrations of fossil remains,
the present plates far surpass all that have gone before, and render
the study of fossil Tipulidze very different from our former meagre
opportunities. If satisfactory illustrations could only be published

* By the cheerful permission of the Director of the U. 8. Geologic 11 Survey, I have had

placed at my disposal for the illustration of this memoir the drawings of these insects
made under my direction, and belonging to the Survey.

164

of the numerous forms of Tipulidz recognized by Loew in Prus-
sian amber, we should now have a far better basis for some exact
knowledge of the past.

Up to the present time the only known fossil Tipulide from
America were the few which I have published from the Green
River beds in Wyoming, and the White River beds in western
Colorado. In preparing the present memoir these have been sub-
jected to a fresh study by comparison with those at Florissant, though
I have not attempted to extend our knowledge of the fauna of
these deposits, but have merely described the Florissant species,
and introduced those known from other localities in their proper
systematic position. In doing this the number of the previously
described types has been reduced by two, and there remain six
species of four genera of Limnobinz from White River, and two
species of one genus of Tipuline from Green River. Other
species are in my possession which will be published on a future
occasion.

The new forms here described come, as stated, from Florissant
only, and number twenty-nine species of ten genera of Limnobine,
and twenty-two species of five genera of Tipulinz. No such
extensive addition to tertiary Tipulidez has been made since Loew
first indicated the riches (still unpublished, after the lapse of forty-
three years) of the amber fauna of Europe. If we were to com-
pare the now described and figured tertiary species of America
with the actually described or figured tertiary species of Europe
(seventeen species of seven genera of Limnobinz, eleven species of
three genera of Tipulinze), we should find twice as many Limno-
bing, and more than twice as many Tipulinz; or a Tipulid fauna
considerably more than twice as rich as that of Europe.

In a memoir on the Zerteary Rhynchophorous Coleoptera of North
America, now passing through the press (Monograph xxi, U. S.
Geological Survey), I have called attention to the fact that not
a single one of the one hundred and sixteen species of weevils
found fossil at Florissant occurs in any of the three other prolific
localities of fossil insects in Colorado and Wyoming ; while each of
these three (Roan Mountains, in western Colorado ; White River,
at the boundary between Colorado and Utah; and Green River,
Wyoming—which together possess seventy-five species) shares from
one third to two thirds its species with one or the other of its neigh-
bors. From these facts, and from the field evidence, I have drawn

165

the conclusion that the three principal insect localities in western
Colorado and Wyoming are deposits in a single body of water, the
ancient Gosiute Lake, as it was called by Clarence King; and
in speaking of remains from these deposits as a whole, I have
applied to them the term Goszute Mauna in distinction from the
Florissant or Lacustrine Fauna in central Colorado.

The result of the present studies upon the Tipulidz also has been
to show that no single species of the Lacustrine fauna occurs in the
Gosiute fauna, though the paucity of remains in the latter does not
give this fact the same weight as in the Rhynchophora; and it
should also be mentioned that among the few genera found in two
of the localities in the Gosiute fauna, the species of each locality are
distinct from those of the other.

In his first extended communication on the amber Diptera, Loew
called attention to the remarkable alliance of that fauna with the
existing fauna of the eastern United States. He further expanded
the subject in a most interesting essay, translated by Osten Sacken
and published in S7/Zman’s Journal for 1864. In this paper he
reached the conclusion that ‘‘ the amber Diptera stand in a much
closer relation to the North American and to the European [Z. e¢.,
those now existing] than to those of any other fauna’’; and he
further asserts ‘‘ with the utmost certainty that those among the
living Diptera which most closely resemble the amber Diptera,
abound in a most prevailing degree in North America and especially
between the latitudes of about 32° to 40°.”

Baron Osten Sacken, in numerous passages, has insisted upon the
same resemblance. In the Tabular View of Tertiary Tipulide we
have given further on, it will be seen that (omitting Tanymera as
doubtful) thirteen genera are credited to the Baltic amber, of which
ten are found in America, and one of them in North America only
besides its occurrence in amber; this last is Idioplasta. On the
other hand, only eight of the amber genera occur now in Europe,
and all these genera have also American representatives. At the
most, two genera, Trichoneura and Calobamon (and Tanymera
also, if it is to be included), seem to be known so far only in amber,
but they are all as yet imperfectly characterized. Only five of the
amber genera have representatives elsewhere than in Europe or
America, and one of these is cosmopolitan.

No such striking conclusions can be reached from the study of the
tertiary Tipulidee of North America, at least at present. A large

166

proportion of the genera are extinct (genera which include about
one third of the species), and of the remainder the larger proportion
are genera found in north temperate regions of both worlds.
Cladura only (with the allied extinct Cladoneura) shows dis-
tinctively American affinities, and none are more nearly allied to
the genera of the European fauna, whether recent or extinct, than
to those of the existing American fauna.

In making a comparison between our tertiary Tipulid fauna and
that of North America north of Mexico on the one hand, and
the more imperfectly known fauna of the southern part of North
America * on the other, the tertiary fauna distinctly appears more
nearly related to the former, for the latter contains the following
only: Limnobini, 1 sp.; Rhamphidini, 3 sp.; Eriopterini, 3 sp.;
Limnophilini, 6 sp.; and Anisomerini, 7 sp., a total of twenty Lim-
nobine ; and there are besides eighteen Tipulinee. ‘The relative
proportion of Tipulinee is therefore much greater ; while amcng the
Limnobine the tribe Anisomerini, not represented at all among
the fossils (and having in the United States and Canada but six
per cent. of the species, if the tribes represented in Mexico and
Central America alone are counted) possesses no less than thirty-five
per cent. of all Limnobine, while the Limnobini have but five per
cent. It is only in the relative numbers of the Rhamphidini that
any nearer approach is seen between the tertiary fauna of Colorado
and the present Central American fauna.

Nor, if we examine the genera separately, can we come to any
different -result, for while the fossils show in several instances an
identity with or close affinity to those found in the United States,
the only genera among them which are also represented in the Cen-
tral American fauna are the widespread and prolific types, Limno-
phila (sens. lat.) and Tipula; and not a single other genus found in
the south shows any particular affinity to the extinct forms. Weare
forced to conclude, therefore, that the general affinities of the fossils
are with the existing fauna of the general region in which they are
found. The distribution, however, of the living genera in the
United States is too little known to permit any definite and de-
cisive conclusions on this latter point.

The relative representation in species of the different groups of
Limnobine and of the total number of Limnobine and Tipulinz
in different regions in past and present times is shown in the follow-

* As given in Baron Osten Sacken’s contribution to the Biologia Centrali- Americana.

167

ing table, where they are given first in numbers and next in per-
centages. Osten Sacken’s Catalogue of the Diptera of North America
(1878) is taken for the living American forms, excluding the species
found only south of the United States; Schiner’s /auna Austriaca
(1864) supplies the basis for the European forms, including the
species merely enumerated as well as those described by him, and
thus including all Europe ; while the results of the present memoir,
subsequently detailed, have been taken for the remaining columns.

Comparative View of Recent and Tertiary Tipulide.

IN NUMBERS.
(Figures represent number IN PERCENTAGES.
of species.)
> Bae al wo. °
& 4 ea] a || & % em] w
a</i¢/S8/88||8 </8 </86/8 5
eee es GelEelEE|SeligzlEnlee| ez
m B Fa gimme gy % A Ba i |
Panstinbini,.Ws ile scesescee.| 39) 13°) 19°)" 186) 23°38)" 28) 4135
Rhamphidini..... Pe ocaweceeel pte 4 (eS 6 7, 12) 12) 2
DIDIER ae ANC 7 |p 13 Sie nig Se eo ee
AANODHUIDT 2.5 sic «ca vietvien ¢ 9 o5 6 42) 4 | 21 SA 925) 2s 3 23
Amisomerini. . 35.2.0 edone 8) oO 3 5 ° 4 3
PAIL (HRN oo oct aisyois'a/aim's's'a'e\e es I5| 0 4 22 9 2 6 2
SEVMBATOLOMIBIG, © ccie'e «ces ces «+ 4| 6 oO il 2} 18 oO 3
Ptychopterini...... brates Been OG) yk 6 Bo. VOhy a WE ee
99| 101; 98] 100
SUBFAMILIES.

Limnobing.........cseseesee) 167/ 35 | 67 | 249|| 62} 59) 68) 67
DPMS Veena ede <<a 104| 24 | 3% | 122// 38) 41) 32/ 33
sRotalseey cece SERS PRO RSENS 271| 59 | 98 | 371|| Too] 100; 100} 100

This table, and especially the side representing the percentages,
shows some remarkable features. The relative proportion of the
two subfamilies is shown to be somewhat different on the two con-
tinents, whether past or present time is considered, but it presents
striking similarities when on either continent the tertiary and
present times are compared, there being in Europe scarcely the
slightest variation.

But when the several elements of the Limnobinz are separately
considered, a somewhat different state of things appears. Here, in

168

a distinct though not in any striking way, the table shows that as
far as the relative numbers of the subordinate groups of the tertiary
fauna of North America are concerned, our tertiary Tipulide have
a closer relationship to the fauna of tertiary Europe than to that of
America to-day. One disturbing element, however, is introduced in
the great prominence of the Cylindrotomini among the fossils, due
to the large numbers of the genus Cyttaromyia, which must be
looked upon as on the whole the most striking feature of the
tertiary Tipulide of North America.

As asummary of general results obtained from the careful study
of these remains, we venture to submit the following propositions :

1. The general facies of the Tipulid fauna of our western ter-
tiaries is American, and agrees best with the fauna of about the
same latitude in America, as far as we are at present acquainted
with it.

2. All the species are extinct, and though the Gosiute Lake and the
ancient lacustrine basin of Florissant were but little removed from
each other, and the deposits of both are presumably of oligocene
age, not a single instance is known of the occurrence of the same
species in the two basins. ‘The Tipulid fauna of the Gosiute Lake,
however, is as yet very little known, and it should be added that
the few described species are in no instance the same at Green
River, Wyo., and White River, Colo., both localities in the same
ancient lake basin.

3. No species are identical with any of the few described
European tertiary Tipulide.

4. Restricting ourselves to the Florissant basin, from the paucity
of material in the Gosiute fauna, it will be noticed that a remark-
able proportion of genera (eight out of fifteen) are not yet * recog-
nized among the living, these genera including about one third of
the species.

5. With one (American) exception—Cladura—all the existing
genera which are represented in the American tertiaries are genera
common to the north temperate zone of Europe and America, and
are generally either confined to these regions or the vast proportion
of their species are so confined. A similar climate is indicated,
but this latter conclusion should be received with hesitation, since

*Tt should be noted here that, in his enumeration of the amber Diptera, Loew recog-
nized four genera as extinct, of which living representatives have since been found,
without mentioning those which Osten Sacken regards as Limnophile,

169

our knowledge of the distribution of American genera is mostly
confined to the Atlantic States. There are, however, no certain
indications of a warmer climate, such as have been shown from the
study of other groups.

6. There are no extinct groups higher than genera, but one or two
of these, such as Cyttaromyia and Micrapsis, are of a somewhat
striking character.

7. The relative importance of the two subfamilies of Tipulidz,
though differing on the two continents of Europe and America both
in tertiary and in recent times, was much the same, on each con-
tinent, in tertiary times as now; while in the relative preponder-
ance of the different tribes of Limnobine, our tertiary fauna shows
a somewhat closer agreement with the European tertiary than with
the existing American fauna. There are, however, no striking
generic alliances pointing in the same direction.

The above general conclusions have been reached after as careful
a study of the tertiary fauna of Europe as the literature would allow,
it being unfortunately necessary to depend entirely upon published
materials, most of them ancient, for any conclusions regarding the
European fossils. Fortunately, the way has been lightened by oc-
casional expressions of opinion from Baron Osten Sacken, who has
personally examined not a few of them and published here and there
valuable statements regarding them. Being compelled to subject
all the literature of the subject to a careful scrutiny in order to ob-
tain any proper glimpse of the known tertiary fauna of Europe, it
has seemed best to publish in this connection a formal historical
review of the European tertiary Tipulide, in order that the grounds
of my general statements may be better understood.

Accordingly, in the next section of this memoir, I give such a
review, following it with a summary of results in the form of an
Alphabetical List of the Genera and Species ; and again witha Tabu-
lar View of Tertiary Tipulidz in general, systematically arranged ;
and add a note on Pretertiary Tipulidez, before proceeding to a
special and detailed systematic discussion of the American Tertiary
Tipulide.

II. HisrortcaAL ACCOUNT OF THE EUROPEAN TERTIARY TIPULIDA,
WITH COMMENTS.

The first fossil Tipulidze described are those mentioned by PRESL
in 1822 (Del. Prag.), purporting to have come from amber. They
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC, XXXII. 143. V. PRINTED JAN. 5, 1894.

170

are Zipula antiqua, T. protogee, and ZT. curvicornis. They are
wholly irrecognizable from the descriptions, but their size (from one
to two German lines in length) plainly shows that they are at least
not Tipulinz, and probably not even Tipulide. They must be left
wholly out of consideration, both on this account and because it is
believed that Presl’s specimens were really preserved in the recent
gum copal and not in amber.

UNGER in 1841 (Verh. leop.-carol. Akad. Naturf., xix) described
and figured the following species from Radoboj, afterwards reex-
amined by Heer.

Rhipidia extincta. ‘The figures given by Unger and Heer do not
entirely agree in the neuration of the wings; Unger’s is the better
and clearer. The head is lost, so that the antennal structure cannot
be determined, and Loew has pointed out (Zedtschr. ges. Naturw.,
XXXl1, 190) the failures of the neuration, and believes Heer to have
been misled in his determination by Meigen’s inaccurate figure of
the neuration of the modern Rhipidia maculata. Loew regards it
as probably a true Limnobia.

Rhipidia major. ‘The specimen has the tip of the wing broken,
and with it are lost the parts necessary to decide to which of the
subfamilies of Tipulidz it should be referred. But as the wing
must have had a length of about 22 mm., it is evident that it must
belong to one of the Tipulinge, and therefore it should be referred
to Tipula in a large sense. Heer has already so referred it under
the name 7Zipulda ungeri, and Giebel has followed him in generic
reference. On account of its abdominal markings, however, Heer
compared it to the species of Tipula now placed in Pachyrhina.

HEER, in 1849, in his classical work on the fossil insects of
Oeningen and Radoboj, makes the first important addition to the
then known fossil Tipulidz. His species are all mentioned below,
and all of them stated to be from Radoboj, excepting Limnobia
formosa, for which no locality is mentioned ; it is probable that this
was a mere oversight, and that it also comes from the same place.
None of Heer’s figures, it should be said, can be depended upon for
the exact neuration, as some are manifestly incorrect, and in no
case do different figures of the same wing (with different enlarge-
ments) agree. It is therefore impossible, even with the aid of the
text, to place them confidently.

Tipula maculipennis. The neuration shown in Fig. 1° differs
from that in Fig. 1, the latter being undoubtedly the more correct,

171

as the description also shows. The markings are said to be the
same as in the living Z. hortens’s of Europe. In all probability it
is a true Tipula, and appears to fall nearest to Z. “mi or perhaps
T. caroline from Florissant.

Tipula emula. ‘The veins are differently shown for the same
wing in Figs. 2 and 2°, the latter undoubtedly the more correct, but
both wrong. As Heer says, it is closely allied to the preceding
species; itis probably a true Tipula, and may fall near Z. hez/print
from Florissant.

Tipula,varia. ‘This species, according to Heer, belongs near the
modern 7. hortensis and 7. hortulana of Europe. It appears to be
a true Tipula, but the figures all vary in the neuration, with a nota-
ble difference in those of the two specimens in the length of the
petiole of the second posterior cell, if the enlarged figure, 3°, is cor-
rect in this particular, as it undoubtedly is in the other points where
it varies from Fig. 3°. It appears to come in the vicinity of 7.
caroline.

Tipula lineata. Here again the neuration of the enlarged figure,
4°, differs, in the discal cell and elsewhere, from that of the figure
of natural size, 4; the former is undoubtedly the more correct. It
appears to be a true Tipula, and is said by Heer to stand next the
European Z: odsoleta. To judge from the length of the preefurca,
it would seem to come nearest to Z. ¢artari of any of the American
tertiary species, but it is very different from it. Capellini credits
this species to tertiary deposits at Gabbro, Italy.

Tipula obtecta. Were, too, the two figures differ, though but
slightly, an omission in the smaller being supplied in the larger. There
is no reason to suppose it is not a true Tipula, and it is regarded
by Heer as near his 7. varia from the same beds. It apparently be-
longs with the series having a relatively short preefurca and seems to
come nearest to our 7. suwbterjacens.

Tipula ungeri. This is the species mentioned above as originally
described by Unger under the name RAspidia major. Heer shows
that it should be referred to Tipula, but there seems to have been
no real occasion to change the specific name. Giebel held this
view and described it as Zipula major.

Rhipidia extincta. See above under the same species described
by Unger.

Rhipidia picta and R. propinguans. Loew’s criticisms apply
equally well to these two species, which there is every reason to place

172

in the same genus as 2. extincfa. They may therefore be referred
to Limnobia.

Limnobia formosa. Here Heer’s two figures essentially agree and
are very good. Heer compares it to two living European species,
L. guadrinotata and L. annulus, both true Limnobie, and if the
neuration is correctly given, it is plain from the length of the
auxiliary that it isa Limnobia, and nota Dicranomyia. This isthe
species, presumably from Radoboj, the locality of which is not
stated by Heer.

Limnobia cingulata. ‘The two figures given by Heer disagree in
important particulars, and that which is enlarged is plainly incor-
rect. Heer states that it agrees so closely with Z. mubeculosa Meig.
as hardly to be distinguished from it, and he specifies in particular
the neuration. It is therefore probably a true Limnobia.

Limnobia tenuis. The neuration is only partially shown, and is
said by Heer to be difficult to trace. Heer compares it to that of
L. lutea, Meig., a true Limnobia, and there is nothing in what is
figured inconsistent with such a generic reference.

Limnobia vetusta. ‘Twodifferent figures of this are given by Heer,
one of them useless, the other none too good, but showing the
coarser parts of the neuration, from which it would appear to be a
Limnobia. Heer compares it to Z. dumetorum Linn., a true Lim-
nobia. ‘There is an additional figure of this species in Heer’s os-
stile Flymenopteren, P\. iii, fig. 15c, overlooked in my /ndex to De-
scribed Fossil Insects; it is too small to be of any service, the neu-
ration being only vaguely indicated.

Limnobia debilis. The venation given in the two figures by Heer
does not agree, and the smaller figure is manifestly incorrect in this
particular ; besides Heer specifies that the larger figure is to be used
for studying the venation. This shows that it is no Limnobia in
the present sense. Heer, himself, says that the neuration agrees
with that of Z. sylvatica Meig., which Schiner refers to Gno-
phomyia, and as the neuration of the enlarged figure shows nothing
discordant with Gnophomyia, it may best be referred here until re-
examination of the type can be had.

The only other Tipulids to be credited to Heer are one given in
his Urwelt der Schweiz (1865), coming from the miocene of Locle,
Switzerland, and another from Aix, in his account of the Aix fossil
insects (1856).

Limnobia jaccardi. This species from Locle is not described, but

173

a clear figure of a complete wing is given. This shows some mani-
fest inaccuracies, as in the origin of the fifth and sixth longitudinal
veins, and a cross vein beyond the origin of the przefurca, uniting
the first longitudinal vein and the costa and running across the
auxiliary. A cross vein is also shown at about the middle of the
second submarginal cell, which is probably misplaced. As there
are plainly two submarginal cells, it is clearly not a Limnobia. If
we interpret the cross vein beyond the origin of the przefurca as the
subcostal cross vein (wrongly carried across to the costa), the
parallel cross mark midway between it and the tip as the termina-
tion of the auxiliary (wrongly connected with the first longitudinal
vein), and carry the misplaced cross vein in the second submarginal
cell to the bend in the first longitudinal vein just beyond the base of
the first submarginal cell, where a marginal cross vein would
naturally occur, we have the essential characteristics of the neura-
tion of Trichocera, and these manifest inaccuracies aside there is no
other genus with which it agreesso well. Moreover, Loew indicates
two fossil species of this genus from amber (without describing or
naming them), so that the occurrence of the genus in Europe at the
period when this insect flourished is certain.

Limnobia murchisont from Aix. Heer’s figure is plainly copied
from that of Curtis, who figured but did not describe it (1829), but
he describes from the original specimen, and compares it to the
living Z. annulus Meig., with which the neuration is said to cor-
respond. ‘The figure is good, but the auxiliary vein does not ap-
pear. There is nothing to show that it is not a true Limnobia,
though it is possibly a Dicranomyia. Probably an examination of
the fossil would determine. Heer’s paper naming this species ap-
peared in the same year (1856) as Giebel’s volume applying to it
the name Limnobia curtist. As priority cannot be proved for
either, it seems proper to prefer Heer’s name, since he evidently
studied the specimen itself.

In 1850, LoEw, in his Meseritzs Programm, gave the first im-
portant communication on amber Diptera, mentioning a large num-
ber of species (undescribed) under many new generic names; most
of these are regarded by Osten Sacken, as appears by numerous
references by him, to be identical with existing genera, and espe-
cially with Limnophila, a genus which he considers as not yet
properly subject to division into more than subgenera. ‘The genera
given by Loew were in some cases named by him in a list appended

\

174

to the introduction to Berendt’s folio work on the amber fauna
(1845), but one, Adetus, mentioned then by him does not appear
later, and was evidently dropped by Loew; whether it was re-
garded as not separable from Tipula, next to which it stands in the
list, or as equivalent to one of the numerous genera of Limnobinz
afterwards proposed, does not appear. These genera were not fully
described by Loew in his AZeseritz Programm, but merely separated
from one another in a table prepared to show their relationships.
They were as follows, the new ones prefixed by an asterisk ; none of
the species were named.

Tipula. Of this genus he names three species and records thir-
teen others.

Rhamphidia. Two species named and two others recorded.

* Toxorhina. Three species are named. The following year
(Linn. ent., v) they were partially described, especially the palpi
which were also figured, and the genus described, but the characters
of the genus were almost entirely based on a living species from the
West Indies, which it has since been shown should be generically
dissociated from them. Osten Sacken has since retained the name
Toxorhina for the West Indian species, and referred the fossils
at first to the existing genus Limnobiorhynchus, and (when it was
found that this was based on incongruous material, the sexes of
different genera already known) to the genus Elephantomyia, which
also contains living representatives. Osten Sacken objects to
Schiner’s contention that the name Toxorhina should be pri-
marily restricted to the fossil species, and mainly on the ground
that though when first proposed only amber species were included
in it, it was not characterized until the following year, and then on
structures drawn from a living insect, which in part did not exist in
the fossil. Iregret to differ at all from Baron Osten Sacken—the
foremost student of the group of Diptera—but it cannot be fairly
claimed that Toxorhina was not characterized when first proposed,
for not only does his mention of the genus include the statement
that it has an extraordinarily long filiform rostrum, and exceptionally
short four-jointed palpi, but the table on the preceding page, wherein
the genera are differentiated (a table to which Osten Sacken appears
to have paid no attention), practically defines the genus thus: Ros-
trum slender, longer than head and prothorax together. Palpi
short, the last joint not so long as or scarcely longer than those
which precede, taken together. This, though not all that could be

175

asked, is assuredly not to be ignored, and I have accordingly here
retained the name Toxorhina for the fossil species, and Toxorhina
fragilis of the West Indies—the bone of all this contention—
should be known under some other generic name.

* Macrochile. One named species. The name, being found to
be preoccupied, has been changed by Osten Sacken to Idioplasta.
Living species are now known.

Cylindrotoma. Four named species. These have been studied
by Osten Sacken, and regarded by him as belonging to Limnophila
in a Narrow sense, excepting C. dongiccrnis, which he places in the
subgenus Lasiomastix.

Trichocera. ‘Two unnamed species.

Anisomera. One named species ; it is regarded by Osten Sacken
as an Eriocera.

LErioptera. Eight unnamed species.

* Trichoneura. One named and three unnamed species. Ac-
cording to Osten Sacken these belong to the division of Limnophila
with four posterior cells.

* Calobamon. One unnamed species. Osten Sacken reproduces
Loew’s description of the genus, with additions of his own from
examination of the type (Ber?. ent. Zettschr., xxxi, 207). He gives
no opinion of it other than to mention its ‘‘ apparent relationship
to the Limnophilina.”’

* Haploneura. Four unnamed species. Osten Sacken subse-
quently mentions one species by Loew’s manuscript name, JZ.
hirtipennis, which, he says, belongs to Ula. Probably the others
also belong there.

* Critoneura. ‘Two named species, regarded by Osten Sacken as
belonging to Limnophila.

* Tanymera. Four unnamed species, one of which is afterwards
specified by Osten Sacken by Loew’s manuscript name, 7,
gracilicornis, which, he says, is a Limnophila; but he makes no
statement regarding the others.

* Tanysphyra. One named species, called a Limnophila by
Osten Sacken.

* Syyringomyia. One named species, recognized by Osten Sacken
as correctly placed. ‘The genus has since been found living and
also in copal.

*Ataracta. Eight unnamed species. Osten Sacken says this
generic name is equivalent to Dicranomyia.

176

* Allarithmia. One named species, regarded by Osten Sacken
as an Eriocera, of which, he says, he has recognized three species
in Prussian amber, one other being the Anisomera mentioned
above.

From this it would appear that the amber fauna does not contain
a single extinct generic type, unless Calobamon be excepted,
although several of the genera were first made known from amber.

In connection with the amber Diptera, it may be added that
Burmeister, in his W/anual of Entomology (1836), mentions several
species of ‘‘Limnobia’’ found in amber, some small like JZ.
pulchella (now referred to Idioptera, a subgenus of Limnophila),
some larger. Of course, any nearer reference is impossible, So
too several other authors—Defrance, Schlotheim, Sendel, etc.—
have mentioned the occurrence in amber of species of ‘‘ Tipula’’,
but Loew’s later and fuller statements are presumed to cover all
these.

GugERIN (Rev. Zool., 1838, 170, pl. i, fig. 18) mentions ‘‘ deux
petits Tipulaires en état d’accouplement’”’ in Sicilian amber. In
my Jadex to Described Fossil Insects, p. 667, I have wrongly quoted
this as ‘‘ Tipula,’’ as no genus is specified, and it is evident from
the figure that the insect is rather one of the Mycetophilide.

AYMARD, in 1854, catalogues two named but undescribed species
of a genus he calls Dichaneurum, without further indication of its
characters than that it belongs to the family Tipulidz, as found fossil
at Le Puy, France. The reference is of course valueless without
further details.

GIEBEL, in his Fauna der Vorwelt (1856), describes anew, so far
as possible, all the then known fossil Tipulidz, and adds descrip-
tions of two new forms from amber found in the collection of the
Leipzig Museum. Concerning Giebel’s 7ipula major and Limnobia
curtist, see above under Heer’s species Zipula ungeri and Limnobia
murchisont. The new species are the following :

Limnobia furcata. Giebel states that in regard to its neuration
this species belongs to the group containing L. fulvescens, ferrugined,
bicolor, etc., ¢@. e., to that now classed as Limnophila. The
description agrees entirely with Limnophila. Giebel may easily
have overlooked the tibial spurs of which he makes no mention.
There are no means of determining whether it be not one of the
numerous Limnophilini mentioned by Loew.

Limnobia deleta. The single specimen has the wings damaged

177

‘so that a closer comparison with living species is not possible.’’
The antennz are described as fifteen-jointed and twice as long as
the body, with equal cylindrical joints; the halteres are nearly
as long as the abdomen; the wings have the first longitudinal
vein (schulterader) rather distant from the auxiliary (randader),
with.which it is connected by the subcostal cross vein before the
middle of the wing. From this brief description it is impossible
to tell where it belongs, but the fifteen-jointed antennez point to the,
Limnobini.

In 1859 and 1870, HEYDEN described in the Palgontographica
the following species, all from Rott in Rhenish Prussia.

Ctenophora decheni. Both the form of the abdomen and the
character of the antennz show it to bea male. Heyden says the
neuration shows little variation from that of living species of
Ctenophora. But his delineation of the same is like no Cteno-
phora and manifestly incorrect, affording no clew to the affinities
which a correct sketch might offer. The stout legs show that it
cannot be a Tipula, and the apparently pectinate antennz suggest
a possible alliance to South American forms like Ctedonia and
Ozodicera. The specimens should be restudied, but in the mean-
time be retained in Ctenophora.

Lrioptera dane. ‘The wings are not preserved, or only along the
costal margin. By the short middle femora, the spurless tibiz, and
the small size, it was referred by Heyden to Erioptera. It would
probably not be possible to place it more definitely. The male
appendages also agree fairly.

Limnobia sturi. The two figures of the same wing do not agree,
but the differences are slight, and the description shows the enlarged
figure to be the more correct, as indeed the left wing (not enlarged)
shows. It is plain from the neuration that the insect is not a Lim.
nobia in its present sense, but a Gonomyia, and not very far
removed from G. profundi from Florissant.

NovAk, in 1877, published an account of the fossil insects of
Krottensee, Bohemia, in the Svtzungsberichte of the Vienna
academy. Among them were the following Tipulide :

Tipula angustata. This species closely resembles 7. sepulchri
from Florissant, but the latter is nearly twice as large. ‘This
Krottensee species is the smallest fossil ‘Tipula known.

Tipula expectans. ‘This species has a very long preefurca. It

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC, XXXII. 148. W. PRINTED JAN. 9, 1894.

178

appears to be a Tipula so far as can be told from the wing alone.
From its long prfurca it seems to be most nearly allied to the
spotted 7. ¢artari of Florissant, but it differs in the length of the
petiole of the second posterior cell, and in the narrowness of the
wing.

Ptychoptera deleta. The figure of this species is excellent, show- ,
ing the species to be certainly nearer to Ptychoptera than to any
known genus, though the number of posterior cells cannot be
determined from the imperfection of the specimen. It certainly
must belong to the Ptychopterini, but shows some peculiarities
worthy of special notice. Thus in Ptychoptera (at least in the
American species—and Osten Sacken says that the two European
species seen by him do not materially differ from it) the first longi-
tudinal vein appears to end in the costa, and to be connected with
the uppermost branch of the second by a marginal cross vein,
while in the fossil it ends in the second longitudinal vein at the
point where the marginal cross vein would occur did it exist. And
there is further a costal cross vein uniting the auxiliary vein to the
costa in the middle of the wing. Novak’s description as well
as figure attest these points and indicate a peculiar genus.

OmBONI, in 1886, in a brief account of some Italian fossil
insects (Atti r. ist. Veneto, (6), iv) describes and figures the follow-
ing from the miocene of Chiavon.

Tipula zignot. The figure of this fossil is utterly worthless, gives
no sort of clew to its relationship, and would seem to show that the
fossil itself is irrecognizable. Omboni indeed says it would be
‘¢ difficult, not to say impossible,’’ definitely to refer it, and adds
that it has no trace of wings, and is probably a Chironomus, a
Tipula, or a Limnobia. Its size alone quite precludes reference to
Tipula, and it may well be left to oblivion.

Foerster, in an elaborate account of the fossil insects found in
the middle oligocene of Brunstatt (40h. Specialk. Elsass-Lothr.,
ili, 189t) mentions, without naming, the following two species of
Tipulidz.

Tipula sp. 1. This species evidently belongs to our new genus
Tipulidea, the length of the przfurca just equaling, or certainly
not surpassing, the greatest breadth of the first basal cell. It dif-
fers, however, from any of the American species, but seems most
nearly allied to Z. picéa.

Tipula sp. 2. This, too, belongs to Tipulidea, and resembles the

179

preceding species more nearly than it does any of the American
forms. Both European species have a smaller second posterior cell
than any of ours, and the length and slenderness of the fourth pos-
terior cell is much greater.

Finally, to specify a few minor instances of little present value,
SERRES (Géogn. terr. tert., 1829) states that a fossil fly of the genus
Nephrotoma, allied to the European JV. dorsalis, occurs in the beds
at Aix, Provence, and credits to the same beds a species of
Trichocera.—Hore mentions a Tipula from Aix (Zrans. Entom.
Soc. Lond., iv, 253, 1847) which he compares with 7. rzvosa. I
do not know what that species may be. Herr has also named
a species from the same place, Zipula infernaits, but it is unde-
scribed.—WoopwarbD, in a list of insect remains from the Isle of
Wight (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., xxxv, 344, 1879) gives
among others ‘‘ Tipulide, 6’’ specimens.—SCHOBERLIN (Soc.
Entom., iii, 69, 1888) mentions the occurrence of aspecies of Tipula
at Oeningen, Baden, which he compares to 7. ochracea, a true
Tipula.—BELL, in the Lx/omologist (xxi, 1888) in an article on
glacial insects, mentions a ‘‘ Diczra, allied to Tipula,’’ as found in
a ‘fcrannoge’’ in Wigtonshire, England, presumably in the
refuse of lake-dwellings. Apparently he must have meant some-
thing akin to Dictenidea or Ctenophora, but closer reference
is impossible ; it is perhaps hardly fair to class it at all among fossil
insects, and it is accordingly not alluded to in the tabular lists in
this paper.—Lastly, KLeps, in his Ca/alogue of the Stantien and
Becker bernstein-museum (1889), on p. 65, lists a specimen (No.
478) ‘‘in the vicinity of Tipula, a new species with striking
antenne.”’

These data are all summarized in the following list, in which the
species which are known purely by name, without description
or figure, are prefixed by an asterisk.

III. ALPHABETICAL List OF EUROPEAN TERTIARY TIPULID&, WITH
THEIR PROBABLE SYSTEMATIC POSITION.

* Adetus I sp. Loew, amber. Indeterminable.

* Allarithmia palpata Loew, amber. Zrdocera.

* Anisomera succini Loew,amber. £Zrzocera.

* Ataracta 8 sp. Loew, amber. Déicranomyia.
*Calobamon 1 sp. Loew, amber. Calobamon.

* Critoneura longipes Loew, amber. Limmnophila.

180

* Critoneura pentagonalis Loew, amber. Lémnophila.

Ctenophora decheni Heyden, Rott. Ctenophora.
ROM ed I sp. Foerster, Brunstatt (afterwards described as Tipula, q. v.)
* Cylaudieema brevicornis Loew, amber. Lzmmnophila.

* “ longicornis « “6 “
* “ longipes «ec “ 77
mS ‘c succini 66 6s “
* Dichaneurum infossum Aymard, Le Puy. Indeterminable.
* “ primzvum ‘6 “c 66
Elephantomyia brevipalpa Osten Sacken, amber. TZoxorhina.
« longirostris % as ss
“ pulchella 6 ‘6 66
* Eriocera palpata Osten Sacken, amber. Lrdocera.
x “ec succini ‘e “c rT
aS “é 1 sp. 6“ 6é “6
Erioptera danzee Heyden, Rott. Zrzoptera.
* Erioptera 8 sp. Loew, amber. oh

* Geranomyia I sp. Osten Sacken, Aix. Geranomytia.
. * Haploneura hirtipennis Loew, amber. Uda.
* 6c 3 sp. ce “ce “
* Idioplasta spectrum Osten Sacken, amber. J/atoflasta.
Limnobia cingulata Heer, Radoboj. Lzmmnobza.

curtisi Giebel, Aix (—L. murchisoni). Limmnodia.
“ debilis Heer, Radoboj. Gxophomyia.

“ deleita Giebel, amber. Zzmmnobza.

ot extincta Loew, Radoboj. ee

“ formosa Heer, Radoboj? «

“ furcata Giebel, amber. Limmnophzla.

“ jaccardi Heer, Locle. TZrichocera.

“6 murchisoni Heer, Aix. Limmnobza.

“s picta Loew, Radoboj. +

“ propinqua Loew, Radoboj. «
“ sturi Heyden, Rott. Gonomyza.

€ tenuis Heer, Radoboj. Lzmmnobia.
~ 66 vetusta « 6c 66
% ss sev. sp. Burmeister, amber,

Limnobiorhynchus brevipalpus Osten Sacken, amber. Zoxorhina.
se longirostris se “6 ee
cs pulchellus “ se sé

* Limnophila brevicornis Osten Sacken, amber. Limnophila.
% oC gracilicornis “ “ “

x ‘c gracilis 6 rT) ‘“

% ‘“ longicornis 66 ‘6 “

* “ longipes (1) 66 “ “6

* “ec 6c (2) “c 6c “é

*

t pentagonalis 6 6 “

181

*Limnophila succini Osten Sacken, amber. Limnophila.

* rT vulgaris “sc ‘6 ‘“

* Macrochile spectrum Loew, amber. dioplasta.

* Nephrotoma I sp. Serres, Aix. ephrotoma ?
Ptychoptera deleta Novak, Krottensee. tychoptera ?

* Rhamphidia minuta Loew, amber. Rhamphidia.

* ‘6 pulchra ‘c Ti “6
ay US “c 2sp. “ ‘“ “é
Rhipidia extincta Unger, Radoboj. Lémmnodia.
iby major haus ere Tipula.
“ picta Heer, a Limnobia.
ae propingqua Heer, « ac

* Styringomyia gracilis Loew, amber. Styringomyia.

* Tanymera gracilicornis Loew, amber. Lzmnophila.

* « . 3sp. Loew,amber. Zanymera ?

* Tanysphyra gracilis Loew, amber. Limnophila.

* Tipula sp. vic. T. ochracea SchGberlin, Oeningen. 77pz/a.

EL « « T, pratensis Burmeister, amber. &
* « « « 'T, rivosa Hope, Aix. “
se «1 Foerster, Brunstatt. 77pzlidea.
&é “62 “ee ee “ce

« gcemula Heer, Radoboj. 77zpzda.

«“ angustata Novak, Krottensee. Zipuda.

“* antiqua Presl, amber (?). Indeterminable.
* « brevirostris Loew, amber. 7ipuda.

«© curvirostris Presl, amber (?). Indeterminable.
* « eucera Loew, amber. 7ipula.

« expectans Novak, Krottensee. 7z/za.

* « goliath Loew, amber. «s
* «« infernalis Heer, Aix. “
«© Jineata «© Radoboj. “
« maculipennis Heer, Radoboj. a
«major Giebel, “ “s
«« obtecta Heer, “& “

«« protogzea Presl, amber (?). Indeterminable.

« wngeri Heer, Radoboj (=T. major). Zzpzla.

“ varia “é “ “

« zignoi Omboni, Chiavon. Irrecognizable.
Toxorhina brevipalpa Loew, amber. TZoxorhina.

“ longirostris o ee

‘“ pulchella es sf
* Trichocera I sp. Serres, Aix. 7Zrichocera ?
* “ 2 sp. Loew, amber. “6

* Trichoneura vulgaris Loew, amber. Limmnophila.
¥ “ 3 Sp. “ “ Trichoneura ?

182

IV. TapuLar VIEW OF TERTIARY TIPULIDZ, SYSTEMATICALLY
ARRANGED.

ras Bae by name iene are eee with an asterisk, )

List OF SPECIES. | NortH AMERICAN.
Limnobini. |
* Dicranomyia 8 sp. (Loew),........ Pets en are Sete
cs longipes Scudd....... Florissant, Colo.
ke Sta SMOGUMSE Sos st eure | Ue sé
“ inferna ON A aya a Ke
‘ fragilis Sok Tene toystoks | ss €
« Slicmiosa 91. *4 uae. | White River, Colo.
“ ORIOL ET VAN Ores Ey “ 66
6 fontamei 9) 6° that i= crs) | Florissant, Colo.
“6 rostrata SO raise | White River, Colo
Spiladomyia simplex La enetoe ; “ “
a Geranomylant spr (OStem: SACKEM)).en||i slaeiaeresee bite cee |
* Limnobia sev. sp. (Burmeister). . =e INR eel

“6 ciupulata, Teens -ceneae-

“ deletaiGiebelenrnnc erie

“ extincta (Unger) Loew....|

“ formosambleen- ee. eee

“ muUKehisoni) leer set se

‘“ pictar@ilcery, Woeweeeiee

“ propinqua (Heer) Heyden.

“ USA Lele gone cogs Ho. |

“e Wetustawlleeneeer fern aet

Limnocema marcescens Scudd...... |

ss lutescens GO Mer rac |

& styx Ce aan

&“ mortoni CRN arate
Rhamphidini.

Rhamphidia saxetana Scudd........

“ feecaria ET Re ||

&e loewi 6 ee Ste

* “ THIN AAO Wea iern ete ee

* “ PpUlchia eee erie

* “6 2 other species (Loew)

* Styringomyia I sp. (Loew)........

Toxorhina brevipalpa Loew......|

“ JOMPIKOStriSieg see see

«“ pulchella EN ake |

Antocha principialis Scudd........

Eriopterini. |

*Exioptera 8 sp.\(@loew).. 2.54...

Erioptera dance Heydenss.....5.-.1

EUROPEAN.

eC

e._0,' wi'e\@) e).a) 0, @ a0 Sun ane oii

“ce 66
66 66
66 66
|
ce 6“ |
|
|
66 “
|
6c 6

Ce

ene rere reese en seee

| Prussian amber,

Aix, Provence.
Prussian amber.
Radoboj, Croatia.

| Prussian amber.

Radoboj, Croatia.
(?)

ce ce

Aix, Provence.
Radoboj, Croatia.
Rott on the Rhine.
Radoboj, Croatia.

66 66

Prussian amber.

ce 6é
6é 6é
6 66
6é ce
6 ee
ce oe

Prussian amber.

Rott on the Rhine.

183

List oF SPECIES.

' NortH AM&RICAN.

EuROPEAN.

Eriopterini (covtinued).
Gnophomyia debilis (Heer) Scudd..

Gonomyia profundi 6

6 labefactata &

‘¢ _ primogenitalis “i:

22 frigida «

« — sturi (Heyden) Scudd....|
Cladoneura willistoniScudd........
Cladura maculata COs a tices

“integra Co | Aion Rane
Limnophilini.
Limnophila rogersii NICUCG yo...

Ot: vasta SSM a! 6 0'<'e

«“ strigosa Ue ees

se MUINALU Posse pera.

* cs brevicornis (Loew) Os-
PeMIRe RCM Waiia a tes Fe tae t.2d so
Limnophila furcata (Gieb.) Scudd.
* se gracilicornis (Loew)
stem SacCkeme fan /.0/ailes seas
* Limnophila gracilis (Loew) Osten
SACI C Hs gerne stopeyepes | s/4\=)<. 2! ave! cher
* Limnophila (Lasiomastix) longicor-
nis (Loew) Osten Sacken.......
* Limnophila longipes (1) (Loew)
MUSESG HAC RET gy ead. xia vials Gave Shei»
*Limnophila longipes (2) (Loew)
Osten Sacken) sey sys.nf0 vbetacmie a=
* Limnophila pentagonalis (Loew)
OStemmoacken sy. aeteiae reat:
* Limnophila succini (Loew) Osten
SECON SPR Anetccinodd chaenoecce
* Limnophila vulgaris (Loew) Osten
SaAcken iy ochs 5 s:csieiedastee a ee anes
*Trienocera'l sp. :(Senres)).2/.by.iae tere
* i powerarsph (ILOGW:))a hots fs ai =
“ jaccardi (Heer) Scudd.
* Tanymera? 3 sp. (Loew)........
SUM CHoOne ura s/SPy, . “yh | waste cle
* Calobamon I sp. eset dacte
Anisomerini.
* Eriocera palpata (Loew) Osten

Sacken

Ce ee)

i

6é ee
“ec ee
“ec sé

ee

“eé 6“
“é &é
66 66
“ce 6é
ce ee
ce “ce

eee) 6 we) sls ev. ele! @ wei

ee |

eC

Ce

Scare ec eer ea Sa

Se ee ee ee ee

Ce

ee ee ee

ee

Radoboj, Croatia.

Rott on the Rhine.

| Prussian amber.

“6 “c
|
| 66 £6
‘ec “ec
| 66 66
|
| «6 6
|
se 66
“ £6
|
| 66 ‘6
| ‘“e rT

Aix, Provence.
Prussian amber.
Locle, Switzerland.
Prussian amber.

ee ce
«6 rT 3
| ‘66 ‘s

184

List oF SPECIES.

Anisomerini (covzinuwed).’

* Eriocera succini (Loew) Osten

Eel deme BO Aba nade o Sod aae: cle
* Eriocera 1 other sp. (Osten Sacken)
Amalopini.

* Ula hirtipennis (Loew) Osten Sacken

Seer svoOUunen span as

Cylindrotomini.
Cyttaromyia fenestrata Scudd

oe

6c

prineetoniana Scudd..

6é 6é

oligocena
cancellata
clathrata
Oryctogma sackenil
Ptychopterini.
*Idioplasta spectrum (Loew)
Sacken

ee

cece es ee ees

Pronophlebia rediviva Scudd
Tipuline.

Manapsis anomala Scudd..........

Rhadinobrochus extinctus Scudd....

66

Tipula magnifica
‘6 rigens
florissanta

66
it3 66

6é 6s

clauda

sepulchri
angustata Novak
revivificata Scudd............

se

evanitura 66

maclurei
heilprini
zemula Heer

ee eee ee eae
ee

expectans Novak.........
lineata Heer......
Carolingerscudd:aen eee eae
Varia Miler a eesia.s cca.
maculipennis Heer
limi Scudd

Ce Ce ae

subterjacens

NortH AMERICAN.

eee ee osteo ese roe ee

oe eee ee we eee eee oe en

ec

Ce ee er

White River, Colo.

Florissant, “6
oo ce
oe sé
6é 6c
66 ee

ee re

White River, Colo. |

| Florissant, Colo.

6é 6c
6 66
6e ce
66 66 |
6é se

ee

Florissant, Colo |
aN S66 “ce
\ ce 6é
66 ee |

ey

eee ee oe eee
|

ee rd

Bs eelaje siaecesececes s

Florissant, Colo.

“ “ce

“ec 6é

EUROPEAN.

Prussian amber.

cé 66
“ sé
66 66

| Prussian amber.

Krottensee, Bohemia

Krottensee, Bohemia

Radoboj, Croatia.

| Krottensee, Bohemia

Radoboj, Croatia.

Radoboj, Croatia.

66 6

185

List oF SPECIES. | Nortu AMERICAN. EuROPEAN.
Tipulinee (continued). |
am@ipualaobtects, Heer. 2.20.0. ss: Wertdetaie arate ebetercrves are Radoboj, Croatia.
‘eo lethaa Scuddaewien sa: ees Florissant, Colo.
‘Sep lapilléscens Scudds eyes. es 2 “6 6
. “ — spoliata SS IGE Ao SS | Green River, Wyo.
Moe ibrevirostris: ILoew,.. ... «0-1; | cece ee cece dee eee | Prussian amber.
me fh eucerd, C7? 1 Fann ree Pera ce Wate ec ste “6 “
* «goliath SOM A Siey ots ao forsee fant | A bates miatefe siete soe | se <c
eee <eesinternalisybeene ss. se oa: eared heared: said Aix, Provence.
fre Panalope GU Hen MGIEDE!, 2.) | sales soe mae se aeterk ote Radoboj, Croatia.
COT SOK AG, “TR oresicsrae) (Ibo) b odacouebonso aur Prussian amber.
* « “« « Tyrivosa Cel) .6 dol) com rienos senonande Aix, Provence.
cs (anes OChnacead (SCO:
ETI samieteare a's sierayes oie, 6 aca.x aas'||yane'e aeagtrsi ose io\s © aieyete | Oeningen, Baden.
* lupalugvothem sp. COC.) .., sas cas era sles ein olgislan, w'e «5's | Prussian amber.
Tipulidea consumpta Scudd........ Florissant, Colo.
“ bilineata SONA eens, het. oe “s
se picta $6 Chinen ss ss
“ reliquize <6) Heaton ‘ +
13 (CcSpe Da HOerSEeL)MSEUGC SP arsiniet ferns ete ereiel ols Brunstatt, Alsatia.
Sr Se Certs ey oh AE SOUTER Wesley ty. oid Feca aia Sal oa “ ‘s
Pe NepuToto miaverspig GOELTES!)-eesteyaieeisiei|iteyatelseatela cielere is e|eieys Aix, Provence.
Stenopionagdectenigbleyd embry mterers||ticn snelerckapates)aieieter scs/ePs Rott on the Rhine,
Micrapsis paludis Scudd.......... Florissant, Colo.

V. NoTE ON PRETERTIARY TIPULIDA.

The allusions in literature to pretertiary Tipulidz are all from
the mesozoic, and all somewhat: unsatisfactory, most of them
vague and entirely uncertain. All but two are from Great Britain,
and these may be first considered.

The earliest reference isina paper by Buckman (Proc. Geol. Soc.
Lond., iv, 212, 1843), in which he merely refers to a wing found in
the upper Lias at Dumbleton, as ‘‘ supposed to belong to Tipula.”’

A couple of years later, Murchison, in the second edition of the
Geology of Cheltenham, figures (PI. viii, fig. 3) the wing of an insect,
of which nothing is said in the text, except in the explanation of the
plate, which reads, ‘‘ Wing (perhaps) of Tipula.’’ On p. 82 it is
stated that the insects figured on this plate are ‘‘ principally’’ from
the lower Lias, which is the only indication of its horizon or locality.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143. x. PRINTED JAN. 9, 1894.

186

The wing may easily be one of the Tipulinz, but is too poorly
engraved to be certain, and it looks just as much like one of
the Neuroptera common in the British Lias. Only examination of
the specimen can possibly determine it.

In the same year Brodie, in his Moss¢/ Zmsects, givesin one of the
lists of fossils from Purbeck strata: ‘‘ Tipulidae; there are several
unfigured specimens which belong to this family ’’; further details
are lacking. ‘‘ Tipulide’’ is given in a similar list in his Désér.
Correl. Foss. Ins., p. 15 (1873), while on p. 17 of the same is listed
a ‘‘ Tipula’’ from the lower Lias of Strensham.

In 1854, Westwood (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., x) makes
three references to Tipulidz. One, which is figured on Pl. xv, fig. 1,
is merely an abdomen marked ‘‘ Tipulideous.’’ It is also men-
tioned on p. 386, and briefly described later by Giebel (Jus. d.
Vorw., 242) asa Tipula. By accident it has been twice inserted
in my /udex to Described Fossil Insects as Nos. 1625 and 1666.

A second from the same place is briefly mentioned (pp. 387, 390)
as the ‘‘ wing of a Tipulideous insect,’’ and is figured on the same
plate (fig. 2), in the explanation to which it is named Corethrium
pertinax. ‘This is described by Giebel under the same name. The
name will indicate the wide range then given by Westwood to the
term Tipulidz. I have reproduced this figure in Zittel’s Handbuch
der Paleontologie (fig, 1082), placing it under the Chironomide,
but it now seems to me that it may equally, if not more probably,
be referred to the Limnobinez. The original would repay study.

A third form is figured by Westwood (PI. xviii, fig. 20) and briefly
mentioned as the ‘‘ wing of a Tipulideous insect’’ (p. 390) from
the Purbecks of Durdlestone Bay. This, however, is certainly not
one of the Tipulidz, but more probably one of the Rhyphide or
possibly Bibionide ; a careful study of the original should be suffi-
cient to decide in this case.

The only other English reference I find is the statement by Theo-
bald (rit. Fites, p. 4, 1891) that he has found in the Wealdena
specimen belonging to the Tipulidae, but in a very imperfect con-
dition.

Outside of England there have been only two references to
mesozoic Tipulidz. The first is that of Weyenbergh, who figured
(Arch. Mus. Teyl., ii, pl. xxxiv, fig. 6) an exceedingly obscure fossil
from the Jura of Solenhofen under the name of Zipularia ? teylert.
The author himself says that no trace of neuration can be seen in

187

the wings. It is quite impossible to place it, except by merest
conjecture.

The last instance is to be found in the paper by Brauer, Redten-
bacher, and Ganglbaur (Mém. Acad. St. Petersb., (7), xxxvi, 1889)
on the Jurassic insects of eastern Siberia; these authors mention
among the ‘‘ Dubiosa,’’ a dipterous pupa ‘‘ somewhat resembling
that of Ptychoptera.’’

From these unsatisfactory data we may conclude that Tipuline
and perhaps Limnobinz have probably been found as far back as
the Jura, but that further details regarding specimens will need to
be published before the evidence is satisfactory.

VI. Famity TIPuLip2.

The two subfamilies of Tipulidae may be separated by means of
the structure of the wings (often the only characteristic part re-
maining in fair preservation among the fossils) in the following
manner:

Auxiliary vein usually ending in the costa and connected by a cross vein with
the first longitudinal vein; the latter ends in the costa without aiding in the
formation of a trapezoidal cell; last posterior cell in broad contact with the discal
Cra Rema Pte RSet ct acai s eT a ote; Ste cata pA e) Oi Ghee eth! von STehe ee el pate Male Limnobine.

Auxiliary vein ending in the first longitudinal vein by abruptly curving down
to it, but otherwise free from it; first longitudinal vein, by an apical incurva-
tion and the emission at its base of an oblique costal cross vein, enclosing a trape-
zoidal cell at the distal extremity of the stigma; last posterior cell touching the
Giscalcelliat only, OMe CORNED ante eiarcrie eters ie/auerye\= Sep ctsks fovea atasteiater aval Tipuline.

In the enumeration of the specimens at the end of the following
specific descriptions the numbers of the obverse and reverse of the
same specimen are always connected by ‘‘and’’ without any
intervening comma, and this typographical method is employed
only in expressing this relation. ;

VII. THE SUBFAMILY LIMNOBIN.

For the sake merely of simplicity, I use this term to include all
the Tipulide brevipalpi of authors. There seems to be a greater
diversity of structure among them than among the Tipuline proper,
and they have been divided by Osten Sacken into eight groups,

188

which may be regarded as tribes, the relative importance of which
in recent and ancient times has been pointed out in a preceding
table, from which it will appear that every one of them has been
recognized among the fossils.

The Limnobini take precedence as they do among modern types,
while the Rhamphidini (in Europe in amber only), the Eriopterini,
and Limnophilini follow in numbers, the remaining groups being of
least importance and three of them altogether lacking in American
deposits; while the Cylindrotomini, the only remaining tribe ap-
pearing in America, is lacking in the European tertiaries. The Ani-
somerini are represented in Europe by three species of Eriocera
in amber, the Amalopini by four species of Ula in amber, and the
Ptychopterini by a single species of Idioplasta in the same and by
a Ptychoptera at Krottensee. It thus appears that with the excep-
tion of the Ptychopterini all the tribes represented in the European
rock deposits occur also in America, while America is also. well
represented in the tribes Rhamphidini and Cylindrotomini. The

American genus Pronophlebia cannot yet be placed.

Especially difficult of determination among the Limnobini has
been. the position or the absence of the subcostal and marginal
cross veins, which play so important a part in the arrangement and
distinction of the genera. It is by no means impossible that in
some instances I may have erred in my interpretation of marks
upon the stones, but I have endeavored to give all points a rigid
scrutiny. It is certainly here that errors are most likely to have
been made. :

Nearly one hundred additional specimens from Florissant, more
or less imperfect, but certainly belonging to this subfamily, await
study ; and I may add that there is a specimen in the collection of
the U. S. Geological Survey (No. 1470) which represents an inter-
esting new genus falling near Atarba with distinct tibial spurs, but
which I refrain from characterizing here, as I can give now no
illustration of it.

As the number of genera in no one of the tribes exceeds three,
I have thought it best to include all the genera of the subfamily in
one table, as follows:

189

Table of the Genera of American Fossil Limnobine.

og) a single submarginal cell.
. The normal first posterior cell, lying (in forms peyiae but one submar-
ginal cell) between the second and third longitudinal
veins, closed, forming at base a supernumerary discal

CEllS Foe creas sews ldeacts Aawas ota ee = Cyttaromyia.
' b?, First posterior cell open throughout.
Ge VENICE EIS E MC GNIS oot giao tenchs cus ciale) hom sat nid cieid aie o's) te Oryctogma.

c?. Four posterior cells.
d'. The first longitudinal vein ends in the second longitudinal vein.
el. Discal cell closed; submarginal much longer than first

postentoneellls Wats. c ee teat ago pints Dicranomyta.
e?, Discal cell open; submarginal scarcely longer than first
OSL RICE CSM iors area nyse cast Soto laratas Spiladomyia.

2. The first longitudinal vein ends in the costa.
el, A marginal cross vein.
fl. Marginal cell excessively long, much exceeding in

length the breadth of the wing........ Limnocema.

f2. Marginal cell normal, not so long as breadth of cell
(applicable to fossil species only).......... Antocha.

G2, NOMmarpinall (CrOSSiVielNtyysa/apeeisre aiciore siciave er Rhamphidia.

A?. Two submarginal cells.
bt, Third longitudinal vein arising at normal distance from the second.
cl, First submarginal cell not, or hardly more than, half as long as the
SECOUGE Mtetre se tepe cintn cys eta aisahetevensyern stares Gonomyia.
c?, First submarginal cell much more than half as long as the second.
d!, Tibize without spurs at the tip.

e!, Auxiliary vein ending at a distance beyond the origin of
the second longitudinal vein considerably more than
equal to the breadth of the wing; third posterior cell
DEtOlAte srrar te, cctenaresa acckeqa ofererstae eke eta7 os Cladoneura.

e?, Auxiliary vein (in the fossil species) ending at a distance
beyond the origin of the second longitudinal vein less
than, sometimes only about half, the breadth of the

wing; second posterior cell petiolate...... Cladura.

d2), Tibice withispursiat thei tip’. as). cierto cise ert -taers Limnophila.

b?, Third longitudinal vein arising from the second at a very short distance
beyond the base of the latter......... Pronophlebia.

Tribe CYLINDROTOMINI.

This tribe is placed first in the series instead of near the end
really because the arrangement of the table just given requires the
early appearance of the two genera recognized in the American

190

rocks. Its place in the arrangement given by Osten Sacken is
rather at the other end of the series in nearer proximity to the
Tipuline ; but it may be noticed that in some of the features in the
neuration of the wing, as in the arrangement in the vicinity of the
stigma, in which it approaches the ‘Tipulinz, it also shows most
resemblance to the Limnobini.

Although Loew referred some amber species to Cylindrotoma,
Osten Sacken, who has since examined them, says they are all Lim-
nophilz, so that the species described below, six species of two
genera, both extinct, are the only ones known in a fossil state.

CyTTAROMYIA Scudder.

Cyttaromyia Scudd,, Bull. U. S. Geol. Geogr. Surv. Terr.,iii, 751 (1877); Tere.
Ins. N. A., 574-575 (1891).

This genus was founded, in 1877, upon a specimen showing the
apical half of a single wing, somewhat distorted by folding, and
rather obscurely preserved, found by Denton among the first known
tertiary insects of North America, on the lower White River of
Colorado and Utah. A number of specimens and several species
of the same genus have since been obtained by me from the same
spot, while exploring for the U.S. Geological Survey, but no
further specimens of the same species. ‘The beds at Florissant have
also yielded several species of the genus and permit a more accu-
rate and complete account of the generic characteristics. These
specimens show that my original description was faulty in its inter-
pretation of the structural elements of the wing: the cells lying
beyond the ‘‘secondary discal cell’’ were wrongly regarded
as submarginal cells, for they belong to the ‘‘ posterior ’’ series,
and all the errors of statement followed from this wrong interpre-
tation ; but the neuration is none the less remarkable, and, so far as
I have been able to discover, unique.

The wings are very long and slender, four or more times as long
as broad. The auxiliary vein ends in the costa, without any sudden
curve, at the beginning of thestigma. ‘The first longitudinal vein,
by very gradually curving downwards, ends in the second, which
curves upward to meet it, forming a long and slender marginal cell ;
there is neither subcostal nor marginal cross vein. The second
longitudinal vein arises near the middle of the wing, varying in the
species, is generally considerably arcuate at the base, the przefurca

191

considerably shorter than the rest of the vein, which terminates
above the apex of the wing. The third longitudinal vein arises
from the second a little before the tip of the auxiliary vein and is
met by the short cross vein at a distance from its origin equal to the
length of the short cross vein. The space between the third longi-
tudinal vein and the upper branch of the fourth longitudinal vein,
normally—and so far as I am aware invariably—open in all Limno-
binze, is here closed about half way to the tip of the wing (varying
in different species) by a cross vein, from which springs an inter-
calary vein, thus doubling the upper posterior cell at the apex and
forming of its basal portion a supernumerary discal cell, essentially a
counterpart of the normal discal cell and overlying it; it would
seem to be formed by a mesial forking of the third longitudinal
vein, and the base of the fork then connected by a cross vein to
the uppermost branch of the fourth longitudinal vein. Both discal
cells are usually very elongate (least so in the species upon which
the genus was founded), the upper, or supernumerary, usually the
longer and narrower, though they are subequal in length. There
are five posterior cells and the great cross vein strikes the fourth
longitudinal vein at the discal cell close to the base of the latter.
The fifth longitudinal vein is very gently arcuate beyond this cross
vein, while the sixth and seventh are straight throughout, the latter,
however, arcuate at the extreme tip and almost reaching the middle
of the wing. The legs are long and slender and the tibiz without
spurs at the tip.

This genus was well developed in the American oligocene, especi-
ally in the White River basin, where it seems to include the larger
number of species of Limnobinz. I leave their description, how-
ever, to another occasion and characterize at this time only the
species found at Florissant, none of which appear to be identical
with those from the White River basin. The genus does not ap-
pear to be found among the European fossil Limnobinz heretofore
published.

This genus, it seems to me with little doubt, must fall into the
Cylindrotomini, although the tibiz lack spurs. I am forced to this
conclusion by the close resemblance of the neuration to that of
Cylindrotoma and Liogma, notwithstanding the striking differences.
Especially the formation of the marginal cell is essentially the same,
while the absence of the anterior cross veins and the general be-
havior of the auxiliary vein sustain this view. It seems to me very

192

doubtful if the presence or absence of tibial spurs can be of so great
significance in the Limnobine as seems to be accorded it in the
classification of Baron Osten Sacken. But, on the other hand, itis
due to classing this genus among the Cylindrotomini that this tribe
is made to show such an anomalous preponderance in the American
tertiaries.
The species mentioned below may be grouped as in the following
table :
Table of the Species of Cyttaromyia.
Normal discal cell hardly more than twice as long as broad.,........ Jenestrata.
Normal discal cell nearly or quite three times as long as broad.
Discal cell shorter, or no longer, than third posterior cell.
Marginal cell but little longer than breadth of wing... ..préncetoniana.
Marginal cell nearly one third longer than breadth of wing.. .odigocena.
Discal cell longer than third posterior cell.

Proximal portion of marginal cell (measured from the point of origin of
third longitudinal vein) nearly one third longer than the distal por-
tion; preefurca almost as long as the remainder of second longi-
tudinalveins i727 is. cereals os dines cate oe Mae Oar cancellata.

Proximal portion of marginal cell only one seventh longer than the dis-
tal portion; praefurca only about half as long as the remainder of
second. longitudinal veins. (2-/i.. cis eate ee eieeedemat clathrata.

Cyttaromyia fenestrata.

Cyttaromyia fenestrata Scudd., Bull. U. S. Geol. Geogr. Surv. Terr., iii, 751=
752 (1877); Zert. Ins. N. A., 575-576, pl. 5, fig. 78 (1891).

White River, Utah.

Cyttaromyia princetoniana.
Plast ctig est.

Wings four times as long as broad, the marginal cell but very
little longer than the breadth of the wing, the proximal much
longer than the distal portion. Auxiliary vein terminating midway
between the origin of the third and the tip of the first longitudinal
vein. Second longitudinal vein arising well beyond the middle of
the wing, the preefurca about two thirds as long as the rest of the
vein. Supernumerary discal cell considerably broadening api-
cally and shorter than the first posterior cell. Discal cell equal,
slightly less than three times as long as broad, its distal extremity
lying considerably within that of the supernumerary discal cell,

193

shorter than the third posterior cell. Fifth posterior cell of equal
width with the discal cell. Stigma normal.

This species is of about the size of the preceding.

Length of wings, 8.75 mm. ; fore femora, 5.5? mm. ; fore tibiz,
6.5 mm.; mid femora, 4.75 mm.; mid tibiz, 5.75 mm.; hind
femora, 5.5 mm. ; hind tibiz, 6.5 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. Five specimens, Nos. 345, 7381, 7591,
13051; and from the Princeton collection No. 1.770.

Cyttaromyia oligocena.
JEM Siler ee

Wings scarcely more than four times as long as broad, the mar-
ginal cell more than one fourth longer than the breadth of the wing,
the proximal nearly one half longer than the distal portion. Aux-
iliary vein terminating beyond a point midway between the origin
of the third and the tip of the first longitudinal vein. Second
longitudinal vein arising at the middle of the wing, the prefurca
- about one fourth shorter than the remainder of the vein. Super-
numerary discal cell broadening a little apically and as long as the
first posterior cell. Discal cell equal, three times as long as broad,
its distal extremity lying considerably within that of the supernu-
merary discal cell, a little shorter than the third posterior cell. Fifth
posterior broader than the discal cell. Stigma normal.

This is the largest species of the genus.

Length of wings, 9.65 mm. ; fore femora, 5.25? mm. ; fore tibiz,
5-75 mm.; mid femora, 5.52? mm.; mid tibiz, 6.25 mm.; hind
femora, 6.25 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, No. 13259.

Cyttaromyia cancellata.
Py nes ye

Wings slightly less than four times as long as broad, the marginal
cell nearly one third longer than the width of the wing, its proxi-
mal fully a third longer than the distal portion. Auxiliary vein
terminating somewhat short of a point midway between the origin
of the third and the tip of the first longitudinal vein. Second
longitudinal vein arising slightly before the middle of the wing, the
prefurca almost as long as the remainder of the vein. Supernu-
merary discal cell very slender, gently broadening apically, longer

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143. y. PRINTED JAN. 10, 1894.

194

than the first posterior cell. Discal cell equal, fully three times as
long as broad, slightly longer than the third posterior cell, its dis-
tal extremity on a line with that of the supernumerary discal cell.
Fifth posterior no broader than the discal cell. Stigma very faint.
Length of wings, 9 mm.
Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, No. 86.

Cyttaromyia clathrata.
Pla ee 8

Wings more than four times as long as broad, the marginal cell
more than one fourth longer than the breadth of the wing, its
proximal not more than one fifth longer than its distal portion.
Auxiliary vein terminating midway or at slightly less than midway
from the origin of the third to the tip of the first longitudinal vein.
Second longitudinal vein arising at or scarcely before the middle of
the wing, pretty strongly arcuate at base, the prefurca only a
little more than half as long as the remainder of the vein. Super-
numerary discal cell long and slender, very slightly enlarging api-
cally, considerably longer than the first posterior cell. Discal cell
enlarging apically, almost four times as long as broad, about as
long as the third posterior cell, its distal extremity lying consider-
ably within that of the supernumerary discal cell. Fifth posterior
broader than the discal cell. Stigma faint.

This is the smallest species of the genus.

Length of wings, 7.25 mm. ; fore femora, 5 mm.; fore tibiz, 6
mm. ; mid tibiz, 5.75 mm.; hind femora, 5.25 mm. ; hind tibia,
6 6mm.

Florissant, Colorado. Three specimens, Nos. 3520, 8649 of my
collection, No. 1510 U. S. Geological Survey.

ORYCTOGMA (épuztés, dypos) gen. nov.

I separate here a single species which seems to belong to the
Cylindrotomini and to be most nearly allied to Cylindrotoma and
Liogma, but which differs from them as from other living Cylindro-
tomini in that the first longitudinal vein not only ends distinctly in
the second, as in Cyttaromyia, Dicranomyia, and others, but is also
connected apically with the costa by a cross vein as distinct as its
own deflected apex, the apical portion of the vein appearing rather
to fork and send one shoot in each direction. The disposition of

195

the venation at the ends of the basal cells is much as in Cylindro-
toma, and not as in Liogma and Triogma, the short cross vein be-
ing present and as long as the peduncle of the third longitudinal
vein. The discal cell is brief, and the upper of the three veins
emitted from its extremity is deeply forked, so that there are five
posterior cells. The tibiz are distinctly spurred, the spurs short.

‘These characters hardly permit it to be classed with existing
genera, though its relationship to the Cylindrotomini is intimate.
I am the more assured of the correctness of this view because of
the existence in the collection made at Florissant for the U. S.
Geological Survey of another allied genus, hitherto unknown, which
has a single submarginal cell and spurred tibize, and in which the '
first longitudinal vein ends in precisely the same manner, though
the auxiliary vein certainly ends in the costa immediately pre-
vious to it. Unfortunately most of the remainder of the neuration
is obscured in the single specimen seen (No. 1470).

Oryctogma sackenil.

Pere ue Os

5

Wings ample, three and a half times longer than broad. The
auxiliary vein appears to end free somewhat before the base of the
third longitudinal vein. The stigma is distinct, somewhat broad
and triangular. The second longitudinal vein arises in a faintly
clouded spot at some distance beyond the middle of the wing with-
out basal arcuation, the prefurca being straight and but little
shorter than the apical portion of the vein. ‘The marginal cell is
only as long as the breadth of the wing and rather broad in the
middle. ‘The discal cell is distinctly shorter than the third posterior
cell, considerably broader apically than at base. The second pos-
terior cell has a short peduncle ; the fifth posterior cell is about
twice as long as broad, narrowinga little apically. The fifth longi-
tudinal vein is somewhat bent at the great cross vein; the seventh
longitudinal vein is straight like the sixth and ends at or before the
middle of the wing. A faint cloud attends the cross veins at the
end of the basal cells.

Length of wings, 13 mm. ; fore femora, 5.5 mm. ; tibiz, 8 mm. ;
tarsi, 12.5 mm.; mid femora, 7 mm. ; tibiz, 8.5 mm. ; tarsi, rr
mm. ; hind femora, 7 mm. ; tibiz, 7.5 mm. ; tarsi, 12 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, No. 206.

196

Named for Baron C. R. von Osten Sacken, without whose studies
on recent Tipulide, the investigation of the fossil American forms
would be attended with far greater difficulty.

Tribe LIMNOBINI.

This is one of the dominant tribes of Limnobinz, whether now
or in past times. Five genera and more than thirty fossil species
are known, the only extinct genera being two—Spiladomyia with
one, and Limnocema with four species, all found in North Ameri-
can rocks. Dicranomyia is shared about equally between the Col-
orado tertiaries and the Baltic amber, while Geranomyia and Lim-
nobia are known only from Aix and other European deposits, the
latter genus in considerable numbers.

DICRANOMYIA Stephens.
Dicranomyia Stephens, Catal. Brit. ins., 243 (1829).

This genus, according to Osten Sacken, probably occurs in
all parts of the world, although it may be principally at home in
the more temperate latitudes. It appears to have been well
developed in our tertiaries, and occurs in equal abundance in the
European. The eight fossil European species, still unpublished, all
come from amber, and were referred by Loew to a new genus,
Ataracta, which Osten Sacken says is ‘‘ apparently synonymous with
Dicranomyia.’’ In this country, besides the three species already
described by me from the lower White River of Colorado and
Utah (and to which two of the species described by me as Tipule
must probably be joined) the U. S. Geological Survey has two
others from the same locality, and five are described below from
Florissant. The described species may be separated by the follow-
ing table:

Table of the Species of Dicranomyia.

Marginal cell shorter than the breadth of the wing.
Distal portion of marginal cell almost as long as the proximal.
Larger species, with wings about 7 mm. long............... longipes.
Smaller species, with wings but little more than 5 mm. long.
stagnorum.
Distal portion of marginal cell much shorter than the proximal.

197

Subcostal cross vein lying just before the origin of the second longitu-
Ciittalliecy lilies wr appeate Ric chee taseark asst sie re Sslac eis i076 s-wie inferna.

Subcostal cross vein lying at the tip of the auxiliary vein, beyond the
origin of the second longitudinal vein.*

Auxiliary vein ending at a distance beyond the origin of the second
longitudinal vein equal to the width of the marginal
cell.

Great cross vein running in exact continuity with the basal
portion of the anterior branch of the fourth longitudinal
VEU ceieicins pic nas soe a Male iensLie a eects ares sts fragilis.

Great cross vein striking the discal cell beyond the origin of
the anterior branch of the fourth longitudinal vein.

stigmosa.
Auxiliary vein ending barely beyond the origin of the second lon-
itu inalip VE MIs. ot aveinteientuekeiay<vckekhete maayempohotetiegs primitiva.

Marginal cell as long as the breadth of the wing.
Smaller species, the wings less than 6 mm. long.............. fontaine.
Larger species, the wings more than 7 mm. long............... rostrata.

Dicranomyia longipes.
LENG Fh SES 7215 a

This is one of the largest species of those found at Florissant.
The auxiliary vein ends barely beyond the origin of the przfurca,
but the position of the subcostal cross vein cannot be determined.
The prefurca arises considerably beyond the middle of the wing,
though nearer to it than in the other species having, like this,
a marginal cell shorter than the breadth of the wing; the distal
portion of this cell is of about the same length as the proximal,
and it terminates by the abrupt descent of the first longitudinal
vein upon the second. The discal cell is closed, and is much nar-
rower apically than at base by the length of the third posterior
cell. The legs are very long and slender.

Length of wings (in largest specimen), 7 mm. ; fore femora, 5.5
mm. ; fore tibiz, 6.25 mm.; fore tarsi, 62? mm.; mid and hind
femora, 7.25 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. ‘Two specimens, Nos. 214, 5582.

Dicranomyia stagnorum.
Pl. 2, figs. 4, 8.
In this species, the most abundant in specimens known, the
auxiliary vein terminates barely beyond the origin of the preefurca,

* This is not quite certain as regards D. stiymosa, but appears to be the case.

198

and the subcostal cross vein lies as much before that origin as
a little more than half the width of the marginal cell. The
prefurca arises at about three fifths the distance from the base of
the wing to the tip; the marginal cell is distinctly shorter than the
breadth of the wing, its distal portion almost as long as the proxi-
mal. The first longitudinal vein descends obliquely but with some
abruptness upon the second. The discal cell is closed, broadest
apically, the second and third posterior cells of equal length, and
the great cross vein strikes the lower inner angle of the discal cell.
The legs are long and very slender, and the tarsi show the peculiar
arcuation of the apical joint characteristic of Dicranomyia; the
tibize have no spurs.

One specimen (No. 3683) has the discal cell open and contin-’
uous with the third posterior cell; in others the cross vein closing
the cell is weak.

Length of wings, 5-6.5 mm., aver. 5.5 mm.; fore femora, 4.75
mm. ; tibia, 5.6 mm.; tarsi, 6.5 mm.; mid femora, 5.2 mm.;
tibie, 5.25 mm. ; tarsi, 5.75 mm.; hind femora, 5.5 mm.; tibie,
6.25 mm.; tarsi, 5.5 mm. ‘The leg measurements are from the
smallest specimen.

Florissant, Colorado. Thirty-one specimens, Nos. 60, 73, 223,
581, 710, 774, 779, 808, 982, 1486, 2687, 2927, 3683, 6273 and
6416, 8439, 8472, 8751, 8865, 8904, 9127, 9626, 9665, 10268,
12230, 12612, 12760, 13043, 13684 of my collection ; Nos. 1.727,
1.791 of the Princeton collection; No. 1512 U. S. Geological
Survey.

Dicranomyia inferna.

TAB tis aired BY

Here the auxiliary vein terminates a very short distance beyond,
and the subcostal cross vein lies at an equal distance before the
origin of the preefurca, which arises beyond the basal two fifths of
the wing. The marginal cell is short, considerably shorter than
the breadth of the wing, and the distal portion considerably shorter
than the proximal. The first longitudinal vein descends with
considerable abruptness upon the second, which curves gently
upward to meet it. The discal cell, which is closed, is slightly the
broadest apically, and the second and third posterior cells are of
equal length. The legs are long and slender, but in no case very
fully preserved ; they are relatively a little shorter than in the two
preceding species, the hind femora being shorter than the wings.

199

Length of wings, 6.75 mm. ; fore femora, 4.75 mm. ; tibiz, 5.5
mm. ; hind femora, 5.75 mm. ; tibiz, 6.25 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. Three specimens, Nos. 3751, 8050 and
8151, 13715. The last is accompanied and partly overlain by a
specimen of D. :fontainet.

Dicranomyia fragilis.
Lei pay aS He

This appears to be the most abundant species of Dicranomyia at
Florissant after D. stagnorum. The auxiliary vein terminates at a
little distance beyond the origin of the prefurca, equal to about
the width of the marginal cell, and has the subcostal cross vein at
its tip. The preefurca arises at no great distance beyond the middle
of the wing, but the marginal cell is nevertheless much shorter than
the breadth of the wing, and its distal much shorter than its proxi-
mal portion. ‘The first longitudinal vein descends obliquely though
rather rapidly to the second longitudinal, giving a pointed extrem-
ity to the marginal cell. The discal cell is closed and a little
broader apically than at base, the second and third posterior cells
short and subequal. The great cross vein strikes the inner lower
angle of the discal cell. A delicate fringe of moderately long
microscopic hairs can sometimes be seen around the entire wing,
subrecumbent and stouter on the costa than elsewhere, nearly erect
on the lower margin. Legs slender, the femora gradually thickened
at apex, the tibiz apically spined, and the apical joint of tarsi
characteristically arcuate.

Length of wings, 6-6.5 mm. ; of legs in smallest specimens: fore
femora, 4.5 mm.; tibiz, 5.75 mm.; tarsi, 6mm.; mid femora,
6.3 mm. ; tibiz, 6.4 mm. ; tarsi, ?; hind femora, 6.4 mm. ; tibiz,
6.75 mm. ; tarsi, 4.75 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. Eleven specimens, Nos. 1388, 1997, 4701,
5403, 6708, 7207, 8553, 9716, 11831, 12127, 13258.

Dicranomyia stigmosa.
Dicranomyia stigmosa Scudd., Bull. U. S. Geol. Geogr, Surv. Terr., iti, 746-
748 (1877); Zert. Ins. N. A., 568-570, pl. 5, figs. 16, 17, 25-27, 42, 43, 68,
69 (1891).
? Tipula tecta Scudd., Bull. U.S. Geol, Geogr. Surv. Terr., ili, 752-753 (1877) ;
Tert. Ins. N. A., 577; pl. 5, figs. 46, 47 (1891).

In the description given of this species I have inadvertently

200

spoken of the marginal as the subcostal cross vein. The specimen
described by me as Zipula tecta certainly belongs to the Limno-
binz, and is most probably referable to this species.

Lower White River, at the boundary between Colorado and
Utah.

Dicranomyia primitiva.

Dicranomyia primitiva Scudd., Bull. U. S. Geol. Geogr. Surv. Terr., iti, 748
(1877); Zert. Ins. N. A., 570-571, pl. 5, figs. 20, 21, 65-67 (1891).

The auxiliary vein in the only well-preserved specimen of this
species is excessively faint, but appears to terminate barely beyond
the origin of the preefurca and the subcostal cross vein to be at its
tip. I have accordingly placed it in the table next D. fragilis and
D., stigmosa.

Lower White River, at the boundary line between Utah and
Colorado.

Dicranomyia fontainei.
JENS yy ie, Li

This is one of the smallest of. the Florissant species, and differs
from all the others in having the marginal cell as long as the breadth
of the wing. The auxiliary vein is also much longer than in the
others, extending far beyond the origin of the preefurca and ap-
parently, though this is obscure, with the subcostal cross vein at its
tip. Further, the first longitudinal vein falls upon the second at a
slighter angle, giving the marginal cell an unusually pointed tip.
The preefurca arises not very far beyond the middle of the wing,
and the distal portion of the marginal cell is not much more than
half as long as the proximal. The discal cell is closed, though the
cross vein separating it from the third posterior cell is very faint, as
is also the great cross vein, which appears to strike the inner lower
angle of the discal cell. The second and third posterior cells are
subequal, the second slightly the longer. ‘The legs are poorly pre-
served on the two specimens known, but the hind femora appear
to be somewhat shorter than the wings.

Length of wings, 5.5-5.75 mm. ; hind femora, 5 mm.

Named for Prof. W. M. Fontaine of the U. S. Geological
Survey.

Florissant, Colorado. Two specimens, Nos. 173, 13715, the
latter partly overlying a specimen of D. tnferna.

201

Dicranomyia rostrata.

Dicranomyia rostrata Scudd., Bull, U. S. Geol. Geogr. Surv. Terr., iii, 749
(1877); Zert. Ins. N. A., 571-572, pl. 5, figs. 40, 41, 63, 64 (1891).
Tipula decrepita Scudd., Bull. U. S. Geol. Geogr. Surv. Terr., iii, 752 (1877) ;
Tert. Ins. N. A., 576-577, pl. 5, figs. 56, 57 (1891).
-Renewed examination of the material formerly studied shows
these two supposed distinct species to be in all probability identical.
Lower White River, at the boundary between Utah and
Colorado.

SPILADOMYIA Scudder.
Spiladomyza Scudd., Bull. U. S. Geol. Geogr. Surv. Terr., iii, 749 (1877).

In this genus the discal cell is open and continuous with the sec-
ond posterior cell, while the first posterior cell is scarcely longer
than the submarginal. In other respects it is closely allied to
Dicranomyia. In a second species belonging to the U. S. Geo-
logical Survey (No. 1069) the auxiliary vein continues to thestigma
and as it otherwise agrees tolerably well with the described species
where the auxiliary vein is very obscure, the generic characteriza-
tion given should probably be modified to that extent. In both
species, the second longitudinal vein appears to rise towards the
first at their apical junction, giving the terminal portion the ap-
pearance of being a continuation of the first rather than of the
second longitudinal vein. I leave the description of the new species
to another occasion.

Spiladomyia simplex.

Spiladomyia simplex Scudd., Bull. U. S. Geol. Geogr. Surv. Terr., iii, 750
C1597) 3. fers Ins. VOA., 573; pl &§, figs. 37, 39 (1891).

Lower White River, next the boundary between Colorado and
Utah.
LIMNOCEMA (Atpyy, xetwar) gen. nov.

This name is proposed for a group of species which seem to be
more nearly allied to Limnobia and Trochobola than to any other
living genus, but which are peculiar for the presence of a marginal
cross vein near the extreme apex of the wing, well beyond the
position of the stigma, which is here marked only by a faint cloud ;
and for the great length of the posterior cells, as in Dicranoptycha,

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143. 2. PRINTED JAN. 10, 1894.

202

for example. The wings are a little less than four times as long as
broad. The auxiliary vein is very long, terminating at or beyond
the origin of the third longitudinal vein, and is connected at some
distance before its tip with the first longitudinal vein by the
subcostal cross vein. The second longitudinal vein arises well be-
fore the middle of the wing, the prefurca but little declivent, so that
the marginal cell is slender throughout and exceedingly long, since
the marginal cross vein is situated at but little before the tip of the
first longitudinal vein and scarcely at all affects the curvature either
of that or of the second longitudinal vein. The single submar-
ginal is considerably longer than the first posterior cell, and all the
posterior cells, four in number, are long, the discal cell being closed
and generally less than twice as long as broad. ‘The great cross
vein strikes the discal cell slightly beyond the base of the latter.
The legs are slender, the tips of the tibia unarmed. The abdomen
appears to have been longitudinally striped.

Four species occur, each of them at Florissant only; they may
be separated by the following table:

Table of the Stectes of Limnocema.

Second longitudinal vein arising within the basal third of the wing. .warcescens.
Second longitudinal vein arising beyond the basal third of the wing.
Subcostal cross vein lying a long distance from the tip of the auxiliary vein.
Preefurca arising before the middle of the wing; submarginal much

longer thaniithe first posterion cella -esne eae ne erent lutescens.
Preefurca arising at or beyond the middle of the wing; submarginal
scarcely longer than the) frst posterior cells. = eee eeieiies SLX.

Subcostal cross vein lying a short distance from the tip of the auxiliary vein.
mortont.

Limnocema marcescens.
Pl. 2, fig. 7.

This is the largest species of the genus, and remarkable for the
excessive length of the marginal cell, which is more than half as
long as the wing. The auxiliary vein ends just at the origin of the
third longitudinal vein, but the subcostal cross vein cannot be made
out. The second longitudinal vein arises distinctly within the basal
third of the wing, and the marginal cross vein is so near its tip
that the proximal and distal portions of the marginal cell are about
equal. The discal cell is relatively small and narrower apically
than at base, and the second and third posterior cells are slender

203

and twice as long as the discal cell. The wings are uniformly
and very slightly fuliginous, but no trace of stigma can be detected.
The hind (or middle ?) femora are much shorter than the wings.
Length of wings, 10.75 mm. ; hind (or mid?) femora, 8 mm. ;
tibize, 9 mm.
Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, No. 13069.

Limnocema lutescens.
el 2, pe.

The auxiliary vein in this species ends a little way beyond the
origin of the third longitudinal vein, and the subcostal cross vein is
at a considerable distance before it, about half way to the origin of
the przfurca, and at about the middle of the wing. The second
longitudinal vein arises at some distance before the middle of the
wing, and the marginal cross vein is at some distance before the
tip of the second longitudinal vein, so that the distal is but slightly
longer than the proximal portion of the marginal cell. In neither
of the known specimens are the parts about the discal cell well pre-
served, but the posterior cells can be seen to be very long, and the
submarginal to be much longer than the first posterior cell. One
of the specimens shows a slight infumation in the position of the
stigma.

This species bears a close general resemblance to the larger Rham-
phidia saxetana from the same beds, which lacks any marginal cross
vein.

Length of wings, 8.2-9.5 mm. ; fore femora of larger specimen,
5-75 mm. ; tibiz, 6.75 mm.; mid femora of smaller specimen,
5-5 mm. ; tibiz 5.75 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. ‘Two specimens, Nos. 603, 11817.

Limnocema styx.
Pl. 2, fig. 6.

This species is very near the last, and the single specimen is im-
perfect by the loss of the tip of the wing. It differs from the pre-
ceding mainly in these points: The subcostal cross vein, though
situated, as there, about midway between the tip of the auxiliary
vein and the base of the przefurca, is very far beyond the middle of
the wing, for the praefurca arises not far from and probably itself

204

beyond the middle of the wing. The position of the marginal
cross vein, being beyond the break, cannot be determined, and it
is therefore possible that this species does not belong in this genus
at all. The submarginal is but very little longer than the first pos-
terior cell. The discal cell must be of excessive length if it is not
Open, as it cannot be seen on the fragment, which is supposed
to include just about one half of the apical cellular area, that is,
the region beyond the basal cells. The wing is perfectly clear
except that faint signs of a stigma can be seen just beyond the tip
of the auxiliary vein.

Length of fragment of wing, 8 mm. ; presumed length of wing,
9-5 mm.; hind femora, 6 mm. ; tibiz, 6 25 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, No. 11389.

Limnocema mortoni.
Vl, 2p ive Is

A single specimen with its reverse represents the smallest of the
species of this genus. The outspread wings show a faint broadly
diffused infumation in the region of the stigma, but are otherwise,
and excepting the dark veins, hyaline. The auxiliary vein ends at
a noticeable distance beyond the origin of the third longitudinal
vein, and the subcostal cross vein lies directly over the latter, and so
at considerably less than half way from the tip of the auxiliary
vein to the origin of the preefurca. The latter arises somewhat
before the middle of the wing, and the marginal cross vein is close
before the tip of the first longitudinal vein, so that the marginal
cell is very long, and its distal a little longer than its proximal
portion. The submarginal is much longer than the first posterior
cell,—indeed by as much as the length of the discal cell, which is
here only about half as long again as broad, and considerably less
than half as long as the slender posterior cells beyond it. A single
femur is all that is preserved of the legs—a fore femur, to judge by
its position, and in that case exceptionally long, being but little
shorter than the wings.

Length of wings, 7.9 mm. ; fore? femora, 6.25 mm.

Named in memory of Dr. S. G. Morton, the distinguished Phil-
adelphia naturalist of a past generation.

Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, Nos. 8038 and 8215.

205

Tribe RHAMPHIDINI.

I have chosen to call this tribe by a name derived from one
of its principal genera, rather than to use the compound term Zzm-
nobina anomala introduced by Osten Sacken. The Rhampbidina
of this writer is a more restricted group within this.

Four genera and a dozen species of this tribe are known in a
fossil state, all the genera but one, Antocha, being found in amber.
None of the genera are extinct, though two of them were first known
from amber inclusions, and in consequence have been the subject of
many comments by Loew and Osten Sacken, who find in them strik- |
ing examples of the resemblance between the amber fauna and the
existing faunaof America. None of this tribe have been recognized
in the European rock deposits, but Florissant furnishes two genera
and four species.

RHAMPHIDIA Meigen.

Rhamphidia Meig., Syst. Beschr. eur. zweifl. Ins., vi, 281 (1830).

In this genus are here placed several species which agree in their
neuration quite as well with Toxorhina, but appear to lack the
elongated rostrum of the latter genus. The neuration, however,
shows so many minor points of departure from the described char-
acteristics of each of these genera, that the characters of Rham-
phidia must be made more elastic for their reception. Among
themselves they differ also in similar particulars, and until the fossil
species indicated from amber are better known, enabling us to
compare all the Rhamphidini living and fossil, it will probably be
best to include these under Rhamphidia, to which they appear to
be most nearly allied. There is no trace in them of apical spurs
to the tibiz. Attention should especially be directed in studying
the fossil species to the length of the auxiliary vein, the point of
origin of the przfurca, and the position of the great cross vein.

This genus contains but few species, most of which are found in
Europe, the others in eastern North America, Porto Rico, and
Brazil (one each). Four undescribed species are recorded by Loew
as occurring in Baltic amber. The three species found at Floris-
sant may be thus separated :

Table of the Species of Rhamphidia.

Auxiliary vein ending opposite the origin of the third longitudinal vein. .saxetana.
Auxiliary vein ending about midway between the origin of the second and third
longitudinal veins.

206

Third longitudinal vein arising about the middle of the wing; great cross vein
striking the fourth longitudinal vein before the discal cell... ./caria.
Third longitudinal vein arising well beyond the middle of the wing; great
cross vein striking the fourth longitudinal vein at the base of the discal
| Ne Ge ee ae Ft. eaye oe RR MAES ra co tae loewt.

Rhamphidia saxetana.

Pl. 3, fig. 4.

An exceptionally large species. The auxiliary vein ends opposite
the origin of the third longitudinal vein, but the position of the
subcostal cross vein cannot be made out. ‘The prefurca arises at
the middle of the wing, is arcuate at its base and then subparallel
to the first longitudinal vein, and not half so long as the remainder
of the vein. The first longitudinal vein is carried much farther
toward the apex of the wing than in the other species, farther
beyond the long auxiliary vein than the breadth of the wing. The
-submarginal is not very much longer than the first posterior cell.
The discal cell is rather short, and the posterior cells beyond it more
than twice as long as it. The great cross vein strikes the discal
cell close to the base of the latter. The costal margin of the wing
is very thick and deeply colored ; the wing itself is hyaline, with
scarcely even a fuliginous tint at the stigma. The legs are slender,
the femora gradually thickening toward the tip.

Length of wings, 12 mm.: fore femora, 8.25 mm. ; tibiz, 9.75
mm.; tarsi, 9 mm.; mid femora, 9.5 mm,; tibie, 9.25 mm. ;
hind femora, 9.5 mm.

One cannot but be struck by the close general resemblance
of this species to the much smaller Zzmnocema lutescens from the
same beds, a species with a marginal cross vein.

Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, No. 10490.

Rhamphidia feecaria.
Tel, a Hans

The auxiliary vein ends midway between the origin of the second
and third longitudinal veins, the subcostal cross vein at its very tip.
The preefurca arises at the middle of the wing, is gently arcuate and
slightly declivent and distinctly more than half as long as the re-
mainder of the vein. The first longitudinal vein ends as far from
the origin of the third as that is from the origin of the second

207

longitudinal vein, and at a less distance beyond the tip of the aux-
iliary vein than the breadth of the wing. The submarginal is much
longer than the first posterior cell. The discal cell is moderately
small, equal, about half as long again as broad and distinctly but
not greatly shorter than the posterior cells beyond it. The great
cross vein strikes the fourth longitudinal vein at a slight distance
before the discal cell. The seventh longitudinal vein is rather
short. A slight infumation marks broadly the position of the
stigma, the veins are all exceptionally heavy and fusco-luteous, the
wing barely infumated. Three legs are preserved on the single
specimen known and are presumed to be the hind pair and one
middle leg.

Length of wings, 7.5 mm. ; mid femora, 5.2? mm. ; tibiz, 5.5
mm. ; hind femora, 5.2 ? mm.; tibiz, 5.75 mm. ; tarsi, 5 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, No. 9399.

Rhamphidia loewi.
eat. 35 fig. 2.

The auxiliary vein ends at a little less than half way from the_
origin of the second to that of the third longitudinal vein, the sub-
costal cross vein at its tip. The prefurca arises considerably be-
yond the middle of the wing, is nearly straight and declivent, and
is less than half as long as the remainder of the vein. The first
longitudinal vein is as in the preceding species. The submarginal
is much longer than the first posterior cell. The discal cell is
rather elongate, equal, twice as broad as long and fully as long as
the posterior cells beyond it. The great cross vein strikes the dis-
cal cell near to but distinctly removed from the base of the latter.
The seventh longitudinal vein is normal. The wing is hyaline,
with a very faint infumation at the stigma, the veins luteous and
delicate. The legs are detached and partly obscured (though in a
natural position) so that the measurements are mostly in doubt.

Length of wings, 7.25 mm. ; fore femora, 5.5? mm. ; tibiz, 6.5
mm.; mid femora, 6? mm.; tibiz, 6.5? mm.; hind femora, 6.4? mm.

Named in memory of Dr. H. Loew, the distinguished investiga-
tor of the amber Diptera.

Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, No. 1369.

208

ANTOCHA Osten Sacken.

Antocha Osten Sacken, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad., 1859, 219.

To this genus I refer a single species which differs markedly from
the only recent species known—occurring in eastern North America
and in Europe—in the character of the preefurca, which is arcuate
at base and only half as long as the rest of the vein, so that the
marginal cell is relatively brief. It differs further in minor points,
such as the normal removal of the discal cell from the apex of the
wing, the normal base of the first posterior cell, etc., but these are
of much less importance. If the entire neuration could be deter-
mined with accuracy I am disposed to believe it would have to be
separated from Antocha; but the position of the marginal cross
vein just before the tip of the first longitudinal vein, the gradual
approach of the first longitudinal vein to the costal margin, and the
apparent merging of the auxiliary in the first longitudinal vein
(though this is an obscure point) are so many features in common
with Antocha that it seems best to place it here at present. The
shape of the anal angle of the wing cannot be determined. The
tips of the tibiz are unarmed.

‘‘Tt is not at all improbable,’’ wrote Osten Sacken more than
thirty years ago (/. ¢., 200), ‘that my genera Antocha and Dicra-
noptycha will be found fossil in the Prussian amber.’’ The present
illustration is almost a fulfilment of this partial prophecy.

?

Antocha principialis.
JS Se ae, 3G

Represented by a single specimen with rather obscure neuration
over most of one wing and the whole of the other. The auxiliary
vein appears to unite with the first longitudinal vein about the
middle of the wing. The latter runs very gradually into the mar-
gin, without curving upward toward it, at a point about as far be-
yond the.origin of the third, as that is beyond the origin of the
second longitudinal vein. ‘The preefurca arises a little beyond the
middle of the wing, is at first strongly arcuate, then subparallel to
the margin, toward which it turns slightly at the marginal cross
vein, which is opposite the base of the discal cell, a little within
the tip of the first longitudinal vein, at the inner margin of the
faint stigma. The submarginal is much longer than the first posterior

209

cell, but by no means so much so as in the living species. The
discal cell is long and rather slender, widening apically and as long
as the third posterior cell. The great cross vein strikes the fourth
longitudinal vein at some distance short of the discal cell. The
legs are very slender and the fore tarsi of excessive length.

Length of wings, 6.5 mm.; fore femora, 5.25 mm.; tibia, 5.5
mm.; tarsi, 10.5 mm.; mid femora, 5.75 mm.; tibiz, 6 mm. ;
tarsi, 6.25 mm. ; hind femora; 6 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, No. 215.

Tribe ERIOPTERINI.

Of this tribe five genera and eighteen species, including those
described below, are known in a fossil state. Only three species of
as many genera—Erioptera, Gnophomyia, and Gonomyia—have
been described from the European rocks, but eight species of Eri-
optera are said by Loew to occur in amber. Gonomyia has four
species in America, and Cladura has two, while a single other
species has been referred to a distinct genus, Cladoneura, closely
allied to the last.

Gonomyia Megerle.
Gonomyia Meg., in Meig., Syst. Beschr. eur. 2weifl. Ins.,i, 147 (1818).

This is a north temperate genus, the known existing species being
confined to Europe, which has eleven species, and eastern North
America, which has five. It has before this been found fossil, the
species described by Heyden in the Aquitanian of Rott in Rhenish
Prussia under the name of Limmnodia sturt, being certainly a Gono-
myia. But in this country it is found fossil more abundantly, for to
this genus belong four nearly allied species from Florissant with
very characteristic neuration. Except that the auxiliary vein is
relatively long and the marginal cell slender, they do not appear to
differ in any common characteristics from modern forms. The
species may be separated thus:

Table of the Species of Gonomyta.

Preefurca with little or no basal arcuation, nearly straight throughout.
Base of first submarginal cell lying scarcely beyond the tip of the first lon-
gitudinal vein.

PROC, AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 148. 24. PRINTED JAN. 17, 1894.

210

Small species. Tip of auxiliary vein lying much less than half way
from the origin of the second to the origin of the third longitudinal
VSL a) 275) Srevastte colts otahor. se tonte Crt ac T SAT a hee eee rae eet profundi.

Large species. Tip of auxiliary vein lying much more than half way
from the origin of the second to the origin of the third longitudinal

MELD sic spate n ah gies Creprel teeter eeetan el nee 2 eee eee ae labefactata.

Base of first submarginal cell lying distinctly beyond the tip of the first lon-
m@itudinaldvieiniy ty. clack its cm ericiae ninleie ter: ASS primogenitalis.

Pretures wath strong areuation at, basen sees asie ser ee oe oe ee ee frigida.

Gonomyia profundi.
1A Sh toed Ge

The wings are hyaline. The auxiliary vein ends barely before
the middle of the wing and a little distance beyond the origin of
the preefurca, the subcostal cross vein appearing to lie midway
between the two. The first longitudinal vein ends in the costa
opposite the middle of the discal cell. The przfurca is long,
nearly straight, arises at the end of the basal two fifths of the
wing, and is considerably more than half as long as the rest of the
vein. The oblique upper branch of the second longitudinal vein
arises opposite the tip of the first longitudinal vein, making the
first submarginal cell more than half as long as the second; the
latter is considerably longer than the first posterior cell, and
the second and third posterior cells twice as long as the discal cell,
which isclosed. All the veins running longitudinally are gently and
uniformly arcuate.

This is the smallest of the fossil species of the genus.

Length of wings, 5 mm. ; fore femora, 2.75 mm. ; tibiz, 2.75
mm. ; mid femora, 3 mm.; tibiz, 3 mm.; hind femora, 3 ? mm. ;
tibiz, 3 mm. ; tarsi, 3.25 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, No. 7461.

Gonomyia labefactata.
BlAricnAs
The wings are hyaline, without trace of color except the luteous
veins, which appear to be a little thickened in certain parts,
especially the fifth longitudinal vein ; there is no trace of a stigma.
The auxiliary vein terminates at a remarkable distance beyond the
origin of the preefurca, reaching nearly to the base of the third
longitudinal vein, and well beyond the middle of the wing, the

211

subcostal cross vein shortly anterior to its tip. The first longitudi-
nal vein reaches as far as opposite the distal end of the discal cell.
The przefurca arises at about the end of the basal two fifths of the
wing, is straight, not very long, but little more than half as long as
the remainder of the vein. The oblique upper branch of the
second longitudinal vein arises directly opposite the tip of the first
‘longitudinal vein, so that the first submarginal cell is just as long as
its petiole. The second submarginal is but little longer than the
first posterior cell. The discal cell is pretty large and nearly as
long as the posterior cells beyond it. The great cross vein strikes
it just before its middle.

This is the largest of the fossil Gonomyie.

Length of wings, 8.25 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, No. 147.

Gonomyia primogenitalis.
BLAS heart:

In this species the wings are hyaline, without spots or stigma, but
with fusco-luteous veins. The auxiliary vein ends in the middle of
the wing, the subcostal cross vein shortly before its tip and nearly
midway to the base of the przefurca, which, though no longer than
usual, arises at an exceptionally early point, not far beyond the
basal third of the wing; it is straight, with no basal arcuation
whatever, and only half as long as the rest of the vein; indeed the
whole cellular area of the wing, that is, the region beyond the basal
cells, is much longer in proportion to the rest of the wing than in
any of the other species. The first longitudinal vein ends about
opposite the distal end of the discal cell, and the oblique upper
branch of the second longitudinal vein arises distinctly beyond its
tip, though the first marginal cell is longer than its petiole. The
submarginal is not greatly longer than the first posterior cell; the
discal cell is rather small and only about half as long as the pos-
terior cells beyond it, the great cross vein striking it at the end of
its basal third. The fifth longitudinal vein is scarcely bent at the
cross vein. ‘The femora are considerably thickened apically.

The figure on the plate represents only the wing of one of the
specimens, drawn by the camera lucida.

Length of wing, 6.5—7.5 mm. ; legs in the smaller specimens:
fore’ femora, 2-6: tiai.; tibiee, 325° mim: 5 tarsi,.2.475° mm..3" mid

212

femora, 2.25 mm.; tibiz, 2.5 mm. ; tarsi, 2.4 mm.; hind femora,
3.2)mm. 5 tibic, 3:1mm. 5, tarsi, 2.25 Po amm.

Florissant, Colorado. Three specimens, Nos. 8161, 8846 and
8871 of my collection; No. 1.748 of the Princeton collection.

Gonompyia frigida.
Ply 4, hes:

Wings hyaline without spots or stigma, the veins fuscous. Aux-
iliary vein terminating a little beyond the middle of the wing, and
not far from midway between the origin of the second and third
longitudinal veins, the subcostal cross vein shortly before its tip
and midway between it and the base of the preefurca. First longi-
tudinal vein ending about opposite the distal extremity of the discal
cell. Przefurca arising somewhat before the middle of the wing,
strongly arcuate at base, thereafter subparallel to the first longi-
tudinal vein, the strongly oblique upper branch of the second aris-
ing opposite the tip of the first longitudinal vein, the first sub-
marginal cell about as long as its petiole. Second submarginal
considerably longer than the first posterior cell. Discal cell small,
equal, considerably shorter than the posterior cells beyond it, the
great cross vein striking it close to its base. The femora are gradu-
ally though very slightly thickened and darkened apically.

Length of wings, 5.5-5.75 mm.; fore femora, 2.8 mm. ; tibiz,
3mm.; tarsi, 3 mm.; mid femora, 3 mm.; tibiz, 2.75 mm. ;
tarsi, 2.75 mi.; hind femora, 3:5 mm..; tibiz, 3) mm.5)tarer
3.25 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. ‘Three specimens, Nos. 3434, 6034, 8656.

CLADONEURA (xAddos, vevpd) gen. nov.

Among the species which in my preliminary survey of these
fossils I had grouped under Cladura, is one which agrees with
modern forms of that genus in one particular, namely, the distance
between the base of the prefurca and the tip of the auxiliary vein,
which more than equals the breadth of the wing ; while in the fossil
species of Cladura described below the distance is less, sometimes
much less, than the breadth. It further agrees better with the
modern than with the fossil species of Cladura in that the tip of
the auxiliary vein extends a little beyond the base of the first sub-
marginal cell; and in that the petiole of this cell about equals the

213

distance between the subcostal and marginal cross veins,—points
more or less related. But it differs from the modern forms of
Cladura in so many and, as it appears to me, so much more import-
ant points than do the fossil species here referred to Cladura, that it
seems more rational to separate it generically from both.

The points of its distinction from Cladura are the following :
The preefurca arises at a far earlier point in the wing, at the end of
the basal third of the same, and though immediately arcuate has
but a slight basal curve and is thereafter straight, running very near
to and but slightly divergent from the first longitudinal vein; in
this respect the fossil species of Cladura agree more nearly with it
than with the recent species. The subcostal cross vein is at the tip
of the auxiliary vein, so that its distance from the base of the pre-
furca is a fourth more than the breadth of the wing. The marginal
cross vein is In consequence much nearer the subcostal cross vein
than the tip of the first longitudinal vein, and the petiole of the
first submarginal cell is a little longer than the interval between the
two cross veins. Moreover, the branch of the second longitudinal
vein through which the first submarginal cell originates is straight
throughout and not, as in the modern species of Cladura, strongly
arcuate basally ; in this particular again the fossil species of Cladura
agree rather with Cladoneura. The third and not the second pos-
terior cell is petiolate. The anterior branch of the fourth longi-
tudinal vein arises at a small angle (and not at nearly or quite a
right angle) from the main stem, so that the proximal end of the
discal cell is pointed and not brcad. Finally, the great cross vein
lies much nearer the margin of the wing, striking the discal cell
opposite the origin of the posterior branch of the fourth longi-
tudinal vein. In addition, the legs, which are very imperfectly
known in the single specimen preserved, appear to be much shorter
than in the fossil species of Cladura, the hind femora being but
about half as long as the wings, while in the latter they are fully
two thirds as long. The wings are but little more than three times
as long as broad, with rather full posterior margin.

A single species is known.

Cladoneura willistoni.
Pl. 4, fig. 2.
Wings a little more than three times as long as broad, immacu-
late, without stigma, very feebly infumate. The auxiliary vein

214

ends scarcely before the middle of the apical half of the wing and
just beyond the extreme base of the first submarginal cell, the sub-
costal cross vein next its tip. The prefurca arises at the end of the
basal third of the wing and is scarcely shorter than the rest of the
vein. The marginal cross vein is as far beyond the base of the first
submarginal cell as that from the origin of the third longitudinal
vein ; the latter is hardly in the least bent at its base where united
to the branch of the fourth longitudinal vein. The second sub-
marginal and first posterior cells are of almost equal length and
longer than the breadth of the wing. The discal cell is subtriangu-
lar, enlarging toward its rectangular apex from its pointed base.
Petiole of third posterior cell shorter than the cell. Fifth longi-
tudinal vein distinctly and considerably bent at the great cross vein,
the fifth posterior cell less than twice as long as its Inedian breadth.
The legs are imperfectly preserved, but are relatively very short.

Length of wings, 9 mm. ; breadth, 2.75 mm.

Named for Prof. 5. W. Williston, of the University of Kansas, a
diligent student of American Diptera.

Florissant, Colorado. Two specimens, Nos. 9312, 12688.

CLaDURA Osten Sacken.
Cladura Osten Sacken, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad., 1859, 229.

Cladura is a North American genus and has indeed been found
only along the eastern shore from Canada to the District of Co-
lumbia. Loew described a European species, but Osten Sacken says
it cannot be placed here. ‘Two living species only are known. Up
to this time it has not been found fossil, but I now place here a
couple of species from Florissant, differing considerably from each
other, in that one, a stout species, has spotted wings, very short and
broad for a Cladura ; while the other, a slender form, has clear wings
of the usual proportions, nearly four times as long as broad. They
agree, however, tolerably well in their neuration, but differ from
modern species of Cladura in that the distance between the base of
the prefurca and the tip of the auxiliary vein is less than, in the
stout form hardly more than one half, the breadth of the wing; in
that the tip of the auxiliary vein lies distinctly before the base of
the first submarginal cell; that the petiole of this cell is only about
half as long as the distance between the subcostal and marginal
cross veins; and in the slight basal arcuation and subsequent

215

straightness of the preefurca—in which particular they approach
Cladoneura, just described. The stouter of the two further differs from
modern species of Cladura in the form of the wings, as above re-
marked, and in the somewhat greater distance of the great cross
vein from the base of the discal cell. These differences seem to be
no more than we should expect between living and tertiary forms
in the same genus, and indicate the direction development has taken
within relatively recent times.

Table of the Fosstl Species of Cladura.

Wings less than three times as long as broad, spotted; great cross vein striking
middlejoflower marcinofidiscal cell. .i')..3).¢.0 04 bacce Sane sc maculata.
Wings more than three times as long as broad,immaculate; great cross vein strik-
ing lower margin of discal cell near the base.............2.00005 integra.

Cladura maculata.
Plas etic: 1

Wings slightly less than three times as long as broad, spotted
with brownish fuscous along the front margin, but otherwise hya-
line; the largest of these spots is at the stigma, where it is more
luteous and includes the marginal cross vein; the others are situ-
ated next the humeral cross vein, midway between it and the base
of the przefurca, at that base, at the subcostal cross vein, at the
origin of the third longitudinal vein, and at the tips of the veins
bordering the first submarginal cell. The auxiliary vein ends at
the distal extremity of the middle fifth of the wing, earlier than
the origin of the third longitudinal vein, and has the subcostal cross
vein a very little way before its tip. - The prefurca arises at the
proximal end of the middle fifth of the wing, is arcuate at extreme
base, thereafter straight and a little divergent from the first longi-
tudinal vein, and is a little shorter than the rest of the vein. The
marginal cross vein lies at a less distance beyond the base of the
first submarginal cell than the length of the petiole of that cell.
The third longitudinal vein is abruptly bent a little beyond its base
where the cross vein strikes it, and the second submarginal and first
posterior cells are subequal in length and fully as longas the breadth
of the wing. The petiole of the second posterior cell is shorter
than the cell. The discal cell is about twice as long as broad, sub-
equal and a little shorter than the posterior cells beyond it. The

216

great cross vein strikes the middle of the discal cell, and the fifth
posterior cell is hardly twice as long as broad. There is a distinct
supplementary cross vein in the middle of the second basal cell,
lying outside a point opposite the base of the preefurca. The legs
are relatively stout, the femora apically blackened.

Length of wings, 6.5 mm.; breadth, 2.25 mm.; length of fore
femora, 3.5 mm. ; tibiz, 4.75 mm. ; tarsi, 4.6 mm.; mid femora,
3-75 mm. ; tibie, 4.75 mm. ; hind femora, 4.6 mm. ; tibiz, 5 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, Nos. 7954 and 10399.

Cladura integra.
Play isis:

Wings almost four times as long as broad, hyaline and immacu-
late except for the faintest possible infumation on the stigma. The
auxiliary vein ends but little before the middle of the apical half of
the wing, between the origin of the third longitudinal vein and the
base of the first submarginal cell; the subcostal cross vein lies but
a short distance from the tip of the auxiliary vein. The prefurca
arises at about the middle of the wing, is arcuate at base, beyond
straight, divergent and rather distant from the first longitudinal
vein, and is distinctly shorter than the rest of the vein. ‘The mar-
ginal cross vein lies as far beyond the base of the first submarginal
cell as the length of its petiole. The third longitudinal vein is not
bent at the base, the cross vein uniting it to the branch of the
fourth longitudinal vein meeting it at the very base ; consequently
the second submarginal and first posterior cells are equal in length,
and they are much longer than the breadth of the wing. The
petiole of the second posterior cell is very much shorter than the
cell, the discal cell is less than twice as long as broad, equal and
hardly more than half as long as the posterior cells beyond it. The
great cross vein strikes the discal cell near its base and the fifth
posterior cell isseveral times longer than broad and equal, the fifth
longitudinal vein being hardly bent. Legs very slender. The
sides of the abdomen are distinctly darker than the dorsum.

Length of wings, 10.5 mm. ; breadth, 2.6 mm. ; length of fore
femora, 5.5 mm. ; tibize, 6.75 mm. ; tarsi, 6.25 mm. ; hind femora,
6 mm. ; tibia, 7.5 mm. ; tarsi, 6 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, No. 1590.

217

Tribe LIMNOPHILINI.

This is the most important tribe among the Limnobine whether
living or fossil. Five genera and twenty-five species have been rec-
ognized among the fossils, though only a very few of the European
species are described or figured. Three or more species each of
Limnophila, Trichocera, Tanymera, and Trichoneura—the last two
extinct genera—have been recorded from the European tertiaries,
besides one of the extinct genus Calobamon; these are all from
amber except a single species each from Aix and Locle, belonging
to Trichocera. From America only four species of Limnophila
are known.

LIMNOPHILA Macquart.
Limnophila Macq., Hist. Nat. Dift., i, 95 (1834).

Limnophila is a prolific north temperate genus with numerous
species both in North America and in Europe, in each of which
about thirty species are known. In North America it occurs across
the continent and from Alaska to Mexico, and it is also found in
South America.

In his first studies upon this group, Osten Sacken suggested the
use of several subgeneric names, which he proposed in a tentative
manner, to be used until a complete revision of the genus could be
made. In later writings he has still further subordinated these,
which are in part founded upon minor points in the neuration
of the wings. The examination of the few fossils of this group
from Florissant seems to emphasize his later judgment, since
we find several species with a cross vein in the first submarginal
cell (one of the characteristics of his subgenus Dicranophragma),
but which do not well agree in other features of Dicranophragma,
while one of them has a supplementary cross vein in the costal
area, as in Epiphragma—a group which he later regards as of
generic value. It has seemed best, therefore, pending a complete
revision of the Limnophile of the world, to use for these fossil
species only the broader generic name Limnophila. It is a striking
fact that of the four species known (each, unfortunately, by only a
single example) three should have only four posterior cells, and
three should have a supplementary cross vein in the first sub-
marginal cell, both these features being rare in modern Limno-
phile.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143. 2B. PRINTED JAN. 17, 1894.

218

Numerous fossil species of this group have been found in Europe,
but only in Prussian amber, where the variety of forms is so great
that Loew placed them in no less than four of his proposed new
genera, and did not recognize among them at all the typical Lim-
nophilz. These genera were Trichoneura, Critoneura, Tanymera,
and Tanysphyra, with eleven species; and besides these Osten Sacken
refers his species of Cylindrotoma, four in number, to this group.
The species described below, which are the first found in rock
deposits, may be separated as follows :

Table of the Species of Limnophila.

First submarginal cell with a supernumerary cross vein.
A supplementary cross vein in the costal area, next the base of the przefurca.

rogerstt.
No cross vein in costal area.
Larger species, possessing only four posterior cells ............. vasta,
smaller species, with five posterior cellaneeesne «sce ae SUYILOSA,
First submarginal cell with no supernumerary cross vein.......... ruinarum.

Limnophila rogersii.
LEAL Ale ise,

Wings hyaline with fuscous veins and no sign of a stigma.
Auxiliary vein ending opposite the base of the first submarginal
cell, the subcostal cross vein at its tip; a supernumerary
cross vein in the costal area, opposite the base of the pre-
furca. First longitudinal cross vein ending about midway
between the tip of the auxiliary vein and the apex of the
wing. Prefurca arising about the middle of the wing, rather
strongly arcuate at base, straight beyond, two thirds as long
as the rest of the vein. Marginal cross vein just beyond the tip of
the auxiliary vein and opposite the base of the first submarginal
cell, which has a supernumerary cross vein a little beyond its
middle. Apparently only four posterior cells, but by the folding
and overlapping of the wings in the only example known, this
point is not entirely clear; the same disturbance prevents any
statement regarding the discal ceil. Legs very slender and long,
the tibize apically spurred.

Length of wings, 6.5 mm. ; fore femora, 3.5 mm.; tibiz, 4.5
mm. ; tarsi, 3.75 mm.; mid femora, 4 mm. ; tibiz, 5 mm.; tarsi,
5.25 mm.; hind femora, 4.8 mm.; tibia, 5.25 mm.

219

Named in memory of Prof. H. D. Rogers, formerly state
geologist of Pennsylvania.
Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, No. 13732.

Limnophila vasta.

: Agios.

Wings very faintly infumated, with a faint and small fuscous
stigma. Auxiliary vein ending opposite the base of the first sub-
marginal cell. First longitudinal vein continuing far toward the
apex of the wing, being apically deflected with the margin. Pre-
furca arising at a little distance before the middle of the wing, con-
siderably arcuate at base, beyond straight and gently divergent from
the first longitudinal vein, as long as the end of the vein beyond
the marginal cross vein, which is a little beyond the tip of the aux-
iliary vein and oblique. First submarginal cell with a supernu-
merary cross vein in the middle of its apical half. Four posterior
cells. Diseal cell short relative to the posterior cells beyond it,
which are very long. ‘The specimen is a male, and the antennz
are very long as in the subgenus Idioptera, but whether there is a
supernumerary cross vein in the second basal cell cannot be deter-
mined. The legs are not preserved. It is the largest of the fossil
species. ;

Length of wings, 11.75 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, No. 7o21.

Limnophila strigosa.

Ble; figs 5:

Wings uniformly and very faintly infumated, with no sign of a
stigma. Auxiliary vein long, extending slightly beyond the base of
the preefurca and the apex of the wing, the subcostal cross vein at
its tip. First longitudinal vein extending far toward the tip of the
wing, but scarcely declivent apically. Preefurca arising a little
before the middle of the wing, gently arcuate throughout, two
thirds as long as the first submarginal cell. Marginal cross vein as
far beyond the base of the first submarginal cell as that from
the origin of the third longitudinal vein, oblique. First submar-
ginal cell with a supernumerary cross vein near its apex. Five pos-
terior cells, the second petiolate, apparently longer than its petiole.
The discal cell and parts below obscured by the folding of

220

the wing in the only specimen known. Legs slender, not very
long, the tibize distinctly spurred at apex.

Length of wings, 6.25 mm. ; hind tibiz, 2.75 mm.

Florissant, Coiorado. One specimen, No. 8178:

Limnophila ruinarum.
Pl. 4, fig. 6.

Wings very faintly and uniformly infumated, with no stigma.
The front margin of both wings is imperfect, not permitting the
auxiliary vein to be fully traced ; but it is probably rather short, as
the first longitudinal vein ends about opposite the middle of the
first submarginal cell. The przefurca is very long, arising before the
end of the basal third of the wing, is gently arcuate at base, straight
thereafter, and nearly as long as the rest of the vein, which is
exceptionally arcuate. Marginal cross vein oblique, further from
the base of the first submarginal cell than it is from the origin of
the third longitudinal vein; this cell without any supplementary
cross vein. Four posterior cells. The discal cell pointed at base,
and though by this made longer, it is not much more than half as
long as the second posterior cell. The great cross vein strikes the
middle of the discal cell, and the fifth longitudinal vein is slightly
bent where met by it. No supplementary cross vein in the second
basal cell. Legs not very slender and relatively shorter than
in the other fossil species, the tibiz with apical spurs. Abdomen
dark above, light below.

Length of wings, 8.25 mm.; hind femora, 4.25 mm. ; tibie,
5-5 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, No. 9575.

PRONOPHLEBIA Scudder.

Pronophlebia Scudd., Bull. U. S. Geol. Geogr. Surv. Terr., iii, 750 (1877);
Tert. Ins. N. A., 573-574 (1891).

This genus was established upon a single imperfect specimen, in
which the third appeared to rise from the second longitudinal vein
almost immediately after the separation of the latter from the first
longitudinal vein, and so was very different from its origin in any
other group of Limnobinz. Renewed examination of the speci-
men does not enable me to contradict this interpretation of the fossil,

221

although it appears very improbable. I accordingly leave it until
more perfect material shall.enable some one to correct or verify it
and fill out the remainder of the neuration. It is, therefore, placed
at the end of the series, as it is quite impossible to tell in what tribe
it should fall.

Pronophlebia rediviva.

Pronophlebia rediviva Scudd., Bull, U. S. Geol. Geogr. Surv. Terr., iii, 750-
751 (1877); Zert. Ins. N. A., 574; pl. 5, fig. 39 (1891).

White River, near the boundary of Colorado and Utah.

VIII. THe Supramity TIPuULINe.

The fossil representatives of this subfamily are, relatively to the
Limnobine, just about as numerous in the European deposits as in
the present fauna of Europe or of America, being in each case
about half as numerous as they ; but in the American rocks, and
still more in the European rock deposits (2. ¢., exclusive of amber),
they hold a much more important place. In tertiary Europe nine
species of Tipula, one of Ctenophora, and two of Tipulidea (an
extinct genus) have been described, and the presence of about
fifteen other species of Tipula indicated, besides a Nephrotoma ;
while in North America, seventeen species of Tipula (including
those in the present essay) have been described, and four species of
Tipulidea, an extinct genus, besides single species of three other
extinct genera. The tertiary fauna appears therefore to be some-
what more diversified in this subfamily in America than in Europe.

I have used here the terms employed by Osten Sacken for
the neuration of the wings, but the neuration of these fossils seems
to render it probable that what he calls (MZonogr. Dipt. VV. A., iv,
290) the anterior branch of the apical fork of the second longitu-
dinal vein is really the termination of the first vein itself, which is
connected by across vein to the second, where it approaches it.
This last would then be a ‘‘ marginal’’ cross vein, and the fact
that no other marginal cross vein ever exists in the Tipulinz lends
greater probability to this view, which would bring the structure
into better accordance with that of many Limnobine.

The American genera of fossil Tipulinze may be separated
by the following table :

222

Tuble of the Genera of American Fossil Tipuline.

al. Last posterior cell in contact with the discal cell; the latter of moderate size.
bl. Anterior branch of fourth longitudinal vein unforked, or very feebly
TOP ed) ke. uct Merete aks: oe aise ketenes te eee Manapsis.
b?, Anterior branch of fourth longitudinal vein strongly forked.
cl. Posterior branch of fourth longitudinal vein doubly forked, so that
there are six posterior cells...............Rhadinobrochus.
c?. Posterior branch of fourth longitudinal vein simply forked, so that
there are five posterior cells,
dt. Preefurca nearly as long as, as long as, or longer than, the width
of the first and second basal cells together, opposite the
Origintorl, the) preclurcarererre oe: cnc eee eee Tipula.
d?. Preefurca not, or scarcely, longer than the greatest width of the
firsthibasall cell! sa5 ctve eyelets tie, «te cin cleo a eR Tipulided.
a?, Last posterior cell not in contact with the discal cell; the latter minute.
Micrapsis.

MANnapPSIS (paves, adits) gen. nov.

This name is here given to a genus of crane-flies closely allied to
Tipula, in which the second posterior cell does not exist, or if it
does, exists only as an exceedingly small and slender cell formed by
the apical and very slight forking of the upper branch of the fourth
longitudinal vein. In the single specimen known it forks thus
upon one wing and not at all upon the other; the latter would
appear to be the normal condition to judge from the weak character
of the fork upon the other wing. So far as I can discover, no such
condition is known to exist elsewhere among the Tipuline, and I
accordingly suggest the separation of this form as a distinct genus.
In all other respects the neuration agrees with that of Tipula and
Ctenophora, and the legs appear to be much as in Tipula. The
markings of the abdomen seem to be peculiar, for they consist of
a very broad pale mediodorsal stripe on an otherwise dark
abdomen.

A single species is known.

Manapsis anomala.
Pl, peed
Wings almost four times as long as broad, uniformly infumated,
with a distinct very dark stigma. Auxiliary vein terminating at the
middle of the inner marginal cell; poststigmatal cross vein rather
brief, slightly oblique; trapezoidal cell brief. Praefurca a little

223

longer than the width of the first and second basal cells together at
its base. Lowest posterior cell much wider at base than at
margin ; discal cell of medium size, about twice as long as broad.
Sixth longitudinal vein moderately approximated to the fifth;
seventh longitudinal vein distinctly less than half as long as
the wing. Abdomen very dark, with a broad pallid mediodorsal
stripe. Legs siender, the tibiz distinctly slenderer than the
femora, which are three fifths as long as the wings.

Length of wings, 14.75 mm. ; of mid femora, 9 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. One Q specimen, No. 8200.

RHADINOBROCHUS (fiadtvos, Bpdzos) gen. nov.

It is with some hesitation that I propose the above name, as the
single object upon which it is based is so imperfect. But the por-
tion that is well preserved is so anomalous, while preserving in most
of its features the exact neuration of Tipula, that it can hardly be
properly treated excepting under a distinct generic name. ‘These
peculiarities consist of two features: the extraordinary slenderness
of the discal cell, and the presence of a supplementary posterior
cell by the longitudinal division with slightly unequal but sym-
metrical halves of the third posterior cell by an additional nervule,
running from the discal cell to the margin.

A single species is known.

Rhadinobrochus extinctus.

Ede egg nats 7-16

Wings nearly four times as long as broad, uncolored except for
the rather faint stigma at the extremity of the inner marginal cell.
Auxiliary vein terminating at the middle of this cell ; poststigmatal
cross vein slightly oblique, moderately long ; trapezoidal cell not
much elongated. Prefurca of normal length. Petiole of second
posterior cell about half as long as the discal cell ; third posterior
cell broken into two, as described under the genus ; last posterior
cell not much wider at base than at margin. Discal cell broadest
basally, tapering throughout, of the usual length in species of
Tipula, but four times as long as its basal breadth, not in close con-
tact with the last posterior cell. Sixth longitudinal vein moderately
near the fifth. Legs slender, the femora fully three fifths the length

224

of the wings. Abdomen with a dark dorsal stripe on a pale
ground.

Length of wings, 13.5 mm.; hind femora, 8.5 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. One § specimen, No. 8847.

TripuLa Linné.
Tipula Linn., Syst. Mat., ed. i (1735).

This is a cosmopolitan genus with an enormous number of species,
found in every quarter of the world, but most numerous in north
temperate countries. Sixty-seven species have been. credited to
North America from Greenland to Mexico, and no less than eighty-
eight to Europe. Fossil remains of this genus have also frequently
been credited to different deposits in Europe, as at Sieblos, Oenin-
gen, and Brunstatt in Germany, Aix in France, Gabbro and Chia-
von in Italy, and the Krottensee in Bohemia, besides numerous
examples at Radoboj in Austria and in Prussian amber. From the
former of these last two deposits half a dozen species -are described
and figured, while in amber Loew has recognized from eleven to
sixteen species, none of them yet described. In a very few in-
stances the fossil species referred to Tipula can be shown to belong
elsewhere, but most of them can be assumed to be true Tipule. In
America we have already found seventeen species, most of them at
Florissant, the remainder in the Gosiute fauna at Green River,
Wyoming.

The greater number, both of individuals and species, of the
Florissant Tipulinze belong to the genus Tipula in the strictest
sense. Ihave been unable to discover any constant and pervading
differences to distinguish them from existing forms, but have sepa-
rated on one side and the other certain species which show marked
individual characteristics, sometimes in unexpected and rather sur-
prising features; and have besides divided the genus in the follow-
ing table into two groups by the length of the przefurca, the ex-
treme brevity of which in certain species closely allied to Tipula
has induced me to separate them as a distinct genus, Tipulidea. The
species with relatively short preefurca, which I leave in Tipula, seem
to agree in this particular with the existing Mexican species, 7.
edwardsit, figured by Bellardi.

Two fossil species formerly described by me as Tipulz (under the
names Zipula decrepita and Tipula’tecta) are certainly not Tipu-

225

line and most probably belong to Dicranomyia (g. v.). Exclud-
ing therefore these two, the species of Tipula found fossil in America
may be separated by the following table :

Table of the Species of Tipula.

Al, .Preefurca relatively long, as long as, generally longer than, the breadth of the
first and second basal cells together next its base; or,
half as long as the intersected apical area of the wing
beyond the basal cells.

b!, Wings immaculate except at stigma.
cl. Markings of the abdomen linear and light.

ad Wings exceeding,/28 nim. inlength.:.....-.6.-.% magnifica.
d?. Wings less than 26 mm. in length.
els Wings 21 mm:jor moreim length. ....%.5.-0...-.- vIgens.

e?, Wings between 16 and 21 mm. in length...../lortssanéa.
e’, Wings less than 16 mm. in length.
f!. Discal cell fully twice as long as broad....... clauda.
f2, Discal cell less than twice as long as broad. sepulchri.
c?, Markings of the abdomen oblique and heavy.
d!. Larger species, the wing length exceeding 20 mm. revivificata.
d?, Smaller species, the wing length less than 17 mm.. .evanitura,
b?, Wings maculate or discolored along the veins.
c!, Abdomen with transverse markings...............-06+- macluret,
c?, Abdomen with longitudinal markings.
d', Larger forms, the wings exceeding 19 mm. in length.
el, Proefurca of ordinary length, not much exceeding the breadth
of the first and second basal cells together, next its
base; wings relatively slender, nearly or quite four
timesias Lome, as) broadiytcat.r eid das = sek heilprint.
e?, Prefurca exceptionally long, exceeding the breadth next its
base of the combined first and second basal and anal
cells ; wings relatively broad, not exceeding three and
Aphalietinres thet Dread tl scprs se sve sree tartari,
d?, Smaller forms, the wings not reaching a length of 19 mm.
el, Wings not more than four times as long as broad.
f1, Discal cell relatively short and broad, less than twice
as long as broad ; petiole of second posterior cell rela-
tively long, much more than half as long as the cell.
caroline.
f?, Discal cell relatively long and narrow, at least twice
as long as broad; petiole of second posterior cell
relatively short, not more, generally much less, than
hal fias loneyasylhe discalicelllsy 1) s1)-1 9 oes /-t0 limi.
e?, Wings more than four times as long as broad. zwdernecata.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XxxiI. 148.2¢. PRINTED JAN. 13, 1894.

226

A*, Preefurca relatively short, distinctly shorter than the breadth of the first and
second basal cells together, next its base ; or, much
less than half the length of the intersected apical area
of the wing beyond the basal cells.

bl. Species of larger size, with wings at least 17 mm. long, the auxiliary
vein stopping far short of the middle of the inner
Marginal “Golem r ee kicls arcs cals See subtler Jacens.
b?. Species of smaller size, with wings less than 17 mm. long, the auxiliary
vein reaching the middle of the inner marginal cell.
cl, Przefurca contained about two and a half times in the length of the
intersected apical area of the wing beyond the basal
cells.
d', Larger forms; the marginof some of the veins discolored.
lethea.
d?. Smaller forms ; some of the principal veins discolored (in: some
obscure specimens, this discoloration may be wholly

or partially obliterated))rss. «. see ce nee lapillescens.
c?, Preefurca only one third the length of the intersected apical area of
the wing beyond the basal cells. ...... ;---Spoliata,

,

Tipula magnifica.
JEL, iss ates Sh

Wings slightly more than four times as long as broad, uncolored
except for the faint stigma. Auxiliary vein terminating at some
distance before the middle of the inner marginal cell; poststig-
matal cross vein (uniting the first and second longitudinal veins)
oblique and moderately long ; trapezoidal cell elongate. Praefurca
of normal length. Second posterior cell more than twice as long as
its petiole. Middle branch of the fourth longitudinal vein gently
arcuate, making the third posterior cell apically narrower than the
fourth. Discal cell not very large, less than twice as long as broad.
Sixth longitudinal vein distant from the fifth. Legs moderately
slender, the femora distinctly stouter than the tibizs and very
slightly more than half as long as the wings, the tibiz a very little
longer than the femora, and the middle tarsi nearly two fifths longer
than the tibize. Abdomen light colored, with slender median and
broad lateral darker stripes.

This is by far the largest fossil Tipulid known, but is not so large
as some modern species.

, Length of wings, 29.5—30 mm. ; fore femora, 15.5 mm.; tibia,
18.5 mm.; mid femora, 15.5 mm.; tibiz, 18 mm.; tarsi, 24.5
mm. ; hind femora, 16.5? mm.; tibia, 19.75 mm.

227

Florissant, Colorado. Three 2 specimens, Nos. 5481, 12107,
16310 and 16311.

Tipula rigens.
Plies, ge 5) ple Os tes: 25) 3.

Wings four or slightly less than four times as long as broad, un-
colored, except for the rounded stigma which is situated above the
proximal half or more of the discal cell and is denser on its distal
than its proximal side. Auxiliary vein terminating at the middle
of the inner marginal cell; poststigmatal cross vein slightly oblique
and moderately long (it is given too short in pl. 5, fig. 5); trape-
zoidal cell brief. Prafurca of normal length. Petiole of second
posterior cell varying from about half as long as the discal cell to
nearly its length. Fifth posterior cell much broader at base than
at margin. Discal cell of moderate size, nearly twice as long as
broad. Sixth longitudinal vein moderately distant from the fifth ;
seventh longitudinal vein much shorter than half the length of the
wing. Femora moderately stout, distinctly stouter than the slender
tibiz, half or almost half as long as the wings, the tibiz a little longer
than the femora, and the tarsi of the fore pair one third, of the mid
pair nearly one half longer than the tibiz. Abdomen light colored
and, when not obscured, with median and marginal narrow dark
stripes, and occasionally with a feebler intermediate stripe on either
side.

Length of wings, 21-25 mm. ; fore femora, 11 mm. ; tibiz, 13.5
mm. ; tarsi, 18.5 mm.; mid femora, 11 mm.; tibiz, 12 mm.;
tarsi, 18.5 mm.; hind femora, 11.5 mm. ‘The measurements of
the legs are all from one ,¥, having a wing length of about 22 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. Fifteen specimens, all but one (with the
possible exception of a second) females; Nos. 1638, 8061, 8088,
BAT 7p stC427, 21392, “11669, 11077, T1805, 12105 and, 12106;
12561, 13714, 16314 of mycollection; No. 14699 collected by
Miss C. H. Blatchford; No. 1.793 of the Princeton collection.

Tipula florissanta.
Pig tig. 25 pl 6, aes. 4, 55 pl 7, op. fT.

Wings almost exactly four times as long as broad, uncolored
except for the rounded obovate stigma situated over the proximal
two thirds of the discal cell. Auxiliary vein terminating at the

228

middle of the inner marginal cell; poststigmatal cross vein
slightly oblique and rather short, trapezoidal cell moderately elon-
gate. Prefurca of normal length. Petiole of second posterior
cell short, rarely exceeding, seldom equaling half the length of the
discal cell, in one instance (No. 1697) barely one third its length ;
fifth posterior cell much broader at base than at margin. Discal
cell fairly large, elongate, arcuate, more than twice as long as
broad ; it varies in one specimen which seems to belong here (No.
8944), in being straighter and exceptionally slender, being fully
three times as long as broad. Sixth longitudinal vein moderately
near the fifth, but slightly variable, usually nearer than in 7.
rigens, but occasionally as distant; seventh longitudinal vein
nearly or very nearly half as long as the wing. Legs slender, the
femora not greatly stouter than the tibiz and considerably more
than half as long as the wings, the tibiz distinctly longer than the
femora, except the middle pair, which is subequal to them; the
tarsi subequal and fully half as long again as the tibiz. Abdo-
men pale beneath, above light colored with a rather narrow dark
median stripe and a pair of similar but generally more conspicu-
ous lateral stripes, nearer the lateral margins than the middle line,
unless the abdomen is inflated, as when heavy with eggs, when they
may recede farther from the margin, as seen from above.

Length of wings, 16-20.5 mm.; of legs in one specimen, No.
13685, in which all the legs are perfectly preserved and the wing
measures 17 mm. long, as follows: fore femora, to mm. ; tibiz, 12
mm. ; tarsi, 18.5 mm. ; mid femora, 11.5 mm. ; tibice, rr mm. ; tarsi,
18.5 mm. ; hind femora, 11 mm. ; tibiz, 13.5 mm. ; tarsi, 19.5 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. Fifty-one specimens, of which ten are ¥,
the remainder 9 or indeterminate ; Nos. 92, 775, 883 and 1692,
1617, 1607 and 7732, 2161, 2780, 3267, 32685, 4435, 4618, 5545.
5595, 6060, 7220, 7721, 8185, 8210, $390, 8538 and 11676,
8821, 8858, 8944, 9040, 9261, 9857, 10386, 10634, 11137,
M324, TL3eo, T1220, LOOT, Tree, i S4n 12142, T2705,
13273, 13280 and 13296, 13281, 13685, 13694, 13724, 139985,
14004, 14995, 16312 from my collection; also Nos. 1481, 1502
U. S. Geological Survey ; No. 16420 collected by R. Thaxter ;
and 1.750 from the Princeton collection.

229

Tipula clauda.
Wl (oh RHR jolly ypueRy BeZk

Wings about four times as long as broad, generally a trifle less
than more, uncolored except for the generally distinct and rather
small stigma. Auxiliary vein terminating at the middle or
scarcely beyond the middle of the inner marginal cell; poststig-
matal cross vein transverse or scarcely oblique, rather short ; trape-
zoidal cell rather elongate. Prafurca of normal length. Petiole
of second posterior cell generally rather short, rarely exceeding
half the length of the discal cell, but sometimes slightly longer
than that; fifth posterior cell somewhat, sometimes considerably,
broader at base than at margin. Discal cell not very large, elon-
gate, fully twice as long asbroad. Fourth longitudinal vein usually
running slightly nearer the first than the fifth longitudinal vein, the
sixth longitudinal vein ‘moderately approximated to the fifth;
seventh longitudinal vein as in 7. florissanta. Legs slender, the
tibiz considerably slenderer than the femora, the hind femora
slightly longer than the others and nearly two thirds as long as the
wings, the tibize and especially the fore pair distinctly longer than
the femora, and the tarsi more than half as long again as the tibiz.
Abdomen light colored, with a dark median longitudinal stripe,
sometimes obscure and generally rather broad, and pretty uniformly
distinct and equally broad dark lateral stripes—all occasionally
obscured in preservation.

Length of wings, 12-15.5 mm. ; of legs in one specimen (No.
3820) where the wing measures 15 mm. in length, as follows:
fore femora,,q muni. ; ‘tibia, 1:2 mm. ; tarsi, 17.7 tam. > mid
femora, 9 mm. ; tibiz, 1o mm. ; hind femora, 9.7 mm. ; tibiz, 11
mm. ; tarsi, 17 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. Thirty-four specimens, of which 7 are 4,
the rest 9 or uncertain; Nos. 88, 100, 649, 989, 1038, 1205 and
Ba0070 350; 3003, 3307,-3200 and 11671, 3570 and 5329, 33820
and 4974, 4634, 4664, 6910, 8057, 8195, 8478, 8873, 8899,
LGORG T0053, (19330, T1237, 62623, 13066, 13118, .13229;
132005, 44200, FAIIS, t4t69 Of my collection; Nos. 1.753,
1.756 of the Princeton collection.

230 i

Tipula sepulchri.

Tipula sepulchri Scudd,, Tert. Ins. N. A., 578, pl. 10, fig. 1 (1891).

This species differs from the preceding, Z. c/auda, principally in
the brevity of the discal cell.

Green River, Wyoming.

Tipula revivificata.

Wings fully four times as long as broad (the exact width cannot
be measured), uncolored except for the greatly enlarged stigma
and a slight infuscation on the middle of the fourth longitudinal
vein. Auxiliary vein terminating slightly before the middle of the
inner marginal cell; poststigmatal cross vein scarcely oblique,
rather short; trapezoidal cell rather brief. Preefurca of normal
length. Second posterior cell obscure but apparently as in
TZ. magnifica. Wiscal cell rather small, apparently about twice as
long as broad; remainder of neuration obscure. J.egs slender, the
‘femora but slightly stouter than the tibiz and a little more than
half as long as the wings. Abdomen dark, with oblique light
markings midway between the middle and the lateral margins,
becoming longitudinal on the first two segments, the middle
dark markings on the third to the seventh abdominal segments
being subtriangular elongate patches, having a rude and rounded T
shape, the cross bar of the T short and rounded.

Length of wings, 21 mm. ; mid femora, 11 mm. ; hind femora,
12.5 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. One 9 specimen, No. 9119.

Tipula evanitura.

Wings with the same proportions as in Z. clauda, and as
there without markings except the distinct and rather small
obovate stigma. Auxiliary vein terminating at the middle of the
inner marginal cell; poststigmatal cross vein transverse and rather
short ; trapezoidal cell rather more than usually elongate. Pre-
furca of normal length. Petiole of second posterior cell brief,
hardly more than a fourth as long as the discal cell; fifth posterior
cell subequal throughout. Discal cell moderately large, elongate,
considerably more than twice as long as broad. Fourth longitu-
dinal vein running scarcely nearer the first than the fifth longitudi-
nal vein, the sixth longitudinal vein moderately distant from the

231

fifth. Legs slender, the tibize distinctly more so than the femora,
the latter nearly or quite three fifths as long as the wings, the tibize
distinctly, though but little, longer than the femora, the tarsi
nowhere completely preserved. Abdomen with a_ light-colored
ground with dark markings, which are not wholly linear, but con-
sist, first, of a series of short and rather stout, briefly linear dashes
along the middle of the dorsum, or an interrupted stripe; and
next, of oblique oval lateral patches on each segment, deepest an-
teriorly, and posteriorly more or less blending with the median
stripe.

Length of wings, 14.25-16 mm. ; fore femora, 8-9 mm. ; tibiz,
— P-10.75 mm. ; mid femora, 8.75-9.5 mm. ; hind femora, g- — ?
mm. ; tibize, 9.75—- —? mm.

Florissant, Colorado. Two Q specimens; No. 8588 of my col-
lection; No. 1.760 of the Princeton collection.

Tipula maclurei.
Pl 7, tie:

Wings nearly four times as long as broad, with a dark and rather
large oblong stigma and many of the veins broadly discolored
with dark fuliginous, which forms patches or clouds in places; in
particular, the fifth longitudinal vein (with the great cross vein) is
heavily bordered, though interrupted by pallid clouds just before
and just after the middle of the wing; a brief slender dark
patch descends from the stigma, and is separated from the fuscous
clouds beyond by pallid clouds which intervene in the discal
cell and all the cells above it ; except as it nears the discal cell,
the fourth longitudinal vein is unstained though faint slender
fuliginous streaks follow the first and second basal cells. Auxiliary
vein terminating at the middle of the inner marginal cell; post-
stigmatal cross vein transverse, brief ; trapezoidal cell rather short.
Preefurca of normal length. Petiole of second posterior cell not
more than half as long.as the discal cell; fifth posterior cell but
little broader at base than at margin. Discal cell rather small and
brief, not more than half as long again as broad. Sixth longitudi-
nal vein distant from the fifth; seventh longitudinal vein less than
half as long as the wing. Legs relatively stout, the tibize consider-
ably slenderer than the femora and a little longer than they, the
femora less than three fifths the length of the wings, and the tarsi
apparently not greatly longer than the tibiz. Abdomen pale

232

beneath ; above covered heavily with dark transverse markings, con-
sisting on each of the principal segments of a broad bow, open
anteriorly, and a couple of subconfluent or confluent median
rounded spots united therewith, these leaving a pair of anterior
laterodorsal pallid spots and the outer posterior corner of each
segment pallid; the markings become confused on the basal and
apical segments, the latter of which are wholly dark.

Named in memory of the early American naturalist, William
Maclure.

Length of wings, 23 mm.; fore and mid femora, 10.5 mm. ;
fore and mid tibiz, 12 mm.; mid tarsi, 15 mm.; hind femora,
13 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. One @ specimen, No. 7783.

Tipula heilprini.
BINS tig

Wings nearly four times as long as broad, with generally very
faint, occasionally tolerably distinct clouded dark markings
disposed much as in Z. macluret, and brought into relief by
similarly faint pallid markings above the discal cell. Auxiliary
vein terminating at the middle of the inner marginal cell ; post-
stigmatal cross vein slightly oblique, brief; trapezoidal cell mod-
erately elongate. Praefurca of normal length. Petiole of second
posterior cell short, not more, generally much less, than half
the length of the discal cell; fifth posterior cell generally, but not
always, considerably broader at base than at margin, the sides
straight. Discal cell of medium size, twice as long as broad.
Sixth longitudinal vein moderately distant from the fifth ; seventh
longitudinal vein half as long as the wing. Legs very slender, the
femora about three fifths the length of the wings, and stouter than
the tibize, which slightly exceed them in length; while the tarsi, or
at least the fore tarsi, are but a little more than a fourth longer
than the tibiz. Abdomen light colored, with dark linear mark-
ings somewhat variable in their width; in general there is a
median and, on either side, a lateral stripe, with another midway
between them or approaching one or the other ; and excepting the
subdorsal stripes, which are sometimes hardly seen and always
slender when present, the others may vary in breadth ; the incisures
also are infuscated.

233

Named for Prof. Angelo Heilprin, of Philadelphia, whose work
on tertiary fossils is well known to all naturalists.

Length of wings, 20-23 mm.; length of legs, in a specimen
whose wing is 22.5 mm. long, as follows: fore and mid femora,
12.75 mm. ; fore and mid tibiz, 14mm. ; fore tarsi, 18 mm. ; hind
femora, 13 mm. ; tibiz, 14 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. Eight 9 specimens; Nos. 3596, 4425,
4761, 7809, 11670, 11806, 13114 and I41tol, 13725.

Tipula tartari.
Ble 8) fie. 1.

Wings scarcely three and a half times longer than broad, faintly
infumated throughout but more deeply in places, such as the inner
and outer margins of large pallid patches found crossing the wing
(bounded above and below by the first and fifth longitudinal veins),
the apical portion just beyond the stigma, and the narrowing infus-
cated patch depending from it; a similar pallid patch occupies the
middle half of the inner marginal cell; the veins are very narrowly
infuscated throughout. Auxiliary vein terminating at the middle
of the inner marginal cell; poststigmatal cross vein transverse,
moderately long; trapezoidal cell rather elongate. Przfurca of
exceptional length, exceeding the breadth of the first and second
basal cells at its base, together with the anal cell, or three fourths
the breadth of the unusually broad wings. Petiole of second pos-
terior cell very short, scarcely a quarter the length of the discal
cell; fifth posterior cell subequal in breadth. Discal cell rather
large, about twice as long as broad. Sixth longitudinal vein rather
distant from the fifth; seventh longitudinal vein hardly half as
long as the wing. Legs moderately slender, the tibia not much
slenderer and not much longer than the femora, and these scarcely
more than half as long as the wings. Abdomen light colored,
with rather slender mediodorsal and lateral dark stripes.

Length of wings, 20.75 mm. ; fore femora, to mm. ; tibiz, 10.5
mm. ; mid and hind femora, 10.75 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. One Q specimen, No. 12109.

Tipula caroline.
Esa7, tess.
Wings almost exactly four times as long as broad, with dark
markings, besides the distinct ovate stigma, consisting of scarcely
PROC, AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 148. 2D. PRINTED JAN. 13, 1894.

234

more than an infuscation of the zigzag veins crossing the wing below
the stigma, the margination of the apical half of the fifth longi-
tudinal vein, and in a less degree of all the apical veins, but brought
slightly into relief by a pallid cloud above and partially including
the discal cell; in one of the two specimens these markings are
very faint. Auxiliary vein terminating barely before the middle of
the inner marginal cell; poststigmatal cross vein transverse, mod-
erately short; trapezoidal cell not much elongated. Preefurca of
normal length. Petiole of second posterior cell relatively long,
much more than half the length of the discal cell; fifth posterior
cell considerably broader at base than at margin. Discal cell
relatively short and broad, less than twice as long as broad, rather
small. Sixth longitudinal vein rather distant from the fifth;
seventh longitudinal vein less than half as long as the wing. Legs
slender, the tibize but slightly slenderer than the femora and a little
longer than they, while the femora are but little more than half as
_long as the wings. Abdomen with rather broad mediodorsal and
lateral dark stripes.

Length of wings, 15.5-17.5 mm.; of legs, in the smaller speci-
men, as follows: fore femora, 8.5 mm. ; mid femora, 7.5? mm. ;
hind femora, 9 mm. ; tibiz, 9.75 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. Two 2 specimens; Nos. 7298, 14715,
the latter collected by Miss Caroline H. Blatchford, for whom the
species is named.

Tipula limi.
Pl, hig. 43 )ple os igre

Wings four or a little less than four times as long as broad, the
stigma moderately large, rounded, distinct, followed beneath by a
small deeply infuscated patch at the base of the submarginal and
first posterior cells, often as a triangular dependence of the stigma
and as deeply stained as it; besides this, dark markings occur all
over the wing, disposed much asin 7. macluret, but without the
pallid clouds, or at most but extremely faint ones, and with the
addition of a dark cloud at the base of the preefurca ; the markings
vary much in breadth and in depth of coloring in different indi-
viduals, but are generally as in the specimens figured. Auxiliary
vein terminating at or scarcely before the middle of the inner mar-
ginal cell; poststigmatal cross vein transverse, brief; trapezoidal

235

cell rather elongate. Preefurca of normal length. Petiole of sec-
ond posterior cell relatively short, not more, generally much less,
than half as long as the discal cell ; fifth posterior cell usually much
broader at base than at margin. Discal cell relatively long and
narrow, at least twice as long as broad. Sixth longitudinal vein
pretty closely approximated to the fifth ; seventh longitudinal vein
much less than half as long as the wing. Legs slender, the femora
only a little more than half as long as the wings, andscarcely stouter
than the tibize, which barely exceed them in length. Abdomen
with moderately broad and similar mediodorsal and lateral dark
stripes.

Length of wings, 16-19 mm.; of legs in a specimen of largest
size: femora, to mm. ; fore and mid tibiz, 10.5 mm. ; hind tibiz,
10.3 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. Twelve specimens, of which two are <,
one indeterminate, the remainder @ ; Nos. 1611, 1892, 2839, 5206,
5544, 5584, 7786, 8166, 8170, 8479, 13759 of my collection; No.
1.788 of the Princeton collection.

Tipula internecata.

Wings nearly four and a half times longer than broad, the stigma
rather small and followed below by a dark fuliginous patch, as in
the preceding species, the veins discolored along their edges, and
occasionally, and especially at and beyond the middle of the fourth
longitudinal vein, enlarging into discolored cloudy patches sepa-
rated by the faintest possible pallid cloud ; similar pallid clouds oc-
cupy the discal and fifth posterior cells. Auxiliary vein attaining
the middle of the inner marginal cell; poststigmatal cross vein
transverse, moderately brief; trapezoidal cell not much elongated.
Preefurca of normal length. Petiole of second posterior cell less
than half the length of the discal cell; fifth posterior cell much
broader at base than on margin. Discal cell of medium size, fully
twice as long as broad. Sixth longitudinal vein moderately ap-
proximated to the fifth; seventh longitudinal vein less than half as
long as the wing. Legs slender, the femora but little stouter than
the tibize, the middle pair, intermediate in length as in position,
about three fifths the length of the wing; tibiz scarcely longer
than their respective femora, the tarsi unusually short, being only a
little longer than the tibiz. Abdomen dark above and light
below.

236

Length of wings, 16-17.5 mm. ; of legs in the largest specimen :
fore femora, 9.75 mm.; tibiz, ro mm. ; tarsi, at least 11 mm. ;
mid femora, 10.5 mm.; hind femora, 11.5 mm.; tibiz, 11.75
mm. ; tarsi, 13 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. Two 2 specimens; Nos. 6062, 13075 ;
besides which there is a specimen belonging to the U. S. Geological
Survey, also a $ (No. 1482), from which the measurements of the
legs were taken. ,

Tipula subterjacens.

Pl. 8, figs, 3, 5.

Wings about four times as long as broad, generally rather less
than more than that, uncolored except for the rather faint and
rather small stigma. Auxiliary vein terminating well before the
middle of the inner marginal cell; poststigmatal cross vein varia-
ble, sometimes short and transverse, at others distinctly oblique
and moderately long ; trapezoidal cell rather short. Przefurca dis-
tinctly shorter than the width of the first and second basal cells at
its base. Petiole of second posterior cell about half as long as the
discal cell ; fifth posterior cell much broader at base than at margin.
Discal cell moderate, about twice as long as broad. Sixth longi-
tudinal vein moderately distant from the fifth. Legs slender, the
tibize distinctly slenderer than the femora and scarcely longer than
they, while the femora are rather less than two thirds as long as the
wings, and the tarsi are half as long again as the tibia. Abdomen
pale, with more or less distinct, sometimes almost wholly obliterated,
dark narrow median and lateral stripes.

Length of wings, 17.5-20 mm.; of legs in one 2 (No. 9157) as
follows: fore femora, 9? mm.; mid femora, 1o mm.; tibiz, 9.75
mm. ; tarsi, 14.5 mm.; hind femora, 11 mm.; tibiz, 8.5 mm. ;
tarsi, 14.5 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. Described from seven specimens, one
3, five 2, one uncertain; Nos. 1866, 4437, 4632, 7222, 8539
and 9157, 13737, 14972. Besides these No. 2083 and probably
2063 of the U. S. Geological Survey collection belong here.

Tipula lethza.
PIP Os ieee.

Wings four times as long as broad, uncolored except for the small,
generally distinct, triangular stigma. Auxiliary vein reaching the

237

middle of the inner marginal cell ; poststigmatal cross vein trans-
verse, of moderate length; trapezoidal cell not very long. Pre-
furca distinctly shorter than the width of the first and second basal
cells next its base. Petiole of second posterior cell not half, gener-
ally not nearly half, so long as the discal cell; fifth posterior cell
somewhat wider at base than at margin. Discal cell rather small,
about twice as long as broad. Sixth longitudinal vein moderately
distant from the fifth; seventh longitudinal vein scarcely half as
long as the wing. Legs slightly less slender than usual, the tibize
distinctly slenderer than the femora, the latter about two thirds
as long as the wings, the other members not sufficiently preserved
in any specimen for measurement. Abdomen pale, with dark longi-
tudinal median and lateral stripes, the latter less distinct and all
sometimes obliterated.

Length of wings, 15.5-16.5 mm; fore femora, 8.5 mm.; mid
femora, 9 mm. ; hind femora, 1o mm.

Florissant, Colorado. Five specimens, two 6’, three 2 ; Nos.

402, 3146, 4773, IIT12, 13754. .

Tipula lapillescens.
JEL Ch pater Sy

Wings from three and a half to four times as long as broad, the
stigma small, distinct, rounded, lying opposite the basal half of the dis-
cal cell, followed by a fuliginous stain in the outer half of the marginal
cell, and accompanied by a slender but more or less distinct infusca-
tion of the fifth and seventh longitudinal veins, and sometimes of
all or nearly all the veins of the apical fourth of the wing; there
is also sometimes a faint cloud in the middle of the basal cells.
Auxiliary vein terminating a very little before the middle of the
inner marginal cell; poststigmatal cross vein slightly oblique,
moderately long; trapezoidal cell moderately short. Preefurca
very distinctly shorter than the first and second basal cells next its
base. Petiole of second posterior cell about half as long as the
discal cell ; fifth posterior cell considerably broader at base than
at margin. Discal cell rather small, about twice as long as broad.
Sixth longitudinal vein pretty closely approximated to the fifth ;
seventh longitudinal vein nearly or quite half as long-as the wing.
Legs very slender and long, the femora almost two thirds as long
as the wings, the tibiz distinctly longer than they, and the tarsi

238

nearly or quite two thirds as long again as the tarsi. Abdomen
obscure in the specimens seen.

Length of wings, 14.5 mm. ; fore femora, 8.5 mm.; tibiz, 10.5
mm. ; tarsi, 16 mm. ; mid femora, 9 mm. ; tibie, 9.75 mm. ; tarsi,
16 mm. ; hind femora, 9 mm. ; tibiz, ro mm.; tarsi, 17 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. Two specimens, one d, one uncertain ;
Nos. 8300 and 8831, 11335.

Tipula spoliata.
Tipula spoliata Scudd,, Tert. Ins. N. A., 577-578, pl. 10, fig. 4 (1891).

This species forms a close link between the preceding three
species of Tipula and the species of Tipulidea which follow, the
prefurca being intermediate in length. In size, it agrees with Z.
lapillescens.

Green River, Wyoming.

TIPULIDEA (Tipula, nom. gen., eidos) gen. nov.

I venture to separate from Tipula, to which it is otherwise
closely related, a group of species, all the members of which are
smaller than the smallest true Tipule,-living or fossil,* known to
me, and which are peculiar for the extreme brevity of the prz-
furca; in this respect they closely resemble Pachyrhina, though
in the petiolate character of the second posterior cell they agree
with Tipula and not with Pachyrhina. ‘They evidently form a
group intermediate between these two genera. The apical cells
are slenderer than in Tipula; the przefurca is very oblique, as in
Pachyrhina, and is no longer, or scarcely longer than the greatest
width of the first basal cell; in consequence the inner marginal
is but little if at all larger than the discal cell; the petiole of
the second posterior cell is rather short, but the cell is never ses-
sile. It may be added that the fifth longitudinal vein is scarcely
bent at the great cross vein, but is apically curved downward ;
more distinctly and more uniformly than in Tipula, it is aceom-
panied throughout its course by a spurious vein beneath it; and
the first longitudinal vein runs so close to the margin as to leave

* Except 7. angustata Novak from the Egerer tertiary basin, the wing of which is only
about 9mm. long. It should also be remarked that Loew, in his too brief account of the
amber Diptera, says that the species of Tipula entombed therein are remarkable for their

small size and specifies two which are only about 7 mm. long. Perhaps they may proye
to belong to Tipulidea.

239

scant space for the auxiliary vein. The legs are long and slender,
with exceptionally long tarsi.

Both from their size and the brevity of the preefurca it is tolerably
plain that both the unnamed species from the upper oligocene of
Brunstatt, referred by Foerster (Adhandl. Specialk. Elsass-Lothr.,
ill, pl. xiv, figs. 2, 3) to Tipula, are to be considered as belonging
to the present genus.

Four species are known from Florissant, which may be separated
by the following table: |

Table of the Species of Tipulidea.

Abdomen with complete transverse bands at the apices of the segments.
The longitudinal markings of the dorsum of the abdomen mediodorsal and

TE AV Viegests sterehatshate loseta avevacave vale! ciate == o)siveielarn wis elewel cue wparss wrdeens s consumpla,
The longitudinal markings of the dorsum of the abdomen subdorsal and
Miicata tareeetess Pane Vac ayciukerovelar ar aisrehive,deecoks, alolotatarctatasetien tests iererelntelecehe. os bilineata,

Abdomen with longitudinal markings only,
Mediodorsal stripe on abdomen heavy and broad, expanding at the apices
Rag R ies se eA Me crs arate aierare a fela a ore wine earenin cs ate ale ste kein aol is’ pita.
Mediodorsal stripe on abdomen very light, often obliterated and generally
slender, not apically expanded at the apices of the segments.rediguze,

Tipulidea consumpta.

Wings generally four times as long as broad sometimes a little
less than that, in one instance (No. 11686, which may possibly not
belong here) only three and a half times as long as broad,
uncolored, except for the stigma. The inner marginal cell is
pretty regularly fusiform, about three times as long as broad. The
discal cell is also about three times as long as broad, and of just
about the size of the inner marginal cell. The petiole of the
second posterior cell is usually about half as long as the discal cell,
but sometimes not more than one third as long, while the second
posterior cell itself is about half as long as the whole of the inter-
sected apical area of the wing, which, measuring from the end of the
basal cells, is about equal to the breadth of the wing. The fifth
posterior cell is considerably wider at base than just before the
margin. The sixth longitudinal vein is moderately distant from the
fifth. Legs very long and slender, the femora nearly three fourths
as long as the wings, the tibiz scarcely longer and a little slenderer, .
the tarsi two thirds as long again as the tibie. Abdomen rather
heavily traversed by dark bands at the apices of the segments,

240

occupying from a fourth to a third of the length of the same, and
also marked with slenderer, and sometimes not so deeply colored
mediodorsal and lateral longitudinal stripes, which, especially the
lateral, are apt to expand as they approach the transverse bands ;
there are signs on some specimens (which may be due to the nature
of the surface of the stone) of a coarse and sparse punctuation on
the upper surface.

Length of wings, 9.5-11 mm.; of legs in a specimen whose
wing measures 10.5 mm. in length, as follows: femora, 8 mm. ;
tibiz, 9 mm. ; fore tarsi, 14 mm. ; hind tarsi, 15 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. Eight specimens, 6 4), 2 9 (the great pro-
portion of males is exceptional among Tipulinz) ; Nos. 2117 and
7010, 11668, 11686, 13054 and 13720, 14144, 16402, 16403,
16405.

Tipulidea bilineata.
Pl. 9, fig. 8.

Wings a little less than four times as long as broad, uncolored
except for the stigma. Inner marginal cell not regularly fusiform,
tapering much more rapidly proximally than distally, not more
than three times as long as broad. Discal cell scarcely smaller
than the inner marginal cell, also about three times as long as
broad. Petiole of the second posterior cell fully half as long
as the discal cell, the second posterior cell itself slightly less than
half as long as the whole intersected apical area of the wing, which
is rather longer than the breadth of the wing; fifth posterior cell
considerably wider at base than just before the margin. ‘The sixth
longitudinal vein moderately distant from the fifth. Legs very
slender, the femora increasing slightly in length from the front pair
backward, the middle pair about half as long again as the wings,
the tibiz slightly shorter than the femora, excepting in the fore
legs where the reverse is the case, the tarsi excessively long, nearly
double the length of the tibia. Abdomen with the hinder edges
of the segments narrowly edged with fuscous and with distant, sub-
dorsal, slender, fuscous, longitudinal lines, between which the
basal segment is wholly fuscous.

Length of wings, 11-11.5 mm. ; of legs in the larger specimen:
fore femora, 7.25 mm.; tibiz, 7.6 mm.; mid femora, 7.6 mm. ;
tibie, 7.25 mm.; tarsi, 14 mm. ; hind femora, 8 mm.; tibiz,
7.6 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. Two 9 specimens, Nos. 7998, 11333.

241

Tipulidea picta.
Pl. 9, figs. 4, 6.

Wings nearly or quite four times as long as broad, uncolored
except for the unusually distinct stigma. Inner marginal cell subfu-
siform, nearly or quite four times as long as broad. Discal cell
considerably smaller than the inner maginal cell, from three to four
times as long as broad, the petiole of the second posterior cell brief
or very brief, rarely one half, usually hardly if at all more than one
fourth, the length of the discal cell, the second posterior cell itself half
or more than half the length of the apical intersected area of the
wing, the latter about as long as the breadth of the wing; fifth
posterior cell much wider at base than just before the margin.
Sixth longitudinal vein moderately approximate to the fifth. Legs
very slender, the femora distinctly stouter than the tibiz, about
three fifths the length of the wings, the tibiz slightly longer than
the femora, and the tarsi of great length, being nearly three fourths
longer than the tibiz. Abdomen with a heavy interrupted or sub-
interrupted mediodorsal stripe, consisting on each segment of
a subtriangular patch, which abruptly broadens at the posterior
margin to a greater or less extent, and fails, at least distinctly, to
reach the anterior margin; there is besides a slender inconspicuous
lateral line on either side.

Length of wings, ro.5-13 mm.; of legs in the largest specimen :
fore femora, 8 mm. ; tibiz, 8.5 mm. ; tarsi, 14 mm. ; mid femora,
7mm.; tibie, 8 mm. ; tarsi (not quite perfect), 12.5 mm.; hind
femora, 7.5 mm. ; tibiz, 8.5 mm. ; tarsi, 13.5 mm.

Florissant, Colorado. Fourteen specimens, 3 4’, 9 9, 2 uncer-
tain; Nos. 1040, 5368, 8192, 8205, 8386, 8598, 8826, 8850, gooo,
9129, 13708, 13745, 13749, 16421.

Tipulidea reliquiz.
Plo; fig. 5;

Wings barely four times as long as broad, uncolored except for
the distinct stigma. Inner marginal cell pretty regularly subfusi-
form, about four times as long as broad. Discal cell somewhat
smaller (not quite correctly given in the figure), about three times
as long as broad. Petiole of second posterior cell generally very
brief, and not one fourth the length of the discal cell, but some-

PROC, AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143. 2B. PRINTED JAN. 16, 1894.

242

times longer and nearly or quite half its length; the second posterior
cell itself generally distinctly, sometimes very considerably, more
than half as long as the intersected apical area of the wing, which
is fully equal to, if it does not exceed, the breadth of the wing ;
fifth posterior cell considerably broader at base than just before the
margin. Sixth longitudinal vein rather closely approximated
to the fifth. Legs very slender, the femora stouter and slightly
shorter than the tibiz, three fourths as long as the wings, and the
tarsi, or at least the hind pair, nearly three fourths as long again as
the tibie. Abdomen light colored, with feeble markings, consist-
ing of feeble and simple, generally rather narrow, mediodorsal
and lateral dusky stripes.

Length of wings, 10-13.5 mm.; of legs ina 9 having wings 13
mm. long, as follows: fore femora, 7 mm.; tibiz, 7.75 mm. ;
tarsi (probably incomplete), 1o mm.; mid femora, 7.5 mm. ;
tibiz, 8 mm. ; tarsi (perhaps incomplete), 12.5 mm. ; hind femora,
7-5 mm.; tibiz,8.5 mm. ; tarsi, 14 mm.

- Florissant, Colorado. Eight specimens, 5 ¢, 3 2; Nos. 4732,
8066, 8385, 8480, 8869, 10105, 11841, 14145.

MICcRAPSIS (utzpos, aW’is) gen. nov.

This genus differs strikingly from Tipula in the character of the
discal cell, which is somewhat remarkable ; not only is it of ex-
ceedingly small size, but it is entirely removed from the fifth
posterior cell, the forking of the fourth longitudinal vein not taking
place where the great cross vein unites with the final branch of the
fourth longitudinal vein, but at the inner inferior base of the discal
cell, which thus becomes quadrilateral and is separated from the_
anterior basal angle of the fifth posterior cell by the width of the
fourth posterior cell.

The genus is evidently allied to Tipulidea by the brevity and
obliquity of the praefurca, and should directly follow it. In the
lack of contact of the discal cell with the fifth posterior cell it is
like Megistocera, but it differs from that in all the other characters
by which Tipula is distinguished from Megistocera, and does not
indeed belong to the Dolichopezini to which Megistocera is
referred.

A single species is known, unfortunately represented only by
a single imperfect specimen.

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243

Micrapsis paludis.
PIO; e077.

Wings apparently about three and a half times longer than
broad, uncolored except for the stigma occupying the outer half of
the inner marginal cell and the parts above. Auxiliary vein termi-
nating at the middle of the inner marginal cell; poststigmatal
cross vein transverse, not very brief; trapezoidal cell brief. Pra-
furca short and oblique, scarcely longer than the width of the first
basal cell. Petiole of second posterior cell long, longer than the
preefurca; fifth posterior cell slightly broader at base than at
margin, but relatively long. Discal cell minute, quadrangular,
about twice as long as broad, but no longer than the width of the
fourth posterior cell. Legs not preserved. Abdomen apparently
without markings.

Length of fragment of wing, 9.2 mm. ; probable length of wing,
ro mm.

Florissant, Colorado. One specimen, No. 9039.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Excepting Pl. 4, fig. 10, which is a camera lucida sketch by S. H. Scudder, all
the drawings were made by J. Henry Blake for the U. S. Geological Survey,
and are used here by the kind permission of the Director of the Survey. The
line beside each figure indicates the natural size, and the enlargement is further
specified under the explanation of each figure. The particular specimen figured
is indicated by number. All the specimens figured are from Florissant, Colo-
rado.

PLATE I.

. (1.770) Cyttaromyia princetoniana, $.
- (13259) Cyttaromyia oligocena, §.

- (3751) Dicranomyia inferna, 3.

. (5582) Dicranomyia longipes, ¢.

- (214) Dicranomyia longipes, 4.

. (206) Oryctogma sackenii, 2.

. (86) Cyttaromyia cancellata, }.

. (8649) Cyttaromyia clathrata, $.

or amt wD

PLATE II.

Fig. I. (173) Dicranomyia fontainei, $.
«<2, (11817) Limnocema lutescens, §.
“ 3. (12127) Dicranomyia fragilis, 4.

244

Fig. 4. (8751) Dicranomyia stagnorum, $.

mPrhWwW DN me

Nunhwip

5.
6. (11389) Limnocema styx, §.

7:

8. (9127) Dicranomyia stagnorum, +.

OO Ory AN RW DN

(8215) Limnocema mortoni, §.

(13069) Limnocema marcescens, $.

PEATE DL

. (215) Antocha principialis, ¢.

. (1369) Rhamphidia loewi, §.

. (7461) Gonomyia profundi, 3.

. (10490) Rhamphidia saxetana, $.
. (9399) Rhamphidia feecaria, §.

PLATE IV.

. (10399) Cladura maculata, §.

. (12688) Cladoneura willistoni, $.

. (13732) Limnophila rogersii, ¢.

. (147) Gonomyia labefactata, ¢.

. (8178) Limnophila strigosa, $.

- (9575) Limnophila ruinarum, €.

. (7021) Limnophila vasta, $.

. (1590) Cladura integra, $.

. (8656) Gonomyia frigida, ¢.

. (8161) Gonomyia primogenitalis, €.

PLATE V.

. (8200) Manapsis anomala, 9, 3.

. (8210) Tipula florissanta, 9, 3.

. (5481) Tipula magnifica, }.

. (8847) Rhadinobrochus extinctus, <j, ¢.
. (11669) Tipula rigens, ©, 3

a

PEATE Vale

. (16314) Tipula rigens, 9, 3.

. (88) Tipula clauda, $.

. (14699) Tipula rigens, 9, 3.

. (1.750) Tipula florissanta, 9, &.
. (14004) Tipula florissanta, <j, $.

PLATE VII.

. (7221) Tipula florissanta, 9, #.
. (3820) Tipula clauda, C7, }.

. (1.753) Tipula clauda, Q, $.

. (100) Tipula clauda, 9, 3.

. (14715) Tipula caroline, 9, #.
. (7783) Tipula maclurei, 2, 3.

245

PLATE VIII.

Fig. 1. (12109) Tipula tartari, 2, 3.

2. (11806) Tipula heilprini, 9, 3.

3. (9157) Tipula subterjacens, 9, ¢.
“4. (2839) Tipula limi, 9, 3.

5. (13737) Tipula subterjacens, °¥", 2.

PLATE IX.
- (1611) Tipula limi, °\, 3.
. (402) Tipula lethza, Q, $.
. (8831) Tipula lapillescens, (¥, 3.
. (8598) Tipulidea picta, 9, 2.
. (8480) Tipulidea reliquiz, 9, 3.
. (13745) Tipulidea picta, <¥, 3.
- (9039) Micrapsis paludis, <7, ?.
. (11333) Tipulidea bilineata, Q, }.

=
ony OM WD

Some of the Work of the Wagner Free Institute of Science of
Philadelphia. By Joseph Willcox.

As the representative of the Wagner Free Institute of Science
invited to participate in the celebration of the 150th anniversary
of the American Philosophical Society, I have thought it proper to
make a few statements concerning some of the work of the Wagner
Institute, a colaborer with this’ Society in the same field of useful-
ness.

Though young in age, the Wagner Institute has endeavored to
profit by the experience of older institutions. It was established by
the late Prof. William Wagner who, in the year 1847, gave a
course of free lectures on scientific subjects at his house. The suc-
cess of this experiment encouraged him to found an institution for
‘instruction in science, to include a museum of natural history
specimens, a laboratory for physical and chemical students, a
library and a lecture department.

The building of the Wagner Free Institute of Science was com-
pleted in 1864, and from that time until Prof. Wagner’s death in
1885 courses of free lectures were maintained on scientific subjects
during each succeeding winter.

Prof. Wagner spent a large portion of his life in accumulating
and husbanding resources for the future use of the Institute.

246

Among other favorite pursuits, he collected minerals in northern
New York and Nova Scotia, and fossils in Maryland and Virginia,
‘at a time when those localities were difficult of access.

After the death of Prof. Wagner in 1885, the Trustees proceeded,
as rapidly as the funds at their command permitted, to open the
museum and library for the use of the public. The library was
opened for use in 1889, and the museum in 1891. The lectures
have also been maintained since the death of Prof. Wagner. These
schemes are, of course, 'a source of benefit only to the people living
in the vicinity of the Institution. In order to enlarge the domain
of its usefulness, the Trustees determined to promote the work of
original investigation both in the laboratory and in the field, and
to publish the results in the form of its Zransactions. It was con-
cluded to take up either a new or a long neglected subject for the
pursuit, rather than to direct the energies of the Institute into a
field already occupied by competent explorers.

Since the time when Messrs. Lea, Conrad, Say, Morton, Em-
mons, Rogers, ‘Tuomey and Holmes maintained great activity in
the study of our Tertiary formations, the subject has practically been
permitted to lie dormant, especially in relation to the middle
and the later beds, until the year 1886. During that year
the attention of the Trustees of the Wagner Free Institute having
been directed to the State of Florida as affording a new and inviting
field for investigation, a small party was organized and spent a few
weeks there under the auspices of the Institute. The most impor-
tant of the results was the discovery of a Pliocene shell bed, rich
both in numbers and species ; the first undoubted deposit of that
age that has been discovered in the eastern portion of the United
States. The material collected in the bed was productive of many
new forms.

The results of the first exploration prepared by Prof. Heilprin
were published by the Wagner Institute, and formed the first
volume of its Zransactions. During the following winter further
explorations were made in Florida, and, among other fossils, many
vertebrate remains were collected, including several new species.
The descriptions of these were written by the late Prof. Joseph
Leidy, and were published in the second volume of the Z7ransac-
tions of the Institute.

These explorations were subsequently prosecuted in Florida by
several friends of the Institute, including Prof. William H. Dall, of

247

the U. S. Geological Survey ; each year affording a more extensive
knowledge of the geology of that State, which has been found to
include all the Tertiary formations. Prof. Dall has since been
engaged in examining and writing upon these additional collec-
tions. Two volumes of his papers have already been published by
the Wagner Institute, containing twenty-two plates of illustrations ;
and another, by the same author, is in the course of preparation.

Until recently, the question of the existence of Tertiary beds of
Pliocene age in North and South Carolina had never been deter-
mined, as geologists held different opinions, based upon the fossils
that had been collected in those States in a desultory, unsystematic
manner. In order to solve this question, the Wagner Institute
authorized the Curator of its museum to explore the fossil beds in
the eastern portion of those States in November, 1891. After four
weeks’ work in the field, the question was satisfactorily determined
that Pliocene beds exist in each of those States. This matter was
fully discussed by Prof. Dall in Vol. ili, Part ii of the Zransactions
of the Wagner Institute.

The U. S. Geological Survey has generously céoperated with the
Wagner Institute in this work, not only in the researches in the
field, but in permitting one of its specialists, Prof. William H.
Dall, to investigate the collections and to edit the volumes of the
Transactions in which they are described. A new interest has
been awakened in the study of our American Tertiary invertebrate
palzeontology by the publications referred to.

In order to further stimulate the study of that department of
geology, the Wagner Free Institute of Science proposes, at an early
date, to reprint T. A. Conrad’s book, the Medial Tertiary Fossils
of the United States, the most important work pertaining to our
Miocene formation. This book was published in the year 1838. It
has been out of print for many years; a very limited number of
copies only having been printed.

A large portion of the specimens collected during these explora-
tions are now arranged in the Free Museum of the Institute for the
use of students. These explorations have been supplemented by
others, in the Miocene beds of Maryland, Virginia and North Caro-
lina, in order to supply additional subject-matter for the publica-
tions and to enrich the museum.

248

Catalogue of Works on Atmospheric Physics and Climatology.

Library of Lorin Blodget.

The several titles and volumes represented in this collection have
all been in actual use in the preparation of my own works and in
the various discussions of the Science of Atmospheric Physics,
which I have had occasion to undertake.

1635

1659

1667

1671

1692

1726

1749

1749

Piiny: Natural History. C. Plinius Secundus. Translated
by Philemon Holland. London, 1635. Folio.

Livy: The Roman History. Titus Livius of Padua. At
pp. 844-850 are described ‘‘ Violent Tempests,’’ which
destroyed buildings in Rome, etc. Philemon Holland’s
translation. London, 1659. Folio.

KIRCHER: Magneticum Natures Regum. Athanasius Kircher.
Amsterdam, 1667. (Cited.)

More: Enchiridion Metaphysicum sive de Rebus Incorporeis.
Chap. xx, etc., treat of ‘‘ Coelestia Phenomena quales
sunt Nubes, Guttz pluvie, Venti ac Tonitrua’’ (Clouds,
Rain, Winds and Thunder). With illustrations. Henri-
cus Morus. London, 1671. 4to, pp. 403 and 28.

BoyLe: The General History of the Air, Designed and be-
gun by the Hon. Robert Boyle. London, 1692. Small
4to, pp. 259. (Original publication by Robert Boyle in
1656. Boyle died Jan. 1, 1659.) At p. 103 is Town-
ley’s Register, 1670-1671. At pp. 104-132 is Locke's
Register, 1666 to 1683.

Mo.L.L: Geography of the Ancients. Herman Moll. The
several editions of Moll are valuable as showing the lim-
itations to knowledge of Atmospheric Physics on the part
of early writers.

KaLM—BarTRAM: Kalm’s Travels in North America. In
Vol. ii, at pp. 146-180, this Swedish author gives a series
of meteorological observations by John Bartram, Au-
gust, 1748, to September, 1749, taken at Bartram’s
house on the Schuylkill, Philadelphia.

CrareE: A General Chronological History of the Air,
Weather, Seasons, etc. In2 vols. London,1749. 8vo,

249

pp. 495 and 536. In Vol. ii, pp. 163-215, is the General
Table. 2407 A.M. to 1730 A.D.

1758 AMERICAN MAGazINE: ‘‘ A Monthly Chronicle for the British
-Colonies,’’ 1757-1758. Contains scientific papers of
value on Auroras, Electricity, ete. 1757 t01770. 8vo.

1764 BELL: Travels from St. Petersburg in Russia, etc. 1. Jour-

: ney to Ispahan, 1715. 2. Journey to Pekin in China,
1719-1721. London, 1764. 8vo, pp. 387.

1770 Carver: Travels Through the Interior Parts of North Amer-
ica, more than 5000 miles, in 1766-1768. By Jonathan
Carver. Dedicated to Sir Joseph Banks, President of the
Royal Society. London, 1770. 8vo, pp. 280.

1770 PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS OF THE RoyaL SOCIETY OF
Lonpon: The early numbers of this valuable series, at
least from 1664, were consulted at the Library of the
American Philésophical Society. They are especially
valuable for early records of observation for the construc-
tion of instruments and for philosophical discussions. I
quote at p. 18 of ‘‘ Climatology ’’ the experiments of Dr.
Beal and Dr. Wallis, 1664-1675, on the construction of
the barometer and its adaptation to climatological pur-
poses. Robert Boyle is accredited with this ‘‘ most ex-
traordinary invention of the world.’’ Dr. Halley, Mr.
Townley, Dr. Plot, of Oxford, and Dr. Lister engaged in
these experiments, kept the record, and began predicting
the weather. In 1723 a form for daily observations is
given and reference is made to registers kept by Dr. Lin-
ing and Isaac Greenwood in the United States.

1774 Rayna: ‘ Historie Philosophique et Politique des Establis-
semens du Commerce des Europeens dans les deux
Indies.’” Abbe Raynal. In French. Printed at The
Hague, 1774. Vol. v relates wholly to North America.
8voO, pp. 405.

1781 CavaLLo: A Treatise-on the Natural Properties of the Air.
By Tiberius Cavallo. London, 1781. 4to, pp. 835.

1798 RuMFORD: Essays by Count Rumford. First American Edi-
tion. Boston, 1798. Essay iv and others on Heat, Smoke,
Draft of Fire Places, etc. 8vo.

1799 WEBSTER: On the Supposed Change in the Temperature of

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. xxxII. 148. 2 F. PRINTED JAN. 16, 1894.

250

Winter. By Noah Webster. Read before the Connecti-
cut Academy of Arts and Sciences. In collection of
Webster’s papers. New York, 1843.

1803 REDFIELD: Prevailing Storms of the Atlantic Coast. By
C. Redfield. New York, 1803.

1804 VoLNEY: A View of the Soil and Climate of the United
States of America. By C. F. Volney. ‘Translated by
C. B. Brown. Philadelphia, 1804. 8vo, pp. 446.

1801 CappER: Observations on the Windsand Monsoons. With a
chart. By James Capper. London, 1801. 4to, pp. 234.

1805 Pike: Expeditions to the Sources of the Mississippi, Arkan-

-1810 sas, Kansas, and La Platte Rivers. Also a Tour through
New Spain during 1805-1807. By Major Zebulon M.
Pike. Philadelphia, 1810. 8vo, pp. 277, and Appendices
65 and 87, with many maps.

1811 WittiaMson: The Climate of America Compared with that
of Corresponding Parts of the Eastern Continent. By
Hugh Williamson, M.D. New York, 1811. 8vo.

1811 HuMBOLDT: Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain.
With physical sections and maps, etc. By Alex. de Hum-
boldt. Translated by John Black. New York, 1811. 8vo,
pp. cxv and 221.

1815 De MatortiE: A Treatise on Topography. By C. S. De Ma-
lortie. London, 1815. 2 vols., 8vo.

1818 Howarp: The Climate of London, etc. By Luke Howard.
London, 1820. 2 vols., 8vo.

1823 Datron: Meteorological Observations and Essays. By John
Dalton. London, 1823. 8vo, pp. 480.

1826 LovetL: Army Meteorological Register for the years 1822 to
1825, from observations by Surgeons of the U. S. Army,
By Joseph Lovell, M.D. Washington, 1826. 8vo. See
a report for 12 years, 1831 to 1842, made in 1851, and
another for 1843 to 1854, made in 1856, both under direc-
tion of Surgeon-General Lawson.

1835 Hare: Brief Exposition of the Science of Electricity, etc.
By Robert Hare, M.D. Philadeiphia, 1835. 8vo, pp.
13:

1837 Dove: Meteorologische Untersuchungen, Von H. W. Dove.
Berlin, 1837. 8vo, pp. 344.

1837 Epsy: Directions for Making Meteorological Observations.

251

By the Joint Committee of the American Philos. Society
and the Franklin Institute. Printed for the Committee,
1837. Philadelphia. 8vo, p. 7.

1837 Espy: Hints to Observers on Meteorology. By James P.
Espy, Meteorologist. Philadelphia, July 7, 1837. 8vo,
pp. 12.

1840 Lawson: Army Meteorological Register for the years 1826
to 1830. By Thomas Lawson, M.D., Surgeon-General.
Philadelphia, 1840. 8vo, pp. 161.

1840 Forry: Statistical Report on the Sickness and Mortality of

the Army of the United States. By Samuel Forry, M.D.
Washington, 1840. 8vo, p. 346.

1841 Espy: The Philosophy of Storms. By James P. Espy, A.M.
Boston, 1841. 8vo, pp. 552. ‘‘ Artificial Rains,’’ pp. 492—
518.

1840 Hare: Communication Faite a la Societe Philosophique
Americaine, dans une de ses Seances de 1839, au sujet des
Trombes, et relativement a un Memoire de Mr. Peltier
sur la cause de ces Meteores, par Robert Hare, M.D.
Philadelphia, 1840. pp. 12.

1840 Hare: A verbal communication from Dr. Hare respecting
experiments as to the heating and cooling influence
of changes in the density of the air. By Dr. Robert
Hare, to the American Philosophical Society. July, 1840.
Philadelphia. pp. 6.

1841 WuirE; On the Theories of the Weather Prophets and the
Comparative Success of their Predictions. By W. H.
White, Secretary to the Meteorological Society. London,
1841. pp. 16.

1843 Howarb: Climate of London. Latest edition.

1843 Loomis: On Two Storms in the United States, in February,
1842. By Elias Loomis, Hudson, Ohio, 1843. 4to,
pp. 25,and15 plates. Printed as pp. 161-184 of Proceed-
ings of American Academy.

1843 NicoLLeT: Report and Map of the Hydrographical Basin of
the Mississippi. By J. N. Nicollet. Washington, 1843-
Senate Document, 26th Congress, 2d Session.

1844 AMERICAN ALMANAC: Second series, 1839 to 1850. Meteor-
-1850 ological Observations from 12 Stations in American

252

Almanac for 1844, pp. 85-93, and in each issue to the end
of this series: viz., 1845 to 1850.

1844 GREENHOW: History of Oregon and California, and other
Countries of the North West Coast of North America.
By Robert Greenhow. Boston, 1844. 8vo, pp. 482, with
map.

1844 Forry: Researches on the Distribution of Heat over the
Globe, etc. By Samuel Forry, M.D. Reviewed in
Silliman’s Journal, Vol. xlvii, pp. 18 to 50, and 222 to
241, with isothermal chart.

1845 GILLIss: Magnetic and Meteorological Observations made at
Washington, July, 1838, to July, 1842, at the Observatory,
Capitol Hill. By Lieut. J M. Gilliss, U.S.N. 8vo, pp.
648.

1845 Kamtz: A Complete Course of Meteorology. By L. F.
Kemtz. Translated by C. V. Walker. London, 1845-
8vo, pp. 595, and plates.

1846 REDFIELD: Hurricanes and Northers. On Three Several
Hurricanes of the Atlantic, and their Relations to the
Northers of Mexico and Central America. By W. C.
Redfield. New Haven, 1846. 8vo, pp. 117, and plates.

1847 Hosss: Sailing Directions for the Mediterranean Sea. By J.
S. Hobbs, F.R.S. London, 1847. 8vo, paper, pp. 195.

1847 PiERcE: A Meteorological Journal of the Weather in Phila-
delphia from January, 1790, to January, 1847. By Charles
Pierce. Lindsay & Blakiston, Philadelphia, 1847. 8vo,
Pp. 300.

1847 BacHE: Magnetic and Meteorological Observations at Girard
College, 1840 to 1845. By A. D. Bache. Washington,
1847. 3 vols.

1847 Dove & SaBINE: Isothermal Lines. Remarks by Prof. H.

-1849 W. Dove, on his Recently Constructed Maps of the
Isothermal Lines of the Globe. With an. Introductory
Notice by Lieut. Col. Edward Sabine, General Secre-
tary British Association for the Advancement of
Science, 1848. London, 1849. 8vo, pp. 19.

1848 MuLLER: Principles of Physics and Meteorology. By J.
Muller. Lee & Blanchard, Philadelphia, 1848. Large
8vo, pp. 638.

1849 Guyot: Earth and Man. Lectures on Comparative Physical

1849

1850

1850

1850

1850

1851

1851

-BS51

1852

253

Geography, etc. By Arnold Guyot. From the French,
by C. C. Felton. Boston, 1849.

Reip: Progress of the Development of the Law of Storms.
By Lieut. Col. W. C. Reid. London, 1849. A first
edition in 1838. 8vo, pp. 431. Second edition, pp.
424.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION: Directions for Meteorological
Observations. Prepared by Arnold Guyot. Washington,
1850. 8vo, pp. 4o.

HumBoLtpt: Cosmos. By Alex. von Humboldt. Trans-
lated) by E. Cotte. Harper Bros.,, New York, 1850.
2 vols, 8vo, pp. 373 and 367. ‘There are other editions
of each of these works by Humboldt.

HumsBo.pT: Aspects of Nature. By Alex. von Humboldt.
Translated by Mrs. Sabine. Lea & Blanchard, Philadel-
phia, 1850. 8vo, pp. 475.

HumsBotptT: Views of Nature. By Alex. von Humboldt.
Translated by Otte & Bohn. Bohn, London, 1850.
8vo, pp. 452.

Maury: Correspondence in Relation to a Universal System
of Meteorological Observations by Sea and Land. By
M. F. Maury. Washington, 1851. 12mo, pp. 30.

Lawson: Meteorological Register for 12 years, 1831 to 1842
inclusive. From Observations at the Military Posts, etc.
By Thomas Lawson, Surgeon-General U.S. A. Wash-
ington, 1851. 8vo, pp. 324.

Brooks: The Tornado of 1851. By Rev. Charles Brooks, of
Middlesex, Mass. Boston, 1852. 12mo, pp. 12.

Guyot: Meteorological Tables, prepared for the Smithsonian
Institution. I. Thermometrical Tables. II. Hygromet-
rical Tables. 1. Elastic Force of Vapor. By Regnault.
2. Thesame. By August. 3. The same. By Haeghens.
III. Barometrical Tables. IV. Hypsometrical Tables.
V. Horary Variations, etc. VI. Miscellaneous. By Ar-
nold Guyot, Prof., etc. Washington, 1852. 8vo, pp.
246. ‘These tables each separately paged but aggregating
234 pages as bound up. ‘There are 15 divisions of Table
I, 5 divisions of Table II and 6 divisions of Appendix to
Table II, Table III has 12 divisions, Table IV has 8 with 13

1852

1853.

1853

1853

1853

254

in the Appendix, Table V has 70 divisions and Table VI
has 21 divisions.

Davis: The Law of Deposit at Flood Tide. By. Lt. Comg.
Charles Henry Davis, U.S. N. Smithsonian Contribu-
tion to Knowledge. Washington, 1852. 4to, pp. 13.

Guyot: Meteorological Tables. Table VIII. Corrections
to English Barometers, for Capillary Action. Table IX.
Corrections for Barometers with Brass Scales to Reduce to
32 Fahr. 8vo, pp. 9.

Hare: Strictures on Prof. Espy’s Report on Storms. By
Robert Hare, M.D. Albany, 1852. 8vo, pp. ro.

Humpotpr: Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equatorial
Regions of America, 1799 to 1804. By Alex. von Hum-
boldt and Aime Bonpland. Written in French by Alex.
von Humboldt and translated by Thomasina Ross. Lon-
don, 1852. 2 vols., 8vo.

RAVENEL: A Meteorological Journal, for the year 1853,
kept in St. John Berkeley Parish for the Black Oak Agri-
cultural Society. By T. P. Ravenel, Secretary. Charles-
ton, 1854. 8vo, pp. I5.

TuHompson: Natural History of Vermont. By Prof. Zadock
Thompson. Burlington, Vt., 1853. 8vo, pp. 224. Ap-
pendix, pp. 65. (Pages 9-23 and 7-11, Appendix, relate to |
Climate. )

B.LopGcET: Agricultural Report of the Commissioner of Pat-
ents, ‘‘ Agricultural Climatology of the United States,
Compared with that of Other Parts of the Globe,’’ by
Lorin Blodget, pp. 227-432. Washington, 1854.

AGRICULTURAL CLIMATOLOGY of the United States, etc. By
Lorin Blodget. pp. 327 to 432 of Commissioner of Pat-
ents’ Report for 1853 contains many extracts and makes
acknowledgments for many series of observations, per-
sonally communicated, not cited in connection with Cli-
matology of 1857, in part, as follows:

Gasparin Cours d’ Agriculture,
Schouw’s Climate of Italy.
Boussingault’s Rural Economy.
Drake’s Valley of the Mississippi.
Annuaire Meteorologique de France.

255

Kupffer’s Meteorological Observations, Russia.
Many Topographical Survey Reports.
De Bow’s Review.

Also the results of extended periods of observation per-
sonally communicated by their authors, as follows:

’ Rev. Chester Dewey, LL.D., Rochester Academy, New York.
Dr. J. H. Engelmann, St. Louis, Mo.
Dr. Hempstead, Portsmouth, Ohio.
Dr. Daniel Drake, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Prof. Ray, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Dr. E. H. Barton, New Orleans.
Dr. Darlington, West Chester, Pa.
W. A. Whitehead, Esq., Newark, N. J., Key West.
Dr. John Conrad, Philadelphia Hospital.
Prof. Jacobs, Gettysburg, Pa.
WW) Ravenel, St. John’s, Berkeley, S.C.
Henry Poole, Albion Mines, N. S.
Dr. Smallwood, Isle Jesus, Montreal.
Capt. J. H. Lefroy, Toronto.
Samuel Rodman, Esq., New Bedford.
Dr. John Redman Coxe, Philadelphia. Valuable early
Records.
Major Alfred Mordecai, Frankford Arsenal, Pa.
Dr. John F. Posey, Savannah, Ga. .
J. A. Lapham, Milwaukee.

1851 Espy: Report on Meteorology: Letter of the Secretary

-1853 of the Navy Transmitting the Report of Prof. J. P. Espy.
Embodies Second Report, Nov. 12, 1849, and Third Re-
port, Jan. 24, 1851. Folio, pp. 65, with many charts of
storms, etc. Washington, 1852. Other editions of this
folio report were issued in 1851 and 1853.

1853 BaRTON: Report of the Sanitary Commission on Yellow
Fever of 1853 at New Orleans. By Dr. E. H. Barton,
and others. Climatological records and maps. Reports

. of Dr. Riddell and Dr. Simonds. New Orleans, 1854.
8vo, pp. 542.

1853 BLopGET: In Proceedings American Association. Papers

read at Cleveland; On the Distribution of Rain in North

1853

1853

1853
1853
1853

1853

1853

1853

256

America, pp. t0o1; On the Monsoon of Texas, pp.
10g, with map; The Distribution of Heat over the Conti-
nent, and its Isothermal Lines; On the Subordination of
Atmospheric Phenomena, as to the Primary Cause; Baro-
metric Pressure in Different Latitudes; On the Earth-
quake of April 29, 18523; these four papers were presented
and discussed at the Cleveland meeting, but are printed
elsewhere than in this report.

Loomis: Notice of the Hailstorm which Passed over New
York City on the First of July, 1853. By Elias Loomis.
From Silliman’s Journal, 1854. pp. 21.

Hare: Exposure of the Errors of the French Academicians
Respecting Tornadoes. By Dr. Hare. Philadelphia, 1853.
pp. 14.

Hare: The Whirlwind Theory of Storms. By Dr. Robt.
Hare... Philadelphia; 1853. opp. 1.

Hare: Strictures on Prof. Dove’s ‘‘ On the Law of Storms.’’
By Robt. Hare. Philadelphia, 1853. pp. 12.

Hare: Queries and Strictures Respecting Espy’s Meteorolog-
ical Report. By Dr. Hare. Philadelphia, 1853. pp. 16.

Hare: De la Conclusion a Laquelle Est arrive uncomite de
l’Academie de Sciences de France. By Dr. Hare. New
Vork,/1353. pp. ge:

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND Arts (Silliman’s
Journal): This publication from 1822 to 1853 was the
favorite channel for the publication of essays concerning
the several departments of climatological science, the
principal ones by Dr. Robt. Hare, W. C. Redfield, Elias
Loomis, Col. Reid, Prof. Bache, Prof. Espy, and others,
and in these essays are cited every foreign author then
reputed to be in authority.

In Vol. xxxviii of this Journal is Dr. Hare’s notice
of Tornadoes, with an account of one which passed over
Providence and one at Chateney, near Paris. In Vol. 1xii
Dr. Hare’s ‘‘ Objections to Mr. Redfield’s Theory of
Storms.’’ Also his strictures on Dove’s Essay on the Law
of Storms.

Davis: American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac for the
year 1855. By Charles Henry Davis, U.S. N. Wash-
ington, 1853. Large 8vo, pp. 498. (This is the first

257

issue of the Ephemeris prepared in pursuance of an Act
of Congress of March 3, 1849.

1853 Maury: Explanations and Sailing Directions to Accompany
the Wind and Current Charts. By M. F. Maury, Lieut.
U. S. N. Washington, 1853. 4to, pp. 498 and plates,
5th ed.

1853 BLopcEer: Climatic Conditions of the Summer of 1853, most
Directly Affecting its Sanitary Character. By Lorin
Blodget. New York, 1853. 8vo, pp. 25.

1853 BLopGcETr: Summer Climate of 1853 in its Relation to Agri-
cultural Production. By Lorin Blodget. Washington,
November, 1853. 8vo, pp. 26.

1853 Wititiams: The Chinese Empire and its Inhabitants. By S.
Wells Williams. New York, 1853.

1853 SABINE: On the Periodic and Non-Periodic Variations of
Temperature at Toronto, 1841 to 1852. By Lieut. Col.
Edward Sabine. Proceedings American Academy, 1853.
4to, pp. 141-161 and plates.

1853 BonpD: Minnesota and its Resources. By J. Wesley Bond.
New York, 1853. 8vo, pp. 364.

1853 SMyrtH: The Mediterranean. A Memoir, Physical, Historical
and Nautical. By Rear Admiral William Henry Smyth.
London, 1854. 8vo, pp. 519, etc.

1854 HERNDON AND Gipson: Exploration of the Valley of the
Amazon, etc. By William Lewis Herndon and Lardner
Gibbon, Lieuts. U. S. Navy. Washington, 1854. Part
ft; by“Exeut."Herndon. °Svo,pp:! 4n7/ Part II, by
Lieut. Gibbon. 8vo, pp. 339.

1854 Dospin: The Annular Eclipse of May 26, 1854. Authority
of James C. Dobbin, Secretary of Navy. Nautical Alma-
nac, Cambridge, 1854. 8vo, pp. 13 and map.

1855 Le FRoy: Magnetical and Meteorological Observations at
Lake Athabasca and Fort Simpson. By Captain J. H.
Le Froy. London, 1855. Royal 8vo, with Preface by
Col. Sabine. pp. 1-288. (The following title embodied
in the same volume. )

1855 RicHARDSON: Magnetical and Meteorological Observations
at Fort Confidence. By Sir John Richardson. London,
1855. Royal 8vo, pp. 391.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. xxxiI. 143.26. PRINTED JAN. 18, 1894.

258

1855 Buys—Ba.LLor: Meteorologische Warnemingen, etc. General
Report of Meteorological Observations in Europe for
1854 to the Netherlands Meteorological Institute.
Utrecht, re55: Folie; p.-287:

1855 Houcu: Results of Meteorological Observations at the
Academies of New York, 1826 to 1850. By Franklin B.
Hough. Albany, 1855. 4to, pp. 499 and plates.

1855 WiLkrs: Theory of the Winds. By Captain Charles Wilkes,
of the United States Exploring Expedition. Washington,
1855. Printed from Vol. xvii of Reports of the Expedi-
tion. Large 8vo, pp. 116 and map.

1855 BLopcer: Army Meteorological Register, for twelve years,
1843 to 1854 inclusive, under direction of General Law-
son. By Lorin Blodget. Washington, 1855. 4to, pp.
677 and plates.

1855 Maury: The Physical Geography of the Sea. By M. F.
Maury, LL.D.,-Lt. U.S. N.' New York, 1855. - ve; ipp:
274 and plates.

1855 REDFIELD: On the Gales and Hurricanes of the Western At-
lantic. By W. C. Redfield. New York, 1855. pp. 20
and chart.

1856 Force: Record of Auroral Phenomena, etc. Compiled by
Peter Force. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.
Washington, 1856. 4to, pp. 118.

1856 JEWELL: Sanitary Meteorological and Mortuary Report of
the Philadelphia County Medical Society for 1855, made
in May, 1856. By Dr. Wilson Jewell. Philadelphia,
1856. 8vo, pp. 64.

1856 GiLuiss: The United States Naval Astronomical Expedition
to the Southern Hemisphere during the Years 1849-1852.
By Lt. J.°M.-Gilliss, Vol.;¥ij vate; p. 420.) Elousetanr
_ Representatives Ex. Doc., 121, Thirty-third Congress,
first session, Washington, 1856. At Santiago de Chile.

1856 CorFin: Psychrometric Table for Determining the Elastic
Force of Aqueous Vapors, the Relative Humidity of the
Atmosphere. By Prof. James H. Coffin. Washington,
1856.

1856 BuTLER: The Philosophy of the Weather and a Guide to its
Changes. By T. B. Butler. (New York, 1856.) Seva;
Pp: 414.

1856

1857

1857
1857

1857

1857

1858

1849
—1857

1849
-1857

259

Humpotpt: The Island of Cuba. By Alex. von Humboldt.
Translated by J. S. Thrasher. New York, 1856. 8vo,
PPp- 397-

Hat: Register of Temperature and Rainfall for thirty-six
years, at Boston, Mass. By Jonathan P. Hall. Boston,
1857. 4to, pp. 229-308. Transactions, Vol. vi.

Buys—Battor: Meteorologische Warnemingen, etc. General
Report for 1857. Utrecht, 1858. Folio, pp. 350.

Maury: Gales in the Atlantic. National Observatory. By
M. F. Maury, May, 1857. 4to, pp. 2 and 24 plates.

BLopDGET: Climatology of the United States and of the Tem-
perate Latitudes of the North American Continent. By
Lorin Blodget. Philadelphia, 1857. Royal 8vo, pp. 536.

SMITHSONIAN INsTITUTION: Meteorological Observations for
the year 1855. Washington, 1857. (Printed for the
examination of the Observers.) 8vo, pp. 113.

Maury: Explanations to Accompany the Winds, Currents
and Charts. By M. F. Maury. Washington, 1858.
4to, pp. 383 and plates. Eighth edition.

PaciFIC RAILROAD SuRvEYS: These surveys authorized
by Acts of Congress of 1849 to 1852 in most cases pro-
duced a preliminary report in 8vo form for each of the
principal lines. The Central Line on the Arkansas, by
Captain Gunnison, came by his death to the charge of
Lieutenant Beckwith. All of these reports were outfitted
with barometers, purchased and tested by me, and with all
other suitable instruments for determining altitudes, gra-
dients, and climate of the line traversed by each party. All
the altitudes were determined by me on the return of the
several parties to Washington, and the final reports were
published in thirteen volumes, 4to, from 1854 to 1858.
All of the 8vo reports of these surveys, twelve in number,
and the materials embodied in the 4to volumes, were
necessary to the construction of the charts and the estab-
lishment of the principal conditions of climate as em-
bodied in my Climatology. A special catalogue of all
the documents and volumes relating to these surveys has
been prepared.

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE:
The several reports entitled, ‘‘ Proceedings of the Ameri.

260

can Association for the Advancement of Science,’’ include
papers of great value on climatological science by Guyot,
in 1849; by Maury, Bache, Agassiz and Barton, March,
1850; by Hare, Guyot, Redfield and Espy, in August,
1850; by Loomis, Hare, Maury, Guyot, Hough, Morris,
etc., at Albany, 1851; by Redfield, Loomis, Blodget,
Coffin, etc., at Cleveland, 1853; by Hare, Maury, Red-
field, etc., at Washington, 1854. The later volumes of
the Proceedings of this Association contain very few im-
portant papers on climatological science.

1857 CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE: The monthly issues of the
Canadian Journal of Science, new series, 1856 and 1857,
contain the meteorological registers at Toronto, from
1840 to 1857, and those for Montreal and Quebec for
shorter periods.

1857 AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SociETY: The annual publications
of the American Philosophical Society in both quarto and
octavo form, available for important papers by early writers
and in all the publications down to 1857. A catalogue of
the publications of the American Philosophical Society in
octavo and quarto forms is separately given.

The library of the American Philosophical Society con-
tains the entire series of Berlin Transactions (properly the
transactions of the Royal Society of Berlin), also the fol-
lowing :

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London.

The Edinburgh New Philosophical Magazine.

British Association for the Advancement of Science.

Edinburgh Journal of Science.

Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine.

Annales Observatorie Central de Russie.

Bulletin of the Academy of St. Petersburg.

Poggendorf’s Annalen.

Memoirs of the American Academy.

1857 SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND AGRICULTURAL SERIAL PUBLICA-
TIONS: In addition to the sources elsewhere named the
following series are mostly in my own collection, but in
some cases are more complete in other libraries.

Journal of the Franklin Institute.

New York University Reports.

261

American Almanac.

California Journal of Science.

New York Journal of Medicine.

Bulletin of the American Geographical and _ Statistical
Society.

Reports of the Metropolitan Boards of Health of New York.

Reports of the New Orleans Board of Health.

American Journal of Science and Arts.

Reports of the Department of Agriculture, Washington.

Reports of Wisconsin Agricultural Department.

Michigan Agricultural Report.

Southern Cultivator.

St. Louis Medical and Surgical Journal.

Ohio Agricultural Reports.

Transactions of the American Medical Association.

Johnston’s Physical Atlas. Edition of 1856.

And others.

1858 SILLIMAN’S JOURNAL: Many numbers of this series contain
valuable statistics of observation, reviews and notices of
the progress of Atmospheric Science. See Forry, 1844.
The most important were previous to 1858.

1858 NEILL: The History of Minnesota, from the Earliest French
Explorations to the Present Time. By Edward Duffield-
Neill, Secretary of the Minnesota Historical Society.
Philadelphia, 1858. 8vo, pp. 628.

1858 Dove: Tabellen und Amtliche Nachrichten iiber den Preus-
sischen Staat, Statischen Bureau zu Berlin. Von H. W.
Move. berlin, 7358, etc. » Polio, pp. 179:

1859 Lowrie: A New Theory of the Causes of the Tides, Oceanic
and Atmospheric Currents. By W. H. Lowrie. Phila-
delphia, 1859. 8vo, pp. 9. (Chief Justice Lowrie.)

1859 LACHLAN: Paper, etc., in Favor of a Uniform System of
Meteorological Observations throughout the Whole Ameri-
can Continent. Read at the meeting of the American
Association, April, 1858. By Major R. Lachlan. Cin-
cinnati, 1859. 8vo, pp. 14.

1859 Dove: Ueber die nicht periodischen Aenderungen der Tem-
peratur Vertheilung auf der Oberflache der Erde, 1729-
1855. Von H. W. Dove. VI. Theil. Berlin, 1859. With

1859

1859

1860

1860

.1860

1860

1860

1860

1860

1860

1860

262

special reports of twenty-eight pages each for 1855, 1856,
1857 and 1858. 4to, pp. 427.

BacHE: Discussion of Magnetic and Meteorological Obser-
vations made at Girard College, 1840-1845. By A. D.
Bache. Smithsonian Contributions, etc. Washington,
Le50.) 410, pp. 26.

Maury: Nautical Monographs, No. 1: The Winds at Sea.
By M. F. Maury. National Observatory, Washington,
October, 1859. 4to, pp. 8 and plates.

DisTURNELL: On the Influence of Climate, Commercial,
Social, etc. A Paper read before the American Geogra-
phical and Statistical Society. New York, 1860. 4to,
Pp. 24.

AMERICAN ALMANAC: Third Series, 1850 to 1860. During
this period the publication of carefully taken observations
in various parts of the country was continued, and all
these data were made use of, credit being given to each
observer and to the Almanac in my ‘‘ Climatology.”’

Lowrie: A Dynamical Theory of the Motions of the Atmos-
phere and of the Magnetic Needle. By W. H. Lowrie.
Pittsburgh, 1860. 8vo, pp. 8. (Chief Justice Lowrie.)

Harris, etc.: Fourth National Quarantine and Sanitary Con-
vention, at Boston, June, 1860. 8vo, pp. 288. Dr.
Elisha Harris on Disinfection by Heat, pp. 217-238.

Hino: The Canadian Red River Expedition of 1857 and
the Assiniboine and Saskatchewan Expedition of 1858.
By Henry Youle Hind, Professor, etc., in charge. Lon-
don, 1860. 2 vols., 8vo, pp. 454 and 472.

Dent: Aneroid and Mercurial Barometers. By E. J. Dent,
F.R.S. London and Philadelphia, 1860. 8vo, pp. 29.

BELVILLE: A Complete Manual of the Thermometer. By J.
H. Belville, of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. Lon-
don and Philadelphia, 1860. 8vo, pp. 56.

BELVILLE: A Manual of the Barometer, etc. By J. H. Bel-
ville, of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. London and
Philadelphia, 1860. 8vo, pp. 47. (First London edition,
1849.)

BacHE: Lecture on the Gulf Stream. By Prof. Bache.
American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Newport, 1860. 8vo, pp. 17 and map.

1861

1861

1861

1863

1865

1866

1867

1867

263

Buys—BatLotT: Meteorologische Warnemingen. General
Report of Meteorological Observations throughout Europe
for 1660.. «Utrecht, 1861. Folio; pp. 303.

Buys—Ba..or: Sur le Marche Annuelle du Thermometre et
de Barometre. Amsterdam, 1861. 4to, pp. 116.

Maury: Nautical Monographs, No. 11: The Barometer at
Sea. By M. F. Maury. National Observatory, March,
1861. 4to, pp. 20 and plates.

GILLiss: Astronomical and Meteorological Observations at
the United States Naval Observatory during 1861. Wash-
ington, 1862. 4to, pp. 520.

Bett. A Practical Illustration of the Movement of Hurri-
canes, etc. By Captain John H. Bell. Baltimore, 1861.
8vo, pp. 8 and maps.

Henry: Results of Meteorological Observations made under
the direction of the United States Patent Office and the
Smithsonian Institution from 1854 to 1859. By Prof. J.
H. Coffin. Being a Report of the Commissioner of
Patents, made at the First Session, 36th Congress,
Vol. i. Washington, 1861. 4to, pp. 1219. This volume,
prepared under the direction of Prof. Joseph Henry,
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

OHIO AGRICULTURAL REpoRT: Eighteenth Annual Report
Ohio Board of Agriculture for 1863. Columbus, 1864.
8vo, pp. 512. Pomological Society, p. 64. Climato-
logical Records, pp. 89-100.

New York Councit oF HyciENE: Report of the Council of
Hygiene and Public Health of the Citizens’ Association
of New York on the Sanitary Cendition of the City.
New York, 1865. 8vo, pp. 360, with maps and plates.

METROPOLITAN BoaRD OF HEALTH, NEw York: Report for
1866. Albany, 1867. 8vo, pp. 800, and contains Prof.
Morris’ Meteorological Record, May 1 to December 1,
1866, pp. 455-488.

METROPOLITAN BoarD OF HEALTH, NEw York: Second
Annual Report for 1867. Albany, 1868. Dr. Elisha
Harris, Registrar. 8vo, pp. 480.

HENNESSEY: On the Distribution of Temperature in the
Lower Region of the Atmosphere, etc. By Henry Hen-

264

nessey. Trans. Royal Irish Academy, Dublin, 1867.
4to, pp. 58 and isothermal chart.

1868 HILBRETH—SCHOTT: Results of Meteorological Observations
at Marietta, Ohio, 1817-1859. By S. P. Hildreth. Re-
duced by Charles A. Schott. Smithsonian Contributions
to Knowledge. 4to, pp. 46. Washington, 1868.

1866 JELINCK: Jahrbiicher der K. K. Central Anstalt fiir Meteor-
ologie und Erdmagnetismus. Von Carl Jelinck und
Carl Fritsch. Neue Folge ii. Band Jahrgang 1864.
Wien, 1866. 4to, pp. 188.

1867 JELINCK: The same for 1865. Wien, 1867. 4to, pp. 208.

1868 JELINCK: The same for 1866. Wien, 1868. 4to, pp. 206.

1869 JELINCK: The same for 1867. Wien, 1867. 4to, pp. 227.

1870 JELINCK: The same for 1868. 4to, pp. 224 and supplement
reviewing 1857 to 1865. Wien, 1870. pp. 113.

1870 JELINCK AND Hann: Zeitschrift der Oesterreichischen Gesell-
schaft fiir Meteorologie. Von Dr. C. Jelinck and Dr. J.
Hann. Wien, 1870. 8vo, pp. 644 and plates.

1873 JELINCK: The same Jahrbiicher for 1871. Wien, 1873.
4to, pp. 208.

1874 JELINCK: The same for 1872. Wien, 1874. 4to, pp. 236.

1868 OnIo AGRICULTURAL ReEporT: 23d Annual Repert Ohio
Board of Agriculture. Columbus, 1869. 8vo, pp. 655.
And Horticultural Report, pp. 80. Cited on Climatology
at p. 239 and all matter valuable for discussion of grape
climates. Lake Shore, Kelley’s Island, etc.

1868 METROPOLITAN BOARD*OF HEALTH: New York. Report for
1868. Dr. Elisha Harris, Registrar and Secretary. Al-
bany, 1869. 8vo, pp. 635.

1868 THE SAME: As printed by order of the Assembly. Albany,
1869. 8vo, pp. 471.

1868 BLopGET: Alaska. What is it Worth? With chart of Iso-
thermal lines. By Lorin Blodget, in Lippincott’s Maga-
zine, February, 1868, pp. 185 to 1gt.

1869 METROPOLITAN BoarD OF HEALTH: New York. Fourth An-
nual Report for 1869. New York (Appleton & Co.),
1870. 8vo, pp. 594.

1869 JELINCK AND Hann: Zeitschrift der Oesterreichischen Gesell-
schaft fiir Meteorologie. Redigirt. Von Dr. C. Jelinck und

265

Dr. J. Hann. IV. Band. Wien, 1869. 8vo, pp. 615
and plates.

1870 BoarD oF HEALTH: Fifth Annual Report of the Board of
Health of the City of New York, April 11, 1870, to April
10, 1871. By Emmons Clark, Secretary. New York,
1871. 8vo, pp. 628.

1871 BLoDGET—WALLING: The Climate of Massachusetts. With
Isothermal and rain map. By Lorin Blodget. Walling’s
Atlas of the State of Massachusetts. Boston, 1871. pp.
225/22 s1OlO:

1872 ScHotr: Tables and Results of Precipitation in Rain and
Snow in the United States and America Generally. Dis-
cussed by Chas. A. Schott. Smithsonian Contributions
to Knowledge. Washington, 1872. Folio, pp. 175 and
plates. (See second edition in May, 1881. Folio, pp.
249 and plates. )

1872 BLODGET—WaALLING—GRay: Climatological Map of Ohio,
Isothermal and Rainfall. By Lorin Blodget, in Walling
and Gray’s Atlas of Ohio, pp. 34, 35. Cincinnati,
1872. Folio.

1872 Myer: Daily Bulletins of the Signal Service U. S. Army,
with Synopsis of Probabilities. Divisions of Telegrams.
Gen. Albert J. Myer. Large 4to, monthly bound vols.
September, October, November and December, 1872. 4

vols.
Jang to Wee; scomplete {0.4 Y.. 1873, 12 volumes.
janei(ex5 May) to Decss 50.42. - 1874, 11 volumes.
Gethin OMT Pentre to hewn ateca =! Saas were 1875, 1 volume.
MORES fees, DA Cee a col alee ne 1876.
ADEM MICE: 4c ne hiee lec. «ties Sie 1877, 12 volumes.

1873 BLoDGET, ETC.: The Climate of Maryland. With Isothermal
and rain map. By Lorin Blodget, in Atlas of Maryland,
by Martenet, etc. Baltimore, 1873. .

1873 BLopcet—Gray: Climatology of the United States. With
Isothermal and rain chart. By Lorin Blodget, in Gray’s
Atlas of the United States. Philadelphia, 1873. Folio,
pp. 125-129.

1873 BLopcet: The Non-periodic Distribution of Heat in the At-
mosphere. By Lorin Blodget. Read before the American

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 148. 2H. PRINTED JAN. 18, 1894.

266

Philosophical Society, February 21, 1873. Proceedings,
Vol. xiii, 8vo, pp. 3. Philadelphia, 1873.

1874 BLopcer: A Downward Atmospheric Circulation as One
Cause of Extreme Cold. By Lorin Blodget. Read before
the American Philosophical Society, May 1, 1874. Pro-
ceedings, Vol. xiv, p. 150.

1874 BLODGET—WALLING: Climate of British North America.
With isothermal and rain charts. By Lorin Blodget, in
Atlas of the Dominion of Canada, by H. F. Walling.
Montreal, 1875.

1873 WoopwortH: The Cholera Epidemic of 1873. By john M.

~1875 Woodworth, M.D., Supervising Surgeon U.S. M. H.
Treasury Dept., Washington, 1875. Prepared pursuant
to Joint Resolution of Congress of March 25, 1874.

1875 McCLELLAN AND OTHERS: The Cholera Epidemic of 1873.
Reports Prepared under the Direction of the Surgeon-
General of the Army. A. By Ely McClellan, M.D.
B. By John C. Peters, M.D.. C. By John S. Billings;
MD. Washington, 1875. 8vo, pp. 1025.

1873 BLopceT: A Report upon Non-periodic Changes of Heat as
an Element in Sanitary Climatology. By Lorin Blodget.
Read before the American Public Health Association at
New York, 1873. In Vol. 1 of Reports, pp. 157-163.

1875 Harris: Reports and Papers of the American Public Health
Association presented in 1873. Prepared by Dr. Elisha
Harris, Secretary. Many Valuable Sanitary and Climato-
logical Reports. New York, 1875. Large 8vo and maps,
pp. 563.

1875 WARREN: Report of the Commission of Engineers on the
Reclamation of the Alluvial Basin of the Mississippi. By
G. K. Warren, Major Engineers, President of the Com-
mission. Washington, 1875. 8vo, pp. 160, and maps of
floods. (H.R. Ex. Doc. 25, 43d Congress, 2d Session.)

1875 Jones: Report upon Northwestern Wyoming, including
Yellowstone Park, made in 1873 by William A. Jones,
Captain of Engineers. Washington, 1875. 8vo, pp. 331,
with valuable maps.

1876 ScuHotr: Tables, etc., of Atmospheric Temperature in the
United States. Collected by the Smithsonian Institution

267

and discussed by Chas. A. Schott, Washington. Smith-
sonian Contributions to Knowledge, 1876. Folio, pp.
345, with Isothermal Charts.

1877 Currinc: Vermont Agricultural Report for 1877. Climato-
logy of Vermont, by Dr. Hiram A. Cutting, pp. 120 to
141. Montpelier, 1877.

1881 ScHotr: Tables and Results of Precipitation in Rain and
Snow in the U. S., from collections by the Smithsonian
Institution. By Chas. A. Schott. 2d edition, Washington,
May, 1881. 4to, pp. 250, with large rainfall maps, for
each season and the year. ‘‘Including records to 1877.”

1882 GiLperT: A New Method of Measuring Heights by Means of
the Barometer. By G. K. Gilbert, U. S. Geological
Survey. Large 8vo, pp. 408-566, 162, with plates.
Washington, 1882.

1884 RELIEF COMMITTEES: Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce ;
Flood in the Ohio, Feb. 1884. Cincinnati, 1884. 8vo
pamphlet, pp. 193.

1888 Haypen: The Great Storm off the Atlantic Coast of the
United States, March 11-14, 1888. By Everett Hayden,
in charge of Marine Meteorology. Montreal Monograph,
No. 5, U. S. Hydrographic Office. Washington, 1888.
4to, pp. 65, and plates.

1889 BLopcet: The Floods in Pennsylvania, May 31 and June
1, 1889. By Lorin Blodget, for the Department of In-
ternal Affairs of Pennsylvania. Harrisburg, 1889. 8vo
pamphlet, pp. 8, with map.

1889 GREELY: Floods in the Middle Atlantic States, May 31
to June 3, 1889. Report of the Weather Bureau,
Monthly Review for May and June. Washington, 1889.
4to, pp. 6, and maps.

REPORTS OF THE CHIEF SIGNAL OrFicEer U.S. A., 1871 TO 1891.

The Metorological Branch of the Signal Service was authorized
by Joint Resolution No. 9, approved Feb. 9, 1870, the Secretary
of War being authorized ‘‘To provide for taking Meteorological
Observations at the Military Stations and at other points in the
Interior,’’ and to give notice of the approach of Storms, etc. On
Nov. 1, 1870, the first synchronous reports were transmitted. The

268

issue of Synopsis and ‘‘ Probabilities’? was commenced by the
Office, Feb. 29, 1871, thrice daily ; pp. 6-8.

1871 Myer: Report of the Chief Signal Officer to the Secretary
of War for the year ending June 30, 1871. By Albert J.
Myer, Brigadier General, Chief Signal Office. Washing-
ton, 1871. 8vo, pp. 166.

1872 Myer: The same for year ending June 30, 1872. 8vo, pp.
292. (See pp. 190-195 for List of Great Storms, 2
copies. )

1873 Myer: The same for 1872-3. pp. 230 to r10g, and many
plates.

1874 Myer: The same for 1873-4. October, 1873 to Sept. 30,
1874, with rain maps for each month and storm maps. At
pp. 286 appear the orders turning over the Smithsonian
System and its observers to the Signal Office. 8vo, pp.
403, and 64 maps.

1875 Myer: The same for 1874-5 ; July, 1874, to June, 1875, with
rain andstorm maps. pp. 475, and 76 maps. At p. 130
is a full list of Smithsonian observers. At p. 362 are the
orders of the Surgeon-General turning over the Meteoro-
logical Observations of the Medical Officers of the army.

1876 Myer: The same for 1875-6, fiscal year. pp. 509, and 77
plates.

1877 Myer: The same for 1876-7, fiscal year. pp. 570, with 16
plates. At p. 156 list of publications received.

1878 Myer: The same for 1877-8, fiscal year. pp. 679, and 59
plates.

1879 Myer: The same for 1878-9, fiscal year. pp. 782, with
74 maps, isothermal, rainfall, and storms, also river
gauges.

1880 DruM—GREELY (Acting Signal Officers): Report dated
Nov. 15, 1880, for fiscal year 1879-80. pp. 1120 and 820
plates. Publications received at p. 245. General Myer
died Aug 24, 1880.

1881 HazEN: The same for 1880-1. By Gen. W. B. Hazen,
Chief Signal Officer, dated Oct. 1, 1881. pp. 1286 and
many plates. (Refers to death of Gen. Myer at Buffalo,
Aug. 24, 1880.)

1882

1883

1884

1885

1886
1887

1888
1889
1890
1891

269

Hazen: The same for 1881-2, dated September 15, 1882.
Message and Doc. Series, War Department. Part i, pp.
974 and plates; Part ii, pp. 404 and plates.

Hazen: The same for 1882-3, dated October 15, 1883.
As Vol. iv, Message and Doc. Series. pp. 1164 and
plates.

Hazen: The same for 1883-4, dated October 15, 1884.
Also as Vol. iv, Message and Doc. Series, War Depart-
ment. pp. 712 and plates.

Hazen: The same for 1884-5, October 10, 1885. Part i,
pp. 609; Part ii, pp. 440.

Hazen: The same for 1885-6.

GREELY: The same for 1886-7. By A. W. Greely; Chief
Signal Officer (succeeding General Hazen, who died
January 16, 1887). Parti, pp. 361; Part ii, pp. 386 and
plates.

GREELY: The same for 1887-8.

GREELY: The same for 1888-9.

GREELY: The same for 1889-90.

GREELY: Irrigation and Water Storage of the Arid Regions.
Letter from the Secretary of War communicating a Report
of the Chief Signal Office of the Army in response to
House Resolution of May 23, 1890, relative to Irrigation
and Water Storage in the Arid Regions By A. W.
Greely, Pebouary, 28, 180r.. H.R... Ex., Doc:, No. 284,
51st Congress, Second Session. Washington, Government
Printing Office, 1891. 4to, pp. 356 and 37 maps.

A Short Note upon So-called ‘‘ Hereditary Optic-Nerve Atrophy’ —
as a Contribution to the Question of Transmission of Structural
Peculiarity.

By Charles A. Oliver, A.M., M. D.

Deeming it possible that the question of ‘‘ The Transmission of

Structural Peculiarity ’

’ may be judiciously studied from a patho-

logical standpoint, as shown in the peculiar disease of man generally

270

known as Hereditary Optic-Nerve Atrophy, where certain morbid
changes of optic-nerve structures of a sufficient amount for ready
recognition take place during the years just previous to adolescence
in subjects who frequently have consanguineous ties, extending in
some instances through several generations, the writer has ventured
the following terse notes of one such family that he has had the op-
portunity to submit several of its members to careful and prolonged
clinical research extending over several years.

In 1892, he saw for the first timea man, aged twenty-seven years,
who stated that for the past year the sight of both eyes had been
gradually failing, this being accompanied by frontal headaches and
dizziness. No history of any general sickness was given and no
clinical evidences of the introduction of any toxic agents into the
system could be obtained. He asserted that his mother’s three
brothers were similarly affected.

Examination showed that central vision for both form and color
was highly defective. The ophthalmoscopic appearances were
those of a semiatrophic condition of the optic-nerve head.

At irregular intervals, though especially later in the disease, vari-
ously colored phosphenes appeared in the centre of the visual fields
and attacks of ‘‘ fogging of vision’’ during perspiration without
watering of the eyes came on. Ocular pain upon exposure to
light, with gradual decreasing color perception, passing through
the failure of recognizing green, red, blue and yellow ensued, until
at last nothing but equal intensities of ‘‘ color’’ were laid side by
side without reference to tint.

This peculiar history and the patient’s assertion that his three
maternal uncles had suffered in the same manner induced a careful
ocular examination to be made of as many ofthe family as possible.
This resulted in the finding of more or less similar ocular symp-
toms and conditions in all that could be seen. It also elicited the
fact that the disease with one exception had passed from unaffected
mothers to affected sons through six generations on the maternal
side; a family that the writer had the privilege to study in a num:
ber of its members ten years ago and had careful clinical notes of
several in the earlier generations.

This brief history of a gross pathological condition first appear-
ing about or a short time before adolescence, and eventuating in
permanent partial blindness at about twenty-seven years of age, is

271

here given as one among many facts based upon pathological
changes that may be placed side by side with those so-called normal
physiological acts and physical peculiarities of structure which are
so often seen passing through several generations especially by ties
of consanguinity.

In other words, this fault of optic-nerve structure, which does not
show itself for several years after the birth of the individual, indi-
cates to the writer’s mind at least that here there is an inheritance
of a physical material which is not only shorter lived than that
which is found in the same organ in other organisms, but that it has
a briefer existence than the other organs in the same general organ-
ism ; a fault which shows that an imperfect material has been born,
and dies prematurely because it is subjected to an amount of wear
and tear that would not seriously disturb or injure a properly formed
substance. Further, it serves as a living evidence that a substance
has been improperly made most probably on account of physical
imperfection and repetition of faulty cell combination of similar
kind extending through several generations; an evidence which in
measure says that primarily acquired pathological characteristics of
structural form may be transmitted through forthcoming generations
as imperfect formation of similar structure in due proportion to
both the want of hygiene and care given to the afflicted subjects
and the reassociation of similarly degraded developmental cells ; an
evidence which gives answer in part to the transmission of ordinary
structural characteristics, which, if acted upon in the same way as
those which are not made, as it were, in the same peculiar manner,
will produce far different and even what may be termed idiocratic
results.

In other words, this disease, for example, which manifests itself
as faulty transmission, teaches us conversely that a peculiar physical
condition which has been obtained from frequently repeated physio-
logical acts during the life existence of some antecedent containing
animal form, may be transmitted to the offspring (more particularly
by consanguineous ties of the parents) and thus render the new or-
ganism more capable of evolving certain definite acts that are the
physiological representatives of heredity of physical structure; the
partial answer at least for so-termed hereditary genius.

272

Lhe Adaptive Forms and Vortex-Motion of the Substance of the
Red Blood-corpuscles of Vertebrates.

By John A. Ryder.

The fact that the red blood-corpuscles of vertebrates are discoidal
or elliptical flattened bodies seems to have had very little of import
to physiological writers. I shall now attempt to show that not
only has the shape of these bodies very great physiological signifi-
cance, but that these shapes are also adaptive. The attempt will
also be made to show that it may be that there is a vortical flux of
substance from the centre to the periphery, or from the periphery to
the centre of every such corpuscle during life on both sides of it ;
that, moreover, such a flux taken in conjunction with the viscosity
of the substance of the corpuscle and its original or embryonic
globular form is responsible for its shape. The flattening and vor-
tical flux of the substance of the corpuscle may be regarded as
adaptive physiological devices by means of which its respiratory
efficiency is vastly increased. That such a flux has never been seen
and may never be seen, owing to the practical impossibility of ob-
serving these bodies in a perfectly normal living condition, is no
proof that such a flux does not occur. Other practical difficulties
also present themselves in the demonstration of the vortical flux of
the substance of red blood-corpuscles, namely their optical homo-
geneity, as a result of which also the very highest powers of the
microscope become useless in this investigation, since the particles
of the substance lie beyond the limits of microscopic vision and
cannot therefore be differentiated microscopically so as to demon-
strate such a motion, even were it possible to observe the corpuscle
in an active living state under perfectly normal conditions.

The first condition satisfied by the flattened form of the red
blood-corpuscle is an increase of its superficial area. This would
also be achieved if the corpuscle were elongated into a filament.
But it can be shown that if these corpuscles were filaments they
would inevitably tend to choke up or occlude the vessels, because
of becoming tangled amongst one another and thus bringing the cir-
culation toa stand-still with consequent death. It can also be shown,
with all the rigor of mathematical demonstration, that the super-
ficial area of a filament of the same volume as a disk of the same
substance does not increase at anything like the same rate, if the

273

filament is indefinitely and progressively lengthened, as compared
with the rate of increase of the surface of a disk of similar volume
indefinitely and progressively flattened. Everything is therefore in
favor physiologically of the discoidal form of a mass of plasma as a
hemoglobin bearer over and above that of a filament or any other
shape whatever. The advantages which accrue to the discoidal
form of the blood-corpuscle over a hypothetical filamentous form
are thus seen to be conditioned by the geometrical laws which hold
in respect to the progressive and equal change of the ratios of two
of the dimensions of a solid or fluid body as compared with an un-
equal change in its third dimension, provided there is no change
of volume.

This form of the blood-corpuscle by means of which its area is
increased is also one which involves the conception that the
average path traversed by all of its constituent particles is less than
that by means of which it would be transformed into a filamentous
body. A further conclusion derivable from this fact is that in the
transformation of the globular embryonic blood-cell there is less
expenditure of energy involved in transforming it into a disk than
if it were transformed into a filament. There is therefore an actual
saving of energy consequent upon transforming the primitively
globular blood-cells into disks instead of into filaments. Viewed,
therefore, as a kinetic problem alone, it can be proved that the
discoidal shape of the blood-corpuscles of vertebrates requires the ex-
penditure of a relatively small amount of energy as compared with
that of any other form that might be assumed.

Notwithstanding this fact, however, there has been an extension
of the disks of many forms in one of their dimensions, so that in
the greater proportion of vertebrates, including birds, reptiles,
batrachia and fishes, the red corpuscles are elliptical, while in a
mollusc Arca they are flattened and pyriform in outline. Nowhere,
however, does the eccentricity of the elliptical form of the corpuscles
develop great proportions ; in fact, I know of no instances in which
the great diameter of an elliptical corpuscle is as great as twice its
least diameter. The law enunciated in the preceding paragraphs
therefore still holds essentially even in those cases where the cor-
puscle becomes quite markedly elliptical, since nowhere does this
ellipticity reach such an extreme as to become the expression of an
extension of the substance of the corpuscle into the form of a fila-
mentous body.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143. 21. PRINTED FEB. 7, 1894,

274

This ellipticity of the blood-corpuscles of the lower vertebrates
is, moreover, again adaptive, since it is well known that in travers-
ing the smallest capillaries in such forms as the frog, for example,
every corpuscle must in traversing the latter place its long axis
parallel, or nearly so, with the axis of the lumen of the vessel in
order to pass through; in other words, the least diameter of the
corpuscle only can traverse the lumen of capillaries. In thus ad-
justing its long axis to the axis of the lumen of the capillary, sucha
corpuscle again presents a maximum amount of surface and volume
in the nearest relation to the tissues it is to oxidize, whereas if it
traversed the capillary with its long diameter transverse to the axis
of the lumen of the capillary, it would present the least amount of
its volume and surface in the nearest relation to the tissue to be
oxidized. Were this last condition prevalent it would require
many more corpuscles to do the same work as is done by the ellipti-
cal corpuscles that now traverse the capillaries lengthwise, or with
_their long axes parallel with the axis of the lumina of the latter.

A further supposition that may be made regarding the elliptical
blood-corpuscles is that, originally globular, they became at first dis-
coidal, then elliptical, and that the elliptical form of the disks was
consequent upon slight constraint within the capillaries during their
passage through the latter ; in other words, the elliptical form was de-
rived from the discoidal as the discoidal was derived from the still
more primitive globular form. We may also suppose that very
slight mechanical constraint in passing through the capillaries
would distinctly tend to develop a tendency towards converting the
disks that were slightly too large to pass through the capillaries into
elliptical disks. JI can thus conceive a mechanical origin for the
elliptical form of the red blood-corpuscle in general wherever it
occurs.

It may also be assumed that the size of the corpuscle is directly
related to the rate of metabolism of the organism. Thus in the slug-
gish batrachia the corpuscles are large ; in the more active fishes and
reptiles smaller ; in mammals still smaller, and in the most active
mammals and birds, such as the musk deer and humming bird,
smallest of all, reaching minimum dimensions of zo/55 tO goog Of
an inch in these types, according to Gulliver.

The impulse that tends to develop a vortical flux of matter from
opposite poles of a young globular red blood-corpuscle in every
direction from the centre, it would be difficult to specify further

275

than that it is purely physiological and adaptive, and leads to a
distinct gain of surface and a consequent increase in the efficiency
of each and every corpuscle in performing its function, that for such
a cause has assumed the discoidal form. That such a double vorti-
cal flux must take place from two opposite poles of a primitively
globular or embryonic red blood-corpuscle in passing from its
primitive globular to that of its completed or adult elliptical or dis-
coidal form is self-evident upon mere contemplation of the geo-
metrical conditions that must on @ prior? grounds accompany the
transformation of a semifluid globular mass to the form of a disk
with rounded edges. If such a vortical flux of its substance were
maintained by every corpuscle during its double cycle of wander-
ings through the systemic and pulmonary circulations and through-
out life, its efficiency in the processes of metabolism must neces-
sarily be greatly increased. The fact that Amceba cannot move
without developing a vortical flux of its own substance through
itself, is, it seems to me, evidence of the possibility and probability
of the same thing occurring in red blood-corpuscles. If the fore-
going hypothesis is true with respect to red blood-corpuscles, we
have no less than ten millions of vortex rings of particles whirling
together in pairs for every cubic millimeter of blood that circulates
through the vessels of our bodies.

A Study of the Transformations and Anatomy of Lagoa crispata, a
Bombycine Moth.

By Alpheus S. Packard.

The larva of this moth is exceptional among caterpillars, for it
has the rudiments of two pairs of abdominal legs more than the
five pairs common to all other known Lepidoptera. It is also re-
markable for its metameric glandular abdominal processes.

A very full and careful account of the life-history of this inter-
esting moth has been published by Dr. J. A. Lintner, in his Zx/o-
mological Contributions, No. ii, p. 139. He describes six stages,
and gives an interesting account of the cocoon and mode of pupa-
tion.*

* See also two briefarticles by myself: ‘‘On the Larva of Lagoa, a Bombycine Caterpillar
with Seven Pairs of Abdominal Legs; with Notes on its Metameric Glandular Abdomi-
nal Processes.” Zoologischer Anzeiger, 27. Juni, 1892, pp. 229-234; ‘‘ The Bombycine Genus
Lagoa, Type of a New Family,” Psyche, July, 1892, pp. 281, 282.

276

The eggs were kindly sent me by Miss Emily L. Morton from
New Windsor, N. Y., and received July 2, hatching in Brunswick,
Me., July 3.

#igg.—Length, about 1.5-1.8; breadth, about 0.5 mm. The
shell is very thin, membranous, and entirely transparent, and under
a 4-In. Objective is seen to be structureless, showing no traces of
polygonal areas.

They are similar to but not nearly so flat as those of Phobetron
pithecitum. They are laid in small irregular patches side by side in
two rows, and are densely covered with white woolly hairs from the
body of the moth: They are at first pale green, becoming yellow-
ish as the embryo becomes mature and nearly ready to hatch.

Larva Stage I, Freshly Hatched.—Length, 1.5-1.8 mm. When
first hatched they eat little holes in the upper surface of oak leaves.
They have a thin soft skin ; are flat oval, lying on one side, and at
first are yellow. Body short and thick, rather broad, yet some-
what cylindrical, with eleven pairs of large dorsal tubercles, which
are square at the tip, and give rise to very long white hairs of
unequal size, some of which are nearly twice as long as the body.
Besides the white hairs there are also short erect setze, dark brown
at the attenuated ends, which also arise from the large long subdor-
sal, not lateral, tubercles. The body, including the head, is pale
straw-yellow.

It molted July 10-11, the length of the stage being from six to
seven days. In thisstage the head is not covered by the prothoracic
segment, which though large has not yet become hoodlike. The
very long fine spinulated hairs arise from all the tubercles, of which
there are six on each segment, the dorsal tubercles on the second
thoracic segment being slightly larger than those on any of the suc-
ceeding segments; the hairs in question are more abundant on the
anterior segments, z. e. the second and third thoracic, and the five
basal segments, than on those behind. From the dorsal and subdorsal
tubercles arise about a dozen spine-like setee, which are slender and
about half as long as the body is thick; the end is acute, dusky,
and thus made conspicuous in the mass of white delicate spinulated
hairs clothing the body. None of these are poisonous. Stinging
sete arise from the minute infraspiracular tubercles. The spiracles
are very minute and difficult to detect. On each of the abdominal
legs, situated above the planta, is a pair of short clavate sete, the
seventh pair only bearing a single seta.

277

Fig. 1 represents the freshly hatched larva, Stage I, drawn with
the tubercles, hairs and spines; @é/', the first, ad/°, the sixth, pair
of abdominal legs.

Fig. 2 represents the armature in StageI; @, part of an ordinary
finely spinulated hair; 4, one of the smaller spinulated hairs situated
on the head, and also on the tenth abdominal segment ; ¢, a group
of three venomous setz, showing the glandular cells (fc.) at the
base, by which the poison is secreted.

Fig. 3 represents the cells (sc.) in the hypodermis which secrete
the sete, and the poison-cells (fg/c) which secrete the venomous
fluid filling the setee or spines, and which makes them so irri-
tant and annoying when the spines break off from the tubercles
bearing them. 4 is a group of setz arising from a subdorsal tuber-
cle ; cuwz., the cuticle; y., the hypodermis ; sc., the enlarged and
specialized cells of the hypodermis which secrete the spines them-
selves ; fe/c, the nuclei which secrete the venomous fluid which
fills the cavity of the seta (s.), seen at fin a broken spine. B, a
short entire and a long broken seta; fg/c, four poison cells; p.,
the poison in the hollow of the spine.

Fig. 4. Section of a subdorsal tubercle from a larva in Stage I.
sc., the setigenous cells, one for each seta; Ag/c, nuclei by which
the poison is secreted ; s., seta; #., poison in middle of a broken
spine ; cu¢., cuticle; sd. ¢ub., spinulated surface of the subdorsal
tubercle. Author de?.

Larva, Stage /7.—Length, 3 mm. (Pl. V, Fig. 5). It differs from
the previous stage chiefly in the head being nearly covered or over-
grown by the hood-like prothoracic segment, so as to be almost as
completely covered by it when extended as in the later stages.
The short stiff setae are white instead of brownish at the end; the
white hairs are, perhaps, more abundant, and the body is slightly
thicker. The second and third thoracic and seventh to ninth pair
of abdominal tubercles are now larger than the others. There are
now about twelve crotchets on the middle abdominal legs.

It molted July 16-17, hence the length of this stage is 67 days.

Fig. 6 represents the seventh abdominal segment of this stage.
@, the dorsal tubercle, with 12-13 poison-bearing sete, with
brown tips, and five long very finely spinulated hairs, which are
about twice as long as the segment is thick; sd., the subdorsal
tubercle bearing about twelve venomous setz, and two or three long
spinulated hairs ; sf., the spiracle, and directly behind and a little

278

below it a lateral process (/%.); z., the infraspiracular tubercle bear-
ing about eight hairs, but no sete; f/., the planta; s., the clavate
seta.

The hairs are more numerous than before, nearly concealing the
body, much as in Stage V.

Stage [/7.—Length, 5 mm. Of the same color as before, and ©
with no noteworthy change in appearance.

It molted again July 25-26, the length of the stage being about
nine days.

Stage 7V.—Length, 7-8 mm. The larva only differs from that
of the preceding stage in all the hairs being white, and in the
woolly or finely spinulated ones being thicker.

It molted August 3, the length of the stage being about 7-8 days.

Stage ViLength, 9-10 mm. Same as before, but the hairs
have grown a little thicker (see Fig. 7, a, 0).

Iam uncertain whether the larve molted again before the final
-ecdysis, but Aug. ro-12 they had become 15 mm. long, and were
the same as before, but with more long hairs in proportion to the
short forked ones. This is perhaps the end of Stage V.

This stage lasted about ten days, as they molted again Aug. 22—
23, and some as late as Aug. 30.

Last Stage (V7).—Length, of body alone, 20 mm.; but including
all the hairs before and behind 30 mm.; breadth of body, 10 mm.

Mature larval characters being acquired only at the last molt, it is
now entirely different in shape and color from the preceding stages.
The hairs on the anterior third of the body are s/atfe-gray, behind _
reddish brown, and they are so dense and fine as to lie upon the
body and entirely conceal it; they rise into four longitudinal
ridges. The head is not now visible, the head-end is broader than
the tail end, with overarching hairs, and a few longer scattered
hairs on the front and side of the thoracic segments, and a few long
brown hairs on the posterior end ; none of these longer hairs are as
long as the body is thick, and none of the short barbed stinging
hairs are to be seen through the dense pile of simple hairs. (See also
Lintner’s description, and my own in Report V, U. S. Hut. Com-
mission on Forest and Shade Tree Insects, p. 139.)

UnusuaL NUMBER OF ABDOMINAL LEGS IN THE LARVA.

In the American Naturalist for July, 1885, pp. 714, 715, we

279

published the following notes in an article entitled ‘‘ Unusual
Number of Legs in the Caterpillar of Lagoa.’’*

‘* Lagoa crispata Pack. is an interesting moth forming a connect-
ing link between the Dasychire (Orgyia) and the Cochlidiz rep-
resented by Limacodes and its allies. As we remarked in our
Synopsis of Bombycidz (1864): ‘ When we observe the larva we
would easily mistake it for a hairy Limacodes larva, for like them
the head is retracted, the body is short, and _ the legs are so rudi-
mentary as to impart a gliding motion to the caterpillar when it
moves.’’ After describing the transformations, we added: ‘ There
are seven pairs of abdominal or false legs, which are short and
thick. The first pair of thoracic or true legs are much shorter
than the two succeeding pairs.’

“‘Two years ago we found the fully fed caterpillars and also those
before the last molt on scrub-oaks in Providence, and again noticed
them while walking, then carefully examined them after placing
them in alcohol, and again examined the specimens during the
past winter. It is well known that caterpillars have no more than
five pairs of ‘ proplegs,’ ‘false legs’ or abdominal feet, as they
are variously called ; and so far as we have been able to learn, the
present caterpillar is the only one which has additional legs, even
though rudimentary. As in all lepidopterous larve, there are ten
abdominai segments. In the larve before the last molt there is a
pair of rudimentary abdominal legs on the second abdominal seg-
ment, forming soft tubercles about one-third as large as the suc-
ceeding normal feet ; the crown of hooks was wanting, but a tubercle
on the anterior side corresponding to a similar one on the normal

* In 1879, or six years before the publication of my note, Dr. H. Burmeister (Atlas de la
description physique de la République Argentine, Lepidoptéres, Buenos Ayres, 1879, pp.
xxii, Figs. 6a, 6b, 6c.) had described and figured with details, the larva of Chrysopyga un-
dulata: “Les six anneaux suivants, du cinquiéme au dixiéme, sont pouryus de deux
verrues charnues qui représentent les pattes membraneuses ventrales, dont le nombre est
de six chez cette chenille, ce qui constitue une exception a la regle générale de la prés-
ence de quatre paires de pattes membraneuses sur les anneaux 64 9. La premiére et la
derniére de ces six paires de verrues se terminent en avant par un coussin rond aplati,
noir, qui ressemble a la plante d’un pied, mais chez les quatres verrues moyennes (6 4 9),
ily a un second coussin plus grand, qui ressemble a une véritable patte membraneuse
pourvue d’une plante sinueuse et d’une couronne de petits crochets cornés, comme les
pattes membraneuses en général (6, ¢), Le onziéme anneau est oblitéré au milieu, ainsi
que le quatri¢me, mais sa présence est bien reconnaissable par les deux portions latérales.
Enfin, le douziéme anneau est un peu plus grand que Jes autres et porte la derniére paire
de pattes membraneuses, la septiéme qui est complétement conformée comme les quatres
moyennes des six anneaux antérieurs, mais sans la petite plante accessoire de celles ci.

Ces derniéres pattes sont pourvues seulement de la plante sinueuse garnie de crochets
comme les autres.

280

feet had five or six well-marked stout spines, also two or three scat-
tered ones in the middle, the tubercle being rounded, convex, not
flattened at the end.

‘‘On the sixth segment, following the fourth pair of normal ab-
dominal legs, is a pair of tubercles like those on the second seg-
ment and exactly corresponding in situation with the normal legs;
situated externally are two long straight spines, but none homol-
ogous with those forming the crown. At the base in front of each
tubercle is a tuft of sparse hairs, and on the outside is a chitinous
spot bearing a dense tuft of hairs; these two tufts precisely agree
in situation and appearance with those at the base of normal abdom-
inal legs.

‘‘TIn the fully fed caterpillar the tubercles are exactly the same.
It thus appears that in the Lagoa larva the first abdominal segment
is foatless; the second bears rudimentary feet ; segments 3-6 bear
normal proplegs ; the seventh bears a pair of rudimentary legs; seg-
ments 8 and 9 are footless, while the tenth bears the fully
developed anal or fifth pair of genuine proplegs.

‘¢ While these two pairs of tubercles differ from the normal legs
in being much smaller and without a crown of curved spines, they
are protruded and actively engaged in locomotion, and in situation,
as well as the presence of the basal tufts, are truly homologous with
the normal abdominal legs.

<« When we turn to the work of Kowalevsky on the embryology
of Sphinx, we find that it has ten pairs of abdominal legs which
arise in the same manner as the thoracic or chitinous, jointed legs.
Of these ten pairs one-half disappear before hatching, leaving the
five pairs usually present. Itseems to us that the two pairs of rudi-
mentary legs in Lagoa are survivals of these embryonic temporary
feet. Although the proplegs are not popularly regarded as true
legs, they are undoubtedly so, as embryology proves. In the
lower Noctuide, <uch as Catocala, Aletia, etc., the larvz are at first
geometriform, having but three pairs of proplegs ; in the geometrids
there are but two pairs, while in the Cochlidiz there are not even
any rudimentary feet, thoracic or abdominal. As we have else-
where observed, the primitive lepidopterous larva must have had a
pair of feet on each abdominal segment, and may have descended
from Neuroptera-hke forms allied to the Panorpidze as well as
Trichoptera.’’

As this and the case of Chrysopyga are unique, no other lepidop-

281

terous Jarva* being known to possess more than five pairs of abdomi-
nal legs, when rearing the larva described above we again for the
third time carefully and repeatedly observed the caterpillars when
alive and watched the movements of the abdominal legs during
locomotion, and saw how the two rudimentary pairs, viz., those on
the second and seventh abdominal segments, were raised and put
down. With the triplet in hand, and allowing the larve to walk on
the edge of the tin box in which they had been confined, it was
easy to see that the above-mentioned proplegs were actively used,
performing the same general acts of extension and retraction of the
planta as the others, and like them serving to support the body.
The first pair, particularly, viz., those on the second abdominal
segment, were observed to be nearly as large and long as the normal
legs, and to be retracted and then extended, and applied to the
surface of the object on which the body was situated, in the same
manner as the pair directly behind which have crotchets ; and the
same was observed as regards the pair on the seventh segment.

(Fig. 7. a, dorsal, 4, lateral view of the larva of Lagoa crispata,
Stage V; ¢, ventral view of the same to show the seven pairs of
abdominal legs; @, front part of the same, still more enlarged to
show the differences between the first and second pair of abdominal
legs, also the under side of the head partly concealed by the pro-
thoracic hood ; and the three pairs of thoracic legs; ¢, a side view
of the hood, completely concealing the head; f,a tubercle with the
hairs and spines ; g, a normal abdominal leg with the crotchets ; 9’,
one of the legs on second abdominal segment, without the crotchets ;
h, side view of two abdominal segments showing the spiracle and
the lateral glandular process (4%.) behind it. Bridgham de/.)

To further prove to others, who might doubt whether these
mobile and extensile processes were really legs at all, I made care-
ful camera sketches of the alccholic specimens of the freshly hatched
larva (Fig. 1), and of one after the first molt (Fig. 5). In Fig. 7¢,
the first abdominal segment is seen to be completely apodous, but
the legs on segments 2 and 7 are seen to have a well-developed
extensile planta, though without crotchets, but bearing on the out-
side a pair of clavate sete just like those on the other legs. In
Stage II (Fig. 5) are seen the same structures; f/., the planta ;

* Exception, however, should be made of the larva of Phyllocnistis, and of Nepticula,
which possess nine pairs of abdominal legs, which however bear no hooks.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143. 27. PRINTED FEB. 7, 1894.

282

cr., crotchets of the fully developed abdominal legs ; s., the pair of
short clavate setee on the rudimentary legs of the second abdominal
segment. It thus appears that these legs are as well developed in
the freshly hatched larvee as in the last stage of larval life.

Their general appearance in the final stage is seen in Fig. 7c,
which represents the larva enlarged twice as seen from beneath ; at
g isa normal leg, with the narrow elliptical oval circle of crotchets
on the inner and hinder side ; g', one of the rudimentary legs with-
out crotchets; @, represents an enlarged view of the head entirely
covered above, with the three abdominal segments, and the first,
second and third abdominal segments, with the rudimentary leg
of the second segment, and the normal legs of the third somite.

The occurrence of temporary abdominal legs in
the embryos of insects in general is now well known
to students of embryology. Kowalevsky was the
first to figure what seemed to be such temporary ap-
pendages, in the embryo of Sphinx, though he does
not refer to these structures in the text of his work.
(Fig. 8, which is copied from his work). In subse-
quent researches by Hatschek on the embryology of
Porthesia chrysorrhea, they are neither mentioned
in the text nor figured. Tichomiroff, in his work on
the development of Bombyx mori, appears, however,
to have substantiated the truth of Kowalevsky’s
figures.

Tichomiroff represents in Fig. 26, p. 41, of his
work the primitive band of Bombyx mori, with the
temporary abdominal knob-like appendages devel-

Fig. 8.—Primi-
tive band or germ
of a Sphinx moth,
with the segments
indicated, and

oped on abdominal segments 2 to 10; they are in a
situation homologous with that of the anterior ap-
pendages, one on each side of the median line, and

their rudiment-
ary appendages.
¢, upper lip; at,
antenne; md,
mandibles; ma,
mx’, first and see-
ond maxillee ; 1, U,
1’, legs; al, abdo-
minal legs.

within the rudiments of the stigmata of the same
segments. Besides they are represented as developed
on the ninth and tenth segments, where there are no
traces of the stigmata. Owing in part to the rather
poor impression of the colored print of the wood.
cut, which is inserted in the text, these delicate rudiments are
faintly and obscurely printed. In Fig. 27, representing a more
advanced stage, it should be observed that the author omitted
to letter them; these rudimentary structures appeared to be sull

283

persistent, though not shown on segment 2, and not as distinct on
segments 3 to 5 as before; but on segments g and ro they seem to
stand out distinctly from the surface of the segment, though the
author did not letter them. In Fig. 28, representing a still more
advanced step, there are no traces of these deciduous structures, but
the normal abdominal legs (on segments 3-6 and 11) are distinctly
drawn and lettered.

Though with some hesitation I yet regarded the figures as repre-
senting these deciduous structures, but was unable to read the Rus-
sian text.

In his valuable treatise, Ueber die Polypodie bet Insekten-
embryonen (1888), Graber describes and figures the embryo of
Gastropacha quercifolia, stating that there were no traces of these
temporary structures to be seen. He also states that no temporary
abdominal legs were found either by Buetschli, or by Grassi, in
the honey bee. None have been observed in the Diptera by
Weismann and others. Hence it appears, up to this date, that they
only occur in the orders below those named above. Graber throws
some doubt on Kowalevsky’s observations, and states that Ticho-
miroff also did not discover them. On this account he is led to
consider the abdominal appendages of caterpillars as secondary
structures. |

In his interesting article, ‘‘ On the Appendages of the First Ab-
dominal Segment of Embryo Insects,’’ Mr. W. W. Wheeler * dis-
cusses this question, and gives a list of the species and orders of
insects in which these deciduous abdominal appendages have been
found. His list shows that in all the Orthoptera which have been
studied, pleuropodia, viz., the temporary appendages of the first
abdominal segment, and in general those of the succeeding seg-
ments, have been observed in the embryos of all the Orthoptera yet
examined. In the Hemiptera they have not been observed in three
species of Aphis, but have been detected in Cicada and Zaitha. In
the Coleoptera they apparently may or may not be present, for ex-
ample, they have been seen in Hydrophilus, Acilius, Melolontha and
Meloé, but not in the chrysomelid genera Lina and Doryphora. The
neuropterous genus Sialis and the trichopterous genus Neophylax
possess them. He also states that pleuropodia do not occur in the
honey-bee embryo studied by Buetschli and by Grassi.

* Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sciences, etc., viii, September 20, 1890.

284

Graber,* in his last more elaborate and carefully considered work,
however, refers more at length to Tichomiroff’s memoir on the silk-
worm, and quotes from him as follows: ‘* Wood-cut 26 represents
the stage in which two new structures become apparent, namely,
first, seven pairs of spiracles (from the second to the eighth ab-
dominal segment), and, second, the ventral legs. The last become
visible on all the segments, except the first. As regards the last
ones, I could not satisfy myself that they, as those Kowalevsky refers
to in Hydrophilus, arise out of a common germ with the outgrowth
bearing the stigmata. This outgrowth arises much later.’’

He adds further on (p. 42): ‘* Zhe ventral legs, which originally
appear on all the abdominal segments, with the exception of the
first, exist in their complete number only a short time. Five pairs of
them, namely those which belong to the third, fourth, fifth, sixth
and ninth segments, begin to develop rapidly, whzle the others
very imperceptibly disappear in the mass of the primitive hypodermis”

_ (Stammhypodermis).

On the other hand, in Bombyx mori, Selvaticot neither mentions
nor figures these deciduous organs. With these facts before him,
Graber concludes that the question of the presence or absence of a
continuous series of abdominal appendages in view of the extraor-
dinarily short and transitory development of these embryonic struc-
tures cannot be answered yes or no, and that the question whether
these processes correspond to true appendages, to primary or second-
ary appendages, cannot in the present state of our knowledge
be solved. He then goes on to state that in the embryo of Bom-
byx mort (in all the abdominal segments except the ninth and tenth)
faintly marked knob-like elevations are to be seen which may yet
(zmmerhin) be considered as the first indications of rudimentary ap-
pendages (see his Fig. 108). He adds that ‘‘they are much
fainter and are also less sharply defined than those figured by
Tichomiroff in wood-cut 26, although on the whole a return to the
view of the observer mentioned would be in accord with the
truth.’’{ In a word, the observations and figures of Graber appear
to confirm the text and figure of Tichomiroff, which we therefore

* Vergleichende Studien am Keimstreif der Insecten, von Vitus Graber, Wien, 1890.

+ Sullo sviluppo embrionale dei Bombicini. Annuario della r. stazione bacologica di
Padova, 1882.

{ This is a clumsy translation of Graber’s rather guarded endorsement of the correctness
of Tichomiroff’s observations, his expression being: ‘‘Obwohl sonst die betreffende
Wiedergabe seitens des genannten Forschers der Wirklichkeit sehr nahe kommt.’’

285

reproduce (Fig. 9). Graber also goes on to remark: ‘‘In gen-
eral, however, they appear to be completely homotypic (homotop)
with the thoracic jointed appendages, and in this respect there could
be no reason to call in question their homology with the abdom-
inal appendages of other insects, viz., the Coleoptera and Orthop-
tera.’’ Finally he concludes that in Bombyx mori ‘ the stage of
pantopody has only a very ephemeral duration.”’

In Pieris there are the same relations as in Bombyx, ‘‘ though
the persisting pantopody is more latent.’’ However, he did not
perceive any clear traces of the deciduous abdominal legs in Pieris,
nor after a reéxamination of his preparations of the primitive streak
of Gastropacha did he discover them in that form.

(Fig. 9. Primitive band of Bombyx mort, showing the temporary
legs on abdominal segments 2-11. After Tichemiroff. 4. Early
stage, in which the abdominal legs a/*-a/" appear. . Later stage
when they are very faint and all except a/*-a/° and a/” are about
to disappear. C. The persistent abdominal legs a/*-a/* and al”,
st®, s¢®, the 2d and 3d pair of stigmata. )

As regards the appearance of these structures in the Hymenop-
tera, Graber states that Buetschli, as is well known, makes the state-
ment that in the primitive streak of the honey bee at a certain
stage rudimentary appendages resembling tubercles arise on all the
abdominal segments ; though Grassi could not confirm this obser-
vation.* Very recently, moreover, Carriére reports that in the
wall beet at least on the first two segments, after the appearance
of the thoracic legs, ‘‘small tubercles’? become visible, which
however are ‘‘only of short duration.’’ In Hylotoma Graber
found no traces of these deciduous structures.

From the foregoing facts it would seem reasonable to infer that
the figures of Kowalevsky are in the main correct and that the
statements and figures of Tichomiroff have been substantiated by
Graber. Hence we would feel warranted in concluding that these
structures appear in the embryos of certain Lepidoptera and Hy-
menoptera, though much less distinct and more evanescent than in
the lower orders of insects. ;

If it should be eventually discovered that the deciduous append-

* Balfour, in his Comparative Embryology, accepts Buetschli’s statements without
questioning them (i, 338). See also Buetschli’s own statement on p. 537 of his essay :
* And after close observation of the following abdominal segments we perceived a very

faint similar outgrowth on all of them,”’ ete.
t+ Chaliccedoma muraria.

286

ages are not developed in all Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, and
not at all in the Diptera, this would show that the power of inherit-
ance of these ancestral traits had already in the first two of these or-
ders begun to wane ; that their evolution had begun ona higher plane
than the polypodous one of the Coleoptera, Orthoptera and ameta- '
bolous orders, and that the power was on the verge of extinction.
Hence their appearance in certain forms and the cessation of their
development in others may be accounted for, just as the scattered
and sparse distribution of certain animals, and the reduction in the
number of individuals is a preliminary step to their entire extinc-
tion.

The lack of these structures in dipterous embryos appears to con-
firm the view that they are the most extremely modified of all
insects. It should be borne in mind that such observations are ex-
ceedingly difficult to make, the parts are so delicate and faintly
developed, and yet when we take into account the fact that so
_ skillful an observer as Kowalevsky detected them, who was the pio-
neer in these studies, and who probably had no expectation of dis-
covering such structures, and whose mind was free from any theory
in the matter, it seems scarcely probable that he would have figured
them unless he had actually seen them.

Returning to the Lepidoptera and to Lagoa, with its rudimentary
abdominal legs of the second and seventh segments of the hind
body, we feel warranted in the present state of the subject in con-
cluding that they may represent a persistent condition of two pairs
of these deciduous abdominal legs. They are certainly of some
use to the creature, and thus have survived because they, in a par-
tial way to be sure, have been of service. The others have evi-
dently disappeared from disuse. And it would thus seem that the
Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera have descended, like other insects,
from polypodous ancestors.

If these conclusions are correct, then Lagoa, in respect to its ab-
dominal legs, even if we do not take into account other characters,
is a survivor of an ancient and very generalized type, and repre-
sents, as no other known caterpillar, the polypodous ancestor of all
Lepidoptera.

The other alternative is that, as Graber once claimed, the abdom-
inal legs of caterpillars are not primitive, but secondary and adap-
tive structures. Of course these questions can only be settled by
further researches. And it is possible that the similar abdominal

287

legs of larval Tenthredinidz and the abdominal tubercles of Diptera,
which, as in Chironomus and Ephydra, bear hooks, may, instead of
being new, adaptive characters, be the homologues of the jointed
appendages of the other regions of the body.

After reading Graber’s first paper on polypody in insect embryos,
and Wheeler’s essay, I took it that I should have to abandon the view
I expressed in my note in the American Naturalist in 1885, and it
occurred to me that the seven pairs of lateral processes on the first
seven segments of Lagoa might be so many pairs of pleuropodia.
These processes we may now consider.

THE EXTERNAL LATERAL ABDOMINAL GLANDULAR PROCESSES OF
LAGOA.

These are present at birth and in all the larval stages and are
represented by Figs. 10 to 13, also Figs. 1 and 5.

There are seven pairs of them, a pair to each of the first seven
abdominal segments. They are situated near to and directly
behind, but a little lower down than the spiracles and above the
infraspiracular tubercles. In fact, they occupy the exact position
of the evaginable glands of Hyperchiria to and Hemileuca maia, etc.
In shape they are elongated pyriform conical, or digitiform, being
slightly contracted at the base, and with two slight contractions to-
wards the free end, and they remind one of the shape of the append-
ages of insect embryos just when the joints are beginning to appear.
The free end is conical, rounded and, so far as I have been able to
discover, imperforate. They are not capable of being retracted
and appear to be permanently evaginate, since each pair along the
side of the abdomen is of the same general length and size, none
being wholly or in part retracted.

Fig. to. A, a camera drawing, represents the shape in the
third stage, just before molting ; sZ., spiracle ; the process was on
the point of being molted and is hollow. JZ represents the pro-
cess just after evagination, belonging to Stage IV. It is a little
longer and larger than before (both figures are drawn to the same
scale, X one-half inch 4 eyepiece) and filled with granules in the
middle, with narrow linear cells (Ay?) on the outside or cortex
which remind one of the linear cells in the pleuropodia of Blatta
figured by Wheeler (PI. i, Figs. 3, 4). It is to be observed that
thespiracle in this stage (sf.) is nearly twice as large as in Stage III

(A. sp.).

288

In the later stages these processes are concealed by the hairs.
They are invariably pale, whitish, the cuticle is smooth and naked,
not bearing any sete or hairs, differing in this respect from the
fleshy digitiform processes or soft tubercles of the larva of Attacus
and of certain Papilionide.

To examine the structure of these processes transverse sections of
the larvee of Stage I were made, and also blocks of the integument of
the full-fed larva bearing two of the processes were cut with the
microtome. Fig. 11 represents a transverse section of the body
of the larva before the first molt, involving the lateral grandular
processes on each side of an abdominal segment; zwz¢., intestine,
with the epithelial or mucous layer enclosing vacuoles, and m.,
the outer or muscular layer ; #., section of four of the Malphigian
or urinary tubes; 2, ¢., the ganglia; A7., the heart ; 7, cells of the fatty
body ; sc., thickened portion of the hypodermis (Ay.) lying under
the tubercles and modified into the setigenous cells; 7, the ab-
dominal legs ; #., muscles ; m’., a pair of muscles inserted near the
base of the lateral glandular processes ; cu¢., cuticle. The lateral
grandular processes (/ g f) are seen to be inserted a little below the
middle of the segment, and that they are permanently evaginated
is seen by the nature of the cuticle, which is rough and subspinu-
lated on the basal third. The process is filled with elongated
gland-cells.

Fig. 12. represents different sections, 1°-17 through the pro-
cess of one segment, and 2, 2°, 2” through another, the lettering as
before.

Longitudinal (A, B, C) and a transverse section (D) through
these processes in the fully fed larva are represented by Fig. 13.
At A the lumen (/) is a deep narrow cavity, with the secretion
(secr.) collected at the mouth of the cavity composed of a thin
mucous-like coagulated fluid, containing granules of varying de-
grees of fineness which take the stain readily. Outside of these are
collected fine zucle¢ (4, c), stained dark and enveloped in a slight
transparent pale protoplasmic envelope, which may be blood-cor-
puscles. The glandular cells themselves are simply modified
hypodermal cells, as seen at C, those at the free end of
the process are very much elongated, the nucleus however situated
near the periphery of the process. In some of the nuclei, indis-
tinct nucleoli are seen, and deeply stained granules, especially
around the periphery of the nuclei. The specimens had been in

289

alcohol for at least three years, so that the exact histological struct-
ure of the nuclei could not be clearly brought out, but in the gen-
eral appearance of these grandular cells, there is a general and
suggestive resemblance to those filling the pleuropodia, figured
and described by Wm. M. Wheeler.* At BZ is represented
a section on one side of the middle, but still showing the
spacious lumen. In the section represented by C the knife passed
through the process still nearer the outer edge and near the
base ; at C' three of the glandular cells with their large deeply
stained nuclei are drawn. A transverse section at D shows the
large lumen or cavity (/) (in all the preparations the hypodermis
and other cellular tissues have shrunk and separated widely from
the cuticle).

As to the function and homologies of these structures it is diffi-
cult to decide. I have never noticed that they give off any odor,
though they may prove to be repugnatorial; they are not visible in
the living insect, being concealed by the long dense hairs clothing
the body; they are not spraying organs as they are imperforate at
the end, not ending as the lateral eversible glands of Hyferchiria
to, etc., in a crateriform orifice.

There are three views which might be taken as to their homol-
ogies.

1. They may be merely fleshy papille like the short or long
tubercles of the larve of Attacine and of certain Papilionide.

2. They may be permanently everted glands, or osmateria,
which have by disuse lost their power of retraction, and their cra-
teriform opening, as well as the power of secreting a malodorous
fluid.

3. If it should ultimately be fully proved that Lepidoptera have
temporary abdominal appendages, and that the proplegs or so-
called abdominal legs, with crotchets, are merely secondary, adap-
tive structures, then these may be pleuropodia, or homologues of
the temporary embryonic abdominal legs of the lower insects.

The first view is unlikely because in the larva of Attacus
each lateral long horn-like process arises zz front of the spir-
acle, on the prothoracic and second abdominal segments, and
there are no such processes in a corresponding position on the other
abdominal segments. Moreover the elongated fleshy or soft, flexi-

+ Appendages of the first abdominal segment, etc., 1890.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. Xxx1I. 148.2 K. PRINTED FEB. 5, 1894.

290

ble tubercles in the larvee in question are of the same color as the
skin and are armed with fine hairs or sete.

The third view is one which is incapable at present of proof, so
that we are driven to provisionally regard these processes as per-
sistently evaginate repugnatorial, or at least scent glands or osmateria
which have possibly lost their power of ejecting a poisonous or
disagreeable spray or fluid, owing to the fact that by a change or
transfer of function the spine-like setz are poisonous, thus function-
ally replacing a set of organs originally actively repugnatorial.

It is also to be observed that the fact that in the Hemileucidz
these eversible glands are restricted to but two of the abdominal
segments, shows that in the ancestral forms these structures may

have been developed on all, or at least nearly all the abdominal
segments.

Lacoa, aS REGARDS ITs LARVAL, PuPAL AND IMAGINAL CHARAC-
TERS, A GENERALIZED TYPE.

We have already seen that in respect to its general appearance
the larva of Lagoa is in some respects intermediate between the
Cochliopodidz and Liparide. It resembles the former group in
the short thick body ; in the head being concealed by the pro-
thoracic hood, and in the venomous spines.

On the other hand it resembles the Liparide in the hairy body,
the hairs being finely plumose, a peculiarity of more common oc-
currence in the Liparidz than in the Cochliopodide.

As regards the cocoon, this is intermediate in form and texture
between that of Orgyia, etc., and the Cochliopodide, but it more
closely approaches that of the latter; it varies somewhat in density
in different species, being usually quite firm and dense like parch-
ment, nearly as much so as in those of the Cochliopodids, and also
approaching them in shape, being oblong-cylindrical, oval, con-
tracted at the anterior end, and with a separately spun lid, closing
the anterior end. As Dr. Lintner has shown with many interesting
details: ‘‘ The lid is woven by the caterpillar separately from the
rest of the cocoon, and is not a section cut from it after its com-
pletion ’’ (p. 142).

The pupa is much like that of Limacodes, etc., the integument
or cast cuticle being remarkably thin, and after the exit of the moth
the antennz and legs, as well as the wings, are free from the body ;

291

while the latter is split both down the back and along the under
side to the end of the thorax. Moreover when the moth escapes
from the pupa-skin, the latter is left with the head and thorax pro-
jecting out of the end of the cocoon.

As regards its imaginal or adult characters it is also intermediate
between the two families mentioned. In the short stout body and
short broad wings it has the habit of a Limacodes, rather than of
such Liparid genera as Porthesia, etc.

In the shape of the antennz and palpi it is about as near the
Liparidee as the Cochliopodide.

In respect to the denuded head, Lagoa is much more like Euclea
than the Liparide. The clypeusis rather long and narrow, similar
in shape to that of Euclea, though rather narrower, and is thus
more like that of the Cochliopodidz than that of the Liparidz, rep-
resented by Orgyia and the European Porthesta chrysorrhea, whose
denuded heads [ have examined. The epicranium and occiput
taken together (on the median line of the body) are about one-third
as long as the entire clypeus.

As regards the venation, Lagoa is decidedly nearer Euclea and
other Cochliopodids than the Liparidee (I have examined the vena-
tion of Orgyia and Parorgyia). Lagoa has the same wide costal
region of the fore wings as in Euclea, that of the Liparidz being
very narrow ; the five branches of the subcostal vein are thrown off
in nearly the same manner as those of Euclea and Limacodes. ‘The
discal veins and origin of the independent (sixth subcostal) are
almost precisely as in Euclea, and the four branches of the median
vein are also similar in their mode of origin, and unlike those of
Orgyia and Parorgyia.

In the hind wings, as in the Cochliopodide, there are ten veins,
in the Liparidze only nine; there are but two branches of. the sub-
costal vein; the third branch being detached, so that there are two
independent veins, one arising from the anterior, and the other
from the posterior discal vein. In the Liparidz mentioned there
is no independent vein at all. The four median veinlets have the
same peculiarities in their mode of origin as in Cochliopodids and
the same differences from the Liparide.

To sum up: in the superficial characters, of the imago, and in
having in the larva abdominal legs, Lagoa resembles the Liparide,
but in all its essential characters, those of the egg, larva, pupa and
imago, it belongs with the Cochliopodidz, except in the matter of

292

the presence of abdominal legs in the larva. On this account it

seems fairly entitled to be regarded as the type of an independent

group. We may either regard it as a generalized, ancient group of

Cochhopodidz, and refer it to a subfamily Zagoine, or we may ,
boldly remove it altogether from either of the two families men-

tioned and consider the genus as the representative of a distinct

family and designate the group by the name of Zagoide. This on

the whole seems to us to be perhaps the most judicious course to

pursue. At all events the insect is plainly enough an ancient,

ancestral, or generalized form. It is, so to speak, a primitive

Cochliopodid with larval abdominal legs. It lays eggs like those

of Limacodes, etc.; its head in the larval state is concealed from

above by the prothoracic hood ; its larval armature is more of the

. Cochliopodid type than Liparid; so are the pupal characters and

the nature of the cocoon; and the shape of the important parts of
the head and the essential features of the venation are overwhelm-

ingly Cochliopodid. Under these circumstances we feel justified in

regarding Lagoa as a most interesting ancestral form, and as afford-

ing arguments for considering the Bombyces asa whole as a general-

ized and ancestral group, and epitomizing the other higher Lepidop-

terous families somewhat as Marsupials do the placental orders of
mammals.

The genus is peculiar to North and South America, and may
rank with such forms as the colossal sloths, and certain American
vertebrate survivors of middle Tertiary times. In some respects it
is intermediate between the Saturniide, especially the higher Atta-
cine, and the Cochliopodide ; its clypeus, and the larva, approach
in some respects those of the Attacine.

[Nore. I find since this paper was read to the Society that, ac-
cording to Berg (MfisceHlaneca Lepidopterologica, 1883), Megalopyge
of Hiibner preoccupies Lagoa. Berg also founded the family
Megalopygide, of which Lagoidz is a synonym. |

‘PP PLIYIDT

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“pabunyua yonu

—_—_—_—_—_—_—_— >: nk V—_—_—_————————— EEE

Proceedings Amer, Philos, Soc, Vol, XXXII, No. 14%,

—<—<—_____.___!
rr

Plate I (Packard).

Proceedings Amer. Philos, Soc, Vel, XXXII; No, 143,

Packard del. :
Armature, etc., of Lagoa.

Plate II (Packard).

Proceedings Amer. Philos, Soc, Vol, XXXII, No. 143,

Packard det.
View from Side of Seventh Abdominal Segment of Lagoa, Stage II.

Plate III (Packard).

Proceedings Amer, Philos, Soc, Vol, XXXII, No, 149,

ee

TQ
SS "0S
SS Wess
Ws :

LA

nn
J. Bridgham del.

Later Larval Stages of Lagoa crispata.
Plate IV (Packard).

Vol, XXXII, No, 143,

Proceedings Amer, Philos, Soc,

—..

D

44) >> 4, dy
Z f
al

= Saw re

5.

ae

|

aa
EI

Gs

Cl

st%-

Larva, Stage Lf, and Embryo of Bombyx mori.

Plate V (Packard),

AKI, No. 14a;

Proceedings Amer, Philos, Soc,

|

At

‘
\
ny A SAY
mrnnpebdee nT RRA Ay,
‘

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Sx

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ee”

(Packard del.)
\ i Plate VI (Packard).

Section through an Abdominal Segment of a Larva of Lagoa in Stage I.

.
— eee SS SE ee ee Se ae ie aa a tt

Vol. XXX, No, 143,

Proceedings Amer, Philos. Soc,

Se Oe
a " OE 4

(Packard del.)

Sections through the lateral Glandular Processes of Lagoa.

Plate VII (Packard).

293

Wie Mohammed Kopriilii Vezter geworden.
Ein Guslarenlied der slavischen Mohammedaner im Herzogtum.

Aufgezeichnet, verdeutscht and erliutert, von Dr. Friedrich
S. Krauss, in Wien.

Unter den 190,000 Versen bosnischer, herzégischer und dalma-
tischer Volkepen meiner noch ungedruckten Sammlung, besitze ich
auch sechs gréssere Epen im Umfange von mehr als 6000 Versen,
die die Eroberung des Ungarlandes bis hart an Niederésterreich
durch die Tiirken zum Vorwurf der Behandlung haben und aus-
schliesslich die Kampfe und Heldentaten des Reorganisators der
damals dem Zerfall nahen Tiirkei, Mohammed K6priiliis schildern.

Wie den Freunden meiner wissenschaftlichen, ethnographischen
Arbeiten bekannt ist, werden solche Epen von Leuten aus dem
Volke zu einer Geige, die Gus/en (plur.) heisst, vorgetragen, wonach
die Sanger Guslaren (Fiedelleute, Geiger) benannt werden. Es sind
dies in den allerseltensten Fallen und nur ausnahmweise selbststandige
Dichter, sondern einzig und allein Recitatoren von Epen, die sich
durch miindliche Ueberlieferung seit Jahrhunderten im Volke bis
auf unsere Tage erhalten haben.

Bosnier und Herzoglander haben unter der Fahne des Islam an
der Niederwerfung Ungarn teilgenommen. Die Biliite der slavi-
schen Jugend war inden Reihen der Janicaren vertreten. Vor
dreihundert Jahren mochte es eine Zeitlang scheinen, dass halb
Westeuropa bis vor die Tore von Wien der Serbisirung unterliegen
werde. Waren jene kriegerischen Bewegungen wahrend zweier
Jahrhunderte von einer intensiveren kulturellen Str6mung des Sla-
ventums begleitet gewesen, wie dies nicht der Fall war, so hatte
wahrscheinlich ein Teil Europas ein politish ganz anderes Aus-
sehen.

Eingeleitet ward die Bewegung von einem der bedeutendsten tiir-
kischen Staatsmanner aller Zeiten, von dem greisen Mohammed
K6priilii. Sein Auftreten war fiir Jahrhunderte folgenschwer, und
es ist kein Wunder, dass die Nachkommen jener Krieger, die unter
seiner Fiihrung gekampft, von jenen fiir sie gliicklichen Tagen noch
immer singen und sagen.

Es ist bewunderungwiirdig, mit welcher Treue das Gediachtniss

294

des Volkes ohne schriftliche Behelfe den Gang der Ereignisse jener
Zeiten im Grossen und Ganzen festgehalten hat. Zum Vergleiche
gebe ich im Commentar die zuverlassigen Berichte zeitgendssischer
osmanischer und abendlandischchristlicher Historiographen nach
Hammer-Purgstall und Salamon, bzw. dem Siebenbiirger Kraus.

Wann ich in der Lage sein werde, mein grosses Werk iiber K6p-
riilii zu ediren, weiss ich noch nicht. Wass ich hier darbiete, ist
bloss ein Probestiick, das ich eigens zur 15o0jahrigen Jubelfeier der
‘“« American Philosophical Society,’’ deren Mitglied ich zu sein die
Ehre habe, iibersetzte. Die Publikation des slavischen Textes, die
ohne eingehenden philologischen Apparat nicht angezeigt ware,
behalte ich mir fiir mein Buch vor. Bemerken muss ich jedoch,
um jeder Missdeutung vorzubeugen, dass sich die Verdeutschung
wortlich an das Original anschliesst. .

Lehrreich ist unser Lied als ein Beispiel, wie sich grosse Ereignisse
in der Vorstellung eines auf tiefer Culturstufe befindlichen Volkes
widerspiegeln und als authentisches Zeugniss fiir volktiimliche
Sitten und Gebrauche, Meinungen und Anschauungen. In dieser
Hinsicht sind die siidslavischen Guslarenlieder fiir den Ethnogra-
phen nicht minder wertvoll als die altassyrischen, altgriechischen,
malayischen, finnischen und turkotatarischen Volkepen. Unserem
Liede wohnt zum Ueberflusse auch ein nicht geringer poetischer
Gehalt inne, weshalb ich der Hoffnung Raum gebe, es werde als
bescheidene Festgabe eines Vereingenossen aus weiter Ferne, dem es
zu seinem lebhaften Bedauern nicht méglich ist bei den Feierlich-
keiten pers6nlich anwesend zu sein, eine freundliche Aufnahme
finden.

Von KOprRULU, DEM VALI IN TRAVNIK.

In Krankheit fiel der Sultan Suleiman

in seiner weissen Herrscherstadt Istambol

auf seinem Throne wohl in seinem Reiche

am dritten Tag des Monats Ramazan,

5 wohl auf dem Schoosse Ibrahims des Sohnes.

Er krankelte den ganzen Ramazan.

Am Abend vor des Bajramfestes Anbruch,

da sprach zu ihm der Sultan Ibrahim:

—‘*O hor’, mein Vater Sultan Suleiman !

1o du krankelst nun den ganzen Ramazan ;

—-
os

r5

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

295

heut Abends vor des Bajramfestes Anbruch,
was meinst du nun, wirst du die Krankheit meistern ?
wie? oder meinst du, dass der Tod dir naht ?”’
Darauf bemerkte ihm Su!tan Suleiman:
—‘‘ Mein lieber Sohn, o Sultan Ibrahim !
bei Gott, die Krankheit iibersteh’ ich nimmer,
im Augenblicke werd’ ich dir versterben !”’
Da spricht zu ihm der Sultan Ibrahim :
—‘°O liebster Vater, Sultan Suleiman !
was schafft dir soviel Leid in deinem Sterben ?
hat Leid dein Herz um diesen Ort des Heiles ?
tut leid dir deine ganze Kaiserherrschaft ?
tut leid dir um die Lalen und Ridzalen,
um deine Stellvertreter, die Veziere ?
oder um deine neun erwahlten Frauen ?
oder um mich den Sohn, den zarten Jiingling ?”
Da sagt zu ihm der Sultan Suleiman :
—‘*QO du mein Sohn, o Sultan Ibrahim !
ich trag’ kein Leid um diesen Ort des Heiles,
und kenn’ kein Leid um meine Kaiserherrschaft
und hab’ kein Leid um Lalen und Ridzalen
noch um Veziere, meine Stellvertreter,
noch um die neun erwahlten Sultaninnen,
auch nicht um dich, mein Sohn, den zarten Jiingling !
Doch mir, o Sohn, am meisten liegt am Herzen:
drei beste Stadte sind zuriickgeblieben
in Kafirhanden, aber nicht in meinen ;
die eine Erlau und die and’re Ofen,
dazu Seméndra tieferwarts von Belgrad.—
Auch tut’s mir leid um KGpriilii den Edlen !
Das war ein alter Diener seines Herrn !
Verrater hatten ihn bei mir verlaumdet,
ich hab’ ihn dann geschickt in die Verbannung
weit iiber’s Meer an hundert Lagerrasten ;
zwoOlf Jahre sind seit damals schon verflossen,
und darum werd’ ich nun zu fiiih versterben !
Doch horch der Rede, Ibrahim, mein Sohn!
Sobald ich hier auf deinem Schooss’ entschlumm’ re,
erscheinen hier die Hodzen und die Hadzi,
die Mollah auch, es sammeln sich die Kadi ;

55

60

65.

7°

()

80

85

se}e)

296

ausstatten wird man mich, o Sdhnchen Ibro,
forttragen wird man mich, o Sohn, zum Grabmal,
zum Denkmal auf dem Grab des heil’gen Ali,

zum Inschriftstein der heiligen Tatim,

und dort, mein Sohn, dort wird man mich begraben,
und auch ein Grabmal wird man auf mich setzen.

Du aber flieh davon von meinem Grabmal !—
Und wie du kommst zum Thron und Reichpalaste
verschliess dich in den festen Kafig, Sohn !

Bald kommen nach die Hodzen und die Hadzi
und rufen dich,—du 6ffne ihnen nicht !

Dann kommen nach die Mollah und die Kadi
und rufen dich,—du 6ffne ihnen nicht !

Dann kommen nach die Lalen und Ridzalen
und rufen dich,—du 6ffne ihnen nicht !

Dann, Sohn, dann kommen alle die Veziere,
die hier mir Dienst geleistet in Istambol,

und rufen dich,—du 6ffme ihnen nicht!

Letzt kommen auch die Janicarenbaschen ;
und rufen dich die Janicarenbaschen :
<¢O Sultan Ibrahim, Prophetenspréssling !

Magst du selbst wus die Thitre nicht eréffnen ?”’
Dann endlich riegele auf des Kafigs Thiire ;
dich nehmen drauf die Janicarenbaschen

und hiillen dich in des Propheten Mantel,

und stiilpen dir aufs Haupt die goldene Miitze
und setzen dich auf meinen Platz hinauf !
Traun ! sie erheben dich zum neuen Kaiser !

Es werden alle Lalen und Ridzalen
und die Veziere und die Stellvertreter,
gefiihrt vom Sigelhiiter, hier erscheinen,
an seiner Seite Pascha Seidi.

Das wird wohl gut drei weisse Tage wahren,
und Wunder nimmt’s die Lalen und Ridzalen,
was wohl der neue Kaiser wird verordnen,
was fiir Erlasse nun er wird verkiinden.

Aufjammernd wird der Sigelhiiter fragen :
—‘‘O Gnade, Kaiser, o Prophetensprossling !
was spannst du uns drei weisse Tag’ auf Folter!
gewahr uns hier Bescheid nach Lust und Liebe !”’

297

Dann, Kaiser, sprich mit leiser Stimme also:
‘« Wer unter Euch ist K6épriilii der Vezier ?’’
Zur Antwort gibt dir wohl der Sigelhiiter :
‘¢ Hier weilt dir nicht Herr K6priilii der Vezier ;
95 der Vezier ist schon hoch betagt bei Jahren,
der Vezier weilt auf seinem Meierhofe.’’
Darauf entgegne du dem Sigelhiiter :
‘¢ Den Vezier her, sonst hau’ ich dir das Haupt ab!”’
Der Siegelhiiter wird darob erschrecken,
too er wird betroffen, fassunglos verstummen ;
nun wird dir sagen Pascha Seidi :
—‘‘O Gnade, Kaiser, o Prophetenspréssling !
o weh, dein Vater selbst hat ihn verbannt,
ach! iiber’s Meer an hundert Lagerrasten ;
105 zwo6lf Jahre sind seitdem schon hingeflossen.
Gewdahr uns einen Ferman mit dem Namen,
gewahr uns auch die Frist von vierzig Tagen,
wir schaffen dir den Vezier her zur Stelle !’’
O Sohn, erteil den Ferman mit dem Namen,
110 sie werden dir den Hodza her verschaffen.
Und wann dir anlangt K6priilii der Vezier,
sprich so zu ihm, mein Séhnchen Ibrahim:
‘*O alter Lala meines teu’ren Vaters !
mein Vater tauschte diese Welt mit jener,
115 doch liess bei mir er einen Gruss fiir dich.
GehG6rt mir auch das ganze Kaiserreich,
ist die Verwaltung, Képriilii, doch dein!
Lass Erlau uns erobern und auch Ofen,
dazu Seméndra tieferwarts von Belgrad !
120 erfiillen wir des Vaters Wunsch und Willen !”’
Da tauschte friih’ er diese Welt mit jener.
O weh! so sprach der Sultan Suleiman ;
o weh! er starb auf seines Sohnes Schoosse,
und jammernd schluchzte Sultan Ibrahim.

hy *
125 Essammeln sich sie Hodzen und die HadzZi,
es kommen an die Mollah und die Kadi,

sie statten aus den wackersten der Kaiser
und tragen fort den Kaiser hin zum Grabmal,

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXx1I. 143. 2L. PRINTED FEB 5, 1894.

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ja wohl, zum Grabesmal des heil’gen Ali,
zum Saulenstein der heiligen Fatim.

Sie bargen Sultan Suleiman ins Grab
und stellten iiber ihm ein Grabmal auf.

Da floh davon der Sultan Ibrahim
und schloss sich ein in seinem festen Kafig.
Nun kommen her die HodZen und die HadZi
und rufen ihn, er soll die Thiir’ erdffnen,
doch mag er ihnen nicht die Thiir erdffnen.

Dann rufen ihn die Mollah und die Kadi,
er6ffnen mag er ihnen nicht die Thiir.

Drauf rufen ibn die Lalen und Ridzalen,
selbst ihnen riegelt er nicht auf die Thiir.

Es nah’n die Stellvertreter, die Veziere,
er6ffnen may er ihnen nicht die Thiir.

Letzt rufen ihn die Janicarenbaschen :
—‘*O Sultan Ibrahim, Prophetenspréssling !
magst du selbst ws die Thiire nicht erdffnen ?”’
Nun schloss sich auf der Sultan Ibrahim ;
es nahmen ihn die Janicarenbaschen,
und hiillten ihn in des Propheten Mantel
und stiilpten auf sein Haupt die gold’ne Miitze
und trugen ihn zum Thron und Reichpalaste
und setzten ihn wohl auf den Kaiserstuhl,
und, traun, erhoben ihn zum neuen Kaiser!

Zum Divan nah’n die Lalen und Ridzalen
und die Veziere, seine Stellvertreter,
an ihrer Spitze steht der Sigelhiiter,
an seiner Seite Pascha Seid.

So harrten sie vor ihm drei weisse Tage,
und bald geraten sie in machtig Wundern :

‘¢ Was wird der neue Kaiser uns verordnen ?
‘¢ was fiir Erlasse wird er uns verkiinden ?”’

Aufjammernd sprach zuletzt der Sigelhiiter :
—‘‘O gib Bescheid uns, Kaiser von Istambol !”’
Nun sprach das Wort der Sultan Ibrahim :

—‘‘ Wer ist mir hier Herr K6priilii der Vezier ?”’
Darauf entgegnet ihm der Sigelhiiter:

—‘¢ Fiirwahr, der Vezier ist schon sehr gealtert,
er weilt auf seinem grossen Meierhofe !’’

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Darauf zu ihm der Sultan Ibrahim:
—‘‘* Den Vezier her, sonst hau’ ich dir das Haupt ab !’”’
Vor Furcht erbebend steht der Sigelhiiter
und schweigt beklommen, spricht kein einzig Wortchen.
Da nahm das Wort der Pascha Seidi:
—‘‘O Gnade, Kaiser, o Prophetensprdéssling !
Dein Vater schickte fort ihn in Verbannung,
weit iiber’s Meer an hundert Lagerrasten,
zwOlf Jahre sind seitdem schon hingeflossen.
Gewahr uns einen Ferman mit dem Namen,
gewahr’ uns eine Frist von vierzig Tagen,
wir schaffen dir den Vezier her zur Stelle ;
dann sitzst du da, dein Vezier steht vor dir!’’
Der Kaiser gab den Ferman mit dem Namen
und liess auch eine Frist von vierzig Tagen.

*

Es nahm der Pascha Seidi den Ferman,
nach allerwarts zerstiebt sodann der Divan.
Schnellfiissig rennt der Pascha Seidi,
er rennt in das Tatarenheim des Kaisers
und fragt nach Idris, nach dem Hof-Tataren,
dem allerflinksten Hofcourrier des Kaisers.
Drauf gibt er ihm den Ferman mit dem Namen,
und kiisst und herzt auf beide Wangen ihn:
—‘‘O Idris, sei durch Gott mir wohlverbriidert !
renn schleunigst, such mir auf den Ko6priilii
und fiihr’ ihn her vor unsern wackeren Kaiser !
Du hast, o Sohn, die Frist von vierzig Tagen !”’
Da hieng sich Idris um die Reisetasche,
verbarg den Ferman wohl in seiner Tasche
und schwang im Nu sich auf das schnelle Ross.
Ei, rennt da hurtig der Tatar des Kaisers
und kommt gerannt zur dicken Flut des Meeres,
am Meergestade steigt er ab vom Rosse.
Ein schnelles Ruderschiff empfieng ihn allda,
drin liess sich der Tatar des Kaisers nieder
und schlug mit Handen auf den jungen Schiffer :
—‘‘ Fahr rascher zu, sonst hau’ ich dir das Haupt ab!”’
Ei, schnell durchfurcht das Schiff des Meeres Wellen !

300

Sobald als er das dicke Meer verlassen
und auf der trock’nen Erde Fuss gefasst,
so schwang er sich auf’s vorbereitet Résslein
210 und jagte hin dem kalten Meer entlang.
Friihzeitig war’s, noch vor der lieben Sonne,
als seine dunklen Augen dort erschauten,
als sie am Strand des kiihlen Meers gewahrten
wohl einen hochbetagten, alten Herrn ;
215 der Bart so weiss und silvergrau das Haupt
und seinen K6rper schmiickt ein griiner Rock ;
er schiirzt auf seinen Armen auf die Aermel,
um just die tiirk’sche Waschung vorzunehmen.
Da rief ihm der Tatar den tiirk’schen Gruss zu.
220 Der Greis bedankte sich mit Gegengruss
und Thranen perlten iiber seinen Bart,
so wie von Tannenzweigen Regentropfen.
Darob sich wundert der Tatar des Kaisers
und halt im Lauf sein schnelles Résslein an:
225 —‘‘Ehrwiird’ger Greis, so lieb dir beide Welten,
warum soviel vergiesst du grause Thranen ?”’
Aufjammernd gab zur Antwort ihm der Greis :
—‘‘Ach weh! wie sollt’ ich keine denn vergiessen !
zwolf Jahre sind schon wohl dahingeflossen,
230 dass keinen Sultanboten ich erschaut,
noch einen Sultanferman an dem Boten !
Wie viele hab’ ich selber ausgefertigt
am Hof des Kaisers Sultan Suleimans !
Doch sprich, wie weit bemiihst du dich, mein Sohn,
235 und tragst den Ferman, jagst die schnellen Pferde?”’
Da spricht der Mann: ‘Ich such’ den K6priilii !’’
Darauf bemerkt der Greis mit leiser Stimme:
—‘* Der Vezier K6priilii, der bin ich selber !”’
Vom Rosse schwang sich der Tatar des Kaisers
240 und zog herausden kaiserlichen Ferman
und iibergab ihn Vezier K6priilii.
Der Vezier kiisste gleich dreimal den Ferman
und liess ihn nieder auf den griinen Rasen.
Dann nahm er vor mit sich die tiirk’sche Waschung.
245 Sonach entfaltet er des Kaisers Ferman
und liest ihn und vergiesst dariiber Thranen.

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Der Ferman mit dem Namen sagt ihm namlich :
‘OQ K6priilii, du kaiserlicher Katmpe,
‘¢komm schnellstens nach Istambol in die Stadt !’’
Es sprang sofort der Vezier auf die Beine
und gieng zum Schiff hinab mit dem Tataren ;
sie setzten sich ins schnelle Schiff hinein.
Der Schiffer gab dem Schiff den schnellsten Lauf.
Sie schifften gliicklich tiber’s dicke Meer,
und als sie auf das trock’ne Land gelangten,
so schwangen sie sich auf die feisten Pferde.
Es rennt viel schneller der Tatar des Kaisers,
es rennt ihm nach der Vezier K6priilii,
er rennt und rennt und schreit auf den Tataren :
—‘‘Gemach, gemach, o Idris Hof-Tatare !
o meine Knochen sind im Leib zerbrochen,
und meine Kleidung ist mir auch zerschlissen,
den Dienst versagen mir auch meine Hande,
und beide Fiisse sind mir abgefallen,
ich kann mich nicht behaupten mehr, o Sohn !”’
Darauf entgegnet der Tatar des Kaisers:
—‘* Ach tummele dich, o Herr, so Gott dir lieb ist!
wofern mir vierzig Tage Frist verstreichen
und du in Stambol in der Stadt nicht anlangst,
so fliegt von meinem Leib das Haupt herab !”’
Drauf sagt zu ihm der Vezier K6priilii:
—‘* Sei ohne Furcht, o Idris Hof-Tatare,
solange mit dir der Vezier Kopriilii!
o Tropf, dich sabelt nicht der Kaiser nieder,
o junger Freund Tatar, schon mir zu Liebe,
und bleibst du aus auch volle hundert Tage !’’
So sprachen sie und ritten ihre Rosse,
bis sie nach Stambol in die Stadt gelangten.

aR

Sobald der Vezier vor den Kaiser hinkam,
so flog er zu des Kaisers Rockschooss hin,
der Kaiser aber fieng ihn bei der Hand:
—‘ Halt ein, halt ein, du mein getreuer Diener,
du brauchst dich meinem Kleide nicht zu nahen !
mein Vater, als er diese Welt vertauschte,
so liess er einen Gruss bei mir fiir dich.

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Wohl mein ist insgesammt das Kaiserreich,
doch dein ist die Verwaltung in Istambol !
Erobern miissen Erlau wir und Ofen,

dazu Seméndra tieferwarts von Belgrad !
‘¢O Jammer, Herr, drei kaiserliche Stadte,
und alle drei in Kafirhand verblieben !’’

Drauf tauschte friih’ er diese Welt mit jener.
Lass uns des Kaisers Stadte drei erobern,
erfiillen wir’s aus Liebe fiir den Toten !”’

Der Kaiser zieht heraus das Kaisersigel,
reicht dar das Sigel K6priilii dem Vezier,
dass ihm der Vezier Sigelhiiter sei.

Es schlagt das Sigel aus Herr Kopriilii ;

denn schon dreimal besass er’s Kaisersigel,

und hatt’ es auch dreimal zuriickgestellt.

—‘‘ Halt ein, halt ein, o liebster Padischah !

es halt nicht leicht den Blick auf dich zu werfen,
geschweige denn mit dir zu unterreden,

doch heute gilt’s ein mannlich Wort zu reden.

O Padischah ! dein Sigel nehm’ ich nimmer,
und nimmer mag ich etwas dir verwalten,
wofern du meinen Willen nicht erfiillst,
den ich, o Kaiser, dir nun sagen werde

Darauf zu ihm der Sultan Ibrahim :
—‘‘O sag’s heraus, mein Vezier K6priilii,
nur frisch heraus, was dir am Herzen liegt !’’

Da spricht zu ihm Herr KG6priilii der Vezier :

—‘* Willst du Genehmigung mir hier gewahren,

und was du sagst, auch nimmer widerrufen ?”’

—‘‘So sei’s, bei Gott, o Vezier Képriilii,

der Kaiser spricht’s,—dem Kaiser ziemt nicht Liige
Da hub der Vezier also an zu sprechen :

—‘‘ Gewahr mir freie Hand auf vierzig Tage,

was ich auch tu, dass du’s mir nicht verkiirzest !’’

Er gab ihm freie Hand auf vierzig Tage,
er mOge tun, was immer ihm gefalle.

ok ok

1?

Nun kehrt zuriick der Vezier KG6priilii
und ruft herbei den Pascha Seid1: ‘
—‘‘ Wohlan, so fiihr’ mir her der Rufer vier !’’

{77

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Es kamen hin sogleich der Rufer vier.
Da sagte laut Herr K6priilii zu ihnen :
—‘‘ Vier Herolde, so horcht auf meine Worte:
zieht aus und ruft in Stambol in der Stadt :
«¢ Soviel es immer gibt in Stambol Lalen,
‘¢soviel als Lalen und soviel Ridzalen,
‘< dazu Veziere, Kaiserstellvertreter,
‘© vor allen doch der alte Achmedaga,
‘¢ das Oberhaupt von allen den Vezieren,
‘«« das Alterhaupt von allen den Ridzalen,
«« der hdéher steht denn alle and’ren Lalen,—
‘¢in die Moschee des Kaisers, in die alte,
‘“in die Moschee, die alte, solt Ihr kommen !
‘‘Es traf der Kaiser solcher Art Verfiigung ;
«*denn einen Kriegzug will der Kaiser tiihren,
‘¢hier muss er Gold verteilen unter Euch !”’
Vier Herolde nun liefen fort behende,
drei weisse Tage lang erscholl ihr Rufen,
sie kamen dann zum Vezier Képriilii:
—‘*O KOpriilii, du alter Kaiserdiener,
in der Moschee, der alten, sind sie alle!’’
Da sprang er auf, der Vezier K6priilii,
und rief zusammen dreissig Henkerknechte
und obenan den Henkerbascha Ibro.
Zu ihm nun sprach der Vezier Kopriilii:
—‘‘O Henkeroberhaupt von dreissig Henkern,
so lass uns geh’n zu der Moschee, der alten ;
wir bleiben steh’n vor der Moschee, der alten ;
wer auch drin weilt in der Moschee, der alten ;
und heil aus der Moschee herauskommt, Ibro,
und heil sein Haupt auf seinen Schultern forttragt,
dann wird dein Haupt dir abgesabelt, Ibro!
Drum iibergeh’ in Schonung Niemands Haupt !”’
Sie stiegen zur Moschee, zur alten, nieder.
Aufstellung nahmen dort die dreissig Henker,
an ihrer Spitze Henkerbascha Ibro,
und ihm zur Seite Vezier K6priilii.
Zur Thiire sandten sie nun einen Herold,
der Herold rief vor der Moschee, der alten:
—‘‘O kommt heraus aus der Moschee, der alten !

ios)
lon
On

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Der Kaiser ruft euch aufs Gestade tauig !’’

Es drangten sich die Lalen und Ridzalen

und die Veziere, Kaiserstellvertreter ;

Trat wer heraus aus der Moschee, der alten,

flugs stand nicht mehr sein Haupt auf seinen Schultern.

Verlassen hatten alle die Moschee,
nur einer fehlt, der Lala Achmedaga,
der Obristlala aller der Ridzalen,
das Alterhaupt von allen den Vezieren.

Da schrie laut auf der Vezier K6priilii:
—‘‘So geh’ hinein denn, Henkerbascha Ibro,
geh’ mal hinein in die Moschee, die alte,
heraus mir fiihr’ den Lala Achmedaga !”’

Man hoért den Lala Achmedaga wimmern :
—‘*‘O Henkerhauptmann, sei durch Gott mein Sohn!
o raub mir von den Schultern nicht das Haupt,
dann geh’ ich schon vor die Moschee, die alte !’’

Darauf entgegnet Henkerhauptmann Ibro:
—‘‘ Geh’ frohen Mut’s, 0 alter Achmedaga !”’

Es schlich heraus der alte Achmedaga,
sein Bart ist weiss und silbergrau sein Haupt,
kein Zahn ist mehr in seinem Mund vorhanden,
auf seinem Kopf ein alter weisser Turban.

Den Sabel schwang der Henkerbascha Ibro,
er schwang den Sabel, schlug ihm ab das Haupt ;
es fiel sein Haupt in’s griine Gras hinab
und von dem Haupte fiel herab der Turban.

Am Haupte sieh! die Kreuze und Marien,
Dazu am Haupte Kreuze in Quadraten !

Dem Vezier K6priilii entstiirtzten Thranen
und Achmedagas Haupt vom Boden hob er auf:
—‘‘ Gedankt sei Gott, der heut’ge Tag gepriesen,
ich sah das Haupt des alten Achmedaga !

Der da, der hat gemacht mich zum Verbannten
durch Ranke bei dem Sultan Suleiman,

weit iiber’s Meer an hundert Lagerrasten,
zwolf Jahre sind seitdem schon hingeflossen !

Der Sultan Suleiman, der ist verschieden,
und hinterblieben Sultan Ibrahim.

Der Sultan Ibrahim, der liess mich kommen ;

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ich werde seinem Vater Dienste leisten,
dem Toten werd’ ich eine Lieb’ erweisen !’’

* ok

Dann lief er hin zum wackersten der Kaiser,

das tote Haupt, das trug er in den Handen

und warf es hin vor Sultan Ibrahim ;

es kollerte ganz nah zum Knie des Kaisers ;

—‘‘ Hier, Kaiser, schau dir deinen Erzverrater !

dass, Kaiser, ist dir mein geschwor’ner Feind !

Der wehrt uns ab von Erlau und von Ofen

und von Seméndra tieferwarts von Belgrad !

Er war’s der mich geschickt in die Verbannung.

So wollt’ es Gott, er musst’ sein Haupt verlieren !
Nun werd’ ich dir mit meinem Rate dienen

und deinem Vater eine Lieb’ erweisen.

Schreib’, Kaiser, einen Ferman mit dem Namen!’’

Da schrieb der Kaiser einen Namenferman.

Noch spricht zu ihm der Vezier K6priilii:

—‘*O send’ ihn ab ins lehm’ge Land der Bosna

nach Sarajevo in die weisse Stadt,

zu Handen Rustanbegs des Glaubenstreiters,

ausheb’ er Mann und Ross im Bosnaland !

Und leg’s in deinem Ferman ihm ans Herz,

den einz’gen Sohn der Mutter nicht zu nehmen,

ins kaiserliche Heer ihn nicht zu pressen ;

auch jenen, der sich kiirzlich erst beweibt,

er soll auch solchen Mann in Ruh’ belassen ;

denn jammerklagend bleiben sonst die Miitter,

und junge Edelfrau’n verbleiben weinend

und fluchen a7, o Sultan Ibrahim

und jenem Mann, der solches angeordnet ;

du hast’s befohlen, angeordnet ich.

Ein schlimmer Segen kénnte heim uns suchen !

Er soll das ganze Bosnaland erheben,

von jedem Dorf je zwei bewehrte Mannen,

von jedem Markt je sieben reis’ge Kampen.

Dann soll das machtgewalt’ge Heer, o Kaiser,

auszieh’n, o Sultan, unter Temesvar,

dort wo die Save in die Donau miindet

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. xxxII. 143. 2M. PRINTED JAN. 30, 1894.

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und unterhalb der weissen Stadt von Ofen ;
vor allem wollen Ofen wir erobern.
Jetzt aber schreib noch einen andren Ferman,
und lass ihn abgeh’n in das Land des Herzogs
zu Handen Ljubovits des edlen Begs.

Er soll das ganze Herzogland erheben,
nur nehm’ er nicht den einz’gen Sohn der Mutter,
noch jenen, der sich kiirzlich erst beweibt ;
sonst jammern alle Miitter ach und wehe,
und junge Frauen brechen aus in Thranen
und fluchen dir, dem Kaiser von Istambol,
und jenem Mann, der solches angeordnet ;
von dir ist der Befehl, von mir die Weisung ;
ein schlimmer Segen kénnte heim uns suchen !
Wann er das ganze Herzogland erhebt,
von jedem Dorfe nehm’ er je zwei Mannen,
von jedem Markt je sieben reis’ge Kampen.”’
Der Kaiser machte nun den Ferman fertig.
Da nahm das Wort der Vezier Képriilii:
—‘‘ Geduld ein wenig, Sultan Ibrahim !
bis ich die zwei Fermane abgesendet,
den einen g’radenwegs ins lehm’ge Bosna
nach Sarajevo in die weisse Stadt,
den and’ren aber in das Herzogland.”’

Es eilt in das Tatarenheim des Kaisers
der Vezier, riistet junge zwei Tataren
und sendet ab des Kaisers zwei Fermane.

ok ¥ *k

Es zogen fort die schnellen zwei Fermane.
Der eine stieg hinab nach Stadt Sarajevo
zu Handen Rustanbegs des Glaubenstreiters.
Er schreibt das Aufgebot ins Bosna Kotland,
doch heischt er nicht nach dem Geheiss des Fermans
von jedem Dorf nur je zwei reis’ge Mannen,
von jedem Markt je sieben reis’ge Kampen ;
er heischt vielmehr nach eigenem Belieben,
von jedem Dorf je sieben reis’ge Mannen,
dazu von jedem Markt je sieben Fahnlein.
Auch bot er auf den einz’gen Sohn der Mutter
und auch den Mann, der jiingst sich erst beweibt.

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Der zweite stieg hinab ins Land des Herzogs.
Es bietet auf das Heer Beg Ljubovié
und halt sich auch nicht ans Geheiss des Fermans ;
er schreibt vielmehr nach eigenem Belieben
und heischt vom Dorf je sieben reis’ge Mannen,
dazu von jedem Markt je sieben Fahnlein.

So bot er auf den einz’gen Sohn der Mutter
und auch den Mann, der kiirzlich sich beweibt.

aoe

Dann sprach das Wort der Vezier K6priilii:
—‘*O hér’ mich, Kaiser, hér’ mich Padischah, an!
im Bosnaland, ist immerdar ein Notstand
und die BoSnjaken sind bediirft’ge Helden.

Ach, tatst du, Kaiser, meinen Rat befolgen,
entsenden Geld fiir sie zur Reisezehrung,
dass jeder folgen kénnt’ im Heereszuge !’’
Gleich macht der Kaiser bares Geld bereit,
Maultiere lasst er, Freund, damit beladen
und schickt sie in die Stadt nach Sarajevo
gerad zu Rustanbeg, dem Glaubenstreiter,
dass jeden Helden er damit beteile,
auf dass es jedem méglich sei zu folgen.

Es zogen fort aus Stambol aus der Stadt
nach Sarajevo all’ die Maultierlasten.

aoe

An einem Freitag war’s. Der Glaubenstreiter
Beg Rustan war in der Moschee und eben
verliess nach dem Gebet er die Moschee,
als zur Moschee die Maultierlasten kamen.

Am ersten hangt die Meldung, fein geschrieben.
Was mag ihm wohl die feine Meldung sagen ?
ein Maultier schnaubt das andre Maultier an ;
wie’s erste vor die Hauptmoschee gelangte,

am End’ der Cemalu‘a stand das letzte.

Es trieb sie fort der Glaubenstreiter Rustan ;
dort auf dem Abhang lud er ab die Schitze
und teilte auf dem Abhang aus die Schatze,
beteiligte den letzen gleich dem besten,

doch jeden recht, als wie den eig’nen Bruder.

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S85)

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Dann sprach das Wort der Vezier Kopriilii:
—‘‘So lass das Heer uns aus Istambol schicken !”’
Fort zog das Heer aus Istambol aus der Stadt
und liess sich nieder unter Temesvar,
dort wo die Save in die Donau miindet.

Wohl unterhalb der weissen Stadt von Ofen,
dort lagerte das Heer zwei volle Monde.
Bald kam auch Rustanbeg der Glaubenstreiter
und brachte mit das ganze wiiste Bosna.
Dann harrten sie wohl einen vollen Monat,
bis Ljubovié der Beg hinzugestossen
und hingebracht das ganze Herzogland.

Sie flochten fiir den Kampf die Schutzgeflechte
und pflantzten auf die Rader Feldkartaunen .
und schlugen ein den Weg zum weissen Ofen.

‘Vier Monde lang sie Ofen bombardierten

iiber die Save und den Donaustrom
und waren nicht im Stand, der Stadt zu schaden,
nicht Kalk, nicht Stein der Mauer abzuschlagen,
geschweige denn den Mauerwall zu brechen,
und wissen gar nicht, wo das Festungtor.
Da sprach Herr Rustanbeg, der Glaubenstreiter :
—‘‘So lasst uns eine Weile hier verweilen
und lasst uns einen Meldungbrief entsenden
nach Stambol in die weissgetiinchte Stadt
zu uns’res Kaisers gliickumstrahlten Throne,
zu Handen uns’res Sultans Ibrahim
und seines Grossveziers, des K6priilii!’’
Sie folgten Rustanbeg, dem Glaubenstreiter,
und stellten ein der Kriegkanonen Donnern.
Der Beg verfasst den feinen Meldungbrief
und ruft herbei den flinksten der Tataren :
—‘* Aufs Pferd hinauf, da nimm den Meldungbrief
und trag ihn fort nach Stambol in die Stadt
zum gliickumstrahlten kaiserlichen Throne !
Und irr’ dich etwa nicht, mein guter Junge,
und iiberreich’ ihn keinem and’ren Manne
als nur allein dem Kaiser in Istambol,
falls nicht zur Hand der Vezier K6priilii ;
du wirst schon sehen, was das Briefchen sagt.’’

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Aufs Ross sich schwang der schnelle Feldtatar
und nahm den feinen Meldungbrief entgegen
und floh davon aus TemeSvars Gemarkung.
Er jagt den Schlachtenzelter wild und wiitig
und jagt mit ihm nach Stambol in die Stadt
zum gliickumstrahlten kaiserlichen Throne.
Er steigt vom Pferd herab und nimmt den Brief,
rennt grad zum Throne hin und Reichpalaste,
wo Sultan Ibrahim im Glanze thront.
Bemerkt hat ihn der Vezier K6priilii,
der eben in des Kaisers Nahe weilte ;
der Vezier sprang vom Bolster auf die Beine
und hielt des Kaisers Feldtataren auf:
—‘‘So wart, Tatar, du sollst den Kopf verlieren,
bis ich den wack’ren Kaiser erst befragt,
ob’s dir gestattet wird, vor ihn zu treten !
Es war’ doch schad, du stiirbst so jung an Jahren !”’
Da blieb der Feldtatar des Kaisers stehen.
Dann fragt ihn noch Herr K6priilii der Vezier :
—‘‘ Woher des Wegs? aus welchem Orte bist du?’’
Und der Tatar, der stand ihm Red’ und Antwort :
—‘‘ Aus weiter Ferne, unter Temesvar,
allwo die Save in die Donau miindet,
allwo des Kaisers ganzes Heer gelagert
und obenan der Glaubenstreiter Rustan.
Ich bring’ da einen feinen Meldungbrief.’’
Drauf sprach das Wort Herr K6priilii der Vezier :
—‘‘Gib her den feinen Meldungbrief, Tatare !’’
Doch spricht zu ihm der schlanke Feldtatare:
—‘‘ Mir aus dem Weg, du kaiserlicher Schranze !
dir geb’ ich nicht den feinen Meldungbrief,
dem Kaiser nur allein zu eig’nen Handen ;
wo nicht, nur einem sicher’n K6priilii!’’
Es lachte satt sich Vezier Képriilii,
nahm an der weissen Hand den Feldtataren
und fiihrt’ ihn vor den wack’ren Kaiser hin.
Da nimmt den Meldungbrief der Feldtatare
und iiberreicht ihn Sultan Ibrahim
und rennt im Saal zuriick zur Eingangtiire.
Darauf hub an der Sultan Ibrahim :

310

—‘*O K6priilii, o du mein alter Lala!
600 so lies mir vor den feinen Meldungbrief !’’
Der Vezier K6priilii den Brief betrachtet,
an seiner Seite Kaiser Ibrahim.
—‘‘ Die Unterschrift : ‘ Beg Rustan Glaubenstreiter,’
er sandte diesen Brief zur Hand des Kaisers.
605 Das, Kaiser, ist ein feiner Meldungbrief !
“« Du wirst die Stadt von Ofen nie erobern.
*¢Gar nichts vermégen wir der Stadt zu schaden,
‘auch wissen wir nicht wo das Stadttor ist,
“das gen die Save fithrt und gen die Donau.’’—
610 Darauf bemerkt der Vezier K6priilii:
—‘*QO hér mich an, du Kaiser von Istambol !
nun muss auch ich mich auf die Wander machen,
auch du, mein Kaiser, musst nun Stambol lassen.
Wir miissen wandern hin nach Temesvar,
615 damit wir seh’n was unser Heer verrichtet,
ob zwzr im Stande sind, was auszurichten.
Wir miissen, Kaiser, Ofen uns erobern,
und, Kaiser, einen Liebedienst erweisen,
wohl deinem Vater Sultan Suleiman !”’
620 Darauf bemerkt der Sultan Ibrahim :
—‘* Wie’s immer dir beliebt, so handle, Vezier !
hab’ ich’s dir nicht schon lang vordem gesagt :
das Kaiserreich ist mein, o guter Freund,
doch die Verwaltung Vezier KGpriiliis !
625 dass Erlau wir erobern und auch Ofen,
dazu Seméndra tieferwarts von Belgrad
Da sprang der Vezier hurtig auf die Beine
und riistete sich in der Stadt Istambol
an seiner Seite Sultan Ibrahim.
630 Sie hinterliessen Seidi, den Pascha,
als Stellvertreter eines wack’ren Kaisers,
und zogen fort von Stambol aus der Stadt.

eet

{??

So zog des Wegs der Vezier K6priilii

und neben ihm der Sultan Ibrahim.
635 Sie stiegen nieder unter Temesvar,

allwo die Save in die Donau miindet,

640

645

650

655

660

665

670

675

dll

allwo das tiirk’sche Heer im Lager stand,
an seiner Spitze Rustan, Glaubenstreiter,
aus Sarajevo aus der weissen Stadt,
als Unterfeldherr Ljubovic der Beg,
der mitten aus dem Herzoglande stammt.
Und Heerschau halt der Kaiser von Istambol ;
vier Lager bildete die ganze Heermacht.
Da stellt die Frage Sultan Ibrahim:
—‘*O K@6priilii, du mein getreuer Diener,
aus welchem Land ist jedes einz’Ine Heer ?”’
Bescheid erteilt inm K6priilii der Vezier.
Es spricht zu ihm der Sultan Ibrahim :
—‘‘ Aus welchem Land ist jenes macht’ge Heer,
dess’ Volk mit Silber und mit Gold beladen,
dess’ Rosse reich mit Goldgeschmeid beladen ?”’
Darauf bemerkt der Vezier K6priilii:
—-‘‘ Das ist das Aufgebot des eb’nen Bosna,
dort sind allein dir alle die BoSnjaken.”’
Da sagt ein Wort der Sultan Ibrahim:
—‘‘O KéOpriilii, du mein getreuer Lala,
wohl steht nicht alles so, wie du mir’s darstellst !’’
Darauf betroffen Képriilii der Vezier:
—‘‘Was meinst du, Kaiser, sprich, so lieb dir Gott ist !”’
—‘‘ Du schilderst mir das Bosnaland als lehmig
und die BoSnjaken als bediirft’ge Helden ;
nun schau, die sind mit Goldgeschmeid beladen,
und schau die Rosse, silberreich beladen !’’
Darauf bemerkt der Vezier K6priilii:
—‘*O hor’ mich, Kaiser, an, was ich nun sage!
das ist ein leid’ger Brauch im Bosnavolk.
Wo einer was besass, er hat’s verschachert
und gleich mit Gold und Silber sich behangen
und unterm Leib ein Ross sich angeschafft,
damit er, wann es gilt, ins Heer zu riicken,
wenn’s Not tut deine Ehre hoch zu halten,
gleich ausgeriistet seinen Mann die Stelle.
Stiegst du hinab ins ebne Bosnaland,
wo ihre Miitter sie zuriickgelassen,
der seine Mutter, der die junge Schwester,
und mancher, Kaiser, sein getreues Eh’lieb ;

312

da sahst du erst wie ihre Hauser ausschau’n !
Mit Zaunwerk sind sie ringsherum umflochten
und obenauf mit Stroh bedeckt ein wenig ;
680 da fehlt’s an Kupfer—und an Holzgeschirr,
man isst vielmehr aus irdenen Gef assen !’’
Darauf bemerkt der Sultan Ibrahim:
—‘‘ Was fangen wir nun an mit unserm Leben ?
wie werden wir die Ofner Stadt bestiirmen ?”’
685 Darauf erwidert K6priilii der Vezier :
—‘*So wart’ ein wenig, Kaiser von Istambol !”’
Nun sucht er auf zwei junge Heeresrufer,
sie rufen aus nach allen Himmelstrichen :
—‘‘ Wer wird als Held im Heere sich bewahren,
690 wer kann die Donau und die Sau durchschwimmen,
um bis zur Ofner Festung hinzukommen,
und wo der Festung Tor ist, zu erkunden ?”’
So riefen aus die beiden jungen Rufer ;
ihr Rufen hallte zwei geschlag’ne Stunden,
695 doch mochte Niemand zum Bescheid sich melden.
Da sprach ein Wort Herr Ljubovic der Beg,
der nach dem Herzoglande sich benennt :
—‘‘O KoGpriilii, o teuerster Gebieter !
ich will die Donau und die Sau durchschwimmen
7oo und unserm Kaiser einen Dienst erweisen,
und kehrt’ ich nun und nimmermehr zuriick
Schon wirft er ab von seinem Leib die Kleidung.
Er stiirzt sich in den dicken Savestrom,
durchschwimmt die Save, lenkt zur Donau ein.
7o5 Just war er in des Savestromes Mitte,
als ihm gar Wundersames dort begegnet:
ein seltsam Madchen sass im Savewasser,
die Save abwarts streckt’ sie ihre Beine,
sie halt auf ihrem Schooss ein Stickgestelle,
710 dariiber hat sie aufgespannt ein Linnen.
Und sie erschaute Ljubovic den Beg,
erschaut’ ihn wohl und sprach zu ihm das Wort:
—‘‘ Wohin des Weges, Ljubovié, o Beg?
hat dich der Kaiser gar geschickt nach Ofen,
wohl um das Ofner Burgtor auszukunden?
So kehr’ nur um, du sollst den Kopf verlieren !

12?

~j
—)
fon

313

den Savestrom, den kannst du nicht durchschwimmen,
den raschen Savestrom, die breite Donau !
Kehr ruhig wieder um zum wack’ren Kaiser,
720 bei ihm verweilt der Vezier K6priilii.
Bring meinen Gruss dem Vezier K6priilii ;
verbringt die liebe Nacht auf freiem Felde
und seid geriistet friih beim Morgenanbruch.
Darauf berate K6priilii den Vezier,
725 er soll’s gesammte Kaiserheer erheben,
ein jeder nehm’ die tiirk’sche Waschung vor,
vor allen ander’n Sultan Ibrahim
und gleich nach ihm der Vezier K6épriilii ;
verrichtet Morgens friih die Morgenbeugung.
730 Und nach dem Friihgebet der Morgenbeugung
aufs weisse Ofen richtet eu’ren Blick,
da werdet Ihr das Ofner Tor erschauen,
und leichter Miih’ die Ofner Stadt erobern !’’
Beg Ljubovié, der schaut die Maid verwundert,
735 aus Gold die Hande bis zum Ellenbogen,
und goldig wallt das Haar herab den Nacken.
Im Nu verschwand auch schon das holde Madchen !
Der Beg geriet gar machtig in Verwundrung,
auf was fiir Wunder er da aufgestossen,
740 und machte Umkehr auf der eb’nen Save.
Als er herauskam unter Temesvar,
was spricht zu ihm der Vezier K6priilii?
—‘*Schon dort gewesen, Ljubovi¢, o Beg?
hast gar so schnell die Save durchgeschwommen ?”’
745 Da nun erzahlt der Beg sein Abenteuer,
welch wundersam Gebild er angetroffen.
OK
So blieb denn hier zu Nacht das Heer gewaltig
und war schon auf den Beinen friih am Morgen.
Sogleich erhob sich Vezier K6priilii.
750 Das tiirk’sche Heer, das nahm die Waschung vor,
Allen voran der Sultan Ibrahim,
und gleich nach ihm der Vezier K6priilii,
und alle beugten sich zur Morgenandacht.
Nachdem die Beugung sie verrichtet hatten,
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. xxxII. 148. 2N. PRINTED JAN. 30, 1894.

755

760

765

77°

775

780

785

19°

314

da schaut hiniiber Vezier K6priilii
und er erschaut das Tor der Ofner Festung,
die beiden Fliigel angelweit geéffnet !
Da ruft nun aus der Vezier K6priilii:
—‘* Dort, Kaiser, schau dir an die Ofner Tore!’’
Losstiirmte nun das allgewalt’ge Heer
und nahm sofort die Ofnerstadt des Kaisers.

Sa Hp

Drauf setzten sie die Heermacht in Bewegung,

zwolf Stunden fiihrt der Weg zum eb’nen Erlau.
Die Tiirken stiirmten los nunmehr auf Erlau.

Bei Gott, das Christenheer empfieng sie warm !

Allhier entspann sich bald ein blutig Ringen,

und sieben Stunden wahrt das Schlachtgemetzel.

Es klang in einem fort der krumme Sabel,

die langen Taler fiillten sich mit Blut!

Als letzt die Tiirken Erlau eingenommen,

da hatten sie auch Leichen viel gelassen !

Von hier erhob sich dann das Heer der Tiirken

und stieg hernieder tieferwarts von Belgrad.

Sie griffen an die alte Stadt Seméndra,

—die Christen hatten sie zuletzt erobert,

bevor sie Erlau und auch Ofen hatten,

und sie mit bestem Mauerwall umgeben.—

Sie wehren sich von vier bewehrten Seiten,

und von Seméndra dréhnen die Kanonen.

Daselbst erfuhr das Heer ein wenig Schaden ;

vier Tage lang auch dauerte das Kampfen.

Hier ward verwundet Ljubovié der Beg,

Man trug zu Grabe alle Tiirkenleichen,

und auch Seméndra nahmen ein die Tiirken.

Von hier erhob sich dann das Heer der Bes

voraus als Fiihrer Sultan Ibrahim

und hinter ihm der Vezier K6priilii,

ihm folgt Herr Rustanbeg der Glaubenstreiter,

in gleicher Reih’ mit ihm Beg Ljubovic.

So stiegen sie hinab zum eb’nen Stambol,

zum Thron des Kaisers und zum Reichpalast.

Daselbst verweilten sie wohl einen Monat,

795

800

805

8Io

815

820

825

315

entliessen allwarts hin das Heer der Tiirken,
bezeigten ihre Lieb dem toten Kaiser,
dem toten Kaiser Sultan Suleiman.

* * *k
Dann spricht das Wort der Sultan Ibrahim :
—‘*O Ljubovid aus meinem Herzoglande !
da nimm das ganze Herzogland entgegen ;
ich werde nichts von dir an Steuer nehmen,
nicht einen weissen Heller noch Denar,
nur kurze Zeit hindurch, zw6lf volle Jahre
Darauf zu Rustanbeg, dem Glaubenstreiter :
—‘‘O Glaubenshort vom eb’nen Sarajevo !
zieh’ heimwarts, Aermster, in die Stadt Sarajevo ;
du hast ein neues Gotteshaus erbaut,
doch ich bezahle, was du ausgegeben.
Soviel als in Sarajevo Gotteshauser,
dir sei die Oberaufsicht iiber jedes,

{??

» vom Kirchengut der Stadt von Sarajevo,

dass keine Steuern du entrichten magst
wohl nach Istambol in die weisse Stadt,
so lang in Tiirkenhand das Bosnaland !’’

Und spricht zu Vezier Képriilii gewendet :
—‘‘Ja, Vezier, o du mein getreuer Lala,

mit was fiir Gabe soll ich dich bedenken ?”’
Darauf erwidert Vezier K6priilii:

—‘‘ Was willst du, liebster Sultan Ibrahim ?”’
Darauf entgegnet Sultan Ibrahim :

—‘* Zieh g’raden Wegs ins lehm’ge Bosnaland
und in die weissgetiinchte Stadt von Travnik,
dort sei im Bosnaland mein Landesvogt !’’
Zum weissen Travnik wandert hin der Vezier,
der Glaubenstreiter in die Stadt Sarajevo

und heim ins Herzogland Beg Ljubovie ;

in seinem Reichpalast der Kaiser blieb.

ERLAUTERUNGEN.

Zu V.1. Die Volkiiberlieferung kniipft auch hier, wie sonst
6fter, an den ruhmreichen Namen Suleiman II. an (1520-1566),
unter dessen Regierung die tiirkische Machtentwicklung ihren Hohe-

316

punkt erreicht hatte. Sultan Ibrahims Vorganger auf dem Throne
war Murad IV. und Nachfolger Mohammed IV.

V. 23. Lalen und Ridzalen.—La/a tiirk. Diener. Als Lehn-
wort auch bei den Bulgaren, Polen und Russen. Im serbischen
nur fiir ‘‘ Kaiserliche Diener,’’ so z. B. (der Sultan spricht) :

lalo moja, muhur sahibija,
Sto mi zemlje 1 gradove Cuva3 !

O du mein Diener, du mein Sigelwahrer,
der du mein Stadt und Land mir wohl behiitest !

oder:

Divan Cini care u Stambola
za tri petka i tri ponediljka ;
sva gospadu sebi pokupio,
okupio pase i vezire:
—Lale moje, pase i veziri!

Divan beruft der Kaiser ein in Stambol
dreimal je Freitags und dreimal je Montags ;
berief zu sich die Herren allzumal,

berief die Paschen und Vezieren ein:

—O meine Lalen, Paschen und Veziere!

Ridzal arab. tiirk. Reisiger, iibertrager: hoher Wiirdentrager
zum redzal,; albanesisch: xi@za/, Advokat, griech. rhitzal.

V. 25 u. 33. Weun erwahlite Frauen.—‘* Von den Frauen des
Sultans Ibrahim fiihrten sieben den Titel Chasseki, d. i. der innig-
sten Giinstlinginnen, bis zuletzt die achte, die beriihmte Telli, d. i.
die Drahtige, ihm gar als Gemahlin vor. allen angetraut ward.
Eine andere hiess Ssadschbaghli, d. i. die mit den aufgebundenen
Haaren. Jede dieser sieben innigsten Giinstlinginnen hatte ihren
Hofstaat, ihre Kiaja, die Einkiinfte eines Sandschalks als Pantoffel-
geld, jede hatte einen vergoldeten, mit Edelsteinen besetzten
. Wagen, Nachen und Reitzeug. Ausser den Sultaninnen Giinstling-
innen hatte er Sklavinnen Giinstlinginnen, deren zwei beriihmteste
die Schekerpara, d. i. Zuckerstiick und Schekerbuli, d. i. Zucker-
bulle hiess ; jene ward verheiratet, diese aber stand zu hoch in der
Gunst, um je verheiratet zu werden. Die Sultaninnen Giinstling-
nnen erhielten Statthalterschaften zu ihrem Pantoffelgeld, die ~

317

Schiitzlinginnen Sklavinnen hatten sich die héchsten Staatamter
vorbehalten.’’ I. von Hammer-Purgstall, Geschichte des Osmanischen
Reithes, Pressburg, 1835, V, S. 255f.

Zu V. 37. Kajfirhénden. Im Texte: u Kaurina, tiirk. gyaur,
gjavir, aus dem arab. cz Kajir, pers. gebr, der Unglaubige.

V. 38-39. Die Nennung dieser drei Stadtenamen, sowie spater-
hin TemeSvars hier eine dichterische Freiheit. Die Eroberung von
Erlau (Egra) und Kanisza bilden Glanzpunkte der Regierung Mo-
hammed III. (verstorben 22. Dezember 1603). Ueber Erlau vergl.
Franz Salamon, Ungarn im Zettalter der Tiirkenherrschaft (deutsch
v. Gustav Turany), Leipzig, 1887, S. 125f. u. besonders S. 138ff.—
Die Einnahme Ofens erfolgte im J. 1541. Soliman, der 1526 Ofen
nicht besetzten wollte, nimmt es 1541 endgiltig in seine Hand.
Im J. 1543 setzte er seine Eroberungen fort. Der Sultan nahm
zuerst die Burgen Valpoé, Siklés und Fiinfkirchen, darauf Stuhl-
weissenburg und Gran. Bis 1547 gehdrte den Tiirken Peterward-
ein, Pozega, Valpé, Essegg, Fiinfkirchen, Siklés, Szegszard, Ofen,
Pest, Stuhlweissenburg, Simontonnya, Visegrad, Gran, Waitzen,
Neograd und Hatvan ; jenseits der Theiss nur das einzige Szegedin,
das sich im Winter 1542 freiwillig ergeben und als tiirkischer Besitz
isolirt dastand.—Semendria (Szendr6) versuchten die Tiirken im
J. 1437 einzunehmen, um sich den wichtigen an der Donau gele-
genen Schliisel des Morava-Tales zu sichern, aber das ungarische
Heer unter Pongraz Szentmikldsi errang einen glanzenden Sieg
iiber sie. Als sich 1459 die Festung Semendria an Mohammed II.
ergab, gelangten zugleich zahlreichere kleinere Festungen in seine
Gewalt. Serbien wurde zum Sandzak, und der Tiirke siedelte an
Stelle der massenhaft in die Sklaverei geschleppten Einwohner,
Osmanen in die Stadte und fiihrte daselbst seine Verwaltung ein.
1466 als K6nig Mathias beschaftigt war in Oberungarn einige Auf-
riihrer zur Ruhe zu bringen, lasst ein tiirkischer Pascha seine Truppen
in Serbien einriicken und nimmt durch Ueberrumpelung die Festung
Semendria. Vergl. Dr. Wilhelm Fraknoi, AZathias Corvinus, Konig
von Ungarn, Freib. i. Br., 1891, S. 7off.

Zu V. 59. ‘‘Verschliess dich in den festen Kafig.’’—‘“Als nach
Murads Verscheiden der Hof bedienten Schaar mit Freudengeschrei
an die Thiire des Kafigs, d. i. des Prinzengemaches drang, um den
neuen Herrn gliickwiinschend auf den Thron zu ziehen, verram-
melte Ibrahim die Thiir, aus Furcht, dass dies nur List des noch
atmenden Tyrannen Murad sei, um ihn, den einzigen iiberlebenden

318

Bruder so sicher ins Grab voraus zu schicken. Mit ehrfurchtvoller
Gewalt wurde die Thiir erbrochen, und noch immer weigerte sich
Ibrahim der Freudenkunde Glauben beizumessen, bis die Sultanin-
Mutter Késem (eine Griechin) selber ihn von des Sultans Tod ver-
sicherte und ihre Versicherung durch den vor die Thiir des Kafigs
gebrachten Leichnam bestatigte. Da begab sich erst Ibrahim aus
dem Kafig in den Thronsal, empfieng die Huldigung der Veziere,
Reichsaiulen, Ulema und Aga, trug dann mit den Vezieren des
Bruders Leiche selber bis ans Tor des Serai und ward hierauf nach
altem Herkommen osmanischer Thronbesitznahme zu Ejub feierlich
umgiirtet.’? Bei J. v. Hammer, a. a. O., V, S. 215f., unter Beru-
fung auf Rycauts Continuation of Knolles II, p. 50. Die neu erdff-
nete otomanische Pforte t. 458.

_Zu V. 75ff. Am neunten Tage nach der Thronbesteigung fand
die Umgiirtung des Sabels in der Moschee Ejub in den durch das
Gesetzbuch des Cereinoniels vorgeschriebenen Formen des Aufzuges
und der Feierlichkeiten statt. Mit Sonnenaufgang versammelten
sich alle Klassen der Staatbeamten im ersten Hofe des Serai. Die
ausfiibrliche Schilderung siehe bei Hammer, a. a. O., IV’, S. 499-
450.

ZuV.76. ‘‘Goldne Miitze.’’—Im Texte tadza. Sultan Bajezid I.
(gestorb. 1403) trug als Turban weder die Goldhaube (uskuf) der
ersten sechs Sultane, noch den vom siebenten angenommenen runden
Kopfbund der Ulema (urf ), sondern nahm den hohen, cylinder-
férmigen, mit Musselin umwundenen an, der sofort unter dem Na-
men MudZevese (tadza) der Hof- und Staatturban geblieben.

Zu V. 80f. Die ersten Saulen des Reiches und Stiitzen des
Divans sind die Veziere, d. h. die Lasttrager. Es gab ihrer unter
Ibrahim schon vier. Die Vierzahl gibt als eine dem Morgenlander
beliebte und heilige Grundzahl den Teilunggrund der ersten Staat-
amter ab. Vier Saulen stiizen das Zelt, vier Engel sind nach dem
Koran die Trager des Thrones, vier Winde regieren die Regionen
der Luft nach den vier Kardinalpunkten des Himmels, u.s.w. Aus
diesem Grunde setzte Sultan Mohammed der Eroberer, vier Saulen
oder Stiitzen des Reiches (erkiani devlet) fest in den Vezieren, in
den Kadiaskeren, in den Defterdaren und in den Nisandzi, die zu-
gleich die vier Saulen des Divans, d. h. des Staatrates sind.
Anfangs war nur ein Vezier, dann zwei, dann drei unter den ersten
Sultanen ; der Eroberer erhob ihre Zahl auf vier, deren erster und
allen iiberigen an Macht und Rang bei weitem vorhergehende,

319

der Grossvezier wurde, der unumschrankte Bevollmachtigte, das
sichtbare Ebenbild des Sultans, sein vollgewaltiger Stellvertreter,
der oberste Vorsteher aller Zweige der Staatverwaltung, der Mittel-
punkt und der Hebel der ganzen Regierung.

Zu V. 81. ‘‘ Ségelhiiter’’? (muhur sahibija). — Der Kanun des
Sigels (nach Sultan Mohammed II.) iibertragt dem Grossvezier
dariiber die Obhut, als das Symbol der héchsten Vollmacht ; in der
Ueberreichung des Sigels liegt auch die Verleihung der héchsten
Wiirde des Reiches. Der Grossvezier darf sich (abgesehen von der
Versigelung der Schatzkammer, die, beilaufig bemerkt, nur in
Gegenwart der Defterdare gedffnet werden kann) dieses Sigels nur
zur Besiglung der Vortrage bedienen, und da alle Vortrage durch die
Hand des Grossveziers gehen miissen, und Niemand als er das Recht
hat, an den Sultan schriftlich zu berichten, so sieht der Letztere kein
anderes Sigel als sein eigenes oder etwa das der fremden Monarchen,
wenn deren Gesandte ihre Beglaubigungschreiben in feierlicher
Audienz iiberreichen.

Zu V. 82. ‘* Pascha Seidi.’,—Ueber Achmed Sidi, Kopriiliis
Schwager, die Geissel Siebenbiirgens, Pascha von Neuhausel, vergl.
Hammer, a. a. O., VI, S. 272. Wird in den Epen moslimischer
Guslaren haufig auch als ein Heiliger genannt und geriihmt. In
einem Guslarenliede heisst es :

efendija muhur sahibija
sa svojijem pasom Seidijom,
Sto je pasa na Ceteres pasa.

[ Erschienen war] Efendi Sigelhiiter
zugleich mit ihm sein Pascha Seidi,
der Obrist Pascha iiber vierzig Paschen.

Zu V. 93ff. Im J. 1696 war Mohammed mit dem wunden Halse
Grossvezier.

““Am to. September 1696 fand ein Divan statt. Der Sultan
sagte zum Grossvezier: ‘ Ich will selbst in den Krieg ziehen, du
musst durchaus fiir die nétige Riistung sorgen !’ Der hilflose Greis
faltete die Hinde, als ob er die ganze Versammlung um Hilfe an-
flehte und sagte: ‘Glorreichster, gnadigster Padischah, Gott gebe
euch langes Leben und lange Regierung! bei der herrschenden
Verwirrung und dem Mangel an Kriegszucht ist es schwer, Krieg

320

zu fiihren ; zur Méglichkeit der’ nétigen Riistungen ist von Seite des
Reichsschatzes eine Hilfe von zwanzig tausendB euteln notwendig !’
Der Sultan schwieg zornig und hob die Versammlung auf.’’ Ham-
mer,, Vc40T.

*« Schon bei der ersten Unzufriedenheit nach der Einnahme von
Tenedos und Lemnos hatten der Chasnedar der Walide, Ssolak
Mohammed, der Lehrer des Serai, Mohammed Efendi, der vorige
Reis Efendi Schamisade und der Baumeister Kasim, welcher schon
ein paarmal den alten KG6priili zum Grossvezier in Vorschlag
gebracht, sich insgeheim verbiindet, diesem das Reichssigel zu ver-
schaffen. Der Grossvezier hatte ihn auf seiner Reise von Syrien
nach Konstantinopel zu Eskischehr wohl empfangen und nach Kon-
stantinopel mitgenommen, wo er dermalen sich ruhig verhielt ;
sobald er aber durch den Silihdar des Sultans Wind von dem Vor-
schlage erhalten, ernannte er den K6priili zum Pascha von Tripolis,
und befahl ihm sogleich aufzubrechen. Der Kiaja, ins Vertrauen
der Freunde Képriilis gezogen, suchte vergebens den Reisebefehl zu
verzogern. Dadie Sache noch nicht reif zum Schlag war, brachten
die Freunde Kopriilis durch die Walide sehr geschickt die Ernen-
nung des Silihdars zum Statthalter von Damaskus und die Einberu-
fung des dortigen Wesiers Chasseki Mohammed zuwegen, wodurch
das allgemeine Gerede entstand, dass dieser zum Grossvezier
bestimmt sei, und die Aufmerksamkeit des Grossveziers von Kép-
riili abgelenkt ward. Der Silihdar, der Patron des Grossveziers
beim Sultan, war entfernt, aber noch stand den Freunden K@6priilis
ein anderer machtiger Feind desselben, der Janicarenaga im Wege.
Sobald derselbe abgesetzt und an seine Stelle der Stallmeister
Sohrab, ein Freund der Freunde K6priilis ernannt war, erklarte sich
dieser gegen dieselben, dass er einige Punkte der Walide vorzutra-
gen, nach deren Zusage er die Last der Regierung auf seine Schul-
tern zu nehmen bereit sei. Noch am selben Nachmittage wurde
K6priili heimlich vom Kislaraga zur Walide eingefiihrt, und ant-
wortete auf ihre Frage, ob er dem ihm bestimmten Dienst als Gross-
vezier:zu versehen sich nicht fiirchte, mit dem Begehren folgender
vier Punkte: erstens, dass jeder seiner Vorschlage genehmigt werde ;
zweitens, dass er in der Verleihung der Aemter freie Hand und auf
die Fiirbitte von Niemand zu achten habe: die Schwachen entstan-
den aus Fiirsprechen ; drittens, dass kein Vezier und kein Grosser,
kein Vertrauter, sei es durch Einfluss von Geldmacht oder geschenk-
tem Vertrauen, seinem Ansehen eingreife; viertens, dass keine

321

Verschwarzung seiner Person angehort werde ; wiirden diese vier
Punkte zugesagt, werde er mit Gottes Hilfe und dem Segen der
Walide die Wesirschaft iibernehmen. Die Walide war zufrieden
und beschwur ihre Zusage dreimal mit: ‘ Bei Gott dem Allerhéch-
sten!’ Am folgenden Tage (15. September 1656), zwei Stunden
vor dem Freitagsgebete, wurden der Grossvezier und K6priili ins
Serai geladen. Dem Grossvezier wurde nach einigen Vorwiirfen
iiber den Mangel seiner Verwaltung das Sigel abgenommen und er
dem Boslandzibaschi zur Haft iiberlassen, dann K6priili in den
Thronsal berufen. Der Sultan wiederholte die vier versprochenen
Punkte, einen nach dem andern und sagte: ‘ Unter diesen Beding-
nissen mache ich dich zu meinem unumschrankten Vezier; ich
werde sehen, wie du dienst; meine besten Wiinsche sind mit dir!’
K6priili kiisste die Erde und dankte; grosse Thranen rollten den
Silberbart herunter ; der Hofastronom hatte als den gliicklichsten
Zeitpunkt der Verleihung das Mittagsgebet vom Freitage bestimmt,
eben ert6nte von den Minareten der Ausruf: ‘Gott ist gross!’’’
Hammer, a. a. O., V, S. 462, 2te Aufl.

Zu V. 170. Dem abgesetzten Grossvezier Mohammed mit dem
wunden Halse, dem neunzigjahrigen Greise, wurde nach Einziehung
seiner Giiter, dass nach dem Ausspruche des Sultans verwirkte
Leben auf Ko6priiliis Fiirbitte geschenkt und ihm zur Fristung des
schwachen Restes seines Lebens die Statthalterschaft von Kanisza
verliehen. Hammer, V, S. 467.

Zu V. 36off. Ganz erfunden ist diese Episode nicht. Hammer
Derichtet B. V, S. 467ff.:

‘*Acht Tage nachdem Ko6priili das Reichsigel erhalten, Freitag
den 22. September 1656, versammelten sich in der Moschee S. Mo-
hammeds die fanatischen Anhanger Kasisades, die strengen Ortho-
doxen, welche unter dem alten K6priili, den sie fiir einen ohnmach-
tigen Greis hielten, ihrer Verfolgungswut wider die Ssoffi und
Derwische, Walzer- und Flétenspieler, um so freieren Lauf zu geben
hofften. Sie beratschlagten in der Moschee und fassten den Ent-
schluss, alle Kloster der Derwische mit fliegenden Haaren und krv-
nenf6rmigen Kopfbinden von Grund aus zu zerstéren, sie zur
Erneuerung des Glaubensbekenntnisses zu zwingen, die sich dess
weigerten zu téten, u.s.w. In der Nacht war die ganze Stadt in
Bewegung ; die Studenten der verschiedenen Collegien, welchen
orthodoxe Rectoren und Professoren vorstanden, bewaffneten sich

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143. 20. PRINTED FEB. 6, 1894.

322

mit Priizeln und Messern und fiengen schon an die Gegner zu
bedrohen. Sobald der Grossvezier hievon Kunde erhalten, sandte
er an die Prediger Scheiche, welche die Anstifter der Unruhen zur
Ruhe bewegen sollten ; da aber dies nicht fruchtete, erstattete er
Vortrag an den Sultan iiber die Notwendigkeit ihrer Vernichtung.
Die sogleich dem vortraggemasse allerhéchste Entschliessung des
Todesurteils wurde von K6priili in Varbannung gemildert.’’

Zu V. 371. ‘' Der alte Achmedaga.’’—In der tiirkischen
Geschichte heisst er Achmedpascha Heberpascha, d. h. der in tau-
send Stiicke Zerrissene (Hammer, III, S. 930). Nach Hammer, B.
III, S. 930, fiel tatsaichlich ein Grossvezier des Namens Achmedpascha
durch Henkershand am Vorabende der Thronstiirzung Sultan Ibra-
hims. Es war am Abend des 7. August 1648. Kaum hatte der
abgesetzte Grossvezier Ahmedpascha einzuschlafen versucht, als er
mit der Botschaft geweckt ward, er mége sich aufmachen, die auf-

-riihrischen Truppen verlangten ihn und er, der Grossvezier mége
als Mittler versbhnend dazwischen treten. Als er die Stiege hin-
unter gekommen, griff ihm jemand unter die Arme. Ersah sich um,
wer es sei und sah vor sich Kara Ali, den Henker, den er so oft
gebraucht. ‘‘ Ei, unglaubiger Hurensohn !”’ redeteeribn an. ‘ Ei,
gnadiger Herr!’’ erwiderte der Henker, ihm lachelnd die Brust
kiissend; unter die Linke Ahmedpaschas griff Hamal Ali, des
Henkers Gehilfe. Sie fiihrten ihn zum Stadttor, dort zog der
Henker seine rote Haube vom Kopfe und steckte sie in seinen
Giirtel, nahm dem Ahmedpascha seinen Kopf bund ab, warf ihm
den Strick um den Hals und zog denselben mit seinem Gehilfen
zusammen, ohne dass der Ungliickliche etwas anderes als: ‘‘ Ei, du
Hurensohn!’’ vorbringen konnte. Der ausgezogene Leichnam
wurde auf ein Pferd geladen und auf des neuen Grossveziers Sofi
Mohammed Befehl auf den Hippodrom geworfen.

Zu V. 392. ‘‘Kreuze und Marien.’’—Im Texte Krizi i maizi.
Kreuzchen und Marienmedaillen, wie solche im Haare von Christen
jener Zeit getragen wurden. Eine anschauliche Beschreibung
gibt uns eine Stelle in einem noch ungedruckten Guslarenliede
meiner Sammlung. Halil, der Falke, ist entschlossen, an einem
Wettrennen im christlichen Gebiete teilzunehmen, um den ausge-
setzten Preis, ein Madchen von gefcierter Schénheit, davonzutragen.
Seine Schwagerin, Mustapha Hasenschartes Gemahlin, hilft ihm bei
der Verkleidung zu einem christlichen Ritter, wie folgt:

323

ondar mu je sa glave fesié oborila
i rasturi mu turu ot percina

i prepati CeSalj ot fildisa

te mu rasceSlja turu ot percina
a oplete sedam pletenica

a uplete mu sedam medunjica
a uplete mu krizei maize

a uplete mu krste cetvrtake

a Savku mu podize na glavu

a pokovata grosom i tal’jeron
a potkicena zolotom bijelom.

Vom Haupte sie warf ihm das Fezlein herab
und léste den Bund des Zopfes ihm auf

und griff nach dem Kamm aus Elfenbein
und kimmte den Bund des Zopfes ihm auf
und flocht ihm sieben Flechten das Haar
und flocht ihm sieben Medaillen hinein

Und flocht ihm Kreuze hinein und Marien
und flocht ihm hinein quadratige Kreuze
und stiilpte den Helm ihm auf das Haupt,
der beschlagen mit Groschen und Talerstiicken,
der geschmiickt mit weissen Miinzen.

So wie hier Halil als Christ auftritt, so ist der als Moslim ver-
kappte Christ eine stehende Figur des Guslarenliedes. Christ und
Moslim sind in der angenommenen Rolle einander wert und wiirdig.

Zu V. 447. Ljubovic, der beriihmteste moslimische Held des
Herzogtums, eine stehende Figur der Guslarenlieder beider Confes-
sionen. Mustapha Hasenscharte schreibt einmal ein Aufgebot aus.
Der Brief zu Handen des Freundes Sarid:

O turdine Sarié Mahmudaga!
Eto tebi Knjige naSarane !
* Pokupi mi od Mostara turke,
ne ostavi bega Ljubovita
sa Siroka polja Nevesinja,
jer brez njega vojevanja nejma.
O [Bruder] Tiirke Sarié Mahmudaga !

324

Da kommt zu dir ein Schreiben zierlich fein !
Von Mostar biet mir auf die Tiirkenmannen,
lass nicht zuriick den Beg, den J.jubovic,
vom weitgestreckten Nevesinjgefilde ;

denn ohne seiner gibt es keinen Feldzug.

Als Jiingling meldete sich Beg Ljubovié einmal bei Sil Osman-
beg, dem Pascha von Essegg, als freiwilliger Kundschafter, um
durchs feindliche Belagerungheer durchzudringen und dem Pascha
von Ofen Nachricht von der Bedrangnis der Stadt Essegg zu tiber-
bringen. Sil Osmanbeg umarmt und kiisst ihn und schlagt ihm

mit der flachen Hand auf die Schulter:

Haj aferim beze Ljubovicu!
vuk od vuka, hajduk od hajduka
a vazda je soko ot sokola ;
vazda su se sokolovi legli

u odzaku bega Ljuboviéa!

Hei traun, fiirwahr, mein Beg, du Ljubovic !

Vom Wolf ein Wolf, vom Rauber stammt ein Rauber,
doch stets entspross ein Falke nur dem Falken ;

und immer fand sich vor die Falkenbrut

am heimischen Herd des Ljubovic, des Beg !

Zu V. 678. Die Schilderung naturgetreu. Auf meinen Reisen
zog ich es mitunter vor in eine Rossdecke eingehiillt unterm freien
Himmel selbst zu Winterzeit zu tibernachten, als im Schmutz und
Ungeziefer und Gestank einer bosnischen Bauernhiitte. Auch
meine Aufzeichnungen machte ich meist im Freien im Hofraume oder
an der Strasse sitzend. Ich fragte den Bauer Mujo Seferovic aus
Sepak, einen recht tiichtigen Guslaren, ob er wohl ein eigenes
Heim besitze. Darauf er: imam nesto malo Kuce, Krovnjak (ich
besitze ein klein Stiickchen Haus, eine Bedachung). Neugierig,
wie ich schon bin, gieng ich zu ihm ins Gebirge hinauf, um mir
seine Behausung anzuschauen, eigentlich in der Hoffnung, bei ihm
meinen Hunger zu stillen. Ein hohes, mit verfaultem Stroh
bedecktes Dach, und statt der Wande aus Stein oder Ziegeln ein
mit Lehm beschmiertes Reisergeflechte ! Brod und Fleisch fehlte im
lieblichen Heime. Durch meinen Besuch fiihlte er und seine

A AE IO II AEG a iis FEE TS ase mca lt a Sg ABET el eee we

320

Familie sich aufs Aeusserste geehrt und geschmeichelt. Die Haus-
frau, die nicht zum Vorschein kam, sandte mir mit ihrem Sdhnchen
einen Bohnenkase und eingesduerte Paprika hinaus. Als Getrank
Kaffeeabsud und Honigwasser.

Zu V. 707ff. Das seltsame Madchen ist als die Sreca, d. h.
fortuna K6priiliis aufzufassen. Vergl. meine Studie, Sreca. Glick
und Schicksal im Volkglauben der Siidslaven, Wien, 1887.

Zu V. 821. Zwei Ko6priilii waren Veziere (Vali) zu Bosnien :
KO6priiliizade Numan, der Sohn des Grossveziers 1126 (1714) und
K6priiliizade Hadzi Mehmed 1161 (1748); zum zweitenmale der-
selbe 1179 (1765). Der erste K6priilii war natiirlich nie bosnischer
Gouverneur, nur der Guslar erhebt ihn zu diesem nach seinen bau-
erlichen Begriffen ausserordentlichen Ehren- und Wiirdenstellung.

Gshicht fun dé al té tsai'ta in Pensilfini.*
By W. J. Hoffman, M.D.

Di num’mer fun men’sha in Pensilfani das fun da arsh’ta dai’tsha
ai” sid’lar har shtam’ma, tsé’la alawail’ kshwi’sha acht hun’rt dav’-
send un a” milyan’, a’wer wi fil fun den’na wis’sa was fer tsai’ta das
dial’ta lait als kat hen, wi siarsht a” kum/méA sin in dem landt far sich
en hé’met tsa mach’é. Far en fol’li gshicht tse shrai’wai déts me”
plats uf nem’ma das mer nem’ma darf an so’era tsait, wi mir alawail’
un’ser hun’rt un fuf’tsichsht yores’fesht fai’araé und wi noch fil
an/ara 4 eb’bias tsa sa’gha hen.

Mer wis’sa tsim’‘lich al das di arsh’té wai’sa lait in dem shtadt di
Shwe’da wa’ra. Di hen sich shun gset’l’d kat uf der Del’awer im
yor 1638, un wa’ra dart bis 1655, wi di Ho’lender si raus gedri’wa
hen, un di sin sel/wer raus gepush’t war’ra nain yor shpé’ter, bai da
Efig’lisha. Wi der Penn kum’ma is in 1682, wa’ra shun Dai’‘tsha
dabai’, un di mensh’ta fun den’na hen sich ni‘dter gset’l’d am a plats
wu Gar’mendaun [Germantown] nau is.

’Snéksht yor sin par mé" Dai’tsha rai" kum’ma, un so wid’der
ye’der yor bis 1708, und fun sel’ara tsait 4" bis 1720, sin si baim
dau’send kum/ma. Di mensh’ta wa’ra aus der Pfalts, wail un’ich da

* Sketch of the olden times in Pennsylvania.

326

Ywerich’a wa’ra dél aus Ba’da [Baden], Sak’sa [Sachsen], un a/nara
fun da glé’na Dait’sha shta’ta.

’S landt ab tsa klo’ra und tsa set’la is lafig’som gafi’g4, und di
a/rawet war shwér. Di hai’ser wa’ra net so néksht bai nan’ner das
mer laicht psuch’a kan, od’ter far hilf tsa shprifig’a wan eb’bas wich’-
tiches gshé’na is. Do hen di lait sich als sel/wer hel’fa mus’sé wan’s
krank’a ge’wa hot, un yé’deri al’ti fra hot als ir glé’na sek fol
gegraider kat, far t@ 4" tsa bri‘a od’ter en blash’ter tsa mach’a. Dél
fun den’na retsep’ta hen si draus mit rai" gabrocht’, un del hen si
dohin aus gfun’na dar’ich arfar’ufig. No war a’wer noch en set
men’sha das gebraucht’ hen, un alla sar’taé karyO’saé sach’a gedin’,
das wi’s blat shtop’pa; gaish’ter aus drai’wa ; fai’er lesh’a, kshtolana
sach’a tsa fin’na; hek’sa tsa ben’icha, und so wader. Fil fun
den’na 4w’ergla’wa hen alawail’, noch 4n hefi’gar.

Di lait hen als ir duch un kle’der sel/wer mach’a mis’sa, un fer wol
tsi fa’rawa hen si del karyo’sa sach’a gebraucht’.

Flaks brech’a, hai’et, arndt, di sot, un’s dresh’a, wa’ra als tsai’ta
das a/rawet gemacht’ hen, un oft’mols hen di bau’eraé nan’ner kol’fa.
An so tsai’ta hots als gshpas ge’wa un’ich den yufi’ga lait.

Am wel’shkarn bash’ta, dep’pich kwil’ta, un latwar’ik rir’ra hots als’

mé" nar’haita ge’wa und do hen si alsamol’ der dai"he"k’er kshpilt.

Alsimol’ hen si in de® fel’der ’s welsh’karn gebasht’, un wan éns
fun da bi’wa en ro’ter kol/wa kfun’na hot, hot er én’ich éns fun da
mét gebost’ das ar fafig’a hot ken’na, od’ter das ar gegli’cha hot.
Wan a’wer éns fun da mét en ro’ter kol’wa gfun’na hot, no hot dar
was es arsht gsé’na hot si gebost’. Wan’s bash’ta far’tich war, hen
si en dans kat, alsamol’ im feldt, a’wer mersh’tens in der shai’er.

Wan als di yufig’a men’ner gafig’a sin tsi shpar’iya, sin si shir
al’fart garit’ta. No wan si ir gail néksht am haus a™ gebun’na hen,
hen si glai aus’finna kenna eb si wil’/kum wa’ra o’der net ; wail, wan
di mét si net gewelt’ hen, hen si ir gail shté" los’sa, un wan di bi’wa
wil’kum wa’ra hot e’bar di gail glai im shtal kat.

Samsh’dak 0’wets war shpar’iya tsait, und bai del fun da bush lait
war’s bund’la’s gebrauch’, so das di karls als fun samsh’daks bis
mondaks bai da mét wa’ra. Sun’daks sin si als an di ka’rich gafig’a,
un dan hot mer oft ro’ta blak’ka uf da mét i’ra hels sé’na ken’na wu
di bu’wa si tsu hart gebost’ hen—oder ferlaicht’ a bis’sel gebis’sa.

’S kan sai" das in da 4l’ta tsai’ta fershi’dena sach’a kol’fa hen’s
bund’la a’rik gebraich’lich tsi mach’é. Di lait hen hart gshaft un
sin no fri ins bed ; lich’ter wa’ra rar und dai’er, und di bi’wa hen

ee ee ee

oe

327

oft wait tsa ge" kat. Oft mols war yusht &" shlof shtub im haus,
und so hen di Alta und di yufig’a sich hi” gelékt’ tsa blau’dera o’der
tsa shpar’iya.

Des bund’la war 4"na tswa’i’w’! fum aus’landt rai" gebrocht’, un
si hen’s 4 in Nai Yar’ik gedi™ sowol’ als in Pensilfani. Alawail’
di’na si noch in Centre County, hi” un do, a bis’sel bund’la, a’wer’s
nemt nim’mi lafig bis di lait se”na wi shandbar’lich so en gebrauch
is,

Ens fun dia karydsh’da sach’é das mer alawail’ noch findt, is der
wek wi del fun den’na brauch’a dok’tar di’na. E/ner das ich shun
fil yor ken is gans hend’ich am ras’’Ishlafig’a fafig’a. Desdut ar mit
em a® said’-ena shnupduch das ar gé’gha di shlafig hépt. Di tsén in
der shlafig sin wen’ich tsarik’tsus gebo’gha, so wan si sich in di hé
shtrekt ’s shnupduch tsa bai’sa, hen’ka di tse" fesht wi ho’ka;
sel‘awek dut dar dok’tar di shlafig no in di hé hé’wa, so das ar mit
der an’ara hand si hin’na am kop nemt. No wa’ra di tse® raus
geropt’ das si en net bai’sa kan.

Dél sa’gha das mer en shlafig fafig’a kent un das siem 4 net bai’sa
kent, wam mer di war’ta sakt:

* <©Wi Moses di shlafig in der wil’dernes in di hé ko’wa hot, so héb
ich dich uf. Im na’ma dem Fa’der, Sa" un Hai’lich Gaisht solsht
du ken gewalt’ ha’wa mich tsa bai‘sa.”’

D’no kam mer di shlafig 4"na gfor uf hé’wa.

Wan awer di shlafig Ens baist, no wart en mit’tel gebraucht’ das
die lait i’weral sa’gha, dét ni’mols fé’la. Der én’sichsht wék aus tsa
fin’na eb ’s gut is o’der net, is far, e’bar’s shtoft re’ghelmé@’sich tsa
brauch’a wi’s gebraucht’ sai" sot. Des is en blants das si mésh’ter
wart’sel hésa. Der recht na’mais Sanicula marylandica L. Wen’ich
fun der wart’sel wart ferklopt’ und in mil‘ich gekocht’, und no
gedrufig’ka ; di sém tsait wart a fun der ferklop’ta wart’sel in was’ser
ksokt und uf di wund gelékv’.

Del fun da 4l’ta a’wargla’wisha lait sa’gha mer sot en hin‘kel in
der mit dar’ich shnai’ta, und é" helft uf en shlafiga bis lé’gha; des,
sa’gha si, tsikt’s gift aus der wundt so das es hin’kel gans gri® wart.
A’nara sa’gha das mer’m’a hin/kel sai" bart’zel uf di wundt lée’gha
sot, un das es gift so raus getso’gha wart.

Der alt dok’tar sakt 4 das ar di ras’ Ishlafig’a tse" ferka’fa dét tsu
da yufi’g4 men’ner, so’icha wu di mét si li’‘wa mach’a wod’ta. Der
karl das en mét”’] libt das net fil fun im denkt, dut di shlafig’a tsé"

328

in sai" hen’shifig, und wan ’s mév’! no sai® hand nemt kan si sich
nim’mi mé® hel’!a ; si mus’n li’wa eb si wil o’der net.

Wan en ras’ Ishlafig ab’getso’gha is, hefig’ka si si uf in di sun, so
das’s él o’der fet, ab’dropst. Des wart no gebraucht’ far in di
o’ra tsi drop’sé wam/mer hart’harich wart.

Shlafig’a bis wa’ra 4 fershi’dena wé’gha gekiurt’ in fershi’dena
plets. Del lait fershtam’pa ’n tswi’w’l un mik’sa ’s uf mit sals, und
le’gha’s blashder uf di wund.

In Lecha County hen si als shwart’si shlafig’a wart’sel fai"
gemasht’ un in was’ser gekocht’, un d’r no dafun’ in’nerlich ge’wa
un uf di wund gelék’. Di sém tsait hot des, was gebraucht’ hot, di
war’ta gshproch’a :

«¢ Gott hot al/les arshaf/fa, und al/les war gut,

Als du alle", shlafig, bisht ferflucht/.
Ferflucht/ solsht du sai" un dai” gift!

t ie ‘

Tsing Tsifig Tsing.”

Yéd’ermol das es wirt tsifig aus’gshprocha war, hot der braich’er,
mit em fifiger, en kraits i/wer di wund gemacht. Des wart shaint
das wan es fum wart tsifigla har’shtamma dét; awer do kam er net
shur sai", net mé” das in der brauch’a gla’wa sel’ wer.

Des is 4°na tsai’w’l en alt Daitsh sa’ghas, wail mer es shun ima
buch find das in Red’in [Reading] getrukt’ war in 1812 oder 1813,
wu es so shtedt :

“ Gott hatte Alles erschaffen, und Alles war gut ;

Als du allein, Schlange, seiest verflucht;
Verflucht sollst du sein und dein Gift.

t il if

Zing, Zing, Zing

1?

Fil lait sa’gha 4 das was en ras’’Ishlafig’ en shwar'tsi baist, das di
shwarts grat fart genkt un dét sich shwart’si shlafig’a wart’sel such’a
und det dafun’ fres’sa, so das es gift ken sha’da dét.

Wam/’mer di ras”! fun’era shlafig in a glé" sek’ilchia bind und am
a kind sai" hals henkt, grikt’s ken gich’tera wan’s tsant.

Wan di ra’s’l im hut getra’gha wart, grikt mer ken kop’wé.
Lafiga tsai'ta tsarik’ hens si als haut, fun e"nicha sar’ta shlafig’a, um
den 4’ram gebun’na far ru’matis tsi farhi’ta. Des war shir gar uf
der sém plan das wi di bit’wa als o’la haut um’s bé", o’der um en

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329

dram, gebun’na hen far kramp tsa farhi’ta wan si im was’ser wa’1a
far tsa shwim’ma.

Far shtich fun wesh’pa, har’nésel, hum’’la und i’ma, hen dél lait
als nasser lé"ma uf di wund gelékv’.

A’nara hen en shtik sil’wer uf der shtich ko’wa. Dél hen ksat si
ken’té wesh’pa ban’na, und’s sa’gha daf6r’ war :

«: Wish/bli, wesh/bli, shtech mich nicht,
Bis der Dai’w’] di se’gha shpricht.”

Wam’mer so getsif’fer uf hé’wa wil 4"na gshtoch’a tsa sai*, mus
mer di wa’ta sa’gha:

‘¢Weshp [oder was es sai" mak], di hosht net me" gewalt’ far
mich tsa shtec’ha, das der Dai’w’] sé@’lichkait hot far mich fum dot
tsa. wek’ka.’’

En al’ter hex’a dok’tar hot mer ksat das er @’nicher hund ba’na
kent das er net blaf’fa kent. Wan er der hund sé"na dét, dét ar
en shtik hols, o’der, noch bes’ser, en fen’saé shta’ka, in grund rum
dre’a, und di wart’ sa’gha:

«* Hund/li hald dai® mund/li,

Bis dar shta’/ka wid/der recht
Kumt im grund/li.”’

Wan ar no wid’der tsarik’ gét drét ar den shta’ka, o’rder’s shtik
hols, rum, we’s dafor’ war.

Des laut a’rik fil das wan es fun é€m a” al’ta buch genum’ma war
[getruk’t beim Ho’hman in Reading abaut 1812-13], wi’s shtet :

‘Hund, halt deinen Mund auf die Erden; mich hat Gott
erschaffen ; dich hat er lassen werden.

Akg ites WOH

‘¢ Dies machst du nach der Gegend hin, wo ungefahr der Hund
ist; den du musst die Kreuze machen nach dem Hunde zu, und er
darf dich vorher nicht erst sehen, und du musst auch erst den Spruch
sagen.’’

Der sém brauch’a dok’tar sakt 4 das er rot’lafa shtop’pa kent wan
er di hand drei mol i/wer der wé plats raibt, und yé’dermol di war’ta
sakt :

‘¢ Der rot/lafa un drach fart i/wer ’s dach:
Der rot/lafa fargi"gt’, un der drach fershwint’.’’

Far en shnit tsa hé’la, shnait mer drai kart’sa shtek’, elchiar
fun ep’| hols. No nemt mer si gshwish’a di fifi’gar und hébt di

PROC, AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 148.2 P. PRINTED FEB. 6, 1894.

330

en’ner ns noch em a’nara, wed’der den shnit, wik’’It si ai? in babir’
o’der lum’pa und henkt si in der sharn’shte*. Wi no di shtek’-
elchair uf drik’/la wart di wund druk’ka und hélt.
Far wart’sa tsa fardai’wa, raibt mer yé’deri warts drai mol und
sakt :
“ Der hin/nersicht und der far/sichsht;
Der hin/nersicht und der far/sichsht ;
Der hin/nersicht und der far/sichsht.”’

Des kan a’wer yusht glik’lich gadu™ sai" wa mer tswé men’ner uf
em gaul sént.

Noch en wék far en warts tsa fardra’iwa is wa mer’n bend’”’] drum
bindt und no grat ab nem’ma und wek henk’ka un’ich ’s dach. Wi
der bend”] farfault so gét di warts wek.

’S dut farlaicht’ ken sha’da wa mer a wen’ich e’bas mé” sakt fun
da hai/ser un ’s hém/lewa. Di eld’shta hai’ser wa’ra nati’rlich fun
blek, a’wer si hen e’wa glai 4 a” fafigd shté’na tsa bau’a.

Mer wis’sa shir al, das di shai/era gawé’"uetlich gré’ser un bes’ser
gebaut wa’ra widi hai’ser. Shiral’les das im haus gebraucht’ war, war —
hém’gemacht. Dish, shtil, bed’lada, lich’ter-shtek un fet’-lichter,
kar’apet und dep’pich, sowol wi di klé’der un shi, wa’ra bai ens
o’der’m a’nara in der noch’barshaft gemacht’.

Di waib’slait hen der flaks gshpun’na, un di kar’apet lum’pa
tsam’ma ganét’, wail di men’ner’s duch un der ka’rapet gewo’wa
hen. Di waib’slait hen a di shtrimp und hendshifig gshtrikt.

We'ghi wa’ra shpar, un di was es net 4rfor’da hen ken’na en
weg’ Ichia tsa hal’ta hen 14’fa mis’sa far uf psuch o’der an di kar’ich
tsa ge”.

Di menshta sin gi rit’ta, wail di wégha e’wa net i’weral git wa’ra,
un debai’ hot mer so fil bes’ser rum gekent’. Hoch’tsich part’is sin
tsum pa’ra gerit’ta, un sel‘amdls hot di pa’rasfra di hoch’tsich kuch’a
und a’ner es’sis gfun’na. Al’samdls hot der pa’ra gar niks grikt far
sai" dinsht.

O’wets hot als shir al’/la familia gekoch’ter mush kat. Der war
i/nara gro’sa shi’s’] mit mil’ich, in der nut fum dish, und do hot sich
no yéders sel’wer kol’fa.

Wan si mitdaks flésh kat hen, mit gré’wi—dun’kes hen si ’s ké’sa
—no hot yée’ders sai" brod in glé’na shtik’ker farbroc’ha und
mit’era ga’w’l in di shis’sel gedunkt’. Do hots alsamol’ shtrait gewa
wan ens sai" dun/kes 4l ges’si kat hot, und hot no saim noch’bar
sains shté’la wel’la. Sauer kraut hen als del lait mit da fis nun’ner

ddl

gedré’ta, wail si ’s net mit em shtemp”’! farda’wa hen wol’la. Bai,
un shnits un knep, hen si 4 als fil mé" ges’si wi hait’sedaks. Obsht
war als gediart’, und fil hen si 4 ai” gemacht far im win’ter tsa
es'sa.

Lad’warik par’tis hen si als im shpot’yor kat, wan di ep’’! tsaitich
wa’ra un der sai’dir war shun gemacht’. Do hen si als dergan’sa dak
ep’ 1 gshélt un im sai’dar gekocht’, un wi es no shir far’tich war,
gée’gha O’wets, sin di bi’wa kum’ma tsa hel’fa, und wan al’les far’tich
war hen si en dants kat.

Alsimol’ hen si a’rik gemacht’, mit nan’ner rum nar’ra; und si
hen als ksat das dro’wa in Le’cha coun’ti ’n par’ti mol di kats so
geyakt’ hen das si ’s letsht in der kes’sel getshumt’ is. No, ‘wi ens
gfrokt hot was si a’wer nau mit em lad’warik du® ken’ta, hot di alt
ksat, ‘‘ Ai, mer shik’ka ’n e’wa noch Mach Tshonk’’’ [Mauch
Chunk]. Si sa’gha dart hait noch, wan e’pas net gut is, das mer’s
noch Mach Tshonk shik’ka sot. _

Di rél’/wée’gha un di efig’lisha sht’la mach’a en gros’ser un’nershit
un’ich da lait, so das mer nim’mi so fil Daitsh hart wi drais‘ich yor
tsarik’ ; un was noch bes’ser is, is das di 4l’ta 4w’ergla’wa shtar’ik
aus gé’na. Di kin’ner lar’na was recht und not’wennich is, un hal’ta
sich uf mit der tsait.

PHONETICS.

a as in father. ai as in aisle.
4 as in hat.
A as in law.

e as e in bet.

ai as oy in boy.
tsh as ch in chip.
gh as soft g, approaching the sound of ch

é as a in ale.

i asi in it.

i as e in feel.
o as u in hut.
0 as o in pole.

u as 00 in fout.
ii as oo in fool.

in ach, or Arabic xz,

fig as in sing.

> apostrophe indicates the elision of a
sound.

’ added to accented syllables.

nthe superior 7 indicates that the pre-
ceding vowel is to be nasalized.

NOTE.

Other papers by the present writer, relating tothe Pennsylvania Germans, were
published in the Proceedings of this Society, Vol. xxvi, 1888, as follows: “ Gram-
matic Notes and Vocabulary,” pp. 187-285; “ Folk-Medicine,” zéz¢., pp. 329-
352. Also in the ournal of American Folk-Lore, Boston and New York, Vol.
i, 1888, as follows: ‘‘ Folk-Lore,” pp. 125-135; Vol. ii, 1889, “ Folk-Lore,”’ pp.
23-35; and zé7d., «* Tales and Proverbs,” pp. 191-202.

332
On the Growth of the Forestry Idea in Pennsylvania.

By Dr. J. T. Rothrock, Secretary of the Pennsylvania Forestry
Association; and Member of the Pennsylvania Forestry
Commission.

An occasion like the present, when this Society celebrates its cen-
tury and a half of useful activity, might also mark a fitting period for
the State to inaugurate a change from a period of wasteful extrava-
gance in its forests to one of jealous care for their perpetuity. We
may, at least, record the fact, that the first serious attempt on the
part of the Commonwealth to adopt protective forest laws dates
from the spring of 1893.

It is quite true that Penn had stipulated, with those whom he
styles adventurers, in his newly acquired domain, that they should
retain one acre in six in trees ; especially that the oak and the mul-
berry should be preserved, the one for ships and the other for silk.
How these healthful restrictions came to be abrogated, or set aside,
is unknown to the writer.

The following letter is of interest, not because it indicates any
real forestry ideas, for it does not, but because it is so strikingly ap-
propriate yet.

« Passy, December 24, 1782.

«‘T thank you for your ingenious paper in favor of the trees. I own I wish we
had two rows of them in every one of our streets. The comfortable shelter they
would afford us in walking, from our burning summer suns, and the greater cool-
ness of our walls and pavements, would, I conceive, in the improved health of
the inhabitants, amply compensate the loss of a house now and then by fire, if
such should be the consequence; but a tree is soon felled, and as axes are at hand
in every neighborhood, may be down before the engines arrive.” —Dr. Benjamin
Franklin to John Hopkinson.

Marshall’s Ardustum, published in 1785 in Philadelphia, was not
only a notable contribution to the forest literature of its time, but
is now of increasing interest in view of important changes in nomen-
clature which are pending.

The earliest settlers on the New England coast did, here and
there, farm out timber privileges and grant special wood rights
under certain circumstances. It was not to be expected that they
could at once come to consider trees as of no value. Education
and experience both forbade this.

er.

333

It was otherwise with the first generation born here. In their
eyes the forest was simply illimitable ; and without it the soil was
of greater value than with it. Two centuries have matured the
tree-destroying tendency into an instinct; and in regard to the
proper use and conservation of our forest resources, we, asa people,
are in the position of France, for example, four centuries ago. To
put the proposition in another form, we furnish an illustration of a
nation lapsing into the extravagance of barbarism because of the
abundance of our supplies, so far at least as our use of the trees is
concerned.

April 3, 1872, marked an era in our national forestry legislation,
for on that date, Hon. Richard Haldeman, of Pennsylvania, intro-
duced into Congress, by unanimous consent, a bill (21,971) to en-
courage the planting of trees, and for the preservation of woods on
the public domain. Mr. Haldeman, explaining his measure, on
April 11, speaks of it as a ‘‘ subject hitherto unattempted in legis-
lation,’’ by which, of course, he meant in this country. On the
17th, he further explained that his bill was only to meet a pressing
need, without discouraging the rapid settlement of the great West.
It is fair to say that, considered as a whole, Mr. Haldeman’s address
on the subject has not been improved upon, to this day. April 30,
the measure was further discussed, and was defeated by a small
majority. The agitation, however, was not without result; for in
1873, the American Association for the Advancement of Science
urged an examination into the subject. The President made the
recommendation the basis of a special message, out of which grew
‘a bill for the appointment of a commission for inquiry into the
destruction of forests and into the measures necessary for the pre-
servation of timber.’ March 17, Mr. Dunnell, from the Committee
on Public Lands, submitted a report upon the cultivation of timber
and the preservation of forests. It is a matter of some pride that a
Pennsylvanian, a member of this Society, was Chairman of the Com-
mittee on Public Lands, which reported favorably upon the request
for a commission of inquiry ; and he was largely instrumental in
aiding the passage of the bill, authorizing it, through the lower
House. I refer to the Honorable Washington Townsend, of West
Chester. The years 1877, 1878, 1879 and 1882, witnessed the
publication by the late F. B. Hough of his reports upon forestry,
through the Department of Agriculture in Washington. With all
their defects they are to this day landmarks in our forest literature.

334

With these preliminary statements, we may now turn to our im-
mediate subject, The Growth of the Forestry Idea in Pennsylvania.

In 1877, the State Board of Agriculture began an active advocacy
of forest restoration in this State; no less than five papers dealing
with the different aspects of the problem were printed in its report
for that year. In 1878, there were two brief papers. The current
was started, and from that time on to the present, each year has
witnessed a more or less extended presentation of the subject in the
agricultural reports of Pennsylvania.

Among the contributors are Prof. Meehan, Josiah Hoopes, Frank-
lin B. Hough, Thomas J. Edge, Prof. William A. Buckhout, Dr. John
P. Edge, Dr. W. S. Roland, and the writer. The report of Dr. Roland
is, up to this time, the most painstaking and satisfactory that has been
produced on the trees of Pennsylvania. It serves, however, to illus-
trate how much the State is in need of a full, reliable report bear-
ing on every aspect of the subject. Nothing better than the report
of Dr. Roland could have been produced at the time and under the
circumstances. In 1885, the Senate resolved and the House con-
curred in a resolution requesting the Governor to appoint one day
each year as ‘‘ Arbor Day.’’ This resolution received the Gover-
nor’s signature: but for some reason, a similar resolution was
passed at the next session of the Legislature, 1887, which resolution,
however, originated this time in the House. What the ultimate
outcome of the day may be here, it is impossible to predict ; though
the promise is not encouraging. It was natural enough that Arbor
day should have been eagerly adopted in treeless States. The case
is wholly different in a Commonwealth ranking as the second
lumber-producing State in the Union. ‘There was not only indif-
ference, but actual hostility, in some quarters, to any agitation of
the forestry problem. Until within a brief period even the lumber-
men recognized neither utility nor sense in it.

The year 1877, however, produced another active force in mould-
ing public opinion in favor of forest conservation and restoration.
The legacy of F. Andre Michaux (commonly here called The
Younger Michaux), a member of this Society, became available as
a fund which could be legitimately devoted to the support of a
course of forestry lectures,

It would be clearly improper to fail to record the fact that the
earliest funds available in this country for instruction in a science
which every other civilized government had come to recognize as

335

worthy of State support reached us as a legacy from a foreign
savant.

Michaux had traveled extensively in this country, alone and also
in company with his father. While he recognized the crude condi-
tion of much of what he saw, indeed of what we were proud, and
criticised it freely, he, nevertheless, retained a feeling of respect
and affection for the young Republic where he was hospitably re-
ceived and of which he evidently entertained great hopes.

His will provided that, after the death of his wife, his property
should be divided between the Agricultural Society of Massachu-
setts and the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia. It
was specified that the money so received was to be utilized in the
interest of agriculture and forestry.

It also befits the time that the part taken by another member of
this Society in the institution of the Michaux lectures should be re-
corded.

It was to the late Eli K. Price that the idea of commemorating
Michaux, the testator, in this manner seems first to have occurred.
He was not led from the plain conditions of the bequest into any
illusions which the will neither contemplated nor allowed. The
money was clearly devoted to the most practical of sciences, and it
is creditable to this Society that it has been conscientiously so ex-
pended.

We may fairly measure the value of the work done in moulding
public sentiment into healthy form, when it is remembered that it
was in these Michaux lectures the following points were first sug-
gested as representing a healthful public policy for Pennsylvania.

1. That the individual forest owner is under moral obligations
not to recklessly despoil the State by waste of timber resources ; and
that it is equally the duty of the State to see that he does not impair
the future prosperity of the Commonwealth by any willful extrava-
gance. ‘This follows from the simple proposition that the first duty
of a State is to provide for its own perpetuity. It is for this reason
that we submit to legal control ; for without perpetuity the strong
inducement to thrift, in the interest of our children, is lacking.

2. That so long as any owner of timber land allowed his timber
to stand, he receiving no benefit therefrom, he was entitled to an
exemption from taxes because the chief value of trees under such
conditions was to hoard water for a community at a distant point.

336

In other words, the owner paid the taxes, and another party received
the benefit.

3. That it would be a wise policy for the State to pay the taxes
on poor water sheds from which the timber has been removed
(when these were sold by the sheriff), and then either hold them
itself, as permanent forest preserves, or to turn them over to the
counties, under certain restrictions, as a sort of communal property
to be kept in timber, allowing only removal of that which is
matured. ;

4. That whilst it is true that trees are more important to the
State than to the individual land owner, it would be ‘‘ un-Ameri-
can’’ to deprive him even under this pressure of the right to do as
he wishes with his own; but that it is in order for the land owner
to ask what aid does the State propose to offer in production and
protection of the trees which are of such vast importance to it ?

‘Mr. Price may well have been called a seer. His vision has
since often proved to have been prophetic. His relation to the
great questions of the day was so close that no history of Pennsyl-
vania can well be written without reference to his name, and it is
but justice to say, that he was about the year 1877, the most active
and powerful friend of forestry in the State. His memory extended
back clearly for three-fourths of a century. He could recognize the
extremity to which we were coming. Vast areas of timber had been
removed and the ground rendered unproductive to the Common-
wealth. Of all this he was an eye-witness. It is therefore not
strange that he became so positive in his views.

The times were ripe for this new movement. The general Govern-
ment, though its measures were but half-hearted, had given an im-
petus to the States. Especially were the Western ones concerned
in forestry. Their mechanical and agricultural industries clearly
must languish but for the timber; and the water which the wood-
lands retained. In most instances it was quite clear that there was
not enough for immediate wants ; and the question naturally arose
as to the future.

It is doubtful whether any of the Eastern States has been more
active in bringing about the forestry revival than Pennsylvania.
Certainly none had jarger interests at stake. The census statistics
for 1880 showed that in point of lumber production it stood second ;
and common observation also revealed the fact that this did not
suffice for her own wants, because she zmforted more than she

330

exported. Her output for that year reached enormous proportions,
and aggregated 1,733,844,000 feet, board measure. The total
value of all her forest products, for the same period, was $22,457,359,
and the wages paid amounted to $2,918, 459.

In. the year 1886, some public-spirited ladies in Philadelphia
' took active measures for the formation of the Pennsylvania Forestry
Association. There was but little general interest in the new
organization, and as it offered little else than a prolonged struggle
with public opinion its active workers were few. They were, how-
ever, thoroughly loyal. In spite of neglect, and often of ridicule,
the work went quietly on. A modest little journal under title of
Fforest Leaves was published, with occasional illustrations. It should
here be noted that but for the zealous volunteer services of Mr.
John Birkenbine, as editor, this missionary sheet could not have
been continued. Through the liberality of a few members, it was
largely circulated, almost regardless of the recipient’s relation to
the subscription list. Though it was quite clear that the intelli-
gence of the community was crystallizing in regard to the forestry
idea, the fact had not impressed itself upon the Pennsylvania Legis~
lature even as late as the session of 1889, for a bill ‘‘ to establish a
forest commission and to define its powers and duties, and for the
preservation of forest and timber lands’’ was buried beneath the
negative recommendation of the Committee on Agriculture of the
lower House; notwithstanding the fact that the services of the
commission involved no other expense than the actual outlay of the
members when on duty. It is worth while to record these facts be-
cause they illustrate how very near one may be to victory of a prin-
ciple (as that of 1893), when in the very face of defeat.

Certain concessions had already been made by our Legislature ;
for example, that of 1879 authorized a remission of taxes for tree
planting by the roadside, and it protected the same when planted.
It also enacted a law against those who ‘‘ wantonly and willfully
kindle any fire on the land of another ;’’ ¢f that jire results in any
damage.

The session of 1885 enacted that sales of land made for arrearages
of taxes were to be deemed valid, whether said lands were seated
or unseated at time of sale. The session of 1887 amended this,
so as to allow the owner two years in which to redeem his lands.
It was also enacted in 1885 that lands were not to be sold and sales

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XxxII. 143. 2Q. PRINTED MAY 23, 1894.

338

were not to be valid, if at time of assessment there was sufficient
personal property on said lands to pay taxes. These sales mostly
related to poor timber land.

In 1887, an act was passed for encouragement of forest culture
and provided penalties for the injury and destruction of forests.
This was amended in session of 1891, and now stands thus on the
Statute Book: .

AN ACT

For the encouragement of forest culture,and providing penalties for the injury and
destruction of forests.

SECTION 1. Ge zt enacted, etc., That in consideration of the public benefit to
be derived from the planting and cultivation of forest or timber trees, the owner
or owners of any land in this Commonwealth planted with forest or timber
trees in number not less than twelve hundred to the acre, shall, on making due
proof thereof, be entitled to receive annually from the commissioners of their
respective counties, during the period that the said trees are maintained in sound
condition upon the said land, the following sums of money :

For a period of ten years after the land has been so planted, a sum equal to
ninety per centum of all the taxes annually assessed and paid upon the said land,
or so much of the said ninety per centum as shall not exceed the sum of forty-five
cemts per acre ;

For a second period of ten years, a sum equal to eighty per centum of the said
taxes, or so much of the said eighty per centum as shall not exceed the sum of
forty cents per acre ;

For a third and final period of ten years a sum equal to fifty per centum of the
said taxes, or so much of the said fifty per centum as shall not exceed the sum of
twenty-five cents per acre ;

Provided, Vhat it shall be lawful for the owner or owners of the said land, after
the same has been so planted for at least ten years, tu thin out and reduce the
number of trees growing thereon to not less than six hundred to the acre, so long
as no portion of the said lands shall be absoiutely cleared of the said trees ;

And provided also, That the benefits of this act shall not be extended to
nurserymen or others growing trees for sale for future p!anting.

Sec. 2. The owner or owners of forest or timber land in this Commonwealth,
which has been so cleared of merchantable timber, who shall, within one year after
the said land has been so cleared, have given notice to the commissioners of their
respective counties that the said land is to be maintained in timber, and who
shall maintain upon the said land young forest or timber trees in sound condition,
in number at least twelve hundred to the acre, shall, on making due proof thereof,
be entitled to receive annually from the commissioners of their respective counties
the sums of money mentioned in the first section of this act: Provided, That the
first period of ten years shall be counted from the time that the said land has been
cleared of merchantable timber, and that, after the said first period of ten years,

339

the number of trees upon the said land may be reduced as in the said first section
is provided.

Sec. 3. Any person or persons who shall willfully or carelessly cut bark from
or otherwise cut, burn or injure any tree, plant, shrub or sprout planted, growing
or being on any land in this Commonwealth, without the consent of the owner or
owners thereof first had and obtained, or who without such consent, shall kindle,
or cause to be kindled, a fire on any forest or timber land in this Commonwealth,
or who shall carry into cr over any forest or timber land any lighted candle, lamp
or torch, or other fire, without having the same secured in a lantern or other
closed vessel, or who shall discharge or set off fireworks of any kind on said land
or among the trees thereon, or who shall willfully or carelessly burn or fire upon his
or their own land, or that of others, any tree, brush, stubble or other combustible
material whereby fire shall be communicated to the leaves, brush or timber upon
any forest or timber lands belonging to other parties, shall be subject to a penalty
not exceeding one hundred dollars for each offense committed, with costs of suit ;
Provided, That if the defendant or defendants neglect or refuse to pay at once
the penalty imposed and costs, or shall not enter sufficient bail for the payment of
the same within ten days, he or they shall be committed to the common jail of
said county for a period of not less than one day for each dollar of the penalty im-
posed; And provided, When the penalty imposed is above five dollars, the
defendant or defendants may enter into a recognizance, with good security, to
answer said complaint on a charge of misdemeanor, before the Court of Quarter
Sessions of the peace of the county in which the offense is committed, which
court, on conviction of the defendant or defendants of the offense so charged, and
failure to pay the penalty imposed by this Act, with costs, shall commit said de
fendant or defendants to the common jail of the county for a period of not less
than one day for each dollar of penalty impcsed.

Sec. 4. Any justice of the peace or alderman, upon information or complaint
made before him by the affidavit of one or more persons of the violation of this
act, by any person or persons, shall issue his warrant, to any constable or police
officer, to cause such person or persons to be arrested and brought before the said
justice of the peace or alderman, who shall hear and determine the guilt or inno-
cence of the person or persons so charged, who, if convicted of the said offense,
shall be sentenced to pay the penalty aforesaid.

Sec, 5. The commissioners of each county shall, within one month after the
passage of this act, cause the same to be published, one or more times, in one
newspaper of general circulation in their respective counties.

It should be said that the Legislature of 1889, though it killed in
Committee the bill for the act to establish a Forest Commission,
did have the grace to remunerate those who had drawn the bill for
the time and labor bestowed upon the work. The Legislature of
1891 actually went so far as to pay the expenses of the delegates ap-
pointed by Governor Beaver to the meeting of the American
Forestry Congress which held its session in Philadelphia. In the

340

same year an act was passed which provided ‘‘ for recovery of
damages to trees along public highways, by telegraph, telephone
and electric light companies.’’ This, however, can hardly be said
to have affirmed any new principle. At most, it rendered the
general law a little more specific.

December 12, 1892, Prof. J. T. Rothrock was engaged to devote
his whole time to the interests of the Association.

In January, 1893, the Hon. D. Smith Talbot, of Chester county,
introduced a measure for the Pennsylvania Forestry Association into
the Legislature. ‘‘It was entitled An Act Relative toa Forestry Com-
mission and Providing for the Expenses Thereof.’’ The measureas
it finally passed, is inserted here in full, as it enjoys the distinction
of being the first act passed which recognized that forests were of
enough importance to the State to be looked after, even if the over-
sight must be paid for. It is clearly then a boundary line between
old and new methods.*

SECTION I. Be zt enacted, etc., That the Governor be authorized to appoint two
persons as a Commission, one of whom is to be a competent engineer, one a
botanist, practically acquainted with the forest trees of the Commonwealth, whose
duty it shall be to examine and report upon the conditions of the slopes and sum-
mits of the important watersheds of the State, for the purpose of determining how
far the presence or absence of the forest cover may be influential in producing
high and low water stages in the various river basins; and to report how much
timber remains standing of such kinds as have special commercial value, how
much there is of each kind; as well, also, as to indicate the part or parts of the
State where each grows naturally, and what measures, if any, are being taken to
secure a supply of timber for the future. It shall, further, be the duty of said
Commission to suggest such measures in this connection as have been found of
practical service elsewhere in maintaining a proper timber supply, and to ascertain,
as nearly as is practicable, what proportion of the State, not now recognized as
mineral land, is unfit for remunerative agriculture, and could with advantage be
devoted to the growth of trees.

Sec. 2, The said Commission shall also ascertain what wild lands, if any, now
belong to the Commonwealth ; their extent, character and location, and report the
same, together with a statement of what part, or parts of such lands would be
suitable for a State Forest Reserve; and further, should the lands belonging to
the Commonwealth be insufficient for such purpose, then to ascertain and report
what other suitable lands there may be within the State, their extent, character

*This Act was approved by Governor Pattison on the 23d day of May; and on June 8,
he further complied with its provisions by appointing Dr. J. T. Rothrock the botanist
member and Col. A. Harvey Tyson the engineer member of the Commission. The statis-
tician appointed under the Act was Mr. Frysinger Evans. Col. Tyson was soon suc-
ceeded by Mr. William F. Shunk; and Mr. Eyans by Mr. Percy McClellan.

341

and value. The final report of the said Commission shall be presented to the
Legislature not later than March 15, 1895.

Sec. 3. The said Commission shall have power to appoint one competent per-
son to act as statistician, whose duties shall be to compile the statistics collected
by said Commission, under their direction and supervision, whose salary shall be
one thousand dollars per annum, with necessary expenses, to be paid in the same
manner as is hereinafter provided for the payment of the Forestry Commission.

Sec. 4. The Commissioners appointed hereunder shall be entitled to receive by
quarterly payments a compensation as follows: The Engineer, twenty-five hundred
dollars ($2500) per annum; the Botanist, twenty-five hundred dollars ($2500)
per annum, with necessary expenses for each; and the sum of twenty thousand
dollars ($20,000), or so much as may be necessary, is hereby appropriated out
of any money in the treasury, not otherwise appropriated, to be paid by warrant
drawn by the Auditor-General.

It should be added that the chief executive officers of the Com-
monwealth had already recognized the magnitude of the forestry
problem. Governors Hartranft, Beaver and Pattison had made
urgent allusions to it, in their messages.

Such, in brief, is the history of the forestry ideain Pennsylvania.
There remains yet to be given an outline of the conditions existing
when a change in public policy seems to be assured for the near
future.

The area of Pennsylvania may be stated in round numbers at
46,000 square miles. Of this we may say approximately 64 per
cent. is in farms; or under some general oversight, not usually
accorded to forests in this country. That is to say, that in a little
more than two and a half centuries of civilized occupation, we have
swept off about two-thirds of the forest area of the State. When
first settled almost its entire area was densely wooded. In doing
so we have reached a point where importation of lumber ex-
ceeds exportation. Nor is this all. We have practically extermi-
nated the Wild Black Cherry (Prunus serotina Ehrh.), the Black
Walnut (/Juglans nigra. L.), and two of our most valuable Hickories
(Carya alba Nutt. and Carya porcina Nutt.) have ceased to be
abundant enough for our own special industries. Hemlock ( Zsuga
Canadensis Carr.) is superseding White Pine (Pinus strobus L.) be-
cause the latter is becoming poor in quality, or high in price; in
fact the better qualities of earlier days are no longer to be had ex-
cept at exorbitant rates. Within five years, extensive Hemlock
forests have been cut solely for the bark, the trunks being allowed
to remain and rot unutilized, just where they fell. It may be pos-

342

sible that this wasteful lumbering still exists; though it must be
uncommon.

As late as 1892 the farmer was obliged by the fence law of 1700
to fence out his neighbor’s cattle from his fields. Thus each indi-
vidual stood in a condition of armed neutrality with his com-
munity. The special bearing of the fact, however, lies in this, that
to maintain this fence law, which was a relic of barbarism, we were
wasting, in the State of Pennsylvania enough of valuable timber to
have made a five-rail fence around the globe thirteen times. In
other words, there were standing in our State in the year 1893 about
325,000 miles of fences. Nothing more wasteful than this in rela-
tion to our timber resource is known to have existed since the
pioneer period, when the settler was driven to roll his logs into piles
and burnthem. It is hardly creditable to the law-making intelli-

gence of the State that a law so false in principle, as this, was al-
lowed to stand unrepealed upon our statute books for one hundred
and ninety-two years.

Forest fires are allowed to rage during the drier panied of each
year, until competent authority has placed the average annual loss
of forest property in the State at the enormous sum of between two
and three millions of dollars. In fact, under certain conditions,
frequently existing, no insurance company will assume risks on such
property. Worst of all, the public mind accepts, too often, this
state of affairs as inevitable.

In the spring of 1893, there existed in Pennsylvania but one arti-
ficially planted forest, which was conducted on business principles
and with a prospect of financial return for the capital invested.

The forestry movement indicates a reform in other directions than
appears on the surface. It is a recognition of the broad fact that
we as a young people have been wasteful in the use of all our re-
sources; but that now we are coming under the inexorable laws of
economy which govern older nations. ‘The altered conditions will
probably be none the more pleasant because enforced.

To-day we celebrate an anniversary of our Society, and it would
appear to bea fitting occasion for a statement of facts concerning
the forest regime which is passing away before a new and better one.
Especially is this so when it is remembered how conspicuous a part
the Society has taken in bringing the change about.

343

Dust from the Krakatoa Eruption of 1883.
By Joseph Wharton, Philadelphia.

The splendid roseate glows which in the winter of 1883-4 were
visible in the western sky after sunset and in the eastern sky
before sunrise, gave rise to many conjectures, but apparently to
almost no experiments. A few persons believed those glows to be
sunlight reflected from the under surface of a stratum of fine solid
particles suspended at a great height in the atmosphere; some
thought with me that those particles might be volcanic dust which
had floated to us from the eruption at Krakatoa, but, as no one
offered any proof of this, I attempted on the morning of January
20, 1884, to demonstrate it. Six miles northward from the centre
of Philadelphia, where I reside, a light and fine snow was then
gently falling in an almost calm atmosphere, presumably from a
high altitude. Of that snow, while it was yet falling, I collected
about a gallon by skimming it carefully with my hands from a con-
siderable surface in a field a hundred yards to windward of my
house and a quarter-mile from the nearest windward building.

This very clean new-fallen snow I melted under cover in the
porcelain bowl it was gathered in, and was at first unable to detect
any sediment; after maintaining for several minutes a gentle
rotatory movement of the bowl in order to bring into its deepest
part any solid matter which might be present, I poured off most of
the water and evaporated the remainder. A minute quantity of
fine dust was then discerned by the tiny vitreous reflections which
it gave in the sunlight. My practice in chemical analysis, and
therefore in weighing small quantities, affords some justification for
the estimate that the total weight of this dust was less than one-
hundredth of a grain.

Under the microscope, where it was immediately placed, this
dust showed the characteristics of volcanic glass ; it consisted in part
of irregular, flattish, blobby fragments, mostly transparent and
showing no trace of crystalline structure, in part of transparent fila
ments more or less contorted, sometimes attached together in wisps,
and mostly sprinkled with minute glass particles. The filaments of
glass had about the same diameter as single filaments of silk placed
on the microscope slide for comparison with them.

344

Having microscopically examined the dust again and again, I
ignited it upon platinum to destroy any organic matter which might
be present, and thereafter found the filaments, the flat plates, and
the amorphous accretions of glass quite unchanged.

No pyroxene, augite, or magnetite, such as have elsewhere been
observed in volcanic dust, was present ; it may be assumed that, if
at first mingled with the glass, those heavier minerals had been
dropped during the long voyage of more than ten thousand miles of
space and more than four months of time.

The capacity of fine volcanic glass to float in the air to considera-
ble distances being a well-established phenomenon, my examination
claims no greater novelty or interest than what may be due to the
actual finding of such glass at so great distance from the point of
its ejection. :

In this case two separate ejections seem to be indicated, for on
-several evenings I observed a second and fainter glow after the
original and stronger glow had entirely disappeared. A higher
stratum of finer particles doubtless reflected the sunlight from the
greater altitude after the sun had set at the lower elevation of the
principal dust stratum.

Early in February, 1884, the ship 7. &. Ridgeway arrived at
Philadelphia from Manila by the Strait of Sunda. On February
12, I visited that ship, and read on her log-book that at to P.M.,
October 27, 1883, in south latitude 7° 57’ and east longitude 100°
54 (about five hundred miles W. S. W. from Krakatoa), she en-
countered a vast field of floating pumice, through which she sailed
until 7 a.m., October 29. So abundant was this pumice that the
ship’s speed was reduced from nine knots when she entered it to two
knots at 6 p.M., October 28; several hours after that time her speed
gradually increased, as the pumice became less dense, from two
knots to eight, and finally, when she cleared it, to her normal nine
knots. No volcanic ash had fallen upon the ship, as she arrived too
late upon the scene.

Some of this pumice I took directly from the hands of the mate
and steward, who had collected it from the sea and had kept it in
their private lockers. It can scarcely be doubted that this pumice
was ejected from Krakatoa.

Now, on placing under the microscope small crumbs of that
pumice and filaments picked out from its cavities, I recognized just
such transparent flattish scraps and ragged accretions as were

345

among the dust found in the snow-fall of January 20, while the fila-
ments, though less varied and interesting than those then collected,
were quite similar in character, even to the tiny glass particles
sprinkled upon them.

A minor point of resemblance was that the yellow color of one
little vesicular mass in the dust caught January 20 was fairly matched
by a slight streak of similar color in the pumice.

In March, 1884, I collected dust from the steel works at South
Bethlehem, Pa., and also dust from a blast furnace there, in order
to compare them with the dust found in the snow and with the fila-
ments and crumbs of pumice from the ship 7. £. Ridgeway.

After separating from these dusts the large proportion which was
attracted by the magnet, the remnant showed in each case many
vitreous particles ; that from the iron furnace largely spheroidal or
globular, with a few filaments; that from the steel works partly
minute rounded particles, but containing many filaments of great
tenuity. Neither contained such clear vitreous plates and aggrega-
tions as abounded in the snow-dust, while the filaments in both
cases were of dark color, and smooth, straight form, distinctly dif-
ferent from the colorless and frequently contorted filaments of the
snow-dust.

It is difficult to resist the conclusions (1) that the vitreous dust
found in the snow-fall of January 20, 1884, was not derived from
iron or steel furnaces, (2) that it was of similar origin to the floating
pumice found by the ship 7. Z. Ridgeway, (3) that it was ejected
by the huge volcanic explosions of Krakatoa.

Den Forschern.
Von Dr. Hermann Rollett® (Baden bet Wien).

Welch’ frischhinwogende Bewegung hast

Du aufgestért, die Alles rings erfasst,

Du Wort Darwin's, das langst lag auf den Zungen,
Doch auszusprechen Keinem war gelungen :

Dass sich—nach Luftart, Nahrung, anderm Leben—
Die Organismen ‘‘ anzupassen ’’ streben ;

Dass ‘‘ Aenderungen ”’ sich dadurch gestalten,

Die durch ‘‘ Vererbung ’’ fest sich forterhalten ;

* Als Gruss aus der Ferne gewidmet zur glorreichen, am 22. bis 26. Mai 1893 stattfin-
denden Jubiliumsfeier der American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143.2 R,. PRINTED MAY 28, 1894.

346

Dass jene Arten dauern dann der Wesen,

Die frei im ‘‘ Kampf um’s Dasein’’ aus sich lesen ;
Dass mit der ‘‘ Zuchtwabl’’ so am Ziel wir waren,
Die ‘‘ Artenbildung ’’ einfach zu erklaren.—

Und spahend folgt das Aug’ der Wissenschaft
Dem Wirken der im Stoff gelegnen Kraft,

Dem Uranfang der Wesen, deren Stoff

Aus gliih’ndem Dunst des Weltalls einstens trof,
Durch dessen Schlummer stets die Krafte wallten,
Die schaffend vor Aeonen Welten ballten,—
Dem Zwange folgend, der in ihnen lag,

Und als ‘“‘ Bewegung ’’ ewig wirken mag.—

Der Eine sieht im Geist—organisch’ Leben

Aus unorganischem sich malig heben,

Und sieht aus kraftbelebten Stoffs Gewalten

Die Zelle ‘‘ autogonisch’’ sich gestalten.

Der And’re sieht—weil ew7zg ihm das Leben—
Organ’schen Stoff seit je im Weltraum schweben,
Zum ‘‘ Urschleim”’ ihn sich bilden friih auf Erden,
D’raus erste Wesen ‘‘ plasmagonisch ’’ werden.

Und wie’s auch sei,—es that’s doch ewig nur
Aus unbewusstem Drange die Natur;

Und, ob es malig oder rasch geschah,—

War nur die Form einmal der Ze//e da,

So konnten alle Wesen sich gestalten

Durch jene ‘‘ artenbildenden’’ Gewalten ;—
Die Wissenschaft geht siegreich aus dem Streit,
Weist forschend nach, dass hier in aller Zeit
Die Wesenreihe eine Kette ist,

An der wohl manches Glied noch wird vermisst,
Das ausgestorben langst und so verschwunden—
Wenn nicht vielleicht, bis jetzt nur nicht gefunden ;—
Und von der Zelle bis zum Menschen zeigt
Kein Sprung sich ihr; und bildend abgezweigt
Erscheint die neue Form nur von der alten

In der Natur unendlichem Gestalten.

oAT

Vom Affen kann der Mensch zwar nimmer stammen,
Doch even Urahn hatten wir zusammen,

Aus dem zwei Formen, die sich strebend fanden,
Durch jene Artenbildung einst entstanden.

Und weiter geht die riist’ge Wissenschaft—
Natur befreiend aus des Dunkels Haft—

Und sagt: die Bildung neuer Arten werde

Nur dann Jdesteh’n, wenn fern, auf ~ewem Herde
Des Bildens, sich die neue Abart findet,

Wenn die Vermischung mit der alten schwindet.
Die Wanderung sei dieser Wandlung Grund—

‘¢ Migration ’’ benennt’s des Forschers Mund.

Und weiter noch fiihrt fort des Wissens Pfad,

Es schallt: Ihr seid der Wahrheit nur genaht ;—

Die ‘‘ Zuchtwahl’’ nicht und ‘‘ Wand’rung’’ nicht ad/ecn
Wirkt artenbildend,—dezde mégen’s sein !

So wird denn mehr und mehr die ‘‘ Schépfung’’ klar,
Das Weltgeheimniss leuchtend offenbar ;

Und in das dammernde Gewirr des Lebens

Der Forscher halt die Fackel nicht vergebens.

Die Angstgemiither doch und Finsterlinge,
Die rufen ‘‘ Weh”’ nur iiber diese Dinge ;

Sie schreien ‘‘ Frevel ist’s!’’ in alle Welt,
Dass es der Menschheit in die Ohren gellt.

Sie schnauben : ‘‘ Hért nur !—nicht von Gott erschaffen
Erklaren sie den Menschen, den yom Affen
Sie stammen lassen ; und des Menschen Ge7s¢,
Der sich von Go¢¢ gegeben doch erweist,

Den nennen sie ein ‘ Resultat’’ vermessen—

O hort !—von ‘ Compensations-Processen !’
Da endet der Begriff von Bés und Gut,

Von Recht und Tugend! Allen Lebensmuth
Verliert der Mensch da, dem die tolle Zeit
Den Glauben raubt an die Unsterblichkeit !

348

Im ‘Kampf um’s Dasein’ wird der Vortheil nur
Die Menschheit leiten ; wie der Z/zer-Natur
Wird sinnliches Geniessen nur allein

Das Ziel gewissenloser Wesen sein !

Die Erde, die der Weg zum Himmel ist,

Sie wird ein ekler Sumpf zu dieser Frist ;

Und statt, dass Seligkeit der Menschheit winkt,
Verzweifelnd sie in Barbarei versinkt !’’—

So jammern sie. Und in des Morgens Flimmen
Da rufen noch die besten von den Stimmen:

** Versdhnung—an dem Abgrund, der uns droht,—
Von Wissen und von Glauden thut uns noth !”’
Und zuruft manch’ Verfechter uns des Alten—
Der Schule Philosoph—‘‘ doch Mass zu halten,
Das ew’ ge Unbedingte ‘ Gott’ zu nennen,

Das vom Jeding? Besteh’nden sei zu trennen ;’’—
Indess doch unbedingt ist a//es Sein

~ Dem Wesen nach,—die Form bedingt allein,

Die ohne vorbedachten Zweck entsteht,

Aus innerem Gesetz hervor nur geht,

Das von der strengen Regel aé nur weicht,

Wird fest dadurch ein Adher Ziel erreicht.—

Ihr Forscher ! muthig fort nur auf der Bahn,
Die lichtvoll fiihrt aus altem Trug und Wahn.
Und wie sie larmen auch und wie sie toben,

Die selbstisch Grund und Sinn des Seins verschoben,
Die einen ‘‘ vorbedachten Zweck’’ verlangen,
Weil ihrer Hers schaft Fesseln daran hangen,
Die einen Zweck, der ausser uns ist, setzen

Und so fiir’s “‘ Diesseits’’ zur Hntsagung hetzen,
Die demuthsvoll den G/auéen da begehren,

Wo wir des Lichts des W7ssens noch entbehren,
Das wir doch leuchtend hell hervor seh’n blitzen
Aus der Verhiillung schon weitoffnen Ritzen.

Nur fort, ihr Forscher! lichtet alles Dunkel!
Macht frei der Wahrheit strahlendes Gefunkel !

349

Enthiillt die hehre, leuchtende Gestalt,

Die lange lag in finsterer Gewalt !

Verkiindet aller Dinge Sinn und Grund

Und gebt der Welt zugleich die Mahnung kund:
Dass Keiner seine Wiirde je vergisst,

Weil er ja Glied der Menschheitskette ist,

Und weil als solches Jedes seine Pichi

Und auch sein Recht hat; da flieht Tugend nicht,
Und nimmermehr wird jener Schreckruf wahr,
Dass alles Edle, Hohe in Gefahr ;—

Und wahre Sittlichkeit hebt dann die Brust

Und bringt ihr Lebensfreude, Lebenslust,

Und macht—indem sie fiir den Sturm der Welt
Den Menschen fest auf ezg’xe Fiisse stellt, —
Dass er dem armen kurzen Erdentag

Ein wenig doch des Gliicks entringen mag,

Und dass wir wirken froh, durch That und Wort,
Und ewig leben in der Menschheit fort!

Phylogeny of an Acquired Characteristic.
By Alpheus Hyatt.

PREFACE.

This memoir was first given as a short address before the American
Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, at the celebration of the one
hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the foundation of that illus-
trious body. A short preliminary abstract was subsequently pub-
lished in their Proceedings and in the American Naturalist for
October, 1893, with one diagrammatic plate. The statements
made in these two preliminary papers before all the facts were
brought together and correlated were true, in the main, but
necessarily defective and have been put into more correct shape in
the following pages.

INTRODUCTION.

The nature of the evidence afforded by fossil shells is even at the
present time very little understood. They have been so often spoken

350

of slightingly, as a sort of jacket, an unimportant part, etc., that
all conclusions arrived at by their study alone are considered as
peculiarly liable to error.

A shell, to begin with, ranks as a primary, essential part arising
in an early stage of development from the shell gland common to
the embryos of all forms of Mollusca. Subsequently, by its mode
of growth it becomes a model of the external form, and at the
same time a mould of the outlines of the internal soft parts to an
extent which has not been fully appreciated. The shell is often,
also, a permanent record of the series of changes which the form
has undergone, from the time it first began to enclose the embryo
until the death of the soft parts, since it retains the young shell and
all the later stages of growth. Among Nautiloids and Ammonoids,
it also contains the calcareous tube or so-called siphuncle, which
exhibits remarkable and significant changes of structure and posi-
tion following upon the development of the animal. This siphuncle
connects the septa or horizontal partitions, which with their
sutures vary with the age of the animal constituting a third record
of changes and structural modifications.

All these parts, the shell proper, the siphuncle, the septa and the
sutures are in correlation with each other and together make an index
to the life history of the individual, which is unequaled in some
respects among other existing or extinct animals,

A single shell, either from a living or fossil form, may present
accurately the general history of the development of the young,
the stages of the adult and old age. The results of heredity and of
the action of endemic or traumatic diseases may also be detected,
if one knows how to study and compare the remarkable and dis-
tinct series of metamorphoses displayed by this external or protec-
tive skeleton with those of congeneric forms. This can be done
even when the young is not visible externally by breaking down or
dissecting a well-preserved fossil and thus following the history of
the shell backwards through all of its stages to the embryo.

The researches of Beecher, Schuchert and Clarke among Brachio-
poda have demonstrated that the shell and the internal brachial
armature of these forms possesses similar life histories to those here
described for the external and internal skeletons of the Cephalo-
poda. Jackson has demonstrated similar phenomena among Pele-
cypoda and Beecher among corals.

The vertebrate skeleton has long been considered a standard,

351

and the evidence afforded by its fossil remains is very important
and convincing. ‘The series made in the case of the horses found
by Marsh and Cope and those described by Gaudry are universally
quoted as the strongest proofs of evolution. This evidence is
considered complete, because naturalists understand and have
thoroughly studied the skeleton, and because it is internal and has
been assumed to be more invariable than the shell. All of these
arguments have their due weight, but there are no examples
of greater invariability than exist between the shells of the Nauti-
lus now existing and those of Barrandeoceras (Nautilus) of the
Cambrian, or the Triassic and Silurian Orthoceras, or of the
Prodissoconch stage in the young of Pelecypoda as demonstrated
by Jackson, or of the Protegulum among Brachiopoda as shown by
Beecher. The Prodissoconch and Protegulum are embryonic
shells that have persisted from the earliest horizons of geologic
time and are still to be found in living shells attached to their
apices.

The conclusions arrived at by the study of the vertebrate
skeleton are reliable, but they are neither more conclusive nor
important in theoretical meaning than any other series of equally
well-understood hard parts in any other branch of the animal
kingdom found as fossils when traced out in the same thorough
and careful manner.

How unreasonable it would seem to a student of fossil
Mammalia, if he were requested to do what it would be appropriate
to require from a student of the fossil Cephalopoda, viz., to
describe from the investigation ofa single perfect fossil skeleton of
an adult, not only the characteristics of the skeleton at the
stage of growth at which the animal died, but the develop-
mental stages of this same skeleton, and in case it were the
remains of an old, outgrown animal, also, the retrograde metamor-
phoses through which it had passed during its last stages of decline.
It might require a life time to make out the stages of a single
species of mammal satisfactorily from the isolated specimens which
would be found and the attempt would be hopeless for all the
youngest stages of growth, while the bones were still cartilaginous.

This kind of evidence, however, is readily obtainable among
fossil Cephalopods with relation to the shell and other hard parts
as among living animals, and it can be obtained in good col-
lections everywhere, whether ‘‘in situ’’ or in museums, ‘Thus it

do2

is possible to study the relations of these fossil forms very minutely
and with a certainty of possessing a clue to their true relations,
which is rarely obtainable even among existing animals. For among
these we have only the embryos and young of contemporaneous
forms and necessarily lose all relations of succession in time, unless
the investigation embraces a prolonged series of experiments or is
more or less historical, and even then the facts cannot have a very
wide chronological range.

The class of Cephalopoda has two subclasses, Tetrabranchiata
and Dibranchiata. These were established by Richard Owen as
orders—a purely technical difference, which does not change
in any way the value of the structural distinctions as given by this
eminent naturalist. The Tetrabranchiata are shell-covered ; and
they are represented by the modern Nautilus, the only existing
genus. The Dibranchiata are descendants of the former, but
enclosed the shell, and resorbed it in many forms, so that they
appear as naked animals. The cuttlefishes, squid, devil-fishes, etc.,
are existing types. In studying these types, the author has
been led to adopt a new method of characterizing the divisions,
and besides the old structural distinctions, which are still available,
to apply the correlations of habit and structure to the elucidation
of some of the ordinal characters.

The classification adopted is as follows:

Class Cephalopoda.
Subclass I, ‘Tetrabranchiata.
Order, Nautiloidea.

«¢ — Ammonoidea.
Subclass II, Dibranchiata.
Order, Belemnoidea.

s Sepioidea.

These four orders converge to one type by intermediate forms, by
embryology and development of the shells and internal hard parts,
by their morphology and by the possession of a similar embryonic
shell, the protoconch, or the cicatrix which is a remnant of the
aperture of this stage on the apex of the true shell or conch.

The class is composed of exclusively aquatic and marine animals,
and consequently they breathe with gills. The structures of the
orders mentioned coincide with the distinct habitats they respec-
tively occupy.

303

The animal of the Nautilus has a large mantle or fleshy sac
enclosing the internal organs, which can be opened around the
margin, or closed, at the will of the animal. Admitting the water
around the margin they fill their mantle cavity with fluid, and then
constricting the margin and compressing the mantle-sac, force it
out with violence through a fleshy pipe, which is exclusively used
for that purpose, and always situated on the ventral side. The reac-
tion of the stream is sufficiently powerful to drive the body of the
animal with varying degrees of swiftness backwards. The fleshy
pipe is therefore an ambulatory pipe or Ayfonome ,; and it is advan-
tageous to replace the old and confusing terms by this name.

The Dibranchiata change the external shell, which they inherit
from the Nautiloids, into an internal organ, and by suitable modifi-
cations of shape and also taking advantage of the powerful hydrau-
lic apparatus, which they also inherit, and increasing its efficiency,
become exclusively swimmers.

The hyponome of the Nautilus causes a corresponding depres-
sion or sinus to occur in the aperture of the shell on the same side,
and its effect is also to be seen in the striz of growth on this side; so
that we know, from these indications in any fossil, what was the
comparative size of the pipe, and whether the animal was more or
less powerful as a swimmer.

Other indications, such as the openness or contracted form of
the various apertures of different genera, exhibit with equal clear-
ness what they could do in the way of crawling. The wide-open
apertures indicate powerful arms, capable of carrying and easily
balancing the large spire of the shell above ; the narrow contracted
aperture shows that the arms were small, and that the animal
could not so efficiently balance or carry the shell in an upright
position, and was therefore, according to the amount and style of
the contraction, more or less inefficient as a crawler.

In studying the different types of the Tetrabranchiata, we find
that there are two orders as first defined by Prof. Louis Agassiz—
the Nautiloidea and the Ammonoidea—and, further, that these divi-
sions coincide with differences in the outlines of the ambulatory
sinuses which indicate distinctions of habit general in the normal
forms of each order.

The extinct Nautiloidea had large ambulatory sinuses, and were
evidently capable, like the modern Nautilus, of rising to the sur-

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC XXXII. 143.28. PRINTED MAY 25, 1894.

04

face, and swimming with a jerky motion; though their open aper-
tures, as a rule, show their normal condition to have been reptant,
or bottom-crawling. The exceptional shells, which depart from
the typical form in the sinus and apertures, exhibit their peculiari-
ties in the adults, but not, as a rule, in the young, except in cases

V
VA

ZA
G4 A

Ly EA
WY :

|
i

ZS

i \

71 re

Z /)
= a LUiy }
Wf My

Af pol}

YY, » |
tpi ff J) If
< Yy, iy WY! yp
LLM YP

Fig. 1.—Nautilus umbilicatus.

where direct inheritance has occasioned the exception, and these
are, in fact, the most conclusive proofs of the power of the habitat
to produce permanent changes in the apertures.

The orthoceratitic shells of this order are straight cones, with
internal septa dividing them into air-chambers, connected by a
tube passing through all the air-chambers, and opening into the
body of the animal itself, which occupied a large terminal chamber,

35)

which however was a small part only of the whole length of the
cone. This is the simplest form: and others are, the bent or
arcuate, cyrtoceratitic; the loosely coiled, but with whorls not in
contact, gyroceratitic ; the closely coiled, with whorls in contact,
nautilian ; and the still more closely coiled or involute shells, the
involute nautilian, in which the outer whorls may simply overlap
the inner, or entirely conceal them by their excessive growth, as in
Nautilus pompilius.

The Ammonoidea in the earlier forms, the Goniatitine of the Silu-
rian,* had apertures with well-marked ambulatory sinuses sufficient to
show that they must have had considerable powers of rising or leap-
ing in the water, if not swimming, like the Nautilus. In the later
forms of the same suborder and in the Ceratitine, Ammonitine and
Lytoceratinz the ambulatory sinus is absent; and in its place a
projecting crest or rostrum was developed indicating reduction in
size and disuse of the hyponome. ‘This and the generally open
apertures enable us to see that they were more exclusively bottom-
crawlers than the Nautiloidea.

The most interesting of the facts in this order lies among the
exceptional shells, some of which must have been sedentary, and
could neither have crawled nor moved about with any ease ; but none
of these, so far as we know, seems to have exhibited a type of aper-
ture which indicated transition to an exclusively swimming habit.
These shells appear in our subsequent remarks among phylogerontic
and pathologic types.

The Belemnoidea of the Jura had a solid cylindrical body, called
the guard, attached to the cone-like internal shell, and partly
enclosing it. Aulacoceras of the Trias, as described by Branco, is
a transitional form with an imperfect guard, which frequently con-
tains fragments of other shells and foreign matter. This demon-
strates that this guard could only have been built by some external
flap or inclosing sac, independent of the true mantle. This false
mantle must have inclosed both the shell and the guard, and must
have been at the same time open, so as to admit the foreign mate-
rials which Branco found built into the substance of the guard.
One of the straight shells of the Silurian Nautiloidea, Orthocera-
tutes truncatus, regularly breaks off the cone of its shell, and then
mends the mutilated apex with a plug. This plug, we are able to

* See Plate ii.

356

say, is the precise homologue, in position and in structure, of the
guard of the Belemnite.

Barrande endeavored to show this plug to have been secreted by
external organs, as he supposed—two arms stretching back from
the aperture like those of Argonauta, and reaching beyond the
broken apex. The dorsal fold of Nautilus is, however, a secreting
organ stretching back over the shell; and, as the probable homo-
logue of the plug-secreting organ of the Orthoceratites and the
guard-building organ of the Belemnoidea, it enables us at once to
explain how the Belemnoidea arose from the Orthoceratites, and
why Aulacoceras had an imperfect mantle. This fold, which was
far larger among the ancient Orthoceratites, would have been
necessarily open on the ventral side, then more but not completely
closed in Aulacoceras, and finally completely closed in the later
Belemnoidea, and able to construct a guard as perfect as that which
they carry.

The solid guard of these animals, a compact cylindrical body
such as they were known to possess, could have been only a heavy
burden to a swimming animal. The Belemnoidea, therefore, were
not purely natatory ; but for these and other reasons, which we
cannot here discuss, they were evidently ground-swimmers, prob-
ably boring into the mud for shelter, or as a means of concealing
themselves while lying in wait for their prey.

The old view, that the guard could have been in any sense a
‘‘ouard ’’ against collisions with rocks, etc., in their wild leaps
backwards, is inadmissible for many reasons. The most obvious
are its position as an internal organ, its solid structure, and its
weight. I think it more reasonable to suppose that it might
have increased the liability to injury from collisions. In tracing
the Belemnoidea to the Orthoceratites I have simply continued
the labors and carried out more fully the sagacious inferences of
Quenstedt and Von Ihering.

The modern Sepioidea are known to be almost exclusively swim-
mers; and the more ancient, normal, flattened forms, and their
descendants, the cuttle fishes, have very light, flattened, internal
shells, in which the striz of growth are remarkable for their for-
ward inflection on the dorsal aspect, due to the immense compara-
tive length of this side of the aperture.

The enclosure and suppression of the shell was predicted, with a
“sagacity which commands our highest admiration, by Lankester,

BOT

from studies of the embryo of Loligo ; and these facts carry out his
conclusions, substituting, however, the hood for the two mantle-
flaps which were imagined by him as the organs which inclosed
the shell and formed the shell-sac.

Most paleontologists have considered the Sepioidea and Belem-
noidea as more closely allied ; but they appear to us as two orders,
certainly as distinct as, and perhaps even more widely divergent

than, the Nautiloidea and Ammonoidea.
Among these two orders we recognize many exceptional forms—

ii
Nh in ;
{4

Sh

ERS SNE
ae BEANS aS S
BAS
Sete SSS =

= ee

=

SAN
LAAN

SQg_0$0u

=

ee
Fic. 2.—Argonauta sp. ?

such as the Spirula among Belemnoidea, and among Sepioidea the
octopods; and we think they all prove our position, that the
habitat so closely accords with the structural changes of the type
that its purely physical agency must be regarded as the efficient

308

and direct cause of the correlated changes of structure which dis-
tinguish the different orders and suborders, and often of the
exceptional genera and species.

We will mention but one of these exceptional cases, in some
respects the most pertinent—the existing Argonauta, or paper
nautilus (Fig. 2, p. 357). Here a thin shell secreted by the mantle,
by the edge of the mantle, and by the two pairs of long dorsal
arms, encloses completely the animal of the female alone, the male
being naked. As asexual organ for the protection of the eggs; as
an adolescent and adult structure, originating at a late stage in the
life of the individual, and not in the shell gland of the embryo; and
in its microscopical structure—it is not a true shell, or similar to any
true shell among Cephalopoda. Still, in form and position, and
as built in part by the mantle, it is analogous to a true shell, and
has in part also the functions of a true external shell, and ought
therefore to support or refute the hypothesis maintained above. It
belongs to a swimming animal, and should therefore have the
hyponomic sinus in the aperture and striz of growth as in Nauti-
loidea; and these it certainly has. Compare the side view of
Nautilus umbilicatus (p. 354, Fig. 1), with the Argonauta and it will
be seen that the lines of growth agree in both and that both pos-
sess the hyponomic sinus on the outer side. One can appeal to
this example as a most convincing exception to prove the rule that
the shell is a true index of the most remarkable adaptive structures,
and, among the fossils, can give us exact information of important
similarities or differences in structure and habits.

The efforts of the Orthoceratite to adapt itself fully to the
requirements of a mixed habitat of swimming and crawling gave
rise to the Nautiloidea; the efforts of the same type to become
completely a littoral crawler evolved the Ammonoidea. The suc-
cessive forms of the Belemnoidea arose in the same way. But here
the ground-swimming habitat and complete fitness for that was the
object. The Sepioidea, on the other hand, represent the highest
aims as well as the highest attainments of the Cephalopods in their
evolution into surface-swimming and rapacious forms. We cannot
seriously imagine these changes to have resulted from intelligent
effort ; but we can with Lamarck and Cope picture them as due to
efforts on the part of the animal to take up new quarters in its en-
vironment and thus acquire habits and structures suitable to the

309

changed physical requirements of its surroundings and this position
is better supported by facts than any other hypothesis.

Confining the discussion to the Tetrabranchiata, which are the
most favorable for the present purposes, the next problem present-
ing itself is whether the two orders, Nautiloidea and Ammonoidea,
have had a common origin, or whether they bear internal evidence
of having sprung from different ancestors.

The embryo of all Ammonoidea, as shown by the author in his
Embryology of the Fossil Cephalopods of the Museum of Compara-
tive Zodlogy, and since confirmed by the more extensive researches
of Dr. Branco, is the little bag-like shell first discovered by Sae-
mann. ‘This is attached to the apex of the secondary shell. The
embryonic bag has been called the pvofoconch by Owen; and the
secondary or true shell, the conch,

There is no protoconch in most Nautiloidea, as first shown by
Saemann, then by Barrande, and subsequently by the author and
Branco ; but where it ought to have been attached on the apex of
the conch, there isa scar, first demonstrated by Barrande. The view
brought forward by the author, that this scar indicated the former
existence of a protoconch in the Nautiloidea, has been opposed by
Barrande, Branco, and several authors, on the ground that the cica-
trix demonstrated the existence of a distinct embryonic form.
Therefore, according to Barrande, the Nautiloidea were not similar
to the Ammonoidea in their earliest stages of growth, and must
have been equally distinct in origin.

I have found the protoconch in several forms of Orthoceratites,
the figures being reproduced here, Figs. 3-7, and, further, it can
probably be found on the apex of all of the so-called perfect shells,
which have no scar or cicatrix. These, when described by De-
Koninck, were supposed by him, in his ‘‘ Calcaire carbonifere ”’
(Ann. du mus. roy. de Belgique), to be fatal to this conclusion.
Having no scar, they could not possibly, according to DeKoninck,
have had a protoconch. When the so-called perfect apex is broken
off, the observer will probably find that this apex was the shriveled
remains of a protoconch which concealed the cicatrix underneath,
as in Fig. 4.

There is therefore no essential difference between the embryos of
the Ammonoidea and those of the Nautiloidea. There are some of
minor importance which we cannot discuss here. These, however,
do not interfere with the facts of general agreement ; and there is

360

great ‘probability that the shell-covered forms of all kinds which
have the protoconch—namely, the ancient and modern Gastro-
poda, Tentaculites, and the ancient Pteropoda, and all the radical

SY

YY

t/

mi

mn AT

vA \\

Fig. 7.

Fig. 3.—Aspect of the apex of the conch in Orth, unguis Phill., after the protoconch has
been shed in the usual manner. 0, conch or shell of the apex; ec, cicatrix.

Fig. 4.—Aspect of the apex, after the protoconch has been accidentally broken off, frac-
turing the outer shell, and exposing the cicatrix. 6c, as before.

Figs. 5-7.—Apex and protoconch of Orth. elegans Munst. from the front, side and above.
a, protoconch ; 0, shell of apex.

Figs. 8, 9.—Anotherindividual, said to be of the same species, less magnified. ab, as
before. The author has also, in Spy. crotalwm, traced the strice of the outer shell on
the protoconch itself, showing the continuity of the shell over this part (a), and
completing the evidence that it must have been the shell which enclosed the em-
bryo, and could not have been a mere plug, as asserted by Barrande (Syst. sil.,
pl. 488). (See Figs. 10 and 11, p. 361),

361

forms of Cephalopoda—-had a common origin, probably in some
chamberless and septaless form similar to the protoconch.

Clarke has recently shown that a straight, Orthoceras-like shell
may have a complete egg-shaped protoconch like that of Bactrites.*
His form certainly has the characters of an Orthoceras, but the
protoconch is large and like that of the Ammonoidea. The shell
may be transitional from Orthoceras to Bactrites, but is probably
not a typical form of Orthoceras.

The young of the simplest and earliest of Ammonoidea, the Nau-
tilinide, have in varieties of two species, as shown by Barrande, a
straight apex, like the adult shell of such forms as Bactrites + and
that described by Clarke. I have already claimed that this fact was
sufficient to prove the high probability of a common origin from a
straight shell like Orthoceras for both of the orders. A/imoceras
compressum, sp. Beyrich (Figs. 1-6, 20, Pl. ii), is a shell which
differs from all other Ammonoidea in an essential and highly impor-
tant character. The septa have no inner lobe. The V-shaped
annular lobe, which occurs in all the Ammonoidea except the Nau-
tilinidee, is also absent in this species. What is more to the point,
some species have the sutures of a true nautiloid, since they have

* “The Protoconch of Orthoceras,’’ Am. Geol., xii, Aug., 1893. See also Figs. 28, 29,
Pl. ii.
+A straight form of Goniatitine (see Figs. 30, 31, Pl. ii).

* Prof. Hall, in his Paleontology of New
York, described a young specimen of
Spyroceras (Orthoceras) crotalum, sp. Hall,
which he subsequently loaned me for fur-
ther study. Upon developing the speci-
men, I found the beautifully preserved
apex shown in Figs, 10-12. This shows
the shriveled protoconch with striations
passing on to its surface from the conch,
which are made somewhat more promi-
nent in the figures than in nature, in
order to demonstrate this connection.
The ananepionic substage is smooth and
distinctly marked off from the succeed-
ing, probably metanepionic substage, Fig. 10. Fic. 11.
which shows both longitudinal ridges and
transverse bands of growth. The metane- Figs. 10-12, SPYROCERAS CROTALUM.
pionic substage is marked off below by a more prominent band of growth, probably
indicating the aperture of this substage. The paranepionic substage below this
changes in the form of the cone and in the character of the ridges and bands of growth.
The absence of a hyponomic sinus in the young, of straight as well as of nautilian shells,
shows that they were not active swimmers in these earlier nepionic substages, and that
the hyponome was acquired or at any rate large and functionally active only at a com-
paratively late age of the ontogeny.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 148. 2 T. PRINTED MAY 25, 1894.

362

dorsal saddles in place of dorsal lobes, as in the sutures of their
nearest allies among the Nautilini and all of the remaining Ammo-
noidea. AMimoceras ambigena Barr., of the Silurian (Figs. 7, 8,
Pl. ii), is a close ally of this Devonian species, and with A@imoceras
(Gon.) Ztuum (sp. Barr.) Hyatt (Figs. 40-42, Pl. viii), are the only
ammonoids which are not involute nautilian in form. The whorls
are in contact ; but there is no impressed zone, and no sutural lobes
on the dorsum, as in true nautilian shells. On the contrary, they
are purely gyroceran forms, with rounded dorsum and sutural sad-
dles on this side in place of lobes. All of the Nautilinidz also have
the septa concave, as in the Nautiloidea, in place of the invariably
convex character of the septa in later Ammonoidea, as shown in
Pl. x. As doubts may disturb the mind as to whether JZ. compres-
sum is an ammonoid, we recommend a comparison of this shell
with the young of an undoubted species of Goniatitinz, Agonia-
tites fecundus of Barrande, which is a miniature copy made by her-
edity (Figs. 9-11, Pl. ii).

Bactrites is a perfectly straight form, similar to the members of
the Goniatitinz in all important characteristics, especially the siph-
uncle and septa, and it also has, like the young shell described by
Clarke and all the coiled Ammonoidea, a comparatively large proto-
conch, as demonstrated by Branco, whose figure has been repro-
duced on Pl. 2 of this paper. This same genus includes straight
cones like Bactrites (Orthoceras) pleurotomus Bar. (Syst. sil., PI.
296), which are undeniably transitions: to true Orthoceras in their
striz of growth and position of siphuncle. There is, therefore,
convincing evidence in the structures of these Silurian shells that
the Ammonoidea, with their distinct embryos, arose from the
orthoceran stock, and passed through a series of forms, in times,
perhaps, preceding the Silurian, which were parallel to those char-
acteristic of a number of genetic series among Nautiloidea, viz.,
straight, arcuate, gyroceran, and nautilian.

In Sczence (Vol. iii, No. 52, February, 1884, p. 127), an article
written by the author closed with the following words: ‘‘ The study
of the tetrabranchs teaches us that, when we first meet with relia-
ble records of their existence, they are already a highly organized
and very varied type, with many genera, and that there was a pro-
tozoic period ; and the tetrabranchs, like their successors, certainly
must have had ancestors which preceded and generated them in this
period, but of which we are at present necessarily ignorant. What-

363

ever the future may have in store for us we cannot now predict ; but
at present the search for the actual ancestral form, though necessary,
is nevertheless not hopeful. We can, however, rely upon the facts
of embryology, and predict without fear of failure that, when our
knowledge makes this prototypical form known, it will have a de-
cided resemblance in structure and in aspect to the earlier stages of
the shell as observed in the fossil cephalopods.’’

At the time this was written I had in my possession two fossils
which I had collected myself in the lowest Calciferous of Newfound-

Fic. 13.—Nautilus pompilius.
[Contributed by Henry Brooks.]

land. I was aware that they presented peculiar and apparently sep-
tate siphuncles, but in the field had supposed this to be due to an
accident that not infrequently happens, viz., the intrusion of Ortho-
ceratites of small size into the open upper parts of the large siphun-
cles of the Endoceras. When an opportunity finally arose, through
Dr. C. S. Minot, Secretary of the Thompson Science Fund, to
illustrate and publish these forms, I found that this was not the
case, but that their siphuncles were truly septate and completely

364

closed to within a certain distance from the living chamber by a
series of partitions occurring at regular intervals, ‘These forms I
shall describe under the name of Diphragmoceras in the Proceed-
ings of the Boston Society of Natural History, and J shall endeavor
to show that this genus is one of the distal ancestors of the Nautil-
oidea. This conclusion is based largely upon comparison with the
apical, metanepionic substage of development in the shell of the
modern Nautilus. The first septum of the shells has appended to
it a closed cecum or bag, the metanepionic representative of the
siphuncle, and the second septum is prolonged apically into a closed
tube, the end of which fits into this bag and usually lines it with a
second or internal‘layer. In some cases (Fig. 13, p. 363), probably
through the displacement of the second septum, this closed termi-
nation is carried forward and is then clearly seen to be a closed
tube extending into the siphuncle. The bottom of this tube, in
fact, forms a septum in the siphuncle, and the resemblance of this
early stage to the adult structures of Diphragmoceras becomes per-
fectly clear. Diphragmoceras had a closed tubular prolongation of
the base of the mantle like that of the metanepionic septa of Nauti-
lus and also more remotely similar to that which occurs in Endo-
ceratide. But it does not diminish in size towards the apex, hang-
ing like a cone in the middle of the siphuncle; nor does it, as in
that genus, also fill the siphuncle below its own extremity with a
continuous mass of calcareous matter having a cone in cone struct-
ure, nor has it any endosiphuncle. The sheath fits the siphuncle
closely and rises step by step with the body, its end forming septa
across the siphuncle at the resting stages of this process correspond-
ing in number to those of the shell, but not corresponding in posi-
tion, each septum being situated just in the interval between two
septa, or opposite each air chamber of the conch. Thus the siphun-
cle becomes divided into air chambers like those of the surround-
ing shell, but these partitions are not pierced by any endosiphuncle,
as are the endocones formed by the sheath in the Endoceratidz and
the solid deposits and peculiar rosettes of the Actinoceratide.*
Dr. Charles E. Beecher has been fortunately able to lay hands
upon the primitive radical of all of the Brachiopoda through the
study of the early stages of the shell and has shown that the common
embryonic shell or protegu/um of recent and fossil Brachiopoda is
represented by one of the earliest occurring forms, Paterina. Dr.

* “Genera of Fossil Cephalopods,” Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. History, xxii, 1883, p. 272.

365

R. T. Jackson has accomplished the same result for the Pelecypoda
by following the same mode of analysis, and shown that Nucula was
the common form to which all bivalve shells can be traced. Among
corals, as shown by Beecher, there are satisfactory indications that
there is a common ancestral form of at least a large proportion of
that class, and the labors of Barrande, Mathews, Walcott and
Beecher are leading to similar conclusions for the Trilobites. The
theory of monogenesis, or origin of similar forms from one form,
is in other words now rapidly passing from the condition of a rea-
sonable inference from the facts of development and evolution, in
which it has stood since the time of Von Baer, to that of a demon-
strated law of general application.

The individual coiled shell of every nautiloid may be said to
pass through the stages of the protoconch and point of the apex,
when it is nearly straight ;* then it becomes slightly curved or cyr-
toceran, and then through a more completely curved or gyroceran
stage, in which the first volution of the spiral is completed. After
this it continues the spiral, commonly revolving in the same plane
and becomes truly nautilian, the whorls on the outside touching the
exterior of the inner ones, and spreading so rapidly by growth as
to begin to envelop them, and in extreme cases, as in JVautilus
pompilius, completely covers them up.

The natural inference from these facts would be, that there was a
similar succession of forms in past times—the straight in the most
remote, the arcuate and the gyroceran in succeeding periods, and
the nautilian only in comparatively modern times. This would be
a perfectly clear and legitimate mental conception. ‘The structural
relations of the adult shells appeared also to demand the same solu-
tion, as shown by the researches of Quenstedt, Bronn and Barrande,
and later of Gaudry. Barrande’s researches, however, demonstrated
that this idea could not be maintained, and that there were no such
serial relations in time, but that the whole series of forms from the
straight to the nautilian were present in the earliest period, and
occurred side by side in each Paleozoic formation.

This great author’s conclusions have had a curious effect upon

*It is to be noted in this connection that the earliest nepionic substages do not have
equal circular bands of growth, even in true Orthoceras, and are never quite symmetri-
cal on the dorsum and venter. In other words, the descriptive term, straight, is only
applicable in a general way. The youngest stages of the conch having differentiated

venter and dorsum and a compressed elliptical outline which is similar to that of the
radical ancestral form Diphragmoceras. See Figs. 10-12, p. 361.

366

paleontologists. It has been hastily assumed by some, Barrande
himself leading in this respect, that the mental conception was
more than could be realized in nature; and that the imperfection
of the recorded succession was an obvious refutation of the doctrine
of evolution, and all pursuit of a solution unworthy of serious
attention.

Statistically, the logical picture coincides with the observed suc-
cession in time. The straight cones predominate in the Silurian
and earlier periods; while the loosely coiled are much less numer-
ous, and the close coiled and involute, though present, are also’
rare. The close coiled, or nautilian shells, gain in numbers in the
Carboniferous, and the involute—meaning by this those that en-
velop more or less the inner and younger whorls—are much more
numerous than in the Silurian; while, in the later times of the

Jura, all disappear except the involute.

_ But suppose we reverse the course of nature and follow back the
diminishing number of nautilian and gyroceran shells. We then
see, upon arriving at the Silurian, that the vanishing point of these
shells, although not traceable on account of the lost records of
Protozoic time, could not have been far distant, while the increas-
ing number and varied forms of the straight cones indicates for
them a more remote focus in time and consequently a more ancient
origin. Thus we are able to see, that antecedent to the Silurian,
in the Protozo:c, there must have been a time when the straight
cones or their immediate ancestors predominated, to the exclusion
of the coiled and perhaps even of the arcuate types.

The involute shells of the earliest geological times were, there-
fore, probably evolved from the straight cones in regular succession ;
and we may, perhaps, hope to eventually get the evidence of this
succession in the fossils themselves. The exact counterpart of our
logical picture, as Barrande has truly stated, does not, however,
exist in the known geological records of later periods. Judged by
the coramon classification, by the prevalent ideas about the affinities
of adult structures, and by the modes of occurrence of fossils in the
rocks, the forms seem to be without law or order in their succession,
and that eminent author’s objections to the theory of evolution
have never been fairly met and refuted by any modern writer.

But let us imagine, during the Paleozoic, a different condition of
affairs from what is now the general rule. Let us suppose such a
thing possible as the quick evolution of forms and structure, and

o67

that in these ancient periods, near their points of origin, animals
found the earth comparatively unoccupied, and were not only able,
but in fact forced, to migrate in every direction into different habi-
tats, and to make perpetual efforts to readjust their inherited struc-
tures to the new requirements demanded by these comparatively
unoccupied fields. Food and opportunity would have acted, in
such localities, as stimulants to new efforts for the attainment of
more perfect adaptation and for changes of structure useful to that
end. We can neither imagine the effort to change of habitat and
consequently change of habits, without their cause the primary
physical stimulant of change in the environment, nor the changes
of structure, except as results of efforts on the part of the organ-
ism to meet the physical requirements of the surroundings. That
this process should end in the production of structures suited to the
environment is inevitable. With these factors at work, both without
and within the organism, the evolution of their structures obey a
physical law which acts amid a thousand disturbing forces perhaps,
but nevertheless must act with predominating force in one mean path
or direction, the resultant determined by the environment and the
inherited structures of the organism.

One can compare the changes taking place during the whole of
Paleozoic time with those known to have occurred in certain iso-
lated cases in more recent times; such, for example, as that of
Steinheim, where a single species, finding itself in an unoccupied
field, proceeded with unexampled rapidity to fill it by the evolution
of new series and many species, all differing from each other, but
all referable, by intermediate varieties, to the original form—in this
example, a single species, the well-known Planorbis equiumbttlica-
tus.*

The rapid evolution of the entire family of the Arietidz can also
be used to illustrate this point. This family originates from one
ancestral species and yet the process is so rapid that eleven distinct
series and seven genera arise, culminate and disappear within the
limits of a single age of geologic history, the Lower Lias of Europe,
South America and North America.+

There are a number of other well-known cases, which could be
cited, illustrating the quick evolution of species in locations which

* “ Genesis of Tertiary Species of Planorbis at Steinheim,’ by Alpheus Hyatt, Memoirs
50 Year Anniv. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.

+ ‘Genesis of the Arietide,”’ by A. Hyatt, Smithson. Contrib. No. 673, Mem. Mus.
Comp. Zool,

368

were obviously free when they first entered them. If we admit
such possibilities, and then find similar phenomena in the Paleozoic
epoch, we shall no longer need our first picture, but can construct
a far more natural one.

The Nautiloidea will not then present themselves as a simple
chain of being, but as they really were—several distinct stocks or
grand series, arising from a common stock or radical, and each of
these grand series divisible into many parallel lines of genetically
connected forms. In the Lower Silurian, some of these do not
have close-coiled forms at all; some of them have: but all, except
the most primitive series, which are composed wholly of straight or
arcuate forms, have some close-coiled species. These we can often
trace directly with the greatest exactness, both by their develop-
ment and by the gradations of the adult forms, to corresponding
species among the straight shells.

The series we have described above, from the straight Bactrites
to Goniatites, compares closely with any single genetic series of the
Nautiloidea, and shows that this last arose very suddenly in the
Protozoic, and evolved true nautilian shells in the Calciferous and
Quebec groups on the earliest fossiliferous level known positively to
contain the remains of Cephalopoda.

The genera of Ammonoidea evolved in the Silurian and Devonian
are structurally much more distinct from each other than any groups
of the same value (7. e., genera) in the succeeding formations, and
thus, in different but equally plain characters, teach us that they
also had.a quicker evolution within those periods than in the later
formations. Either this was the case, or else the Ammonoidea were
created in full possession of an organization only attained by
similar parallel series of congeneric, close-coiled nautiloids, after
passing through all the intermediate transformations above described.

These comparisons bring out other curious results. Thus although
both are orders and taxonomically equal, we cannot compare the
whole of the Ammonoidea with the whole of the Nautiloidea, but
only with a more or less perfect single series of that order.

The radicals of the Nautiloidea, Diphragmoceras, Endoceras,
Orthoceras and Cyrtoceras, evolve through time as an organic
trunk giving off an indefinite number of small branches in Paleo-
zoic time, each branch complete in itself and composed of suc-
cessive species becoming more arcuate, coiled and closer coiled and
finally involute. In the Trias the trunk comes to an end, but a small

369

number of branches composed entirely of close-coiled forms con-
tinue the existence of the order.

The Ammonoids have similar straight radicals, but these are few
in number, dying out in the Devonian, leaving in that period a
number of branches of closely coiled and involute forms, the
Goniatitinz. These immediately manifest a capacity for expansion
and become the radicals of other involute and more modified invo-
lute series which expand in the Trias and Jura, becoming less
numerous and degenerate in the Cretaceous and cease to exist with
that period or soon afterwards. The history of the Ammonoidea so
far as the succession of different forms is concerned is as a whole
Iyke that of a single series of the Nautiloidea which can be traced
back to a primary straight radical and which has a complete history
of modifications, but which necessarily occupies much less space
chronologically, evolving and disappearing within perhaps the limits
of a single epoch of geologic time.

The trunk of the Nautiloidea is in other words a huge cone-like
trunk, clothed with branches but topped only by a few straggling
persistent survivors shooting up through time and reaching the
present surface with the tipofa single twig. The trunk of the Am-
monoidea is only a slender short branch, springing from the Nauti-
loid trunk, but spreading out and splitting up into many smaller
branches. Like a climbing vine of huge proportions it ascends
through geologic history, resting upon the level of each age or epoch
as upon a horizontal trellisand spreading into great masses of branches
at each of these resting places. It shows throughout its evolution
less power to resist the action of the surroundings both in the num-
ber and high specialization of the forms produced withevery change
in geologic history, but also in the more rapid and earlier disap-
pearance of each type, and finally in the total disappearance of the
entire order. :

This comparison fully accords with the true picture of the genetic
relations. The remarkably sudden appearance and fully developed
structures of these earlier ammonoids finely illustrates the fan-like
character of the evolution of forms from centres of distribution, and
the quickness with which they must have spread and filled up the
unoccupied habitats.

The contemplation of the wonderful phenomena presented by
these series has finally led the author to the conclusion that the

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XxxII. 148. 2 U. PRINTED MAY 381, 1894.

370

phenomena of evolution in the Paleozoic were distinct from those of
later periods, having taken place with a rapidity paralleled only in
later times in unoccupied fields, like Steinheim.

The hypothesis of Wagner, that an unoccupied field is essential
for the evolution of new forms, gains immensely in importance, if
it is practicable to apply it to the explanation of the morphic phe-
nomena that have been observed. Every naturalist must see at once,
by his own special studies, that this is a reasonable explanation of
the rapid development of types in new formations and of the sud-
den appearance of so many of the different types of invertebrates in
the Paleozoic.

Newberry’s theory of cycles of sedimentation shows that the sud-
den appearance of types is inexplicable, except upon the supposition
that their ancestors retired with the sea between each period of de-
posit, and again returning after long intervals of absence made their
appearance for the first time in a given littoral fauna bearing
changed characteristics and different structures acquired by the
migrations of their own stock in unknown seas.

With this explanation and that of Wagner the facts that have
been observed fully coincide, and amply explain the phenomena,
both of sudden appearance in the first deposits of formations, and
subsequent quick development in the necessarily unoccupied
habitats. The researches of Barrande, Alexander Agassiz, Bigsby,
Gaudry and many others, show us that this must have been especially
true of the Paleozoic as compared with subsequent periods.

In order to make a logical and generalized picture of correspond-
ence between all the changes in the life of a nautilian close-coiled -
shell and the life of its own group accord exactly with the facts, care
must be taken to limit it to groups quickly evolved, and these ex-
clusively Paleozoic. Among Nautiloidea there are no series trace-
able directly to arcuate forms after the expiration of the Carboni-
ferous. This is the common story, and we can see that the series
must have risen very rapidly during the Paleozoic, branching out
on every side from the common ascending trunk of the straight and
arcuate forms. The same is true of the Ammonoidea in the
Silurian, but only one short series, the Nautilinide, arises from the
common trunk of straight cones. The close-coiled shells of this
one family became the stock form for the whole of the Ammonoidea.

The Nautiloidea of the Mesozoic are all nautilian forms, and
their genetic series do not present the rapid changes of form

dtl

observed in the Paleozoic; they are all close coiled and have, as
observed by M. Barrande, small umbilical perforations. This same
statement applies also to the Ammonoidea ; when near their point
of origin in the Silurian their forms are very quickly evolved, but
are.much less quickly evolved after this period. The smaller gen-
etic groups in the Paleozoic are distinguished by differences between
the sutures, which are decided indications of structural distinctions.
Thus the groups of Clymeninnz and Goniatitinz differ widely in
their sutures and position of siphuncle, and smaller groups have also
decided structural differences. In later times the families and, in
fact, the whole of the Ammonitine are more alike. There are
many genetic series in the Jura which can be distinguished by the
minor details of the ornaments and outlines of the sutures, the dif-
ferences being less structurally than in the Paleozoic. In other
words, the field of variation is structurally decidedly narrower in
the Mesozoic than in Paleozoic, whether we consider the Nautiloidea
or Ammonoidea.

I have. observed the same phenomena repeated in each period
and in the mode of appearance of the genera and families in
lesser divisions of geologic time. Groups originate suddenly and
spread out with great rapidity and often, as in the Arietidee or the
Lower Lias, are traceable to an origin in one well-defined species
which occurs in close proximity to the whole group in the lowest
bed of the same formation. These facts and the acknowledged
sudden appearance of the greater part of all the distinct types of
Invertebrata and Vertebrata in the Paleozoic speak strongly for the
quicker evolution of forms in that time and indicate a general law
of evolution. ‘This has, in former publications, been formulated
as follows: Zypes are evolved more quickly and there are greater
structural differences between genetic groups of the same stock while
still near the point of origin than appear subsequently. The varia-
tions or differences take place quickly in fundamental structural
characteristic, and even the embryos may become different when in
the earliest period of evolution, but subsequently only more superficial
structures become subject to great variations.

This law applies only to the epacme or rise and acme, not to the
paracme or decline of the same genetic groups or stocks. These
last will be shown further on to reverse this law of progressive evo-
lution.

The degraded uncoiled forms of the Nautiloidea and Ammonoi-

372

dea, wherever they occur, whether in the Silurian or in the Creta-
ceous, invariably have coiled young, showing that they were. the
offspring of coiled or nautilian shells, that is, of progressive forms
which have themselves been evolved from a series of straight arcu-
ate and gyroceran predecessors. Their uncoiling is a truly retro-
gressive character, and this tendency is inherited in successive
forms in several series, and thus the whole structure is finally
-affected, the whorl reduced in size, and the complication of the
sutures and shells at all stages of growth is degraded until, in the
‘development of the individual, only the close-coiled young remain
to testify to their exalted ancestry. In other words, the forms really
inherit degraded characteristics at such an early stage that it affects
‘their whole life except the earlier stages.*

If we examine any of the progressive series we find that charac-
teristic modifications or variations tend to appear first in the later
stages of growth and, asa rule, in adults, then in successive forms
of the same genetic series they tend to appear at earlier stages of
the ontogony and finally often disappear altogether or become
‘embryonic, and this is the case also with the degraded characteris-
tics. This is clearly shown in the illustrations given on Pls. ii, 111,
iv, especially in the history of the development of the sutures
among Ammonitine. The simpler sutures of the Nautilinide of
the Silurian and Devonian have undivided ventral lobes and broad
lateral lobes. The more specialized forms of the same suborder in
the Devonian have the ventral lobes divided, prominent saddles are
also introduced, and the lateral sutures become more sinuous.
These characters, especially the division of the ventral lobes, occur
in these forms (as in Fig. 17, Pl. 2) in an early neanic substage,
having replaced the hereditary undivided ventral of the adults of
the Nautilinide and forced this characteristic back until it is
repeated only in the earlier or paranepionic sutures. In the Am-
monitinee of the Trias and Jura this process is carried still farther.
The repetition of the undivided ventral of the Nautilinidze is con-
fined to the earlier septa, which show sinuous lateral outlines (as in
Figs. 2, 3, Pl. 4) and these septa become immediately convex, the

* Several examples are given of such forms among Nautiloidea in the text and the
similar uncoiling of the gerontic or senile stage is shown in the ontogony of a number of
species in the plates, notably Eurystomites kelloggi (Pl. iv, Fig. 1). Among Ammonitine
see young of Crioc. studeri (Pl. iii, Figs. 11, 12), Crioc. studeri, after Barrande (Pl. ii, Fig.

40), Ancyloc. calloviense, after Barrande (PI. ii, Fig. 41), and Baculites, after Brown (Pl.
iii, Fig. 18).

d73

first one alone being concave, the divided ventral is introduced
earlier in the ontogony and, finally, the division of the outlines by
digitations occurs in the earliest neanic substage, replacing the sim-
pler sinuous outlines of the preceding suborders.

In the evolution of a series heredity therefore acts according toa
definite law of replacement. Zhe ancestral characters are brought
into contact with new adaptive characteristics, which are being con-
tinually introduced tnto the adult and adolescent stages of ontogeny,
and these eventually replace the former which are crowded back to
make room for them into earlier stages than those at which they first
appeared, and in many cases the latter are resorbed and disappear
during this process.

It is a fact, as shown by the writer and especially by Barrande
and Dr. Branco, that the embryonic shell has varied comparatively
little throughout time in the Ammonoidea, Nautiloidea, Belem-
noidea and Sepioidea. But these statements do not apply to the
earliest times in evolution of these types, when they branched off
from the common stock. The embryos of the Ammonoidea and
Nautiloidea become quite different from each other, the embryos of
the Belemnoids remained like those of the Ammonoids, almost
exactly similar to those of the Nautilinide as shown by Chalmas
and Branco, and finally in the Sepioidea, the protoconch or em-
bryonic shells changed more completely and soon disappeared.
Attention has been already ,called to this remarkable fact in the
history of the evolution of these forms, that the separation of the
orders took place rapidly, and in the embryos as well as in the
adults near the origin of the orders, and that the comparative
invariability of the embryo was confined to the subsequent history
of these types after separation. There is also considerable ground
for the conclusion that the young, not the earliest stages of shell,
are more variable among the degraded types than among progres-
sive forms. The facts already stated with regard to the young of
Baculites and some crioceran forms show this.

This paper cannot be devoted to the discussion of the apparent
reasons for these changes, but we have been able to explain the
mode in which they take place. Zhe mode in each case is the ear-
lier or accelerated development of ancestral characters, which as we
have said follow the same law, whether progressive and tending té
preserve the characters of the type, or retrogressive and tending to
destroy the characters of the type.

374

Attention is given to the acceleration of development because it will
be used in this paper and also because in looking at the young in the
usual haphazard way, naturalists often do not find the strong marks
of affinity which the ordinary modes of studying lead them to
anticipate. The law of acceleration explains the disappearance of
important characteristics which often occur even in short and com-
paratively small series. It acts frequently within a small group like
the Arietide, so that the later larval and adolescent stages are
unlike the same stages in very nearly related species in the same
family. Unless investigators are willing to take a small well-char-
acterized group and follow out all its transformations they cannot
hope even to understand the remarkable phenomena which are
shown more or less in the history of every complete genetic series.

Embryologists generally consider it essential to associate all
_ forms having similar embryos, and to place widely apart in classifica-
tion all forms having different embryos. Asa matter of experience
that is correct, but it does not apply to the earliest times in the
evolution of types and the surest guides of affinity are sometimes
the adult gradations of forms. These show that the Nautiloidea and
Ammonoidea with comparatively distinct embryos are nevertheless
more closely related than the Belemnoidea and Ammonoidea which
have precisely similar embryos, and Sepioidea and Belemnoidea
which have very distinct embryos must also be affiliated.

The embryos of all these must have been precisely similar at
their origin, but they afterward became varied in the different
orders, and we cannot lay down any hard and fast rule by which
the embryo becomes an invariable criterion of affinity. We think
there is ample reason in the structures of these shells themselves to
account for the embryonic differences, and that it is possible to
reconcile them with the affinities indicated by the gradations
observed between the adults. These reasons which we have only
space to allude to here consist in tracing the gradations of adult
structures and in a series of correlations which are plainly apparent
between the adult structures, and the habits of the animals, and the
power which habits in conjunction with effort have to change the
adult structures, and then by the action of the law of acceleration
in heredity to change even the embryos, either quickly, when the
habits are widely changed, or more slowly when they vary but
slightly with the progress of time.

laps is apparently a mechanical process in which the action
‘ Ee

375

of the habitat is the working agent of all the major changes; first
taking effect as a rule upon the adult stages, and then through
heredity upon the earlier stages in successive generations. Thus
in the open fields of the periods of their origin they expanded into
their different habitats, varying to accomplish this purpose with
great rapidity, but once in their appropriate habitat, inducements
to change or open fields became rarer and we get as a result com-
parative invariability. As time rolled on and the earth became
more crowded, the variability was reduced to less and less import-
ant structural changes, except in the retrogressive types. These
exceptions are our best proofs of the action of the habitat. The
changes in these retrograde forms are again remarkable for
the rapidity in which they take place, and some of these types, at
least, can be shown to have occupied free fields where they met
with new conditions, and to have changed their habits and struc-
tures rapidly to accord with these new conditions.

In 1843 Auguste Quenstedt began researches which ought long
ago to have led to this solution. He demonstrated by repeated ex-
amples, that among diseased types the most extensive changes of
form and structure might take place in a single species, and within
the narrowest limits of time and surface distribution. Quenstedt
was thus the first to show that in diseased forms the shell had the
inherent habit of reversing the process of growth and evolution, and
of becoming more and more uncoiled by successive retrograde
steps. Von Buch and Quenstedt, master and disciple, and the
author independently of either of these predecessors, in three suc-
cessive researches, have arrived at the identical conclusion, that
these uncoiled shells are truly distorted, or, as we may more
accurately express it, pathological forms. . They are not, however,
rare or exceptional, as one might at first suppose, but occur in num-
bers and in every grade, from those that differ but little from the
normal forms, to those that differ greatly; from those that are ex-
ceedingly confined in distribution, to those which lived through
greater lengths of time. But in all cases they exhibit degradation,
and are expiring types. The author has repeatedly traced series of
them, and studied their young, partly in Quenstedt’s own collec-
tion. In all cases they show us that great changes of form and
structure may take place suddenly ; and this lesson could have been
learned from Quenstedt’s work and example as well forty years since
as now.

316

When we attempt to understand these pathologic uncoiled series
and forms, which show by their close-coiled young that they were
descended from close-coiled shells, we find ourselves without com-
parisons or standards in the early life of the individual. The laws
of geratology—that the old age of the individual shows degradation
in the same direction as, and with similar changes to those which
take place in successive species or groups of any affiliated series of
uncoiled and degraded forms—here come into use, and serve to ex-
plain the phenomena. ‘This correspondence is shown in the uncoil-
ing of the whorls, loss of size, the succession in which the orna-
ments and parts are resorbed or lost, the approximations of the
septa, and position of the siphuncle. It is quite true, as first stated
by Quenstedt and also by D’Orbigny, that every shell, when out-
grown, shows its approaching death in the closer approximation of
the last sutures, the smoothness of the shell, the decrease in size,
~etc.; but, in order to realize that these transformations mean the
same thing as those which take place in any series of truly retro-
gressive forms, we have to return to the types in which unfavorable
surroundings have produced distortions or effects akin to what
physicians would term pathological.

This frequently happens in small series of Nautiloidea; and, if
we confine ourselves to these, we can make very accurate com-
parisons: or, on the other hand, in the case of the Ammonoidea,
we may trace the death of an entire order, and show that it takes
place in accordance with the laws of geratology. Such series,
among the Nautiloidea, are abundant in the earlier formations ; but
they have not the general significance of the similar forms among
the Ammonoidea, and can be neglected in this article. There are
no known cases of degraded series of uncoiled forms among the
ammonoids of the earlier or Paleozoic periods ; they may have oc-
curred, but they must have been excessively rare.

In the Trias and early Jura, pathologic uncoiled forms are rare
among ammonoids, but in the Middle and Upper Jura they increase
largely ; and finally, in the Upper Cretaceous they outnumber the
normal involute shells, and the whole order ceases to exist. Neu-
mayer has shown, that a similar degradation occurs in all of the
normal ammonoids of the Cretaceous, and that their sutures are less
complicated than those of their immediate ancestors in the Jura.
This proves conclusively, that the degeneration was general, and
affected all forms of Ammonoidea at this time; since the uncoiled

317

forms are not confined to special localities, as in the Jura, but are
found in all faunas so far as known.

The facts show that some general physical cause acted simulta-
neously, or nearly so, over the whole of the known area of the
world during the Cretaceous period, and produced precisely similar
effects upon the whole type as had here and there been noticeable
only within limited localities and upon single species or small num-
bers of species during the previous periods. This general cause,
whatever it may have been, affected the type so as to cause the suc-
cessive generations of the larger part of the shells to become dis-
torted, smaller and more cylindrical in their whorls, smoother and to
lose their impressed zones and their complicated foliated sutures.
In extreme cases they became again, with the exception of the
earliest stages which are usually broken off and lost, perfectly straight
cones, like the orthoceratitic radicals. So much alike are they, that
it is quite common for those who are not students of this group to
mistake the degraded Baculites for the radical Orthoceras. This
decrease in size, increasing smoothness, and uncoiling, is precisely
parallel with the similar transformations taking place during old age
in the normal involute shells of the Jura, which, when old enough,
also depart from the spiral, or tend to straighten out, and always
lose their ornaments, decrease in size, and so on.

The universal action of the surroundings, as we now know them,
is certainly not exclusively favorable to the continuance of life, and
may be wholly more or less unfavorable. It certainly perpetually
excites the animal to new and more powerful exertions, and, like
perpetual friction, wears out its structures by the efforts which it
obliges it to make for the support of the structures in doing work.
At first this leads to development, the supply being greater than the
demand ; but sooner or later, and with unvarying certainty, the de-
mand exceeds the powers of supply, and old age sets in, either pre-
maturely, or at the termination of the usual developmental periods.
The remarkable and at present unique example of the Ammonoidea
places us in a position where we can see the same process taking
place in the whole of a large group, with attendant phenomena
similar in every respect to those which we have observed in indi-
vidual shells of the same order.

In numbers of species and genera, and in the complication of the
internal structures and the production of the external ornaments on

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143.2 Vv. PRINTED MAY 31, 1894.

378

the shells, the order reaches what appears to be the acme of evolu-
tion in the Jura; then retrogression begins, and, steadily gaining,
finally affects all forms of the type, and it becomes extinct. Smaller
series of the Ammonoidea and Nautiloidea go through the same pro-
cess within their more restricted time-limits, and in the same way,
but can be compared with the individual much more accurately and
closely. It is evident, then, that the comparison of the life of an
individual with that of its immediate series or group reaches a high
degree of exactitude, and that the observed phenomena of the life
of an individual should enable us to explain, in some measure, the
equivalent phenomena of the life of the group; and we are unavoid-
ably led to entertain the expectation that it does explain it.

The evidence is very strong that there is a limit to the progres-
sive complications which may take place in any type, beyond
which it can only proceed by reversing the process, and retrograd-
-ing. At the same time, however, the evidence is equally strong
that there are such things as types which remain comparatively
simple, or do not progress to the same degree as others of their
own group. Among Nautiloidea and Ammonoidea these are the
radical or generator types. No case has yet been found of a highly
complicated, specialized type, with a long line of descendants tracea-
ble to it as the radical, except the progressive: and all our examples
of radicals are taken from lower, simpler forms; and these radical
types are longer-lived, more persistent and less changeable in time
than their descendants.

We find the radicals of the Nautiloidea living throughout the
Paleozoic, and perpetually evolving new types in all directions;
then this process ceases, and the primary radicals themselves die
out. But they leave shells, which are in that stage of progression
which I have called the nautilian. These, the more direct descend-
ants of the radicals, become secondary radicals and generate series
having more involute shells. These, in turn, as secondary radicals,
exhibit a greater chronological distribution than their descendant
involute forms. The same story may be told of the Ammonoidea,
but substituting at once the close-coiled shell (the secondary radicals)
for the primary radicals of the Nautiloidea, even as far back as the
Devonian.

This is the essential element of difference between the life of the
whole order and that of the individual. One can accurately com-
pare the rise and fall of the individual and its cycle of transforma-

379

tions with that of any of the single series or branches of the same
stock which become highly specialized and then degenerate ; but,
when an attempt to go farther is made, similar difficulties arise to
those encountered in tracing the progress of types and orders. The
radical and persistent types are still present, and teach us that, as
long as they exist sufficiently unchanged, new types are a possibility.
I have traced a number of these in the two orders, and have
found that they change and became more complicated, and that
probably a purely persistent or entirely unprogressive type does not
exist among the fossil Cephalopoda.

The most celebrated example of unchanging persistency has been,
and is now supposed to be, the modern Nautilus. The similarities
of this shell to some of the Silurian coiled forms—which have
caused Barrande and others to suppose that it might be transferred
to the same fauna without creating confusion—belong to the cate-
gory known to the naturalist as representative. It is similar in
form, and even in structure, in the adults, but has young with en-
tirely distinct earlier stages of development, and belongs to dis-
tinct genetic series. The young of the existing Mautilus pomptlius,
shown on PI, i, can be easily compared with those of their supposed
nearest congeneric shells, Barrandeoceras of the Silurian given on
Pl. v, Figs. 6-10.

Comparative invariability or persistency is common to all
radicals; and they force us to recognize the fact that the orders
could have produced new series, as long as they were present,
if it had not been for the direct unfavorable action of the physical
changes which took place, so far as we now know, over the
whole earth, Thus, in making comparisons between the life of
the individual and the life of the group, one cannot say that the
causes which produced old age and those which produced retrogres-
sive types were identical: it can only be said that they produced
simiar effects in changing the structures of the individual and of
the progressive types, and were therefore unfavorable to the farther
development and complication of these types. In their effects they
were certainly similar; but in themselves they might have been,
and probably were, quite different, agreeing only in belonging to that
class of causes usually described as pathological, or those whose
nature can be generally summed up as essentially unfavorable to the
progress, and even to the existence, of the organism.

In order to understand the meaning of these evidently degraded

380

structures, we must turn back to the first remarks upon the order.
The apertures and forms of the retrogressive shells all show that
they were exceptional, that they had neither well-developed arms
for crawling nor powerful hyponomes for swimming ; that, in other
words, they could not have carried their spires in any of the ordi-
nary ways. ‘Their habits, therefore, must have been more or less
sedentary ; and like the sedentary Gastropoda, Fissurella, Patella,
etc,, as compared with the locomotive forms, they presented degen-
eration of the form and structure of their more complicated ances-
tors. Their habits did not require the progressive grades of struc-
ture, and they dispensed with or lost them; and in many cases this
took place very rapidly. ‘This retrogression was in itself unfavor-
able to a prolonged existence ; and the phylogerontic nature of the
‘changes tells the same story, and one can attribute their extinction
to the unfavorable nature of their new habitats, and also-call them
pathologic types without fear of misrepresenting their true relations
to other forms.

II. PRINCIPLES OF BIOPLASTOLOGY.

Relying upon the results of such researches as are described
above and especially upon those of Cope, Ryder and Packard, I
have in a former publication used the name Bioplastology to desig-
nate that branch of research which deals especially with the char-
acteristics of development and decline in the life of an individual
and endeavored to show that correlations exist between these and
the life history of the group to which the individual belongs. In
order to classify this branch of research properly it is necessary to
separate it from other allied modes of studying organic phenomena. *

AUXOLOGY OR BATHMOLOGY. +

Mr. Buckman and Bather, both well known for their original and
instructive researches on Paleozodlogy in England, have recently,
in a joint paper under the title of ‘‘The Terms of Auxology,’’t
criticised the nomenclature employed in my papers to designate the
stages of growth and decline in the individual. They have also

* The author has given a synopsis of the facts that seem to characterize the different
branches of research and their relations to Bioplastology in a paper entitled, ‘‘ Bioplas-
tology and the Related Branches of Biologic Research,’’ Proc. Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist., xxvi,
pp. 59-125 ; and a brief preliminary abstract appeared in Zool. Anzeiger, Nos. 426, 427, 1893.

+ Cope, Proceedings Phil. Soc., Phila., Dec., 1871, and Origin of the Fittest, p. viii, ete.
t Zool. Anz., Nos. 405, 406, 1892.

381

proposed in view of the correlations which have been shown to
exist between the transformations that occur in the stages of devel-
opment and decline in the individual and those that characterize
the evolution of the group to which it may belong, to designate the
study of these correlations by the new term ‘‘ Auxology,’’ This
term is open to the objection that it is derived from aviy, meaning
simply progressive growth up to and including the adult stages, and,
although in common with others I have felt that it has claims to be
retained, there are good reasons why it should be restricted in
application, if adopted, to researches upon growth. I have placed
alternative terms at the head of this abstract, because one or the
other is likely soon to be adopted and I hardly feel competent to
arrive at a decision myself without further study of the facts.

Cope in his ‘‘ Method of Creation of Organic Forms,’’ used the.
term Bathmism from Baéyds, meaning a step or threshold, to
designate growth force, and it is therefore questionable whether
the term Bathmology should not be substituted for Auxology in
order to give uniformity to the nomenclature.

Dr. C. S. Minot, who has given the first demonstration of the
fundamental law of growth, has shown that the common notions
with regard to the action of this force in organisms are erroneous.
His plotted curves of the actual additions in bulk to the body by
growth during equal intervals of time in guinea pigs show that
these increments are in steadily decreasing ratio to the increase of
weight of the animal from a very early age. He was so much
impressed by these facts that he characterized the whole life of the
individual as a process of senescence or growing old.

This law is applicable also to the growth of the body as measured
by the ratio of the increase of the shell in all its diameters and by the
distance apart of the septa with relation to the ratio of increase of the
transverse diameters of the volution. The great rapidity of the
growth starting from the apex of the conch is obvious and can be
observed in all the figures of the young given in this paper which
spread out suddenly in the building of this part of the skeleton.
The septa mark successive arrests in this process of construction,
and it can be readily seen that the first septa are wider apart in
proportion to the diameters of the volution in the nepionic (larval)
stagethan in the early part of the neanic (adolescent) stage and
that more uniformity in the distance apart occurs in the ephebic
(adult) stages until the last of the gerontic (senile) stage is reached.

82

Then the septa alter in this respect and finally in extreme parage-
rontic substage the approach of extinction is heralded by the close
approximation of several septa, as has already been stated above.
The greater number of these that show this change indicate that the
species possess great vital power and has a prolonged old age
changing slowly, and the small number show that senility is a more
rapid process. In the higher, more specialized Nautiloids and
Ammonoids there are usually only two or three approximate septa
in old age; in Endoceras, a radical type, there may be as many as
twenty-two which show degeneration in the rate of growth. There
are other phenomena of a similar character which might be noticed
in this connection, but must be deferred to future publications.

Naturalists have as a rule understood the differences between the
organic molecular increase that takes place within cells which is the
simplest form of growth, and that which follows this and builds up
the tissues of the body by the division of cells. Both of these pro-
cesses, although distinct from each other, result in additions to the
bulk of the whole body of the organism and come properly under
the head of growth. But while both are thus constructive so far as
the body is concerned, only one can be considered constructive or
anabolic while the other is essentially destructive or catabolic so far
as the cell itself is concerned.

The function of nutrition and the nature of the organic structure
are the two essential factors of growth, and this term, z. ¢., growth,
also obviously applies to the morphology of metabolism, consisting of
intracellular increase, or anabolism, and cellular development, or
catabolism, and the phenomena resulting from the alternating
action of these in ontogeny. This at once shows that growth is not
simply progressive addition to the bulk of the body, since the mul-
tiplication of cells by fission is in itself catabolic or developmental
so far as the cells are concerned. Further than this the ultimate
results of catabolism are of the nature of reductions as is shown by
Minot’s law,* and also by Maupas’ observation + on the old age of
the agamic cycle in Infusoria and the results of late researches on
amitosis in cellular fission. ‘These and the actual reduction of the
body taking place in extreme senility show that the term growth

* “* Senescence and Rejuvenation,’’ Journ. Phys., xii, No. 2, 1891, and address on “‘ Cert.
Phen, of Growing Old,’’ Am. Assoc. Adv. of Sc.i, xxxix, Aug., 1890.

t ‘‘ Recherches expérimentale sur la multiplication des Infusores ciliés,’’ Arch. de Zool.
experim. et gén., Sr. 2, vi, pp. 165-277, et ibid., vii, pp. 149-517.

383

covers decrease in bulk due to development and use as well as in-
crease.

When one passes beyond this and attempts to deal with the char-
acteristics of ontogeny or phylogeny he at once finds himself in the
presence of other forces, such as heredity and other processes,
namely, the acquisition of new characters and the renewal of the
powers of growth in nuclear substances by means of conjugation.

The manifestation of growth energy, in brief, arises from two
factors, or, at any rate, is always found associated with two, a living
organism and assimilation of nutritive matter, and is an obvious
result of their union.

GENESIOLOGY.

The term heredity has been used in two senses, one expressing
the results of the action of an unknown force which guides the
genesis of one organism from another and a second in which it
implies the force itself. Clearness of statement demands that some
other term than heredity should be used, and I have consequently
proposed to designate the study of the phenomena by the term
Genesiology, from I'fveors, meaning that which: is derived from
birth or descent, this force itself as genetic force, and the principle
of heredity thus becomes genism.

The continuity of the same element in the agamic division of
unicellular bodies, as in Protozoa, makes it comparatively easy to
explain the transmission of likeness, but this is growth of the onto-
genic cycle. Maupas shows this clearly and continually speaks of
the growth, full-grown virility, and senility of his generations of
unicellular, agamic protozoans. In fact they are obviously in a
disunited form the equivalent of the colony of protozoans, and
secondarily, although more remotely, the equivalent of the single
metazoan, or individual, which is essentially a cycle of agamic cells
reproducing by fission.

While this likeness of agamic daughter cells to the original agamic
mother cell which has disappeared in them may be considered a
manifestation of heredity, it is also a form of growth and readily
separable from the more complicated relations of organism pro-
duced by conjugation of two forms. When the transmission of
likeness is complicated with the effects of conjugation the difficul-
ties increase until finally, in the bodies of the Metazoa, they culmi-
nate in a problem of surpassing difficulty. Heredity is as plainly

384

written in the life history of the Protozoan and in the growth of
cells; in the tissues in the budding of the Metazoa and partheno-
genesis as in these more complicated forms, but the phenomena ot
transmission occurring after conjugation can be separated from
growth and considered upon entirely distinct lines.

The theories offered show this. Thus the corpuscular theories,
whether gemmules or biophors or pangenes are assumed, assert the
need of minute bodies for the transmission of characters, while on
the other hand the dynamic theories, maintained principally by
American authors, are more in accord with physical phenomena in
assuming that there is a transmission of molecular energy, and some
of these views support Hering’s theory of what may be called mne-
megenesis, namely, that heredity is a form of unconscious organic
memory, and this, from my point of view, is the only satisfactory
one yet brought forward.

Heredity is obviously manifested, for the most part, in the devel-
opmental results of growth and appears chiefly in the cytoplasmic
structures which Dr. Minot so clearly places before us as constantly
increasing with age while the comparative size of the nucleus which
represents the power of growth force decreases. Whether this be
granted or not, it can hardly be denied that, in describing the de-
velopment of organisms along ontogenetic and their evolution along
phylogenetic lines we are dealing with cycles of progression and
retrogression which are quite distinct from the growth of the body
as determined by the laws that govern its increase and reduction in
bulk, and that one cannot describe the study of both series of phe-
nomena under the same general term without danger of confusion.

Genism, in brief, is the transmission of likeness from one onto-
genic cycle to another of the same species. It appears to be due
to the same factors as the perpetuation and rejuvenescence of the
cycles themselves, namely the union of two distinct forms of the
same species or kind.

CTETOLOGY.*

Weismann and his supporters deny that ctetetic or acquired
characters are inheritable, but it is safe to make the assertion that
this will not be maintained by the students of Bioplastology.
Within the limits of my own experience in tracing the genetic
relations of varieties and species of fossils Cephalopods and other

* 7 , yi .
K THTOS, something acquired.

385

groups through geologic time, although I have tried to analyze the
behavior of all kinds of characteristics, I have failed to find any
such distinctions. If Weismann’s theory is true, it ought to be
practicable to isolate in each type some class or classes of modifica-
tions that would be distinguished by the fact that they were not
inherited.

It is practicable to isolate inherited characters from new variations
which have not become fixed in any phylum. It is also practicable
to point out characters which are transient in various ways appear-
ing in individuals but not in varieties, in species but not in genera,
and soon. When one has by this system of exclusion arrived at
the end of the list, he finds that there is no class of characteristics
which may be described as non-inheritable. The new variations of
any one horizon which can be isolated from inherited ones are not
distinguishable in any way from others which occurred previously.
Later in time these new variations in their turn become incorporated
with the younger stages of descendants. The transient characters
of the zodn also do not differ in any way from others that are
inherited in allied species, genera, etc. For example, the position
of the siphuncle is very variable in some species of Nautiloidea, in
others of the same order it is invariable within a certain range, and
finally, in other species and genera it is invariable. In the Ammon-
oidea, derived from the same common stock as the Nautiloidea, this
organ attains a fixed structure and is invariably ventral from the
Devonian to the end of the Cretaceous, although in number of
forms and genera the ammonoids far exceed the nautiloids. All
characteristics, even those observable in some groups only in old
age, are found in the adults of other groups, and finally in the
young of the descendants of these, according to the law of tachy-
genesis. Everything is inherited or is inheritable, so far as can be
judged by the behavior of characteristics. Cope has ably sustained
this opinion in all his writings and has called it the theory of
** diplogenesis’’ in allusion to the essentially double nature of the
characteristics first ctetic and then genic.

It is probable that what has been called effort is the principal
internal agent of organic changes as first stated by Lamarck, and
subsequently rediscovered and first maintained by Cope and subse-
quently by others in this country. The modern school of dynam-
ical evolution, or the Neolamarckian school, which has adopted this

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXxII. 142. 2 W. PRINTED JUNE 5, 1894.

586

theory as a working hypothesis, regards effort as an internal energy,
capable of responding to external stimuli. They include under
this name both the purely mechanical or involuntary, as well as the
voluntary reactions of organisms, whether these are simply plasmic,
or cellular, or occur in the more highly differentiated form of nerv-
ous action.

The word ‘‘effort’’ has mental connections with conscious en-
deavor, and when we enlarge the definition so as to include purely
mechanical organic reactions, this obliges every one to make an
effort to rid himself of old habits of associating it with psychic
phenomena. It not only imperfectly explains what is meant, but it
does not of itself fully convey the idea of a force capable of mold-
ing the parts of the body into new forms, and cannot be used at all
for the characteristics which originate through its action.

No apology is therefore needed for the use of Entergogenism for
the popular term effort derived from ¢y7és, meaning within, and
Zoyov, meaning work or energy. This term does not interfere with
the name given to the general theory by Prof. Cope—kinetogenesis,
in allusion to its dynamical character as a theory of genesis—but is
supplementary to this more general title. It is also quite distinct
from his neurism or nerve force, and phrenism or thought force,
although both of these, if we rightly understand him, are certain
forms of entergogenism, ;

Dr. John A. Ryder * has discussed in one of his profound essays
the relations of the statical and dynamical phenomena of develop-
ment and evolution, using the terms ergogeny and ergogenetic for
all the modifications produced by organic energy, and he considers
kinetogenesis and statogenesis as divisions of the first named.
These instructive speculations and observations were written to
show that the changes of form produced by motion, and those mod-
ifications or conditions which may be properly considered as due to
the conditions of equilibrium, are often reached, as is claimed by
Ryder, as the result of Cope’s law of kinetogenesis and are consid-
ered by him as statogenetic. These are interesting in connection
with the above, and support the remarks made elsewhere with refer-
ence to the use of terms like ‘‘avolution,’’ and are substantially in
agreement with the general views taken in this paper, although tak-
ing up a side of the mechanics of evolution not specifically dis-
cussed here.

* “ Energy asa Factor in Organic Evolution,” Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., Phila., Xxxi, 1893.

387

The part entergogenic energy or entergogenism has played in the
production of normal reactions, hypertrophy, etc., is well known,
and the fact that an organism cannot move or respond to external
stimuli without its aid needs no illustration. It seems equally plain
that modifications of structure and form follow as the results of
such repeated actions developing into habits, and this process neces-
sarily ends in the permanent establishment or fixing of these modi-
fications in varieties and species.

This theory accounts satisfactorily for the so-called mysterious
suitability of organic structures for the work they have to do.
Such a force, capable of producing changes of structure and sensi-
tive to the impinging action of external physical conditions, must
work in directions determined by these two factors, z. e., the struc-
tures already existent in the organism and the external forces them-
selves. It is obvious that these actions and reactions must, as has
been already stated above, produce habits and changes of structure
which are direct responses to the environment.

If one uses the Darwinian phraseology, one can say that the
variations thus produced are natural selections, and I have called
them in other publications physical selections, although it is likely
that the use of the word selection in any way may convey an erro-
neous idea of my meaning. Selection implies the choice of some
characters or tendencies out of a number of others, and in the
minds of most naturalists it also implies the survival of the fittest
chosen by the working of the struggle for existence in two direc-
tions, in one direction between contending organisms, and in the
other between the same organisms and their surroundings.
According to the opinions maintained in this paper, however, the
organism has no such power of choosing, in the evolution of its
characteristics. It is driven along certain paths and the influence
of the struggle for existence and survival of the fittest is, if it has
any influence at all, a perturbing force which has to be accounted
for but does not seriously affect characteristics until after they origi-
nate. Characteristics, therefore, are not evolved fortuitously and
in indefinite numbers for the animal to select out those that are
favorable and perpetuate only those, but according to the definite
law of variation of Lamarck and Cope.

The dynamical school does not reject the Darwinian doctrine, but
it uses this hypothesis in its proper applications as a secondary law
explanatory of certain phenomena of survival and perpetuation of

388

characteristics after they have originated through the action of this
law.

According to my own view of the facts, often published else-
where, its use is unnecessary for the explanation of the quick evolu-
tion of series in the early periods of their evolution near the origin
of types, also for the elucidation of the pathologic phenomena in
the quick evolution of phylogerontic forms and series.

It can also not be applied to the explanation of experimental
results, as is admitted by all experimenters and most Darwinists,
in cases where modifications have been produced by the artificial
application of physical agencies, of which there are now so many
on record in both the animal and vegetable kingdoms.

It is plainly, as Dr. A. S. Packard has pointed out, a doctrine
derived from the study of the results of evolution and cannot be
_ applied to the more general and fundamental phenomena of the ori-
gin of types, the building up of series or the origin of character-
istics. My own experience leads substantially to the same opinion,
and I find its use unnecessary except for the explanation of the per-
petuation of some characteristics that occur during the acme of the
evolution of species. The perpetuation of many characteristics
which are fundamental to the organism and species is necessarily
provided for by agencies which originated them and by heredity as
soon as they become fixed in the organism. I think there is good
ground for the statement that in many cases these are plainly not
advantageous.

Weismann and his supporters are necessarily Darwinians. No
one denies that ctetic characters arise through the action of the
surroundings. If these are perpetuated through heredity, evolution
is an undeniable corollary and it must follow the path defined by
the dynamical school. If, however, ctetic characteristics may origi-
nate at the bidding of the surroundings and persist in the succes-
sive members of the same genetic series only while the surroundings
are comparatively unchanged, or in other words sufficiently alike to
continue to force their reappearance, then it must be admitted that
the law of the survival of the fittest through the action of the strug-
gle for existence is probably a fundamental law of evolution in
organism.

In other words, the battle of the two contending theories is being
fought in the domains of ctetology and it is hoped that this paper
may be a definite contribution to the Neolamarckian side of the con-

389

troversy. I cannot give further space here to theoretical discus-
sions of this sort and am obliged to refer any persons interested
to my other works, especially ‘‘ The Genesis of the Arietide’’ and
the ‘‘ Bioplastology, the related Branches of Research,’’* in which I
have more fully given my own views.

The exclusive Darwinians are, according to the views of the
Neolamarckians, as much out of the true path in one direction as
are the empiricists in the other in appealing exclusively, as they
often do, to the action of the surroundings in accounting for
observed modifications.

It is certainly not a very acute analysis of the facts which attrib-
utes to external causes exclusive power in producing modifications
in many cases as has been largely done by experimental zodlogists.
For example, Brauer and the author have both pointed out this de-
fect in the accepted explanations of the famous Schmankewitsch
experiments upon Artemia, and the same may be said of the ex-
planations of all experimenters who do not take into account the
internal reactions of the organisms themselves.

The physical forces of the surroundings must act through medium
of entergogenic movements, and this is shown clearly in the nature
of modifications produced which are extra growths, substitutions of
characteristics due to changes of functions, etc., or partial or abso-
lute obliteration of these due to the failure of genetic force to re-
peat characteristics in the presence of opposing influences and super-
imposed characteristics as in accelerated development.

Ctetology should also, however, include the study of the action
of physical forces when they either actually do produce direct effects
upon organisms or may be assumed to act in this way. Changes in
light, food, heat and moisture may cause modifications that cannot
be included under the head of entergogenic reactions without dan-
ger or confusion.

Maupas gives exceedingly instructive examples of this class, and
quotes other authorities who have investigated these effects in Pro-
tozoa.

Beddard gives a number of examples of such modifications in
his Animal Coloration, and Semper has also discussed the same sub-
ject more extensively in his Watirlichen Existensbedingungen der
Thiere.*+

* Smithsonian Contributions, No. 73, and Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., xxvi.
+ Translation by Minot, Macmillan, 1892.

390

The use of the term entergogenesis makes it practicable to in-
dicate the essential distinction existing between the modifications
produced through the mediation of internal forces and those arising
as the direct results of the action of external forces by means of
the term ectergogenesis and ectergogenic.

These explanatory remarks serve to show that Ctetology is a
branch of research which needs to be isolated from researches upon
growth and Genesiology, since it is devoted to the study of the ori-
gin of acquired characteristics, and therefore necessarily considers
all of the internal reactions of the organisms in response to the ac-
tion of physical forces, as well as the more obscure reactions of
structures which are produced solely by (or supposed to be produced
by) the direct physical or chemical action of external physical

forces.

BIOPLASTOLOGY.

The separation of Auxology or Bathmology, Genesiology and
Ctetology show also that the study of the correlations of ontogeny
and phylogeny to be distinct from either of these, and this branch
of research can be designated by the term Bioplastology from
Bios, life, and /IAacz6s, meaning molded or formed.*

To sum up in a few words the rather ambitious aims of this com-
paratively new recruit in the army of investigation, it aspires to
show that the phenomena of individual life are parallel with those
of its own phylum and that both follow the same law of morpho-

* Bioplasm, bioplast, bioplastic have already been used by Beale and others for the liv-
ing cell and its contents, but the term “ Bioplastology ’’ has not been used, nor have the
names proposed by Beale been generally adopted. If they were, Bioplasmology would
cover the requirements of students of such phenomena, and there is already in use Plas-
mology with about the same meaning, and Histology for the descriptive side of the study
of cellular structures.

Biogeny has been used in extra scientific literature by Fiske with the same meaning as
Bioplastology, and Haeckel has named the law of embryonic and ancestral correlation
the law of biogenesis, but there is a strong objection to both of these. Biogenesis is the
name giyen to the theory of the origin or genesis of life from life in contradistinetion
to the assumption of spontaneous generation or abiogenesis and has a well-established
place in scientific literature. Therefore, while the law of correlation of the stages of
development and those of the evolution of the phylum may, if one chooses, be called a
law of biogenesis, it is more accurate to consider it a law of correlation in Bioplastology,
or better still, the law of palingenesis or regular repetition of ancestral characters which
very nearly expresses what the discoverer, Louis Agassiz, saw and described. The fact
that Agassiz was wrong in his theory, not believing in evolution and not recognizing
the meaning of his law in this sense, does not absolve those who profit by his labors from
recognizing his discovery of the facts and his obviously full acquaintance with the law
andits applications to the explanation of the relations of organisms. It is Agassiz’ law,
not Haeckel’s.

391

genesis, that not only can one indicate the past history of groups
from the study of the young, and obviously the present or existing
progression or retrogression of the type by means of the adult char-
acters of any one organism, but that it is also possible to prophecy
what is to happen in the future history of the type from the study
of the corresponding paraplastic phenomena in the development of
the individual.

Whether these claims are well founded or not the nomenclature
to be employed is a matter of importance and should be accurate,
appropriate and convenient for those who are interested in this
work.

ONTOGENY. TABLE I.

CONDITIONS. STAGES. STAGES. SUBSTAGES SUBSTAGES.
Embryonic. 1. Embryonic. Several.* No popular names.
chia al Ananepionic.
2. Nepionic. 4 Metanerfonie.
Anaplasis. S oung. Paranepionic.
Immature (omenecanic.
(or 5. Neanic. Metaneanic.
nla ireat tt Paraneanic,
Mature Anephebie.
Metaplasis. | or 4. Ephebic. { Metephehic.
Adult. Parephebic.
{ Senile Anagerontic.
Paraplasis. - or 5. Gerontic. { Netagerontic,
( Old. Paragerontic.

Recent researches have, in my opinion, clearly demonstrated that
all the stages of development like the embryonic will have to be sub-
divided in studying many groups. ‘These subdivisions are also rela-
tively important and their differences are often well defined.

The ovum and the extreme degraded substage of the senile period
represent the widest departures structurally and physiologically
from the adult, one being at the commencement and the other the
termination of ontogenesis. Departing from the ephebic stage
in either direction towards these extremes one finds the same law.
Contiguous substages of development, when considered in sequence,
atffer less from each other and from the adult the nearer they are to the
ephebic stage, and they differ, on the other hand, more from the adult
and from each other in structure and form the nearer they are to the

*These stages were enumerated and more or less described under the names of Prot-
embryo, Mesembryo, Metembryo, Neoembryo, Typembryo in my paper on “ Values in

Classification,” ete., and to these Jackson added Phylembryo in his Phylogeny of the Pele-
cypoda, p. 289.

392

two extremes of the ontogeny. This is an evident corollary from
the phenomena of the ontogenetic cycle and need not be dwelt
upon here.

The terminology of the different departments of research which
come properly under the head of bioplastology is recognized at
present only in the case of embryology, but it is obvious to the
student of epembryonic development that similar terms for the
study of other stages and periods will in course of time be needed,
and in fact the old terms—nealogy, ephebology, and geratology—
are cited in that sense in the Century Dictionary, and may introduce
some confusion. It is not now necessary to discuss this question,
but only to draw attention to the facts. I therefore pass on to the
consideration of the term epembryonic.

Among fossil nautiloids it is rarely practicable, on account of
the frequent destruction of the protoconch, to find an embryonic ~
stagé. My last work on Carboniferous cephalopods contains descrip-
tions of the entire ontogeny of a number of species, with the
exception of the embryonic stages. In such cases the fact that the
embryology is wholly omitted can be pointed out by the use of the
term ‘‘epembryonic stages,’’ and this has already been found use-
ful above. It only remains to add that the same prefix is also useful
in designating the exclusion of other stages—thus one can speak
also of the ‘‘epinepionic’’ or ‘‘epineanic’’ stages in this same
way without danger of confusion with any other term.*

It is often possible to employ a more specific and characteristic
designation than epembryonic. Thus among shell-bearing forms
one can distinguish between the embryonic shell and the true shell ;
for example, the protegulum and tegulum of Brachiopoda as defined
by Beecher, the prodissoconch and the dissoconch of Pelecypoda as
defined by Jackson, the periconch and conch of Scaphopoda, the
protoconch and conch of Cephalopoda. In all of these forms it is
practicable to speak of tegular, dissoconchial, or conchial stages or
periods, meaning thereby all of the epembryonic stages of these
types.

Haeckel, in his Morphologie der Organismen, sketched the physi-
ology of ontogeny and phylogeny and gave the general correlations
of the two series of phenomena, together with an appropriate

* Postembryonic is in use for the young stages among embryologists, and is equivalent

to the term nepionic, but it is not consistent with the other terms of bioplastology, and
is a hybrid.

393

nomenclature which has been here adopted, with some necessary
changes.

The dynamical relations of three great phases of evolution in the
phylum were designated by Haeckel * as the efacme, including the
rise of the type from its origin, the acme, meaning the period of its
greatest expansion in members and forms, and the paracme, or de-
cline towards extinction, and these phenomena were correlated with
the similar physiological phenomena of the ontogeny, and these
appear in the table of phyletic terms given below.

Previous to this, in the same volume (p. 76), Haeckel gives his
classification of the development of the individual under three
headings: ‘‘Anaplasis oder Aufbildung (evolutio),’’ meaning
thereby to include the physiological phenomena of all of the stages
developed in the four earlier stages of the individual. This is cer-
‘tainly a useful term for the entire series of transformations from the
fertilization of the ovum until the progressive stages are all passed
through. It does not express nor can it be used for cases of retro-
gression in which degenerative characters are introduced at such an
early age that progression is limited to the embryonic, or to that
stage and a part or the whole of the nepionic stage. There are
also some examples among parasites in which progression seems to
have been reduced so much that one can say it is practically elim-
inated from all stages succeeding some of the earliest embryonic.
For such forms as these the proper term would be Paraplasis, from
mapa mAdoow, meaning to change the form for the worse, to deform.
Thus the stages of such forms could be collectively spoken of as
paraplastic with relation to the ontogeny of others of their own type
or allied types, whereas they could not be described as anaplastic.

The explanatory word ‘‘ evolutio’’ is here used by Haeckel in a
confined and erroneous sense. Evolution really means continuity
in time invariably accompanied by change, but whether the modi-
fication be progressive or retrogressive, or a combination of pro-
gression and retrogression, is immaterial. It is obviously better not
to use these terms for ontogenic phenomena. There are sufficient
terms in ‘‘development,’’ ‘‘differentiation of characteristics,’’
‘‘rise,’’ and one has always a slight mental reservation in employ-
ing this word for the growth and development of an individual or
isolated zo6n.

?

* Morphologie der Organismen, Vol. ii, pp. 320-366.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 148. 2 x. PRINTED JUNE 5D, 1894.

394

‘* Metaplasis oder Umbildung (transvolutio)’’ is used by the same
eminent authority for the adult period in a general sense, and it
appears to the writer to have useful function as a descriptive term
especially, since it is uniform with anaplasis and paraplasis. ‘lhus
one can describe the metaplastic phenomena or characteristics of
the ephebic stage in any form as metaplasis, and also speak of the
general meaning of metaplasis without referring to that stage of
ontogeny in any special form. The use of ‘‘transvolutio’’ is
obviously objectionable, since it introduces confusion and conflicts
with the proper definition of ‘‘evolutio’’ or evolution as given
above.

‘*Cataplasis oder Riickbildung (involutio),’’ used by Haeckel for
the senile stage, is open to the objection that there is no correspond-
ing Greek word, and also that zatazidoow, the only Greek verb to
which this term can be referred, means to spread over or plaster.
Paraplasis, derived from zapa zAdoow, meaning to change the form
for the worse or deform, is an obviously preferable designation.
Thus the paraplasis or paraplastic phenomena of all the periods of
development or only of the paragerontic substage in ontogeny may
be spoken of and correctly described under this term.

The use of ‘‘involutio’’ as a descriptive term is objectionable,
not only on the grounds given above, but because ‘‘ involution ’’
and ‘‘ volution’’ are both in common use as descriptive terms for
the peculiarities of the whorls of Gasteropoda and Cephalopoda.
Any modification of evolution is objectionable because it is mislead-
ing. For example, the word ‘‘avolution,’’ supposed to mean
things that do not evolve or have not been evolved, represents an
unnatural condition. One can, of course, conceive of matter in a
state of more or less stable equilibrium, but there are other words
than ‘‘avolution’’ in habitual use to express this conception. It
is also to be regretted that it has been applied by several eminent
writers to ontogeny, and is probably fairly established in this appli-
cation. The growth and development of the tissues is in a general
way evolution, as much so as that of a colony of Protozoa. But it
is also obvious that the product of the development by division of
a single autotemnon, which forms a cycle, or when held together so
as to form a colony, and the product of the division of an ovum in
Metazoa held together more compactly so as to build up an individ-
ual or zoOn, are not the same as the product of the evolution of an
ancestor into a phylum through successive independent forms or

395

ontogenic cycles. One cannot accurately speak of the ‘‘ growth”’
of a phylum, nor ought the word ‘‘ development’’ to be used for
the phylum. Development should be restricted to the zoén or
individual or its morphic equivalent among Protozoa, since it
expresses more clearly the differences that exist between ontogeny
and phylogeny than their similarities, and for the same reason it is
advantageous to use evolution for the phylum alone in the sense in
which it is commonly employed. ‘The necessity of subdividing the
embryonic stage is admitted, and in all probability this really
includes several stages with their own substages, but the discussion
of this problem must be left to the future.

The paragerontic stage is in no sense ‘atavistic’’ or ‘‘ rever-
sionary,’’ as it is defined by Buckman and Bather. Reversions are
the returns or recurrence of ancestral characteristics in genetically
connected organisms which have been for a time latent in inter-
mediate forms. Ido not think that we can include in this category
purely morphic characteristics which habitually recur in the same
individual as the result of paraplasis, or which occur in the paracme
of a type more or less invariably. In the individual the resem-
blance of the smooth round shell of the whorl of the paragerontic
ammonoid after it has lost the progressive characteristic of the
ephebic stage cannot be considered as a reversion. It is simply an-
alogy of form, not structural similarity of characteristics. A better
known and more easily understood case is the resemblance of the
lower jaw of the infant before it has acquired teeth and that
of the extremely old human subject in which these parts have been
lost and the alveoli and upper parts of the bony mandible have dis-
appeared through resorption. ‘The forms are alike, but no one
would venture to consider the infant’s cartilaginous jaw and that of
the old man as similar in structure.

The best example of similar phenomena in the phylum known to
me is the close resemblance of form between the straight Baculites
of the Cretaceous or Jura and Orthoceras of the Paleozoic, which
has been described above, and is figured further on. One occurs
in the paracme and the other in the early epacme of the group of
chambered shells. They are widely distinct in their structural
characteristics, and these differences are greater in the young than
at any subsequent stage of their ontogeny, Baculites having a close-
coiled shell in the nepionic stage, and Orthoceras is straight from
the earliest stage. The return of a similar form in Baculites in the\,

396

epinepionic periods of development in obedience to the law of the
cycle does not carry the structure back with it to a repetitjon of the
orthoceran siphuncle and sutures.

The structure of an individual during its development might be
represented graphically by an irregular spiral of one incomplete
revolution which describes a curve, continually increasing its dis-
tance from the point of departure until the meridian of the ephebic
stage is reached, and then beginning to return. Sucha curve would
always as a spiral rise more or less vertically, and consequently,
even if it completed the revolution, must terminate in space. It
might, perhaps, reach nearly to the same imaginary vertical plane,
but never to any point approximate to that of its departure. Structure
separates the extremes of life as widely as possible, and does not
permit us to regard them as approximate, nor can one regard old
age, however complete its return in external form, as a reversion.

One of the most noteworthy contributions of bioplastology is
that it gives proper values to this class of analogies and shows them
to be constantly recurring in the individual and in the phylum in
obedience to well-ascertained laws of morphogenesis.

The different stages have been described by Dr. Beecher among
Brachiopoda, Dr. Jackson among Pelecypoda, and the author
among Cephalopoda; and Buckman and Bather and also Blake * in
England, and Wiirtenberger in Germany have admitted their exist-
ence, and the last redescribed them. Wiirtenberger has admirably
described the phenomena of bioplastology as they occur among
Ammonitine, and correctly interpreted the law of tachygenesis and
its action in these forms, but failed to quote either Prof. Cope or
the author. ‘This omission was not so remarkable as the fact that
Neumayr and some other investigators, after they had received the
printed records of the work done in the same direction in this
country, continued to quote Wiirtenberger as the sole discoverer of
these phenomena and of the law of tachygenesis. Wiirtenberger’s
work was apparently independent, and it has higher value on that
account, but it needs rectification from a historical point of view.

Buckman and Bather propose to use the prefix ‘‘ phyl’’ for forms
occurring in the phylum which represent in their adult characters
stages in the evolution of the phylum corresponding with those in
the development of the ontogeny, and give an instructive table in

* “ Byolution and Classification of Cephalopoda,” Proc. Geol. Assoc. Lond., Vol. xii, pp.
276-295, 1892.

397

which Haeckel’s physiologic terms are placed side by side with
those proposed for the morphic phenomena. In following out the
same ideas the following table has been constructed, which differs
from theirs in the use of nepionic, as stated above, and also in the
use of phylanaplasis, phylometaplasis and phyloparaplasis as corre-
spondents of the similar ontogenetic terms :

SuMMARY, TABLE II.

ONTOGENY. PHYLOGENY.
Se — = it SS acc Ta] ay
( Embryonic. Phylembryonic. )
Anaplasis ~ Nepionic. Phylanaplasis , Phylonepionie. apna
Neanic. Phyloneanic.
Metaplasis { Ephebic. Phylometaplasis { Phylephebie. \ Acme.
Paraplasis { Gerontie. Phyloparaplasis { Phylogerontic. \ Paracme.

Buckman and Bather gave the following appropriate example from
Beecher’s and my own researches :

‘¢ Thus we would say that the Productide attained their paracme
in the Permian, when they were represented by the phylogerontic
Strophalosia and Aulosteges; that the characters of the neanic and
ephebic stages of Coroniceras trigonatum are phylocatabatic’’ (here
phylanagerontic). While granting the need of using this distinc-
tive prefix for the periods of evolution in the phylum one is likely
to become confused unless he fully understands the use of the word
‘* phylum ’’ as applicable to all grades of genetic series. Thus, in
ordinary acceptation of the term, a phylum may be the entire class
or any subdivision of it, even a single genus, provided the forms
can be shown to be genetically connected. It has been employed
in this way several times in this text after the names, species, genus,
family, etc., the ammonoidal phylum or ordinal phylum, phylum of
the Goniatitinze or subordinal phylum, family phylum, and even a
phylum of varieties and individuals.

THE CYCLE.

Phylum expresses genetic connection, cycle the totality of the
phenomena, whether morphic or physiologic, which are exhibited by
ontogeny or phylogeny. ‘Thus, one can describe the cycle of the
phylum in its rise and decline, the epacme, acme and paracme as
purely dynamical phenomena exhibited by the increase in numbers
of forms, etc., or the cycle of the ontogeny as shown by the in-

398

creasing complexity of the development and its decline, the ana-
plasis, metaplasis and paraplasis of the individual; or one may
describe the cycle as exhibited by the embryonic, nepionic, neanic,
ephebic and gerontic stages, or the cycle of the phylogeny as exhib-
ited by the corresponding phylostages * of evolution designated by
their appropriate prefix ‘‘ phyl.’’

There appears to be real need of two terms under the head of
cycle, one for ontogeny and the other for phylogeny. It is proposed
to use in this way ontocycle or ontocyclon for the ontogeny, mean-
ing the cycle of the individual, and phylocycle or phylocyclon for
that of the phylum. This will make it practicable to use the terms
monocyclon or monocyclic, polycyclon or polycyclic, etc., to de-
scribe the number of cycles observed. ‘Thus the ammonoids are
polycyclic, the Arietidz are decacyclic, the genus Coroniceras is an
incomplete monocycle.

It is not necessary to defend these terms before students of bio-
plastology ; they will be tested, and, if convenient, adopted. For
the benefit of others it may be mentioned that the cycle is of all
degrees of development in ontogeny. ‘Thus, Insecta are apt to stop
at the ephebic stage and in many other animals there is a similar
limitation. On the other hand, there may be the most unexpected
development of the cycle. ‘Thus, Podocoryne starting from the hy-
droid stage passes through a permanent colonial stage built up by
budding which gives rise by secondary buds to independent meduse.
The life of an independent medusoid bud ends with a paragerontic
substage in which the veil is destroyed, the bell is partially re-
sorbed and turned back together with the tentacles, and the pro-
boscis is left naked and projecting. In this condition the old of
Podocoryne is similar to the hydroid with which the colony began.
This gerontic transformation has been observed by Dujardin in
Cladonema and Syncoryne, by Hincks in Podocoryne and Syn-
coryne, and by Gosse in Turris.+

Man is not completely ontocyclic, but makes a close approach to
this in the loss of the hair, teeth and proportions and shape of the
body; and certainly in some parts, as in the mandible described
above, there is sometimes a completed cycle.

* This word is a fearful hybrid, and I beg pardon of my classical friends in advance of
their merited wrath.

* Dujardin, Ann. Sci. Nat., Series 3, Vol. iv, pp. 257-281, 1815; Hinecks, British Hydroid
Zobphytes, Vol. i, p. xxviii, 1868.

399

What the limits of the ontocycle may be has not yet been ascer-
tained, but so far as the facts are known it would appear to be coin-
cident with the limits of agamic reproduction, or, in other words,
with the limits of the growth of one autotemnon or of one ovum
after cojugation by fission, and includes all agamic generations pro-
duced by division or by budding.

The act of self-fission is similar whether it takes place for a cer-
tain cycle among Protozoa or Metazoa under purely organic condi-
tions or follows upon the conjugation of two zoéns, and is due to
the rejuvenation caused by the union of the nuclear elements of
their bodies as among Protozoa, or the more differentiated genera-
tive cells of the Metazoa. Under all conditions the cells divide in
obedience to the laws of growth, and whether the resulting daugh-
ter cells remain fastened together forming colonies as in Protozoa
or masses of tissue as in Metazoa, or whether they separate and
become distinct autotemnons or distinct zodns the action is the
same.

The product of this autotemnic function in single cells has, as
shown by the researches of Maupas, a cycle of transformations
which are like those of an individual among Metazoa, although
they may reach in some forms over six hundred so-called genera-
tions and therefore include thousands of distinct protozoans. It is
obvious to the student of bioplastology in reading Maupas’ re-
searches * that this cycle among Protozoa Ciliata is the equivalent
of the cycle of the individual among Metazoa. Although he uses
the word individual for the autotemnon he does not speak of the
successive forms as generations but as partitions, ‘‘ bipartitions’’
being his usual term, showing clearly that he recognizes these are
not generations like those of distinct successive zodns in Metazoa.

Maupas’ researches show, as in fact he himself states, that there
is a cycle of partitions produced from one autotemnon after conju-
gation, when isolated and allowed to propagate by fission without
the renewed stimulus of conjugation with others of different broods.
The earlier successive partitions are incapable or at any rate do not
show any desire to conjugate with their fellows. ‘Each of his cul-
tures of isolated autotemnons passed through these youthful or
anaplastic stages, and then a series of metaplastic partitions was
developed in which the micronuclei became more numerous and

*“ Recherches expérimentales multiplication des infusoires ciliés,” Archiv. de zool.
expér. et géir., Sér, 2, Vol. vi, pp. 165-277 ; ibid., Vol. vii, pp. 149-517.

400

conjugation with other broods took place whenever it was permitted
by the experimenter.

In the generations immediately succeeding these, degenerative
changes, both structural and physiological, took place in the parti-
tions which were distinctly. paraplastic, although the cultures were
maintained under conditions which precluded the supposition that
these changes could have resulted from unfavorable, abnormal sur-
roundings. ‘The successive partitions then had gerontic transforma-
tions, lost their micronuclei, became much reduced in size and
unable to conjugate with others with the usual normal results, and
finally the external buccal apparatus was affected, reduced, or oblit-
erated, and so on. ‘These changes were termed senile by Maupas,
who explains the entire phenomena as a cycle comparable with that
of the individual among Metazoa.

One is, of course, at this incipient stage of bioplastology, con-
fused by many apparently inexplicable phenomena. When, how-
ever, one contemplates the confusion of the most eminent authori-
ties with regard to the relations of the autotemnon among Protozoa
and Metazoa, shown by the use of the same term for the autotem-
non, the individual, and the zoon, and also the prevalent confusion
with relation to the morphology of forms designated as colonies—
some regarding the whole product of one egg as an individual and
others considering each bud or independent zooid as properly des-
ignated by that term and defining the colony as an aggregate of
more or less connected individuals—it is surprising that there
should not be more difficulties in the path of this new branch of
research.

Those who try to find the cycle of metamorphoses in their own
special branches of research will be often disappointed and probably
deny that it exists at all. Thus, in my own case, I for some time
could not find any evidence of its existence among certain cephalo-
pods, notably those having a primitive organization like Endoceras
and Orthoceras; but I have since seen well-marked senile stages in
these shells. Undoubtedly there is as great distinction between
the paraplastic and anaplastic periods, and between phyloparaplasis
and phylanaplasis everywhere, as there is between the correlations
of the corresponding periods at the extremes of the ontogeny and
phylogeny.

Paraplasis essentially differs from anaplasis, as has been described
above in treating of relations of analogy between the gerontic and

401

the nepionic stages. The earlier characteristics of the ontogeny
are, as the author has striven to explain in several publications,
essentially distinct, being in large part in most animals and in some
cases almost wholly genetic. In considering the simplest manifes-
tations of the cycle, palingenesis accompanied always by tachygen-
esis must be taken into account, and also cenogenesis in groups like
Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, most Echinodermata, many Vermes,
where a supposed ancient and regular palingenetic record is assumed
to have been disturbed by ctetic characters acquired by the larvee.*

The gerontic characters, on the other hand, and all paraplastic,
as well as their corresponding phyloparaplastic characters belong to
the category of analogies in so far as they are purely morphic
resemblances or equivalents. This is clearly shown in the physiology
of all the parts and organs in the anaplastic and paraplastic periods,
the former being full of hereditary and perhaps, also, acquired
power, and the latter more or less weakened and reduced or worn
out by the exercise of those powers and the constant wear and tear
of the surroundings.

Retrogressive reductions in every form, although often indicating
and accompanying a high degree of specialization, partake more or
less of the same nature when considered with reference to their
morphic and accompanying functional attributes, and one cannot
study such bioplastic phenomena as if they were of the same nature
and subject to exactly the same laws as progressive genetic and
ctetic characters. As I have pointed out above, and in several
other publications, there are all degrees of completeness in the
evolution of the cycle, and it is dependent upon a variety of causes
whether occurring in the ontogeny or phylogeny. If it were con-
stant and invariable and independent of the surroundings in the

* Such examples are, correctly speaking, not disarrangements of palingenesis, although
so translated by Haeckel, if I rightly understand his ideas of a confused record. Ceno-
genism does occur in such examples in obedience to the same law that governs palin-
genesis, but it occurs through the introduction of ctetic characters during the larval
instead of in the neanic or ephebic stages, and the crowding back of these upon the
nepionic and embryonic stages. The use of terms indicating that nature has confused
or destroyed its own ontogenic records of the transmission of characters in certain cases
assumes (1) that these are exceptional cases, (2) that cenogenesis is not the normal mode
of transmission in certain types in which it occurs, (8) that both of these modes of trans-
mission are not affected by tachygenesis, all of these implications being erroneous
according to the opinions expressed above. One can assume a disturbance or perturba-
tion, or decided change of mode according to law, but ‘‘ destruction,’’ ‘‘ confusion,” or

‘‘ falsification’’ are subjective terms inapplicable to the objective character of the phe-

nomena to which they are applied, appropriate in metaphysics, perhaps, but entirely
out of place in natural science.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 148. 2Y. PRINTED JUNE 6, 1894.

402

phylum, it would not be so closely parallel to the ontogenic cycle,
which we know to be subject to great varrations in accordance with
the surroundings of the individual or species. .

The standard of reference in bioplastology is the ontogenic
cycle, and this should be studied first in every group. Without
a full knowledge of this, the morphology of the group cannot be
properly translated, nor can the forms be taxonomically treated
with reference to their natural relations. This branch of research
aims to complete Von Baer’s law and Louis Agassiz’s great discov-
ery of the correlations of palingenesis and phylogenesis, and it,
therefore, asserts an equal utility for the metamorphoses of the
nepionic, neanic, ephebic, and gerontic stages, provided these be
applied in each group according to the ontogenetic development of
the cycle in the zo6n and its phylogenetic evolution in the same

group.
III. ONTOGENETIC STAGES.

My own researches have led me to the conviction that subdivis-
ion of the developmental phenomena of the nepionic, neanic and
ephebic stages are necessary, and for obvious reasons I shall take
my illustrations wholly from the shell-covered Cephalopoda.

Those who do not believe that there was a protoconch in nauti-
loids will have to reconstruct this part of the nomenclature in ac-
cordance with their own views. Having been reproached by Prof.
Blake in his address before the Geologists’ Association in 1892 in
London for holding to this opinion, it is only necessary for me to
point again to the new evidence with regard to the existence of the
protoconch given in the Introduction to this memoir.

Granting, therefore, that the conch begins with the nepionic
stage, the first part of this period is the ananepionic substage. This
substage is more or less similar in all the nautiloids on account of
the existence of the cicatrix on the point of the apex of the conch and
the surrounding comparatively smooth area which is, as a rule, ellip-
tical, the apex being in most forms of Nautiloidea, when seen from the
side, like a broad cup, and in section a laterally compressed ellipse,
the vertical or ventro-dorsal diameter being the longest.

This substage is frequently figured in the plates of this memoir,
and has been well shown in figures of several species, in the Geve-
sts of the Arietida, pp. 10, 11, and in Mautilus pompthus in Fossil

403

Cephalopods of the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, ‘* Embryol-
ogy,’? Vol. iii, Pl. iii, Fig. 1, and in a number of figures of Bar-'
rande in his Systéme Silurien, Pls. 487, 488, a few of which were
drawn and given to Barrande by the author. I first described this
substage among the nautiloids under the descriptive name of the
‘‘asiphonula,’’ but have since substituted the term, -Protosipho-
nula. Among ammonoids this substage has been forced back into
the embryonic stage and has practically disappeared from the conch,
probably through the action of tachygenesis. ‘The tendency of
the embryo to build a solid calcareous protoconch of imbricated
structure may be attributed to the earlier inheritance of the char-
acteristics of the calcareous, apical conch of its nautiloid ancestor.
This explanation has been supposed by Prof. Blake to show that
the protoconch of ammonoids was necessarily identical with the
apex of the shell or early part of the ananepionic substage, proto-
siphonula, of nautiloids. It would have such a meaning, perhaps,
if there were a cicatrix on the protoconch of ammonoids and if
there were not more or less rugose lumps, supposed to be the rem-
nants of protoconchs, covering up the cicatrices of the apices of
the conch in some nautiloids as figured above on page 360 of the
Introduction. These facts must be reinvestigated by the opponents
of this view, and it lies with them to prove that the latter are not
the remnants of shriveled, horny protoconchs, and _ that the cicatrix
was not a passageway from the embryo into the shell or at any rate
an aperture through which the animal of the protosiphonula com-
municated with the protoconch, before one can consider the facts
in a different light or admit any other hypothetical explanation.
~ Tt will be seen below that I have altered my view in so far as the
primary origin and nature of the caecum is concerned. Barrande
imagined that my view necessarily implied the passage of the em-
bryo bodily out of the protoconch into the conch, but this was a
mistake arising probably from inadequate statements. The young,
when it had passed by.growth out of the protoconch, or as the an-
terior parts of the embryo grew out of the protoconch into this
position, began to build the shell, and finally at the end of the pro-
tosiphonula stage rested in the apex, which was then aseptate and
was the first living chamber. ‘The structure of the apex in Endo-
ceras, Piloceras and Actinoceras indicates large and direct, open,
tubular connection between the protoconch and the animal when
in this first chamber through which the endosiphuncle in the

: 404

generalized nautiloids, Endosiphonoidea, opened into the proto-
conch.

The tubular opening of the apex in Endoceras, Piloceras and
Actinoceras and other genera having a marked endosiphuncle, is
not closed by the czecum of the siphuncle as was formerly supposed. |
It is, on the contrary, directly continuous with the endosiphuncle,
as was first pointed out by Foord in his Catalogue of British Cepha-
lopoda. ‘This is an attenuated, central, more or less irregular tube
or axis formed by the extension of the points of successive endo-
cones or sheaths. It is more or less interrupted by pseudosepta,
and is a separate and distinct part occupying the axis of the large
siphuncle. This organ is continuous with some corresponding part
in the embryo which existed in the protoconch. On the other
hand, the true siphuncle, including the czecum of the first air cham-
ber, is a secondary organ formed by the funnels of the septa. The
living apical chamber was, as said above, a shallow cup, and its
limit in the living animal was probably as indicated by Henry
Brooks in the drawings given on Pl. i of this paper. At any rate,
his conclusions with regard to the probable situation of the aperture
of this stage seem to me to be sustained by observation.

The next substage is indicated by the presence of the czecum ly-
ing within the apex, and this is formed by the funnel of the first
septum and in association with the first septum is universal among
Cephalopoda, with the exception of some sepioids, so far as the in-
ternal structures are concerned. It has been descriptively named
the czecosiphonula. This may be considered as a part of the meta-
nepionic substage in nautiloids, but among ammonoids and belem-
noids it is forced back according to the law of tachygenesis into
the calcareous apex of the ancestral shell, being consolidated with
and disappearing in the aperture of the calcareous protoconch.
The limit of the living chamber which rested upon this first septum
has been determined in existing form of Wauttlus pompilius by Mr.
Brooks and is shown in his drawings on PI. i.

In a general way it may be also said that the external character-
istics of this age are characteristic of the entire order of Nauti-
loidea.

Among Nautiloidea the shell of this substage grows less rapidly
in all its diameters and may either remain smooth and approxi-
mately retain the earlier form, becoming, however, more compressed,
or it may become more rapidly altered to a depressed ellipse. ‘That

405

is to say, one with the transverse axis longer than the dorso-ventral
and is apt to be ornamented with coarse ridges, whether the shell
is subsequently smooth or remains ridged. The septum succeeding
the first septum among nautiloids and also belonging to the meta-
nepionic substage has a large siphuncle compared with the ventro-
dorsal axis, and this has been called the ‘‘ macrosiphonula.’’ The
remarkable observations of Henry Brooks have amply sustained
these statements made in previous publications, as may be seen in
diagram Fig. 11, Pl. i.

The macrosiphonula brings before the observer certain internal
characteristics which, although much altered, appear to have been
derived from the earliest ancestors of the nautiloids, Diphragmo-
ceras. ‘The metanepionic substage is therefore in part in all forms
very primitive, in spite of the fact that in highly accelerated nau-
tilian shells it is very much modified and also that some of its
external characteristics are derived from the more recent ancestors
of its own ordinal or subordinal phylum.

The paranepionic substage begins with the third septum and its
accompanying living chamber and, so far as I know, it does not
carry any external characteristics derived from a very remote
ancestry but usually in nautilian shells points very definitely to
some known or unknown gyroceran ancestor. This is broadly
shown in the fact that in the greater number of the more generalized
forms of nautilian shells the three parts of the nepionic stage occur
before the whorls touch. The external characteristics and form of
the metanepionic and paranepionic substage have been largely
derived from the immediate ancestors of the species. They often
have their corresponding phyletic forms within their own genetic
group or family, whereas the characteristics of the ananepionic
substage are, in large part at least, derived from remote ancestors.

Thus by the aid of direct observation it is not difficult to see
that the substages of development in ontogeny are the bearers of
distal ancestral characters in tnverse proportion and of proximal
ancestral characters in direct proportion to their removal tn time
and position from the protoconch or last embryonic substage. It is
already generally admitted that this law is true of the embryonic
stages themselves with reference to the protembryo, although most
observers would hardly dare state this in the same positive terms as
here employed because they are confused by what they call abbre-
viated development. ‘They have not traced the systematic regu-

406

larity with which the law of tachygenesis works in producing the
replacement of hereditary characters in every series of forms, and
do not trust or know how to use this law.

The paranepionic substage is consequently among Nautiloids as
among Ammonoids of longer duration than either of the preceding
substages and of more variable limits. The siphuncle has acquired
its ephebic aspect and characters, but it is very often in a different
position from that which it subsequently assumes, as it is in Vaw-
tilus pompilius and other forms figured in this memoir. I have
hitherto considered that it included the latter part of the cyrtoceran
volution, but it now seems more natural to limit it to that portion
of the whorl which assumes the gyroceran curve or, in other words,
turns sharply away from the straighter cone of the preceding sub-
stages on its return curve towards the apex. This is well shown in

Mr. Brooks’ drawings and also in the other forms of nautilian
shells, especially those of Barrandeoceras tyrannum and Sachert
of the Silurian. At or near the end of the paranepionic substage
in Mautilus umbilicatus and pompilius there is in almost every shell
amore or less sharply defined constriction which marks a perma-
nent aperture. The limits of both substages are subject to varia-
tions that will be noticed in the succeeding descriptions, but it
suffices here to note the fact that the upper limits of the paranepionic
substage are in a general way definable by the limits of the gyro-
ceran form in close-coiled nautilian shells. That is to say, this
substage, as a general rule, approaches its end and neanic charac-
teristics begin to appear at or near the completion of the first volu-
tion, when growth brings the whorl in contact with the apex or
dorsal side of the conch. ‘Tachygenic forms are often notable
exceptions to this definition and introduce modifications that have
to be studied in each separate series.

The transformations that distinguish the subdivisions of the
neanic stage are very well marked in some forms and less distinctly
in others, but I have constantly found the need of defining two
stages. Ananeanic is a suitable term for the first substage, which is
usually well marked in nautilian* shells by the first appearance of

*In my Genera of Fossil Cephalopods nautilian forms have been defined as those having
the whorls in such close contact that the dorsum of the enveloping or later formed whorl
is modified, either flattened or bent inwardly along the area of contact, and has what is
called an ‘impressed zone.’’ There are, however, some shells that are difficult to classify.
These have the volutions in contact but do not have an impressed zone. Most of them

are transitional between gyroceran and nautilian forms and may be placed in either
category.

407

the impressed zone. This is the name I have given to the area on
the dorsum affected by the contact of the dorsum of the growing
whorl with the venter of the already formed whorl of the next inner
volution. This is either flat, gibbous, or indented in accordance
with the form of the venter of the whorl it touches or envelopes,
but it is usually indented more or less deeply.

There is a notable exception to this rule when in highly tachy-
genic shells the zone of impression is inherited and the dorsum
becomes furrowed before the first whorl bends. This is one of the’
most complete demonstrations of the probable inheritance of
acquired characters that I know, and an excellent illustration of
the law of tachygenesis. It occurs in some groups of nautilian
shells of the Carboniferous and also in the Jura, Cretaceous and
Tertiary, as well as in the existing species of Nautilus early in the
nepionic substage, as may be seen in the drawings of Henry Brooks
ee) er

In tracing out the distinct phyla to which different nautilian forms
belong, it can be shown that the impressed zone is invariably con-
sequent upon close coiling, never appearing in ancestral forms in
the nepionic stage unless through this agency. Asa rule, it comes
in the ontogeny after this stage, usually in the ananeanic substage
of more generalized and less closely coiled shells, but when one
ascends ‘in the same genetic series to the more specialized nautilian
involved shells this purely acquired character becomes, through the
action of tachygenesis, forced back, appearing as a rule in the
nepionic stage before the whorls touch. It is therefore in these
forms entirely independent of the mechanical cause, the pressure of
one whorl upon another, which first originated it. One need only
to add that this configuration of the dorsum is never found in adults
of any ancient and normally uncoiled shells, so far as I know, nor
so far as they have been figured. I have so far found only one form
—Cranoceras of the Devonian—in which there is apparently a
slight dorsal impression, which may have arisen independently of
close coiling.

There are apparent exceptions to this rule in some of the ex-
tremely close-coiled forms of nautilian shells of the Calciferous and
Quebec faunas (some of which are figured in the plates of this
raemoir), but in these the first whorl bends so abruptly and enlarges
with such extreme rapidity that the inflection of the dorsal side
before the whorls touch can be attributed to mechanical effects of

408

three factors, viz., rapid spreading of the whorl, the abrupt curva-
ture and contact or close proximity of the paranepionic stage to the
apical part of the conch. Even, however, if this conclusion be
doubted and if, in a few forms of extremely specialized nautilian
shells of these early periods of geologic history, it can be asserted
that the impressed zone has really become inheritable ; the position
assumed in this paper, that the impressed zone is mechanically gen-
erated in the later stages of growth and becomes an inheritable
characteristic only in forms with accelerated development, is posi-
tively strengthened. The whole argument being based upon mor-
phology, it makes no essential difference how early the impressed
zone appears or in what form it appears, provided the shells in
which it is characteristic of the first volution before contact are the
descendants of those in which this character is transient and
obviously due to the moulding during growth of one volution over
the next inner volution.

My experience, however, in writing this paper has led me to dis-
tinguish two kinds of impressed zones; that which occurs on the
free dorsal sides of the young and that which occurs as the direct
result of contact. I propose therefore to call the former the dorsal
Jurrow and the latter the contact furrow.

The ananeanic substage among Carboniferous cephalopods is not
only marked by the beginning of the contact furrow but also, as a
rule, by the introduction of correlative changes in the form of the
whorl. Thus the tetragonal whorl, with an outline similar to that
of an inverted trapezoid in section, and consequently an obvious
repetition of the ephebic whorl of Temnocheilus, and with sutures
also like those of the adults of that genus, appears at this stage in
Carboniferous cephalopods of several different genera, showing their
immediate descent from Devonian Temnocheili.

The first appearance of the dorsal lobe in the sutures is correlated
with closer coiling and is apt to make its first appearance in primi-
tive nautilian shells at this stage in the contact furrow. This lobe
however, occurs also before the whorls touch in a number of forms,
notably Barrandeoceras of the Silurian, and in one of these, Bar-
randeoceras Sternbergt, it occurs in the ephebic stage, although
this is a gyroceran form and no contact furrow is formed. ‘There
is also another smaller lobe which appears in the centre of this,
the annular lobe. These are not strictly correlative with the
impressed zone, since a dorsal lobe appears in some cyrtoceran

409

shells which do not have an impressed zone at any stage in Bar-
randeoceras while the dorsum is still convex, and in Waut-
lus aratus it and the annular lobe is found beginning in the third
septum, and similar observations have been made on a few other
species in the descriptive part of this memoir. The characteris-
tics of the ananeanic substage of JV. pompilus show how distinct
this substage is in existing nautilus from the preceding and suc-
ceeding substages. The longitudinal ridges disappear during this
substage, and the broad transverse bands of growth become in con-
sequence for a time more prominent. ‘The uniform brown of the
paranepionic may begin to be striped on the sides in the latter part
of the same substage, but this is often delayed until the ananeanic
substage and always become more definite at this time.

In the metaneanic substage the shell becomes smooth, the brown
striping extends on to the venter, and the markings become more
distinct and more widely separated. The whorl which, during the
preceding substage, had lost the subtrigonal outline of the para-
nepionic and become kidney-shaped in outline, with a deep im-
pressed zone, now acquires a deeper impressed zone and slightly
flattened sides and venter, thus forming lateral zones, as in Vautilus
umbilicatus, and repeating at this stage the form of whorl character-
istics of that species. During the paraneanic substage the deposits
of porcellanus matter in the umbilical zone begin but do not
become a very marked characteristic.

In the ephebic stage these deposits on either side increase and
the whorl spreads inwardly closing the umbilici, the whorl in the
meantime losing its flattened venter, which again becomes rounded.
The metephebic substage begins when the umbilical perforations
become obliterated by the ingrowth of the umbilical zones.

The parephebic substage is definable externally only by the ces-
sation of the coloration. ‘This may be due either to the fact that
senility is not marked by any peculiar structural changes, as hap-
pens often-in other highly involute species of Nautiloids and even
in many Ammonoids with smooth shells, or because no very large
old specimens have been collected.

These remarks do not represent fairly all the ontogenic changes
in existing Nautili, which will be treated in another essay, but they
suffice for the purposes of this paper and serve, with other facts
cited, to show the applications of the nomenclature used in the
following pages.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 148. 22. PRINTED JUNE 6, 1894.

410

In general terms transition to the ephebic stage takes place in
the paraneanic substage or near its termination, and characteristics
derived from the ephebic stages of immediate ancestors in the same
phylum, such as the trapezoidal whorl of Temnocheilus mentioned
above, are completely replaced by characteristics peculiar to the
genus and species. While there are often marked distinctions be-
tween this and the ananeanic substage, the differences are much
less obvious between this and the ephebic stage except in those shells
in which this period has degenerate characteristics. In these phylo-
gerontic forms marked distinctions are likely to make their appear-
ance owing to the disappearance of hereditary external ornaments
and markings which have been present until near the end of the
neanic stage.

The ephebic stage has not been so fully studied among the nauti-
loids or ammonoids, and in both of these orders it might be
considered questionable whether any subdivisions were essential.
But I have found it convenient to subdivide this stage in some of
the descriptions given in this memoir, and since this stage is much
prolonged in some forms of Ammonitinz, especially those with
numerous whorls like the shells of Caloceras, Vermiceras and the
like, it is probable that when its characteristics have received more
attention subdivisions will be found to be as necessary as in other
stages. The gerontic stage has been described above and is neces-
sarily illustrated in the text which follows, and the subdivision of
this stage into two or more according to the species is convenient —
in order to distinguish the well-marked substages of decline.

The limits of the earlier epembryonic stages are somewhat more
difficult to define among Ammonoidea than Nautiloidea, because the
shells of the former are the bearers of a larger number of heredi-
tary characters, and being more highly specialized descendants of
the latter, the history of these stages is more complicated by the
intrusion of new modifications through the action of the law of
tachygenesis.

The protoconch, with a large aperture connecting with the open-
ing of the conch, is plainly seen in the figures of AZimoceras com-
pressus and others on Pl. ii, of this paper, and also in Sandberger’s
figures of species of Goniatitinze on the same plate. This is very
distinct from the aspect of the apex of the conch in Nautiloidea.
In that order the neck of the protoconch must have been at least
as narrow from side to side as the scar on the outer surface of the

411

apex, and at least as long ventro-dorsally as the same. In other
words, the aperture of the protoconch in Nautiloidea was narrow
and elongated vertically, while that of the Ammonoidea in all hay-
ing cylindrical, straight or loosely coiled young shells, was an open
tube, as happens in Clarke’s Orthoceran form, in Bactrites and in a
number of Goniatitinze as shown in the figures.

In most groups of Goniatitinze and the other suborders of Am-
monoidea which, asa rule, have invariably closely-coiled first whorls,
the effect of contact is to produce immediately a deep, contact fur-
row and an almost entire obliteration of the umbilical perforation
between the neck of the protoconch and the nepionic volution.
Two funnel-shaped openings are left on either side, as shown in fig-
ures on Pl. ii, and these represent the more complete perforation
present in all Nautiloidea and in the earliest forms of Goniatitinz
among Ammonoidea. The probable position of the aperture of
the protoconch has been indicated in Lmdbryology of Fossil Cephalo-
pods, p. 110, and in Pl. iv, Fig. 1, and this information, gathered
from sections, agrees well with the figure given by Dr. Brown of the
supposed aperture of Baculites which is reproduced in outline, Fig.
cy rol ad ea he

The growth of this form out of the protoconch, as in Bactrites,
must have beén quite different from that of the true Nautiloidea.
Nevertheless it is obvious that as the animal grew outside of the
limits of the protoconchial aperture, it began to build the shell of
the apex of the conch and the first living chamber. This was the
ananepionic substage and it in part more or less resembled in some
of its essential characteristics and for a short time, the aseptate,
apical living chamber of the Nautiloid, but this resemblance must
have been transient and much accelerated.

After or during the building of this external skeletal tube it
became practicable for the animal to lift itself, or, more properly
‘speaking, to progress by growth out of the protoconch, and the
next step can be seen in Branco’s Fig. 10, Pl. iii, and the details in
my Fig. 7, Pl. iii, both of which, and others also given, show that
the bottom of the caecum occupied the aperture of the protoconch
and is formed, as in Nautiloids, of the closed funnel of the first
septum. It is therefore inherited earlier, according to the law of
tachygenesis, since the first septum and the czecum occupy the same
position with relation to the protoconch as the scar or cicatrix in

* Proc. Acad. Sci. Phil., 1892, Pl. ix, Figs. 5 and 10, 11.

412

the apex of the shell in Nautiloidea. This and the fact that the
protoconch is calcareous are in favor of the opinion that the charac-
teristics of the ananepionic substage of the ancestral nautiloids ap-
peared in combination with the protoconchial stage in ammonoids,
Thus the first septum and czecum in this order is the floor of the
first living chamber of the apex of the conch and is one substage
earlier in this order than in nautiloids, and should be called anane-
pionic. |

The figures, so far as the shell is concerned, also seem to demon-
strate that the czecum at this substage probably represents some em-
bryonic structure. ‘This is Zittel’s explanation of the origin of the
siphuncle, it being as stated by him obviously traceable to the
cecum, and this in turn being probably formed out of a part of the
body or the shrunken mantle of the embryo, since it lies in the
Ammonoidea directly in the aperture of the protoconch.

While, however, this organ fills the diameter of the apex in the
median plane, it is narrower laterally, and one feels that this sup-
position is open to certain objections that will be discussed more
fully in a paper now in preparation on the Endoceratide. It may
be mentioned here, however, that in these ancient forms of the
Nautiloidea the opening from the siphuncle into the protoconchial
shell is closed in a different way from what it is in the normal
Nautiloidea, and in the protosiphonula the endosiphuncle communi-
cated with the protoconchial shell, passing through the bottom of
the caecum and apex. ‘The elements of the walls of the siphuncle
surrounding the endosiphuncle in these forms are, however, similar
to what they are in the Nautiloids of less primitive organization,
and it becomes probable that the caecum was formed in the meta-
nepionic substage in Nautiloidea as a secondary epembryonic organ,
and that this has been crowded out of the metanepionic into the
ananepionic in Ammonoids. In other words, like some other char-
acters it was acquired in the epembryonic stages of Diphragmo-.
ceras and like these has been inherited earlier in descendants.

One naturally, if disposed to adopt the theories of genesiology
as a working hypothesis, looks for the largest representation of an-
cestra] characters in the earliest and most generalized forms. Thus
the Goniatitinz of the Silurian, which belong in all except the
terminal members of series like Pinnacites and Celceras to this
category, one ought to find the transitions to Bactrites, or, failing
these, indications in the young of the less specialized forms of the

413

Silurian of their immediate derivation from Nautiloid ancestors.
This is precisely what actually occurred and in the Nautiloidea such
evidence is easily obtained as has already been stated above in the
pages of the Introduction and other publications.

It-also follows, if the theories advanced by the author are true,
that the Nautilinide among Goniatitinz, as ancestors of the Am-
monoidea, and especially the genus Mimoceras as the centre of
derivation, should also show more prolonged retention of nautiloid
characters in their ontogeny than is usual in their supposed descend-
ants. The researches of Sandberger, Barrande, Branco and the
author show this to be a fact. The figures of Pl. ii copied from
Barrande and Branco exhibit this in Af@moceras compressum, am-
bigena and the whole of the Nautilinidze of the Silurian, and the
essential distinctive characteristic of this family is the nautiloid
form of the septa and lateral sutures. The shells of this genus also
do not possess a contact furrow, as noted above, and have no an-
nular lobes on the dorsum.

The first suture of AZimoceras compressum, Figs. 3, 4, Pl. 11, and
in some other allied species of the Devonian is bent into a slight
lobe on the venter, which is a purely nautiloid character, and not
to be confounded with the ammonoidal lobe in the same situation
in the third suture that follows this. This is shown by the occur-
rence of similar lobes in the Endoceratidz and some cyrtoceran
forms of Nautiloidea and in figures of sutures of /Vautilus deslong-
champseanus and clementinus of the Cretaceous, also copied from
Branco, which have similar first and second sutures. The aselate

rst septum is in AZ. compressum, followed on the second septum by
a broad, almost imperceptible saddle, also considered aselate by
Branco, but which is obviously a transition to the latisellate, or
broad-saddle type of suture in the more specialized forms. The
limits of the ananepionic substage in this form, which, as said
above, is directly transitional to Bactrites, is therefore that part of
the whorl which is represented by these two septa and the living
chamber in which the animal rested while constructing the second
one.

The characters of these two septa, however, are not repeated in
the closer-coiled forms of the Nautilinidee and Primordialidz. In
these the repetition of the outline of the second suture may be
entirely omitted, the shell passing immediately in the second sep-
tum to the repetition of the peculiar undivided ventral of the

414

Nautilinidz, obliterating the primitive characteristics of the second
septum and substituting the more advanced characteristics of the
Nautilinidg as is plainly demonstrated in Fig. 16, Pl. ii, of Avar-
cestes (Goniatites) datesepfatus and in the Primordialide in Gephuro-
ceras (Goniat) serratum, Fig. 17 of same plate. In the Ammoni-
tinee and Lytoceratinz, and probably in the Ceratitinee, as in most
of the Goniatitinz, this substage is obviously limited to the first
septum and the corresponding living chamber. The limits of this
living chamber in one form may possibly be indicated by the trans-
verse imbricated line between the third and fourth septa in my
Fig. 1, Pl. iv, of Lmbryology of Fossil Cephalopods. ‘This line
seems to demonstrate an arrest of growth at this time in the calca-
reous deposits corresponding to that indicated in Fig. 11 of the
same plate which is probably due to a former aperture.

The metanepionic substage must obviously begin with the advent
of the characteristics of the tubular microsiphuncle and the ventral
lobe in sutures, whether this occurs in the second or third septum
or later.

It is limited in duration to the repetition of the characteristics
of the Nautilinidz in certain of the Goniatitine. Thus that family
of the Silurian and Devonian is phylo-metanepionic, or corresponds
in the phylum in its ephebic characters to the metanepionic sub-
stage of its descendants. The closely allied family of the Primor-
dialidz, for example, as shown in Fig. 17, Pl. ii, has several septa
with this character appearing in the metanepionic substage, the
construction of the divided ventral lobe so characteristic of all
normal forms of Ammonoidea not taking place until the shell is
nearly or about 3 mm. in diameter in one species, according to
Branco’s figures, and still later in some other species.

In the Ceratitine of the Trias this substage is in many species,
as shown by Branco’s drawings, prolonged through several septa
and there are decided indications that it is subdivisible into two
parts, one characterized by the purely nautilinian ventral lobe and
lateral sutures with only one broad lobe, and a second older portion
having the undivided ventral lobes and lateral sutures of other rad-
ical forms among Goniatitinz, ex. Prolecanites.

In Zrachyceras Munsteri the eighth suture, according to Branco,
is still undivided or nautilinian, and Tropites, according to the
same author’s figures, has this substage still more prolonged. In
Megaphyllites, Pinnacoceras, etc., all more highly specialized forms

415

of the Trias, it is apparently shorter in duration than in the gener-
alized and less complex organization of Tirolites if one can judge
by the simple characters of the ephebic stage.

In the Jura and Cretaceous, among the Ammonitinz and Lyto.
ceratin, typical Ammonoids with more highly specialized struc-
tures than any Triassic shells, the primitive characters of this sub-
stage are, as one can read in Branco’s drawings and to a less extent
in mine, still more limited in extent, being confined as a rule to a
few sutures or to one, and finally, in many forms they are obliter-
ated altogether. That is to say, the divided ventral lobe encroaches
upon and finally obliterates the intermediate stage so that the meta-
nepionic substage, which begins with the third septum and micro-
siphon, is wholly changed in the aspect of the sutures. In other
words, the undivided ventral lobe of the Nautilinidz has been re-
placed in this substage by the divided ventral of the Primordialidz
which appears in the suture of the second septum.

This is also, like the preceding, an excellent example of what is
meant by the law of tachygenesis, the earlier inheritance. through
the crowding back and replacement of distal by proximal genetic
characteristics.

Fig. 3, Pl. iv, shows the prolonged duration of the nautilinian
characteristics in this substage in second, third and fourth septa of
Vermiceras (Arietites) spiratisstmun of the Lower Lias, the decided
change to a divided ventral and two lateral lobes not coming in
until the seventh suture.

Fig. 7, Pl. iii, shows the section of Deroceras planicosta of the
Lower Lias and the delayed approximation of the siphuncle to the
ventral side. Fig. 7 shows the primitive structure of this organ in
the earlier substages, and the figures from Branco show the duration
of characteristics to be in correlation-with these primitive charac-
teristics.

Fig. 7, Pl. ii, shows the structure of the siphuncle in the meta-
nepionic substage. The transitional aspect of the second septum
can be observed in Figs. 6 and 7 of the same plate. This isa
direct reference, as I shall show in another -paper, to the similar
structure of the ephebic siphuncle, and also the swollen aspect of
the early stages of the siphuncle in the Endoceratide, although in
some species of this family as many as six funnels may take part in
the construction of the swollen apical end of this organ. ‘These
facts are also in direct correlation with the more specialized and

416

complicated structure of Ammonoidea. They show that these
forms do not retain the tendency to form a czcum with double
walls as in Nautiloidea, and such an example as that figured in
Nautilus pompilius, in which a misplaced second septum necessarily
shows a long tubular czecum like that of the living chamber of
Diphragmoceras, probably does not occur. In other words, one of
the most persistent of the nepionic characteristics of Nautiloidea
does not exist in the more specialized shells of Ammonoidea so far
as known.

It is obvious from the preceding that the paranepionic substage
begins in most forms of this order with the first appearance of the
divided ventral lobe, or what I have called the siphonal saddle and
it is limited in extent by the duration of the simple entire goniatitic
outlines of the sutures which accompany all the substages of the
nepionic stage in all the suborders of Ammonitinz, except, of
course, the stock in which they originated, the Goniatitine.

In the Ceratitine, Ammonitine and Lytoceratinz it is gener-
ally true that this occurs, and the ananeanic substage begins with
subdivision of the lobes and saddles into minor lobes and saddles or
digitations, and this is often also accompanied by the advent of a
minute siphonal lobe in the apex of the siphonal saddle. It is
not essential here to discuss the limits of the neanic stage and its sub-
stages. ‘They vary so much with the condition of development and
the position of each species in its own series or genus and of each
series or genus in its own group, that it is impracticable to define
them except in very comprehensive terms.

Thus one may say the limit of the neanic stage is reached when
the specific characteristics begin to appear in normal progressive
forms. But there are exceptions to this in some highly tachygenic
species, as in Oxynoticeras oxynotum, for example, and many others
in which certain characteristics are carried back to earlier substages.
Still, as a rule, this definition does good service if the occurrence
of exceptions are constantly anticipated.

The limits of the substages can be obtained in some species of
each series, and are quite distinct in the external characteristics of
the form of the whorl and of the ornamentation. The sutures of
the ananeanic substage are different from those of the metaneanic
since they are much simpler and less completely digitated, but
there is, as a rule, but slight, if any, differences between the sutures
of the metaneanic and paraneanic or ephebic sutures. These

AIT

substages have been described, although not defined according to the
nomenclature used in these pages, by Wiirtenburger in his essay re-
ferred to above; by S. S. Buckman in his extensive and monumental
work published by the Paleontographical Society in their volume
for 1891 on the ‘‘ Ammonites of the Odlite,’’ and by the author in
the Genesis of the Arietide.

The gerontic stage has also been fully described and separated
into two subdivisions by Mr. Buckman and the author, and is easily
distinguished from the ephebic by the external characters, and as
stated above the septa become more or less approximated in the
paragerontic substage and there is often slight but perceptible de-
generation in the sutures.

All of the remarks made above apply well enough in a general
sense to the progressive series of the Ammonoidea, but although
we know the younger stages of only a few species of the retrogres-
sive species, there are indications that they will require modifica-
tions to be true also for the phylogerontic forms.

Thus Choristoceras (of) Henseli, as figured by Branco,* has appar-
ently a considerable number of sutures having the undivided ven-
tral lobe. These are less in number than in some progressive forms
like Zyropites subullatus, figured on the same plate, but unluckily
the immediate ancestors of this species are unknown and exact
comparisons cannot be made.

The young of the uncoiled forms of the Ammonoidea show
however, in all their characters that the early inheritance of
gerontic tendencies interferes with and delays the development of
the progressive, more complicated structures of the forms from
which they must have been derived. This is admirably shown in
the drawings of Dr. Brown, some of which are reproduced on
Bly iit. :

Fig. 13 shows a complete young shell which isin the neanic stage
of rowth. Fig. 17 isa restored side view of the protoconchial stage
and ananepionic substage with aperture. Fig. 16 gives front view of
the first volution in the paranepionic substage which begins at the
fourth septum, and Fig. 18 side view at the sixth septum. Fig. 1,
Pl. iv, shows the sutures for the same age.

Figs. 14-16 show the gradual diminution of the area of the con-
tact furrow and the decrease in lateral diameters ,of the volution

* Op. cit., Paleontogr., xxvi, Pl. v.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXxII. 148. 3A. PRINTED JUNE 25, 1894.

418

while the shell is still in the nepionic stage and as it approaches the
point of departure from the spiral and the subsequent loss of the
contact furrow. Dr. Brown records that the spacing of the septa
increases after the deposition of the twelfth septum, and that these
partitions are more widely separated. This correlates with a cor-
responding increase in the lateral diameters and together indi-
cate an increased rate of growth. Nevertheless there is no quicken-
ing in the processes of development nor any resumption of pro-
gressive characters. The shell becomes a compressed ellipse in
section, loses the contact furrow, and the straightened cone does
not acquire the digitate sutures and pass into the neanic stage of the
Ammonitinze until after it has departed from the spiral.*

It is clear from this and other examples taken from later stages of
growth that these are tachygenetic forms so far as the early inherit-
ance of gerontic characters is concerned. Correlating with this,
or in consequence of this, the inheritance of progressive characters
in the sutures is delayed, and these parts change more slowly in
these phyloparaplastic shells than in the phylometaplastic forms of
the same order. The internal structures and the shell itself also, as
previously stated, never attains even in the stage of ephebic devel-
opment characteristics comparable to those of phylometaplastic
species.

It follows upen the preceding remarks that the characters of these
stages have different duration in different members of the same
genetic series, being more prolonged in the more primitive and
shortened up through the action of tachygenesis in the more special-
ized shells of the same series. It is also obvious that the limits of
each substage must be defined differently according to the position
of the animal in time and in the evolution of its own special series.

There are theoretically no exceptions to this law in its broadest
acceptation, but in its practical applications this is not the case.

Thus the protoconchial stage is so nearly invariable in each order
that it is characteristic of all Nautiloidea and all Ammonoidea, having
peculiar characters in each of these orders, but this comparative in-
variability is less apparent in the characters of the ananepionic,
metanepionic and paranepionic substages, and especially in the
neanic stage, which are not as constant. The tendency to change

* Having received specimens of these precious fossils through the kindness of Dr.

Brown, I am able to confirm his observations, although I have not yet had proper oppor-
tunity to go over all the materval and study every detail of the deyelopfnent.

419

along certain lines of modification in accordance with definite gen-
etic laws becomes, in other words, more apparent in the later than
in the earlier substages of the ontogeny.*

In order to give a clear and comprehensible example of the gen-
eral application of these laws I have quoted below several pages
from Buckman’s interesting and instructive paper on ‘‘ Some Laws
of Heredity and their Application to Man.”’ ¢

How THE TRANSMISSION OF VARIATION WOULD AFFECT THE ORIGIN
OF SPECIES.

‘

‘<Tt is not difficult to understand the origin of species if the sur-
mises that I have submitted, concerning the transmission of devel-
opmental variation, arecorrect. The greater and greater elaboration
of any particular features in, say, an adult male, as functional mod-
ification necessitated by environment, are transmitted to the male
sex alone, and appear earlier and earlier in that sex. The greater
and greater elaboration of these features results in the course of
time in the formation of a marked and distinguishing character
in the male sex; and this character being transmitted in accord-
ance with the law of earlier inheritance ultimately appears early in
life in the male. Then the character tends to appear in the female
sex also, though why it does so is not clear. By such process, how-
ever, there arise both males and females which possess characters
different to those which their ancestors possessed.

‘* By the time that this character, influenced by the law of earlier
inheritance, appears at an age early enough to be transferred to the
female, the male has probably either further elaborated this charac-
ter—which further elaboration is at first transmitted to the males only
—or he has elaborated something else so much that it seems like a new
character which is transmitted in the same way. In course of time
this further elaboration, or this new character as the case may be, is
transmitted also to the females; and so it becomes plain how,
merely by the gradual transmission of developmental variations,
both sexes of what may be called an incipient species, beginning
with a slight variation in one sex alone, are able to diverge wider
and wider from the original stock.

‘The same laws of transmission would of course hold good if

* The application of this law, however, to the gerontic substages demands a longer dis-

cussion than can be given here, and must be deferred to future publications.
t Proc. Cotteswold Natur. Field Club, Vol. x, Pt. iii, pp. 258-322, 1891-1892,

420

the developmental variation arose in the female in response to
changes of environment; while if both sexes were exposed to the
same changes of environment necessitating the same functional
modifications to be acquired to bring them into better adaptation
with their surroundings, it is reasonable to conclude that the result
would be the production of a greater difference in a shorter space
of time.

‘Thus it is clear that the gradual accumulation of slight devel-
opmental variations transmitted in accordance with the law of ear-
lier inheritance would be sufficient to cause the origin of various
species ; and at the same time there can be little doubt that this
cause has also been assisted by both Natural and Sexual Selection in
the production of diverse species from one original stock. Iam
inclined to think that developmental variation has been more im-
_portant in the origin of species than has abnormal, or as Darwin
calls it, ‘spontaneous,’ variation. ‘The transmission of such ab-
normal variations as supernumerary digits seems to be so much more
uncertain than the transmission of developmental variation, while
practically speaking the origin of Ammonite species seems to be
almost entirely attributable to developmental variation.

“¢ Specialized structures like the long neck of the giraffe and the
proboscis of the elephant, to take familiar instances, are, in my
opinion, developmental variations. They did not arise, in the first
place, in certain members of the pregiraffian or preélephantine
species as abnormal or ‘spontaneous’ variations which gave their
possessors such great superiority over their fellows in the struggle
for existence that those possessors survived by the law of Natural
Selection. These features began imperceptibly—the neck and the
nose grew more in proportion to other features during the lives of
the individuals on account of the habits of the animals, and they
may be compared in this respect to the enlarging skull of civilized
Man.

“¢ As the features of the adult become in course of time the fea-
tures of the adolescent by the law of earlier inheritance, the elon-
gation of nose and neck would become exaggerated from one
generation to another. I do not see any reason to suppose, at any
rate at first, that the girafhan or elephantine ancestors were the
favored individuals of the community, and that the other members
died out because they did not possess elongated necks or noses.
I do not suppose that all the members of the species possessed

421

these features in the same degree, but I do imagine that a gradu-
ally increasing elongation was more or less common to all the mem-
bers of the pregiraffan or preélephantine species as a result of
their habits.

‘“To take the case of the giraffe alone, for the sake of clearness
—it is hardly necessary to suppose occasional droughts during
which those members of the community with the longest necks
would survive, while others starved because they were not able
to reach such high branches as their longer-necked fellows. An
extra inch or so of neck could not make so much difference as this.*

*‘T do not say that the giraffe or its ancestors have not had the
best of it when there was a struggle for existence, and that natural
selection has not played its part; the fact of the giraffe’s existence
is proof enough that it was better adapted to its environment than
some of its competitors; and the longer the neck grew doubtless
the greater superiority the animal would possess.

**As to the short-necked forms which would connect the present
giraffe with the stock from which it originally came, their dying out
is not difficult to explain. The law of earlier inheritance allows us
to imagine a small beginning becoming more accentuated in all
members of a species as time goes on, and as the shorter-necked
forms were really the parents of the longer-necked forms, the dis-
appearance of the former would be due, as the lawyers say of a
lease, to effluxion of time.

** Arising from and coéxisting with developmental variation there
seems to be another factor important in differentiating species, and
this is the time when the offspring is produced.

‘Offspring produced early and offspring produced late in the life
of a parent shewing considerable developmental changes between
early and late maturity, or between early maturity and senility,
would in all probability differ to a certain extent. It is, I think,
reasonable to suppose that if there were, say, a decline of vigor
after a certain period of the parent’s life, the offspring produced
after this time would be more likely not only to be somewhat less
vigorous altogether, but would probably exhibit declining vigor at
an earlier age than those produced before any decline of vigor
set in.

*<The adults would have the best of it in a drought on account of their larger size.

Therefore if there were a long-necked ‘sport’ among the young pregiraffes it would
baye no chance against the adults unless its neck were of a preternatural length.”

422

‘This seems to be a reasonable deduction from what is observed
in phylogenetic series of Ammonites, where from the same stock
arise one series which continues to progress, another series which
retrogrades, though both lived together and were presumably sub-
ject to the same environment.

‘¢ More marked still wouid be the effects if from any cause there
arose a difference among members of a species as to the time in their
lives when offspring were produced. There is the case in Man—
the professional classes defer marriage till late in life, agricultural
laborers marry very early.

“‘ These surmises illustrate what may be supposed to be accom-
plished in the differentiation of species by the transmission of de-
velopmental variations in accordance with the law of earlier inher-
itance. Further consideration will shew that, if some members of
a species acquire, on account of environment, habits necessitating
the increased use of one part, and other members acquire other
habits with different results, and so on, there would, in course of
time, arise from one original stock two or more species very differ-
ent from each other or to the parent form—simply because their
small initial differences had been constantly increased by the action
of the law of earlier inheritance.’’

IV. DEscrRIPTIVE TERMS,*

Before attempting to enter upon the deseriptive part of this essay
it is essential to define, as briefly as possible, the meaning of the
terms which are constantly employed in the descriptions of the
different forms. The term ‘‘coil’’ has been applied solely to the
whole shell, while ‘‘ whorl ’’ and ‘ volution’’ have been used when
in the singular or when numbered only for a particular whorl or
volution. Thus the first whorl or first volution is the first completed
revolution of the shell, and so on. I have also been obliged to use
volution for parts of a single whorl in describing substages.

In describing the aperture I have used the terms ‘‘crest’’ for pro-
jecting parts and ‘‘sinus’’ for inflections of the outline to distin-
guish them from the saddles and lobes of the sutures. The ventral
sinus of the aperture and lines of growth is here called the ‘‘ hypo-
nomic sinus,’’ it being due to the large size of the hyponome or

* Special students of Cephalopoda will, it is thought, be grateful for this chapter.

Other classes of readers, if there be one who gets so far and has the courage to go farther,
can skip and refer to it in connection with the descriptions which follow.

423

motor organ usually called ‘‘ fleshy funnel ’’ in the modern nautilus,
as has been explained above.

It is useless to discuss the terms ‘‘ ventral”’ and ‘‘ dorsal.’’ There
can be no debate on their application, unless it is based upon new
anatomical information. The fact is obvious, so far as now known,
that in Maudilus pompilius, and all other Nautiloids, the outer side
of the whorl is ventral and the inner side is dorsal. Whenever,
even in straight shells, Orthoceras, etc., the lines of growth can be
seen, the ventral side is indicated by the ‘‘ hyponomic sinus,’’ and
in nautilian or coiled shells it is invariably on the outer side.

The term ‘‘ depressed ’’ is used for the flattening of the whorls,
which affects the abdomen and dorsum and acts at right angles to
the transverse diameter of the coil; ‘‘ compressed ’’ for the similar
effect on the sides, which acts in the plane of the transverse diame-
ters and at right angles to the plane of coiling. When the sides,
lateral zone, or faces are inclined inwardly towards the umbilici, the
term ‘‘divergent’’ is applied, and when they incline outwardly
towards the abdomen the term ‘‘ convergent ’’ has been used.

The adoption of these terms has been found to give clearer ideas
of the development and true importance to the different characters
of the volutions. The term ‘‘sides’’ is used in a general way, and
distinguishes the whole of the lateral aspect of the whorl at any
stage. The ‘‘lateral zones’’ and lateral faces, etc., as will be seen
in the descriptions, are developed as modifications out of the sides
of the young and immature whorls. The outer angles occurring on
either side in the young or in the biangular forms are in the text
named ‘lateral angles,’’ being really on the sides of the whorl and
distinct from the angles arising later in the life of the individual,
and later in the evolution of the group. The junction of the ‘¢ lat-
eral faces’’ and abdomen are the ‘‘ abdominal angles,’’ and those
of the ‘‘lateral faces’? and inner faces of the mature whorls
are called the ‘‘umbilical shoulders,’’ and the inner surfaces
are the ‘“‘umbilical zones.’’ All of these parts are developed in
succession and in various combinations, from a round or elliptical
form of whorl, having the vertical or ventro-dorsal diameter longer
than the transverse, both in the individual and in the evolution of
the group.

The venter is the area between the outer angles, whether they be
the ‘‘lateral’’ or ‘‘abdominal’’ angles, on the outer part of the
whorl, and the ‘‘dorsum’’ is the corresponding part on the inner

424

part of the same, between the ‘‘ lateral angles’’ or the ‘‘ umbilical
shoulders.’’ ‘The ‘* zone of impression,’’ or ‘‘ impressed zone,’’ is
the area on the dorsum, which is concave, and lies between the
‘‘umbilical zones.’? The impressed zone may appear indepen-
dently as a ‘‘dorsal furrow,’’ or, after contact, as a ‘‘ contact fur-
row.’ The ‘zone of inclusion’’ or ‘‘included zone ’’ is the cov-
ered area corresponding to this on the venter. The term “‘ zones
of involution”’ or ‘‘area of involution’’ can be used for both of
these when the whorls are not separated or it is desired to speak of
the two together. The ‘lines of involution ’’ are the outer bound-
aries of the ‘‘ zone of impression’’ on the dorsum, and the ‘lines
of inclusion ’’ the corresponding lines on the venter.

The terms ‘‘ involved’’ and ‘‘ involution ’’ should be limited to
whorls having a ‘‘ zone of impression ’’ or ‘‘ impressed zone,’’ that

is, to ‘‘nautilian’’ shells. ‘* Coiled’’ can be applied to all shells

that have the gyroceran curve and even to shells with the whorls
in contact. Nevertheless these sometimes have closer affinity with
nautilian shells of a given series than with the gyroceran shells of
the same series.

Whorls with only two surfaces and angles are ‘‘ digonal ;’’ three
surfaces and angles ‘‘ trigonal ;’’ four surfaces and angles ‘ tetra-
gonal,’’ and when the abdomen is much broader than any other
side ‘‘ trapezoidal ;’’ five surfaces and angles ‘‘ pentagonal ;’’ six
surfaces and angles ‘‘ hexagonal ;’’ seven surfaces and angles ‘‘ hep-
tagonal ;’’ eight surfaces and angles ‘‘ octagonal; nine surfaces and
angles ‘‘enneagonal ;’’ ten surfaces and angles ‘‘ decagonal.”’

The outlines on the Diagram Plate, opposite, page 425, will be
found to explain these terms more fully.

?

?

EXPLANATION OF DIAGRAM PLATE.

Diagram A.—Section of compressed elliptical whorl with primi-
tive regions indicated, ananepionic substage of nautilian shells and
ephebic stage of many primitive orthoceran and cyrtoceran forms.

Diagram £'.—Section of depressed elliptical whorl occurring
older in the ontogeny or correspondingly later in the phylogeny
than A.

Diagram B"”.—Section of a reniform whorl with a contact fur-
row. This may be evolved from B’ by the growth and involution

Proceedings Amer, Philos, Soc Vol, XXXII, No. 143,

Diagram Plate (Hyatt).

425

of the whorl,* and may be an intermediate stage leading into a
whorl like that shown in H, or it may acquire lateral angles as in
C, thus passing into G, or A may pass directly into H.

Diagram C.—Section of a digonal whorl with primitive regions
and* lateral angles, 1. g., occurring in the ephebic stage of ortho-
ceran and cyrtoceran forms and in the young of nautilian forms,
Edaphoceras.

Diagram D.—Section of a trigonal whorl with gibbous venter,
lateral angles, 1. g., and projecting dorsal angle, p. d. g., ex. Tri-
gonoceras.

Diagram E.—Section of a trigonal, shield-shaped whorl, with
concave venter, lateral angles, 1. g., and projecting dorsal angles,
p. d. g. Either D or E may evolve into a tetragonal whorl by the
appearance of a lateral zone on the outer part of the sides and the
rounding off and disappearance of the dorsal angle, ex. Trigono-
ceras,

Diagram F.—Section of a tetragonal whorl with gibbous venter
and dorsum and lateral zones, 1. z. This may be developed from
B” or from C.

The morphic distribution of these forms is as follows: A, B and
C may be Orthoceran, Cyrtoceran or Gyroceran, but are more gen-
erally Orthoceran; D may be Orthoceran, but is usually Cyrto-
ceran and Gyroceran; E and F are almost exclusively Gyroceran.
All of the remaining outlines belong to Nautilian forms.

Diagram G.—Section of a tetragonal, trapezoidal whorl with a
contact furrow nearly as broad as the dorsum, the sides flat and
well defined. This may be evolved from C or B” in development
of Nautilian forms. The abdominal angle, a. g., in this form is
derived from the lateral angle of forms like C. Sides, s., are still
undivided, ex. Temnocheilus.

Diagram H.—Section of a hexagonai whorl with lateral zones,
1. z., developed between the abdominal shoulders or angles, a. g.,
and the umbilical shoulders, u. s., and umbilical zones, u. z., devel-
oped between the latter and the lines of involution, 1. in. The
contact furrow remains primitive or undivided. This may be

* This same diagram can also be used to represent the paragerontie substage of the de-
generation. A reniform whorl may result in the gerontic stage from such an ephebic
whorl as is represented in H, J, K, or P. Q shows anintermediate stage between P anda
reniform paragerontic whorl. No confusion need result from this double use of the same
outline, since it does not imply identity of structure, but simply the identity of form at
the extremes of the ontocycle in the individual and of the phylocycle in the group.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 148. 3B. PRINTED JUNE 20, 1894.

426

developed from G or B, or from C, with an intermediate transforma-
tion like G, or from B, with an intermediary like B’, and F may give
rise to a similar modification when close coiled. A number of Pale-
ozoic forms have this outline, ex. Metacoceras.

Diagram J.—Section of an octagonal whorl derived from H by
the building out of the venter and the formation of a central ven-
tral zone, c. v. z., two lateral ventral angles, l. v. g., and two lat-
eral ventral zones, l. v. z., ex. Tainoceras.

Diagram 7.—Section of a decagonal whorl derived from I by the
subdivision of the impressed zone (contact furrow) and the forma-
tion of a central dorsal face, c. d. f., and two lateral dorsal faces,
l. d. f., ex. some species of Tainoceras and Ccelonautilus.

In their gerontic substages the whorl of G, H, I and J become
more or less rounded and show a tendency to return more or less
completely to the outline of B”.

Diagram. K.—Section of an octagonal, truncated, cuneiform
whorl, usually derived from a whorl similar to H by the convergence
of the lateral zones and the subdivision of the impressed zone,
c. d. f., central dorsal face, 1. d. f., lateral dorsal faces.

Diagram L.—Section of a gerontic whorl derived from K. By
farther degeneration the dorsal angles may disappear and the whorl
assume approximately the reniform outline of B.

Diagram M.—Section of a heptagonal, cuneiform, anagerontic
whorl derived from K. The acute ventral angle, v. g., is formed
by the convergence of the lateral zones and the disappearance of
the abdominal angles. The dotted lines represent the similar trans-
formation which subsequently takes place in the same form on the
dorsum by the convergence of the lateral dorsal faces. The whorl
then becomes a hexagonal cuneiform. This outline has been repre-
sented with rounded umbilical shoulders, but these have to be con-
sidered as equivalent to two angles, and they are often more or less
angular.

Diagram £,—Section of a metagerontic whorl of K or M; sim-
ilar forms may also result from the paragerontic degeneration of Q,
ex. Stroboceras sulcifer, sp. De Koninck.

Diagram N.—Section of a paragerontic whorl of L. The dotted
line represents the obliteration of the zone of impression which
may take place in very old whorls in this substage or in the aper-
tures of the ephebic stages of phyloparagerontic species.

427

Diagram O.—Section of an octagonal, truncated, cuneiform
whorl with a concave abdomen in which a gibbous, central, dorsal
face is formed and the lateral dorsal faces are excessively narrow.
This may be derived from E by involution and the formation of
umbilical shoulders and umbilical zones, ex. Apheleceras, Subcly-
mena.

Diagram P.—Section of a highly complicated fluted whorl with
concave abdomen. ‘The venter has become subdivided into a fluted
central ventral zone, c. v. z., and two fluted lateral ventral zones,
l. v. z., these having become incorporated with the lateral aspect,
and the intermediate lateral ventral angles, |. v. g., form the bor-
ders of what is usually considered as the sides of the whorl.

The lateral zones lying between the abdominal shoulders, a. g.,
and the umbilical shoulders, u. s., have become subdivided into
two lateral faces, the outer one, |. f., is a broad flute, and the inner
one is subdivided into three lateral facets, 1. t., two of them, the
outer and inner facets, fluted, and one of them, the central one,
slightly gibbous and ridged.

The contact furrow has a central dorsal facet, c. d. t., two lateral
dorsal facets, 1. d. t., and two lateral dorsal faces, 1. d. f., the angle
between 1. d. t. and cc. d. t. is the tertiary dorsal angle, t. d. g., but
is not lettered, and the angle between 1. d. f. and 1. d. t. is the dor-
sal face angle and is also not lettered in this diagram, but these are
lettered in Diagram Q. The facets are introduced by the subdivis-
ion of the central dorsal face, which is at first flat, as in L.

The secondary lateral angle, s. l. g., is developed between the
flute of the lateral face, 1. f., and the outer facet of the inner lateral
face that extends from s. 1. g. to u.s. The lateral facets formed
out of the surface of this face are three in number, marked l. t.,
and the angles between these are the tertiary lateral angles, but are
not lettered. The angles on the central gibbous lateral facet are
due to longitudinal striz.

Diagram Q.—Section of a gerontic whorl of P.. The flutings
and other ornaments have been obliterated, but the impressed zone
retains its peculiar characteristics. The more advanced parageron-
tic substage would approximate to Diagram N, but with more de-
pressed venter. Coloceras is a phyloparagerontic form, having an
almost reniform whorl in the neanic and ephebic stages.

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429

These diagrams and examples (with the exception of A, B and
C) were taken from Carboniferous forms published in the Fourth
Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Texas, 1892, but they
are applicable to all of the Nautiloidea, provided certain distinc-
tions be made. The outline expands by growth from an ananepionic
stage, in this case having the approximate outline of A, and may
develop into B and C, with decided lateral angles, but in the ephe-
bic stage may sometimes return to the form of Edaphoceras, C.
Species of other groups may pass through B’ and, becoming invo-
lute, take on the outline of B”, and then, if the shell progresses
still more, it may tend towards forms of H. ~

It must, however, be noticed that fossils of such species occurring
in the earliest geologic period have not, as a rule, even approxi-
mately well-defined angles, and these being deficient, the zones are
not apt to be well differentiated. One can readily see that these
shells, even though they may be involute from an early stage, have
not the more highly specialized characteristics of the whorl found
in some of the Devonian fossils. The latter, in their turn, take
rank as a whole below the still more progressive and highly orna-
mented nautilian shells of the Carboniferous which represent the
acme of the order.

The paracme of the order begins in the Trias, and retrogression
is plainly manifested in the steady decline of the external ornaments
and less angulation of the whorl. The universal absence of all of
the third and fourth orders of modifications of the whorl is one of
the marked features of this decline, beginning with the Trias and
becoming universal in the Jura and other subsequent periods.

The nomenclature of the sutures needs no special description,
except with reference to the ‘‘annular lobe.’’ This is a small
indentation in the sutures, occurring either in the centre of a dorsal
saddle or a dorsal lobe. It is pointed or V-shaped. In some forms
it may arise before a dorsal lobe is formed in the middle of a primi-
tive but persistent dorsal saddle, or it may arise subsequently in the
centre of a broad dorsal lobe. Its development has not been fully
described. It is often accompanied by an internal pointed caecum
called the ‘‘ annular cone,’’ and both are probably connected with
the development of the ‘‘ annular muscle.”’

It has been usual to measure the distance of the siphuncle and
describe its position, with more or less circumlocution, as ventral,
dorsal, central, etc., but in these descriptions the following terms

430

have been employed, which are best explained by the following
diagram, Fig. 14. .

Ventran and dorsan
. express only the posi-
Propioventran. tion of the shell, this
Extracentroventran alone being superfi-
cial. By using these
terms and others, a
Intracentroventran considerable degree of
accuracy can be ob-
tained, and others can
also be employed if
Dorsocentren essentially based on
the same system.
Thus, for example,
Centrodorsan proximo-ventran ex-
presses the position of
the siphuncle in No-
thoceras and Bathmo-
Subdorsan ceras, where this organ
is so close to the shell
that its own wall is in
Bigs part absent and in
part much modified. Subventran is applicable only to those forms
in which the wall of the siphuncle is not altered or modified
through contact with the shell, although it may lie quite closely
against it. The other terms sufficiently explain themselves, except
the use of ‘‘extra’’ and ‘‘intra.’’ It is not meant to confine these
terms to the two where it is used in the diagram. It is obvious
that these prefixes may be employed wherever they are needed.
Thus one can say ‘‘intraventrocentren’’ for a location between
centren and ventrocentren positions.

It would not be proper, however, to use these prefixes on either
side of centren for the reason that the comparisons are all made
from the centre towards the dorsum, on the one hand, and towards
the venter on the other. Thus everything on the dorsal side of this
point is not inside of the centre but dorsad of this point or axis,
and everything on the ventral side is not outside of the same axis
but ventrad of it. I have also used Wilder’s term, mesal, for the
plane of the siphon, instead of median.

Subventran

Centroventran

Ventrocentren

Centren

Intracentrodorsan

Extracentrodorsan

Propiodorsan

431

These terms and others of the new descriptive nomenclature, of
which only very few will be used in these pages, because I think it
will be essential to discuss them further before applying them to the
descriptions of cephalopodan shells, have been gradually introduced
in consequence of the labors of Wilder and Gage, in this country,
and are in a fair way of being adopted in Europe through the
effort of Franz Eilhard Schulze and others.*

Terms like ventran, ventrad, ventral, dorsan, dorsad, dorsal, cen-
tren and centran, and so on, strike one at first as awkward and bar-
barous, but their utility becomes apparent, as in the case of the
siphuncle cited above, as soon as one begins to use them, and they
can be made to have an exact meaning which it is not practicable
to gain otherwise without the repetition in every description of the
same explanatory text.

The shells of Nautiloidea and Ammonoidea are divided by trans-
verse partitions or septa into what are called ‘‘ air chambers,’’ and
the intersections or lines made by the edges of these when they
strike against the inner surfaces of the shell of the whorl are called
the sutures. Fig. 15 shows the edges of these septa as they would
appear in Wautilus umbilicatus (Fig. 1, p. 345) if the shell there
figured had been fossilized, the air chambers filled with infiltrations
and the outer walls of the last whorl destroyed except in the umbil-
icus. The outer empty chamber beyond the suture of the last
septum is the cast of the living chamber. The sinuous edge of
this is the impression left by the edge of the aperture on the right
side. This being a cast artificially made, is somewhat more perfect
than natural casts of the interiors of such forms in the rocks and
the spreading abutments of the septa against the inner wall are
broad bands. Usually, in fossils, the upper extremely thin parts of
these bands have disappeared, leaving only a line below correspond-
ing to the lower parts of the bands in this figure and more nearly
representing the thickness of the internal part of the calcareous
septum.

*See Wilder, Science, ii, 1881; Wilder and Gage, Anatomical Technology, 1882, and other
papers. Also Schulze, Biologisches Centralblatt, xiii, Nos. 1, 2, 1893; Hyatt, ibid., Nos. 15,
16; and again, Schulze, Verh. d. Anat. Gesellech., Versam. Gottingen, 1893, p. 104; and
reprint of same, Deutsche Zool. Gesell., G6ttingen, 1893, p. 6.

7
Wty,

Fic. 15.—Nautilus wmbilicatus.

V. DESCRIPTIONS.

In treating of the history of the impressed zone it has become
essential to describe a number of new genera and also new species.
The old names—Gyoceras, Lituites, Nautilus, etc.—convey en-
tirely false ideas of affinity and would serve to confuse the student
of these fossils, since the new names ignore these groups. Thus it
is not at all in contradiction of the nomenclature if I state that the
close-coiled Zarphyceras prematurum of the earlier Quebec faunas
is the last of its phylum and has no descendants in the Upper
Silurian or later; but if I call it Nautilus, and say that Vautilus

433

prematurum had no descendants, even a tyro would begin to won-
der why it bore the same generic title as the existing species.

The limits of time and space have not enabled me to follow out
each genetic series in this paper, but it will be readily recognized
by naturalists that shells having such very different forms in their
younger stages must have belonged to different phyla. I have,
however, tried in the introduction and in the parts treating of
the history of the impressed zone to discuss the facts and arrange
them in more intelligible form than is practicable in the following
descriptions.

The families into which genera have been assembled are entirely
provisional since more information with regard to the genealogy of
the forms is needed before any satisfactory results can be reached
in defining these larger groups.

NAUTILOIDEA.

TARPHYCERATID.

This family includes shells which had elliptical whorls with gyro-
ceran mode of growth or subquadragonal whorls with nautilian
mode of coiling, the venter narrower than the dorsum in most
forms. The shells comparatively smooth, the sutures with ventral
saddles or only slight lobes, shallow, broad lateral lobes and either
saddles or faint lobes on the venter of free whorls. The siphuncle
is ventrad of the centre.

The genera are as follows: Tarphyceras, Aphetoceras, Delto-
ceras, Pycnoceras, found exclusively in the Quebec faunas older
than the Chazy ; Eurystomites and Barrandeoceras,* found in both
the Quebec faunas and the Lower Silurian ; Planctoceras and Falcili-
tuites, found only in the Lower Silurian.

Tarphyceras,} n. g.

This genus has heretofore been confounded with Eurystomites by
Schréder, the species being found together and resembling each
other in general aspect. It differs, however, from that genus in
having a more discoidal form, more numerous and more slowly
growing whorls, in length of living chamber, in form, aperture,
and other characters.

*In my Genera of Foss. Ceph. I included this genus under the title of Nautilide.

t Tapgds, close.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC, XXXII. 143. 3 C. PRINTED JUNE 22, 1894.

434

The young become almost as close coiled during the paranepionic
substage as in Trocholites, differing in this respect from those of
Eurystomites. The dorsal furrow appears in some species, perhaps
in all, in the paranepionic substage. This might be considered as
due to the quick growth and contiguity of the whorls, the dorsum
of the paranepionic substage being brought close to the dorsum
of the preceding metanepionic and ananepionic substages of the
first whorl. ‘This extraordinary condition of the first whorl obtains
also in Trocholités and will be discussed more fully under the head-
ing of Zarphyceras prematurum and Trocholites. I do not intend,
here or elsewhere, as has been stated in other parts of this paper, to
express a positive opinion that the dorsal furrow in any of these
nautilian forms was originated in the nepionic stage by the mechan-
ical stress of the metanepionic dorsum even in these very closely
coiled shells. The evidence that this may have been the cause is
not satisfactory, nor is there any positive evidence of an entirely
satisfactory character that the dorsal furrow was genetic.
The siphuncle is centren in the ananepionic substage, but becomes
quickly propioventran and continues near the venter for a more or
less prolonged period, shifting slowly towards the center. In
Eurystomites this shifting usually takes place later, or does not
occur at all, and the siphuncle is larger.
The septa are less convex usually than in Eurystomites and, as a
rule, more numerous in each volution.
The sutures have well-marked lateral lobes and have broad sad-
dles on the venter. This ventral saddle may be rounded or straight
or have a slight shallow depression or lobe in the median line. The
sutures, as they approach the lines of involution, are usually more
inclined forwards towards the umbilicus than in Eurystomites.
The whorl in section has a flattened venter and frequently slightly
flattened zones on the sides, so that there is often a decided approxi-
mation to the quadragonal form.
The living chamber is somewhat over one-half of a volution in
length. The aperture is like that of Trocholites, with a deep, broad
hyponomic sinus encroaching upon the lateral zones, these last being
bordered by broad crests, with slight sinuses at the lines of involu-
tion. ‘There appears to have been a slight crest on the dorsum.
The lines of growth are parallel with the borders of the aperture.

_ The shell usually has strong striz of growth externally, but no
costations ; there are only the broad, slight ridges following the

435

lines of growth, which are more or less sporadic in shells of this
group. ‘These primitive coste are probably due to the imperfect
resorption of the more or less expanded borders of the apertures
occurring in some shells but not in others during the progressive
stages of development but common in all shells in the gerontic
stage.

The shell is very thick on the venter, somewhat thinner, but still
thick on the sides and dorsum.

The type is Zarphyceras prematurum.

The species of this genus are as follows: *

Larphyceras Aucoint, Hyatt, Newfoundland.
Ke prematurum, Hyatt, Newfoundland.
frarnsworthi (sp. Billings, fars.), Phillipsburg.

ce

“ Champlainense, sp. Whitfield, Fort Cassin.
if Seeleyt, sp. Whitfield, Fort Cassin.
a extensum, Hyatt, Newfoundland.

Mac Donaldi, n. s., near Lexington, Va.

This last species has a form and suture like that of Champlain-
ense, but the siphuncle is nearer the venter and the young have
flatter and more divergent sides and broader abdomen in the neanic
stage.

TARPHYCERAS. AUCOINI, N. S.

LLoe:; Port au Port,

Pl. iv, Figs. 17-22.

The ananepionic substage seen in the somewhat rough casts is
given in Figs. 20-22, Pl. iv, from the side and front. These figures

* Nautilus calciferous of Billings (Pal. Foss., i, p. 258) is probably a species of this genus
surviving in the later forms of the Quebec at Port au Choix. The small siphuncle and
its position appears to indicate this, but I have no specimens of this species and have
not seen any at Ottawa.

+ This species has two or more very distinct species. The one referred to above has an
elliptical or oval whorl in the ephebic stage, the dorsum a little broader than the venter.
There is a contact furrow in the neanic and ephebic stages. The sutures have ventral
saddles, with probably slight dorsal lobes in the zone of involution, and a free living
chamber over one-half of a volution in length. The siphuncle is subyentran in the
ananeanic substage, becoming propioventran in the paraneanic and yentrocentren in
the metephebic substage. The diameter of the largest specimen, somewhat compressed,
was 140 mm. by 146 mm.; the estimated longest diameter of this through the free living
chamber was about 160 mm. ;

The type of Farnsworthi is a very distinct species and belongs to another genus and is
cited below under the heading of Aphetoceras.

436

show the apex to be blunt and rounded, but this rotundity may be
exaggerated in this part which had to be in part restored.

The umbilical perforation is present, but it is very small. The
whorl grows very rapidly in all of its diameters and the bending of
the shell in the paranepionic substage is very abrupt, bringing the
continuation of this substage, the dorsum, in contact with the dor-
sum of the metanepionic and ananepionic parts of the first volu-
tion.

In correlation with this, as in Trocholites, a distinct dorsal fur-
row appears as the shell bends in the first part of the paranepionic
substage. The coiling is so close that the slightest variation in the
same direction would obliterate the umbilica) perforation. The
growing mantle while building the shell might have been influ-
enced by the proximity of the metanepionic dorsum and the small
diameter of the curve. ‘The dorsal furrow here, as in Trocho-
lites, although occurring in the paranepionic substage before the
whorls touch, is perhaps due to the close contiguity of the whorls
and the rapid ingrowth of the primitive umbilical zones. This
process is still apparent in the first part of the second whorl, a sec-
tion of which is given immediately above the apex in Fig. 20.
This is the first of the ananeanic substage, and the siphuncle shifts
from its previously subventran position to propioventran. In the
metaneanic substage, in the latter half of the second volution, the
elongation of the ventro-dorsal diameters is faster, and the ten-
dency to develop lateral zones by the flattening of the sides becomes
marked. ‘The sections of the whorls in the upper half of Fig. 20
are slightly distorted by compression, the lower half is in proper pro-
portion. The aspect of the section is better given in the more
enlarged Fig. 21, and the decrease in lateral diameters in proportion
to the ventro-dorsal is a marked characteristic and continues in the
ephebic stage.

In some specimens this change is not so marked and the flatten-
ing of the sides develops later.

In the later stages the siphuncle is slightly nearer the center as in
Fig. 19.

Fig. 17 gives the full-grown ephebic stage, and is very close to
the original. The section Fig. 19 shows bow closely this species
resembles Zarphyceras Champlainense, differing only in the greater
rotundity of the venter and in the position of the siphuncle and in

437

the possession of very slight folds or nascent costations, which ap-
pear in some casts, as in the side view Fig. 17.

These specimens occurred in a dolomitic limestone, on a hill to
the west of the inside beach of Port au Port, in the calciferous of
Murray and Howley.

TARPHYCERAS PREMATURUM, D. S.

Loc., Port au Port, Newfoundland.

Pl, iv, Figs. 12-16.

This species is apt to be confounded with Zarphyceras Aucoini,
but the whorls increase faster by growth and are much larger at the
same age.

Fig. 14 shows in part the nepionic whorl of this species and the
ananeanic substage. The section of the ananeanic whorl above the
ananepionic apex is restored, and is probably made too angular and
the abdomen too broad. The other parts of the figure are accurate.
The side view in Fig. 15 gives the same showing the prominence
of the early nepionic substages and the first of the paranepionic.
Fig. 16 shows the paranepionic and earlier substages from the
front. ‘These figures give satisfactorily the differences between the
‘young of this species and Zarphyceras Aucoin.

The presence of a very narrow umbilical perforation is plainly
evident in this specimen and this is similar to that of Aucoznz.
The metanepionic dorsum is distinctly separated from the parane-
pionic dorsum, here shown in outline on the inner edge of the sep-
tum, by a narrow, smooth space which curves around between them,
but in consequence of its ventral curvature as it crossed between
them it cannot be seen in a side view. ‘This perforation or bend is
larger and wider than in Azcoznz, and the involution or ingrowth
of the nascent umbilical shoulders is less than in Auco‘nt. It is
consequently doubtful whether the abruptness of the curvature and
the ingrowth of the umbilical shoulders fully accounts for the pres-
ence of the dorsal furrow in the dorsum of this specimen. The
condition of the specimen is not wholly satisfactory, otherwise a
more definite opinion could probably be given. The inner or dor-
sal surface of the ananepionic and metanepionic substages has been
more or less eroded and it is not practicable to say, as in Azucotnt,
that they might have influenced the formation of the outline of the
opposing dorsum of the paranepionic whorl as it was bent around
the umbilical perforation.

The shell in its later stages, as shown in Figs. 12 and 13, resem-

438

bled closely Aucoinz, but the abdomen becomes more prominent
and the contact furrow is deeper and broader in consequence of
this and the breadth of the venter.

The siphunele in the paranepionic substage issubventran, becom-
ing propioventran in the ananeanic as seen in section above in
Fig. 14, and extracentroventran in the septum seen below in Fig.
12. The position alters slightly in the succeeding stages.

The living chamber is obviously over one-half of a volution in
length and is shown in an incomplete fragmentary condition in the
outline on the farther side of Fig. 12; the form in section of the
same specimen partly restored is given in Fig. 13, Pl.iv. The
depth of the dorsal lobes in the sutures is shown upon the venter
of the exposed whorl in the upper part of the section which is still
covered by the dorsal layer and the remnants of the septa.

‘TARPHYCERAS EXTENSUM.
Loc., Port au Choix, Newfoundland.

This fossil resembles Zarphyceras Seeleyz, but has a shorter living
chamber and the living chamber and part of septate whorl are free
in gerontie stage. The contact furrow increases in depth with the
ephebic stage and then decreases with the approach of the gerontic
stage. The ventro-dorsal diameter slightly decreases, as is shown
in Fig. 1, Pl. vi, in the paragerontic substage, when the whorl is
almost straightened out, and at the same time the impressed zone
is found to be wholly lost, as shown in the section, Fig. 2.

In section 4 the inner whorl represents a section of the
ephebic stage and the outer whorl is the gerontic stage. The
uppermost, with siphuncle nearer the venter and reduced impressed
zone, is the anagerontic, and Fig. 2 is the paragerontic sub-
stage. The whorls are apparently smooth. ‘The septa are not very
concave. The sutures have ventral saddles, dorsal lobes and slight
lateral lobes. In the anagerontic substage they are nearly straight
on the sides and decidedly inclined forwards.

TARPHYCERAS CHAMPLAINENSE.
NauTILUS CHAMPLAINENSE, Whitfield, (Bull. Am. Mus., New
York, Volaj7Pigst9.93, Pl, 32).
Loc., Fort Cassin, Lake Champlain.
Pl. iv, Figs. 4-11.
The nepionic stage of this species, as in others of this group, has

439

a very small umbilical perforation, the bending of the paranepionic
stage taking place with great abruptness. When seen laterally
(Fig. 4, Pl. iv) the umbilicus shows a much larger perforation than
exists internally. This is due to the curvature of the perforation
and its decrease in diameter internally. Starting from either side,
it is an unsymmetrical cone with a pear-shaped base, which de-
creases internally and bends in a bow-like curve as it crosses
between the dorsan surfaces of the meta- and paranepionic sub-
stages. The external orifices are usually owing to the fact that the
matrix is difficult to clean out, apparently broader than they really
are. The actual diameter is about 1 mm., diminishing to .5 mm.
at the center. In section, however, it may be seen, as in Fig. 9,
to have a minute perforation between the metanepionic dorsum at
the center below and the paranepionic dorsum just above this. The
outline of the section (Fig. 10) probably passed not far from the
apex in this specimen, probably through the metanepionic substage,
judging from the outline of the section (Fig. g, and the enlarged out-
line, Fig. 11), which shows transitional characteristics from the
dorsoventrally elongated oval of the whorl of the ananepionic sub-
stage common to most Nautiloids and the transverse oval of the
earlier paranepionic also found at this substage in a large number of
nautilian shells. This outline, Fig. r1, is similar to that of the
shells of Vauti/us pompilius at the same age.

The paranepionic substage of Fig. g has also an outline simi-
lar to that of Mautilus pompilius at the same age, being kid-
ney-shaped, with a broad but well-defined dorsal furrow. The
presence of this dorsal furrow, although the whorls do not touch,
appears at first to justify the opinion that this is a case in which
inheritance may be assumed. ‘The paranepionic dorsum is, how-
ever, very closely approximated to the dorsum of the metane-
pionic substage, and it seems possible that this proximity modified
the shape of the secreting edge of the dorsal side of the mantle
and caused the corresponding impression shown in the shell. At
any rate, it is not safe to assume that this represents any hereditary
tendency. The exceedingly quick growth from the apex to the
paranepionic and the sudden curvature of the early paranepionic
whorls might have produced this also, as pointed out in other
similar cases. In making another specimen of this species (Fig. 4,
Pl. iv) I was fortunate enough to crack the fossil so as to expose the
entire length of the cast of the umbilical perforation. I found this

440

to be, as stated above, a bow-shaped, dark, smooth filling, as shown
in Fig. 5 and more enlarged in Figs. 6 and 7. Fig. 8 is an ideal
restoration of a side view of the nepionic stage, and gives the loca-
tion of sections shown in Figs. 6 and 7. By the aid of Fig. 7 one
can see that the furrow which appears in the dorsum of the
paranepionic substage is first found just as the whorl makes the
sharp turn to form the umbilical perforation. This shows also that
its origin may be purely mechanical, The hard wall of the dorsum
of the metanepionic was only about .5 mm. distant from the grow-
ing pliable edge of the paranepionic as it made the turn, and this
pliable border may have been built to conform to the shape of the
internal metanepionic dorsum. ‘This becomes possible when one
takes into consideration the rapid growth of the whorl in its lateral
and ventro-dorsal diameters at this stage. The increase of the
former broadening out the volution causes the involution of the
apex on the sides when this is reached, and rapid increase of the
ventro-dorsal diameters forces the building shell to make this sud-
den turn, owing to the more rapid building out of the ventral side.

Immediately after passing this point of greatest pressure, as shown
in Fig. 6, the zone produced by it begins to decrease in depth and
increase in width, but it does not disappear altogether, because the
growing shell immediately strikes the dorsal side of the metane-
pionic and ananepionic substages and the true contact furrow
appears. This is shown in the truncation of the dorsal corner of
the outline in Fig. 8 when it strikes the apex. The centre of Fig. 5
is approximately the same as Fig. 6.

A Trocholites-like outline is assumed in the neanic stage (shown
in Fig. 5 in section of second whorl below center) and in the ephe-
bic stage the whorl is apt to become slightly flattened on the venter.
The outer whorl of section, Fig. 5, is flattened in this way and
represents the anephebic condition of the living chamber,

This shell is smooth until the ananeanic substage, as in Fig. 4,
and then becomes costated. ‘These coste are infrequent, low,
broad elevations which become less distinct with the incoming of
the anephebic substage and are very often absent in the later ephe-
bic substages, beginning however again in the gerontic stage, but
are never so constant or prominent as in the earlier stages.

The siphuncle of the metanepionic whorl, if the mark in the
centre of the enlarged outline (Fig. 11, Pl. iv) really represents
this organ or its general location, is centren. This, however, is a

44]

mere spot, so that this must be regarded as doubtful. In the later
paranepionic it is unquestionably propioventran or subventran. In
the neanic stage it approximates to and attains an extracentroven-
tran position, which it retains throughout life. The position in the
gerontic stage was, however, not observed.

Having had an opportunity for close study of Whitfield’s origi-
nals and also the fine collection of Mr. Walcott (now in U. S. Na-
tional Museum), from same locality, there is but little doubt that
the specific name is correct.

‘TARPHYCERAS (?) CONVOLVENS.

DISCOCERAS CONVOLVENS, Angelin et Lindst. (Fragm. Si/., xvi, Fig.
ae mot Pl, Pig. 5)s

This form has the sutures and similar position of siphuncle and
last part of outer whorl free and the lines of growth similar to other
species of this genus, as figured on Pl. xvi of Angelin and Lind-
strom. ‘The figure in section on Pl. x, Fig. 5, is doubted, because
the whorls appear to be closer coiled and the dorso-ventral diame-
ters increase faster than in other specimens figured.

Lurystomites.

This genus was first described by Schréder,* who saw that the
Nautilus Kelloggi of Whitfield was generically distinct from his
genus Estonioceras. He also included in the same genus /Vautilus
Champlainensis, but this, with See/eyz and similar discoidal forms,
are here placed in the genus Tarphyceras.

The siphuncle is subventran in the nepionic and ananeanic sub-
stages, becoming extracentroventran in all the later stages of devel-
opment, or it may remain nearer the venter. The rate of growth
of the shell is more rapid than in Tarphyceras and there are fewer
whorls in the same diameter. ‘The ventro-dorsal diameters are
consequently longer in proportion than in Tarphyceras. The whorl
may be rounded until a late stage of development, but usually
acquires a more or less flattened venter and primitive lateral zones
and ill-defined umbilical zones like those of some species of Tar-
phyceras. The lateral zones are apt to be more convergent and
the abdomen narrower.

* Op. cit., Pal. Abh. Dames et Kayser, V, p. 26.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC, XxxII. 143.3 D. PRINTED JUNE 22, 1894.

442

The umbilical perforation is large and the impressed zone is a
contact furrow not generated until the whorls come in contact.

The contact furrow is deeper and the amount of involution
slightly greater in the ephebic stage than is usual in Tarphyceras. °
It has been supposed, from the large specimen described by Whit-
field, that this shell was close coiled and involute throughout life.
There is, however, one large specimen (Fig. 4, Pl. v) in the Wal-
cott collection, U. S. National Museum, which has the entire living
chamber and part of the septate whorl free. The living chamber
is very variable in length. It is shorter than in Tarphyceras in the
adult of Hurystomites Kelloggt, and in the aged specimen referred
to above it was very long. ‘The aperture, as figured by Whitfield,
has lateral crests which are most prominent opposite the centres of
the lateral zones, receding into sinuses on the umbilical zones.

The sutures may remain throughout life almost straight, with the
slightest of lateral lobes and ventral saddles, or they may become
quite sinuous, with well-defined lateral lobes and the ventral saddles
entire or divided by median lobes. A distinct dorsal lobe makes
its appearance in the contact furrow when this is formed and on
the gerontic volution this furrow persists as an impressed zone
although entirely freed from contact with the inner whorl (Fig. 5,
Play). It diminishes slowly in depth and breadth, but its per-
sistence on the dorsum of this very long free gerontic stage shows
that it has acquired a strong hold upon the organization of this
specimen. Having no other specimens it cannot be said that this
persistence is common to all individuals of the species.

EURYSTOMITES KELLOGGI.
NauriLus KE.LLocc!, Whitf., of. cit. (Bull. Am. Mus., N. Y., i,
No.3. Plo xxx: not Pl. xxxi, Migs. 4, 5).
EvurystTomMitTes KE.LLocci (?), Schréder, of. ct. (Pal. Abh. Dames
i, Kayseren Witt, 4, ps 20).
Pl. v, Figs. 4, 5.

The figures of Whitfield give an excellent general representation
of this species. The young are, however, slightly costated in the
neanic stage and there are at least two distinct forms placed by
Whitfield under this name.

443

EURYSTOMITES ROTUNDUS.
NauTiLus Kettocet, Whitf., of. cit. (Bull. Am. Mus., New York,
pe Ih ence, eS. 54, 653) not: P).. xxx).

Loc., Fort Cassin.

Pl. v, Figs. 21-25.

This species increases more rapidly in the growth of the ventro-
dorsal diameters than in Ae//ogg7 and retains the siphuncle near the
venter for a longer time during the growth. This may be due,
however, to the differences in the size, and not a matter of age,
since in large whorls it assumes a similar position to that of Ke//ogg7.
Fig. 21, Pl. v, gives a view of the first two whorls from the side,
partly restored from the study of the section, and the dotted lines
explain the position of the last section (Fig. 25, Pl. v) of the
centre of first volution.

This figure shows the metanepionic above and paranepionic be-
low, just before the paranepionic comes in contact with the apex.
This was the last section taken. Fig. 22 shows the first section,
secured through the inner dorsal part of the metanepionic substage,
_and Figs. 23, 24, Pl. v, show the successive sections connecting
this with Fig. 25, and thus demonstrating the large size of the
umbilical perforation and the correlative rotundity of the dorsi of
the meta- and paranepionic substages.

EURYSTOMITES GIBBOSUM, N. g.
Loc., Port au Port Choix, Schooner Taland, Newfoundland.

I mention this new species here without giving figures, because it
is important in the consideration of the relations of the dorsal lobe
and impressed zone and it is so peculiar that it can be easily recog-
nized.

The general aspect is like that of Hurystomites Kelloget, but the
septa are more deeply concave than in any species of these faunas
and the lateral sutures run forward on the sides as in Tarphyceras.
The outlines of the whorls in section at all epinepionic stages is like
that of the last whorl of the specimen of Wautilus Kelloggt, here
Lurystomites rotundus, as figured by Whitfield on PI. xxxi, Fig. 4a Aw Sa,
and in section the whorls at all stages are ovals similar to the meta-
nepionic substage of Lurystomites rotundus (Fig. 25, Pl. v), but
the abdomen is rounder. No lateral zones or umbilical zones are
differentiated, but there is a faint approximation to the digonal
form probably in the early neanic substages. The sides are only

¢

444

slightly convex and slope evenly and divergently outwards and con-
sequently appear flattened in some specimens.

The envelopment covers the abdomen, which last is prominently
convex.

The length of the sub-V-shaped dorsal lobe in the sutures is
greater than in any species I have yet seen, and this is very instruc-
tive. Occurring as it does in a shell which is not very involute,
and with a contact furrow but little exceeding the ordinary
dimensions, it shows that the depth of the dorsal lobe in the
sutures is not only correlated with the extent ‘and depth of the
contact furrow but also largely dependent upon the concavity of the
septa. In other words, if this species had had septa of ordinary
concavity the dorsal lobes in the sutures would not have been so
deep and sub-V-shaped as they are. The sutures have also broad
lateral lobes running well forward to sharp saddles at the lines of
involution. There are broad saddles at the abdominal angles and
shallow ventral lobes or straight sutures across the venter. The
siphuncle becomes intracentroventran in the ephebic stage and is
very large, as it is in Lurystomites Kellogg?. ‘The whorls come in
contact in the ananeanic substage. The shell grows quite large,
but, so far as I have seen, none have any part of the last whorl free.

EURYSTOMITES VIRGINIANA.
NavuTILUS KELLoGGI(?) (gars), Whitf. (not figured).
Loc., near Lexington, Va., and Fort Cassin.

This shell had more cylindrical whorls and more numerous and
straighter sutures at all stages than in Aec//ogg?. ‘The siphuncle is
nearer the venter, and in the type-specimen, which is over 90 mm.
in diameter (in collection U.S. National Museum), it is still almost
subventran at the entrance into the living chamber. This last is
less than one-half of a volution in length. ‘The whorl is almost
circular in this specimen at all stages observed, including the neanic
stage, and the involution is very slight; the dorsal lobe correlates
’ with this, being correspondingly shallow and narrow. ‘The sutures
otherwise resemble those of Aed//ogg?, but are straighter, and the
three specimens from Virginia do not show the ventral lobes that
often occur in Kedlloget.

There is a young: specimen in the American Museum under the
name of Ke//oggt, from Fort Cassin, that appears to belong to this
species, having similar sutures, form of whorl and involution.

445

EURYSTOMITES UNDATUM.
NavuTILus unpDATuS, Hall (Padé. Mew York, i, p. 52, Pl. xiii and
xlil dzs).

Loc., Poland, Herkimer county, N. Y., Black River Limestone.

Blo, Figs. 1,2.

This species has much broader whorls in the young than in
Eurystomites of the Quebec faunas. ‘The position and size of the
siphuncle, the large umbilical perforations and the sutures and the
flattened abdomen of the adult stage and comparison with the
heavily costated forms like D¢scoceras antiquissimum and others
show that this shell is probably a member of the genus Eurysto-
mites.

The nepionic stage has a very large umbilical perforation and in
correlation with this the whorl has a rounded dorsum at this age.
The metanepionic substage has a broadly elliptical form and sub-
ventran siphuncle ; the paranepionic, on account of the rapid trans-
verse growth, has a subdigonal whorl, as shown in Fig. 2, Pl. v.
The shell does not increase so fast transversely in the neanic stage
and the whorl becomes rounder, a slight contact furrow appearing
when the whorls come in contact, and the living chamber at this
age is less than one-half of a volution in length. Light costations
also appear in this substage, but the nepionic whorl is smooth with
the exception of strong lines of growth. The abdomen becomes
flattened in the paraneanic substage, and the sutures show slight,
ventral lobes and very slight lateral lobes.

The siphuncle is propioventran in the paranepionic substage and
neanic stage. The costations become stronger in the paraneanic
substage but are reflected on casts only to a very slight extent.

The young are, however, quite variable, and the figures, Pl. v,
give probably an extreme form so far as the retention of the broad
subdigonal form is concerned. In other varieties or species, for I
think ‘there are several species usually placed under this name, the
sides and venter become slightly flattened in the metaneanic sub-
stage, or even before this. In the specimen figured this change
had not yet taken place, although the shell was in the metaneanic
substage.

The aperture in this specimen flared out laterally, but is removed
in the section-Big.. 2, Pl. -v.

Slight, foldlike costz are better developed in the ephebic stage,

446

and, although always present, they are only occasionally developed
into decided costations even in full-grown specimens.

The shell grows quite large, but so far as I have seen none have
any part of the last whorl free. The largest shells often have com-
pressed whorls, with abdomens much narrower and flat, and sides
much flatter than in the earlier stages. :

Planctoceras.

This group was first described by Remelé under the name of
AZ goceras and subsequently under that of Tragoceras, but both of
these being preoccupied, Schréder proposed that of Planctoceras.*

Schréder considers it to be a subgenus, and that the only dis-
tinction between this and Estonioceras lies in the fact that it was
probably not close coiled at any stage.

As Estonioceras is here limited, however, the sutures are differ-
ent and have ventral and dorsal saddles with lateral lobes, as in
Falcilituites. The young and all stages so far as seen have also
compressed elliptical instead of depressed whorls. That is to say,
they are probabiy never digonal, and do not resemble those of
Estonioceras at any stage, unless in the very earliest or nepionic
stage which is not known. The whorls, as shown by Schréder in
his fine figures, have the dorsum and venter somewhat depressed
and very nearly equal and distinct from the side in the young. In
other words, there is a faint tendency to form a quadragonal whorl.
Later, probably in the ephebic stage, the dorsum may exceed the
venter in breadth, and in the gerontic stage the whorl becomes al-
most circular,

The lines of growth are similar to those of Falcilituites, 7. ¢.,
they have broad ventral sinuses and a broad latero-dorsal crests.

The volutions are attenuated and the living chambers very long.

The siphuncle is small and about twice its own diameter removed
from the venter, or, in my nomenclature, is extracentroventran in
the neanic and ephebic stages as measured on Schréder’s figures.

The only species referred to this genus in Europe is the Plancteceras
(Orthoceratites) falca/um, sp. Schlot., which, judging from the fig-
ures of Dewitz, Schréder, Quenstedt and Eichwald, probably in-
cludes several quite distinct species. Planctoceras Quenstedi (Lit.,
falcatus, Quenst.), for example, has distinct sutures and outline

* Dames et Kayser, Pal. Abh., v, hft. 4, 1891, p. 41.

447
from the species figured either by Dewitz or Schréder. In fact, the
figures show that there are very likely three species under this one
name.
This genus is described here partly because it is an excellent illus-
tration of the correlation of the dorsal and ventral saddles with
elliptical compressed whorls and gibbous abdomens and gibbous

dorsal sides such as occur in many cyrtoceran and gyroceran forms,
and also because of its resemblance to Aphetoceras.

Aphetoceras,* n. g.

The shells of this genus are remarkable for their resemblances,
until a late stage of growth, to the cyrtoceran genus, Melonoceras,
from which they differ in having open apertures, and in this case
they would probably compare more closely in these stages with
Oonoceras. These shells are, however, coiled with an even gyro-
ceran curvature that does not bring the whorls in contact at any
stage.

The form of the whorl in section is compressed elliptical or ovi-
form, the venter narrower than the dorsum. This outline is com-
mon to all of the epembryonic stages as far as known. ‘The nepi-
onic substage has, however, not been seen as yet.

There is no impressed zone at any stage.

The whorl probably deviates from the spiral in the paragerontic
substage, but this has not been observed, unless Farnsworthi is a
true member of this generic phylum.

The shell is invariably smooth so far as kno-yn.

The sutures have very nearly the same form throughout the epem-
bryonic stages, so far as known, having dorsal and ventral saddles
and broad lateral lobes in correlation with gyroceran characters of
the coil.

The siphuncle is subventran or propioventran and probably does
not vary much from these positions in any species.

This genus is separable from Planctoceras by the gyroceran mode
of coiling, by the form of the whorl in section, by the length of
the living chamber and position of the siphuncle.

APHETOCERAS AMERICANUM, 0. s. (Pl. vi, Figs. 5-8, > %4).
Loc., Port au Choix, Newfoundland.

This shell has an open gyroceran coil and, so far as could be

* Avertds, free.

448

seen, it was not in contact at any stage, but the earlier and proba-
bly nepionic whorl was not seen.

The whorls increase slowly by growth, especially in the transverse
diameters ; the ventro-dorsal growth is somewhat more rapid, but
not sufficiently so to close up the volutions. In the gerontic stage
the living chamber begins to depart slightly from the preceding
curve of growth, as shown in the drawing (Fig. 5, Pl. vi).

The shell is probably smooth.

The whorls in section are compressed, the dorsum wider than the
venter, and the dorso-ventral diameter much larger than the trans-
verse, especially in the ephebic and gerontic stages. The abdomen
becomes more or less flattened in the last two stages, but is rounded
in the neanic stage. The dorsum remains rounded and gibbous
throughout all the stages so far as known.

The sutures have ventral and dorsal saddles and broad lateral
lobes in the neanic stage and probably also in the later nepionic
stage. After the abdomen becomes flattened, slight ventral lobes
are developed in the sutures of the ephebic and gerontic stages.

The siphuncle is large, propioventran in all the stages observed.

APHETOCERAS BOREALE, 0. Ss. (Pl. v, Figs. 15-17, > 34).
Loc., Schooner Island (on southeast side), Newfoundland.

This resembles Aphetoceras Americanum, at the same age, in
sutures and form, but the siphuncle is slightly nearer to the venter
and the coiling is obviously distinct and the abdomen has not the
well-marked, flattened aspect of the former.

It is doubtful, of course, whether the whorl actually does form a
coil in the specimens collected; but, if it does, the inner whorls
were probably more loosely coiled than in Aphetoceras Americanum,
since the curvature of this fragment is larger than in any correspond-
ing part of Americanum.

APHETOCERAS FARNSWORTHI.
LiruiTEs FaRNnswortul, Bill. (fars.) (Geol. Surv. Canada, Pal. i,
p:.2u, Miei24):

Loc., Phillipsburg.

This species probably belongs to a distinct genus, and is cited
here provisionally under this name because it may be merely a
highly degenerate species of Aphetoceras. It is also coiled in the
neanic stage, but apparently the whorls are not in very close con-
tact. There are certainly two species, and probably three, usually

449

included under this name. One is separated above as Zurphyceras
Farnsworthi and the other below as Aphetoceras attenuatum. ‘The
type is that figured by Billings, and this had the living chamber
free and deviating strongly from the spiral. It was 91 mm. long
on the dorsal surface and more than one-half of a volution in
length when this measurement was applied to the coil of the preced-
ing whorls. The siphuncle in the ephebic stage was propioventran
and the septa much closer together than is usual in this genus.

APHETOCERAS ATTENUATUM.
LiruiTEs FaRNSworTHI, Bill. ( pars.) (op. cit., p. 21).
Loc., Phillipsburg.

This species is founded upon the specimen described by Billings
on p. 21 of his Paleozoic Fossils as having first two whorls in con-
tact and making a coil an inch across. These whorls are, however,
not in contact on his specimen, if my drawing of this is correct.
The specimen is of nearly the same size as the type of Aphetoceras
Frarnsworthi, but one and a quarter volutions are free, so as to
leave a gap of 8 mm. before the completion of the first quarter of
the septate part of the eccentric volution, and at the end of the
same this gap has increased to 13 mm., and in the next quarter, at
the end of the living chamber, it is 25 mm. The departure of the
free whorl of Farnsworthi increases, as shown in Billings’ drawing,
in less than one-half of a volution to 40 mm.

The septate part of the eccentric volution in this specimen is
58 mm. long, the living chamber is 88 mm. long. The former
would occupy about three-fourths of a volution if it followed a reg-
ular open spiral curve, and the latter would be about one-half of a
volution, estimated in the same way.

The septa are similar to those of Hurnsworthi. The fragment of
the siphuncle observable in the neanic stage changes in the length
of 1o mm. from nearly subventran to propioventran.

Deltoceras,* n. g.

The shells of this group resemble those of Aphetoceras, but are
just one grade more complicated. The whorls are similar in section,
but grow more rapidly in the ventro-dorsal diameters, the siphuncles
. in some species are very large and ventral. The sutures are simi-

* Agdtog, ascroll.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS, SOC. XXXII. 142. 3E. PRINTED JUNE 27, 1894.

450

lar to those of Aphetoceras, but the whorls are in contact either in
the earlier epembryonic stages or throughout the ephebic stage. A
departure from the spiral regularly takes place in the gerontic stage
or earlier ; sometimes the entire ephebic stage is free.

No impressed zone has been found at any stage, although a slight
flattening of the dorsum was observed in one species.

This group is represented by several species in the Newfoundland
basin of the Quebec fauna, but it is only necessary here to describe
one.

DELTOCERAS PLANUM, DN. S.
Loc., Port au Choix, on north side, Newfoundland.

This fossil is apparently very close to Larrandeoceras natator,
but it increases more rapidly in the dorso-ventral diameters and
has a larger siphuncle, and this is closer to the venter and it differs
also in the greater compression of the form.

In the neanic stage it agrees more closely with za¢afor in aspect,
but the siphuncle issubventran. In the ephebic stage and anage-
rontic substage it becomes propioventran and increases in size until
it becomes 7 mm. in diameter ventro-dorsally where it enters the
living chamber. The transverse diameter was not measurable, but
it is undoubtedly less than this in correlation with the compressed
character of the volution. The ventro-dorsal diameter of the last
whorl through the lhving chamber is 53 mm., the transverse
only about 28 mm. to 30 mm., the whole diameter of the coil
at this place being 163 mm.

The incomplete living chamber is over one-quarter of a volution
and has departed slightly from the closer spiral of the ephebic stage.
This departure is very gradual at first until the gerontic stage begins,
and then becomes more apparent and widens more rapidly. The
whorls are in absolute contact only in the neanic stage. ‘The venter
appears to be rounded at all stages of growth.

Barrandecceras.

This genus was described in my Genera of Fossil Cephalopods to
include shells having large umbilical perforations, compressed
slightly costated or smooth whorls. The venter usually narrower
than the dorsum, the whorls barely in contact or with very slight
contact furrow, siphuncle near but above centre, septa deeply con-

451

cave, sutures having usually ventral and dorsal saddles and lateral
lobes. This last statement is true of all the forms having the gyro-
ceran mode of coiling, but not of those which have the closer nau-
tilian form. In these there is a slight dorsal lobe and a different
form’of the paranepionic whorl which may eventually lead to their
generic separation.

The type is Barrandeoceras (Naut.) xatator, sp. Billings.

BARRANDEOCERAS MINGANENSE.
Loc., Mingan Islands.

There is a specimen from the Chazy limestone of the Mingan
Islands in the collection of the Museum of the Geological Survey
at Ottawa which has very similar characters to those of Barrandeo-
ceras natator, but is distinct in some of its characters. ‘The living
chamber is short and, if complete, about a quarter of a volution in
length. It is free and in section is compressed oval, the abdomen
broader than the dorsum, but the centro-dorsal diameter is longer
than the transverse.

The siphuncle is nearer the centre, being ventrocentren. The
neanic, or perhaps an ephebic stage has slight annulations or raised
lines’ of growth, judging from the marks on the section. ‘This is
labeled as coming from the white limestone of Large Island.

There is no impressed zone at any stage observed. The ephebic
stages have a whorl similar to that of Barrandeoceras convolvans in
the neanic stage, but the abdomen is broader.

BARRANDEOCERAS CONVOLVANS.
LITUITES CONVOLVANS, Hall (Pa/. cf New York, i, p. 53, Pl. xiii,
Fig.:2).

Loc., Watertown, N. Y.

The specimen figured by Hall has in the ephebic stage sutures
with slight dorsal lobes. ‘This, however, may have been a mistake
in drawing or an abnormal individual variation. <A specimen in
the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy from the same locality, ex-
hibiting the form of the whorl and the sutures of the ephebic stage,
does not have such lobes.

The characteristics otherwise are so close to Hall’s description.
and figure that, in spite of this and the supposition that the siphun-
cle was ventral, I have referred this and a suite of sections of the
same to his species.

The whorls are variable in the coiling, and in some specimens.
are plainly not in contact at any stage. In others the neanic volu-

452

tion is in contact, but this is so slight that no contact furrow is
formed. The whorls are mostly gyroceran in the character of the
coil becoming excentric in the ephebic stage.

The section is a much compressed oval, the ventro dorsal diam-
eter much longer than the transverse, the abdomen narrowly rounded
and dorsum broader, but also gibbous. The neanic stage has a more
rounded outline in section.

The shell is smooth.

The sutures have ventral and dorsal saddles with broad lateral
lobes in the neanic and ephebic stages.

The siphuncle varies from centroventren to intracentroventran in
the neanic and ephebic stages.

BARRANDEOCERAS NATATOR.

NAUTILUS NATATOR, Bill. (Can. Wat. iv, No. 6, 1859).

BARRANDEOCERAS NATATOR, Hyatt (Gen. Foss. Ceph., p. 299).
Loc., Mingan Islands.

This species has volutions compressed oval in section, the dorsum
somewhat broader than the venter ; siphuncle is extracentroventran,
even in the neanic stage; septa deeply concave; sutures with dor-
sal and ventral saddles and the lateral lobes as in other species of
this genus.

The volutions are in contact, but no contact furrow was formed
at any age. ‘The contact takes place as in the young of /stonio-
ceras perforatum, Fig. 9, Pl. vii, on the venter of the paranepi-
onic volution.

The volution in the neanic stage, dorso-ventral diameter 13 mm.,
has a much narrower venter in proportion to the dorsum than in
the adult. ‘The venter was rounded at all stages and also the dor-
sum. ‘The ananeanic and nepionic stage were not present in the
original specimen in the Museum at Ottawa, but in following out
the same lines it is easily ascertained that the umbilical perforation
must have been enormous, at least 15-17 mm. indiameter. The
living chamber was somewhat over one-fourth of a volution in
length. The whole diameter was about 108 mm. It was reported
as having been found in the Chazy limestone.

BARRANDEOCERAS STERNBERGI.
NAUTILUS STERNBERGI, Barr. (Syst. Se/., Pl. xxxvi, xxxvii).
Loc., Bohemia. PI. xiv, Figs. 2-5.

This species has, as is usual in transitional species with gyroceran

453

mode of coiling, very variable aspects, owing to the closer coiling
of some specimens than of others.

There is no impressed zone in most specimens at any stage,
although there is a slight flattening of the dorsal side and an
obvious although very slight modification. of the dorsum, which
takes place in the most closely coiled shells.

The whorl in section is closely similar to that of afafor and the
siphuncle similarly situated. The sutures are similar, with the
exception of a faint dorsal lobe that appears in this species.

The whorls do not touch in some specimens at all (Pl. xiv, Fig.
2); in others they may touch in the neanic and ephebic stages. In
some they may become excentric in the gerontic stage, and in
others this may occur earlier in the ephebic stage. Very likely
there is more than one species included under the name, but it is
obvious that they are transitional to Barrandeoceras Sachert.

BARRANDEOCERAS SACHERI.
NAUTILUS SACHERI, Barrande (Sps¢. S77, Pl. xxxix). Pl.'v, Fig.
II-T4.

Loc., Bohemia.

The large umbilical perforation is shown and the almost straight
form of the ana- and metanepionic substages. The paranepionic
substage has sutures with dorsal lobe (Fig. 13) and form with flat-
tened dorsum (Fig. 14), precisely like that of the close-coiled forms
of Sterndergi in the ephebic stage. In B. Sachert, however, the
coiling is not variable and a contact furrow is invariably formed
after contact, which takes place always as in Fig. 11, at the apex.

The sutures in the ana- and metanepionic substages have ventral
and dorsal saddles and form in section with similar position of
siphuncle to Barrandeoceras natator of the Chazy and resemble
Sternberg? only in the paranepionic substage. | In the neanic stage,
after the impressed zone is generated, the whorls become more
compressed and this resemblance is less noticeable.

BARRANDEOCERAS TYRANNUM.

NAUTILUS TYRANNUS, Barr. (Sys¢. S77, Pl. xxxvili). Pl. v, Fig. 6-10.
Loc., Bohemia.

This species is similar to Sacherz, but has a smaller umbilical per-
foration and is somewhat closer coiled, the contact furrow appear-
ing sooner and the Sternberg? stage of the paranepionic is consid-
erably shortened. Its first appearance in the outline of the aperture
is shown in Fig. 6 in the paranepionic substage.

454

Figs. 6-9, Pl. v, show the side and front views of two speci-
mens, the smaller in the metanepionic and part of the paranepionic
substages and the other older. These are magnified to show
the ananepionic substages, and Figs. 6, 8, and ro show the cicatrices
on the apices of both of these. The longitudinal strizs shown on
these are necessarily exaggerated, these markings being perceptible
with difficulty under a magnifier. It is interesting to compare
these with the young of the existing Nautilus on Pl. i, and it is also
obvious that if found without their older stages in any locality they
would certainly be described as cyrtoceran forms.

BARRANDEOCERAS (?) ELRODI.
GyYROCERAS ELropi, White (Z/eventh Ann. Rep. Geol. Indiana,
pra5O; Pl. xxxvil, Pig. 2):

Loc., Hartsville, Ind.

This species has an oval outline in the full-grown and senile stage
figured by White, with siphuncle slightly above centre by descrip-
tion, but slightly below centre in the figure. The living chamber is
not quite one-half of a volution in length, but it is very large, and
this, together with one-half of the last volution, are free. The
younger whorls are closely coiled, but not more than two and a
half, if so many, are in contact; the remainder of the third and
first quarter of the fourth are free and the last part excentric. Dr.
White describes them as rounded outline in section, giving the
impression that there was no impressed zone.

The rate of growth in the ventro-dorsal diameters is rapid, and
consequently the living chamber on the last of the third and first
of the fourth volution is very large, especially in the ventro-dorsal
diameters.

The form and sutures are similar to those of Barrandeoceras
Sternbergi, and the species, if it is a member of this genus, .is inter-
esting on account of its appearance in the Niagara group, the close
coiling of the young, and the length of the free whorl.

Pycnoceras,* n. g.

This genus has shells similar to those of Aphetoceras in the
nepionic stage, with siphuncle subventran, similar form in section
and similar sutures, with ventral and dorsal saddles and shallow
lateral lobes. This may be seen by comparing figures of Apheto-

* Tluxvos, close.

455.

ceras (Pl. vi, Fig. 5) with the figure of the young of Pycnoceras
apertum (Pl. v, Fig. 18). The nepionic stage has rounded dorsum
and more ‘rounded venter than appears in the Fig. 19, Pl. vi, be-
cause of the presence of a thick band of shell on the venter, con-
sisting of its own shell which is not present on the sides and also
of the corresponding part of the shell of the dorsum of the next
older whorl that has been broken away. A slight contact furrow
is present at the beginning of the ananeanic substage when the whorls
come in contact at the point indicated in Fig. 18 by the end of the
outline of the restored apex. This zone is further shown by the
band of shell left on the venter from the dorsum of the next older
whorl, which was the neanic volution. Upon this, also, there are
remnants of the septa of this stage, showing that this zone was
immediately accompanied by the advent of dorsal lobes in the
sutures. These replaced the dorsal saddles of the nepionic stage.

In the ephebic stage the siphuncle assumed a propioextraventran
position and retained this until the gerontic stage.

The form of the whorl remains quite similar, the ventro-dorsal
diameters being longer than the transverse, but the venter becomes
broader in proportion than the dorsum in neanic and ephebic
stages.

In the gerontic stage the living chamber and part of the septate
last whorl alone are free in some species, in others the age at which
the whorl becomes free varies greatly.

The type of the genus is the young specimen, Fig. 18, which
shows that the young are distinct from those of Tarphyceras, being
much less closely coiled and having distinct form of whorl and
large umbilical perforation.

There are several undescribed species of this genus in the fauna
of Newfoundland.

PYCNOCERAS APERTUM, n. Ss. Pl. v, Figs. 18-20.
Loc., Port au Port, Newfoundland.

This single specimen was found in the dolomitic limestone or
calciferous in company with the closer coiled young of Tarphyceras.

The nepionic stage is prolonged and _ has the oval form of whorl
and sutures of the adults of the cyrtoceran genus, Melonoceras, and
of the nepionic and neanic stages of the gyroceran form, Apheto-
ceras, its nearest affine, which occurs, however, later in the fauna
of the Quebec group.

456

The characteristics have already been given in the generic de-
scriptions and the presence of the contact furrow in the neanic
stage noticed. It only remains to call attention to the fact that
this and the dorsal lobes of the sutures are generated together as the
whorls come in contact.

PYCNOCERAS CALCIFERIFORME, DN. S.
Loc., Port au Choix and Schooner Island, Newfoundland and
Phillipsburg, Canada. ,

This species is sufficiently abundant at Port au Choix, and seems
at first identical with calciferus of Port au Choix, but the latter
is probably a species of Tarphyceras, having the small siphuncle of
that group.

The shell reaches a considerable size, 128 mm. in the entire
diameter, This specimen has a living chamber somewhat over one-
‘half of a volution in length, and a similar living chamber occurs in
a younger specimen longer than in Eurystomites.

The whorl in section is an oval with evenly rounded sides, no
umbilical shoulders, and the abdomen broader than the dorsum, but
in the neanic stage, and perhaps in the early part of the ephebic
stage, the sides are evenly rounded and very gibbous, and the venter
may be narrower than the dorsum, measuring through the thickest
inner part of the whorl ventrad of the impressed zone.

The siphuncle is very large, measuring just before entering the
living chamber about 7 mm., and is propioventran in position, but
less than its own diameter distant from the venter. It has a sub-
ventran position in the ananeanic substage, the earliest age observed.
Billings described the siphuncle in Zurphyceras calciferus as small
at the diameter tor the whole shell of three inches, and the septa as
numbering about twelve to the inch along the venter at the diame-
ter of three inches. At this diameter in calciferiforme the septa
are six or eight to the inch, and the siphuncle is about 5 mm. in
diameter.

The contact furrow is very slight at all stages. The septa are
deeply concave, approximating to those of Lurystomites gibbosus,
but owing to the slight amount of involution the dorsai lobes are shal-
low ; thus showing the dependence of this character upon the amount
of involution, as well as the concavity of the septa. There are
broad ventral saddles with almost straight suture or slight lobes,
broad lateral lobes trending forwards to narrow saddles at the lines
of involution.

457

The shell is smooth except from strong striz of growth, and oc-
casional folds as in other species of this group, the casts are all per-
fectly smooth. A specimen from Phillipsburg has identical
form and position of siphuncle, and is in collection of Museum of
Comp. Zodlogy.

Falcilituttes.

This genus set apart by Remelé, the type selected being Letuztes
Decheni equal to Discoceras subcostatum Ang. et Lindstrom.* This
species has a very close-coiled whorl in the nepionic stage, the um-
bilical perforation not being figured at all by Angelin and Lind-
strom, a fact of essential importance when comparing this type with
Estonioceras. The coiled volutions are three in number according
to their figures, but the centre may be erroneously drawn.

The shell has a decidedly quadragonal whorl like that of some
species of Schroederoceras, and the abdomen is even slightly con-
cave along the median portion? The lines of growth are strongly
marked and have a different aspect from those of Estonioceras.
The hyponomic sinus is deeper and broader and apparently the
lateral lines rise towards the dorsum in crests, but these really join
across the dorsum, forming one huge broad, dorsal crest. In other
words, if figured correctly, the aperture on the free volution must
have had a very deep hyponomic sinus and huge projecting dorso-
lateral crests undivided by any dorsal sinus as in Estonioceras. The
closely coiled volutions may have had lines of growth with dorsal
sinuses, but if so these disappeared on the free part of the whorls.
These volutions may also have had a contact furrow, but it must
have been slight, since it entirely disappears on the early part of the
free volution in both of the European species mentioned below,

The sutures have’also ventral saddles with deep lateral lobes.
Dorsal sutures are not given.

The siphuncle is much smaller than in Estonioceras and is nearer
the centre, being but little above this point or centroventren. This
organ is ellipochoanoidal according to Angelin and Lindstrom
figures which are very clear and apparently exact.

There are only two species as yet described, Pulcilituttes Decheni

*I have not been able to obtain from any library in this vicinity Remelé’s principal
works, but there is no doubt that he selected Discoceras subcostatum, as described by

Angelin and Lindstrom. His papers were published in the Festsch. 50 jahr. Jubelf. d.
Forstakad. Eberswalde, and the Untersuch. u. d. versteinerngsf. Diluvial., ete.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143. 3F. PRINTED JUNE 27, 1894,

458

Remelé, sp. Ang. et Lindstrom, and Fucilituites ? Muellaueri, sp.
Dewitz. This last has the ventral saddles and approximately quad-
ragonal form of this genus. The sutures also have dorsal saddles
and the siphuncle is Small and centren. ‘There is a slight contact
furrow in the coiled volutions, which is still retained, but shows to a
less degree in the free part of the whorl as figured by Dewitz, and
the dorsal part of the aperture is flat, not concave. The living
chamber was evidently entirely free in these two species when full
grown, since in the figures by Angelin and Lindstrom and by
Dewitz this is shown. ‘The umbilical perforation in AZwel/auert is
so much larger than in Dechenz that I refer this species to this genus
with considerable doubt. ‘The close-coiled volutions are only two
in number.

Trochotitide.

This group was formerly included by the author under the family
name of Tainoceratidz, but was separated in Carboniferous Cepha-
lopods Fourth Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Texas, and is here placed
under its proper title. ‘lhe shells are smooth, or with heavy trans-
verse ridges, which are really primitive costations, but are never
very prominent. The whorls are nephritic or depressed sub-
quadragonal or trapezoidal, the venter generally broader than the
dorsum, and the form is usually nautilian. The sutures as a rule
have broad and slight ventral lobes and lateral lobes.

The siphuncle is dorsad of the centre. The generaare as follows:
Litoceras and ‘Trocholitoceras confined to the Quebec faunas,
Schroederoceras and Trocholites found in both the Quebec faunas
and the Lower Silurian.

Schroederoceras.

This genus has been described by Schroeder and others as Dis-
coceras, and as having close affinity with Trocholites.

The affinity with Discoceras is apparently close, but when one
considers the heavily costated shells of that genus and the younger
stages of the conch, it becomes obvious that the species having such
distinct characters and different modes of development cannot be
associated according to the mode of research adopted here.

There are some species like Schroederoceras Eatoni and £Etch-
wadld?, which approximate in the number and form of the whorls to

459

Trocholites, but this is not sustained by closer approximation in the
early stages. The nepionic stage has whorls which depart more
widely from the trocholitean form of the same age than the later
stages of growth.

The umbilical perforation is large, the whorls are few in number
and increase less rapidly by growth and change more in form than
in Trocholites, the sutures are more sinuous, the siphuncle is not
so close to the dorsum, the apertures narrower in transverse and
longer proportionately in ventro-dorsal diameters and have deeper
narrower hyponomic sinuses, the living chambers are much shorter,
varying, so far as known, from less than one-fourth of a volution to
somewhat more than one-half of a volution, and the size is very
much greater at the same age in all dimensions and there are fewer
whorls.

The resemblances consist in the surface ornamentation, which,
although much coarser, is similar to that of Trocholites.

But even here the deep V-shaped dorsal sinus found in some
species is quite distinct. The aspect of the neanic stage before the
whorl acquires the flattened abdomen and sides is similar, but this
likeness becomes of less. importance when the younger nepionic
stage is considered. The ananepionic substage may possibly have
very fine straight transverse striations, which are not usually visible,
but it is apparently smooth as seen in my specimens and in the
figures given by others.* The metanepionic stage has strong trans-
verse bands of growth with finer strize on the surface of the bands.
The borders of the bands are prominent and crenulated, the crenu-
lation being due to short longitudinal depression and intermediate
folds that occupy the edges of the bands and are discontinuous be-
tween them.

The costations also begin to appear in this substage, and these
are in some species apparent as obscure folds on the casts. These
are distinct from the bands of growth being less numerous on the
surface and more widely separated. ‘The crenulations disappear
subsequently probably before the completion of the second whorl,
but there are often a few continuous longitudinal raised lines per-
ceptible on the centre of the venter and near the umbilical shoulders.
The cyrtoceran form is retained longer in the nepionic stage than
in Trocholites and the change to the gyroceran curve that brings

* See Schroeder's figure of Schroederoceras ( Troch.) Damesi, Pal. Abh. v, Pl. xxviii, Fig. 2a.

460

the whorl finally into contact is more gradual, so that the umbilical
perforation is larger and the contact occurs in the usual way on the
ventral side of the ananepionic substage, instead of on the dorsal
side of the metanepionic substage, as in Trocholites.

The whorl has short ventro-dorsal and longer transverse diameters,
or broad whorls like many species of Trocholites, but is like a broad
whorled typical nautilian form from the earliest stage and has not
the kidney-shaped outline so common in sections, especially of the
younger stages of the shell in Trocholites.

The modifications of this outline through the flattening of the
abdomen and lessening of the gibbosity of the sides occurs doubtless
at different stages in different species, but in Schroederoceras angu-
fatum and Saemanni it is fully developed only in adults.

The contact furrow is well marked in the young and continues in
some species to be a well-defined depression throughout life, becom-
ing, however, somewhat less marked in the free part of the whorl or
gerontic stage. In some species it is very faintly marked ap-
parently before this stage is reached. It seems to be dependent
upon the closeness of the coiling and involution, which is as a rule
very slight at all stages in the ontogeny and all stages in the
phylogeny. It is consequently somewhat remarkable that this zone
should persist upon the dorsum of the shell so long after the whorl
becomes free of pressure on that side in the gerontic stage.

The siphuncle does not apparently, so far as is seen, materially
change the position it has at the end of the first whorl. It may, as
in Saemanni, become slightly more removed from the dorsum, but
in angulatum it is very close to the dorsum, even in the ephebic
stage. The walls of this organ are thick, and it is often preserved
in the middle of loosely crystalline calcareous deposits under condi-
tions which are not usually considered favorable for the preserva-
tion of siphuncles.

SCHROEDEROCERAS ANGULATUM.
LITUITES ANGULATUM Saem. (Padentogr., iii, Pl. xxi, Fig. 1a-d, not
c-@).

Loc., Brevig, Norway.

The original of the Zt. angudatus of Saemann (Fig. 1a—6) isin the
Mus. of Comp. Zodlogy. It has a subquadragonal whorl in the
ephebic stage with a flattened and slightly concave abdomen. The
shape in cross section is peculiar and quite different from that in
Fig. 1@. The abdomen on the living chamber is slightly elevated

461

the flat zone being narrower than the transverse diameters imme-
diately internal to this. This may be due to compression, since on
the septate portion the lateral curve from the abdomen to the um-
bilical shoulders show the somewhat flattened aspect given in
Saemann’s figure. The umbilical shoulders are rounded. The
abdomen not so broad as the dorsum, that is not so broad as the
transverse diameter through the umbilical shoulders.

The cast shows faint broad fold-like costations bending apically
which were more prominent on the shell, as is shown by other speci-
mens from the same locality. Saemann’s figure is correct in outline
and proportions, but it, is incorrect in that it does not give the
sutures which are apparent on the original, and it also brings the
cast of the whorls in close contact, whereas these are separated by
the thick dorsal and ventral shell layers. The whole surface of the
cast is also erroneously given, since it is marked by obscure costa-
tions, which must have been more prominent upon the exterior of
the shell. These are more prominent in the young than upon the
full-grown whorls. The sutures have well-marked ventral and dor-
sal lobes and lateral lobes with saddles at the abdominal angles an«l
umbilical shoulders. ‘The sutures are numerous and close together
as in most species of this group and in Trocholites.

The siphuncle is nearer the dorsum than that given in Fig. re.

The apex is smaller than in the original of Figs. r¢ and 1¢@, and
the umbilical perforation smaller and the rate of increase by growth
less, so that the species is smaller than Saemanni.

The living chamber in angu/atus is free as figured by Saemann on
the outer part only. In the original of Fig. 1c-d it is free for
nearly the entire length.

The prominent coste of the true Desc. antiguissimum are not
present in this shell nor in its allies, and the differences in formare
supplemented by the close coiling of the living chamber in an¢trguzs-
simum.

Saemann’s original is 91 mm. in diameter, and has somewhat
more than threeand ahalfvolutions. The living chamber measured
along the median lateral line is 53 mm. in length from aperture to
suture. ‘The transverse diameter of the septal floor is 26.5 mm.,
the dorso-ventral diameter in median plane is 20.5, both without the
shell. The aperture is narrower in proportion to the ventro-dorsal
diameter, owing to the flaring of the lips and the slight constriction.
Only one-half is preserved and it is slightly distorted ; it may bea

462

little too narrow in the figure on account of the necessary restora-
tion, and the ventral sinus is somewhat too narrow and too deep
owing to a mistake of the artist. ‘The impressed zone continues on
the free part of the living chamber, but becomes distinctly shallower
and is almost obliterated in the dorsal outline of the aperture.

SCHROEDEROCERAS SAEMANNI.
LITUITES ANGULATUS Saem. (Pa/eon., iii, Pl. xxi, Fig. rc-d, not Fig.
1a—b).
Loc., Brevig, Norway.

The two specimens used by Saemann, one for his section Fig. 1d,
and other for the siphuncle, Fig. 1¢, are both in the collection of
the Mus. Comp. Zodlogy and cannot be considered identical with
Lituites angulatus (Figs, 1a—6).

The characteristic differences have been noted under description
of that species. The abdomen of the ephebic stage is flat and
slightly convex, broader than the dorsum, and the sides are slightly
flattened in the full grown as in the Saemann’s Fig. 1@, which was
taken from the exposed last septum or floor of a living chamber in
the metephebic substage on the last quarter of the third volution, a
substage preceding that in which the whorl became free, which I
have considered as the parephebic substage. ‘The sides incline in-
wards and the umbilical shoulders are hardly perceptible.

There is an impressed zone broader and deeper than in Schroedero-
ceras angulatum. The sutures are similar, but have a broader ven-
tral, dorsal and lateral lobes. The saddles on the abdominal
angles and those at the lines of involution are also narrower.

The siphuncle is propiodorsan on the first quarter of the fourth
volution, as figured by Saemann. It is nearer the dorsum in the
younger whorl, being less than its own diameter distant from that
side on the early part of the third quarter of the second whorl.

The sides are gibbous and the abdomen rounded throughout the
earlier whorls until the beginning of the third whorl in the anephebic
substage.

The ventrodorsal diameters increase by growth more rapidly than
in angulatum, and the whole shell is consequently larger at corre-
sponding stages of development.

The living chamber is longer as well as in every way larger on
the third whorl in the anephebic substage before the free part of the
whorl is reached, than it is in emguéatum at a later age in the early
part of the parephebic substage as figured by Saemann. In this

463

specimen, the original of Fig. 1d, it is about 75 mm. in length along
the median lateral line from suture to aperture. The transverse
diameter of the septal floor of this given by Saemann in Fig. 1d is
29 mm., the ventro-dorsal diameter in the median plane being
24 mm.

The aperture at this stage spreads laterally, slightly flaring but
without any preceding constriction. ‘The hyponomic sinus of the
aperture was not preserved, but judging from the lines of growth in
both species it was broader and perhaps shallower than in angu-
fatum. Inthe larger specimen, the original of Fig. 1¢, the living
chamber was measured along the umbilicus, it being incomplete.
The whole diameter of this shell, consisting of nearly four and three-
fourths volutions, when complete was over 112 mm.

The length of the living chamber measured along the inner part
on the umbilical line, corresponding to the line of involution, was
about 75 mm. As estimated by measurements corresponding to
this along the median lateral line to a point opposite the termina-
tion of the inner line of measurement, this living chamber was cer-
tainly over 100 mm. in length. The transverse diameter of
the venter of this living chamber at 35 mm. beyond (orad) the
septal floor was 34 mm. without the shell. The shell would increase
this to between 2 and 4 mm., according to the place of measure-
ment, whether between or on the ridges. There are well-marked
narrow ridges or costz at more or less irregular intervals on this
shell with coarse lines of growth between them. ‘These ridges are
not perceptibly reflected on the cast of the interior as in angulatum,
even in the young stages of one specimen, but in another they are
faintly shown on the cast of the side of part of the third whorl.

I have been entirely unable to find the usual marks on the ex-
terior of the siphuncle of this species, or any other similar form
which usually accompanies the short funnels of ellipochoanoidal
forms, but Holms and Schroeder’s statements are specific, and they
have had better opportunities for their studies, so that I merely
suggest a doubt with regard to the structure of such siphuncles as ap-
pear in this species and which have usually been described as an-
nulated. ‘The contact furrow is well marked in the neanic stage
and in ephebic and.metaphebic substages, but in the paraphebic
stage it is perceptibly lessened and shows a decided tendency to
disappear on the free whorl. The dorsum was distorted near the
apertural end so that the exact amount of this diminution could not

464

be seen, but it was clear that the impressed zone had become nar-
rower and shallower. The termination of the living chamber being
also absent, it could not be ascertained whether it finally disappeared
or not on the dorsal rim of the aperture.

SCHROEDEROCERAS TUBULATUM, h.s. PI. vii, Figs. 1-3, and Pl. xiv,
Figs. 6-12, >#.

Loc., Brevig, Norway.

This species was included by Saemann under the head of angu-
Zatum, but it has much broader whorls, increases more slowly in
size and the free part of the whorl is longer, not only the living
chamber but a considerable portion of the septate whorl being free.

A cast of the latter part of the first or first part of the second
whorl is costated, and the narrowness of the side shows that the
young whorl was not so broad ventro-dorsally as in angudatus at the
‘same stage.

One specimen shows the living chamber in the ephebic stage be-
fore the uncoiling begins. ‘This is of about the same age as that
figured by Saemann in his anmgulatus, Section 1d. The ventro-
dorsal diameter of the septal floor of this is 26 mm., and the trans-
verse about 32 mm. ‘The venter was the broadest part at this stage
as it is in the early ephebic stage of angudatum. The umbilical |
shoulders do not exist even in the rounded form that they take on
in the adult of amgu/atus and in the ephebic and gerontic whorls of
Saemann. ‘The sides incline or diverge outwardly more decidedly
and are flatter than in Saemanni at the same stage.

The shell has coarse lines of growth upon this living chamber at
more or less irregular intervals, with finer lines between them, and
at still rarer and less regular intervals there are the usual narrow
ridges which are the remains of the costee of earlier stages. The
ventral sinus is broader and deeper than in angulatus or Saemanni
at the same stage, and there is a deep sinus in the impressed zone
on the dorsum with a shallow subacute V shape.

The type of the species is the specimen showing the extended last
whorl figured in this paper, Pl. vii, Fig. 1.

According to my estimate this specimen must have had at least
five complete whorls. The diameter of the coiled part was proba-
bly about 118 mm., and this is estimated to contain nearly five
volutions, the length of the free part was over 115 mm. measured
along the median lateral line, along the dorsal line of this mould
of the outer whorl it could be measured more readily as 105 mm.

405

The incompiete living chamber occupied 75 mm. of this free part
as measured above the median lateral line from the broken edge to
the imperfect remnant of the septal floor.

The transverse diameter of the termination of the third whorl
was 15 mm. without the shell, the breadth of the side 10 mm., the
ventro-dorsal diameter in the mesal plane, as estimated, was of
about the same length. The transverse diameter about the middle
of the last quarter of the fourth whorl was 22 mm., the ventro-
dorsal in the mesal plane was 17 mm. both without the shell.

The shape of the living chamber must have been greatly altered
near its termination. The fragment of mould of one side and part
of the dorsum preserved shows that the impressed zone had become
narrowed and disappeared completely. The dorsum remained
slightly flattened, but this flattening given in the restored section,
Fig. 3, Pl. vii, is probably greater than it was in the fossil. The
lines of growth on the dorsum of the first part of the free living
chamber have such a faint sinus that they would ordinarily be de-
scribed as straight, the lateral crests are much reduced, the ventral
sinus was not visible, but it also probably became reduced or
shallower. ‘The transverse diameters were also much reduced, and
aspect of the aperture changes so that the ventro-dorsal diameter is
much longer than the transverse. The outline given may be de-
fective in making this diameter somewhat too long and the abdomen
not quite flat enough, but certainly there is an entire change in the
proportions of the whorl and an approximation to this reconstructed
outline.

The sutures do not differ materially, if at all from those of
Saemanni so rar as could be seen. They are visible on the third
whorl and had the usual curvatures. The two last on the fifth whorl
were visible on the dorsum and partly on the side. These had a
deep dorsal lobe, with saddles and lateral lobe as in Saemannz, and
were very interesting, since they showed that the dorsal sutures had
not been immediately affected by separation of the whorls. The
last suture is given in Fig. 1, on Pl, vii.

The zone of impression is fainter, but still perceptible in the dor-
sum of the first part of the living chamber, but has entirely disap-
peared on the latter part of the same. It is more strongly marked
on the dorsum of the third and early part of the fourth whorls than
on the latter part of the fourth, but it is broad and still quite dis-

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XxxII, 148. 3G. PRINTED JUNE 28, 1894.

466

tinct just before the whorl becomes free on the last quarter of the
fifth volution (Fig. 2).

The nepionic stage of this species is given in Figs. 6-7, Pl. xiv.
The advent of the hyponomic sinus can be seen in the lines of
growth of the metanepionic substage in the front view, Fig. 6. The
umbilical perforation is larger than it appears to be in the side view,
Fig. 7, because it is in part overlapped by the inward growth of
the umbilical zones of the paranepionic volution.

The lines of growth are entire and very fine lines on the anane-
pionic and metanepionic substages, and there are no longitudinal
ridges. The sides are convergent and rounded, and the abdomen
is rounded and narrower than the dorsum in these substages. At
the beginning of the paranepionic the abdomen becomes suddenly
flattened, the sides also tending to become flatter and the whorl
spreads laterally very fast, the venter becoming wider than the
dorsum. Slight crenulations also appear, and in consequence of
these faint longitudinal lines may be seen with a magnifier.

Regularly spaced transverse lines are first noticeable in the
paranepionic forming the forward edges of broad laminz on the
surface and having finer lines of growth between them, as in Fig. 10,
Pl xiv:

The septa in this substage are deeply concave and have broad
ventral saddles divided by narrow V-shaped central ventral lobes,
as in Fig. 10, Pl. xiv. There are shallow lateral lobes and dorsal
lobes in the contact furrow.

The siphuncle is propiodorsan in this substage as givenin Fig. 9,
but was not seen in earlier ages. It is slightly nearer the dorsum in
the succeeding stages of development of this specimen.

A Gistinct dorsal furrow appears in this shell in the early part of
the paranepionic and deepens until replaced and enlarged by the
contact furrow. Contact takes place upon the area of the scar, but
not on the dorsal side of this area. I was not able to define the ex-
act line of contact because the apex had been slightly fractured in
making the preparation, but it was quite clear that contact did not
occur upon the dorsum of the ana- nor metanepionic substages as it
does in Trocholites. The involution is greater and the contact
furrow deeper in the ananepionic substage, where it begins, than
at any subsequent substage, as shown in Fig. 8, Pl. xiv.

In the meta- and paraneanic substages the more prominent lines
of growth described above on the edges of the broad bands become

467

subcostal in aspect, but are somewhat exaggerated in Fig. rr. In
the ephebic stages these subcostz are less prominent and do not
have any corresponding ridges on the cast, which is smooth. The
venter is also less elevated, the ventro-dorsal being less in proportion
to the transverse diameters and the whorl assumes the broad de-
pressed outline in section of this species.

SCHROEDEROCERAS RAROSPIRA.
CLYMENIA RAROSPIRA (pars) Eichw. (Leth. Rossica, Pl. 1, Fig. 1a-4,
Fig. 3; not Fig. 2a—d, nor Fig. 6a, 4, c*).

This species has the aspect of Schroederoceras Saemannt on the
latter part of the second and third whorl, but the early part of the
same whorl in section is rounded and without a zone of impression.
The whorls increase faster by growth in the ventro-dorsal diameters
than in Saemanni. If Eichwald’s figures can be relied upon the
species are distinct. The distribution of the prominent striz of the
neanic stage is instructive. They occupy all of the first whorl ex-
cept the apical part and are lost upon the last half of the second
whorl, persisting somewhat longer than in Saemanni or angulatum.
The siphuncle is depicted as very large, and according to the figure
is nearer the dorsum in the first and second whorl than it is in the
same age in Saemanni. ‘The faster increase in dorso-ventral
diameters makes the adult somewhat larger in diameter of the coil
at the same age.

The fact that the last volution is not free at the end shows proba-
bly that the specimen: figured had not reached the gerontic stage of
degeneration. It is of course to be expected that some species of
Schroederoceras never become uncoiled, and this may be one of
these. Eichwald’s Fig. 14 also shows that the impressed zone is
deeper on the second whorl in the anephebic stage than it is sub-
sequently on the third whorl in the parephebic when a tendency
towards uncoiling begins to show itself in this way. ‘The sutures
as shown in Figs. 3a, 4, ¢, are like those of Saemannt.

SCHROEDEROCERAS TERES.

Lir. TERES, Eichw. (Si/. in Esthland, p. 105).

Lit. TERES, Dewitz (Schrif. physical-okonon. Gesell,, Koénigsberg,
5 a il eae gel oh Fey 8)

Lit. TEREs, Schroeder (zdid@., xxii, Pl. ii, Fig. 2).

Discoc. TERES, Schroeder (zécd., xxili, p. 96).

* See Trocholitoceras Eichwaldi.

468

Lit. TERES, Holm (Pal. Adh., Dames et Kayser, ili, -hft. i, Pl. v,
Fig. 5-8).
Loc., Kandel, Esthland.

The smooth whorl has in section an abdomen somewhat broader
than the dorsum as figured by Dewitz and the siphuncle closer to
the dorsum than in Odini. The living chamber is free and the
aperture like that of amgulatum. ‘The impressed zone is continued
to the edge of the aperture. It suffers, however, a certain obvious
diminution and the dorsal edge of the aperture is merely flattened
instead af being concave as is the dorsum at the beginning of the
living chamber. This peculiarity is described by Schroder, who
gives the best figures.

Holms’ figures of the young have been copied in outline on
Pl. vi, Fig. 21-27.. These sections show how closely the young
resemble those of Schroederoceras Eatont,and if correctly identified
and drawn indicate considerable variation in the form of the
young and the relations of the umbilical perforation. In Fig.
21, it is between the ananepionic and paranepionic ; in Fig. 22, it is
situated as in Trocholites, viz., carried more on to the metanepionic
substage, and is differently shaped.

The young (Figs. 23-27) give a rare opportunity for the study of
the nepionicstage. The ananepionic substage (Figs. 26-27) is like that
of Havfont, and one sees the peculiar shape of the apex and the great
comparative depth of the apical chamber. The first septum and
czcum of course belongs to the later metanepionic substage, but
the whorl itself is ananepionic, and this a broad elliptical section as
seen in the front view of Fig. 26. The dorsum broader than the
venter and rounded. ‘The shape is here decidedly cyrtoceran.
The first septum and czecum is seen in this view and the siphuncle
is subventran. In the metanepionic it changes as in other forms
towards the centre. ‘This is shown by its becoming extracentroven-
tran in the third septum, which belongs to the later age of the para-
nepionic substage. At the angle of the turn a faint, but plainly
marked dorsal furrow appears. The point at which this im-
pression occurs is like that of similar forms of early faunas, and
the shape of the whorls show a very rapid increase of the lateral
diameters and the usual approximation to the kidney-shaped whorl
which characterizes rapidly growing shells of Nautiloids at similar
substages. It seems probable, therefore, that this may have been

469

produced by the mechanical effect of the proximity of the stiff wall
of the metanepionic substage. It would be extremely instructive to
make a number of such preparations and study comparatively the
amount and variability of this characteristic with relation to the
size of the umbilical perforation, its position, etc.

SCHROEDEROCERAS? BANDONIS.

SCHROEDEROCERAS? Banponis, Rem. (Unter. verstein. Diluvial-
gescheibe, i, Pl. ili, Fig. 4).

SCHROEDEROCERAS ODINI, Vern. (Geol. Russia, Pal., ii, Pl. xxv,
Fig. 8).

This entirely smooth shell has rounded whorls, the ventro-dorsal
diameters in adults longer than the transverse. ‘There are deeply
sinuous sutures with slight ventral lobes on the abdomen in the
neanic stage, and these are replaced by flattened saddles (if cor-
rectly figured) in the ephebic whorl. It is obviously, if the charac-
ters are correctly depicted, quite distinct from Schroed. teres.
These species agree in general aspect, but not in the form of whorl
of the coiled stages of growth, and differ also in the sutures and in
position of siphuncle and in the shape of the free whorl.

In Odint there is no impressed zone on the free whorl, and
probably this was very slight in the neanic stage, as shown by
Verneuil’s Fig. 8¢.

SCHROEDEROCERAS DENCKELMANNI.
LIT. CORNUARIETIS, De Vern. (Pal. Russia, Pl. xxv, Fig. 7).
Lit. DENCKELMANNI, Rem.
DIscOCcERAS DENCKELMANNI, Rem. (Zettsch. deutsch. geol. Gesell.,
XXXVill, 1886, p. 468).

This is a completely smooth shell with rounded and more
numerous whorls at the same size than in Schroederoceras angulatum
and a less deep!y marked impressed zone.

SCHROEDEROCERAS DAMESI.
TrRocHoLiTes Damesi, Schroeder (‘‘Ceph. d. Untersil.,’’ Pad.
Abh., Dames et Kayser, v, Pl. xxviii, Fig. 2).

This shell was erroneously referred to Trocholites by Schréder,
if his figure is correct. The young has the large umbilical perfora-
tion, the large whorls and rapid increase by growth, as well as the
characteristic surface markings of this genus. The last whorl has

470

also the form common in the neanic stage of species like Schroe-
deroceras angulatum and especially Saemanni, which it very closely
resembles. It is obviously an immature shell of some species of
this genus.

SCHROEDEROCERAS EATONI.

Lituires Eatoni, Whitf. (Bul/. Am. Mus., New York, i, No. 8,
Pleeaxvis (7); Fig. 5-7 et. Pl. xxx, Migs 15 pot Wigs
Discoceras Eaton, Schroder (‘‘ Sil. Ceph.,’’ Pal. Adh., Dames

€t, Kayser, v, p. 22). Pl. vi, Figs. 28-35, and Ply vinjebies
-8.
an Fort Cassin, Lake Champlain.

Having had the original of this species, Iam able to state that the
_ apex or nepionic stage is closely similar to that of Holms’ figures of
Schroederoceras (Lit.) teres. The single specimen, Fig. 3s, Pl. vi,
that showed this section has a large apical or air chamber very deep
and cap-shaped in outline, with abrupt ventral side, exactly as in
Holms’ figures, the second chamber being proportionately some-
what less in depth. The umbilical perforation is, however, much
larger, as may be seen in this section, and in Fig. 31, Pl. vi.

The septa continue throughout the first and larger part of the
second whorl, that is during the nepionic and neanic stages, to be
proportionately wider apart on the venter and nearer together on
the dorsum until the dgcrease by growth in the ventro-dorsal
diameters in the anephebic stage makes them more equal on the
first quarter of the third whorl where they begin to assume the
usual depths. The siphuncle begins subventran in the first chamber,
inclining centrally in its passage through the first and succeeding
septa until near the end of the first whorl, when it becomes centren.
It is in other words nearer the venter than the centre during the
cyrtoceran or nepionic stage and becomes centren in the ananeanic
substage, as in the figure from Whitfield’s specimen and in other
figures, Pl. vi.

The sutures have the usual broad ventral saddles and lateral lobes
in the nepionic stage and probably dorsal saddles, but these last
were not distinctly seen.

The siphuncle in the metaneanic and paraneanic substages trends
slowly towards the dorsum until the third quarter of the second
whorl is reached, and after that the approximation proceeds more

471

rapidly until it reaches the centrodorsan position in the anephebic
substage at the beginning of the third whorl.

The ventro-dorsal diameters also slowly decrease by growth cor-
relatively with this movement, along the mesal plane and proceed
with equal steps, correlative with changes in the septa, and relative
dimensions and shapes of the air chambers and the shifting of the
siphuncle towards the dorsum to the first quarter of the third whorl
where they take on the adult proportions and aspect.

These facts are admirably well shown in the figures of Schroedero-
ceras (Lit.) teres by Holm, reproduced here if allowance is made
for the more cyrtoceran or less involute form of Ha/sont, which
has a larger umbilical perforation. The third septum in both
forms, however, comes internally to the same point, the end of the
cyrtoceran stage, when the whorl makes a sudden bend and assumes
the gyroceran curvature that brings it at the end of the first whorl
against apex of the conch. In Figs. 21 and 22, from Holm, this
bend is more abrupt and more like that of Trocholites than in this
species. The dorsal side of the last quarter of the first whorl
actually strikes and lies upon the dorsal side of the first air cham-
ber, whereas in this species the contact takes place farther towards
the apex. In ¢eves also, according to Holm’s figures, the approxi-
mation of the siphuncle towards the dorsum takes place more
rapidly and probably earlier than in Ha¢onz. Holm found no signs
of a cicatrix on the apex of feres, but no shell is represented in his
figures and he describes the whorls as so very closely approximated
that there was but one shell wall. The young shell is very thin,
and probably this explains the difficulty of separating the whorls.
At any rate, the absence of the cicatrix is not established by his
observations. I think he must have overlooked the shell wall, this
not being absent in any other forms that I have examined.

Fig. 34, Pl. vi, gives the aspect of an accidental section, the
location of which is shown by the line through Fig. 35, taken from
the center of Whitfield’s original of this species. The sections
passed subdorsan to the shell, cutting across the two first septa of
the metanepionic substage. The peculiar aspect of this part of the
section is due to the continuity of the lateral shell lines on either
side with those of the paranepionic whorl which is given in section
of volution immediately under this. The convex line dividing the
metanepionic from the paranepionic volution, the projecting third
septum. The reverse, the splinter from which this section was

472

taken, is given in Fig. 31, Pl. vi. The core of the umbilical per-
foration was exposed, the metanepionic volution is smaller and
younger, the paranepionic section is older and is shown to be con-
vex on the gyroceran turn or curve around the core. ‘The state of
the section left this observation open to some doubt owing to the
fact that it was slightly clipped on one side, exposing an older part
of the same whorl. On wearing this same section down a shade
farther the beginning of a dorsal furrow became apparent, and
is given in Figs. 32, 33.

It is, however, obvious that the dorsal furrow is very slight and it
occurs in the usual place on thé paranepionic dorsum ; the rotundity
and form of the metanepionic whorl was perfectly well defined. The
umbilical perforation in this fossil was very small, and the occurence
of a dorsal furrow at the place designated in the drawing could be
_ accounted for as due to the contiguity of the dorsum of the grow-
ing whorl of the paranepionic to that of the stiff wall of the
metanepionic substage.

The position of the siphuncle in the apex could not be deter-
mined, but its place in the other whorls was plainly seen and
agrees closely enough with the positions determined by Whitfield
in the young of Lafont, with which also the characters of the
sutures of the older whorls agreed in this specimen.

The contact furrow is deeper relatively in the neanic stage
than it is subsequently, when one takes into account the form of
the whorl and the relative extent of the sides covered by involu-
tion. It is, however, very well marked in all stages, and its disap-
pearance upon the latter part of the last whorl, as has been shown
in Whitfield’s figures and those given in this paper, is a significant
and instructive fact that has been discussed in other parts of this
essay. The aperture of Fig. 7, Pl. vii, was removable, and this
being taken off the last vestige of the impressed zone is seen on
the dorsal side of the free whorl in the front view of the same
specimen, Fig. 8. The portion removed is so short that it is pos-
sible it may represent the rim of the aperture itself.

The sutures of the anephebic stages differ considerably from
those of the adult, being straighter and more like those of Trocho-
lites, and it may be questioned whether this should not be called
the paraneanic substage on account of its close resemblances to
Trocholites.

In the full-grown shell of the parephebic and gerontic age, as

473

shown in Whitfield’s figure, Pl. xxxii, and in my figure, the oldest
sutures are more sinuous than those of an earlier stage just under
the free part of the living chamber, as given in my copy of his
figure, with sutures drawn in from the original chambers (Fig. 28,
Pl. vi). They have normally in the ephebic stage ventral and
dorsal lobes, with lateral lobes and saddles at the abdominal angles
and umbilical shoulders. :

The length of the living chamber in a full-grown specimen is
over one-half a volution, and the latter part is free, as given by
Whitfield and in my Fig. 7, Pl. vii.

SCHROEDEROCERAS CASINENSIS.
LiruirEs EaToni, var. CASINENSIS. Whitf. (Buldet. Am. Mus.,
New York, i, No. 8, Pl. xxxii). Pl. vi, Figs. 36-38, and PI.
vii, Figs. 4-6.
Loc., Fort Cassin, Lake Champlain.

This is a distinct species, the sutures being straighter in the
ephebic stage than in true a/¢oni, the venter and sides are more
decidedly flattened, and the relative proportions of the last whorl
at the same age different.* The ventro-dorsal and transverse
diameters are about equal, whereas in Ha¢oni the transverse is con-
siderably longer than the ventro-dorsal in the mesal plane. The
amount of involution in Hafonz and the depth of the contact furrow
in the ephebic stage is also greater. |

Whitfield’s figure is given on PI. vi, Fig. 36, with some emen-
dations taken from the original specimen. ‘This shows that the
ephebic stage had not a free living chamber, and that shown in my
Fig. 4, Pl. vii, represents the gerontic stage. The front view,
Fig. 5, shows the deeper contact furrow and the dorsal lobes in
the dorsum of the metephebic substage and the slight but imper-
ceptible change which takes place in the broader, shallower zone of
the early part of the gerontic living chamber below. ‘The free
part of this chamber is at first concave just beyond the broken end
of the metephebic whorl, then flattened, and finally convex on the
dorsum, as shown in Figs. 5 and 6.

The length of this living chamber was nearly three-fourths of a
volution, beginning somewhat beyond the broken part given in

* Whitfield himself thought this was probably a distinct species, as shown by his
remarks on page 332.

PROC. AMER, PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 148. 8H. PRINTED JUNE 28, 1894.

474

Figs. 4and5. The siphuncle is very large and propiodorsan in the
ephebic and gerontic stage.

Litoceras.

This genus was described in Genera of Fossil Cephalopods, page
259.

The siphuncle is very large and is dorsad or below the centre in
adults, but is ventrad in Zztoceras Whitteavsi in the neanic and ear-
lier stages, and is very likely ventrad in the young at some stage in
all species, as it is in those of Schroederoceras that have been
studied. The young are slightly costated also and the adults
smooth, as in other genera of similar groups. The umbilical per-
foration is of good size, and in the nepionic stage the shell is cyr-
toceran and similar to the shells of Schroederoceras of the same
’ group, but with much broader whorls and deeper umbilici. These
differences are maintained in the later stages of growth, the whorls
being much larger, broader and have in the ephebic stage similar
abdomens and convex, divergent sides without umbilical shoulders,
resembling the neanic stages of species of Schroederoceras.

The increase by growth in the lateral diameters of the whorl is
rapid, as in the young of Schroederoceras and other allied genera,
but it continues longer, and even the adults may have very broad
whorls, so that these adults resemble in form the neanic stage of
Schroederoceras.

The aperture is less compressed than in the full-grown shells of
Schroederoceras, and resemble those of the anephebic stage of that
genus, but are not flaring or trumpet shaped, as in Trocholites.
In fact, there has been a slight turning in of the edges in all the
specimens observed, but this, however, may be due to compression.
The hyponomic sinus is smaller and shallower than in the ephebic
aperture of Schroederoceras.

The contact furrow is broader and deeper than in Schroed-
eroceras and the involution more marked on account of the rotund-
ity and breadth of the abdomen, which is covered in.

The end of the whorl, even in full-grown shells, is not free, and
in this respect also the species resemble the neanic stage in
Schroederoceras. ‘The living chambers are, so far as observed,
longer than in Schroederoceras and shorter than in Trocholites.

The sutures have deep dorsal lobes, saddles on the lines of

475

involution and broad lateral lobes, and the invariable ventral lobe
of Schroederoceras is replaced by a saddle or nearly straight suture.

The type of this genus, when it was first described, were the
specimens in Geological Museum at Ottawa identified as Vawtilus
versutus of Billings, but these appear here as Litoceras Whiteavst,
since there is every reason for supposing that they are not the
species described by Billings under the name of ‘versutus.

LITOCERAS WHITEAVSI.
NauUT. VERSUTUM (?) (pars), Bill. (Geol. Can., Pal. Foss., i, p.

258).
Loc., Point Rich and Gargamelle Cove, Newfoundland.

Having examined the so-called originals of this species, so far as
they exist in the Geological Survey Museum at Ottawa, I have
found that none of them came from Billings’ locality, Bonne Bay,
and none of them agree with Billings’ description. Billings’
species had ten septa to the inch; this species has the sutures about
one-quarter of an inch apart, a difference showing essential dis-
tinction.

The young on the second whorl has the siphuncle ventrocentren
and are slightly costated. These cost disappear before the end
of this whorl and the surface is marked only by the lines of growth.
The siphuncle also shifts gradually, becoming centrodorsan, but
in the adult it does not approximate to the dorsum, remaining
nearer the centre than the dorsum. The abdomen is very broad in
the later stages, and in the adult the diameter through the abdomi-
nal angles is longer than the ventro-dorsal diameter.

The sides are divergent; that is, slope inwardly. They are
rounded and have no umbilical shoulders, the dorsum being coex-
tensive with the contact furrow which covers the abdomen com-
pletely. The sutures are sinuous, having well-marked ventral
saddles, lateral lobes and probably dorsal lobes, although the latter
were not seen. The specimens from which this description was
taken were collected at Gargamelle Cove, near Billings’ locality,
and probably belong to this species, as it is identified by the Geo-
logical Survey of Canada. The form of the whorl is not so broad
laterally, the chamber of habitation is less than one-half of a volu-
tion in length and smaller in every way than in Litoceras insolens.

A section of the whorl is more like that of zzsolens in the ephe-

476

bic stage than in the specimens in the museum at Ottawa, but the
sides are rounder at the stages of growth observed.

The siphuncle is similarly situated and somewhat smaller than in
insolens.

The diameter of the largest and most perfect specimen was about
150 mm. ‘The transverse diameter of the fourth whorl at the
whole diameter of 75 mm. was 42 mm., and the ventro-dorsal 25
mm. The diameter of the siphuncle at this stage was 4 mm.
The diameter of this organ increased slightly to the living cham-
ber, but probably did not exceed 6 or 7 mm. On the last quarter
(probably of the fourth whorl), just before the living chamber was
reached, the siphuncle was found to be misplaced, as is not uncom-
mon in species from this locality. This organ has very thick walls
and often maintains its form and proportions when unsupported by
the septa, although thrown out of place by the movements in the
matrix, as happened in this case. It is thrown over to the left and
arches towards the venter rising above the centre. The specimen
being excavated, however, it was found to be in its usual place,
a few septa younger than the point at which it appeared. The
entrance. into the living chamber was not, however, satisfactorily
observed, the septum being broken by compression, although the
entrance seemed to be in the usual place, between the centre and
the dorsum. ‘The septa were about 6 mm. apart as measured on
this siphuncle.

The shell was very thick near the aperture, which was similar to
that of zzsolens, but appeared to have a narrower hyponomic sinus
than in that species. The way in which the lateral crests run for-
wards to the lines of involution indicate that there was a crest on
the dorsum also, but this could not be observed.

LITOCERES INSOLENS (?).

NAUTILUS INSOLENS (?) Bill. (Pa/. Foss., i, p. 258). Pl. vi, Figs.
Q-ITI, nat. size.

Loc., Gargamelle Cove, W. Coast Newfoundland.

This species is so similar in dimensions and characteristics to the
one described by Billings and was found so near his locality that
I have ventured to apply the same name, although he does not dis-
tinctly state whether the siphuncle was dorsad or ventrad of the
centre.

ATT

The types were not to be found in the museum at Ottawa during
my visit to that museum several years ago.

The young of this species increases in the transverse diameters with
great rapidity. The ananepionic stage, Figs. 9, 10, Pl. vi, has the
usual straight, fine striae and the metanepionic and succeeding sub-
stages throughout the first, and a part of the second whorls have
the costations which are common at the same age in other shells of
this family. The umbilical perforation is of considerable size ; the
whorls change from the rounded, cyrtoceran form of the anane-
pionic substage, which apparently has the ventro-dorsal longer
than the transverse diameters, very rapidly as the gyroceran stage
approaches on the latter part of the first half of the first whorl or
the metanepionic substage. In the paranepionic on the last half
of the first whorl and before the whorls touch, the whorl is like the
metanepionic volution as shown in section in Fig. 11, Pl. vi, trigo-
nal, the venter broader than the dorsum, and the angles are rounded.
In the ananeanic substage, after the completion of the first whorl,
the wherl becomes digonal, with a contact furrow. Near the end
of the first whorl, in the paranepionic substage, the ventro-dorsal
diameter was 3 mm., roughly measured ; the transverse through the
abdominal angles were approximately 6 mm. ; half of a volution
beyond this, in the ananeanic substage, the transverse had become
10 Or 11 mm., and the ventro-dorsal about 6 mm. ; less than one-half
volution later in the paraneanic the transverse had become 16 mm.
and the ventro-dorsal about 7 mm. ; somewhat more than one-half
volution later, in the anephebic substage, the whorl had become
changed to kidney shaped in section, and the septum at the base of
the living chamber was exposed. The transverse diameter was
29 mm., the ventro-dorsal 12 mm., both taken without the shell.

Fig. 11, Pl. vi, shows a sectional view of the metanepionic,
neanic and ephebic volutions. The diameters through the umbili-
cal zone, parallel with the mesal plane, were equal or about the
same, roughly measured, as the ventro-dorsal diameters.

The anaphebic sutures of the septum at the base of the living
chamber in the specimen figured has a well-marked median saddle,
narrower than in a full-grown shell, and on either side of this were
faintly marked ventral lobes. ‘These last were continued on the
sides, rising steeply to the umbilical zones, where they culminated
in broad saddles. These descended abruptly in the contact fur-
row, forming a broad, deep, dorsal lobe. ‘These sutures are quite

478

distinct from those of full-grown shells. ‘The siphuncle was propio-
dorsan, being a shade less than its own diameter removed from
that surface, its diameter being 3 mm.

The whorl is still kidney shaped in section in this substage, with
rounded lateral zones, elevated rounded abdomen and rounded
abdominal angles, but there is an evident tendency to broaden on
the sides and to form steep, horizontal umbilical zones. These
parts, being developed out of a digonal whorl, have the usual primi-
tive form of the kidney-shaped whorl, but the slightest flattening
of the lateral zones would convert the section into a quadragonal
outline. There is a deep wide contact furrow at this age, and the
involution completely covers the abdomen of the next inner whorl
to the abdominal angles, the umbilical zones actually bulging
inwards, and encroaching somewhat on the umbilici, comparing
closely with the younger stages of Zrocholitoceras Walcott, Fig.
mes Ply vi.

The living chamber of this specimen, Fig. 9, although incom-
plete, was nearly one-half of a volution in length at the end of the
third volution. About one-quarter of a volution from the septal
floor it measured in transverse diameter 33 mm. and the ventro-
dorsal 15 mm., showing that the rate of growth in the transverse
diameter had begun to lessen considerably. The depth of the
umbilicus measured from the umbilical shoulders was 15 mm. at
about the end of the last half of the third whorl. The shell was
very thick on the venter even at this age.

During subsequent growth the sides are apt to become broader and
flatter, but the transverse diameters always exceed considerably the
ventro-dorsal. The fossils are all apt to be more or less distorted
by pressure, so that it is difficult to draw the line between this species
and Litoceras Whiteavesi, except in the young. In these the whorl
is of greater breadth and the siphuncle nearer to the dorsum than
the last mentioned.

As the sides become better defined the sutures change. ‘The
ventral saddle disappears in a broad lobe or almost straight suture,
slight saddles appear at the rounded abdominal angles and the
broad lateral lobes ascending to the lines of involution and the blunt
saddles, as in the young, on the primitive and rounded umbilical
zones are all better defined. The broad deep dorsal lobe also re-
mains as in the young in the contact furrow.

The whorl was not free at the aperture in any specimens observed.

479

The diameter of the largest specimens was estimated at 177 mm.;
the imperfect living chamber in this was somewhat less than one-half
of a volution in length. ‘The transverse diameter of the septal floor
of this chamber was, estimating by half measurement, more than
74 mm., the ventro-dorsal about 50 mm. ‘The siphuncle from
which the measures were taken may not have been in the centre in
this specimen, so the measurements of the transverse diameter may
be faulty. The living chamber in this and the next specimen de-
scribed reached well into the first half of the fifth volution, as esti-
mated by careful comparison with the young specimen above de-
scribed and figured.

The most perfect fossil of this species was 140 mm. in diameter.
The living chamber showing lines of what appeared to be the
rugged edge of an aperture was just one-half of a volution in length.
The suture of the septal floor was similar to that described above.
The transverse diameter at the septal floor was about 60 mm., the
diameter through the side about 31 mm. ‘The transverse diameter
midway in this chamber became nearly 74 mm., and the diameter
through the side 40 mm.

Near the aperture the ventro-dorsal diameters continued to in-
crease and the transverse decreased, or in other words the aperture
was not so broad as the middle of the chamber which was slightly
expanded. ‘The shell was enormously thick on the venter, showing
age, it was near the middle about 2 mm. in thickness, and near this
aperture 6.5 mm. in thickness. The lines of growth indicated a very
large, broad and deep hyponomic sinus al broad lateral crests, but
these were not distinctly seen.

The siphuncle, in the specimen 177 mm. in diameter, reached
the large size of 11 mm. at the septal floor, and less than one-half of
a volution younger was 6.5 mm. in diameter. The septa were only
6 to 6.5 and 7.mm. apart as measured on the siphuncle at this age
near the living chamber. ‘They were nearer together than in adults
at this gerontic stage as is usual in outgrown specimens. The last
two sutures of the smaller fossil described as 140 mm. in diameter
were 7 mm. distant, which is probably the average distance of a
full-grown shell, judging also by the remains of an isolated siphuncle
in the collection belonging to this species.

LITOCERAS BIANGULATUM, Ni. Ss.
Loc., Pt. Rich., Newfoundland.

This shell appears in the collection at Ottawa under the name of

480

Nautilus versutus. The sides, however, until a late stage are
angular, forming a truly digonal whorl with broad rotund abdomen.

The ventral saddle is more plainly marked and more prominent,
and the whorls more numerous at the same age. ‘There are saddles
at the abdominal angles and lateral lobes; the dorsal sutures were not
seen. The contact furrow is about the same as in Lz¢toceras Whit-
eavest. It is simply a species retaining the digonal, neanic whorl
until a late stage, probably throughout life.

LITOCERAS ? HERCULES.
Nautitus Hercutes, Bill. (Rep. Geol. Surv. Can., 1856, p. 306).
Loc., Charleton Pt., Anticosti.

This smooth shell found in the Lower Silurian of Anticosti has
the digonal form of whorl similar to that of Lztoceras biangulatum
and the young of Léteceras tnsolens. It is, however, a very much
larger and more rapidly growing shell. The sutures have ventral
median saddles, and on either side ventral lobes as in the young of
znsolens. ‘The abdominal angles have saddles and there are well-
marked lateral lobes rising to slight saddles at the lines of involu-
tion. The diameter of Billings’ specimen was 6% inches with
incomplete living chamber.

Trocholitoceras, 0. g.

This genus has been framed to include forms which are essentially
similar to Trocholites, but have the siphuncle ventrad of the centre
in the earlier substages of development.

The forms stand in development and adult characters between
Litoceras and Trocholites.

Type is Zrocholitoceras Walcott.

TROCHOLITOCERAS WALCOTTI. PI. vi, Figs. 12-20.
Loc., Fort Cassin.

The series of sections drawn in Figs, 14-19, Pl. vi, gives the his-
tory of the development of the shell and siphuncle in this interesting
species. ‘The first sectional cut (Fig. 14, Pl. vi) shows the round
ananepionic volution, the umbilical perforation and below this the
paranepionic volution with the siphuncle ventro-centren, and the
outline beginning to broaden and approximating to the kidney-
shape, above the round ananepionic section is the ananeanic whorl
with the siphuncle centrodorsen, It will be observed that this section

481

cuts at right angles to the long axis of the narrow pear-shaped
umbilical perforation and that there is a faint but well-defined dor-
sal furrow in the dorsum of the paranepionic volution. In Fig.
15 a somewhat older section is shown and the siphuncle of the
metanepionic substage is propioventran. The umbilical perforation
is narrower in consequence of the approximation to the dorsum of
the parenepionic whorl and the dorsal furrow is well-defined at
this bend, and broader and deeper than it is beyond this in
Hig. 16.

The birth of the dorsal furrow is shown in Fig. 16, since one
can see here the distinct outlines of the metanepionic volution
broadening out internally, and the dorsal side of this remaining
stiff and rounded while the plastic dorsal side of the growing
paranepionic volution was bent into a dorsal furrow while being
built around this abrupt bend. In Fig. 17 the section has passed
inside of the paranepionic whorl, and the aspect begins to be
confused by the fact that it cuts across the septa and shell. This
and Figs. 18 and 19 are similarly confused, and are of value only for
tracing the positions of the siphuncle. This organ obviously begins
in a subventran position, becomes propioventran in the metane-
pionic and paranepionic, centrodorsan in the ananeanic after the
completion of the first volution, and finally subdorsan in the meta-
neanic substage on the third volution. ‘This position, is retained
throughout life, as is shown in the section, Fig. 13, Pl. vi.

The innermost volution shown in the side view of the same speci-
men (Fig. 12) is the last quarter of the third and first quarter of the
fourth volutions. The smooth, still kidney-shaped whorl of the last
quarter of the third volution in Fig. 13 shows the paraneanic sub-
stage. The third sectional outline of a whorl below the central
rounded ananepionic tip gives this age, and the third sectional
outline of a whorl above the same ananepionic centre gives the sec-
tion across the first quarter of the fourth whorl, which is the an- .
ephebic stage, and has a very distinct outline. Owing to the de-
crease in the rate of growth of the lateral diameters, the sides and
abdomen have become contracted and the kidney shape of the
earlier ages has been exchanged for a helmet shape in outline.*

The living chamber in this specimen occupies at least the greater
part of one-half of a volution, but its exact length could not be ascer-

* This section is unluckily in a position which isthe reverse of that of Fig. 12.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. 80C. XXXII. 143. 31. PRINTED JUNE 80, 1894.

482

tained. The aperture was not very plainly discernible, but was ap-
proximately as given in the figure.

The ephebic stage has raised lines or bands of growth straighter
on the sides than in the gerontic stage, which has evidently begun
on the last whorl. This has moderately heavy ridges which are re-
flected on the cast of the living chamber.

It is separable from Schroederoceras Hatont by the broad whorls
of the young and the near approximation of the siphuncle to the
dorsum in the neanic stage.

TROCHOLITOCERAS (?) EICHWALDI.
CLYMENIA RAROSPIRA, Eichw. (Leth. Rossica, Pl. 1, Fig. 2, a, b, c,
and 6) a, b, c; not Fig. 1, a-b, and-3):

The descriptions and figures of Eichwald show conclusively that
this is widely different from Schroederoceras rarospira and is nearer
to true Trocholites. The form of the whorls in the young, the slow ~
rate of increase in the dorso-ventral diameters, the rotundity of the
sides and abdomen in the young and even in the full-grown whorls,
the small diameter and close approximation of the siphuncle to the
dorsum, make this shell very like a species of Trocholites.

On the other hand, the sutures are more sinuous, having deeper
ventral and lateral lobes than are common in that genus. The
living chambers are less than one-fourth of a volution in length, with
the lateral crests of the aperture most prominent about the centre of
the lateral aspect.

The question of affinity can of course only be definitely settled
after the development of the siphuncle in the apex of the conch has
been studied. The appearance of the umbilicus, as shown in Fig 6
of Eichwald, is similar to that of other species of this genus, but this
of course may be due to erroneous draughting.

Trocholttes.

This genus has been fully described and correctly defined by
Schréder,* and the following description is largely taken from his
work and adapted to the needs of this work. The shell of the ne-
pionic stage, as first shown by Holm,t is so closely coiled that no
umbilical perforation is externally visible. Observations of two
young specimens of T. described below have, however, shown the

* “Unters. ub, sil. Ceph.,’’ Pal. Abt., Dames et Kayser, N. F. (current Vol. v), heft 4.
7 “Sil. Ceph.,’’ Pal. Abh., Dames et Kayser, iii, Pl. vy, Figs. 9, 10 and 11.

483

existence of lateral depressions or open nepionic umbilici, and the
usual umbilical perforation is present, although rendered very small
by the closeness of the coiling.

The first air chamber observed in two specimens is unusually
deep and broadens laterally by growth with extreme rapidity. I
have not been able to expose a complete apex so as to see the cica-
trix, but have seen the outline of the umbilical perforation at the
centre. The siphuncle is closed at the end, but not perceptibly
swollen into a pouch as in most Nautiloids. It is not close to the
dorsum in the first chamber, but the cecal end is centren as shown
in the section of the ananepionic substage (Fig. 24, Pl. iv).

It clings closely to the dorsal side as in the young of ¢¢ernastriata,
as shown in Fig. 25, which represents a truncated apical chamber and
the paranepionic substage of the first whorl. Holm and Schréder’s
observations have shown that it is ellipochoanoidal or has in other
words short funnels and a porous wall between contiguous septa.
Schréder’s observations apply to the full-grown shell and Holm’s to
the young.*

The extremely rapid expansion of the whorls ceases before the
first whorl is completed, but it gives to the nepionic shell, when seen
from the venter, the aspect so common in Ammonoids during what
is usually called the goniatic stage. So far as now known to me,
no other Nautiloid possesses this peculiarity to such a remarkable
degree in the nepionic stage, Fig. 39, Pl. vi.

The mode of growth of the siphuncle is independent of the close
coiling, since it has the same history in Zrocholites tnternastriata,
with a large umbilical perforation, as in true Trocholites of later
times, with a more minute perforation.

The septa as in most nautiloids are much wider apart, at first
gradually decreasing until the end of the first whorl or thereabouts,
as shown in Holm’s figures, when they assume the normal distance
and are less deeply convex. The sutures exhibit corresponding
differences, having large ventral saddles, deep lateral lobes and
probably, although these were not clearly seen, dorsal saddles in
these earlier stages.

The lines of growth are much straighter in the nepionic stage
than subsequently. - The hyponomic sinus is so broad and shallow
that it is hardly observable on the third quarter of the first whorl

* Holm’s observations and mine are similar and I have reproduced his figure in Pl. iv
of this paper.

484

and the lines are almost straight on the sides. The lines of growth
alone are visible. ‘There are no prominent bands marking perma-
nent apertures, nor are the characteristic coste of Trocholites
visible, nor any longitudinal ridges in my specimens. Growth
lines show that in the nepionic stage not only the form and sutures
were distinct but also the aperture. The apertures are trumpet-
like in the ephebic stage and have a moderate hyponomic sinus
with broad lateral crests, increasing in prominence towards the
dorsum. Whether there are sinuses in the contact furrow has not
been determined, but one infers their presence*because the lines of
growth incline apically just before reaching the lines of involution.
The form of the whorl continues rounded in all species of this
genus, although in some there is a distinct tendency towards angu-
lation of the sides.

The contact furrow appears very early in consequence of the
close coiling of the whorl. This zone is not deep, but it is well
marked and may extend nearly to the abdominal angles in some
species and it remains throughout life. So faras known no specimen
has been found with even a part of the last whorl free. The form
of the whorl in section is consequently nephritic, except in some
species having flatter sides and more pronounced abdominal angles
than usual.

In one species only, 7. cercudaris, is there any tendency to forma
pentagonal whorl and this was not only very obscure but observed
only in one specimen, the type form. The whorl is therefore very
primitive.

The length of the living chamber is given as usually about three-
quarters of a volution by Schréder, but some of his species have it
less than one-half of a volution. 7. Remelefand 7. ammonius have
one invariably somewhat less than one-half of a volution in length.
It is obvious that in this genus it varies between these limits.

TROCHOLITES INTERNASTRIATA.
LITUITES INTERNASTRIATA Whitf. Fort Cassin Foss. (Bul/. Am.
Mus., New York, i, No. 8, Pl. xxix, Figs. 5-8). Fort Cassin:

This species, of which I have studied the originals, has young of
cyrtoceran form, with a good-sized umbilical perforation, as in
Schroederoceras and Litoceras. The siphuncle is centren in
what is probably the second septum, and it has not the prolonga-
tion beyond this septum, as figured by Whitfield. It inclines

485

rapidly towards the dorsum, attaining a fixed position in the fifth
septum, if I am right in estimating the first septum drawn by Whit-
field as the second.*

It is much larger in the nepionic stages, contracting as it nears
the sixth, and becoming a narrow tube in the seventh septum.
Subsequently it again increases by growth as the shell grows larger,
so that it has the usual large diameter common in this group. IEf
the trend of the siphuncle towards the apex from the dorsum to
the centre is followed out it can be seen that the caecum must have
been situated somewhat on the ventral side in the apical chamber.

The rapidity with which the siphuncle becomes propiodorsan,
attaining this position in the metanepionic substage or as the first
whorl bends to assume the gyroceran curve, shows affinity appar-
ently for Trocholites, but the position in the second septum and
the size of the siphuncle and the sutures of later stages are not in
favor of this view. The form of the whorl is very similar to that
of Schroederoceras Eichwaldi, but from this it is separated by the
sutures, which in the ephebic stage on the fourth whorl have slight
saddles instead of lobes on the venter and the siphuncle is not so
close to the dorsum and is larger. The suture of the earlier stages
are straight and are trocholitean in aspect, with well-marked dorsal
lobes, as is also the form and ornamentation of the young whorls,
which are slightly costated.

There is a well-marked contact furrow, and I did not find the
tendency of the last whorl to become free, as described by Whit-
field, the contact furrow being well defined at the termination of
the whorls in the original of Fig. 5, Pl. xxix, of his work.

The slower growth and distinct form of the apex, which is more
cylindrical and not cap shaped, and the development of the
siphuncle, separates it from the young of Schroederoceras Eatoni,
and also that of Schroederoceras teres and Trochoiitoceras Walcott.

Although the position of the siphuncle at an early stage is not
yet known in species of Litoceras, this species is obviously dis-
tinct because of the narrowness of the whorls, which resemble
those of #a/oni in outline. Besides the ventral saddles, the sutures
of the fourth volution have well-marked lateral lobes and dorsal
lobes in the contact furrow. The whorl remains throughout
life in transverse section depressed, elliptical, as in Trocholites,

*I am not satisfied with this correction. The aspect of the first chamber is more nat-
ural in Whitfield’s drawing than in mine.

486

and the markings resemble those of that genus, as does also the
development of the siphuncle. The larger size of the umbilical
perforation is interesting, but this alone does not warrant generic
separation.

TROCHOLITES CANADENSIS, Pl. iv, Figs. 23 and 24, and Pl. vi,
Figs. 39 and 4o.
Loc., Falls of Montmorency, near Quebec.

The four specimens representing this species came from the
Bronn collection. They are similar to 7. ammonius in form, but
differ in being broader proportionately in the transverse diameters
of the whorls and have deeper umbilici. The whorls are rounded,
there being no tendency to angularity, either of the sides or abdo-
men, and in these specimens the size is small. There are fold-like
cost from an early neanic stage and the living chamber may be
considerably over one-half of a volution in length. The exterior
is marked by longitudinal lines along the venter and often on the
sides, but these have none of the regularity and prominence observ-
able in Conrad’s figure, and that figure shows no costations which
are more prominent and fold-like in this than in Z. ammonius or
any other described species of Trocholites.

The extremely broad aspect in section of the ananepionic volu-
tion is given in Fig. 24, asseen from the front. The umbilical
perforation between this and the larger paranepionic volution is
very narrow. In Fig. 23 looking through the transparent para-
nepionic volution one sees the umbilical perforation and the meta-
nepionic volution as it is turning or revolving around the core
of the perforation. The outlines in both of these views belong to
different ages and are, consequently, quite distinct. The upper
section of a whorl in Fig. 24 is the ananepionic substage; the upper
section in Fig. 23 is a visual section of the metanepionic whorl just
before it changes by growth into the paranepionic, which is seen
below in same figure, and this last in turn is younger than the
lower section in Fig. 24, which is a later age of the same substage.
Taking these in regular order, it is seen that the ananepionic has a
rounded dorsum and almost digonal whorl on account of its very
rapid transverse growth; that this, as it becomes older, acquires a
concave dorsum in the metanepionic of Fig. 23. Then, as the
whole revolves while growing, at a later age but part of this same
substage, after the shell has passed this bend and is freer to grow on

487

the dorsal side, the centre of the dorsum again begins to round
out, but traces of the primitive dorsal furrow remain in the de-
pressions on either side of the central, gibbous dorsal face formed
by this outgrowth, as in Fig. 24.

This gibbous face is immediately suppressed when the whorls
come into contact, and its transient appearance can only be
accounted for as due to the genetic tendency of the paranepionic
whorl to resume the gibbous metanepionic form of dorsum as soon
as the pressure resulting from the abrupt curve is slightly relieved.*

TROCHOLITES AMMONIUS, Hall.

This species, of which the collection of the Museum of Compara-
tive Zodlogy possesses a very large number, collected by Mr. C. D.
Walcott, has a very peculiar, rough, fretted surface, and only very few
specimens show longitudinal lines such as are described and figured
in Z: planorbiformis by Conrad. ‘This surface is due to the minute
crenulations or waves in the outlines of the projecting edges of the
laminz of growth. When these are wide enough apart one can
distinguish crenulated transverse lines; when too close they inter-
fere and the regularity and continuity of the lines are broken into
a multitude of more or less discontinuous, short lines. Sometimes
a network of lines is formed by the regularitv of the intersection
of the crests of the crenulations in successive laminz. This cuticu-
lar ornamentation is so easily destroyed that it is often present only
on parts of the same specimen.

Longitudinal lines may be seen through it, but, as stated by Hall
and observed by the writer, these are rarely present in the New
York specimens. They do, however, sometimes exist all over the
abdomen and sides, and are well defined in specimens in which the
cuticular corrugations are absent.

The lines of growth are extremely crowded, and what are called
the cost occur at wider intervals and more irregularly. ‘They are
probably the traces of former apertures. These are more promi-
nent in some specimens than in others, but never seem to have the
aspect of true fold-like costations.

The lines of growth form deep, broad sinuses on the venter ;
rise into lateral crests on the sides, sinking towards the lines of
involution, and forming a sinus in the contact furrow. ‘These are

* This opinion would be more convincing, if it were not for the fact, that in Cranoceras
similar transformations occur in an adult cyrtoceran form of the Devonian.

483

parallel to the outlines of the apertures, but these last not infre-
quently have shallow, broad constrictions and slightly projecting or
trumpet-like lips in full-grown whorls.

The specimens of Z: ammonuzs from the same locality may vary
from very broad-whorled forms to those with much narrower almost
cylindrical whorls, the former being slightly deeper umbilici and
the latter being shallower, as in Z: cercularts. ‘The venter and
sides are, however, almost invariably projecting and rounded,
unless angulated by compression, whereas in cércudarts there is a
distinct tendency towards truncation or flattening of the abdomen
and sides.

The sutures in the ephebic stage may be nearly straight, but there
are in most specimens broad ventral lobes, saddles at the abdomi-
nal angles, lateral lobes and saddles on the umbilical zones and
lobes in the contact furrow. These inflections are, however, always
- slight, and the sutures give the impression of being almost straight
in most specimens.

The contact furrow is distinct but not deep in the ephebic stage
and continues to be present in the aperture of the whorl, which is
never free.

TTROCHOLITES INCONGRUUS, Ang. et Lindst.

CLyM. INCONGRUA, Eichw. (Leth Rossica., Pl. 1, Fig. 7).

CLYM. INCONGRUA, Schroder (Ceph. d. Untersil., Pal. Abh., Dames
et Kayser, v, heft 4, Pl. ii, Fig. 2-4).

TROCHOLITES INCONGRUUS, Ang. et Lindst. (4ragm. Sit., Pl. ix,
Figs. 15-18).

This species is beautifully figured by Angelin and Lindstrom and
the living chamber and the lines of growth and sutures fully given.
It is obviously a smaller species than Z. ammontius, with deeper um-
bilical whorls much broader proportionately, abdomen very broad,
but sides rounded as shown by Schréder.

‘TROCHOLITES HOSPES.
PALEONAUTILUS HOSPES, Remelé (Zettsch. deutsch. geol. Gesell,
APM et wot, Flt, Pig. 1).
TROCH. HOSPES, Schroder (Ceph. d. Untersil., Pal. Abh., Dames
Gt Kayser, v, mett 4, Pl. i, Figs. 8,9).
This species, supposed by Remele to be distinct generically from
Trocholites, is merely, as shown by Schréder, a species of Trocho-

489

lite, with very broad whorls quite similar to those of his Z. con-
tractus.

‘TROCHOLITES DEPRESSUS.

CLYMENIA DEPRESSA, Eichw. (Leth. Ross., Pl. 1, Fig. 5).

TROCH. DEPRESSUS, Schréder (Ceph. d. Untersil., Pal. Abt., Dames
et) Kayser, v, heft 4, Pl..i, Fig. 4).

TROCHOLITES MACROSTOMA, Schroder (Ceph. d. Untersil., Pal. Abt.,
Dames et Kayser, v, heft 4, Pl. i, Fig. 1).

TrRocH. CONTRACTUS, Schréder (zd¢d., Pl. i, Fig. 2).

Excessively broad whorls and deep umbilici but no lateral zones.
Living chamber about one-half volution in length according to
Schréder’s drawings. Schréder also describes the following species :

Trocu. orsis, Schréder (zézd., Pl. i, Fig. 23).
‘¢ MACROMPHALUS, Schréder (zéid., Pl. i, Fig. 5).
‘¢ SORAVIENSIS, Schréder (zéz7., Pl. ii, Fig. 1).

TROCH. REMELEI, Schréder (zézd¢., p. 18), was described as 7. zn-
congruus by Ang. et Lindst. (7vag. Sz/., Pl. ix, Figs. 15-18), and this
has a living chamber not quite one-half a volution in length. His
Troch. damest (tbid., Pl. v, Fig. 2) shows sculpturing and form of
the young which appears to place it in the genus Schroederoceras
rather than in Trocholites and it has been referred to that genus.

Trocholites circularis, Mill. et Dyer, of the Cincinnati group of
the Hudson river, is probably a distinct species. The type is in the
Museum of Comparative Zodlogy. This has an aperture like that
of Z. ammonius and length of living chamber as in that species
about one-half of a volution. The whorls are not so stout as in
ammonius, the sides being slightly compressed, the abdomen nar-
rower than the dorsum.

TROCHOLITES DYERI, N. sp.

This is a form in the Dyer collection from the Cincinnati group,
having aform of whorl broader and quite like that of Z. ammonius,
but with a longer living chamber and distinct aperture.

The living chamber is considerably over one-half of a volution
in length and the lateral and ventral edges of the aperture are flar-
ing like the mouth of a trumpet. This gives extraordinary promi-
nence to these parts and especially to the hyponomic sinus. The
umbilici were not seen, but are probably deeper than in Z. ammo-

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 148. 33. PRINTED JUNE 380, 1894.

490

nius or circularis and the involution of the whorl, although not
distinctly seen, is also apparently greater.

Trocholitus minusculus, Mill. et Dyer, is a small species having
such extraordinary sutures that one suspects some distortion, never-
theless there is no proof of any action that would have brought
this to pass. The form, except the size, is like that of Z. ammonius.
The incomplete living chamber is somewhat less than one-half of a
volution in length. The sutures have flexures like those of the
lines of growth in other forms, z. ¢., they form a deep, broad sinus
on the venter, rise into prominent saddles on the sides which inter-
nally sink towards the lines of involution, probably forming a
lobe in the contact furrow. These outlines are unique among the
species of Trocholites. The shell is shown on part of another
specimen, and the hyponomic sinus in the lines of growth on the
venter is narrower than the ventral lobe of the sutures.

ZT. planorbiformis, sp. Hall, may be distinct from Z: ammonius,
since the name has been adopted by Hall, who has studied the type,
and this may be the same as 7: planorbiformis, Conrad.

TROCHOLITES BLAKEI.
TROCHOLITES PLANORBIFORMIS, Blake (British Ceph., Pl. xxix,
Fig. 9).

This species, considered by Blake as identical with A/anorbifor-
mis Conrad, is obviously a distinct form. It has deep ventral lobes
in the sutures and costz which are figured on either side of the ab-
domen. No longitudinal ridges are described, although the surface
was studied and the transverse markings were plainly seen.

Blake states that this is identical with Zztuztes hibernicus, Salter,*
but the latter is a ribbed species with part of the whorls free and
does not even belong to the same family. There are probably sey-
eral species confused under this one name.

It occurs in the Bala beds at Llandovery.

‘TROCHOLITES ANGUIFORMIS.

NavTiLus (TROCH.) ANGUIFORMIS, Blake (Brit. Ceph., Pl. xxvii,
Hig) 2).

This is also a true member of this genus.

* Murchison’s Siluria, p. 220, Fig. 8.

491

TROCHOLITES SCOTICUS.
NautiLus (Trocu.) scoticus, Blake (Briz. Ceph., Pl. xxix, Fig. 6,
Pio scKvil, TA).
Blake’s figures show sutures, but he states that none are discern-
ible. The aperture and form of whorl and striz indicate that this
is a species of Trocholites.

Hercoceratide.

?

In ‘¢ Carboniferous Cephalopods,’’ second paper, Fourth Annual
Report Geol. Survey of Texas, | separated the Tainoceratide, includ-
ing the Temnocheilus, Metacoceras and Tainoceras from the Her-
coceratidz, but further study leads me to think that this is not
advisable considering the approximation in form and characters of
the two sets of genera and have reunited them here under the old
name.

In genera of fossil Cephalopods I regarded J?¢yssoceras (Cyrt.)
alienum, sp. Barrande, as the arcuate radical type of this family.
It has a single row of large, lateral tubercles, sutures nearly straight,
whorl in section depressed, elliptical and siphuncle ventral, and it
has no dorsal furrow. The genera properly included under this
family name are as follows:

Ptyssoceras, Trochoceras, Hercoceras, Anomaloceras, Lower
Silurian ; Centroceras, Devonian; Temnocheilus, Devonian to
Dyas (Permian); Metacoceras, Tainoceras, Carboniferous and
Dyas; Foordiceras,* Dyas.

I have also provisionally placed Coelogasteroceras in this family
on account of the general resemblances of the form of the nepionic
stage, the smooth shell and the hollow ventral zone in the abdomen.

Ptenoceras,} n. g.

Under this name I propose to place all those forms formerly in-
cluded under the name of Hercoceras in my Genera of Fossil
Cephalopods, whether turbinate or coiling in the same plane, which
have no impressed zone at any stage. The whorls are open, or
barely in contact, and are rounded in the early stages and subquad-
ragonal later in life. The apertures are similar to those of Herco-

* All these genera are mentioned or redescribed below as far as needed for the pur-

poses of this paper except Foordiceras and Tainoceras, which haye been described in
“ Carboniferous Cephalopods,”’ quoted above.

t [zyyés, winged.

492

ceras, but are more widely open and often have spreading lips to the
lateral sinuses as in Ptenoceras (Gyr.) alatum, Barrande, Pl. xliv.

These forms are interesting because of their obviously close
genetic affinity with Hercoceras, and yet the entire absence of an
impressed zone at any stage in consequence of the loose mode of the
coiling.

Ptenoceras flexum, sp. Barrande, Pl. xliv, and Ptenoceras
tardum should also be included in this genus, and probably Bar-
rande’s Zrochoceras nodosum, P\. xxv, but his other forms described
under this name belong to widely different genera.

Hercoceras.

This genus described by Barrande (Systeme Stlurien, ii, Text i,
p-. 152) should be limited to such species as those placed under this
~name by this author. I formerly included also under this name cer-
tain gyroceran and trochoceran forms. ‘These are separated here,
but so far as regards their near affinity, I still hold the opinion that
they belong to the same family group, and are genetically connected.
Hercoceras includes only nautilian forms, having a small umbilical
perforation, the impressed ,zone being present only after the whorls
come incontact. They have peculiar contracted apertures, figured
by Barrande, depressed whorls broader on the venter than on the
dorsum, often with large spines or nodes, siphuncle subventran,
and are often trochoceran in their mode of growth.

The section of Hercoceras mirum, the type of this genus, given in
Figs. 13, Pl. viii, shows the small comma-shaped umbilical perfora-
tion, deep apical chamber and septa of the nepionic stage. The
czecum is very small and is packed away in the ventral angle of this
chamber under the septum. The siphuncle is phenomenally small
in this genus in the nepionic substages, but increases subsequently
to a respectable size. This and the absence of longitudinal ridges
on the exterior of all of this genus and its allies has a genetic sig-
nificance which is not yet understood.

The young are sometimes in contact only in the neanic stage, and
in the same species this may vary so that the whorls remain in con-
tact throughout the ephebic stage, the last whorl with the living
chamber being free as in Hercoceras (Gyroc.) nudum, sp. Barrande.
fTercoceras ( Troch.) transtens, sp. Barrande, Pl. xxx, is a species of
this genus, and it seems to me quite possible that Barrande’s

493

Gyroceras minusculum (P|. xxx) may also prove to be related to
species of this genus.

The young of these forms are all closely coiled and have con-
tact furrows when the volutions are in contact, and these are
also retained more or less in the gerontic stages.

The section is at first rounded, then broadens out to a digonal
form, which in some species may remain more or less digonal or
become quadragonal.

The young of Hercoceras has the subquadragonal form in some
species like that of the adults of Trochoceras.

fercoceras (Adelphoc) secundum, sp. Barrande, is a_ giant
form of this genus, with the impressed zone retained in the gerontic
stage.

HERCOCERAS IRREGULARIS.
HERCOCERAS MIRUM, vay. IRREGULARIS, Barrande (Pl. xliii). Pl.
vill, Figs. 14-15.

This is a distinct species having different and less closely coiled
young than the typical Mercoceras mirum, and is transitional be-
tween Hercoceras and Ptenoceras. The nepionic stage given in
Figs. 14-15, Pl. viii, shows that the metanepionic whorl is a de-
pressed ellipse, the paranepionic volution is more rounded, the
ventro-dorsal slightly longer than the transverse diameter, and the
neanic whorl may be subquadragonal, or pass from this directly
to the digonal form of the ephebic stage.

The exterior of the nepionic and néanic volutions have very
coarse, transverse ridges without any longitudinal markings.

The czecum is large in the apex. It is not correctly given in
Fig. 15, and is ventrocentren. In another specimen at a some-
what younger age, it was very large compared with the diameter of
the ananepionic volution and centren. In this also it remained in
the mesal plane in later ages, although shifting to propioextraven-
tran position.

The umbilical perforation is small and comma-shaped, and
although it seems impracticable that the paranepionic whorl should
succeed in growing around the apex without enveloping it, this
really occurs, and no impressed zone is formed in the ananeanic
substage. The volutions come in contact later, and a faint con-
tact furrow appears in the metaneanic substage, which becomes
deeper in the ephebic stage as figured by Barrande.

494

There is obviously a great variation in the coiling of the shells of
this transitional species as is shown by Barrande’s figures. One shell
has no contact furrow at a very late substage of development. It
is possible, however, that there are several species included under
this name.

A slight impressed zone or flattened dorsum is retained in the
gerontic stage. Considering the slight coiling of the shells, this
fact is important.

Anomaloceras.

This genus was described in Genera of Fossil Cephalopods, p. 283,
and includes nautilian forms having close-coiled young with a small
umbilical perforation. ‘The whorls are depressed oval, kidney-
shaped or digonal with a deep impressed zone. The sutures are
almost straight, or with slight ventral and lateral lobes.

The siphuncle is subventran, and in the type is always laterad of
the mesal plane.

ANOMALOCERAS ANOMALUM.
NAUTILUS ANOMALUS, Barr. (Pl. xxxiv). Pl. vii, Figs. 16-20.
Loc., Bohemia.

This species possesses very closely coiled whorls, and is of great
interest in connection with the history of the impressed zone, as jis
demonstrated by the sections given on Pl. vii. These sec-
tions began with Fig, 16, which passed through the larger end of
the comma-shaped umbilical perforation. The paranepionic sec-
tion just below the centre is distorted slightly by the obliquity of
the direction of the cut, and has a septum crossing it just below the
siphuncle, and this organ is excentric and not so near the venter as
in the later stages. The section of a volution above the perforation
is also paranepionic, but older, and shows rapid expansion in lateral
diameters and a tendency to assume the nephritic outline, and has
in correlation with this a very slight dorsal furrow. The lateral
asymmetry of this whorl is probably in part due toa slight obliquity
of the section. The siphuncle is subventran as in all later stages.
The metaneanic substage appears in the second outline of a volu-
tion below the perforation, and this has a digonal nephritic form.

This becomes trapezoidal and more rounded in the sections of
the outer ephebic volutions above and below those described above,
and in the full-grown specimens of some shells may become a much

495

depressed oval, as shown in Barrande’s figures. Fig. 17 gives a
cut farther in towards the narrower part of the umbilical perforation
and shows the paranepionic substage younger than in Fig. 16, and
with more depressed and approximately digonal outline. Above
this the paranepionic whorl is older than in Fig. 16, and with a
more decided impressed zone and broader transverse diameter ap-
proximating to the nephritic shape.

In Fig. 18 the cut has passed beyond the perforation and shows
the paranepionic volution above when it first touches the dorsum of
the metanepionic or ananepionic substage below. ‘The latter is
distorted because the cut goes through the inner or dorsal side of the
curve of the metanepionic and ananepionic substages. The oval in
the centre is apparently due to a cut through the fundus of the first
‘ septum, which must be deeply concave. In Fig. 19 the cut has
approached nearer the ventral side of the apical chamber and is
apparently wholly within this and shows the increase in depth of
the impressed zone as the ananeanic substage begins and also the
decidedly nephritic outline which this at once assumes. ‘This also
shows that the digonal outline of the volution below the centre
belongs to the neanic stage. In Fig. 20 the cut has passed close to
the outer side of the ananepionic substage and as in the centre it does
not intersect any septum it is probably wholly within the apical
chamber. This chamber must be very deep, as it is in Hercoceras
and some other forms. The broader shaded outline of the ananep-
ionic substage is the shell which is cut obliquely by the section.
The sections of the ananeanic whorl above and the metaneanic
below intersect a number of septa and show the passage to the
farther side of the umbilical perforation from that with which the
series began in Fig. 16.

Temnocheilus.

This genus is very similar in its general aspect to Hercoceras and
Anomaloceras, but it has distinct young and this shows that it has
been directly evolved from a cyrtoceran form and not from either of
these nautilian genera.

The form known as Gyroceras proximum, sp. Barrande, Pl. ciii,
has the tuberculations on the lateral angles, a trapezoidal whorl,
the siphuncle subventran and sutures and impressed zone as in this
genus, but until it is better known it is not practicable to decide
whether it belongs to this genus or to Hercoceras.

496

I have also examined another young specimen of a different spe-
cies of this genus which has a much larger umbilical perforation,
but is otherwise quite similar in the characteristics of the nepionic
stage. The contact furrow begins in this specimen with a very
slight impression late in the neanic stage and the tubercles appear
earlier than in Zemnochetlus subtuberculatus.

TEMNOCHEILUS SUBTUBERCULATUS.

NAUTILUS SUBTUBERCULATUS, Sandb. (Vers¢. Vass., Pl. xii, Fig. 3).
Pie x. ehigs. 27° and 28.

The umbilical perforation is large and open (Fig. 27, Pl. x).
The nepionic stage has the first apical chamber very deep. The
first suture has the usual ventral saddle and lateral lobes, but on
the dorsal side there is a well-defined dorsal saddle. The apical
chamber and the inner parts from the second to the fifth are coated
with calc spar, while the centre is filled with iron pyrite.

The second suture has a dorsal lobe in place of a saddle and this
persists in later stages. In the paranepionic substage a digonal
whorl is developed and the lateral saddles appear dividing the late-
ral lobes from ventral lobes that replace the ventral saddles of the
metanepionic substage. Contact takes place in the metaneanic or
paraneanic substage after the digonal whorl has been replaced by a
trapezoidal outline.

The form of the whorl soon after contact is shown in Fig. 28 and
this has the adult outline with the exception that the contact furrow
and the tubercles have not yet made their appearance.

This description was taken from a specimen in coll. Museum of
Comparative Zodlogy, from the lower Devonian of Wissenbach.

Metacoceras.

This genus, which has been described in my Genera of Fossil
Cephalopods (p. 268), and subsequently redescribed in ‘* Carbonif-
erous Cephalopods,”’ Second Annual Report of Texas, 1890, and
fourth Annual Report of Texas, 1892, is of no special value in this
connection except as.an illustration of a number of genera of the
same genetic stock as Temnocheilus, which have more or lesss
similar characteristics in the young. ‘They all have large umbilical
perforations and a similar history in the development of the im-
pressed zone.

Proceedings Amer, Philos, Soc Vol. XXXII, No. 14a,

ee PG

bi y i
Ui 4N\ WH,
Hoan ie

= WD
a Ay: My;
all Lili 4 he hal

Als nae wes

Fig. 18. Fie. 19.

METACOCERAS CAVATIFORMIS.
(Hyatt.)

497

Figs. 16-19 give the adult and general aspect, and Fig. 32,
Pl. x, shows the beginning of the contact furrow. ‘This begins
only after contact with the apex and in strict correlation with the
rounded immature form of the metanepionic and the temnocheilan
or tetragonal trapezoidal form assumed by the paranepionic volu-
tion. The sutures have ventral and dorsal saddles throughout the
metanepionic, but in the paranepionic become straighter on the
venter or with a faint lobe, and a similar change takes place in the
dorsal sutures. The dorsal lobe is more easily perceptible after
contact and becomes deeper with the increase in depth and breadth
of the contact furrow and seems to be correlated in development
with that modification, although it appears before this furrow is
formed,

Tainoceras.

This genus has similar young to those of Metacoceras and proba-
bly has a similar history.

Centroceras.

This genus, described in Genera of Fossil Cephalopods, possesses
a typically quadragonal whorl in the adult stage of the less involute
forms, but has a digonal whorl in the nepionic stage, and this
becomes similar to that of Temnocheilus, that is trapezoidal in out-
line and furnished with tubercles in the neanic stage. The
contact furrow is faintly marked in some forms like Centroceras
(Cyrt.) tetragonum, sp. Vern.,* but it is a mere narrow band on the
dorsum.

It is obvious in this genus that the impressed zone exists only in
the later stages and after the whorls come into contact. Hall
describes a slight impressed zone in Centroceras (Discites) ammontis,
sp. Hally and shows the living chamber complete and nearly one-
half of a volution in length.

It is likely that Hall’s Gyroceras Stebos{ may prove to belong to
genus Centroceras (Gyroceras) Ohioense, sp. Meek,§ is a very large
shell of the Corniferous fauna of Ohio which has the form of whorl
and single outer row of tubercles of this genus.

* Trans. Geol. Soc. London, vi, Pl. xxx.
Treble YeuvasUppl, et.al Pl. exxve

Da len Cxexvils
2 Pal. of Ohio, i, p. 230, Pl. xxii.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC, Xxx1I. 148. 3K. PRINTED JULY 9, 1894.

498

Coclogasteroceras.

This genus was described in my ‘‘ Carboniferous Cephalopods,’’
second paper, Lourth Ann. Rep. Geol. Texas.

Coelogasteroceras canaliculatum of the Carboniferous has an
umbilical perforation of considerable size, but the history of the
impressed zone is similar to that of Anomaloceras. One section
was obtained shown in Fig. 33, Pl. x. This cut across the meta-
nepionic as it was changing in form on its passage into the para-
nepionic substage and shows the dorsum becoming flattened and an
outline transitional to the full nephritic outline of the paranepionic,
which is drawn below at a plane which passed through this substage
just before the apex was reached. In making this section, the apex
was seen and passed through by grinding.

The size and shape of the umbilical perforation in this species
- does not justify the assumption that the dorsal furrow could have
resulted from the abrupt bending of the volution at the gyroceran
bend. The curvature of the first whorl is gradual; the expansion of
the volution laterally and ventro-dorsally is not remarkable. The
diameter of the umbilical perforation was four millimetres in one
specimen and in the section figured it was somewhat less at the same
points. ‘The increase by growth was also approximately the same
in both of these fossils.

Unfortunately the absence of a dorsal furrow on the dorsum of
the metanepionic substage was not demonstrable with unquestion-
able certainty in either of these specimens, but it seemed to be
entire and gibbous in both as given in the figure.

The shell is apparently smooth in the nepionic stage, although
this may have been in part due to the condition of preservation.
It is obvious that there are no lateral furrows or ridges as in Colo-
ceras at any stage. Faint transverse folds were observed in the
neanic stage of one specimen, and the abdomen and lateral zones
become flattened at the same time. A hollow, central, ventral zone
appears in the anephebic substage and persists throughout the
ephebic stage.

The sutures are nearly straight in the nepionic, and then acquire
a slight ventral lobe in the neanic stage ; this deepens in correlation
with the ventral hollow zone in the ephebic stage, and the lateral
lobes and saddles on the umbilical shoulders also become more
marked in this stage.

499

The siphuncle is propioventran in the paranepionic and very large ;
in subsequent stages it is somewhat nearer the centre and continues
to be large.

Discoceratide.

This family includes some genera formerly associated under the
Tainoceratide and others not heretofore noticed in my classifica-
tion.

Although it is a provisional and heterogeneous group in some
respects, the genera are alike in being more or less heavily ribbed,
and in having open apertures so far as known. ‘This association
also brings together forms having a tendency to develop into more
or less turbinate coils.

The genera are as follows: Peismoceras, Systrophoceras, ‘Trocho-
ceras, Mitroceras, Lower Silurian; Plectoceras and Discoceras,
Quebec faunas to Upper Silurian.

Plectoceras.

This genus was described in Genera of Fossil Cephalopods, page
268, by the author to include the costated forms similar to Disco-
ceras, but having the siphuncle ventrad of the centre.

The type was Plectoceras (Vaut.) Jason, sp. Billings. The mode
of coiling may be quite close and regular, with perhaps a slight
impressed zone or flattened dorsum, or the coil may be open, and
sometimes it is very irregular. In several specimens of /ason the
first whorls may touch, the ephebic volution may be open and
free and yet the extremity of the living chamber again come in
contact. The umbilical perforation is large and the impressed zone
is absent until the whorls come into contact and it is invariably
absent in gerontic whorls.

The species are as follows :

PLECTOCERAS JASON, sp. Billings (Canadian Nat., iv, p. 164).

Type in Museum of Geological Survey at Ottawa. It occurs in
the Calciferous of the Mingan Islands and there are similar forms
in the same horizon in Newfoundland.

PLECTOCERAS OBSCURUM, DN. S.

This species occurs in the Black River fauna in New York and is
quite commonly mistaken for the young of Eurystomites undatus,

500

but it has an open gyroceran spiral, the siphuncle is nearer the
venter and the cost are more highly developed and more promi-
nent, and have a distinct character from those of that species.

PLECTOCERAS BICKMOREANUS, sp. Whitfield (Bu//. Am. Mus., New
York).

This species of the Niagara fauna has an open gyroceran whorl,
and in the gerontic stage the last whorl is free and in some speci-
mens completely straightened out and lituitean in aspect.

Peismoceras,* nN. g.

Under this name I propose to separate such costated forms as
those described by Barrande as Trochoceras, but which differ from
true Trochoceras and Discoceras in the development of the form,
outline of the apertures, position of the siphuncle and so on.

Peismoceras (Troch.) angulatum, optatum, placidum, disjunctum,
sp. Barrande and others agree in having plain rims to the apertures
without deep sinuses, except, of course, the ventral sinus.

The siphuncles are ventrad of the centre, the whorls oval in sec-
tion, the volutions are barely in contact or open, the apices are
very large and the umbilical perforations excessively open and
large, and there is no impressed zone at any stage. .

Discoceras.

The type of this genus was described and figured by Eichwald
under the name of Clymenia antiguissima, but was subsequently
considered as a distinct genus by Barrande.+

The genus has been subsequently recognized by Schréder and
Remele, but it has by both these authors been used for the smooth
forms, having a quadragonal section to the whorl and dorsal
siphuncle, as well as for the costated shells. :

The neanic stage of all the smooth shells of allied species having
the siphuncle dorsal and, therefore, formerly included under the
same name, has decided costations with the same aspect and con-
tour as in the adult of Drse. antiguissimum. Similar species
having costations throughout life cannot be included in the same
genus with those that have them only in the neanic and earlier

*[letopa, a cable.
7Syst. Sil. de la Boheme, ii, p. 177.

501

stages of growth. The large number and great variety of form of
these smooth species, while still maintaining this difference of the
later stages of growth, shows that this separation indicates a natural
distinction, and I have therefore placed all under the generic name
of Schroederoceras, to commemorate that author’s distinguished
services in this field of inquiry.

DISCOCERAS ANTIQUISSIMUM.
CLYMENIA ANTIQUISSIMA, Eichw. (Urwelt Russ/., ii, Pl. iii, Figs.

£6,°17)-

This is a peculiar species represented in the collection in the
Museum of Comparative Zodlogy by a specimen from Porsgrund,
in Norway. It is heavily costated, as in the figure given by Eich-
wald, and these costations are deeply impressed upon the cast
throughout the earlier stages and in the ephebic stage. They
degenerate only in the gerontic stage.

The abdomen is broader than the dorsum and the sides convex
and evenly rounded. ‘The costa are very prominent and sharply
defined, as in the original figure. The sutures, as far as these could
be seen, appeared to be similar. ‘The size was also similar and the
last whorl in close contact, as in Eichwald’s figure of this species.

The specimen described had reached the anagerontic stage, the
costee having disappeared, or, at any rate, ceased to be reflected on
the cast near the end of the last whorl, whereas in all previous
stages, except probably the earliest nepionic, they are almost
equally prominent on both the cast and the shell.

The siphuncle is subdorsan at all the stages observed from what
appeared to be the second to the third and fourth whorls. It is
quite large, especially on the second whorl.

The neanic whorl is digonal and heavily costated. The ephebic
and gerontic whorls are depressed ovals, the abdomens broader
than the dorsi. The section of the gerontic volution had ventro-
dorsal diameters 25 mm. and transverse 35 mm., without the shell.
The whole diameter of this specimen was about 110 mm.

DIscOCERAS GRAFTONENSE. .

LiruITES GRAFTONENSIS, M. et W. (Proc. Acad. Philadelphia,
1870).

LITUITES GRAFTONENSIS, M. et W. (Geo/. /2., iii, vi).

502

LITUITES MULTICOSTATUS, Whitfield ( Geol. Wisconsin, Pl. xx, Fig. 7).
TROCHOLITES MULTICOSTATUS, Whiteaves (Geol. Canada, Pal. Foss.,
Hi Peeler vd Pigs je 8 Pl. vin, Figs. 223s

This interesting species of the Niagara fauna is given here in
order to show the young neanic stage which was preserved in relief
attached to the centre of a mould of the older whorls, Figs. 22, 23,
Pl. viii. The close connection of Discoceras and Trocholites is
demonstrated by thisdrawing. In fact, if separated at this age, the
young would have to be placed in that genus. Fig. 21 shows the
cast of a perfect mould of another specimen of the same species
which has reached the ephebic stage.

Whether this had a dorsal furrow in the umbilical perforation
could not be determined. The perforation is certainly very small.
Whiteaves’ figure shows that the siphuncle is subdorsan in the
-ephebic stage as it is in the neanic stage described above.

Systrophoceras,* n. g.

This genus includes the remarkable series of costated trochoceran
and gyroceran forms described by Barrande in his Systeme Stlurien,
which have the whorls either very slightly in contact, or not touch-
ing at any stage, and are devoid of an impressed zone.

Systrophoceras ( Troch.) arietinum, rapax and pingue, sp. Barrande,
have a depressed subtrigonal or subkidney-shaped outline to the
whorl with the siphuncle dorsad of the centre, and in many charac-
ters are distinct from the others cited below under the name of
Peismoceras. ‘These species may have been close-coiled in their
younger stages.

Trochoceras.

Barrande described this genus in 1848, and in the same publi-
cation later gave a list of the species { in which the characteristic
form, Zyochoceras Davidsoni, was mentioned first, and this con-
sequently is his type. Hall described the same genus under the
same name, but without knowledge of Barrande’s work in the
Paleontology of New York,§ but his types are both quite distinct,
and do not belong to any genus yet described from Bohemia.

* Sbotpogos, rolled up.

+ Haidinger’s Berichte, iii, p. 266, 1847.
t Ibid., iv, 1848.

2 Vol. ii, 1852, p. 336.

503

Thus, although both Barrande and Hall have courteously ac-
knowledged each other, and have mutually joined names as au-
thority for this genus calling it Trochoceras, Barrande and Hall,
the Trochoceras of the former is not the same as that of the latter,
and the name of one or the other or both must be dropped.

I have therefore retained Trochoceras Barrande, and propose for
Hall’s remarkable forms, Zvochoceras Gebhardi and turbinatum,
the new name of Mitroceras* with Mitroceras (Zvoch.) Gebhardt,
sp. Hail, Pl. Ixxvii and Ixxviia as the type.

It must not be supposed that all forms of Nautiloids having the
turbinate spiral are devoid of impressed zones. There are some
species that do have this characteristic, but it is invariably slight,
and occupies necessarily a position on the sides rather than on the
dorsum of the whorls.

Lituitide.

Recent investigations have shown that this group, instead of in-
cluding about all of the unrolled, shell-covered Cephalopoda of the
Paleozoic, must be limited to certain well-defined homogeneous
series with peculiar characteristics.

My observations lead me to think that Lituites is a degenerate
form of Cyclolituites, a view similar to that of Holm and Schréder,
who regard this genus as the radical of the Lituitide corresponding
to the younger stages of true Lituites.

The genera included in this family form a degenerating series
which may have evolved from Cyclolituites, or some form that this
most closely represents, becoming specialized by reduction of the
spiral and simplification or loss of correlative characters during
growth of the whorl, lessening curvature of the annuli and lines of
growth and in the outlines of the apertures, until finally, in the ex-
treme forms of Rhynchorthoceras, the whole shell is straight or
orthoceran, except during the earliest stage, the nepionic, and in
that it is not a perfect coil.

This process takes place through the disappearance in the earlier
' stages of the progressive characters of Cyclolituites and the gradual
replacement .of these by characteristics that first appear in the
paragerontic stages of such species as Ang. precurrens. ‘That is to
say, Rhynchorthoceras has from a comparatively early stage the ven-

*From Vf (Tpa, agirdle, but also used for ‘‘ turban,” in which sense it is here quoted.

504

tral and dorsal crests and lateral sinuses in its lines of growth that
are first observable in the degenerative stages of the ontogeny o
allied and more complicated shells (Aug. precurrens), it includes
in other words some species at least that are purely phylopara-
gerontic.

No genus of this family, except Cyclolituites, has an impressed
zone, the transverse section being round or more usually a com-
pressed oval ellipse. The most obvious external characteristic,
which fails of being distinctive only in some species of Angeli-
noceras, and in them in the ephebic stage only, is the forward cur-
vature of the lines of growth and costz on the sides and the promi-
nent paired ventrolateral crests and corresponding lateral sinuses.

The shell varies from that of Cyclolituites with whorls teuching
until a late ephebic stage, only a part of the living chamber being
. free, through forms like Lituites with a portion of the camerated
whorl and the whole of the living chamber free and straight, to
Rhynchorthoceran forms which have uncoiled whorls.

The apertures vary, but possess in Lituites, Ancistroceras and
Cyclolituites, prominent ventro-lateral crests and deep ventral
sinuses.

The siphuncle is large and subcentral, central or just above the
centre and in the young approximates to the dorsum. It is, so far
as known, ellipochoanoidal and microchoanitic, z. ¢., composed of
short funnels that are directed towards the apex and having porous
walls between the funnels and the next septum.

All of these forms known to me occur in the Orthoceran and
Varginatus limestones of Northern Europe and Niagara limestones
and Quebec faunas in this country. ‘They seem to be absent from
more southern faunas of the same stages.

Foord doubts the appearance of true Lituites in the rocks of Great
Britain, and I think he could have positively denied their appearance
there since Zz¢. zbex., sp. Sowerby, certainly has none of the usual
characteristics of any of this family.

Trochoceras speciosum, Blake* has most extraordinary costz
turned forwards as in the Lituitida, but the siphuncle is ventral
and the description is inadequate, and at variance with the figure
so that one cannot arrive at any definite conclusion.

* Brit. Ceph., Pl. xiv, Figs. 12-16.

505

Cycloliturtes.

This generic name was given by Remelé, who has done more
than any other one author to clear up the relations of the different
forms of Lituitidee. The species mentioned by him was Cyclolituctes
applanatus, and to this Holm added a new form, Cyclolituites lyn-
ceus. His drawings show that Zetuctes Lynnensis, Kjerulf,* is a spe-
cies of this genus. The drawing made by Barrande of this last is
defective in representing the umbilical perforation as too large.
Kjerulf’s drawing gives this much smaller. It also gives the lines
of growth as bending apically on the first volution and first half of
the second volution. They then change to the peculiar forward
bend of the Lituidz, and without doubt the aperture changes at
this time also to the outline of the adult, so that this is the an-
ephebic substage. The hyponomic sinus is narrow and deep, and
the crests on the abdominal angles, at first blunt in the anephebic
stage, become more prominent in the ephebic stage. The sides
have lateral sinuses and probably the dorsum is occupied by a crest.
Only the last quarter of the outer volution is free. Schréder
doubts whether this is a distinct genus, thinking that it may prove
to be the young of true Lituites.

CYCLOLITUITES AMERICANUS.
Loc., Gargamelle Cove, Newfoundland.

This species has a quadragonal whorl with somewhat flattened
lateral zones. The abdomen is also depressed, but with a slightly
gibbous central zone and linear ventral channels on either side, the
abdominal angles appearing, in consequence, as lateral ventral
ridges. ‘The lines of growth show that the usual hyponomic sinus
was present in the aperture, with sharp, narrow crests on the
abdominal angles and broad lateral sinuses on the sides. The lines
of growth on the venter are crossed by a secondary system due to
the impression of the dorsal lines of an outer whorl, which has
been broken off in this specimen. ‘These show that the aperture
has a prominent median dorsal crest and that the coiling was close,
as in other species of this genus.

The sutures seen through the thin shell are nearly straight at
first, then in the ephebic stage become flexed with very slight
lateral lobes and ventral saddles. There are probably slight flex-

* Vivies i Christiania, p. 14, 1865.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143. 3L. PRINTED JULY 9, 1894.

5C6

ures or lobes to correspond with the ventral channels, but these
were very indistinct through the shell.

The siphuncle is of medium size and ventro-centren in the
middle of the volution actually seen, and at its termination in what
seemed to be the septal floor it was centren.

The original specimen is a nearly completed whorl, 36 or 37 mm.
in diameter, and if prolonged and restored to a point opposite the
dorsal marks described above it must have been, when complete,
about 74 or 75 mm. in diameter.

The dark blue color of the last septum of the fragment described
indicated that it might have been the floor of the living chamber,
and if so, that hving chamber must have been over three-quarters
of a volution in length. Every observer, however, knows that this
inference is open to great doubt because of the frequent invasion
of the matrix into septal chambers through accidental breaks in the
shells. Pseudo-septa were observed in this specimen. So far as
could be seen the involution simply covered the abdomen, and the
contact furrow, although not perceptible on the first part of the
whorl described, was evidently present later. ‘This is very inter-
esting, because this furrow is not persistent upon the uncoiled
whorls in any species or form of Lituites yet described and seems
to have no hold at all upon the organization.

Lituttes.

This generic name has been applied to the majority of forms that
have the last part of the last whorl or the living chamber free.
This general application of the name is so erroneous that it hardly
needs discussion. It is, as stated above in this paper, a common
tendency of the growth of the whorls in degenerative shells of the
Nautiloids throughout the Paleozoic and of the similar forms of
Ammonoids during each geologic period, and also a common ten-
dency of the extreme senile or paragerontic substage in the ontogeny
of all shells of both orders whenever they attain the extreme limits
of their existence. Later authors, especially Remelé, Ndtling,
Dewitz and Holm, have recognized this fact in some way, either
directly or by limiting the generic application of the name Lituites,
or by separating the genera Ancistroceras, etc., from Lituites.
Remelé was the first to demonstrate the divisibility of the Lituitide
into different genera, Boll’s previous effort in this direction being
unsystematic and subsequently repudiated by himself.

507

Notling* shows conclusively that there are two groups usually
included in Lituites that differ in their lines of growth and aper-
tures, etc. The true Lituites have, according to Notling, four
principal sinuses, deep ventral and dorsal and shallow lateral
sinuses. Schréder has criticised this statement, making out five
sinuses and five crests in the apertures and lines of growth. N6ét-
ling’s} statement is substantially the same so far as the larger sinuses
and crests are concerned, but Schréder pointed out that the dorsal
sinus was subdivided by a central crest into two smaller sinuses.
The correct way of describing the sinus of the inner side, judging
by the growth and development, is to regard it as the dorsal sinus,
and the dividing crest and minor sinuses being developed later as
minor or subsidiary dorsal crest and sinuses.

Holmt has confirmed this view and, with the fine materials at his
command, has figured the dorsal sinus spreading at the base and
divided by a slight reéntrant crest, which is also reflected in the
lines of growth on that side of the living chamber, while the ven-
tral sinus is deeper and narrower and undivided. ‘These facts
increase the differences of the aperture between Lituites and Ancis-
troceras, and at the same time the slight median crest in the aper-
ture and lines of growth on the dorsum of Lituites makes the
affinity with €ycloeeras and Ancistroceras clearer than it would’
otherwise be. The crest and sinuses are also very much more pro-
nounced in Lituites, and the enrolled portion of the whorl is con-
tinued longer and is more 'closely coiled, the whorls being in con-
tact for between three and four volutions. Holm’s figures of Zz¢.
Zitwus show that on the early part of the straight whorl the lines of
growth are entirely different from the later parts of the same whorl.
The outlines have a slight, shallow dorsal sinus, the median dorsal
crest not having yet been developed. The same peculiarity is
observable in Nétling’s figure on a part of the shell preserved and
show the lines of growth at about the same stage of growth, and
also upon Lossen’s figure of the same species. ‘There are also
decisive costations on the coiled whorls, which are similar in both
of these figures. These in the younger substages are bent apically
towards the venter and forwards towards the dorsum, and have not
the more complex curves of the older stage.

*“ Beitr. z. Kennt. d. Ceph. a. Silurg. d. Prov. Ost-Preussen,”’ Jahrb. d. k. Preuss. Geol.
Landesanst. u. Bergak., 1883, p. 126 et seq., and Zeitsch. Deutsch. Geol. Gesell., 1882.

+‘ Untersuch. u. Sil. Ceph.,’’ Pal. Abt., Dames et Keyser, v, heft iv, p. 44.

{Aftryck. Geol. Foren. Stockholm Forhandl., xiii, 1891.

508

It is plain that the coiled young represents the nepionic and
neanic stages and that the aperture must have differed essentially
in these stages and perhaps may have been open or else more like
that of Cyclolituites.

N6tling also demonstrates in his paper in the Zec¢schrif¢ that the
earlier stages had compressed whorls, the abdomen broader than
the dorsum, and also that the siphuncle was nearer the dorsum in the
youngest stage observed, and gradually departed from this towards
the centre, becoming dorsocentren in the ephebic or outstretched
whorl. In old age it again changes its position and tends towards
the dorsal side. Nd6tling has also shown that the siphuncle was
ellipochoanoidal, consisting of short funnels and the usual porous
sheaths, or that which corresponds to this part in the siphuncles of
other forms. The structure of the siphuncle in the younger stages
was, however, not described or figured. A list of the species ac-
cording to Notling is as follows: Z. “tuuws, De Montfort; Z. per-
Jectus, Wahlenberg; to this Holm added, ZL. Zornguisti, Holm,
and gave very instructive figures of the two species already known.
L. discors, Holm, has a broad dorsal crest in the lines of growth
and aperture and is here referred to Ancistroceras, and LZ. appla-
natus Remele.

Angelinoceras, n. g.

There are several species usually referred to Lituites which can
neither be included in this genus nor in Ancistroceras or Holmiceras.
These have open coils in the young, and the usual lituitean out-
stretched free whorl in the ephebic and gerontic stages. The only
species known to me are those described by Angelin and Lindstrom
in their Hragmenta Stlurica. ‘The lines of growth, and the annuli,
during the neanic stage, have curves similar to those of Cyclolituites
in A. datus, viz., with deep ventral sinuses, crests at the abdomi-
nal angles, deep lateral sinuses near the dorsum and dorsal crests.
These curves change in the ephebic whorl, becoming less sinuous,
but, beyond the fact that they differ very much from those of
Ancistroceras or Lituites, they cannot be defined with accuracy from
the figures given.

The increase by growth is more rapid than in Lituites and less
rapid than in Ancistroceras, in 4. /a¢us and in A. anguinus it 1s
very slow throughout life. The ephebic whorl is extended with the
usual lituitean curve and closely resembles in aspect, but not in the

509

lines of growth, Holmiceras precurrens, sp. Holm. In 4. an-
guinum, however, it remains attenuated. The coiled portion of
the shell has about three whorls coiled, and their attenuated propor-
tions and compressed form approximates more closely to those of
Lituites than to those of Ancistroceras. The close coiling in Ang.
sp. ndet. (as figured by Angelin) of the nepionic stage shows also
more affinity for Lituites than for Ancistroceras. The figures of
Lit. lituus given by the same authors show also essential differences
from those of the true Zt. Ztwws, as figured by Lossen and Notling.
The coiled whorls are not in contact, not so compressed, free from
the large fold-like costations of that species and have the character-
istic lines of growth bending forward and with prominent ventro-
lateral crests near the apex of the whorl if correctly figured. Taken
altogether, the characteristics of the species of this genus show a
series of forms standing apparently between Lituites and Ancistro-
ceras.
Ancistroceras.

The name of Strombolituites was substituted by Remelé.* Boll
had originally used the name Ancistroceras in connection with 4.
undulatum, the species which must be considered the type of the
genus, but had subsequently abondoned its use, and this and his
insufficient diagnosis was supposed by Remelé to justify the sup-
pression of his name. Boll’s type, however, being a good species
and a distinct genus, his name must stand in spite of his own desire
to suppress it and his defective description. Ndétling has also dem-
onstrated that wsdu/atum has a closed spiral for one and one-half
whorls (said by him to be about two whorls). This is compressed
elliptical in the nepionic, and becomes more or less quadragonal
near the end of the spiral, assuming very quickly the circular form
after this.

Remelé’s paper deals also with Lituites and he really divides the
group of Lituitide into three genera, since he endeavors to limit
the name of Ancistroceras to the forms which he subsequently
described as Rhynchorthoceras.

The genus Ancistroceras differs from Lituites, according to
Notling, in having only three sinuses, a ventral and two lateral
sinuses in the lines of growth and aperture, the dorsum being oc-
cupied by a broad low crest. Schréder, in the paper quoted above,

* Zeitsch. geol. Gesells., 1881, Pl. elxxxvii, ‘‘Strombolituites,”’ etc.
} Arch. d. Verds. Freunde d. Naturg. Mecklenburg, Xi.

510

asserts that lines of growth in Lituites and Ancistroceras are similar
and certainly this appears to be in part true. ‘There are distinct
inflections indicating the probable presence of five crests and five
sinuses as this author states. These are perfectly well shown in Amc.
Torelli, as figured by Remelé, and in his Ane. (Stromb.) Bolt.
But in all of these there are other characters not found in Lituites
or in other genera of this family which separate these fossils as a
distinct group in my opinion of generic value.

While the lines of growth are similar, they show that differences
must have existed in the form of the crests and sinuses on the dorsal
side of the aperture corresponding to the slight development of the
median minor crest and paired minor sinuses on the dorsal side.
In fact when one describes the curves of the dorsal lines of growth
as indicating a dorsal crest in place of a lobe, he is coming nearer
to the actual aspect than when he correctly classifies the outlines as
a broad sinus subdivided by a minor crest and secondary sinuses.
In other words, the great dorsal sinus of Lituites has reached the
disappearance point in this genus during the ephebic stage but has
not entirely vanished except perhaps in some species. It, also, as.
is well.known, is a much larger, broader form, spreading out rapidly
in the outstretched or free part of the whorl. It is also plain that
the enrolled part or young shell of Ancistroceras has fewer and less.
closely coiled whorls than in Lituites. Thus 4. Zored/, as figured
by Remelé, has only one to one-half volutions enrolled and these
do not touch although closely approximate. In fact the young of
Ancistroceras are only coiled during the nepionic stage, and perhaps
ananeanic substage, and the figures show much larger, stouter whorls.
even at the apex than in Lituites. The figures of Remelé of
A. Torelli and of Notling of 4. wndulatum are very careful studies,
and exhibit the changes in development of the lines and annuli.
These have in the neanic stage subacute, narrow crests, lateral
sinuses rising to prominent ventro-lateral: crests and between these
on the venter is a deep, broad median sinus, thus resembling those
of Cyclolituites. The paraneanic substage is present on the early
part of the outstretched whorl in Zore//i and undulatum.

The siphuncle is also much larger in this genus than in Lituites.
The study of the pseudo-septa by Holm led him to observe the
siphuncle in 4. wudulatum and Torelli and his description is as
follows :* ‘* Der siphonen scheint mir wenigstens auf der einen oder

* Paleontol. Abh., Dames u. Kayser, iii, hft. i, “ Organiz. Silur. Ceph.,’’ 1885, Pl. xxi.

8

511

der anderen Seite, keine eigene, festere, verkalkte Hulle gehabt zu
haben,’’ If the siphuncle were holochoanoidal, it would have as.
thick and might have thicker walls than the septa themselves.

A list of the species is as follows, as given by Notling: A. wndu-
latum, Boll.; Zorelli, Rem.; Barrandei, DeWitz.; Bolli, Rem. To
these No6tling has also added Cry. Odini, Eichwald (Lethea Ros-
sica, Pl. xxvi, Fig. 14a—-6), and he thinks this may be identical
with wxdulatum.

Ancistroceras (?) Dyert, n. s., is a large fragment quite different
from any European species, having the sutures with slight broad
ventral lobes, slight saddles at the abdominal angles, lateral lobes,
saddles at the umbilical shoulders, and apparently narrow dorsal
lobes.

_ The fragment is that of a rapidly enlarging arcuate whorl, sub-
quadragonal in section, the lateral zones slightly convergent out-
wards, the dorsum broader than the venter.

The siphuncle is ventrocentren.

The lines of growth seen on the living chamber had the charac-
teristic ventral sinus, slight crests on the abdominal angles, slight
lateral sinuses, broad low crests on the umbilical shoulders and in-
ternally faint minor dorsal sinuses apparently rising to an equally
faint median dorsal saddle.

It has characteristics which appear to be intermediate between
Ancistroceras and Rhyncorthoceras. This fossil is from the Niag-
ara Group near Chicago, Ill., Dyer collection, Mus. of Comp.
Zodlogy, and is worth describing in this connection, although until
it can be studied in the young and figured it is hardly safe to refer
it to this genus. It has been named Cyrtoceras amplicorne, Hall,
and closely resembles that species, but the section is more decidedly
quadragonal, the sides and venter flatter and the transverse diame-
ter broader.

Rhyncorthoceras.

The designation Rhyncoceras has also been used by Remelé and
others, but Rhyncorthoceras was used first, and should be exclusively
employed. Rhyncoceras is not an equivalent, and there cannot be
two names for one genus. .

Remelé’s description of this genus is perfectly clear and satis-
factory. It is in my opinion another grade in morphic degenera-
tion of the Lituitidz, and is directly in line with and supplementary

512

to the modifications of Lituitesand Ancistroceras. It is completely
uncoiled in the young, and the tip or apex has not even the open
coiling of Ancistroceras, but is really an open or cyrtoceran curve.

The annuli of the shell are also simpler in curvature and accord-
ing to Remelé they have low broad dorsal and ventral crests and
corresponding low broad lateral lobes. These phylogerontic curves
appear to be acquired in the early ephebic stages, and therefore ap-
pear earlier in the ontogeny than in Ancistroceras.

The siphuncle is large and may be either dorso-centren, or about
centren, and in &. Beyrichea is said by Remelé to be nearer to the
venter than to the dorsum or ventrocentren.

The list of species given by Remelé* is as follows: &. Beyrichia,
Zaddachi, Oelandicum, damest, tenuistriatum.

Rhynchorthoceras (?) dubitum. In the Dyer collection, Museum
Comparative Zodlogy, there is a fragment that shows this genus
probably occurs in the Niagara group of Indiana, but the younger
stages are wanting and it cannot be surely placed here until these
are known. ‘The first part of the free volution has the usual bands
of growth with hyponomic sinus, these lines inclining orad and
without inflections or with hardly perceptible lateral sinuses to the
dorsum where they unite in low, broad saddles.

There are also three inconspicuous low, broad costz on this part
of the shell. ‘The form is a slightly compressed ellipse, the siphun-
cle large, ventrocentren, the sutures have ventral and dorsal sad-
dles and lateral lobes. The growth bands lose their inclination in
the older part of this volution, becoming straighter on the sides
and the hypomic sinus almost disappears. This last characteristic
seems to place these fossils in this genus.

LHolmiceras, n. g.

Lituites precurrens sp., Holm, has open, discoidal whorls, like
those of Angelinoceras latum, and closely resembles this species in
form and proportions, both of the enrolled and outstretched whorls,
but the lines of growth and annulations are very distinct. It has
the four major sinuses in the lines of growth, as in Lituites, but the
median dorsal crest is absent. The aspect shows the presence of
another genus in this family and the sutures are also different from
those of Lituites, having distinct ventral and dorsal lobes in the
ephebic stage, with low, broad, almost straight, lateral saddles.

* Zeitsch. Deulsch. Geol. Gesell., Xxxiy, 1882.

518

The figure by Holm, p. 763, shows conclusively that the sutures
in the nepionic stage are straight, Trocholites like, and quite dis-
tinct from those of the later stages. The narrow annuli cross the
whorl during the ephebic stage or first part of the free whorl, with
the true Ancistroceran curves, namely, with shallow ventral sinus
between two low, narrow ventro-lateral crests, broad, shallow lat-
eral sinuses and a very slight but perceptible dorsal sinus not
divided by a crest, as in Lituites.

These change in the gerontic stage, the ventral and dorsal sin-
uses being replaced by low, broad crests, the lateral sinuses alone
remaining. This stage repeats exactly the degenerate characters of
the curves in the lines of growth of the ephebic stage of Rhyncortho-
ceras and show, together with other facts, that we are dealing with
a degenerating series. The siphuncle is dorsad of the centre in
the ephebic stage, but it is nearer the centre than in Lituites.

This genus does not seem to stand in the line of modifications
leading from Lituites to Ancistroceras, nor in that leading from
Lituites to Rhyncorthoceras.

Ophidioceratide.

The apertures and costated whorls of Ophidioceras have been
supposed by several authors to show that it belonged in the family of
the Lituitide. The apertures are, however, distinct, having only
three large sinuses and a corresponding number of crests and the
costations and lines of growth have not the peculiar forward bend-
ing lateral curves of the Lituitide. The ornamentation of the
younger stages and the form of the nepionic stage is so widely dif-
ferent that no close comparisons can be made with the young of
Cyclolituites, the closest coiled form of the Lituitidee.

This genus was formerly supposed by the author to belong in the
same group with Ascoceras and Glossoceras, which had similar aper-
tures, but recent investigations have shown that these genera are
widely separated in structure.

Ophidioceras.

This genus, fully described by Barrande, becomes very interest-
ing in the history of the impressed zone on account of its highly
ornamented and costated whorls and the peculiar, excentric charac-
ter of the free whorl and the aperture with deep, narrow hypono-

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143.3 M, PRINTED JULY 10, 1894

514

mic sinus, lateral crests and dorsal crests bending inwards and con-
tracting the opening. It is also of interest in this connection as
showing how narrow and comma-shaped the umbilical perforation
may be without affecting the form of the dorsum, and especially
with regard to the history of the degeneration of the impressed
zone on the dorsum of the free whorl and living chamber.

Ophidioceras.

OPHIDIOCERAS RUDENS.
OPHIDIOCERAS BARRANDE (Sys¢. Sz/., Pl. xlv); Pl. vili, Figs. 29-35.
Loc. Bohemia.

This species has a flattened comma-shaped umbilical perforation
and, although the increase in size is rapid, it is not excessive in
the lateral diameters as compared with the ventro-dorsal from the
ananepionic substage to the paranepionic. ‘The result is a volution
which curves evenly about the core of the perforation and preserves
the rounded dorsum and the general aspect of the section without
great modification throughout the nepionic stage. The cicatrix is
well-marked, as shown in Fig. 30, and the ananepionic substage
has an elongated ventro-dorsal and short transverse diameter.

In the metanepionic substage the whorl becomes broader on the
venter than on the dorsum, and in the paranepionic the dorsum
spreads, becoming broader, but does not quite equal the venter in
breadth. In the ananeanic substage the longitudinal ridges become
more prominent and more easily observable and the costations also
appear.

The contact furrow begins as soon as contact is complete and is
at once deep and definitely defined, as a hollow fitting over the
ananepionic tip, and it completely covers in this substage. The
contact takes place on the dorsal side of the ananepionic substage
and the furrow is deeper at this point in proportion to the whorls
than it is at any subsequent age.

There were two specimens showing the nepionic stages of this
species under observation, the one drawn and this one. Both
exhibit the peculiar globular form of the apex, and the well-defined
ana- and metanepionic substages, which can be quite closely com-
pared with those of autilus pompilius, and they have similar con-
strictions to the first two constrictions depicted in Henry Brook’s
drawings on Pl. i of this paper.

515

The dorsum of the whorl becomes at the same time broader and
the whorl alters in shape to an approximately kidney-shaped outline
with the ventro-dorsal, shorter than the transverse diameter. After
this age the increase of growth proceeds more slowly. Inthe meta-
neanic substage, the costz and longitudinal ridges become well
developed, but the venter remains rounded and the lines of growth
show a deep, broad hyponomic sinus and lateral crests, and the
aperture at this stage must have been very distinct from that of the
next substage.

In the paraneanic substage the central ventral zone appears at first
as a broad band, in low relief, arising obviously from the elevated
edges of the narrow hyponomic sinus, which begins to appear at
this age. In the anephebic stage, at the beginning of the third
volution, this acquires its specific prominence and characters. The
metephebic stage is introduced by the subsequent moulding of the
dorsum over this broad carination which modifies the outline of the
contact furrow in section, and gives it the peculiar central dorsal
face and narrow lateral dorsal faces as peculiar to this genus as are
the ventral modifications which give rise to them.*

The sutures do not seem to be much modified after the nepionic
stage is passed by. ‘The czcum, if a spot observed on the broken
apex of one specimen is correctly translated, is subventran or nearly
so in the first or metanepionic septum and the siphuncle is about
the same position relatively or propioventran in the paranepionic
substage as observed in two specimens and given in one of these,
Fig. 30, Pl. viii, and then changes slowly to centroventran in the
anephebic substage. The living chamber is very long, being, if the
excentric free part were applied to the coil, almost one volution in
length. It is, as has been described by Barrande, present in small
(young?) shells, but I doubt its existence, as well as that of the pecu-
liar ophidioceran aperture, before the substage in which the ventral
zone appears.

The free whorl in this genus is specially interesting, because even
in large shells the impressed zone is preserved on the dorsum in a
very significant way. It is well known that most of the shells, if
not all of this genus, have the lituitean bend, that is to say, the free
living chamber, after it becomes free and excentric, bends suddenly
ventrally, as in Fig. 27, Pl. viii, making the last part of the living

* This is usually called a keel or carina, but it is a modification of a different kind and
sometimes has keels upon its borders.

516

chamber straight on the dorsum and producing a slight curvature
in reverse of the spiral on the venter. In Ophidioceras this is
accompanied by the outgrowth of a transverse dorsal spur which
divides this region into two distinct parts, as shown in the same
figure. ‘The inner part of the living chamber, Figs. 32, 35, has the
central dorsal face and lateral dorsal faces derived from the closely
coiled whorls. ‘These parts and the whole zone disappear as they
approach the dorsal spur, Figs. 32, 34. On the outer side of this spur
the impressed zone reappears, but it is the primitive form of this
which reappears and is perpetuated, the dorsal faces of the ephebic
impressed zone are not reconstructed, Figs. 32, 33. The spur is not
a prolonged costation ; it occurs indifferently between two costations
or as the continuation of a costation, and is obviously independent
in its origin and construction.

These facts show that there is some constantly recurring peculi-
arity in the growth of these shells which causes the outgrowth of the
dorsal spur, and this outgrowth temporarily interrupts the construc-
tion of the impressed zone. Notwithstanding this interruption, the
latter has even in the largest shells made such an impression on the
organism or become so fixed in the organization that, as soon as
the outgrowth stops, the impressed zone reappears. The spur
either directly obliterates the ephebic characters of this zone, the
dorsal faces, or else fills the space which transitional characters
would have occupied, so that when the zone comes in beyond the
spur it 1s evenly rounded as in the neanic stage. It is, however,
shallower and nearer the aperture it, in part or almost entirely, dis-
appears. The spur always occurs as a divide between the excentric
spiral and the reversed curve which begins beyond it, and has
some obvious connection with this change in the mode of building
the shell, as is shown in Fig. 29, Pl. viii.

The sutures occupying the nepionic whorl are six in number and
very wide apart from the first to the fourth.* The fifth and sixth
show approximation and the seventh is about the normal distance.
The growth of the shell in the nepionic substages and in the ana-
neanic substage, to which the fourth, fifth and sixth sutures belong,
must have been very much more rapid than subsequently. They

*The great size and depth of the apical air chamber is very remarkable. It is
not satisfactorily settled in my mind that there is not at least one septum nearer the apex
than that which is here counted as the first, but even in well-preserved specimens this
has not been observed.

517

have ventral and dorsal saddles until the contact furrow is formed,
and then probably a ventral lobe is always generated.

Barrande’s figure of this species, Pl. xlv, Fig. 21, gives similar
observations upon a different specimen. When the median ventral
zone appears, the broad ventral saddle becomes narrowed to the
width of this zone and the lateral lobes are proportionately broad-
ened out.

OPHIDIOCERAS TENER.

OPHIDIOCERAS TENER, Barrande (Sys¢. Sz/., Pl. xlv); Pl. viii, Figs.
24 and 25.
Loc., Bohemia.

The specimen of this species, Figs. 24 and 25, gives the peculiar
and very large ananepionic substage of this species, and in the side
view the two marked constrictions indicating the same changes of
form as are described in Ofpfidioceras rudens, but subsequently
there is a marked bulging of the sides, in what has been termed in
other forms the metanepionic substage, beyond the second constric-
tion. If the first septum occurs where it is figured, the metane-
pionic substage must be placed in the Ophidioceran forms later
than in other forms like autilus pompilius, which have the first sep-
tum nearer to the apex, and the ananepionic substage must be con-
sidered as greatly prolonged. Although the specimen had a perfect
surface on the side depicted of the nepionic stage, it is possible
that there may have been other septa* between this and the apex,
but of so fragile a nature that they were not preserved. The
surface of this cast is iron pyrite. There are also six septa occupy-
ing the nepionic stage of this specimen.

There was a minute circular mark on the apex, indicating the
position of the czecum to be propioventran, but this was not abso-
lutely certain. In the second septum the siphuncle was extracen-
troventran and in the neanic stage it attained a centroventran
position. ‘The subsequent stages observed were similar to those of
Ophidioceras rudens except that the peculiar flattened ventral zone
of this species was introduced later than in that species, as described
and figured by Barrande.

The primitive rounded outline of the impressed zone was main-
tained longer in this species than in Ophidioceras rudens.

* See Ophid. tessellatum.

518

OPHIDIOCERAS TESSALLATUM.
OPHIDIOCERAS TESSALLATUM, Barrande (Sys¢, S7Z., Pl. xlv) ; Pl. viii,
Figs. 26-28.
Loc., Bohemia.

The specimen, Fig. 28, Pl. viii, showed the metanepionic sub-
stage with the usual two septaand long apical chamber, but internal
to the first septum there was on the venter internal dark lines, indi-
cating a subventran siphuncle. This was cut off by anothér dark
line which may possibly have been the fragmentary remains of a
septum. Nevertheless there was no positive proof of this and the
question must still be left open. The usual circular mark occurs,
indicating the ccecal termination on the worn apex in a subventran
position. In the second septum the siphuncle is extracentroven-
tran.

The formation of the ventral zone began earlier in this species
than in Ophidioceras rudens. The flattening of the abdomen began
even in the paranepionic substage and in the ananeanic substage
the formation of the zone was well advanced. ‘The development of
the costa seemed also to be accelerated in some specimens.

Fig. 27, Pl. viii, shows the contact furrow as it first appears when
crossing the apex. Fig. 27 shows that the umbilical perforation is
larger in this species than the others described here, since the first
whorl does not meet the ananepionic substage on the dorsal side
but strikes it on the surface of the apex, ventrad of the centre.
The contact furrow is consequently not at first so deep as in other
species, unless this characteristic is variable.

Rutoceratide.

This family consists of a number of genera which are interesting
in connection with the history of the impressed zone only in so far
as they show that this peculiarity is correlated with close coiling, or,
in other words, is due to contact.

Thus, Zitteloceras, Halloceras, Rutoceras, Kophiniocees and Stro-
phiceras as a rule do not have the whorls in contact and do not
have an impressed zone. The shell in most of these is a rough
imbricated structure with ridges or nodes arising from the greater
or less permanency of the frilled projections of the apertures.
These genera, found in the Silurian and Devonian, were described
in my Genera of Fossil Cephalopods, p. 284, and associated

519

with others of the Silurian Adelphoceras and Triplooceras, which
also had rows of large nodes but were true nautilian shells and had
contact furrows.

The genus, Coelogasteroceras (Solenoceras), described in my
‘Carboniferous Cephalopods,’’ second paper, p. 447, was there
removed from the Rutoceratidz and placed with Coloceras under
the name of Coloceratidz, an error corrected in this paper.

I also included in this family the Triassic genus Phloioceras,
having nautilian shells and a deep impressed zone, with Phlococeras
(Naut.) gemmatum, sp. Mojsisovics, as the type and also with
Pleuronautilus, of Mojsisovics.

I am strongly inclined to the opinion that the resemblances of
these Triassic shells to Rutoceras are superficial, but having no
specimens at my command I cannot make comparisons.

Adelphoceras.

This genus was described by Barrande in his Systéme Silurien,
and Adelphoceras Bohemicum the type, is a large shell with a
highly contracted dumbbell-shaped aperture set in the dorso-ventral
diameter or vertically. The outline in section is depressed kidney
shaped, with a shallow impressed zone, which is probably not
present before the whorls come in contact, or at any rate is very
slight at a late stage of growth, according to Barrande’s figures.

This species has a large subventran siphuncle and there are three
rows of tubercles on either side, and it is obviously closely related
to Triplooceras, but is remote from Hercoceras, as is demonstrated
by the aperture form ornaments and lines of growth.*

Triplooceras.

This genus, described in Genera of Fossil. Cephalopods, is
obviously closely related to Adelphoceras, having three rows of
tubercles‘on either side, but the form is more highly developed,
being a depressed oval and the coiling closer with a deeper contact
zone and the ornaments disappear much earlier on the shell. It is
obviously a grade more progressive than Adelphoceras, but in the
same genetic group.

Besides Zyriplooceras (Naut.) inspiratum, sp. Barrande, Pl.
*¢461,’’ there is Zriplooceras (Troch.) reliquum, sp. Barrande, PI.

* Barrande’s Adelphoceras secundum is here referred to Hercoceras.
p

520

‘*493,’’ which has also the characteristic form and markings of
this genus. ‘This last has no contact furrow, according to Barrande’s
Fig. 7, even in a late neanic substage, although there isa distinct
contact furrow in the ephebic stage according to his figure of the
full-grown shell.

Melonoceratide.

Under this title, in Genera of Fossil Cephalopods, 1 included
a number of genera having special interest in this connection. The
impressed zone is not present in Melonoceras, which is an arcuate
form, and in most species of Oonoceras.

Cranoceras, containing the only apparently arcuate form possess-
ing a dorsal furrow, belongs to this family and appears to be allied
to the more closely coiled nautilian forms Nedyceras. All of these
’ forms have subtrigonal whorls, with siphuncle ventrad of the centre.
The resemblance of Estonioceras and Remeléceras have led me to
place them also under the same family name.

Et stonioceras.

This genus was described by Notling,* and separated from
Lituites, which it only remotely resembles in having some of the
volutions free.

Schréder has more fully described the genus} than any other
author, and given all the European species with great care, but has,
in my opinion, included in it some forms with quadragonal whorls
and siphuncles in different positions which should be separated as
Remelé has done under the name of Facilituites.

Estonioceras has a nepionic stage with a large umbilical perfora-
tion like that of other species of the same phylum. The apex
itself, the ananepionic substage, is remarkably large and grows with
extreme rapidity in its transverse diameters, showing the tendency
to form a broad, digonal whorl, and is cap-shaped when seen from
the side as in Trocholites and Ophidioceras and very large in all its
diameters. The sutures of the meta- and paranepionic substages
throughout the greater part of the first whorl, as seen in the speci-
men Fig. 13, Pl. vii, and in Schréder’s figure of apex of Lstonioceras
emperfecium, Pl. iv, Fig. 5, a-b, reproduced here on PI. vii, Figs. 20

* Op. cil., Jahrb. d. konig.-preus. geol. Landesan. u. Bergak., 1882.
+ “Ueber Sil. Ceph.,’’ Pal. Abh., Dames et Kayser, y, hft. 4.

521

and 21, have saddles on the venter with perhaps very slight ventral
lobes on either side of this, saddles at the lateral angles and faint
dorsal saddles. Schréder also describes the same substages in
Estonioceras perforatum and the sutures of the first whorl, but his
descriptive nomenclature is not clear and the text is consequently
not perfectly intelligible. Apparently the first whorl has broad
ventral saddles and nearly straight dorsal sutures with sometimes
very slight dorsal saddles. He states very distinctly, however, when
the whorls touch, at or near the end of the first whorl, that a decided
change takes place, the dorsal sutures acquiring well-marked dorsal
lobes. He also clearly states that in the uncoiled volutions this
dorsal lobe, although it persists, loses in height and breadth.

In his descriptions of Lztuctes Mucllaurét, of Dewitz, he makes
these statements clearer by saying that the dorsal and ventral sad-
dles possessed by the adult of this species are similar to the sutures
of the young species of Estoniceras perforatum and imperfectum,
which have sutures with ventral and dorsal saddles as figured by
him only on the venter of Zstoniceras imperfectum. There is also
a shallow lobe developed in the middle of the dorsai saddle in
Estoniceras perforatum, which persists even in the gerontic stage.
After the lateral angles disappear in the ephebic stage, the saddles
and lobes are less prominent and become almost straight in the
more rounded volutions of the gerontic stage, but the approximate
return of the same outlines as are found in the paranepionic substage
is plainly visible, Figs. 17 and 18, Pl. vil.

The lines of growth show a broad hyponomic sinus and lateral
crests which increase in prominence towards the dorsum, but
directly in the centre of that side there is a crest and on either side
of this shallow dorsal sinuses. ‘There is, however, a dorsal sinus
which persists in the gerontic stage in the lines of growth of a
specimen figured by Schréder of Zstontoceras heros.*

The aperture is wide in the ephebic stage, but evidently contracts
with the whorl in extreme age, as shown in Schréder’s figure of
Estonioceras imperfectum, Pi. iii, Fig. 2, b, and in the figures of
Estonioceras biangulatum in this paper, Pl. vii, and sometimes the
ventro-dorsal diameter may become longer than the transverse in
the paragerontic substage. This is, in part, a return to the early
proportions, since Schréder describes the apex of his “’s/onzoceras

* Op. cit. Pl. v.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXxII. 148 3N. PRINTED JULY 10, 1894.

522

pervforatum as having an apical chamber in which the breadth but
little exceeds the ventro-dorsal diameter and doubtless at the apex
itself in the ananepionic substage, as in most Nautiloids, the ventro-
dorsal diameter exceeds the transverse.

The coiling is so loose that the umbilical perforation is of very
large diameter, and the impressed zone, generated only after con-
tact, is very slight even on the second whorl and does not persist
after the whorls separate. The dorsum is, however, affected toa
limited extent on the free whorl in some species as shown in
Schréder’s admirable figures. These figures give one great satisfac-
tion, their accuracy, size and detail being full of information.

The whorls touch during the neanic stage only in some species,

LEistonioceras ariense, but in others they may continue in contact
probably throughout the ephebic or a large part of that stage,
Eston. perforatum and imperfectum.
_ The lateral angles become rounded in the ephebic stage, but there
is no tendency to form lateral zones or to flatten the abdomen as in
Falcilituites. The whorls simply become rounded, depressed ovals
artd in the paragerontic stage the length of the transverse diame-
ters decrease.

The siphuncle is fully described by Schréder in Lstonioceras tm-
pervfectum, and it is plainly ellipochoanoidal in the ephebic stage.
What it may be in the young has not been determined. ‘The fun-
nels are very short and the connecting walls thin and long. The
position is subventran in the young, tending more towards the
centre and becoming extracentroventran in some species with the
advance of age. In the paranepionic substage it may again return
to a position nearer the venter.

The species described by Schréder are as follows:

Lstonioceras perforatum, Schroder; Estonioceras (Lit.) lamellosum,
sp. His. Drscoceras lamellosum as figured by Angelin et Lindstrom
seems quite distinct with closer coiled whorls and deeper impressed
zone, too deep in fact for a species of this genus, whereas Hisin-
ger’s figure in the Ze¢hea suecica is a true Estonioceras. Never-
theless Schroder asserts that both figures were made from the same
“individual.” stonioceras (Lit.) heros, sp. Remelé; avéense, sp.
Schmidt ; (Lz¢.) cmperfectum, sp. Quenstedt.

Listonioceras muclauert and Schréder’s Lstonioceras dechent have
been referred to the genus Falcilituites of Remelé in this paper.

523

FSTONIOCERAS PERFORATUM, Schroder (of. cc¢., Pl. xxvi); Pl. vii,
Figs. 9-12.

ioe: ‘Reval.

The specimen, Fig. 10, Pl. vii, shows the dorsum of the parane-
pionic volution with the shell of the dorsum preserved. ‘The dorsal
crest and dorsal sinuses of the lines of growth and in part the
sutures are visible. After this was drawn a part of the shell was
removed, exposing the dorsal sutures which are given in Fig. 12,
Pl. vii. These show the presence of a dorsal lobe as described
above with faint saddles, the remains of the younger dorsal saddle,
on either side of this. The ventral sutures have saddles at this
stage as may be seen by the outline of the whorl, but these were not
seen, although the ventral lobes on either side are plainly visible in
the side view of the paranepionic volution in Fig. 11. In the
metaneanic substage the dorsal lobe broadens and deepens in corre-
lation with the widening and deepening of the contact furrow, and
the lateral lobes appear then almost like saddles on the sides as in
Fig. 11 above in the outline of the only septum visible at this age in
this specimen. They are, however, still really slight aborad inflec-
tions or lobes. ‘There is no true annular lobe at any stage.

Fig. 9, Pl. vii, reproduced from Schréder’s figures of /s/onco-
ceras perforatum, shows that in this species in at least some varieties
the neanic stage probably does not acquire a contact furrow until it
strikes the metanepionic substage.

The specimen figured is in collection of Mus. Comp. Zodlogy.

ESTONIOCERAS BIANGULATUM, n. sp. _ PI. vii, Figs. 13-19.
Loc., Breslau.

The figures of this species show the large umbilical perforation
and digonal whorl of the paranepionic substage and neanic stages
seen from the side in the centre of Fig. 13, Pl. vii, and then from
the front with part of the outer whorl between the broken lines and
also the terminal part of the free whorl removed in Fig. 15. The
portion removed belongs to the ephebic stage, which in this species
has adigonal section. The lateral angles do not show rounding and
the lateral diameters continue to increase steadily and rapidly until
the anagerontic substage begins as the whorl becomes free. Then a
decisive decrease is noticeable in both of these characteristics. In
this specimen the transverse diameter through the middle of the
free volution without the shell, Fig. 17 and 18, was 42 mm., the

524

ventro-dorsal .30 mm. at the termination of the same, the fragment
of the living chamber also devoid of shell was transversely about
40 mm., while the dorso-ventral had increased to 32 mm. This
and the point of view of Fig. 18 gives the aspect of a more con-
siderable diminution in the lateral diameters than actually took
place. The sectional view of this end shows true proportions in
Fig. 19, Pl. vii.

The section, Fig. 15, gives the neanic whorl at the inner break in
the side view, Fig. 13, and this shows how very small and slight the
zone of involution is in this species. It broadens slightly with age,
but immediately disappears in the free part of the whorl, as it does
also in most species of this genus.

The lines of growth are given on the dorsum of the metagerontic
substage in Fig. 17, and these do not differ materially from those
of the nepionic stage in Lstonioceras perforatum. ‘The lines of
growth could not be observed on the dorsum of the earlier stages
of growth, but it is probable that in the stages in which the whorls
are in contact that the dorsal crest is narrow and occupies the area
of the impressed zone.

The sutures in the paranepionic substage have ventral saddles.
with very slight ventral lobes on either side, saddles at the lateral
angles and apparently lateral lobes. ‘Three sutures of this substage
were followed on the dorsum to the centre and no central inflec-
tions could be seen. This was somewhere about the sixth or
eighth septum, as nearly as could be ascertained, and the suture
formed a very shallow lobe across the dorsum, but this would
ordinarily be described as straight. ‘These, in other words, are
closely similar and of about the same age as the complete dorsal
sutures of Estontoceras imperfectum given in Fig. 21, Pl. vii, and
probably about the same age as the dorsal sutures of Estonioceras
perforatum given in Fig. 12, Pl. vii. In the ephebic stage broad
lobes appear on the venter, reaching to the saddles at the lateral
angles. The septum, Fig. 15a, Pl. vii, given to show the contact
furrow, also shows that a faint narrow dorsal lobe coextensive
with this furrow is produced by contact. In the paragerontic
substage, as shown on the last three sutures of Fig. 18, the broad
ventral lobe is replaced by faint saddles with very faintly marked
lobes on either side and the saddles of the lateral angles in conse-
quence of the rounding of these angles have become lateral saddles.
The lateral lobes appear only very faintly or are absent on the

525

under side or dorsum. The dorsal lobe is not, however, affected
to the same extent by senile degeneration, and persists, although
narrower in proportion in the centre of the suture, as may be seen
in Fig. 17, Pl. vii. .

‘The siphuncle is propioventran in all the stages observed from
the ephebic to the anagerontic.

Remeléceras,* n. g.

This genus, known at present only by one species, is closely allied
as regards aspect and the late appearance of a contact furrow to
Estonioceras. It differs in having a much deeper furrow, a nephri-
tic instead of a digonal or depressed elliptical form of whorl and in
the dorsal sutures and apparently also in the extraordinary form of
annular muscle.

REMELECERAS IMPRESSUM. PI. viii, Figs. 1-8.

Loc. (?)

This extraordinary form is described and figured in this
memoir on account of its interesting connection with the history of
the impressed zone, notwithstanding the absence of any informa-
tion with regard to the locality. The side view, Fig. 1, Pl. viii,
shows the sutures, which are similar to those of Estonioceras, and
the impression of what appears to be the annular muscle at the base
of the living chamber is very distinct. This may be seen on the
dorsal side, Fig. 3, where the lower line has a deeper and broader
depression in the cast reaching across the contact furrow. These
two lines of depression depart from each other widely on the ven-
tral side, Fig. 2, the outer one forming a broad saddle. They of
course correspend to raised 1idges on the inner surface of the shell
of the living chamber and may have been due to abnormal action
in the secretions along the upper and lower borders of the annular
muscle.

The depth of the contact furrow in the full-grown shell near the
end of the incomplete living chamber was somewhat greater than is
given in Fig. 4, but only a shade deeper, and is also slightly
deeper than this beyond the base of this living chamber on the
septate part of the volution. In younger stages, shown successively
in Figs. 5-7, with their accompanying sections, Figs. 6-8, this
furrow diminishes in depth and breadth and almost disappears

* Dedicated to Remelé, well known for his original observations on fossil Cephalopods,

526

on the third fragment. This shows that it did not begin to exist
in this shell until late in the neanic stage and the younger nepionic
stage must have been similar to that of Estonioceras.

It is also interesting and suggestive to note that the depth and
development of the dorsal lobe correlates exactly with the depth
and breadth of the contact furrow. The lateral asymmetry in the
dorsal lobes of the sutures is another fact to be noted in this speci-
men.

The central whorls existed in this specimen, but were completely
concealed by the matrix. A section was made of these, but they
exhibited no structures.

The siphuncle was not visible.

This cast reminds the observer more closely of Hstonzoceras (?)
lamellosum, as figured by Angelin and Lindstrom, than any other
form, but according to Schréder this last is a true estonioceran form
- with only a slight contact furrow.

Nedyceras.

This genus was described by the author in Genera of Fossil
Cephalopods, p. 281. It includes a large number of species with
subtrigonal whorls, the dorsum much broader than the venter,
which is elevated and usually subangular. The siphuncle is sub-
ventran and quite large.

The sutures have ventral saddles, lateral lobes and the dorsum
may have a slight lobe or be nearly straight. The genus is of inter-
est in this connection because, although completely coiled and the
whorls in contact in several forms and although the whorl approxi-
mates to the nephritic outline, it never has an impressed zone.:
This is easily accounted for when one examines the figure of Vedy-
ceras vestustum, Barrande, Pl. ‘‘ 35.’’ This shell shows that,
although close-coiled, the rate of growth is slow and the umbilical
perforation very large, so that there is no pressure of one whorl
upon another.

The genus has a number of forms in the Devonian, which also
show similar peculiarities whether they are similar or more open in
their coiling than vestustum, or have the turbinate mode of growth,
which last is not unusual.

The shells are all smooth.

527

Cranoceras.

This genus was described in Genera of Fossil Cephalopod,
p- 281, for a series of cyrtoceran forms having in the Silurian rep-
resentatives like Cranoceras (Cyri.) hospitale, sp. Barrande, PI.
as TET peaeruM bl. tan and Purnws, Pls“ 489"! and “484.”

The whorls are subtrigonal with the dorsum, much wider than the
venter, which is apt to be elevated and subangulated. ‘The young,
until they are quite large, are compressed elliptical in section, with
the ventro-dorsal diameter longer than the transverse, then expand-
ing more rapidly they become more depressed and take on the
subtrigonal outline, the dorsum broader than the venter, which in
some species changes subsequently into the nephritic with a slight
impressed zone, Fig. 43, Pl. viii.

The sutures have ventral saddles, slight lateral lobes and slight
broad dorsal lobes, but in some species may be approximately
straight and in the young stages are of this character in most forms.
Considering the size of the shells the septa are remarkably close
and numerous, and only slightly concave.

The siphuncle is propioventran and apt to be filled with radia-
ting deposits. The Silurian forms do not have the nephritic out-
line and also have no impressed zone at any stage, judging from the
large shell of Cranoceras turnus, which, although it has a nautilian-
like form in the large fragment described by Barrande, probably
did not coil very closely.

The Devonian forms are, however, more interesting in connec-
tion with the history of the impressed zone. These can be included
under the names of Cranoceras (Cyrt.) depressum and Cranoceras
(Cyrt.) lineatum.

In the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, in the Schulze collec-
tion from Pelm near Gerolstein, in the Eifel, there is a specimen of
Cranoceras lineatum 159 mm. in length along the median lateral line,
transverse diameter of smaller end 45 mm., abdominodorsal 41 mm.,
and diameters of larger end 109 mm. and 85 mm. This is evi-
dently a quick-growing and very large specimen, but showing no
signs of having been coiled. It has, however, near the larger end
on the incurved dorsal side a very faint impressed zone given in
the outline, Fig. 43, Pl. viii, traced from the specimen. Some
specimens do not exhibit this depression, but most of this species
do have similar depressions and some of these are so nearly straight

Te}

528

and the angle of growth so convergent that it becomes difficult,
perhaps impossible, to attribute the existence of this zone to con-
tact and pressure of a coiled whorl, unless it was acquired by inher-
itance through some unknown closely coiled forms.

None of these specimens have the double impressed zone figured
in Cranoceras ( Cyrtoceras) depressum, by D’ Archiac et De Verneuil,*
but I have studied some fragments of this species showing the same
peculiarity. The two latero-dorsal impressions or faces and the
central gibbous dorsal face give an outline similar to that of the
young of the Zrocholites canadense, given in Fig. 24, Pl. iv, of this
paper. ‘The history of the appearance of this modification in this
large adult whorl, arising as it does from the direct modification
of the younger rounded dorsum} without being preceded by the for-
mation of an impressed zone is, however, entirely distinct from
that which occurs in the paranepionic substage of Trocholites. In
» several genera of Carboniferous nautiloids (ex. Asymptoceras,
Apheleceras) similar faces appear on the dorsum, but the central,
gibbous dorsal face is fitted into the hollow flute or ventral zone of
the next inner whorl and is obviously a result of close-coiling and
adaptation of the plastic dorsum of the growing external volutions
to the ventral modifications of the inner volution.

In Solenocheilus of the Carboniferous, however, the whorl has a
rounded venter and yet notwithstanding this a gibbous dorsal face
and dorso-lateral concave faces or furrows are formed independently.
In Cranoceras depressum the origin of the gibbous dorsal face and
latero-dorsal faces or furrows appears also, so far as the facts go, to
have been entirely independent of any correlation with the ventral
surface, which is rounded and gibbous. These characteristics do
not seem to have had a mechanical origin in any of the shells, so
far examined, which have the dorsal side free or comparatively free
from contact.

A very large and remarkable specimen in the Schulze collection,
Mus. of Comp. Zodlogy, shows a very short living chamber, which
has an aperture very broad transversely and with a nephritic out-
line and apparently very broad and well-marked impressed: zone.
This species is not a variety of Zecatum, but a distinct species pre-
cisely similar to D’Archiae and De Verneuil’s figures of Phragmoce-
ras subventricosum, but the siphuncle is ventral.

* Geol. Trans. London, 20 ser., vi, Pl. xxix.
7 This is also figured by Roemer, Harzgeb. Palcontogr., iii, Pl. vi, in a young specimen.

529

It is questionable, however, even in this form, whether there was
anything more than a flattened dorsal side on the septate part of
the whorl, since this is the aspect of the perfect side, the left side of
this specimen, the right dorsal side and part of centre being crushed
in by pressure. A second specimen of smaller size shows the pecu-
liar dorsal aspect of Cranoceras depressum, but so faintly that the
gibbous face and flutings are hardly perceptible.

I have been, of course, struck by the resemblance of these shells
to the young of the nautilian forms of the Mesozoic, but there is
still closer resemblance in the general aspect of species of Urano-
ceras and the closely set septa of the species of Cranoceras, and
their contracted apertures show that it is not safe to consider them
as radical forms.

They resemble the young of some species of the Nephritidz, but
this family has a peculiar ornamentation in young shells and isa
closed generic series having apparently its own slender radical
forms in the Devonian and possibly even its own arcuate radicals
in this period.

Nephritide.

This family name is given to cover a series of genera having
heavily ridged shells in the young, and for the most part in adults,
with whorls having considerable resemblance in general outline and
sutures to the true Nautilide, with which I formerly associated
them.

Sphyradoceras, described in my Genera of Fossil Cephalopods,
page 298, contains the remote radicals of the group and this genus
has arcuate and trochoceran forms. ‘They are of value in this con-
nection only in so far as they show that the impressed zone, as a
rule, is not present when shells are not in close contact.

Uranoceras has a number of large stout shells with solid, nautilian-
looking whorls which are, however, never, so far as I have seen, in
sufficiently close contact to produce a contact furrow. These forms
are interesting, however, because the dorsum is always slightly
flattened and has the aspect common to the nepionic stage of
nautilian shells, so that one continually expects to find a specimen
with a dorsal furrow. I have, however, not yet found an example
of this kind, although the whorls are often so close as to touch
each other. Thetype is Uranoceras ( Cyrt.?) uranum, sp. Barrande,
in the Silurian, but most of the species occur in the Devonian.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 148.30. PRINTED JULY 13, 1894.

530

My references, in Genera of Fossil Cephalopods, to some Car-
boniferous nautiloids as probably members of this genus were
erroneous. Barrandeoceras has been referred to above as belonging
to the Tarphyceratide.

Pselioceras, mentioned also in my Genera of Fossil Cephalo-
pods, as another member of this family, may possibly be a genus
of Rineceratidz, but it does not belong here.

The family of the true Nautilide have beén properly lmited
farther on to Mesozoic genera.

Rhadinoceras,* n. g.

The species here noticed under this name were formerly included
in the genus Nephriticeras. They have compressed elliptical or
almost rounded whorls, growing more slowly than in Nephriticeras,
_ have the impressed zone only in the later stages of growth and are
transitional between gyroceran forms and Nephriticeras.

RHADINOCERAS CORNULUM.
Naum:EUS CORNULUS,,Hall (Pal. 2. ¥., vo Pion, Pl lx):

Hall’s figure shows the nepionic and neanic stages of this shell,
and there is a slight contact furrow.

The form of the whorl in section is almost circular, not changing
much throughout the nepionic stage.

The sutures are similar to those of Nephriticeras, with slight
ventral and dorsal lobes and rather narrow lateral lobes.

The siphuncle, according to Hall, is dorsad of the centre.

The shell has only fine strize and fine longitudinal ridges.

Having studied the original of this species in Prof. Hall’s collec-
tions, I can confirm his observation and state that this is obviously
a close-coiled nautilian form with a slight contact furrow produced
after the whorls come into contact in the ananeanic substage, but
- not existing previously.

The umbilical perforation was very large, and young shells show
that Rhadinoceras contains transitional forms between Nephriti-
ceras and some cyrtoceran ancestor. In other words, these two
genera were not derived from any coiled nautilian form of the
Devonian or Silurian, but are progressive modifications of some
closely allied arcuate form. ‘This conclusion is sustained also by
the existence of a peculiar cyrtoceran form associated with these

ty "Padivog, slender.

531

which may be a survivor of the ancestral genus of this group. I
allude to the peculiar arcuate species described by Hall from the
Goniatites limestone of Manlius, N. Y., under the name of Cyréo-
ceras liratum. Wall recognized the affinity of this shell, in the
ornamentation and form to species here described as included in
Rhadinoceras, and it can be easily observed that the young of
Rhadinoceras cornulum directly repeats the characters of his Cyrfo-
ceras liratum.

RHADINOCERAS HYATTI.

MADTILUS HYATE, Elall (Ped. Vv. Y.,-v, Pt. i, Pl. exxvi).

This species, so far as figured by Hall and so far as known to me
from the observation of Prof. Hall’s collection, is even less closely
coiled than Rhadinoceras cornulum.

The early stages figured by Hall show no dorsal furrow and ‘the ;
form is similar to that of cornudum, but it is a depressed ellipse in
the nepionic stage, increasing more rapidly by growth in its trans-
verse diameters than in cornudum. ‘he affinity of this species with
the nepionic stage of Nephriticeras is indicated not only by the form
of the whorl, which is identical, but by the presence of coarser
longitudinal ridges, and by the sutures.

Whether the whorls of this species were ever in close contact is
doubtful, on account of the absence of more complete specimens and
the want of a contact furrow on the fragments, so far as known to
me.

But the single fragment figured by Hall, and examined by me,
was not old enough to settle this question, and I am inclined to the
opinion that it will be found to be a true nautilian shell.

Nephriticeras.

This genus, described by the author in Genera of Cosstl Ceph-
alopods, p. 300, formerly included the transitional species separated
above under the name of Rhadinoceras,

These shells are all unquestionably nautilian.

The early part of the nepionic, probably metanepionic substage, is
similar in transverse section and ornaments to the full-grown shells
of Rhadinoceras, but the paranepionic volution becomes speedily
depressed and subtrigonal, the dorsum broad and much flattened,
the abdomen elevated and narrower than the dorsum.

The siphuncle is dorsad of the centre.

532

The sutures have ventral and dorsal lobes and lateral lobes in the
ephebic stage, but in the earlier stage there are ventral saddles.

NEPHRITICERAS LIRATUM.
NAUTILUS EIRATUS, sp. Hall (Pad. WV. Y.,'v. Pt. 1, Pl. lviipanncieee
Ibo)f

This species in the metanepionic substage is distinctly annulated
and also has broad longitudinal ridges, as shown in Hall’s figures
on Pl. lx. These ridges disappear together with the annulations on
the abdomen of the paranepionic volution, but persist longer on the
dorsum, and in some specimens they are very large flutes on the
sides even in the neanic, as is shown in Hall’s Fig. 3, Pl. Ivii.

In the neanic stage the form of the volution changes from sub-
trigonal to a broad depressed oval.

No impressed zone has been observed, but this may be due to the

age of the shells so far observed, none of which as figured, nor so far
as I have seen, exceeded one volution.

NEPHRITICERAS JUVENIS.
NAUTILUS LIRATUS, var. JUVENIS, Hall (Pad. WV. Y., v, Pt. ii, Pl. lvi,
Figs. 5, 6).

This shell, described as a variety of “vatus by Hall, is obviously
distinct. The form changes more rapidly than in “raf¢us and, in
the fragment of the nepionic volution figured by Hall, it may also
be seen that the longitudinal ridges are much smaller than in /ra-
tus, more like those of the young of Wephriticeras buctnum. It dif-
fers from the last in having no impressed zone at the same age.

It is highly probable than an impressed zone appeared in a later
stage than has yet been described.

NEPHRITICERAS SUBLIRATUM.
NAUTILUS SUBLIRATUM, sp. Hall (Padé. iV. Y., v, Pt. ii, Pl. lvii).

This species has similar changes of form to those of /iratwm, but
it is altogether a broader whorled species and acquires the nephritic
outline at an earlier stage of growth, and probably has in perfect
specimens a smaller umbilical perforation.

There are no longitudinal ridges on the ventral side in the orig-
inal specimen, which was in the neanic stage of development, but
these are large and persistent on the dorsum as in Wephriticeras
firatum. In Hall’s figures the sutures have been confused with the

533

lines of growth and the dorsal sutures are not correctly given. The
dorsal lobes exactly coincide with the impressed zone in Fig. 6 of
his plate. This figure shows the last part of the paranepionic volu-
tion in section below and the ananeanic with the impressed zone
above this. The smoothness of the impressed zone in Hall’s Fig. 6
of this species shows that the longitudinal ridges were obliterated
as they are in other forms by the pressure of the growing whorl,
and that this zone is probably due to contact and did not occur on
the free side of the volution in the umbilical perforation. I use
the general term ‘‘impressed zone,’’ because, although my notes
and Hall’s observations and the figures all seem to warrant the
statement that this zone in this species is a contact furrow, I have
not been able to revise and confirm these observations.

NEPHRITICERAS BUCINUM.
NAUTILUS BUCINUS, Hall (Pa/. WV. V., v, Pt. ii, Pl. Ix).

The paranepionic volution is shown in Hall’s Fig. 1, Pl. lx, with
a convex dorsum, and in Pl. cvii, Figs. 2 and 3, it is again shown
with the siphuncle dorsad of the centre and the outline distinctly
subtrigonal. ‘These figures indicate great variability in the time
at-which the impressed zone appears, since the section in Pl. cvii is
very much larger than that of about the same age of Fig. 2, Pl. Ix.
One is disposed to think that these are perhaps different species.
Fig. 2 of Pl. lx gives in front view a section of the paranepionic
volution with a distinct but narrow impressed zone marked on the
dorsum, ‘This whorl has a nephritic outline and is very different
from the subtrigonal outline of a whorl with convex dorsum referred
to above, which belongs to an obviously later stage of growth in a
larger species.

Having examined these specimens in Prof. Hall’s collection some
years since, I find in my notes the statement that ‘‘ no depression
(meaning the dorsal furrow) occurs in the centre of any of these
shells until the whorls touch, which they do at a late stage of
growth.’’ The form changes from a depressed oval in the metane-
pionic to nephritic more rapidly than in Wephriticeras subliratum
and the transverse diameters increase faster. The longitudinal
ridges are smaller and less prominent than in Wephriticcras liratum.

The sutures in the young have ventral and dorsal saddles and
only in later stages these are replaced on the dorsum and venter by

534

bread, shallow lobes, but in some specimens the sutures are nearly
straight or may retain slight saddles on the venter.
The siphuncle is extracentrodorsan.

NEPHRITICERAS CAVUM.
Naummusccayus (Pal. JV. Y., v, Pt. ii,.Pl evi):

The fragment of the neanic stage, figured by Hall, has the
nephritic whorl and similar sutures to the full grown of Wephritice-
ras bucinum, but the dorsal lobes are deeper perhaps and more
V-shaped. ‘The septa are different in being much more widely sep-
arated, but are otherwise similar to those of the later stages in
Nephriticeras bucinum. I find in my notes that the impressed
zone occurs after the dorsal lobes are formed and at an earlier stage
than in ducinum.

Siphuncle is unknown.

NEPHRITICERAS ACREUM.
NAUTILUS ACR&US, Hall (Pal. WV. Y., v, Suppl., Pl. cix).

The fragment of the neanic stage, figured by Hall, shows the
nephritic outline impressed zone and ridges similar to those of the
older stages of Wephriticeras bucinum occurring at an earlier stage
than they do in Wephriticeras cavum.*

NEPHRITICERAS MAGISTER.
NAUTILUs MAGISTER, Hall (Pa/. WV. Y., v, Pls. Ixii, cvii, cviii).

The large fossils of this species which I have examined have not
afforded me any information with regard to the young, but the
nephritic form of the whorl, the impressed zone and large beaded
siphuncle dorsad of the centre show that the species belongs in the
same genus with Wephriticeras bucinum.

This species may have either slight ventral lobes or saddles on
the venter.

NEPHRITICERAS MAXIMUM.
NavuTILus MAxiMus, Hall (Pad. WV. Y., v, Pt. ii, Pls. lxxiii, Ixxiv).

This is like Wephriticeras magister, known only through large
fossils, but the young of the specimen figured by Hall on PI. lxxiii

*T regret very much that in finishing this paper I have had no opportunity to revisit
Prof. Hall’s collection and study again his old and new materials. It is not improbable
that his fine series of Nephriticeran species may show that the impressed zone was pres-
ent as a dorsal furrow in the paranepionie substage of some of the more inyolute and
tachygenic shells.

539

has, according to my notes, and when seen from the side, a general
resemblance to Wephriticeras oriens.

The sutures and position of the siphuncle and form of whorl
places it in this genus.

NEPHRITICERAS ORIENS.
NAUTILUS ORIENS, Hall (Pa/. WV. V., v, Pt. ii, Pl. 1xi, and Suppl.,
Pl evi):

This species is obviously closely allied to Wephriticeras magister
and maximum. The shell shows coarse longitudinal ridges and stri-
ations of growth as in other species of this genus, and the sutures
and position and structure of siphuncle also justify its associations
with these species in the same genus.

NEPHRITICERAS INELEGANS.
GYROCERAS (NAUT.) INELEGANS, Meek (Pad. Odio, i, Pl. xxi).

This form is closely allied to magzster and is probably a species
of this genus.
Ludoceratide.

This family was described in my Genera of Fossil Cephalo-
pods, and again in ‘‘ Carboniferous Cephalopods,’’ Fourth Annual
Rep. Geol. Surv. Texas, p. 465.

‘The genera are of interest in this paper because of the absence
of the impressed zone in the more generalized open-whorled Eda-
phoceras, its appearance as a contact furrow in Endolobus and its
appearance as a dorsal furrow in Pofoceras dubium. I have placed
this last form in this family with much reservation. The young
have characteristics similar to those of Exdolobus Avonensis, but
the development is more advanced and decidedly tachygenic.

The absence of a dorsal furrow in the nepionic whorl of so highly
specialized and so involute a shell as Ephippioceras is upon the
whole rather remarkable and requires confirmation with a better
preparation than the one at my command. The highly digonal
form of the young has induced me to transfer this genus from the
Apsidoceratidee, under which it appeared in my Genera of Fossil
Cephalopods, to this family.

LEedaphoceras.

This genus was first described by the author in Genera of Fos-
sil Cephalopods,* the type being a large Carboniferous species

* Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., xxii, 1833, p. 288.

536

eight inches in diameter described by Meek and Worthen* and
fully figured by them. ‘These figures reproduced on PI. vii,
Fig. 22-24, show the generic differences of this species and the
forms on the same plate, which are good examples of the genus
Estonioceras. Edaphoceras differs in having non-involute whorls
without an impressed zone and a more completely digonal outline
in transverse section of the full-grown volution.

The sutures have ventral lobes, saddles at the lateral angles and
dorsal lobes with slight median saddles if the figure is correct.

The siphuncle is centren in the adult.

Notwithstanding the close resemblance of the type species to
Estonitoceras ariense as figured by Schréder, I doubt whether this
Carboniferous type has direct genetic connection with Estonioceras
of the Silurian. Until the young are known it will be impracti-
cable to settle this question, but at present the close-coiled shells
of Edaphoceras ntotense, as described by Meek and Worthen, and
of Edaphoceras (Naut.) hesperts, Kichwald,f} both with siphuncles
nearly or exactly centren and neither having an impressed zone
and the peculiar form described by Foord} as Solenocheilus cale-
donicus which is similar but has a slight impressed zone, all point
to a separate phylum from that of Estonioceras.

I do not, however, wish to imply that they did not arise from the
same common origin, possibly some form of Eudoceras, but simply
that Edaphoceras does not appear to be a direct descendant of
Estonioceras.

Lndolobus.

This genus was first described in Genera of Fossil Cephalopods,
and subsequently in the Second and Fourth Ann. Rept. Geol. Surv.
of Texas.

Unluckily I have never been able to study the young of the type
Endolobus spectabilis of Meek and it may be that none of the spe-
cies referred to this genus really belong to it.

EXNDOLOBUS AVONENSIS.
NAUTILUS AVONENSIS, Dawson (Geol. of Acadia, p. 311). PI. viii,
Figs. 36-39.
Loc., Joggins, Nova Scotia.
The ananepionic stage of this species, Fig. 38, Pl. viii, has a tri-
gonal shape and the cicatrix, although necessarily exaggerated in
* Geol. of T., v, Pl. xix.

+ Leth Rossica, Pl. xlv, Fig. 7.
t Cat. Foss. Ceph., ii, p. 172, Fig. 30.

537

the figure, is approximately given. This form is like that of the
arcuate forms of genus Tripteroceras in their ephebic stage. The
shell was smooth. A paranepionic septum is shown below and in
the specimen (Figs. 36-37) a still younger septum was developed
after this drawing was made. ‘These have ventral saddles, very
faint lateral lobes, and minute shallow dorsal lobes, resembling in
shape those of the older stages.

As shown in these drawings, the dorsum of the nepionic stage,
which ends with the section just below the apex, is rounded and
the impressed zone is a contact furrow beginning in the ananeanic
substage only after the whorls touch. This zone deepens rapidly,
but is never very broad or deep.

The side view shows the cyrtoceran form of the metanepionic
substage and the large size of the umbilical perforation, which is
given by a dotted line.

The siphuncle is nearly subventran in the paranepionic substage,
but it does not increase proportionately in size and becomes cen-
troventran in the neanic septum as shown above the apex, and
ventrocentren in the ephebic stage.

The lateral angles are more acute and the form more perfectly
digonal in the neanic and early ephebic stage than in the paranepi-
onic or gerontic stages.

The specimen figured is in Museum of Comparative Zodlogy.

A young specimen of this species from Windsor, N. S., in the
Museum at Ottawa, shows the living chamber of the early ephebic
stage or paraneanic substage at the end of the second whorl. ‘This
is not quite one-half of a volution in length and has a deep, rather
narrow hyponomic sinus with large median lateral crests and deep
sinuses near the lines of involution.

Lophoceras.

This genus, described in Fourth Annual Report Geological Sur-
vey of Texas, has a very slight impressed zone in some species and
it is clearly dependent upon the contact of the whorls.

Potoceras.*
POTOCERAS DUBIUM, n. sp. Pl. x, Figs. 15-22.
Loc. (?).
The nepionic stage is shown enlarged in Figs. 16-18, Pl. x, and
* [léto0s, drinking.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143.3 P. PRINTED JULY 13, 1894.

538

this is in a general way very similar to that of Exdolobus avonense
during the ana- and metanepionic substage, but in the paranepionic
a dorsal furrow appears which is not present in Endolobus at the
same early age. ‘The longitudinal ridges appear also in this sub-
stage, the previous substages being smooth. ‘The umbilical perfo-
ration, Fig. 15, shows the very abrupt bend which takes place at
the,end of the metanepionic substage just before the dorsal furrow
appears. ‘This furrow is broad and well defined and cannot be
said to be correlative with a nephritic outline. The section of the
whorl at this age, Fig. 17, still retains in some measure the tri-
gonal outline of the ana- and metanepionic substages. It has be-
come temnocheilan or trapezoidal through the great broadening of
the abdomen, but if no furrow were present it would have to be
described as a modified subtrigonal (see Fig. 17 which gives the
form correctly). It is in no sense nephritic, although obviously
_ transitional and standing between the preceding digonal and suc-
ceeding nephritic outline shown in the ananeanic substage. This
substage occupies the last quarter of the first whorl. The broaden-
ing out of the furrow, which also increases in depth, although the
curvature remains constant, can be observed in this same substage
while the volution is still free, also the advent of a purely nephritic
outline and a minute annular lobe in the middle of the dorsal lobe.
The siphuncle shifts somewhat nearer the centre.

Contact takes place on the ventral side of the ananepionic volu-
tion, but the apical end is not free. The dorsal sutures in conse-
quence of the annular lobe have a much spread-out or flattened V
shape like those of Lxdolobus avonensis at a later stage and in the
contact furrow (see Fig. 37, Pl. viii).

The form of the adult also resembles that species. The sutures
have ventral saddles, lateral lobes and dorsal lobes in the ephebic
stage and the outline is nephritic. The annular lobe does not in-
crease much in size with advancing age and seems to disappear in
this stage. Although the locality of this specimen is unknown, the
probable age is Devonian.

Fearing to trust my own conclusions in this instance, and having
one valve of a Brachiopod which was detached from the specimen
described above, I sent the latter to Mr. Charles Schuchert in the
National Museum, Washington, for determination. This gentle-
man very kindly gave me the benefit of his great special knowledge
of this group and returned it to me with some other specimens of a

539

species of Martinia from the Iberger Kalk, Upper Devonian of Grund,
Germany, with which he considered the species to be closely related.

Liphippioceras.

EPHIPPIOCERAS FERRATUM, Hyatt.
NAUTILUS FERRATUM, Owen (Geol. Kentucky, iii, Pl. x, Fig. 2).
Figs. 23-26, Pl. x, enlarged 5 diameters.

The nepionic stage is given in Fig. 23, from the side showing the
lateral longitudinal ridges of the paranepionic and part of the meta-
nepionic substage. These ridges are more acute on the venter and
wider apart and blunter on the sides. ‘The form in section of the
metanepionic is digonal, and that of the paranepionic substage has
amore elevated venter and flatter dorsum. ‘There was no dorsal
furrow in the paranepionic substage, so far as could be ascertained,
but the condition of the specimen left this fact open to doubt.

It is interesting to note that the form and characters of the young
of this very aberrant form seem to indicate affinity with the Eudo-
ceratide. ;

The peculiar ridge-like mesal division of the septa, which corre-
late with the prominent ventral and dorsal saddles of this genus, are
not present in the nepionic stage. The imperfect condition of this
fossil did not enable me to make detailed observations upon the
young farther than in the stage figured.

Trigonoceratide.

This family includes the close-coiled nautilian forms Coelonau-
tilus, Stroboceras, Apheleceras, Subclymenia and Diorugoceras.
The young of all of these genera, except possibly Diorugoceras,
which I have not seen and which is also very involute, have a simi-
lar history. They are rounded in the nepionic stage and have an
impressed zone only late in life, if they have it at all. Usually the
form is similar to that given in Figs. 29 and 30, Pl. x, of Apheleceras
mutabile (sp. D’Orb.), Hyatt.

This species shows in the young that the genus has been but
recently derived from an arcuate type. The apex in the ananepi-
onic and part of the metanepionic substage is free and the whorls
barely touch at first. The corrugated shell of the nepionic and
neanic stages show also the same primitive characters and the resem-
blances of these younger stages to the loosely coiled gyroceran form

540

of Trigonoceras are closely parallel. Ifthe adults were not known
they would be referred necessarily to that genus.

The group is of importance in the history of the impressed zone
since it shows in its most specialized and highly involute members
that a contact furrow may appear even in a form of whorl that has
naturally a gibbous dorsum and concave abdomen.

Fig. 2, Pl. xii, of Diorugoceras (aut.) planidorsatum (sp. Port-
lock), Hyatt shows the peculiar character of the contact furrow in
these forms when it occurs.

It is probable that the early neanic. stage has a gibbous dorsum
fitting into the hollow abdomen and that the involution is acquired
rapidly in the later substages of the neanic stage, but not having
seen specimens of the young I cannot state this as a fact.

Triboloceratide.

The figures of Zhoracoceras pusosianum of Pl. ix show a shell
which in form isa slightly depressed oval and both in this respect
and in the fluted ornamentation approximates to the nepionic stage
of Zhoracoceras canaliculatum and other subspinous forms of the
same genus. ‘This last species has also a similar form, and by com-
paring this with the young of the loosely coiled, gyroceran forms
on the same plate, Figs. 14 and 15 of ‘Triboloceras, it will be seen
how closely they resemble them. Triboloceras in turn grades into
the nautilian form of the same family, Vestinautilus Konincki,
Figs. 5-13. The figures show the development of this form
through a nepionic stage which is at first similar to Z. pusostanum,
then becomes similar in ornamentation to 7. canaliculatum and
then passing into the neanic stage these primitive characters are
replaced by the peculiar acquired ornamentation and whorls having
the hollow, central, ventral and lateral ventral zones of this family
and smooth, gibbous, umbilical zones with broad, fluted, lateral
faces. The subspinous ornamentation persists in this form on the
ridges throughout the ephebic stage. In the gerontic stage these
progressive characters disappear and with them the fluted faces and
zones also tend to extinction and in the paragerontic stage do actu-
ally give way to a rounded form without salient angles. This last
is not figured, but the tendencies towards extinction of the orna-
ments, etc., may be seen in the anagerontic substage delineated in
Figs. 5 and 6.

541

Vestinautilus Konincki leads into such forms as Vestinautilus pin-
guts, Figs. 16-19, which has the ridged characters, etc., confined
to the nepionic stage, which is somewhat abbreviated. The sub-
spinous characteristics are also crowded back and replaced earlier
by gerontic modifications similar to those which occur only in the
senile stage of V. Konincki. ‘Thus these degenerative changes are
shown to occur in what is properly the parephebic substage of V.
pinguis. The history of the impressed zone accords with that of
the other characters and may be seen in the figures to have been
introduced as an acquired character dependent upon close coiling.
It is not present in Triboloceras nor in the nepionic or ananeanic
substages of the nautilian forms. It appears only after contact, and
in other words is a contact furrow and its characteristics are deter-
mined wholly by the moulding of the dorsum on the peculiar ven-
tral surfaces which are encountered during growth.

COLOCERAS GLOBATUM.
NaUTILUS GLOBATUS, De Koninck (Cale. Carbon., Pl. xxxi).

Pl, x, Figs. 1-14.

The development of this species was partially described in my
** Carboniferous Cephalopods,’’ second paper, fourth Ann. Rept.
Geol. Surv. Texas, p. 447-451, but no figures were given and the
genus Coloceras was then erroneously referred to the same genetic
series as Coelogasteroceras. More extended study of both of these
forms has shown me that the latter belongs to a distinct series.
Coloceras globatum has the peculiar lateral flutes and characteristics
of the Triboloceratidz in the nepionic and neanic stages, and the
hollow ventral zone of the paranepionic substage, which led me to
suppose that it belonged to the same genetic series as Coelogastero-
ceras, may be accounted for equally well when C. g/odatum is referred
to the Triboloceratide. Figs. 5 and 6, Pl. ix, of Vestinautilus Kon-
znckt show that the broad, hollow, ventral zone of the ephebic
stage becomes narrow and the abdomen is gibbous on either side of
it in the anagerontic substage of this form.

The similarity of the ventral hollow zone of the young of C.
globatum may be accounted for, if it is supposed to be an accele-
rated phylogerontic character. The only difficulty in the way of
this assumption is the preéxistence of the lateral flutes in the neanic
stage. I have, however, frequently seen similar examples of the
unequal acceleration of characters and this is probably another of

542

this class. At any rate the ornamentation, form and lateral flutes
all plainly point to the same genetic stock as Koninickioceras,
whereas in Coelogasteroceras* there are no lateral flutes or faces and
a very distinct and more primitive shell, especially in the nepionic ~
stage, as may be seen in the section, Fig. 33 of Pl. x.

The figures of Coloceras globatum on Pl. x give the history of
the dorsal furrow. ‘They show also that considerable variation
exists in the form of the ananepionic substage and it may be that
Figs. ro-12 belong to a different species from those that show a
flatter and more trigonal outline in the early stages. ‘The umbilical
perforation, however, remains about the same in all the specimens.
This is of good size and there is no abrupt curve at the beginning
of the paranepionic substage which would account for the genesis
of the nepionic furrow in the dorsum of the specimen in Figs.
to-12, which is perfect in its proportions and markings. In the
specimens given, 1 and 2 and 7, there is a more abrupt curve
at this point and more sudden appearance of this zone, but the pas-
sage of the form into the nephritic outline is gradual even in these
specimens. ‘The first suture in Fig. to obviously belongs to the
first living chamber of the metanepionic substage, while the second
and third are paranepionic, although the second is still within the
limits of the metanepionic volution, z. e., built in that part before
the dorsal furrow appeared. ‘lhe third suture is indented by the
furrow. ‘The ananepionic substage is at first smooth except for
horizontal and inconspicuous growth striz, then becomes longitudi-
nally ridged, Fig. 7.

The changes of form in this substage, which can be divided into
three parts, are well marked in these drawings. ‘There is first the
age of the cicatrix with a form which is a very elongated trigonal
and quite distinct in every way from the next; then the age in
which the broad trigonal form appears, but the surface of the shell
is still smooth, and lastly the digonal, longitudinally ridged age
passing into the metanepionic and often bounded by a slight con-
striction. ‘The metanepionic, Fig. 6, has an elliptical form with
longitudinal ridges intersected by the edges of the growth bands.
In this the digonal outline tends to disappear, although sometimes
it is maintained more or less by the early appearance of the promi-
nent, broad lateral ridge. This ridge, however, usually appears
later, as shown in section, Fig. 3, and is characteristic of the species.

*T have provisionally referred Coelogasteroceras to the family of the Hercoceratide.

543

The dorsum becomes flattened in the latter part of the metane-
pionic substage and other transitions to the nephritic outline are
obvious in the gradual spreading out of the transverse diameters.

The dorsal furrow appears as described above sometimes when
the bend is abrupt and sometimes when it is gradual; in other
words, it is obviously not correlated with the size or shape of the
umbilical perforation nor dependent upon the curvature of the
volution. It appears always in the same place at or about the third
suture and when the nephritic outline is assumed at the beginning
of the paranepionic substage. But it will be observed in section
Fig. 4, that the outline, which has been very carefully drawn, is
not remarkable for being very broad in proportion, nor does the
study of this specimen give any grounds for supposing that the dor-
sal furrow could be considered a necessary condition of the mode
of growth. The curvature is about the same during the remainder
of the first volution, but the zone broadens with growth and devel-
opment of the nephritic outline, as may be seen in Figs. 2, 11, 13,
14 and Sec. 3. This zone has longitudinal ridges, but these are
much finer than those of the sides and abdomen.

The neanic stage begins when the longitudinal ridges and cen-
tral zone disappear on the venter. The ridges persist on the
dorsal side, but disappear in what is probably the paraneanic sub-
stage, leaving the heavy lateral ridge and its accompanying flutes.
The neanic stage is therefore phyloanagerontic.

The ephebic stage is perfectly smooth and phyloparagerontic in
aspect.

The action of tachygenesis upon degenerative characters is thus
clearly apparent throughout the neanic and ephebic stages in this
interesting species. This fact is entirely in accord with the princi-
ples of Bioplastology as explained above with regard to the action
of this law upon retrogressive characters.*

Rineceratide.

The figures of Pl, ix show that this family has characteristics
closely resembling the arcuate forms of Thoracoceras which are
repeated in the ananepionic substage. Rineceras, however, never
has a hollow ventral central zone but remains gibbous on the abdo-
men throughout life.

This characteristic also serves to distinguish the nautilian mem-

* See pp. 373, 415, 417.

544

bers of the same family when compared with the closely allied
forms of the Triboloceratidz, all of which have a hollow central
ventral zone at some stage.

Lispoceras sulciferum, Fig. 24, shows the nepionic stage and
ananeanic substage with form and characteristics approximately
repeating those of Rineceras, and these resemblances are consider-
ably closer than the figures would lead one to suppose. I did not
notice until too late to replace them that these figures were not so
complete as I had tlought them to be.

The greatest development of the impressed zone in this family
occurs in the compressed lenticular form of Phacoceras, Figs. 26,
27, and although Fig. 27 is not entirely satisfactory in the young,
as given by DeKoninck, it seems to demonstrate together with his
description that the nepionic stage had a section which would place
it either in this family or in some other with fluted whorls and a
-gibbous abdomen. None of these genera have any species so far
known which have a dorsal furrow, the impressed zone being
strictly a contact furrow as in the Triboloceratidz.

The genus Pselioceras of the Dyas is perhaps a member of this
family, but I have strong doubts whether it does not belong to an
independent family phylum in spite of the general similarity to other
genera of Rineceratide. It is of some interest here because the
umbilical perforation is very large, and it adds one more illustration
to the many already noticed of shells having primitive forms and
primitive modes of coiling in the young, which have the impressed.
zone only in the shape of a contact furrow. ‘There is a slight con-
tact furrow generated after the whorls touch in Pse/oceras cphioneum,
sp. Waagen.

Thrincoceras.

I mention this genus of the Rineceratidz especially because I
wish to correct here a curious mistake that has inadvertently oc-
curred in my drawing of Zhrincoceras kentuckiense, p. 432, Fourth
Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Texas. The section
Fig. 13 shows a furrow on the free dorsum of the nepionic volution.
A careful reéxamination shows that this does not exist. There is a
mark due to erosion which occurs at the point previously examined,
but this is not present on other parts of the same volution.

The history of the impressed zone in this species does not differ
from that of the same character in other genera of the same family

545

of which the best known form is Désezfoceras (Vaut.) discors, sp.
McCoy. All species have large umbilical perforations, the nepi-
onic stage has no dorsal furrow and there is only a contact furrow
generated in later stages.

Koninckioceratide.

The genera Koninckioceras and Domatoceras have been exam-
ined and these have no impressed zone until after contact.

Solencchetlide.

In Aipoceras, the arcuate form of this family, there is no impressed
zone, and in Oncodoceras, some of which last are gyroceran, no
impressed zone has been observed. In Asymptoceras, although
the forms are all close coiled, this zone is only faintly indicated in
some species, and when it is better defined it occurs late in the
ontogeny, and then only asa contact furrow. The same remarks
apply also to species of Solenocheilus. In the description of Cran-
oceras this genus was referred to as comparable with Cranoceras
depressum in the peculiar configuration of the dorsum.

There are however, differences which show that this resemblance
is not very close or significant. In Solenochetlus Springert, for ex-
ample, the gibbous dorsum and latero-dorsal flutes and heavy ridges
on the umbilical shoulders appear before the contact furrow, but
this comes into existence as soon as the whorls touch and modifies
the dorsum in proportion to the amount of involution. The latero+
dorsal flutes also are dependant upon the extent and size of the
ridges or keels on umbilical shoulders and are not as in Cranoceras
primitive inflections of the dorsal surface.

Incerta Sedes.

The new genera Peripetoceras of the (Permian) Dyas and Syrin-
goceras of the Trias together with Mojsisovics genus Pleuronautilus
of the Trias have been given together here as a matter of conve-
nience, although it is by no means certain that they belong to the
same family.

Peripetoceras,* n. g.
This genus has been instituted for a single species described
below, which cannot be placed with any other species.

Ilepizet7s, clasped around.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143, 3Q. PRINTED JULY 19, 1894.

546

PERIPETOCERAS FRIESLEBENI, Geinitz (Leonh. et Bronn, /ahré.,
1840001. xi, igs yrs Figs: 1=3; Pl. xi.

Loc., Tunstall Hill, England, Dyas. :

This shell has a metanepionic substage with a subangular abdo-
men and siphuncle propiodorsan. The umbilical perforation is
small and a dorsal furrow appears in the paranepionic substage.
The apex, as shown in Fig. 1, Pl. xi, is narrow and compressed ;
the metanepionic, Figs. 2 and 3, broadens on the dorsum but
remains rounded; the dorsal furrow at its first appearance, just
beyond the gyroceran bend in the paranepionic, is deeper, as shown
in Fig. 3, than it is subsequently when opposite the largest diam-
eter of the umbilical perforation, Fig. 2, and the whorl changes at
the same time from digonal to trapezoidal or temnocheilan-like.
The siphuncle, however, remains propiodorsan.

The neanic substage has a nephritic outline and in the ephebic
stage the volution becomes subquadrate with a flattened abdomen.

The living chamber is somewhat over one-fourth of a volution in
length, with broad, shallow, hyponomic sinus, broad, low, lateral
crests and sinuses on the umbilical zones.

The siphuncle continues to be propiodorsan in position.

The sutures have broad, ventral and dorsal lobes and lateral
lobes. There are annular lobes in older stages according to
Geinitz. I could find none in the early ephebic stage of the single
specimen from Tunstall Hill, which showed a perfect septum, but
they may be present in later substages.

Syringoceras,* n. g.

This genus has been framed for Triassic species like the type,
Syringoceras granulosostriatus, which have a tubular, nepionic volu-
tion with the siphuncle subventran. The early nepionic shell is
also ornamented with very closely set transverse ridges, but it has
no longitudinal ridges until a comparatively late stage. This nepi-
onic ornamentation is like that of the genus Hercoceras at the same
age. The impressed zone is present only after contact and is not deep.

The genus includes the group of Vautidus Barrandet of Mojsiso-
vics, the equivalent of Mawtilus linearis, Laube, and SS. (Vaut.)
evolutum, sp. Mojsisovics.

Syringoceras (Waut.) granulosostriatus and linearis, stated by

* Sooty, a tube.

54T

Mojsisovics to be the same as Acés Munst, have been figured on
Pl. xi, Figs. 4-8, to show that the impressed zone is present only
after contact in these Triassic species, which have good-sized um-
bilical perforations and a cylindrical first whorl.

Pleuronautilus.

This genus was described by Mojsisovics to include a number of
costated nautilian shells of the Trias, having in one section of this
genus shells with the nepionic stage marked by transverse bands
and in the species copied from Mojsisovics, Pl. xii, Fig. 3, the um-
bilical perforation is very large.

In correlation with this the apex is free and the generic char-
acters appear late in the neanic stage.

This shell appears at first to be an extraordinary exception to
the rule that generalized forms, with large umbilical perforations,
slow growth of the dorso-ventral diameters and more or less cylin-
drical first volutions, always have a gibbous dorsum in the nepionic
stage. Mojsisovics’ figure, copied here, Pl. xii, Figs. 4 and 5, and
in his description, has a dorsal furrow in the paranepionic substage.
In order to confirm or refute such an important observation I wrote
a letter of inquiry to Dr. Edmund Mojsisovics von Mojsvar and
have received in return the following courteous reply, which shows
clearly that the species cannot be quoted as exceptional in the
opinion of this eminent authority. I quote below both my trans-
lation and the original letter :

‘*Die Impression auf der intern Seite des (auf Taf. iv, Fig. 3,
meiner Hallstatter Cephalopoden) zu Pélewronautilus superbus
gestellten Fragmenten kann nicht durch eine Verdriickung
erklart werden, sondern nun als eine thatsachlich der Schale
sukommende Eigenschaft betrachtet werden. Ich halte es
aber jetzt fiir wahrscheinlich, dass dieses Fragment trotz seiner
grossen Uebereinstimmung mit dem ersten Umgange von Pleuro-
nautilus superbus nicht zu dieser Art, sondern zu einer andern neuen
Art gestellt und nicht als erster Umgang betrachtet werden darf.
Ich neige vielmehr jetzt der Ansicht zu, dass die Impression auf der
concaven Seite von weggebrochenen innern Umgangen herriihren
diirfte.”’

*‘The impression upon the inner side of the fragment (PI. iv,
Fig. 3 (?) of my Hallstatter Cephalopods), referred to Pleuronauttlus
superbus, cannot be explained as due to compression, but must be

548

regarded as an actual characteristic belonging to the shell. I now,
however, consider it probable that this fragment, in spite of its
great similarity to the first volution of P/lewronautilus superbus,
should not be placed with this species, nor regarded as a first
whorl, but as another new species. I incline much more at present
to the view that the impression (the author’s dorsal furrow) upon
the concave side might have originated from a whorl now broken
away.’

Nautilide.

Without attempting at present to limit the chronologic distribu-
tion of this family, it is necessary in this connection to make some
remarks with reference to my observations on the general affinities
of the genera described in this paper, which are all Mesozoic.

Digonioceras is obviously the most primitive type yet found in
the Mesozoic, and the most primitive or most generalized species is
Digonioceras excavatum, as figured by D’Orbigny. ‘The broad first
whorl of this species is persistent in adults and so also is the slight
amount of the involution and the discoidal character of the coil.
The digonal and approximately nephritic outline of the young in
the paranepionic is succeeded by a subtrigonal outline in the adult.

This is substantially paralleled by the development of the species
of Cenoceras, Cymatoceras, Eutrephoceras and Nautilus.

All of these are apt in their nepionic substages to bring out the
nephritic, and in the paranepionic the subtrigonal form of whorl
with a broad dorsum, converging lateral zones and more or less
subacute or elevated venter. This occurs even when the nephritic
outline or some other is assumed in the later stages.

There is, therefore, in all of these genera some direct reference
to the form of the ephebic stage of Digonioceras.

This fact is of great importance in connection with the assump-
tion made in this memoir, that after the Trias the survivors of the
Nautiloids are all nautilian shells and bear the marks of their descent
from close-coiled ancestors and are not directly connectible with
straight or arcuate types as the nautilian shells of the Paleozoic
often are. .

Digonioceras, n. g.

Digonioceras excavatum, was described in my Genera of Fossil
Cephalopods, as a member of the genus Endolobus surviving in the

549

Jura, but the observations on the young given in this paper show
- that these forms are not so closely related as I then supposed.

The species differ from any species of Endolobus in the form of
the young and in having the annular lobe and dorsal furrow devel-
oped earlier and in not having any large nodular tubercles. The
form of the whorl in section is, however, similiar in adults of Digo-
nioceras and also the aperture. The umbilical perforation is larger
than usual in other allied genera of the same period and the invo-
lution is apt to be less in the older substages, leaving the umbilici
open.

D’Orbigny’s figure copied on PI. xi, Figs. 13, 14, shows that a
dorsal furrow was present in the paranepionic substage* and there
is a similar furrow at the same age in Digonioceras rotundum, the
type of this genus.

DIGONIOCERAS, sp. (?)

The species from Balingen, Middle Lias, Figs. 19-21, Pl. xi,
shows a form similar to Digonioceras excavatum. The metanepi-
onic outline in this has no dorsal furrow, as shown in the corrected
section, Fig. 21, but the suture has an annular lobe. The dorsal
furrow begins on the dorsum at the second septum of this fragment,
which was probably the fourth or fifth of the complete shell.

DIGONIOCERAS ROTUNDUM, DN. Ss.

This has affinities with excavatus, but the large fine young speci-
men, Figs. 6-11, Pl. xii, show that the shell was specifically distinct.
It is obviously from the Oolite, but the locality is not known.
Figs. 6 and 7 show the neanic stage and Fig. 8 the nepionic. The
involution is not greater than it is in D. excavatum and the form
is very similar in the paranepionic. ‘The whorl, however, is really
nephritic in the ananeanic substage, and has already assumed an
outline in section quite distinct from that of Dzgontoceras exca-
vatum. This last-named species retains throughout life, if cor-
rectly figured by D’Orbigny, the same form as the paranepionic
volution of D. rotundum shown in Fig. 8. The outer whorl in
Fig. 7 should be a little broader in proportion and more com-
pletely nephritic. There is a slight trace or linear depression
near the median line on the abdomen, but this may be an individual
character, and not important to the diagnosis of the species.

* This species, at first referred to the Lias, was subsequently in this author’s Prodrome
placed in the Inferior Oolite.

590

Cenoceras.

This genus was described in my Genera of Fossil Cephalopods to
include a number of the Nautili of the Trias and Jura which should
be separated. I propose now to limit the genus to those forms
which, like Cenoceras intermedium, as figured by D’Orbigny, have
trigonal ananepionic substages with subquadragonal metanepionic
volutions and a dorsal furrow in the nepionic stage. The ephebic
stage is also more or less quadragonal, with the dorso-ventral longer
than the transverse diameters and the lateral zones convergent.
The umbilical shoulders are prominent and the umbilical zones
broad and at right angles to the plane of the coil. The sutures
have ventral and dorsal saddles only in the first and second septa.
The annular lobe and dorsal lobe are apt to develop very early, in
some species certainly in the third septum. ‘The siphuncle is near
the centre in the first septum and subsequently varies from dorsad
to ventrad of centre, but is never near either the venter or the dor-
sum. ‘The ornamentation has both longitudinal ridges and trans-
verse bands, but the former may or may not be present in adults.

CENOCERAS INTERMEDIUM.
NAUTILUS INTERMEDIUS, Sow. (?) (A@in. Conch., Pl. 125).
NAUTILUS INTERMEDIUS, D’Orb. (Zerr. Jurass., Pl. 27).
Loc., Balingen, Middle Lias.
Pl: xi, Figs. 15-18.

I feel considerable doubt whether Figs. 17 and 18 are really the
young of C. zvfermedius and the name is taken solely on D’ Orbigny’s
authority. It has, however, a peculiar compressed form and obvi-
ously a large umbilical perforation in the ananepionic and a sub-
quadrate outline in the metanepionic, with siphuncle ventrocentren
as in most specimens of this species. ‘The ana- and metanepionic
substages have no dorsal furrow.

Figs. 15 and 16 show the paranepionic and ananeanic substage of
a specimen with the siphuncle dorsocentren, evidently an unusual
position, since several other specimens of nearly the same age have
it ventrocentren and in adults it is still nearer the venter. The
whorl is tetragonal in the paranepionic, with well-marked ventral,
lateral and dorsal lobes in the sutures and annular lobes. The dor-
sal furrow is also well developed and the umbilical perforation,
restored with a dotted line in Fig. 15, must have been quite large.

551

There seems to have been no close bending of this whorl sufficient
to cause the formation of a dorsal furrow in this shell.

The ananeanic volution given in section, Fig. 16, is too rounded,
the lateral zones in this specimen are quite flat and convergent as
in adults, and the abdomen is also flattened. The zone of contact
is marked by a shaded space in Fig. 16 and is deep and well
marked off from the dorsal furrow above in the same figure.

CENOCERAS LINEATUM.
NAUTILUS LINEATUS, Sow. (Afin. Conch., Pl. 141).
NauTILus LinEaTus, D’Orb. ( Zerr. Jurass., Pl. xxxi).
Loc., Bayeux, Inf. Oolite.
Pl. xi, Figs. 22-27 and 28-31.

The ananepionic and metanepionic substages and part of the
paranepionic are shown in Figs. 24-27, and also the cicatrix and
general form and shell ornaments, which last are continued in the
adults of several species of this genus.

The umbilical perforation is small and comma-like, contact tak-
ing place on the dorsum of the ananepionic volution. A well-
developed dorsal furrow is present in the paranepionic but not in
the metanepionic, as shown in Figs. 26, 22 and 23. .There are
annular lobes in the nepionic stage, but these disappear in the para-
neanic substage.

Figs. 28-31 are so similar to the early stage of this species that I
have referred them to it, although this was identified by Quenstedt
as Nautilus aratus, Schiot.

CENOCERAS ARATUM.

NAUTILUS ARATUS, Schlot.
Loc., Suabia, Middle Lias.
Pl. xip Bigsipg2435..

The specimen shown in Figs. 32-35 was figured first in my 2m-
bryology of Fossil Cephalopods, is one of Saemann’s originals and
although quite perfect in some respects has no shell.

It is a cast in iron of the interior and shows the characteristics
figured very distinctly. The early beginning of the annular lobe
in the third suture and that of the dorsal furrow in the metanepi-
onic between the third and fourth sutures is very interesting in view
of the fact that this shell had a comparatively large umbilical per-

552

foration and the curvature of the first whorl is so uniform that its
early origin cannot reasonably be attributed to that asa cause. The
furrow deepens immediately and affects the outline of the fourth
suture. A slight dorsal lobe appears in the suture of the third
septum at the sarne time with the annular lobe, and is better
given in Fig. 33 than in Fig. 34. The. flattening of the dorsum
is apparent in the second suture, and, so far as I could see after
repeated observations, my former figure in Amdryology of Cephalo-
pods was erroneous in placing an annular lobe in this suture. This
species shows highly accelerated development in all of its charac-
teristics and this acceleration is obviously genetic and independent
of the size of the umbilical perforation, which is very large con-
sidering the fact that it is a Jurassic species.

I have also examined another less perfect specimen of this species
having a considerable part of the shell preserved, but the first and
second apical chambers were lost. ‘lhe external. shell of the um-
bilical zones had longitudinal ridges as well as external parts of the
lateral zones and the venter in the paranepionic substage. The
form of the whorl in section near the ends of the paranepionic sub-
stage remains about the same, except that the venter becomes
slightly broader and flatter. The umbilical perforation is not quite
so large and the gyroceran bend is more abrupt in this specimen,
but otherwise it is exactly similar to the first described specimen.
It is in Museum of Boston Society of Natural History.

CENOCERAS CLAUSUM.

NAUTILUS CLausus, D’Orb. (Zerr. Jurass., Pl. xxxiii).
Loc., St. Vigor, near Bayeux, Inf. Oolite.
Pl. xu, Figs. 12-15.

This species has a small umbilical perforation. The form and
general aspect are very similar to those of other compressed shells
of this genus, but the shell in the paranepionic substage has peculi-
arly well-marked and broad growth bands with interrupted longitu-
dinal ridges. ‘The ana- and metanepionic volutions are shown in
Figs. 13-15 and have a rounded dorsum, the dorsal furrow appears
in the paranepionic at the gyroceran bend and deepens rapidly as
the shell grows around the perforation, ‘The amount of involution
is probably about the same as in Cenoceras granulosus, which it also
resembles in general aspect as well as in ornamentation.

553

CENOCERAS GRANULOSUM.
NAUTILUS GRANULOSUS, D’Orb. ( Zerr. Jurass., Pl. xxxv).

Loc., Chatillon, France, Oxfordian.

Pl. xi, Figs. 36-39, and Fig. 31, Pl. xii.

In this species, which is well characterized by its compressed
form and tubercular ornamentation, the compressed form is present
even in the nepionic stage. Figs. 37 and 38 show that the umbil-
ical perforation is of medium size. Contact takes place on or near
the dorsal edge of the cicatrix on the apex, as shown in Fig. 31,
Pl. xii. The citatrix is plainly visible in several specimens of this
species and it is also obvious that in none of them does the dorsal
furrow appear until after the gyroceran bend begins. The dorsum
of the metanepionic substage remains rounded and gibbous until
the bending begins and then it becomes flattened and immediately
hollow, showing the commencement of the dorsal furrow as in
Figs. 36 and 37, and this continues to deepen and broaden through-
out the paranepionic, as is shown in Figs. 38 and 39.

Cymatoceras.

This genus, described in Genera of Fossil Cephalopods, had for its
type Cymatoceras (Vaut.) pseudoelegans, sp. D’Orb., which is found
in the Necomian together with Cymatoceras neocomiense. Both of
these have costz which pass entirely across the venter. Inthe type
species these appear very late in the ontogeny in the ephelic stage,
whereas in #eocomiense and other species the costations appear
earlier in the ananeanic substage. ‘The sutures have slight ventral
lobes or saddles with deep lateral and dorsal lobes. There are
annular lobes at a very early age in some species.

CyMATOCERAS ELEGANS (?).

NAUTILUS ELEGANS (?) Sow. (A@in. Conch., Pl. cxvi).
NAUTILUS ELEGANS (?) D’Orb. (Zerr. Jurass., Pl. xix).
Loc., Texas, Cretaceous.

Pl. xii, Figs. 16-21.

This species is represented by a number of specimens of the
young, but these do not break apart well and have to be cut and
viewed, as a rule, in sections.

The large size of the apical chamber is noticeable, and the great
distance apart of the first sutures indicates the rapid growth of the

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143. 3R. PRINTED JULY 19, 1894.

554

young shell. This fact is very interesting since here we also find a
high degree of acceleration in other characters. Thus the dorsal
furrow appears in the ananepionic substage at a considerable dis-
tance from the gyroceran bend and continues after this, as shown in
Fig. 20, along the dorsum and is continuous with that of the para-
nepionic.

The costations appear in the neanic stage.

CYMATOCERAS DESLONCHAMPSIANUM.
NavTILus DESLONCHAMPSIANUS, D’Orb. (Zerr. Jurass., Pl. xx).

Loc., Rouen, France, Cretaceous.

Bix bres. 22-07,

This species, which is represented by several good specimens of
the young, has very nearly the same ontogeny as Cymatoceras
elegans, except, of course, in the specific characteristics and the
position of the siphuncle. This last is propiodorsan in the meta-
nepionic instead of being propioventran as in C. e/egans (2). The
sutures of the early epembryonic stages differ from those figured by
Branco for the same species, but this may be owing to the fact that
we have reaJly observed different species. The dorsal furrow
appears as in Cymatoceras elegans in the metanepionic at the second
septum, as in Fig. 24, and is continued in the paranepionic sub-
stage.

CYMATOCERAS SIMPLEX (?).
NAUTILUS SIMPLEX, Sow. (A@in. Conch., Pl. 122).

Loc., England, Cretaceous.

Bia. his. 28.

This single specimen differs somewhat from the specimens of
Cymatoceras deslonchampsianus and may be more distinct in the
adult, but I do not feel sure of the fact that it is a different species.

It has been figured in this connection because it shows that the
dorsal furrow is present in this shell both in the metanepionic and
paranepionic substages.

CYMATOCERAS RADIATUM.
NAUTILUS RADIATUS, Sow. (A@in. Conch., Pl. 356).
NAUTILUS RADIATUS, D’Orb. (Zerr. Jurass., Pl. xiv).
Loc., Rouen, Cretaceous.
Pl. xii, Figs. 29 and 30, and Pl. xiii, Figs. 1 and 2.

The ananeanic substage is shown in outline in centre of Fig. 30,

595

Pl. xii, and in Fig. 1, Pl. xiii, which is the reverse-of that of Fig.
30, but enlarged two diameters. The presence of an annular lobe
is noted as it appeared in the specimen, but this part was covered
by remnants of the nacreous layer and it was not positively defined.
The dorsal furrow began between the first and second septum and
is faintly shaded in Fig. 1, Pl. xiii. The dorsal sutures were cov-
ered except as far as represented. The side view, Pl. xii, Fig. 2,
shows these sutures, so far as seen, the last two in this figure being
the first two of Fig. 29, Pl. xii.

The broad costze of the genus made their appearance in the ana-
neanic substage at the same time that the septa approximate and
the zone of contact is formed.

It will be observed that the costz are broader at first than they
are in later age even in this figure, showing that growth was more
rapid at first as in the development of the septa.

Lutrephoceras,* n. g.

This genus includes these forms like the type Lu¢rephoceras
Dekayi, which have globose ananepionic substages, increasing subse-
quently with great rapidity in all their diameters. The ana- and
metanepionic substages are highly tachygenic and these shells have
very small, and often hardly perceptible and much flattened, um-
bilical perforations. ‘The siphuncles are subdorsan from the apex
through the nepionic stage in some species, in others this position
is not maintained, but the siphuncle is generally in later stages
near the dorsum and in the ephebic stages it is dorsad of the
centre.

The nepionic stage has longitudinal ridges and transverse bands,
the former disappearing in adults which are smooth.

The form of the whorl in section is nephritic from an early age
and changes but little throughout life.

The sutures are almost straight, having but slight ventral lobes,
broad ventro-lateral saddles, lobes on the umbilical zones and deep
lobes in the zone of impression. There are no annular lobes at
any stage of development.

* Evutpegys, clasping around.

556

EUTREPHOCERAS, Dekayi.
Nautitus, Dekayi. Morton (Synop. Org. Rem., Pl. viii, Fig. 4).

Loc., Dakotah, Cretaceous.

Pl. xin, Figs. 4-8; Pl. xiv, Fig. 1.

The ananepionic substage in this species is very obtuse and al-
most saucer shaped, the whorl increases so rapidly in all its diame-
ters. ‘The cicatrix is present on one specimen and is a double
depression with a dividing ridge on the cast of the apical chamber.
There is a peculiar plate of nacreous matter which may be the
equivalent of a similar plate which fills in the apex of the shell in
Nautilus pompilius or it may be simply a remnant of the apical
deposit which has this peculiar form. However this may be, the
cecum is seen through it in one specimen, and in another it can
be seen in the same position, although the plate is not visible, the
apex being more completely covered by the external shell.

It seems clear that the dark spots observed in these two speci-
mens were due to the presence of the cecum filled by a dark,
sparry deposit and showing through the nacreous layer.* If so
this organ is close against the venter of the apical chamber. I was
not able to see the youngest septa, but there are evidently very few
of them and the one shown in Fig. 4 is probably either the third
or fourth septum.

The metanepionie substage is not so smooth as the ananepionic,
and although it is difficult to observe without making a section, I
am quite sure that there is a faint dorsal furrow present before the
gyroceran bend begins. ‘The longitudinal ridges and the trans-
verse bands with the usual crenulated edges begin to be observable
in this substage.

The bend which begins the paranepionic substage is very abrupt
and almost at right angles to the dorsum of the metanepionic sub-
stage and has a deep dorsal furrow. The umbilical perforation is
consequently so small and arcuate that it is very difficult to observe.
In Fig. 6 the lateral angle of the shell and of the first septum that
is built upon the dorsum of the apex has been cut off and shows the
opening of the umbilical perforation in part, but has a misleading
outline since it is just the reverse in shape of the true internal per-
foration. It, however, shows that there is a perforation as does
also Fig.'4. ‘This shell must grow in these younger substages with

*TIt can be observed in the apex of Nautilus pompilius through the thin shell of the
ananepionic substage.

557

great rapidity upon the venter in order to swing that part around
the very sharp curve made by the gyroceran bend.

The paranepionic substage has well-marked longitudinal ridges
and transverse bands of growth given in Fig. 6. The latter part
of the paranepionic in this species, if this be properly limited by
means of the ornamentation, is close coiled. ‘That is to say, it
touches dorsum of the ananepionic and envelops it, the involution
being almost complete from the very beginning.

The umbilical perforation is, however, not completely closed nor
is it subsequently closed by extra growths of shell as in Maw¢c/us
pompilius. The area of the umbilical zones is marked off at an
early age by the smoothness of the shell, the longitudinal ridges
being absent on these parts. In some specimens the shell mark-
ings are much stronger than in others, but in all they seem to grow
more decided until near the end of the metaneanic substage.

The meta- and paranepionic substages have an elevated subangu-
lar abdomen not shown in any of the figures, the outliné of the
section of the whorl is in reality in these early substages depressed
subtrigonal similar to the young whorl of Cymatoceras, but less
acute, and to that of Mautelis pompitius, but more pronounced than
in that species on account of the subangularity of the venter; the
venter of Mautilus pompilius being more rounded in the paranepi-
onic substage.

The ananeanic and metaneanic are blended and probably not
separable, but the paraneanic can be distinguished. The former
has the siphuncle tending more towards the centre, although in
some specimens this alteration is not so great as in others. ‘The
transverse bands become broader and their edges have tubercular-
like short ridges on a secondary band, which are sometimes well
marked off on their apical borders from the sunken younger parts
of the same bands of growth. ‘These ridges are always continuous
from band to band and over the sunken parts of each band. In
the paraneanic substage, as shown in Figs. 7 and 8, these ornaments
begin to diminish and finally die out. In Fig. 8 this substage is
limited by the retention on one side of a partial constriction or
permanent aperture, which, however, is not present in all shells.

In the anephebic stage, also shown in Figs. 7 and 8, orad of the
constriction, the shell is very nearly as smooth as it is in the full
grown. The form of the whorl remains about the same. The
siphuncle has become dorso-ceatren in position in this shell, in

598

others it may still remain nearer the dorsum, but in most shells it
shifts its position somewhat.

In the metephebic stage the shell appears to have been smooth
and the whorl is apparently somewhat more depressed or more
absolutely nephritic in outline. ‘This distinction is due to the
larger size and greater proportionate increase in lateral growth.
The dorsal sutures in this substage and probably throughout the
ephebic and possibly earlier have not only the broad dorsal lobes
in the contact furrow, but narrow and very shallow lobes, which
cannot be described as annular lobes, although they resemble these
as they appear in the neanic stage of “ndolobus avonensis, Fig. 38,
Pl. viii. They are, however, much shallower. In the centre of
these, in the only specimen perfect enough to show this, there were
minute linguiform saddles as given in Fig. 1, Pl. xiv. The sutures
have to be in perfect condition to observe such markings and this
may'account for the absence of similar markings upon other nauti-
loids. The siphuncle may be either ventrocentren, centren or
dorsocentren, but it is more commonly dorsocentren.

EUTREPHOCERAS, sp. (?)

Plexi, Hig. 3.

Loc., France, Cretaceous.

This shell is referred to here because it shows clearly the pres-
ence of a faint dorsal furrow in the metanepionic substage opposite
a corresponding furrow in the paranepionic. ‘The cast of the per-
foration was preserved in’ this specimen and it was extremely flat
and comma shaped. ‘The whorls are coiling towards the observer
so that there can be no doubt that the section of the central volu-
tion is metanepionic.

EUTREPHOCERAS FAXOENSE, N. Ss.
Loc., Faxoe, Denmark, Cretaceous.
Peace Pigs -o—12.

This species differs from Hudtrephoceras Dekayi in the extreme
subdorsan position and smaller size of the siphuncle in the nepionic
stage, has larger umbilical openings and is also apparently a smaller
form. Otherwise it is very close in sutures and form to this spe-
cies. ‘The umbilical cast is preserved on one side in Fig. 9, and
shows the involution to have been considerably less than in 4. De-
kayt. ‘The development is, however, so similar otherwise that no

509

special description is necessary. It must be noted, however, that
the shell was absent, so that no comparison of the ornamentation
could be made.

EUTREPHOCERAS IMPERIALIS.
NAUTILUS IMPERIALIS, Sow. (fiz. Conch., Pl. xiii, Figs. 13-16).

Loc., Isle of Sheppy and Isle of Wight, Tertiary.

Pl. xiii, Figs. 14-16.

In this interesting Tertiary species the siphuncle is subdorsan
even in the apical chamber, as is shown in Fig. 14, and it clings to
this position throughout the nepionic stage. The form does not
seem to differ materially from that of Awtrephoceras Dekayi. ‘The
umbilical perforation is of about the same form and size, that is to
say, it is as small as is practicable to afford room for the shell to
turn and has a depressed comma shape. ‘The external umbilici are
more open than in &. Dekay¢ and smaller than in &. Faxoense.
The ornamentation is quite distinct. In the nepionic stage there
are longitudinal ridges and transverse bands, but these are never so
prominent as in Dekay?. In what I suppose is the neanic stage
these still persist, but are so fine that their intersecting lines, with
minute depression in the checker-board-like spaces between them,
give a punctate aspect to the surface when viewed with a cross
light.

The specimens from the Isle of Sheppy, supposed to be identical
with this species, shows the presence of a dorsal furrow in the
opposed dorsi of the meta- and paranepionic volutions, Fig. 16,
and the very small size of the perforation.

This species has an annular lobe which has no connection with
the subdorsan siphuncle. I could not find any traces of these in
the older sutures. The sutures resembled those of Autrephoceras
Dekayi except that I could not find any signs of the linguee-form
dorsal saddles in the centre of the dorsal lobes.

Nautilus.

Before beginning the brief notice of this genus, which I propose
to give, I desire to return thanks to Henry Brooks, whose observa-
tions and drawings have contributed so largely to the interest of
this paper. These are also noticed in connection with the figures
themselves. I am also deeply indebted to Dr. Charles E. Beecher,
of New Haven, who has loaned me a series of beautiful prepara-

560

tions, making a complete series of all of the substages of develop-
ment in Wautilus pompilius and more or less of other species, and
also to Dr. R. T. Jackson, for similar material. I hope to use this
material more extensively and effectually in the future. In this
paper full justice cannot be done to the work of Dr. Beecher or
Mr. Brooks.

This generic name, heretofore supposed to include nearly all
of the coiled or nautilian forms of Nautiloidea and still used by
some conservative paleontologists in this way, is really not applica-
ble to any forms except the living species of nautiloids and possi-
bly some shells inthe Tertiary. Even these last cannot be satisfac-
torily referred to the genus Nautilus until their nepionic substages
have been worked out.

The genus Eutrephoceras is a near ally but still distinct in most
of its characteristics. The broad outline of all of the epinepionic
' stages of growth, the general position of the siphuncle, dorsad of
the centre, and the distinct sutures of Eutrephoceras separate the
species. The minute umbilical perforations and closer coiling of
the younger substages of the conch in Eutrephoceras show also that
it is the terminal group of some other genetic series than that to
which Nautilus probably belongs.

The genus Cymatoceras of the Cretaceous differs in the broad
costations as well as in the outline of the nepionic whorl. The
sutures of this genus are more like those of Nautilus than the
sutures of Eutrephoceras.

The genus Nautilus is obviously still more remote from Cenoce-
ras of the Jura in the sutures of all stages and form of the ananepi-
onic and succeeding nepionic substages, although in the outline of
the ephebic whorl and position of the siphuncle there is close
approximation. If one excepts the comparison of the ananepionic
substage, which is obviously similar to that of Huérephoceras Dekayt,
being only more compressed, the nepionic stage and the ananeanic
substage are very close in aspect to those of Digonioceras, although
the succeeding substages become quite distinct.

I cannot in this memoir give full descriptions of the substages of
development which I hope to treat fully in the future. It will suf-
fice to refer to the accurate drawings of Mr. Brooks, given on PI. i,
and to notice the fact that young shells and preparations now in
my possession of Wautilus umbilicatus, pompilius and macromphalus
show no variations in their characteristics worth noticing here. It

561

is essential, however, to call attention to the statement made else-
where, that the dorsal furrow begins in Wautelus umbilicatus,
pompilius and macromphalus in the metanepionic or at any rate be-
fore.the gyroceran bend begins.

The ornamentation is similar to that of the young of most other
genera of the Mesozoic during the nepionic stage, but the young
of Nautilus do not repeat the broad cost of the epinepionic stages
of Cymatoceras. The shell of Mawtilus pompilius becomes smooth
in the ananeanic substage which begins when contact occurs.

The color of the ana- and metanepionic substages are pearly,
the outer layer of shell being thin and colorless in these substages.
A uniform brown spreads over the exterior in the paranepionic
substage. This tends to break up into transverse bands in the ana-
neanic at the same time that the ornaments begin to disappear.

This breaking up into bands is due to a decided fading out of
the coloration which may sometimes seriously affect the stripes
themselves. In the metaneanic, sometimes after the coloration has
for a brief space been reduced, the bright, broad, brown stripes of
the adult appear upon a white ground.

The form of the outline of the whorl changes in the ananeanic,
the sides and venter becoming flattened and being less involute,
the whorl repeats approximately the ephebic whorl of Mawét¢lus um-
bilicatus. To speak more accurately, it would at this time be iden-
tical with any species that might have an ephebic form exactly
intermediate between Wauwtilus umbilicatus and pompilius, since the
involution of the latter is at all stages somewhat greater than that
of the former species at the same age. Inthe paranepionic the animal
begins to deposit calcareous matter along the lines of involution in
the umbilical zones and thus spreads more towards the centre and
increases the involution. This process really begins with the meta-
neanic and is often marked bya permanent constriction beyond which
the transverse lines of growth become coarser than they are in the
ananeanic substage.

In the anephebic substage, the closing of the umbilici by the
spreading inwards of the calcarous deposits of the umbilical zones
begins and is carried out fully in the metephebic substage, the
umbilici being completely covered up and obliterated. In the
parephebic substage the brown coloration disappears, leaving the
surface white. No degenerative modifications other than this loss

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 143.38. PRINTED JULY 24, 1894.

562

of color and occasional approximation of two last septa have been
observed in any shells that have come under my observation, and,
therefore, I have thought this change probably belonged to the
later ephebic and not to the true gerontic stage.

These facts show clearly that in this genus the least involute of
existing species, Wautelus umbilicatus, is the most primitive and
has characteristics repeated more or less in the young of the more
involute Vautilus pompilius. This observation is of great import-
ance in this paper, since it confirms the opinion that genetic groups
of Nautiloids and Ammonoids are series of parallel morphic modifi-
cations, in the evolution of which the shells progressed from less
closely coiled and less involute to more closely coiled and more
involute shells.

Dr. Beecher has called my attention in his preparation of /Vawt-
lus. macromphalus to avery important fact in connection with the
bioplastology of the Nautiloids, viz., that there are indications in
the ontogeny of this species of degenerative changes which have also
taken a parallel course to those observed in other genera and families ; *
in other words, that it is more closely coiled and more involute in
the nepionic stage than later in life.

The nepionic stage of this species differs in form from that of
Nautilus pompilius, but the most marked distinction lies in the
abrupt bending of the shell in building the gyroceran curve. This
consists partly in the formation of thick extensions of the shell
along the lines of involution. These are similar to the testaceous
umbilical extensions occurring in the same situation in JVawézlus
umbtlicatus, but begin later in the ontogeny of that species, and
also similar to those occurring in the young of WV. pompilius earlier
than in wmdelicatus, but later than in the ontogeny of macrompha-
dus. All of these facts and also the form of the young of macrom-
phalus can only be accounted for by assuming that it is probably a
descendant of Wautilus pompilius, which exhibits an accelerated
development of earlier nepionic substages and then in the ephebic
stage becomes less involute.

I shall try to put these propositions in future papers into convinc-
ing form with illustrations, but it is easy to verify them with any
good specimen of JV. macromphalus since the internal whorls are
visible in every case.

These observations confirm in the most unexpected manner the
generalization deduced from fossil shells, that in progressive series,

563

evolution is towards closer coiling of the shell and in retrogressive
series the direction of evolution is towards uncoiling.

Aturide.

In my second paper on ‘‘ Carboniferous Cephalopods,’’ Geological
Survey of Texas, Fourth Annual Report, p. 389, 1 pointed out the
fact that the genera Enclimatoceras of the Mesozoic, Hercoglossa
of the Cretaceous and Aturia of the Tertiary formed a distinct
group by themselves.

These genera have ventral saddles, deep lateral lobes and lateral
saddles of so highly specialized outlines that the sutures resemble
those of some of the Clymeninz. ‘The forms are compressed and
as a rule deeply involute. Unfortunately I have been unable to
get the ananepionic substages of Enclimatoceras or Hercoglossa.

It is, however, fortunate that the involute character of the young
in these genera and close coiling of adults in the entire group
makes it highly probable that the young when investigated will not
be likely to contradict the conclusions obtained from the study of
Aturia.

Through the kindness of the Directors of the National Museum
and Geological Survey and Dr. W. H. Dall and Mr. T. W. Stan-
ton, I received a number of sections of Hxchmatoceras Ulrichi,
from Prairie Creek, Wilcox county, Alabama, and Zell county,
Texas, Tertiary, but not one of these had a centre perfect enough
to be of any use.

Aturia.

This genus, first described by Bronn, has long been admitted and
is easily recognized by the aid of the peculiar sutures and siphuncle.

AtTurIA Morriss!, Michellotii.

Loc., Baldasseres, Tertiary.

Pl. xiii, Figs. 17-19.

The ananepionic substage in this species is very globose and the
growth of the apex is certainly very rapid in all its diameters. ‘This
rapid increase is, however, not sustained in the transverse diame-
ters of the metanepionic and succeeding stages. The gyroceran
bend is so abrupt and the coiling is so close at the end of the meta-
nepionic, that I have not yet succeeded in seeing and studying the
dorsum of this substage. The opening of the umbilical perforation

564

can be seen in Fig. 19, which is enlarged six diameters, as a black
spot at the junction of the sutures and is visible only under a mag-
nifier in the original. The other figures are also enlarged six di-
ameters,

Fig. 19 also shows the first three sutures and the highly acceler-
ated development of the first suture which takes on immediately
the peculiar lobes and saddles of the generic group to which this
species belongs, and also the great depth of the apical chamber.

ATURIA z1zAc, Bronn.
ioc, Wax, rance,. Tertiary.
Piexii, igs. 20-22,

Figs. 20 and 21 give front and side views of the nepionic and
half of the neanic stages enlarged about ten times with the first four
sutures.

This species has a globose apex similar to that of Morrissi and
the umbilical perforation is also minute. ‘This and the closeness
of the coiling is shown and the subdorsan siphuncle are shown in
Fig. 22. I have restored the dorsal shell of the ananepionic sub-
stage in this specimen. ‘The extraordinary depth of the apical
chamber, the lobate character of the suture of the first septum, and
the highly tachygenic (accelerated) development of all of the char-
acters of the apex are noticeable in this species as in Atusza Mor-
70SSt.

Scaphites.

The phylogerontic forms known by this name are of interest in
this paper because of the invariably excentric retroversal character
of the living chamber and their obviously intermediate station be-
tween the more uncoiled phylogerontic genera and such phyloge-
rontic genera as Sphaeroceras and the like which are closer ap-
proximations to normal shells and are consequently persistently in-
volute at all stages of development.

The figures of this genus, in consequence of the retroversal bend
of the living chamber, do not usually give any data, and although
the literature is so abundant I was forced to make what observa-
tions I could in finishing up this paper upon the materials immedi-
ately in hand. In one fine large specimen of Scaphites from
Mingusville, Mont., Coll. Bost. Soc. Nat. History, I was able to
excavate the dorsum and found the impressed zone retained even

565

upon the edge of the aperture or rather in the base of the dorsal
crest. The aperture had the usual shelf-like constriction figured
by Meek and on the dorsal side were two narrow sinuses and a
median dorsal crest, the length of which could not be determined.

Mr. Stanton, in his ‘‘ Colorado Formation,’’* shows a similar re-
tention of the impressed zone in Scaphites ventricosus.

The gerontic whorl is quite free for some distance, and although
the impressed zone sensibly diminishes in depth and_ breadth
towards the aperture it is not obliterated. These two species have
comparatively short living chambers, which are free only for a part
of their length, and one would naturally expect that the very deep
contact furrow of the ephebic and anagerontic substage would per-
sist. The conditions are quite different from those that occur in
shells with more extended gerontic stages, like Scaphites larve-
Jormis, Meek and Hayden, and in these the paragerontic substage
may perhaps have no impressed zone.

I have, however, examined a considerable number of scaphitoid
sheils from European localities and some of these gave positive
information of the persistence of the impressed zone in the lower,
inner border of the aperture, although, as in Scaphites nodosus, it
was sometimes hardly perceptible in the outline of this part.

Felicancylide.

This family name serves the purpose of temporarily uniting all
phylogerontic species of the Cretaceous in America which have
three rows of tubercles on either side. The characteristics are
given below under the generic title ‘* Helicancylus.”’

LFelicancylus, Gabb.t

It is probable that genetic connection as shown by the ornamen-
tation existed between cretacic shells of normal involute form like
Acanthoceras Rémondi of the nodose variety figured by Gabb as
having three rows of tubercles and his Crzoceras latus.{ This last
also has three rows of spines and single costze, but has an open coil
without an impressed zone. ‘There are similar marks of affinity in
the species described by the same author as Helicancylus equicosta-
zus, which has also three rows of nodes. ‘The last, however, has the

* Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey, Pls. xliv and xly.
+ Pal. Cal., i, Pl. xiii, and ii, Pl. xxv.
HIG iPlay, bis. 2.

566

composite mode of development described below in Nostoceras and
Emperoceras with a gerontic stage which is a close approximation to
Hamulina and Ptychoceras,* and affords evidence that this genus is
a phylogerontic form in which the gerontic retroversal last volution
replaces the helicoceran. These and other forms appear at any
rate to give an approximate solution of the difficult problem of the
derivation of such form as Hamites, Hamulina, Ptychoceras and
Baculites, and also Turrillites and Helicoceras.

The helicoid spiral appears sandwiched between a phylogerontic
nepionic stage in Nostoceras and Emperoceras and a true onto-
genetic, gerontic living chamber with a retroversal curvature. This
ontogeny shows this spiral to be a special, probably pathologic adap-
tive mode of development peculiar to the ephebic stage of some of
the phylogerontic series, but not necessarily having any correspond-
ing feature in the gerontic stages of any large number of normal
formed Ammonitine.

This explanation is in accord with the fact that all normal Am-
monoids and Nautiloids revolve in the same plane even in the
gerontic stage, and enables one to explain the most puzzling of the
degenerative forms. Thus there may be, as in AZacroscaphites [vanit,
shells with retroversal gerontic stages derived directly from normal
Ammonitine. Some helicoceran forms are also derived directly
from similar normal forms, the most wonderful example being
the series discovered and accurately described many years since by
Quenstedt, who traced helicoceran and crioceran, and even bacu-
lites-like shells all back to their proper origin in Cosmoceras (Amm.)
bifurcatum of the Jura. Neumayr is constantly alluded to as the
person who discovered this important biological fact, whereas the
credit is due te Quenstedt, who showed that all such forms in the
Jura were probably pathologic derivatives of normal forms. I
have examined a considerable number of the species of Turrillites
and Helicoceras from European localities, and although the apices
of some of these were small enough to have shown at least the be-
ginning of an excentric nepionic or neanic stage, if any had existed
I did not succeed in finding any indications of the presence of such
forms in the young. It is, however, very strange that the youngest
stages are invariably absent even in large series of specimens of the
same species, and this suggests that the youngest stage was especially
liable to destruction, and might not have been like a normal formed

* See remarks on Ptychoceras.

567

involute Ammonoid, 7. ¢., it might have been excentric or helicoid.
So far as known, however, all European series approximate to normal
forms in the young. Here and there also there are diseased indi-
viduals, as in the so-called Zurrilites Boblayet (Arietide) and Turril-
ites. Valdani and Coynarti figured by D’Orbigny, and other isolated
examples of unsymmetrical shells having helicoid tendencies in the
ephebic and even younger stages. It is also fully demonstrated by
specimens and drawings that many Turrilites and _ helicoceran
forms do not have a retroversal living chamber in the gerontic
stages as in the scaphitoid and ancyloceran-like series traceable to
various genera. ‘This may be due to the incompleteness of the
specimens heretofore collected and the perishability of the excentric
gerontic volution when present. ‘This hardly accounts for those
species having contracted living chambers and apertures, the presence
of which are almost conclusive in favor of the opinion that they
could not have had retroversal gerontic living chambers.

These facts and the tendency of the terminal gerontic volution to
return to the mode of revolution in the same plane and to resume
the lost bilateral symmetry of the whorl in Emperoceras and Nos-
toceras show plainly that the helicoid spiral is acquired, adaptive
pathologic tendency that may come in anywhere as an intermediate
stage in the ontogeny or phylogeny of any degenerative species or
series, and is not strictly speaking a normal phylogerontic charac-
teristic.

Another interesting result of the discovery of Helicancylus by
Gabb is that Hamulina, Hamites, and probably also the allied
Ptychoceras can be definitely characterized as phylogerontic forms
of phylogerontic series. The author has previously claimed, with
Quenstedt, that this was the only way to account for the Hamites,
Ptychoceran and Baculites-like modifications of European forms.
American forms with helicoid tendencies, like Helicancylus, having
gerontic stages which differ from true Ptychoceras only in the close-
ness with which the gerontic retroversal bend is made, afford posi-
tive evidence in the same direction.

It should be noted in this connection that these remarks do not
necessarily imply that Ptychoceras has not a distinct mode of de-
velopment, an ontogeny of its own and also its own peculiar
genetic series as may be seen in the remarks on that genus.

I have had an opportunity to study the gerontic stage of a species
of Helicancylus in the Whitney Coll., Mus. of Comp. Zodlogy,

568

which may be new. The gerontic stage is the same as that of
fT. equicostatum, and is closely bent and like Ptychoceras, although
there is no gerontic contact furrow. The coste are large, single
and tuberculated, not alternately entire and tuberculated as in
Gabb’s species.

LNVostoceratide.

This is probably a more or less artificial group, but it serves the
present purpose of showing the common characteristics of several
groups of phylogerontic species. I have united under this name all
such distorted forms of the Cretaceous in this country with unsym-
metrical spirals in the ephebic stages, more or less prominent cost
and two rows of tubercles on the abdomen. The earliest stages are
too little known for any general description to be given, the

-gerontic stages often have a retroversal living chamber and are
tuberculated. ’

The genera are Nostoceras, Didymoceras, Emperoceras, Exitelo-
ceras.

Quenstedt was the first to call attention to the persistency of
styles of ornamentation in series of degenerative shells and to point
out that these were indications of affinity that could not be lightly
laid aside. A considerable proportion of the phylogerontic species
of the Cretaceous in this country have only two rows of tubercles
with costations bifurcated at the bases of these tubercles, but I have
not been able to find any corresponding ornamented normal form
which might be considered their phylogerontic radical.

flelicoceras Stevensoni (Whitfield) is represented among the
specimens sent me from Yale Museum by a fine specimen and the
youngest part of this specimen indicates a change in the spiral,
but the young was not sufficiently defined to enable me to place the
species in its proper genus.

I have before mea fragment of a whorl very similar to Stevensoni
in coste and tubercles, but of larger size than is usual in that
species, and yet this has an irregular contact furrow on the upper
side. The irregularity of this furrow may be due to age and the
species may have been a true turrilites-like form when younger, or
it may indicate that the separation of shells with the helicoceran
mode of growth into different genera from true turrilites-like shells
with a contact furrow is artificialand not advisable. This fragment

569

reported as found at Colorado City Mineral Springs, and is in
Museum of Comparative Zodélogy.

Flelicoceras umbilicatum, Meek, Lnvertebrate Paleontology, Pl.
xxii, Fig. 5, is probably a close ally of Stevensoni, but my informa-
tion_is not satisfactory.

Heteroceras Conrad, as figured by Whiteaves in Mesozoic Fossils,
i, Pt. ii, Pl. xii, and supposed to be identical with Ammonoceratites
Conradi of Morton is also a form that is not sufficiently well-known
to be referred to its proper genus. The costz have no tubercles
and resemble those of the young of WVostoceras Stantoni and helicinum.
There is also obviously a retroversal gerontic volution shown by
Whiteaves in his Fig. 3, and there is apparently no contact furrow,
the mode of growth being helicoceran and not turrilitean.

It may be useful in connection with these descriptions of phylo-
gerontic forms to note the fact that there are some series of true
ancyloceran forms in this country having shells revolving in sym-
metrical spirals in the same plane, and not having helicoidal ephebic
stages. They are similar to most of the European series, and it is
not advisable to name them till proper comparisons can be made.

Ancyloceras percostatum and Rémondi, Gabb, described in
. Paleontology of California, are good examples of species having this
kind of spiral.

Lindigia.

This genus Karstens,* with Lzndigza helicocerotdes as the type, has
(in this small species) linear, untuberculated costz, a helicoceran
spiral in the ephebic stage, and comparatively a very large and long
retroversal gerontic volution.

Heteroceras Conradi of Whiteaves may be a species of this genus
occurring in North America, but Lindigia has peculiar ventral
crests in the costee of the anagerontic substage that are quite dis-
tinct from those figured by Whiteaves in his species.

Felicoceras simplicostatum of Whitfield resembles this species, but
it may nevertheless be the parephebic substage of some other tuber-
culated species which has lost its ephebic tubercles.

Nostoceras,+ n. g.

The species of this genus have a close-coiled unsymmetrical shell
during the ephebic stage and are true turrilites. There are two
* Geol. de la Colombie, Venezuela, etc., Pl. i, 1856.
+t Néorog, areturn.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. xxx1I. 148. 8 T. PRINTED JULY 24, 1894.

570

rows of ventral tubercles, which become more or less deflected
during development towards the lower side (whether this be the
left or right side) of the whorls. There is a contact furrow which
is maintained as long as the whorls are sufficiently close coiled and
then disappears on the free gerontic volution. This volution is
excentric and then recurved as in all retroversal living chambers.
The nepionic stage is not yet known, but it is obviously quite
different from that of the more loosely coiled helicoceran spirals of
the genus Emperoceras.

This genus has the two rows of ventral tubercles and general
aspect of the shells of Ptychoceras and Emperoceras, described in
this paper and these characters contrast decidedly with those of the
Helicancylus phylum.

The nepionic and perhaps earlier neanic substages are not known,
but there are indications in some specimens of JVostoceras helicinum
that in the early neanic substages the whorl is not a normal ammo-
noidal spiral, but an open, whorled, irregular shell of some kind.
The specimens I have in hand also show that in both species,
Nostoceras Stantont and Nostoceras helicinum, the last neanic or
earliest ephebic substage has no contact furrow and has single costz
without tubercles. The ephebic stage has tubercles as a rule, and
more or less bifurcated costz, but both may be absent in some shells.
The gerontic volution is apt to have tubercles even when they are
absent in the ephebic stage.

This genus is of interest in connection with the history of the
impressed zone because here, as in other allied forms, this charac-
teristic enters upon a new phase of its history. The nepionic stage
being unknown, one cannot state positively that it has a close-coiled
shell and a contact furrow, but since this has now been found in so
many uncoiled forms, it is legitimate to infer that it was present.
In such shells the contact furrow which arises after the degeneration
and loss of the nepionic contact furrow is obviously distinct,
occupying the side and not the dorsum of the whorl.

The type is WVostoceras Stanton’, U.S. National Museum; Loc.,
Chatfield, Novarro county, Texas.

NOSTOCERAS STANTONI.
Loc., Chatfield, Novarro county, Texas.
This species has several varieties.
Var. retrorsus.
This variety has from five to six complete turrilites-like whorls

571

before the retroversal gerontic stage begins. The apex does not
exhibit any indications that the species had an excentric young
stage even at the small diameter of 5 mm. in one specimen. ‘There
appear to be no tubercles on the earliest whorls examined, probably
the-neanic stage. Two irregular rows of tubercles are introduced in
the ephebic stage with alternating untuberculated coste. The
tuberculated cost are sometimes bifurcated, and sometimes single.
The coste are closely set, subactite ridges, with concave flutes
between them both, arching apically, the flutings broader than the
costal ridges, but the surface is otherwise smooth.

The height of the coil is over 40 mm. in the largest specimen,
through the ephebic whorls, although the apex is imperfect. In two
other specimens this length is much less, although the number of
the whorls is about the same. The diameter of this specimen
through the parephebic whorl is 34 mm. The height (transverse
diameter) of the parephebic substage is 19 mm., the ventro-dorsal
diameter about 13 mm. ‘The diameter of the umbilical opening
must have been less than 12 mm.

The costz are wider apart in the last of the ephebic stage, or par-
ephebic substage, and I expected to find that they died out altogether
for a certain space, but there was no evidence of this. They, how-
ever, appear to be slightly more prominent on the gerontic volution
than on the parephebic substage.

The contact furrow begins early, being present on the smallest
whorl examined. There is therefore no positive indications that
this species had uncoiled or excentric young as in Emperoceras.

In the anagerontic substage the whorl bends downwards or orally
in two dextral specimens, and in the metagerontic acquires larger
tubercles and coarser coste, sometimes bifurcated, and bends
upwards towards the base of the ephebic volution, forming the
retroversal living chamber. The last part of this, or the parage-
rontic substage, is nearly or quite straight, the bifurcations disappear,
leaving the coste straight, and the tubercles also gradually disap-
pear. The latest senile substage is also nearly if not quite bilaterally
symmetrical and strongly contrasts in this respect with all the stages
preceding the metagerontic substage. The return to the symmet-
rical form of whorl really begins in the metagerontic substage. The
living chamber has an aperture in one specimen. ‘This is straight
across the venter, has slight crests on the sides, and is straight or
with very slight crest on the dorsum.

502

Mr. Stanton has kindly examined the numerous specimens in the
National Museum, and estimates that the retroversal chamber in
this variety is generally the sixth or seventh volution and also
remarks that one specimen is nearly double the size of the largest
one mentioned above, and that there are but few that are smaller.
The three specimens I have of this variety are dextral, but there are
others in the National Museum which are sinistral.

Var. prematurum.

This variety has more closely set costze and smaller tubercles and
the gerontic stage begins earlier, there being, if my estimate is
correct, only three or four closely coiled whorls. The last volution
is well preserved in the only specimen of this variety that I have
and this shows clearly an open aperture, almost straight across the
venter, with slight crests on the sides and equally obscure crest on
the dorsum. It is, in other words, precisely similar to the aperture
of variety retrorsum. ‘The specimen here described is sinistral, and
is the only one obviously belonging to this variety in the collection
of the National Museum.

Var. aberrans.

This variety may have three, four or five closely coiled whorls
and considerable variation in the tuberculations, etc., but when the
gerontic stage begins, the aspect is distinct. The anagerontic
substage does not bend so abruptly as in retrorsum or prematurum
it is more oblique to the axis of the spire and the retroversal meta-
gerontic substage, if it be superadded in this variety, would be more
oblique than in var. frematurum. One specimen is dextral and the
other is sinistral.

Remarks.

This species was discovered by Mr. Stanton in the Ripley beds,
where it is associated, as stated by the same gentleman, with a
number of other phylogerontic species, such as two species of
Ptychoceras, Zurrilites splendens, Shum., Wostoceras (Turr.) hel-
cinum, Shum., Helicoceras navarroensis, Shum., and a variety of
other typical Ripley species. Mr. Stanton also informs me that out
of 26 specimens in the National Museum, 16 are dextral and 10 are
sinistral.

573

NOSTOCERAS HELICINUM.
HETEROCERAS HELICINUM, Shumard.*
Loc., Chatfield, Novarro county, Texas.

At the diameter of 8 mm. in one of the two specimens before me,
there are indications that the young was more loosely coiled, and
perhaps more or less excentric in comparison with the later closer-
coiled stages. The contact furrow was also obviously absent in
these earlier substages. In the other specimen, at diameter of about
gmm., there are similar indications. Nevertheless, I was by no
means sure of what these changes indicated, whether a helicoceran,
scaphetoid or hamites-like shell. All that can be said is that they
show irregularities in the growth of the young not present in the
turrillitean volutions of the ephebic stage.

The young, probably in the anephebic substage, has single coste,
each tuberculated on either side of the venter. “These become more
or less irregularly bifurcated, and with intermediate entire coste with-
out tubercles, usually one, sometimes two, in each interspace in the
metephebic substage. The whole is a flat turbinated coil of not
more than four or five whorls with prominent tubercles and costa-
tions,

In the anagerontic substage the volution abandons the spiral, the
contact furrow disappearing immediately, and the shell grows down-
waras and outwards, as in the anagerontic substage of Vostoceras
Stantont, var. aberrans.

The single tuberculated coste of the young are similar to those
of the later stages of Avzcyloceras Jennyt, Whitf., Pal. Black Hills,
and some of the helicoceran forms found elsewhere ; but the young
shells were obviously quite different, being more closely coiled and
stouter shells. Specimen in Coll. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 21103.

Didymoceras,} Nn. g.

There are aseries of forms having loose helicoid spirals, two
rows of more or less irregular ventral tubercles and irregularly
bifurcated coste, which also have, or appear to have, a gerontic
stage with a retroversal volution, as in Nostoceras. These are all
larger shells and are separable by the helicoceran mode of growth
in the ephebic stage.

* Received through the kindness of Mr. T. W. Stanton, who identified the species.
t+4dvpog, double.

574

Beside the type form, Dédymcoeras nebrascense, in the Yale Uni-
versity Museum, there are several closely allied species, as follows:
Didymoceras (Het.) cochleatum and tortum, Meek, Invertebrate
Paleontology, Pl. xxi.

Some of the species described by Whitfield and others from the
Black Hills have similar ornamentation and helicoceran whorls, and
probably belong to the same series, if not this genus. I refer to
Heteroceras Newtont, Exploration of the Black Hills, P\. xv, and
its possible gerontic stage, Ancyloceras tricostatus, Fig. 7 of same
plate. With regard to this form I have, however, doubts arising
from its close resemblance to /Vostoceras helicinum, and these make
it necessary to study the young before it can be definitively referred
to the same genus with WVedbrascense.

DIDYMOCERAS NEBRASCENSE.
HETEROCERAS NEBRASCENSE, Meek (/aver¢. Foss., Pl. xxii, Fig. 1).
HETEROCERAS, Whitf. (Pa?. Black Hills, Pl. xv, Fig. 6).

Loc., Near Buffalo Gap, S. Dakota.

IP) xa er igs.

The young of this species is unknown, but the younger stages of
the closely allied cochleatum show that it did not have a contact
furrow—at least in the early ephebic substage. The metephebic
substage has more or less irregular, obscure tubercles and rather
fine, closely set costae, occasionally bifurcated at the tuberculations.
These disappear in the parephebic substage. The geronic volution
is retroversal as in Nostoceras. The costz increase in size and
prominence in the anagerontic substage, and also become tubercu-
lated and bifurcated. During the metagerontic snbstage these
characters are more developed, and the volution makes a retroversal
bend. All of the ornaments are lost, however, in the paragerontic
substage, the costa depressed and finally disappear except on the
venter, and the whorl becomes again bilaterally symmetrical. The
coste and lines of growth bend slightly forwards across the venter,
then backwards into sinuses on the inner parts of either side and
form symmetrical crests across the dorsum. The aperture is pre-
served in this specimen and shows the same outline.

Mr. T. W. Stanton* in discussing a collection of fossils from Fort
Pierre shales, near Boulder, Colo., described substantially the
.same remarkable characteristics in this species and in fortum, and

*Proc. Colorado Scien. Soc., ii, Pt. iii, 1887.

579

was the first to state that most of our Western forms of Heteroceras
probably had similar irregularities in the development of the last
volution.

Emperoceras,* n. g.

The young are hamites-like, so far as known in the neanic stage
and become helicoceran in the ephebic stage. It is not positively
known that they have an extended gerontic stage.

EMPEROCERAS BEECHERI.
Loc., Near Buffalo Gap, S. Dakota.

This species has, in the earliest substage, observed probably the
metaneanic straight volution with straight coste, having each two
minute tubercles on the venter, and no intermediate untuberculated
and single coste. The section is compressed oval, the dorsum
broader than the venter. The siphuncle is certainly in the mesal
plane between the rows of ventral tubercles in this substage. The
sutures are simple and appear to be symmetrical, or more nearly so
than in the succeeding substages.

The paraneanic is introduced when the hamites-like first bend of
this specimen is made, and is terminated by a permanent constric-
tion in the elbow of the second bend in both specimens of this
species. Bifurcated costz appear and intermediate untuberculated
costz in this substage.

The next arm, probably the anephebic substage, is bent more or
less Gownwards, but the curvature is distinct from that of the met-
ephebic stage, and the form of volution in section is still a depressed
oval, although much more gibbous on the upper than on the lower
side. The section is that of a compressed ellipse, the ventrodorsal
diameters increasing faster than the transverse.

The intermediate single costz running uninterruptedly across the
venter are more numerous in this substage, occurring from one to
three between each bifurcated and tuberculated costation. The
bifurcations are not always well marked, but they are more distinct
than those given in the drawings, and here and there a costation
may be single and have tubercles. ‘This volution begins to twist in
the metephebic substage, and the asymmetrical helicoceran form is
fully developed in the flattening of the lower side and the increas-
ing gibbosity of the upper side, whether this be right or left, and
the tubercles are correspondingly deflected. The siphuncle has

x Epxnpos, deformed.

576

shifted less, and consequently the upper row of tubercles is brought
over the trace made by this organ in the cast of the interior.
Great irregularity appears in this substage, the costee may be bifur-
cated at the tubercles and between them, or they may run across
the venter and be bifurcated at the base of the tubercle of the oppo-
site side. This ornamentation is similar to the fragment figured by
Gabb in Paleontology of California as Ammonites Cooperi, Vol. i,
Plesay:

The dorsal crests formed by costz occupy the somewhat flattened
dorsum of the early part of the paraneanic substage, but when the
twisting begins these dorsal crests begin te be unsymmetrical also.
In other words, the lines of growth and costz assume the usual
direction and aspect of turbinate shells, whether Gasteropoda or
Cephalopoda.

The spiral is quite irregular in the anephebic substage, but is
more regular in the metephebic and parephebic substages. In the
parephebic substage the tubercles disappear in this specimen.

There is a decided contraction of the transverse diameier of the
spiral in this substage.

The absence of the tubercles on this substage is similar to the
change that takes place in JVostoceras nebrascense at the same age
and enables one to classify all the substages satisfactorily.

Exiteloceras,* n. g.

After a careful survey of the forms referred to this genus, it
has become evident that there is a series having the following char-
acteristics and quite separable from the full-grown stages of any
other genus referred to the Nostoceratide. They are, however,
not so easily separated from the young of Nostoceras if my obser-
vations are correct, since the single costz with two lines of tuber-
cles are found in the young of that genus and of Emperoceras.
This, however, is entirely in accord with the system advocated in
this and other publications and is in my opinion another argument
in favor of distinguishing the group by another name.

The series of forms figured by Meek in his /zvertebrate Paleon-
tology, Pl. xxi, have a single costz with two rows of tubercles, each
costation being tuberculated. ‘The ephebic stage is helicoceran
and the gerontic stage probably has the retroversal living chamber.

“E=izyihog, becoming extinct.

577

The species are as follows: “xiteloceras (Heteroceras) Cheyen-
nense and angulatum. LExtteloceras (Ancyloceras) uncum, Meek,
Invertebrate Paleontology, Pl. xxi, is probably a fragment of the
gerontic stage of one of these.

Exiteloceras (Ancyloceras) Jennyi, Whitfield, Paleontology of the
Black Hills, P\. xvi, has also similar ornamentation, but the costze
differ somewhat. ‘This form, if the drawing is correct, has a ten-
dency to asymmetry and when older was probably helicoidal.

Ancyloceras lineatus, Gabb, Paleontology of California, has also
similar costa, form and tubercles, but this may be a fragment of
Ptychoceras.

I have also before me two fragments, one 20 mm. in transverse
diameter by 19 mm. ventro-dorsally, the other 17 mm. transversely
by 20 mm. ventro-dorsally, which have precisely the coste and
tubercles of /xiteloceras angulatum, as figured by Meek, namely,
very prominent, subacute single costz reaching completely round
the whorl, each one having two tubercles on the venter with a slight
depression on the prominent costation between them. ‘They are
fragments of helicoceran whorls and the aspect is altogether dis-
tinct from that of any form in other genera. Loc., Elm Fork,
Dallas county, Texas. Mamites Fremonti, Marcou, Geology of
LVorth America, p. 36, Pl. i, Fig. 3, is probably a gerontic stage of
some species of this group. ‘The anagerontic substage in his figure
has single costae without tubercles, but the metagerontic substage
has the retroversal bend and every third costation has two ventral
tubercles. All costz are single and prominent.

E-xiteloceras (Helicoceras) pariense, White, U. S. Geol. Survey
We roo) Vera, Wheeler, Pt. 1, Paz, Pl.xix, Fig: 2, is another
species of this series which shows by the twist in the costations that
it is probably in older stages helicoidal.

Ptychoceratide.

I use this family name here provisionally and only in order to
make clearer the essential distinctions that seem to exist between
the series represented by the genera, Sciponoceras, Ptychoceras and
Diptychoceras and other series of genera described in this paper.

The young, so far as known, have slight, smooth shells in the
neanic stage, the ephebic stage has the lines of growth and coste
inclined forwards in passing over the sides and venter and probably

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. xxxII, 143. 3 U. PRINTED JULY 18, 1894.

578

corresponding apertures like those of Baculites, but with less prom-
inent rostra or ventral crests. As the gerontic stage begins the
aperture changes in outline and the shell bends with a sharp curve
and forms a gerontic perforation, which is long and narrow. A
gerontic dorsal furrow appears in this bend and beyond it a gerontic
contact furrow also appears. In Sciponoceras the gerontic stage
has not been fully observed and in Diptychoceras these gerontic
characters begin to appear in the ephebic stage.

The family characters are therefore simply the straight mode of
growth and the changes in the aperture and also probably the ten-
dency observed in all species of Ptychoceras to lose the rostrum in
old age. ‘This can be seen in the backward or aborad inclination
of the coste on the gerontic arm as compared with the forward
curves of the same in the ephebic stage on the opposite parts of the
first arm.

' Sciponoceras.*

This form apparently completes the series of which Ptychoceras
and Diptychoceras are obviously members. In comparing these
two last and in studying their development and comparing them
also with the young of Emperoceras I was struck by the peculiar
form of rostrum or low, broad, ventral crest indicated by the lines
of growth in the ephebic stage and the irregularities of the constric-
tions indicating apertures especially at the gerontic bends. The
apertures of the ephebic stage may have had considerable resem-
blances to the apertures of species of Baculites in the ephebic stage,
but when old age approaches the modifications attending the ten-
dency to bend in Ptychoceras are entirely distinct and the apertures
altogether different.

These facts are nicely shown in D’Orbigny’s figures of the type
of this genus, Sciponoceras (Baculites) baculoides, Terrains Crétacés,
Pl. cxxxviii. This shell at first appears to represent the ephebic
and younger stages of a species of Ptychoceras, but on more closely
examining the drawing, if this be correct, it can be seen that it
is an outgrown or aged specimen having a gerontic stage of its own.
This is indicated by the partial disappearance of the costz near the
terminal aperture, which is also just beginning to make the first
gerontic bend and has an entirely different outline from the con-
strictions figured below on the cast of the same specimens.

* Sutnwy, a staff.

579

The extremely attenuated and much elongated cone of this spe-
cies is also altogether different from that of Ptychoceras.

Another very interesting line of investigation is suggested also
by these studies. The resemblances of this shell and the full-grown
and senile stages of Baculites are indications either of affinity or
very close morphic parallelism. Iam personally inclined towards
the latter opinion since Baculites itself seems to me to be a com-
posite of the extreme phylogerontic forms of several different
genetic series.

Ptychoceras.

This genus is interesting here on account of its relations to the
gerontic stage of Helicancylus and also because of the presence of
a secondary development of the impressed zone, which appears
during the gerontic stage of the ontogeny of most of the species
now referred to this genus. This last character and the close
angular bending of the straight limbs of the whorl, separate the
species wherever they occur. It is very likely that eventually this
and Baculites will be split into distinct series and shown to belong
to a number of different genera, but just now, with the exception
of Sciponoceras, this is not desirable.

The American fossils I have seen all have the two rows of ventral
tubercles and are not similar to the Helicancylus phylum in their
ornamentation. They are much more like the young of Limperoce-
vas Beecheri in the singleness and tuberculation of each one of the
cost.

PTYCHOCERAS CRASSUM, Whitfield.
Loc., Near Boulder, Colo., Cretaceous.
Pl. xiv, Figs. 18-21.

Fragments of this species kindly loaned me by Mr. T. W. Stan-
ton and identified by him show the following significant facts in
the history of the impressed zone. ‘The ephebic stage, which is I
think the latter part of the straight arm with closely set tubercu-
lated costz inclined orally, is of the usual rounded form in section.
The venter between the two rows of ventral tubercles is narrower
than the dorsum, which is somewhat flattened but still entirely gib-
bous, the ventro-dorsal and transverse diameters are nearly equal
near the bend. As the bend is made a decided enlargement of the
ventro-dorsal diameters occurs and the costz after this become more

580

widely separated and are inclined apically and the sides flatter.
This difference in the inclination of the ribs shows that the slight
crest in the lines of growth and probably apertures of the ephebic
stage have been lost in the gerontic stage.

The dorsum as the bend is made becomes flattened and when
this is completed it is a distinct furrow which cannot be called a
dorsal furrow or a contact furrow. ‘The true dorsal furrow, if it
occurred at all in this form, must have been between the protoconch
and the apex, the true contact furrow probably did occur in the
nepionic stage which has not yet been seen.

This furrow then which occurs in the bend before the contact of
the gerontic volution or arm takes place is probably a gerontic
dorsal furrow. ‘The lines of growth in this furrow are bent for-
wards into a slight but well-defined crest in two of the specimens
examined and the costations were wholly absent. The umbilical
perforation which occurs here is not very small and it occurs be-
tween two straight volutions and is the reverse morphically of the
nepionic perforations; thus it also is a gerontic perforation and
not an umbilical perforation, a degenerative and not a progressive
character. The length of this perforation was 4 mm. more or less
in three specimens; the vertical diameter was very much less but
was not measurable.

Just before contact takes place one costation crosses the dorsum
with a forward bend or crest in two specimens. Close to it, but
at the contact, in another specimen, there occurs a costation which
is the reverse of this, having a sinus which marks the beginning of
the gerontic contact furrow. ‘This furrow in the only fragment
showing the dorsum in older parts of the gerontic stage obliterates
the costee. ‘The lines of growth were nowhere visible in this con-
tact furrow, so that, whether this side had crests or sinuses in the
apertures, could not be observed.

PTyYCHOCERAS TEXANUM, Shum.*
Loc., Chatfield, Texas.

Three fragments of this species, sent like others through the kind-
ness of Mr. T. W. Stanton, show peculiarities with reference to the
gerontic contact furrow and gerontic dorsal furrow, resembling
essentially those described for Ptychoceras crassum, but in this

* Identified by Mr. T. W. Stanton. See Shum., Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., viii, p. 190.

581

sinall fossil the gerontic umbilical perforation is much larger and
wider in proportion.

One in fact begins to find the same difficulties in the application
of the purely mechanical theory of the origin of the gerontic dorsal
furrow here that was mentioned in accounting for the origin of the
dorsal furrow in the nepionic stages of the close-coiled Nautiloids.
My opportunities and materials do not permit me to discuss the
subject intelligently but merely to note the facts.

One fragment of a volution or an arm, apparently of this species
and identical in every way with the other two of the same lot in
ornamentation and form, has, however, a gibbous dorsum.

It is either not a Ptychoceras or it is the paragerontic substage of
this species after it has passed the age in which the gerontic con-
tact furrow is present, or else, as I have suspected from the exami-
nation of other species, any species of Ptychoceras may have modi-
fications that would place it in the genus Hamulina, 7. ¢e., some
specimens may not be closely appressed in the gerontic stage and
may not have the gerontic contact furrow.

Diptychoceras.*

The single species described by Gabb as Diptychoceras levis is of
interest in this connection as a further modification of Ptychoceras.

It has in its ephebic stage a straight arm occupying the same
position with relation to the younger or first straight arm as that of
the gerontic arm of Ptychoceras. ‘That this is the ephebic stage is
shown not only by the presence beyond it of the third straight arm,
but also by the presence on the second arm of costz that incline
orally in passing on to the venter.

The gerontic characteristics of Ptychoceras are therefore only in
part, not as a whole, carried back into the ephebic stage of Dipty-
choceras. The gerontic stage or third arm in the ontogeny of the
shells of this species is similar to that of Ptychoceras and this has
its own gerontic characters. The tendency to the peculiar mode
of growth first found in the gerontic stage of Ptychoceras, the
closely appressed retroversal straight limb is, however, inherited in
the ephebic stage of Diptychoceras.

It would be interesting to follow out the history of the impressed
zone in the gerontic stages of shells of this species, but I have no

*Gabb, Pal. Cal., ii, p. 148.

582

materials. Gabb states that both the second and third arms en-
velop more or less the preceding, and they must therefore have
contact furrows in both stages.

VI. SUMMARY.

The importance of the impressed zone can be made apparent
better by discussing the correlative facts of the morphology than by
any other means.

When one considers the mode of growth of the young of any
one of the straight or primitive arcuate forms of Nautiloids, the
prominent fact is the bilateral symmetry of the cone and the
asymmetry of the ventral and dorsal sides as in Spyroceras (2) cro-
talum, Figs. 10-12, p. 361, and the young of other forms, p. 360.
It is obvious from these drawings and other observations that this
asymmetry is due to the more rapid growth of the ventral as con-
trasted with the dorsal side. This is shown by the greater breadth
of the bands of growth and the intervals between the sutures that
are greater on that side. Subsequently in the ontogeny of the
straight. forms, in Endoceras, Orthoceras, the growth becomes
more nearly equal and in many forms is practically equal and the
shell is built out in nearly straight lines. The angles of the curves
made by the dorsal and ventral sides near the apex are on this
account entirely distinct from each other, the venter departing
from the end of the cicatrix at a much wider angle than the dor-
sum, which is much less inclined and soon tends to assume an
almost straight line.

The two sides, venter and dorsum, tend therefore to become less
divergent after the nepionic stage is passed, but they nevertheless
continue as long as the cone increases in the ventro-dorsal diame-
ters to grow in more or less divergent directions during the neanic
and ephebic stages except in the living chambers of certain species.
In these the diameters become shortened towards the aperture and
the sides converge more or less either in the lateral or ventro-dor-
sal diameters or in all diameters. ‘This occurs in some species
only in the gerontic stage, but in others it may occur at any stage
after the nepionic.

In all shell-covered cephalopods, so far as known, the nepionic
shells have open apertures and all four sides are continually diverg-
ent in these younger substages of development. ‘The asymmetry of

583

the apex of the conch in all arcuate and coiled forms is also very
strongly marked and there is an obvious correlation between the
close coiling of the young, the size of the umbilical perforation and
the rate of increase of the outer or ventral side.- Thus in shells
with large umbilical perforations, the first whorl increased slowly and
was more nearly equal on the ventral and dorsal sides than in those
with small perforations in which the outer sides or ventral increased
much faster than the inner. ‘This is shown by the lines of growth
whenever they are observable and by the distance apart of the sutures,
both of these being much more widely separated on the venter than
on the dorsum, and also by the extremely long and gibbous outline
of the venter as compared with that of the dorsum.

One can readily illustrate this by drawing a circle with lines radi-
ating from the centre and then roughly projecting upon this back-
ground the figure of any of the species given, allowing the centre
of the radii to coincide with the centre of the umbilical perforation.
It can then be easily seen, that as the whorl grows, if the umbilical
perforation be small, the outer side has necessarily in keeping pace
with the inner to describe a much larger arc in proportion than it
does when the umbilical perforation is larger. This necessarily
follows because the two sides, starting froma given place in the
plot of the radii, are more nearly parallel in proportion as the per-
foration is larger. Thus in shells with small perforations the increase
of the ventro-dorsal diameters of the body is often much in excess
of all other diameters and this preponderance in highly involute
shells may be continued until near the end of the gerontic stage.
The proportional increase in breadth of the growth bands of the
venter as compared with those of the dorsum is a corollary of
this proposition, or in other words the bands on the outer convex
side necessarily have quicker growth than those of the dorsum,
being built out farther in the same periods of time.

The ananepionic substage, as a rule, has the lines of growth
straight or with ventral crests broader in the median line than at
any other part, but in the metanepionic or early paranepionic
at latest the hyponomic sinus is introduced. While the bands of
growth still remain broader on the venter in spite of this depres-
sion on that side, there is after this stage a constant lagging
behind of the central ventral surface due to the presence of the
hyponome.

Among Ammonoidea this is not the case except in the more gen-

584

eralized Goniatitine.* The higher Goniatitinee and almost all
shells of the remaining suborders of this order have a rostrum on the
venter. Shells having this peculiar structure, due to the absence of a
hyponome, continue to increase or broaden out the bands of growth
after the rostrum is introduced into the ontogeny, producing often
long-pointed or palmate*growths. ‘This is certainly independent of
the spiral mode of growth and has no effect upon it, since the ros-
trum is very well developed in forms like Baculites, having phylo-
gerontic straight whorl, and it may be entirely absent in the geron-
tic stage of Ptychoceras and in forms with lateral lappets to the
apertures as in some Scaphites and other genera which are more
closely coiled.

Taking into consideration all of such facts there still remains a
certain obvious and necessary relation between the ratios of growth
of the bands on the outer and inner sides of a coiled shell which
has been described above, and which is a mechanical necessity of
growth in a spiral.

It is also true, as a rule, that the lateral diameters increase faster
in shells with small umbilical perforations than in those with large
open centres. But this seems to be merely a function of the quicker
growth and general accompaniment of the early age of such types and
to have direct exceptions that do not enable us to bring it under any
uniform law. ‘Thus Estonioceras is a type with Jarge umbilical per-
forations and slow-growing ventral bands of deposition, but the
lateral diameters increase fast as in the young of some forms like
LE stontoceras imperfectum, Figs. 20 and 21, Pl. vii.

In nearly all shells there is a noticeable tendency to decrease the
lateral diameters in the later nepionic and neanic stages, and is
obviously due to Minot’s law of growth, which is noticed in the In-
troduction, p. 381.

Among Nautiloids it is observed in Trocholites as a generic
character occurring in the neanic stage and is in these species and
in the nepionic stage of Ammonoidea an absolute decrease so well
marked that in the former the apex and in the latter the protoconch
are not covered and can be seen beyond the outer volution, this
being the usual aspect in a ventral view of a Goniatite or the young
of Ammonitine.

A similar decrease occurs in other forms of Nautiloids than

* See Introduction, p. 355.

585

Trocholites,* but is. usually less and occurs later and more slowly
and it is not an absolute decrease. ‘That is to say the outer whorl
never falls off so much in the ratio growth as to become actually
smaller than the inner volution in any of its diameters until the
gerontic stage. In this stage the falling off in the rate of increase
by growth may and sometimes does accomplish this result on the
last part of the outer whorl.

A description of the parallelism of different genetic series and
the constant and often repeated tendency that these exhibit to
evolve a series of similar forms has been given in the Introduction.
This tendency produces straight, arcuate, loosely coiled and close
coiled, and finally involute shells in each group, however distinct
they may be in structure.

The tendency to bend towards the side opposite the hyponome is
almost universal in all shell-covered Cephalopods. ‘There are a
few arcuate species that bend towards the hyponome like Barrande’s
Cyrtoceras nitidum, but many even of his group of the so-called
“* endogastrica’’ have, like his Cyv¢. Murchisonia and Cyrt. neutrum,
the hyponome and therefore the true venter on the outer or convex
side. There is only one genetic series or genus, as a whole,
that appears to contradict this statement. All of the species of the
true Phragmoceras except one, 2. ferversum, Barrande, bend
towards the ventral side and about all have the siphuncle and also, of
course, the azygos sinus of the hyponome in the aperture and the
corresponding sinuses in lines of growth on the same side. The
shells of this genus are much compressed and the apertures are very
much elongated and present a unique aspect. They are contracted
along the central parts and the hyponome or motor organ is
removed as far as possible from that part of the aperture which
must have given opportunity for the external extension of the arms.
This fact, however, is counterbalanced by the aperture of P. perver-
sum, this being an extreme case of differentiation and removal as
widely as possible of the hyponomic and brachial sinuses of the
apertures and yet the shell is bent towards the dorsum and the
siphuncle is ventral. Many species of Gomphoceras (Acleistoceras)
are bent ventrally, whereas others with similar apertures and charac-
teristics are bent dorsally. So far, therefore, as the characters of
the apertures go, it is not possible to state that the bending is inva-

*This peculiarity has led some authors to suppose that Trocholites had a protoconch
like that of the Ammonoidea.,

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. xxxII. 148. 3V. PRINTED JULY 18, 1894.

586

riably towards the dorsum, but that this is the general tendency of
arcuate forms is obvious.

When it comes to the evolution of coiled forms the problem is
different. Among these last, including also the loosely coiled or
gyroceran, there is so far as known no exception to the rule that all
such shells are bent dorsally from the earliest substages of the
conch.

I have assumed in other papers that coiling among Gasteropoda
could be accounted for by the unequal growth caused by the weight
of the shell when carried above the foot and the facts appear to
justify this conclusion in so far as that class is concerned. ‘The
presence of the hyponome on the ventral side in Cephalopoda
would of itself account for the tipping of the shell towards the
opposite or dorsal side both when the animal was crawling and
swimming. ‘This would leave the ventral edge of the mantle free
to deposit calcareous matter undisturbed by pressure, whereas the
dorsal edge would be more subject to disturbance and to shocks
from compression which might interfere with the work of excretion.
It is reasonable to suggest such a mechanical explanation both for
the general tendency to bending and coiling and also for the dorsal
direction.

If it were possible to account for the exceptions observed, as in
the tendency of Phragmoceras towards the venter, by means of
exceptional habits or structures, this suggestion would have more
force, but unfortunately this cannot be done, at least at present. It
is obvious, however, that there is some directive cause which acts
upon every genetic series in greater or less proportion, giving to
each evolving series the same tendency to produce in succession
the straight, arcuate,* and then the coiled forms in different de-
grees of intensity and that most of these have coiled in a dorsal
direction away from the hyponome or organ of locomotion.

The position of the siphuncle with reference to the mode of
coiling need not be discussed, since it obviously has no general
relations, except that it is always, except in turbinate forms, Tro-
choceras, Turrilites, etc., and in abnormal forms, like some species

* Even in large and some small species and specimens of Baculites there is an arcuate
tendency. D’Orbigny figures this in B. incurvatus, Terr. Crétac., Pl. exxxix, and Mr.
Stanton has put together a very large specimen of Baculites in Nat. Mus. having a curye
like Cyrtoceras. This is some five feet long, straight or nearly so in the younger part

and arcuate in the older stage.
This specimen is from the Ripley Formation, Texas.

587

of Psiloceras and one of Anomaloceras and in pathologic indi-
viduals, always in or approximate to the mesal plane. ‘There is,
however, a fact to be noted. In the Endoceratide and Actino-
ceratide it is always in direct connection with the cicatrix. In
othet forms not having an endosiphuncle* this connection is
not strictly maintained, and while it is often situated over the area
of the cicatrix, it may be, as in Eutrophoceras Dekayt, near the shell
but not over the cicatrix, or as in Hercoceras, Fig. 13, Pl. villi, at
some distance from the apex. There is upon the whole, however,
a distinct tendency towards location in the mesal plane and centren
or ventrad of the centre, those having a subdorsan siphuncle like
some species of Eutrephoceras and Aturia being exceptional. In
most forms, even those having siphuncle subdorsan in the second
septum, it is nearer the venter in the first septum; marked ex-
amples of this are the Eutrephoceras Dekayi of the Cretacic, Fig.
4, Pl. xiii, and several species of Schroederoceras, or else it tends
towards the centre, as in Zrocholites canadensis, Figs. 39 and 40,
Pl. v. It is also to be observed that in the adults of most forms
of Nautiloids the siphuncle is centren or ventrad of the centre, that
is on the same side with the hyponome. ‘This tendency is more
general among arcuate and coiled Nautiloidea than among straight
forms, which as a rule have the siphuncle centren,+ and finally in
the Ammonoidea the subventran position is universal.

Whatever may be the cause of the general tendency of each
genetic series to evolve along parallel lines of modification so far as
the tendency towards coiling is concerned, it is obvious that it is
not dependent upon time, climate or any special differences of
structure. The bending takes place in every series even in the
Piloceras with a huge siphuncle filled with calcareous matter and
there is no positive proof that they may not have had coiled forms
which belong to the same genetic series although none have been
found. Arcuate and coiled shells are also found in every period,
and under every condition of climate so far as geographic distribu-
tion is concerned.

It has been assumed in the Introduction that differences of habit
could be used to account for these general tendencies producing

* See Introduction, p. 412.

+The exceptions to this rule are very interesting. They include the radical type Di-
phragmoceras, the Endoceratide and the remarkable genus Bathmoceras. All of these

haye the siphuncle in most examples yentrad of the centre and in many of them it is
subyentran.

588

parallelisms in the evolution of different and diverging genetic
series. Thus the Belemonoids and Sepoids, both preéminently
swimming types* and with organizations obviously derived from an
Orthoceran radical, have straight internal shells.

There is an obvious correlation between coiling of the shell and
the habit of crawling. ‘Thus all univalve crawling mollusca have
this general tendency. Among Gasteropoda, this is well known
and those shells which degenerate and tend to loose the spiral
mode of growth and become irregularly straightened out in these
older stages of growth, are forms which become attached or lead sed-
entary lives, z. c., Vermetus attached late in life and Magilus buried
in coral. The most significant case, however, is that of Fissurella,
which has a coiled shell in the nepionic stage and becomes similar
to Patella, a depressed, straight cone in the neanic and ephebic
stages, the habitat being like that of Patella and the approximate
forms of Haliotis and others, comparatively sedentary upon littoral
rock ledges.

A habit of crawling could be considered as sufficiently general in
application and sufficiently persistent in an organization like that
of the Nautiloids and Ammonoids, which are covered by shell and
possess only the hyponome as a motor organ to affect entire orders
and continue constant through time and geologic changes in the
majority of forms.

With such a habit the tendency to become more exclusively
crawling and to depend upon that mode of life, might, as has been
explained in the introduction, produce in each series the same ten-
dency, but it seems impracticable, so far as my experience goes, to
find any other cause sufficiently general and likely to be undis-
turbed by geologic and climatic changes.

It is certainly not inherent in the organism to coil up. If the con-
verse be assumed one must account for the continuance and persist-
ence of the absolutely straight Orthoceras from the earliest times
to the Trias and why these were unaltered and did not become
arcuate or coiled as a whole. Inherent tendencies must, if the
term has any meaning at all, work out their own evolution to some
degree. ‘They must sensibly affect the organization in all series
having a common embryo unless held back or kept in abeyance by
interfering causes. It is difficult to imagine any interfering cause
acting so constantly through long geologic periods that it could

* See Introduction, p. 356,

589

hold in abeyance the inherent tendency to become coiled in the
genus Orthoceras. This is more obvious when one considers that
this trunk form is perpetually giving rise to branches that show the
tendency to coil up. In assuming that habit is the cause as deter-
mined by the law explained in the Introduction, p. 367, the greatest
difficulty seems to disappear. As long as the shells could maintain
themselves in the station they have been forced into, or had chosen,
just so long would they maintain the form suitable for their habits
or surroundings and they would change only in proportion as they
changed their stations. Thus the main line might continue as long
as it existed to hold the same form while its branches seeking new
habitats and novel modes of life would change in directions deter-
mined by those. Whatever the causes may be, the fact is obvious,
that the tendency towards becoming arcuate and coiled is general
in the descendants of straight shells and not confined to any special
series or time.

That it is an acquired character seems also to be a reasonable
conclusion, An acquired character is one that is introduced into
the life of the individual and is not present in the embryo before
the tissues become differentiated into germ plasm and somato
plasm. It is impossible to disprove or prove that a characteristic
is acquired or genetic unless it can be followed back to its origin.
Until this is done one cannot assert positively that it was not
potentially existent in the embryo and became apparent at the
proper time in the ontogeny in accordance with genetic law.

The law of acceleration can be true only upon condition that
there are such things as acquired characteristics introduced in
epembryonic stages. ‘The examples given above in support of this
law are all instances of acquired characters introduced late in the
ontogeny and gradually forced back to younger and younger stages
in successive generations, or species, or genera. ‘This law is based
upon the assumption that such characteristics exist and it is also
supposed to show the mode in which they are inherited.

It is not necessary for me here to deal with any of these facts,
except the tendency towards coiling among shell-covered Cephalo-
pods. ‘This tendency is manifested in the conch alone of the Nau-
tiloidea, that is, in the epembryonic stages, and we can follow it as
described above, both in the phylogeny and ontogeny, progressing
with equal steps. That is to say, the more generalized of each
genetic series show in their ontogeny that they were derived from

590

the more loosely coiled, and the more specialized show that they
were derived from forms which were tightly coiled. In other words,
the tendency to closer and closer coiling gains in the organization
of the different genetic series, and is manifested more intensely in
the young of more specialized forms and makes them coil more
quickly and closer. In general, it is also easily seen that after the
trunk forms die out in the Trias, as explained in the Introduction,
page 370, and it is not possible for any new genetic series to be given
off from these, this tendency has greater force. In the Juraand Cre-
taceous the shells are exclusively nautilian, and even the nautilian
shells with very large perforations, common even in the Triassic,
have entirely disappeared.

In the shells shown on Pl. xi-xii there is not one that has a
really large umbilical perforation and a free cyrtoceran apex, such
as is seen in so many of the Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous,
and even in some Triassic shells. All of these transitional forms
disappear with the trunk forms, and the same fact is true of the
Ammonoidea. ‘The transitional forms disappear in the Devonian at
the same time with Bactrites, the radical straight form of this
order. With regard to special series, it becomes more difficult to
show agreement between chronology and _ bioplastology on account
of the deficiencies in the records of collected forms and the gen-
eral tendency of radical species to persist and be found either on
exactly the same level with their descendants or even to outlive
them and be present in later faunas.

In studying the coiling of nautilian shells one is struck by the
fact that the ana- and the metanepionic substages are comparatively
straight. They are not really straight, as has been explained above,
but their comparatively straight aspect, in contrast with the suc-
ceeding stages of development, is noticeable.

At the end of the metanepionic substage the curvature is apt to
be suddenly altered, bending more rapidly inward. This is what I
have called the gyroceran bend, because it is the first indication
that the shell is a true nautilian form. If one compares the length
of the ana- and metanepionic substages in the different plates begin-
ning with Pl. iv and ending with Pl. xiii, it will be seen that there
is a notable decrease in the comparative length of these two sub-
stages when the umbilical perforations become very small, and the
same is true of the species of the Calciferous and Silurian, which
have small umbilical perforations, as shown on Pl. iv—vi.

591

In many shells with very large perforations the curvature is often
uniform, and there is no sudden alteration in the direction of coil-
ing of the first whorl, as in several Carboniferous forms and the
remarkable shell Plewnautilus superbus, Pl. xii. The same is true
of the coiling of all gyroceran forms in their ephebic and earlier
stages. The coiling is more uniform than that of more special-
ized and more closely coiled shells. This, and the presence of
smaller umbilical perforations in the same genetic series, is easily
accounted for if we admit that the tendency to become closer
coiled is genetic, and that in accordance with the law of tachy-
genesis it affects the growth of the young earlier in the more spe-
cialized and later-occurring forms, thus shortening up the ana- and
metanepionic substages.

The elliptical outline in section, the universal rotundity of the
dorsum in the ana- and metanepionic substages and the sutures,
serve to reinforce the assumption that these substages derive their
characteristics, so far as form is concerned, fromm arcuate or straight
ancestors. This is in general the adult characters of most species
of groups having orthoceran or cyrtoceran forms, and in none,
except Cranoceras of the Devonian, has any signs of a dorsal fur-
row been found. ‘The ornamentation of these substages, and usu-
ally the paranepionic, in part or as a whole, also points distinctly
to some straight or arcuate ancestor. The ananepionic substage is
universally smooth or with only a few longitudinal ridges, but the
metanepionic varies more. The form and markings in Vestinautilus,
Pl. ix, point distinctly to a similarly ornamented arcuate ancestor,
and the gradual shortening up of the younger substages is also
shown by the figures on this plate and the explanations.

The outline of the first volution changes abruptly at or imme-
diately after the beginning of the gyroceran bend, that is, at the
beginning of the paranepionic substage in most nautilian shells.
The dorsum is apt to become flatter in species having large umbili-
cal perforations, and in those with small perforations, this tendency
is intensified and the dorsum is apt to become concave, the dorsal
furrow making its appearance. ‘The sutures of the ana- and meta-
nepionic substages are apt to have ventral and dorsal saddles,
whereas a dorsal lobe very often appears in the paranepionic, ex.,
Barrandeoceras. This dorsal lobe is still more plainly marked when
the dorsal furrow is present in the paranepionic volution.

The flattening or broadening out of the dorsum, which occurs in

592

a great many forms in the paranepionic, is paralleled by the similar
tendencies occurring in shells that have the whorls contiguous.
This is the first effect of contact, and the formation of a lobe in
the sutures also very commonly accompanies slight contacts. Nev-
ertheless, dorsal lobes in the sutures and the flattening of the dorsal
side may occur in cyrtoceran and gyroceran coils of species that
appear to be transitional, from more primitive uncoiled to the close
coiled nautilian forms, as in Barrandeoceras Sternbergt, Pl. xiv,
and other examples, such as Aphetoceras boreale, Pl. v.

These characteristics obviously exist under different conditions
on the free whorls of primitive shells and the similar whorls of
the young of nautilian shells than they do on whorls which are in
contact. In order to make these distinctions clear, I have named
the dorsal hollow zone that appears before or independently of con-
tact, the dorsal furrow, and that which occurs after that, the contact
furrow, both being considered part of the same feature, the com-
pressed zone.

Before proceeding further it is necessary to study the origin and
history of the impressed zone, and to define it more clearly than
has been done in the preceding pages.

In the first place, as already stated, it does not exist in any of the
trunk or radical forms, except Cranoceras. Its first appearance, so
far as the morphology is concerned, is in nautilian forms after
contact, and this occurs constantly in different genetic series. In
fact the definition of a nautilian shell is based upon the possession
of a contact furrow.

If we regard any genetic series by itself we can often see that the
impressed zone is purely a contact furrow. ‘Thus, in the Estonio-
ceras, it is absent in the umbilical perforation on the dorsum of the
nepionic stage and it is slight and present only in the contact stages,
being soon lost upon the free part, or gerontic stage of the coil. In
other species of some other groups the same thing occurs either com-
pletely or partially: Eurystomites, Pl. v; Tarphyceras, Pl. vi;
Schroederoceras, Pl. vii, and so on.

In transitional species with large umbilical perforations, the dor-
sal furrow is not present in any specimen, although many have
been examined and recorded. In the major number of nautilian
forms, in the Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous and quite
a number of Triassic species, the umbilical perforations are large
and there are no dorsal furrows. In many of these species the

593

looseness of the coiling is shown by the free apex and the slight
development and late incoming of the contact furrow.

It is, of course, as has been stated above, practically impossible
in many series to get sufficient evidence to establish the agreement
of chronology with bioplastology. But there are here and there
series that show such an agreement, and give approximately com-
plete and positive evidence in favor of the descent of nautilian from
arcuate forms. But even if this agreement occurred in a smaller
number of series than it actually does, the evidence from the
morphology alone would be sufficient. It is not possible to explain
why the apex of the transitional forms with large umbilical perfora-
tions is so often free, or the existence of the larger umbilical
perforations themselves, or, in fact, any of the peculiarities of the
nepionic stage, which resemble those of radical forms, except on
the assumption that they have been derived from these same straight
or arcuate radicals through direct genetic connection. ‘Thus,
although the chronological record may coincide with the bioplas-
tology only in a few series, these few become positive evidence of
the highest value, that confirms the inferences drawn from the testi-
mony of the bioplastology and outweighs any amount of negative
evidence derived from the incompleteness of the record.

With these remarks, we can now pass on to the consideration of
the history of the impressed zone, and its mode of origin and
apparent history in different series.

There are a number of orthoceran and arcuate forms that may be
cited as the radicals of the Tarphyceratidee.

These, like the history of the transitions into Aphetoceras, are
almost complete, since in this last genus the curvature in the young,
until a late stage, is so slight that one is not absolutely certain
whether to consider that such a fragment as is figured on PI. v,
Figs. 15-17, is really a part of a gyroceran shell or a fragment of a
cyrtoceran form that never coils. The position of the siphuncle,
section of the whorl and sutures make the young of these forms
genetically identical with the adults of such forms as Aphetoceras
Americanum, and on the other hand the full-grown characters and
large gyroceran coils, are closer in some species than in others and
the genus passes by insensible gradations into the more closely
coiled nautilian genus, Pycnoceras.

This last has the large umbilical perforation and almost cylindrical

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 148. 3W. PRINTED JULY 23, 1894.

594

first whorl, slight contact furrow of an ordinary transitional form, but
otherwise the nepionic stage resembles the adults of Aphetoceras in
its section and position of siphuncle and sutures.

The gap between Pycnoceras and the next member of this series,
Tarphyceras, is wide and one or more genera are needed to fill up
the interval.

In all of the genera mentioned above, except Tarphyceras, there
is no dorsal furrow, the zone of impression is produced by contact,
and the umbilical perforations are large.

In Tarphyceras, however, although in form, sutures and position
of siphuncle the genus is closely allied to Aphetoceras, the young
are altogether distinct.

As depicted on Pl. iv, the young have very small umbilical perfo-
rations, the whorls broaden out by growth rapidly, and after a short,
straight or only slightly curved apical part is built in the ana- and
-metanepionic substages, the broadening volution makes a sudden
and very abrupt gyroceran bend towards the apex. This is very
sudden and the umbilical perforation is flat or comma-shaped.

It might of course be shown, if other intermediate shells were
found, that the mechanical effects of this sudden bending did not
produce the dorsal furrow, but that this is an adequate mechanical
cause can reasonably be claimed by those who oppose the view that
it is due to heredity.

It has already been shown that the outer side or venter tends to
grow faster than the inner, and if this reaches a point in its ratio of
growth that far exceeds that of the inner side, it is obvious that it must
act upon that side as a force that bends or tends to make it more
arcuate in proportion to this excess of growth or rapidity of increase.
The outer side being free would be apt to retain its genetic
form, and the inner side or dorsum would be greatly influenced or
moulded by the pressure to which it was subjected. Thus it can be
assumed that in case of a sudden bending, as in Tarphyceras, the
venter would maintain its rounded outline and forcing the dorsum
inward as it grew would tend to make it assume the arcuate form or
bend inwards in a crease or dorsal furrow in the paranepionic volu-
tion conforming more or less with the shape of the dorsum of the
metanepionic volution.

There are some reasons why this explanation is not wholly satis-
factory. In the first place, if this be the case, why did not the
whorl of the paranepionic completely close the umbilical perfora-

595

tion and plaster the dorsal shell layers against the dorsum of the
metanepionic substage? This is partly answered by the fact that
the tendency to shell building on that side would prevent this until
a small umbilical perforation was formed and also by the fact that
in many shells the whorl of the paranepionic actually does plaster
itself on to the dorsum of the metanepionic and the umbilical per-
foration is reduced to a very small aperture. It is, however, abso-
lutely essential to call in the aid of heredity, otherwise the tendency
to shell building in the dorsum of the nepionic stage cannot be
considered sufficient to prevent the entire obliteration of the umbil-
ical perforation. ‘The shell on the dorsum of the older stages is in
great measure absent in most nautilian shells, but there is no such
difference in gyroceran or cyrtoceran forms or in loose coiled gyro-
ceran form with the whorls touching, nor yet in nautilian form with
very faint contact furrows. ‘The tendency to build thick shell on
the dorsum of the nepionic whorl, while still free, is therefore one
that can only have been derived from shells having free dorsal sides
and this tendency is obviously strong enough to stiffen that side
and prevent the entire closing of the umbilical perforation.

In the second place there are a number of Cretaceous, Tertiary
and recent Nautiloids having accelerated development of the dorsal
furrow, and in these the furrow appears on both sides of the com-
ma-shaped umbilical perforations. It is perfectly plain in these
that no bending of the whorl could account for the result and that
it is in no sense due to a moulding of one whorl upon another.
The outlines of the dorsum of the paranepionic substage in these
species does not coincide with those opposed to it; they are the
reverse of each other.

Nevertheless it is practicable, as has been said above, to appeal
to the curvature of the paranepionic volution at the gyroceran bend
as a possible mechanical cause for the incoming of the dorsal furrow
on the distal part of the curve so long as the curve is sufficiently
abrupt to produce it, or so long as the absence of ancestral forms
does not enable us to trace the origin of this character back to a
contact furrow and account for its presence in the earlier stages of
species like those of the genus Tarphyceras by the action of the law
of acceleration.

I have consequently thought it safer for the sake of argument to
concede that the dorsal furrow of Tarphyceras was perhaps present

596

in the paranepionic because of mechanical and not through genetic
causes.

In the Trocholitide the straight and arcuate forms are not yet
known nor are the nautilian forms quite satisfactory.

The dorsal side of Zztoceras insolens, which has a comparatively
large umbilical perforation, has not yet been studied in the parane-
pionic substage, and although it seems very likely that it is gibbous
and without a dorsal furrow, this cannot be stated positively. In
Trocholitoceras and Trocholites, the umbilical perforations are very
small and have dorsal furrows on the paranepionic after the gyroce-
ran bend has been passed by.

The same argument can be framed for their appearance that was
used for the Tarphyceratide, viz., that the weight of evidence is
in favor of the mechanical generation of the dorsal furrow in the
paranepionic. ‘There is also one fact possibly of some importance
in this connection. In the specimen of Zyvrocholites canadensis,
in section Figs. 39 and 4o, Pl. vi, it can be seen that the inner part
of the dorsal furrow, where it first appears, is a single, broad fur-
row. As it becomes more distant from the gyroceran bend, how-
ever, it becomes divided into two smaller furrows by the rising of
a central gibbous face.

It might be assumed that the development of this central gibbous
face was due to heredity, this being the expression of a tendency to
return to the rounded dorsum of radical types as soon as the pres-
sure due to the abrupt bending was removed.

Precisely similar furrows and a median gibbous face occur, how-
ever, onthe dorsum of Cranoceras. ‘The curvature of this form and all
of its characteristics indicate that the bending of the cone could not
have been the mechanical agent which caused a single dorsal furrow
and the appearance of the two dorsal furrows and the central gib-
bous face complicates the problem and seems to make it insoluble
on a purely mechanical basis. I have called this a gibbous face,
but in reality it is not a ‘‘face’’ at all in the sense in which that
term is here used. It is a modification of the primitive rounded
dorsum and is really a ‘‘zone’’ or secondary modification. In
Trocholites it arises as a modification of the dorsal furrow, and is
therefore a true ‘‘ face.” It is possible that with advance of knowl-
edge this distinction may be more important than it seems now, and
may enable us to explain the exceptional characteristics of Cranoceras.

Before it could be safely assumed that mechanical causes gener-

597

ated the single or double dorsal furrows of Zrocholites canadensts,
or that heredity influenced the appearance of both, it would be
necessary to find more forms of the same genetic series and study
their history.

In some species of the genus Schroederoceras, the dorsal fur-
row appears as in Trocholites. The umbilical perforation is larger
but still small in all of these, so that it can hardly be assumed that
the bend is too gradual to have caused the dorsal furrow to arise in
the paranepionic.

The gerontic stage of the species of this family, in fossils well
enough preserved to be observed, has an impressed zone which is
very short-lived in some species when the last whorl is free. ‘The
entire obliteration of this zone takes place in Schroederoceras Eatont
in one specimen, Pl. vi, Figs. 28-35, and in another it is present
for a longer time after the volution becomes free, although evidently
much reduced, Figs. 7 and 8, Pl. vii. In Schroederoceras casinense,
Pls. vi and vii, similar obliteration can be observed.

The zone, however, persists long enough in these forms and
others to demonstrate the important fact that it has a deep hold
upon the organism. If this were not the case it could not exist in
substages of senile degeneration. Its persistency is somewhat less
in the species cited than many others, ex. Hurystomites Kelloggt,
Pl. v, but it is sufficient to show that its continued existence in the
ontogeny is not wholly limited by the continuance of close coiling
and contact. That it is more or less dependent upon coiling with
involution is obvious because it entirely disappears in some species
in the older substages of the gerontic stage when these are free.

The Tarphyceratidz and Trocholitidz having so closely involute
shells in the young are confined, with the exception of Trocholites,
to the earliest or Calciferous faunas.

The next forms that one meets, having the impressed zone, occur
in the Devonian. ‘There are so far as known no shells having an
impressed zone in the form of a dorsal furrow between the Hudson
River group and the Devonian group, although there are many having
the contact furrow.

The Devonian genus Cranoceras, referred to several times above,
consists of two species with very large shells, and, so far as can be
seen, purely arcuate forms, is the only case of a cyrtoceran form
with a dorsal furrow that I have been able to find. ‘The zone in
this shape appears on the free inner or dorsal side and is obviously a

598

dorsal furrow similar to that which appears on the dorsum of the
nepionic stage. The section of this whorl is nephritic. The ap-
pearance of the dorsal furrow is very often in the young and in later
stages of growth correlated with the appearance of a nephritic out-
line in the whorl. This happens So often that I at first supposed it
was a general law of association the two appearing together. It is
true, that in a number of forms, the nephritic form appears in asso-
ciation with the dorsal furrow, but in quite a number of others the
outline is not nephritic, and yet a dorsal furrow arises as will be
noted farther on.

The large size and gradual curvature of the cone in this genus
makes it unlikely that the existence of the dorsal furrow is due to
contact or to any mechanical effect of coiling. ‘The dorsal furrow
in these is either due to inheritance from other species, or is acquired
‘in their later or ephebic stage.

The genus may be degenerate and may have arisen from coiled
forms and the dorsal furrow and nephritic outline may have been
derived from this source. Against this is the fact that the shells are
of large size and the septa are.closely approximate. Both of these
characters are common in primitive Paleozoic shells and uncommon
in degenerate phylogerontic series. The study of the fossils them-
selves does not seem to support this view of their affinities since it
is difficult to point to any preéxisting coiled form from which they
could have been derived. If it is assumed that they are primitive
arcuate forms descended from other arcuate forms or straighter
cones, it is easy to trace them back into the Silurian and point out
their probable ancestors, in closely allied species which do not have
a dorsal furrow.

The problem here assumes a very interesting character due to the
fact that the Silurian forms of Cranoceras, C. ¢urnus, and others
have trigonal whorls and sutures which are in every way identical
with the young of several nautilian shells of the same period and
are evidently their ancestral radicals. These arcuate species, how-
ever, do not have dorsal furrows, and it seems, therefore, highly
probable that here is a case of acquired characteristic coming in very
late in the ontogeny of the ephebic stage, accompanied by a nephritic
outline.

Contact furrows arise from close coiling in fossils like Wedyceras
vetustum having similar subtrigonal whorls, but no examples are

599

known in these groups of the appearance of a dorsal furrow in the
young.

Anomaloceras anomalum is a remarkable Silurian fossil, on
account of the habitual excentric position of the siphuncle, but this
is always near the venter and in this species the form of the shell
and character of the sutures show that the genus belongs in the
same genetic group with Hercoceras.

In Hercoceras the evidence is very complete that the impressed
zone originated as a contact furrow. In all the gyroceran forms of
the allied genus, Ptenoceras, there is nothing of the sort. In the
loosely coiled forms like Hercoceras trregularis, Pl. viii, Figs. 14
and 15, there is no dorsal furrow in the nepionic stage. Even in the
closely allied Hercoceras mirum, although the last has a small um-
bilical perforation, there was no dorsal furrow in the single specimen
examined and figured (Pl. viii, Figs. rr and12). So far it is obvious
that close coiling does not of itself even with a favorable form of
whorl necessarily bring about the genesis of a dorsal furrow.

If the sudden bending of a broad whorl was necessarily followed
by the formation of a dorsal furrow it would certainly have been
produced in Hercoceras mirum. <A single exception in such cases
becomes a very significant positive fact against this assumption, and
that exception appears to occur in thisspecies. The terminal mem-
ber morphically of this series is Anomaloceras, and in the single
species of this genus known, there is a dorsal furrow as shown in
Figs. 16-20, Pl. viii. The umbilical perforation was small in this
shell, and of course it can be claimed that the furrow in the para-
nepionic was produced by mechanical pressure, and not inherited
from forms like Hercoceras, in which it first arose as a contact
furrow.

Potoceras dubium, which has been figured on PI. x, Figs. 15-22,
has unfortunately no recorded locality, but as noted in the description
there were indications that it was a Devonian fossil. At any rate,
whatever its age, the characteristics were plain and the presence of a
dorsal furrow in the paranepionic easily established.

The length of the ana- and metanepionic substages were decidedly
Paleozoic, and so also was the large umbilical perforation. It is
more difficult here to account for the genesis of the dorsal furrow
upon the mechanical hypothesis than in Anomaloceras on account
of the large umbilical perforation and the slow growth of the apex.
Nevertheless it can be reasonably claimed that the abruptness of

600

the gyroceran bend in this shell is sufficient to account for the dor-
sal furrow in the nephritic outline of the paranepionic substage.

In the preceding remarks I have dealt solely with those genetic
series and forms in which the dorsal furrow appears, but there are
many in which there is no sign of any furrow.

As has been said above, all of the straight and arcuate forms and
the gyroceran shells, in none of which has either a dorsal or a con-
tact furrow been found, except in Cranoceras. Passing these by,
one comes to the nautilian shells which are transitional between the
gyroceran and nautilian having the whorls in closer connection than
in the gyroceran and a slight contact furrow. ‘These, so far as
known, have other correlative characters. The umbilical perfora-
tions are large and open, the apex of the conch is often free, the
contact taking place on the venter of the ana- or metanepionic sub-
stage or later, and the whorls are subsequently never involute, or in
other words, they are discoidal shells.

In these shells I have in Paleozoic time found no exception to the
rule, that the dorsum of the nepionic stage is convex, and there is
no dorsal furrow, a furrow being formed only after contact, and in
later stages of development... One of the best examples of these
series is that of Barrandeoceras. Barrandeoceras Sternbergi contains,
as has been stated in the descriptions, two distinct forms, one Bar-
randeoceras Sternbergt, Pl. xiv, Fig. 3, has the whorls approximate,,.
and in the other they are not in contact. The purely gyroceran
character of these shells is apparent in the loosely uncoiled
young as well as in the later stages. They are also valuable
in showing that the flattening of the dorsum and a dorsal lobe may
arise as in Pl. xiv, Fig. 5, independently of contact, and this and
the form of the ephebic stage is precisely similar to that of the para-
nepionic volution of Barrandeoceras tyrannum. In this last and in
Barrandeoceras Sacheri and Bohemicum, there is no dorsal furrow,
but these ephebic characters of Sternberg? are repeated and a contact
furrow is produced after the whorls touch.

Estonioceras is another series in which nearly all degrees of coil-
ing can be studied, and here also the absence of a dorsal furrow in
the nepionic stage isa marked characteristic. The contact furrow is
maintained as long as the whorls are held together, showing pro-
gressive growth, but this rapidly disappears in the gerontic stage, as
shown by the figures given on Pl. v and vii.

Remeléceras impressum is also a good example of the generation of

601

a contact zone in the later stages of development given on Pl. viii,
Figs. 1-8.

Another belonging to the same category is Eurystomites, of which
the species are described and figured on Pl. v. This genus has also
its corresponding gyroceran forms in Barrandeoceras convolvans de-
scribed in the text and the resemblance of these to the young of
true species of Eurystomites is very close.

The series of the Tainoceratidz are interesting in this connection,
because in the earliest species of Temnocheilus itself, which occur in
the Devonian, there is no dorsal furrow, and only a contact furrow
as isshown in Figs. 27 and 28, Pl. x. The umbilical perforation is not
large, and in succeeding species in the Carboniferous, although
there are several genera, there are none having the dorsal furrow.

Metacoceras cavatiformis, Fig. 16-19, p. 496, and Pl. x, Fig. 32,
are good examples of this group.

Among the most remarkable of the Silurian series in which no
dorsal furrow was present is that of the highly ornamented and
modified genus Ophidioceras. The elaborate ornamentation of the
shell and the costz, combined with a peculiar hollow ventral zone
bordered by ridges, the free living chamber and aperture with
lateral and dorsal crests show this type to be very peculiar and
highly specialized. The small size and shape of the umbilical per-
foration shows also very close coiling. One would suppose this
amply sufficient in a quick-growing whorl like that of Ophidioceras
to force the premature development of a dorsal furrow, but there is
not the least sign of one in either of the three species examined and
figured on Pl. viii. In this group a very interesting fact is notice-
able in the gerontic stage. The impressed zone is persistent on the
free dorsum until it meets a projecting spur which coincides with
the more or less abrupt lituitean bend on the venter. On the other
side of this spur, it has, however, such a hold upon the organization
that it is not obliterated by the building of the spur, but is resumed
again on the oral side, and continues to the edge of the aperture.
In this last stage, however, the impressions made by the sharp ridges
on the borders of the median ventral zone are obliterated, and when
near the aperture the zone becomes narrower and shallower and
finally disappears.

Endolobus (Pl. viii, Figs. 36-39) is another example of the
absence of a dorsal furrow in a good-sized umbilical perforation and
the presence of a contact furrow in the older stages.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XxxII. 143. 3X. PRINTED JULY 23, 1894.

602

The mechanical moulding of the dorsum upon the venter of the
next inner whorl is shown of course in all of these examples, but it
can be still better illustrated by such forms as Ophidioceras, just de-
scribed, and Apheleceras mutabile (Pl. x, Figs. 29-31) and Diorugo-
ceras planidorsatum (Pl. xii, Figs. 1, 2). These and many other
examples besides those figured serve to demonstrate that in every
shell, so far as known, the configuration of the dorsum is absolutely
dependent upon the shape of the venter, the former being invariably
a reverse or mould of the latter. The same is also true in the
earlier stages of the contact furrow in those species that strike and en-
velop the apex of the conch.

The number of series which have close-coiled shells, but in which
the impressed zone is purely a contact furrow, isin the Carboniferous
even larger than in the Devonian, but it will suffice to refer to two
extreme examples. Ephippioceras, which is a highly specialized
species with peculiar sutures and septa and very involute, appears to
belong in this category, and also Phacoceras. ‘These forms are in
part figured on PI. ix.

Similar transitional shells with good-sized or large umbilical per-
forations are also present in the Trias, and are illustrated in
Syringoceras granulosostriatum and linearis, Pl. xi. There are
several other species in the Trias that belong in the same catc¢gory,
but it is not always easy to get preparations that will establish the
fact that the dorsal furrow is absent.

The disappearance of the straight and arcuate types in this period
together with the transitional nautilian shells has been remarked
above, and in the course of the following pages this fact will be
noticeable. In dealing with those types in the Carboniferous that
possess a dorsal furrow, one is struck by their small number and
their decisive testimony in favor of the assumption that the dorsal
furrow is inherited.

The phylogerontic character of Coloceras globatum is evident
from the figure of the ananeanic stage on Pl. x, and the comparison
that may be made with the senile whorls of Vesténautilus koninckt.
It then becomes obvious that Coloceras belongs to the same genetic
series as Vestinautilus, but that it inherits degenerative characters
at an early stage. It is in other words a degenerate form with a
highly accelerated development of the gerontic or degenerate
characters of other species of the same series. Of course ‘this ac-
celeration affects both the ornamentation or ridges as well as the

—

603 ~

form. It is to be anticipated of course in species of this kind that
other characters will also show acceleration. Accordingly one finds
as shown in several figures that in Co/. globatum a dorsal furrow
is to,be found in the paranepionic substage.

The umbilical perforation is of good size in this species, the
curvature is often gradual and uniform, the ana- and metanepionic
volution increases slowly in size, and there is apparently no
mechanical agency in any of these characteristics that would have
caused or led up to the appearance of the dorsal furrow in the para-
nepionic substage. Another point is obvious in this species. It is
a descendant of a special series which probably arose from Zhora-
ceras Puzonianum and canaliculatum, or some species of more an-
cient origin combining the characters of these two. ‘This series
then obviously passed through the distinct phases of gyroceran and
nautilian evolution and acquired a contact zone, which in the highly
specialized phylogerontic Coloceras became by the law of tachy-
genesis a dorsal furrow inherited in the paranepionic.

The facts in my opinion cannot be accounted for on any other
hypothesis.

It is hardly doubtful when other involute and highly specialized
shells have been fully investigated that many more examples of the
accelerated inheritance of the impressed zone will be found.

Nannoceras Frieslebent (P\. xi) is the only species in the
Dyas that I have been able to investigate, and this has a dorsal
furrow and a small umbilical perforation. Its congeneric forms are
also unknown, and its evidence is consequently not of much value,
except in so far as it shows the occurrence of this class of forms in
this period.

I was not able to obtain shells having small umbilical perforations
and suitable for examination in the Trias, and have to leave that
period a blank record except in so far as noted above.

The close-coiled shells of the Jura are, however, sufficiently
abundant and the evidence very interesting.

In the first place, as noticed elsewhere, there are no arcuate radi-
cals in existence. They have all disappeared in the Trias, and with
them went also the transitional forms of all kinds, the gyroceran
and even the primitive nautilian with very large umbilical perfora-
tions. Under these circumstances one should expect to find a
decided change in the behavior of characteristics.

If the impressed zone was maintained and perpetuated by mechani-

604

cal means, by ‘the abrupt curvature of the whorl at the gyroceran
bend, and had not through time or constant repetition become
fixed in the organism and genetic, one ought to find in some species
of the Jura having larger umbilical perforations than others, that a
dorsal furrow was absent, or else variable and often very slightly de-
veloped.

Suppose, on the other hand, without paying any attention to the
manner of the origin of the impressed zone, except in so far as the
facts show that it appeared late in the life of primitive species
and is an acquired character, one asserts that time and fixation in
nautilian shells has made it hereditary.

It is then of no consequence whether a given shell of the Jura has
a large or small umbilical perforation. Being a highly specialized
nautilian shell and apparently without other than strictly nautilian
progenitors, it follows from the law of tachygenesis, that the im-
pressed zone ought to be represented by a dorsal furrow in the para-
nepionic substage, or earlier in every species. ‘The mechanically
generated contact furrow of transitional nautilian shells occurs in
the ana- and metaneanic substages, rarely later, consequently if
the dorsal furrow arose out of this through the law of tachygenesis
it should appear in the preceding stages of the ontogeny before the
whorls touch in every shell of the Jura.

It is of course possible that exceptions to this rigorous logical de-
duction might have occurred in diseased young individuals, or in

.. species directly traceable to arcuate forms in the Trias, but so far

no such shells have been found.

In looking at the apices of the species of Digonioceras and of
Cenoceras, considerable difference is noticeable in the sizes of the
umbilical perforation, For example those of Digonioceras excava-
tum, Pl. xi, and Digontoceras, sp. (2), Pl. xii, Figs. 6-11, are com-
paratively quite large. But in these the dorsal furrow appears at the
same age as in Cenoccras intermedium and others having very much
smaller perforations and more rapid increase of the metanepionic
substage. In other words, the rapid increase of the ventro-dorsal
diameters and other diameters and the sudden bending of the shell
and the abrupt gyroceran curve of Cenoceras intermedium and line-
atum and clausum have no effect whatever upon the genesis of the
dorsal furrow. As if to make this conclusion still more secure,
Cenoceras aratus, the single species in the Jura, which does present
a slight acceleration in the development of the dorsal furrow, has

605

an umbilical perforation which is of medium size and has also
slower growth of the metanepionic and paranepionic substage than
most of the shells of this period. ‘This species, figured on Pl. xi,
Figs. 32 and 33, has so large a perforation and so gradual an in-
crease in bulk of the nepionic, that it affords no basis for a belief
in mechanical causes. If it had been found that the dorsal furrow
occurred a little later or not at all in this specimen then there
might have been some grounds for the supposition that genism had
had no influence upon the perpetuation of the impressed zone.
But when one finds in place of retardation a slight acceleration in
the development of the dorsal furrow the facts certainly appear to
be very strong in favor of the ordinary theory of diplogenesis and
tachygenesis.

The same argument applies with greater force to the Nautiloidea
found in the Cretacic. These being more remote than Jurassic
species from any primitive nautilian forms, they ought to exhibit
the action of tachygenesis in the earlier appearance of the dorsal
furrow at least in a considerable number of the species.

From the remarks already made above and from the figures
given, especially on Pls. xii and xiii of this work, it may be seen
that so far no specimen has been found in this period which did
not show the presence of a dorsal furrow on the metanepionic volu-
tion, a substage earlier than most of the species of the Jura. This
fact has already been used in other connections, especially in the
discussion upon the relations of the dorsum to the venter in nau-
tilian shells. It is very positive evidence against the supposition,
that the configuration of the dorsum of the metanepionic substage
has any effect upon the outline of the dorsum of the paranepionic
even in cases where they are brought close together on the opposite
sides of even the narrowest of umbilical perforations. Provided it
did not touch it is obvious that the dorsal side of the paranepionic
substage in Cretacic shells was free to assume any shape.”

In following the same theoretical line into the Tertiaries, the
evidence is less satisfactory ; only one species was found, /utrepho-
ceras tmperialis, which gave any evidence. This had the dorsal
furrow in the metanepionic substage. The Aturide, however,

*Tt will be easily seen that this argument could also be applied to the case of Trocho-
lites canadensis, but in the absence of positive evidence in the genetic series of the
Tarphyceratide I have thought it best not to assume that such use could be made of the
parallel facts observed in Mesozoic shells.

606

showed the highest degree of tachygenetic development in all the
structural characters of progressive evolution among Nautiloids.
That is to say, the size of the apical chamber, the immediate
assumption of a highly matured outline in the first suture which
has the aturian generic lobes and ventral saddles, the subdorsan
siphuncle, the minute umbilical perforation and the rapid increase
of all the diameters of the apex in the nepionic stage and the
almost complete involution of the apex and first whorl in neanic
stage, all indicated a high degree of acceleration. It is therefore
probable that in this family a correspondingly early inheritance of
the dorsal furrow will also occur, unless there is some interference
arising from the highly tachygenic development of the character-
istics cited above in the metanepionic substage that may have re-
placed it or rendered it very obscure. Sections ought to have been
made to establish this fact, but I could not obtain materials for this
purpose in the limited time at my disposal.

The existence of ghe dorsal furrow has been observed in the
metanepionic substages of the three existing species of Nautilus
that are the most important, viz.: the least involute Vautzlus um-
bilicatus, the most involute Mautilus pompilius and the degenerate
shell of Mautilus macromphaius. It might of course be expected
that some of the less involute shells of the Cretaceous, Tertiary or
Present, if any such be found, would resemble the Jurassic shells in
having a dorsal furrow in the paranepionic. I expected this might
occur in Wautilus umbilicatus, but so far as I could see the dorsal
furrow appeared in this shell quite as early as in Wautelus pompilius
or macromphalus.

I here take the opportunity to refer to the structure of the shell
of the dorsal side among Nautiloidea.

The shell of course in all forms with free whorls is as complete
on the dorsal as it is on the ventral side. It is also complete on
the dorsum in the nepionic stage of all mautilian species. An
additional layer called by various names, but known in the modern
Nautilus as the black or dark-colored layer, makes its appearance
after contact and lies between the exteriors of the shells of the
venter and dorsum in each whorl.

I have never been able to detect the homologue of this layer
among fossils probably because it is necessary to look for it in sec-
tions under the microscope.

As regards the behavior of the shell in the impressed zone after

607

contact it is obvious in all fossils, as it is in the Nautilus, that the
outer porcellanous layer is apt to disappear in the contact furrow
and that this disappearance is due to contact seems almost beyond
question, especially in Schroederoceras and other shells that have
free wlrorls in the gerontic stages.

In Paleozoic shells, like Lurystomites Kellogg’, Schroederoceras,
Estonioceras and many others the loss of the excretory function is
only temporary, since the free volution is protected on the dorsum
by a thick shell as soon as it begins to depart from the spiral. In
all of these that I have observed, the contact area has not been
large, but in Anomatloceras anomalum, Trocholitoceras Walcott,
Lndolobus avonensis, Tarphyceras and others in which the contact
is closer and the furrow broader, the outer porcellanous layer does
not pass on to the dorsum.

Pompeckj* states that the mantle border of Mautelus pompilius on
the venter and sides has triple folds and two furrows, which indi-
cate that these parts of the rim of the border secreted the outer
porcellanous layer which protects the body of the animal on the
outer exposed sides. On the dorsum the continuation of this
border is entire and not furnished with folds or furrows for secre-
tion of the porcellanous layer which is also absent on that side.

The aperture is not built out on the dorsal side in any involute
Nautiloid that I have been able to examine.

I have not yet been able to find in any of the involute shells
observed to have this peculiarity and in which the suppression of
the dorsal layer was more complete, that the last volution became
free and that the deposition of dorsal shell layers was resumed in
the gerontic stage. The evidence at present from this accords
with that to be obtained from coiling, namely, that shells having a
certain degree of closeness of contact or involution do not as a rule
have a free volution in the gerontic stage. That the aperture
might have become free and still be protected by adequate shell
layers on the dorsum in the gerontic stage remains to be deter-
mined. That this must have been very rare, if it ever occurred, is
shown by the fact that no shell has been observed in the Paleozoic
and none have been seen in the Mesozoic, Tertiaries or recent
Nautiloids, having such a gerontic stage at the apertural end of an
involute whorl.

In recent Nautilus it is especially noticeable, as stated above,

* Amm. mit “ Anormal, Wohnkammer,”’ p. 259.

608

that gerontic degeneration is slight and does not affect the amount
of involution nor the size of the whorl. This may be due to the
rarity of shells that have reached an advanced age or to the brittle-
ness of the senile volution, but against this there is sufficient evi-
dence.

Thus, in many Mesozoic fossils and in recent Nautili, shells are
often found with the last two or three septa approximating and this
is plainly a mark of the failure of the powers of growth and shows
in most examples of large size that the animal has probably reached
the extreme limits of its existence.

One fact is of great interest in this connection. Extreme cases
of degenerative series are rare among Nautiloidea. The Lituitidz
stand alone as the only complete series that can be compared with
several that are found among Ammonoidea. The Discoceratide
_ have also some turbinate genera that can be closely compared with
the helicoidal spirals of a number of Ammonitinze. All such forms
and others that may be supposed from their characteristics to exhibit
similar characteristics, disappear with the Paleozoic and all, so far
as I know, before the Carboniferous period. ‘There are phyloge-
rontic species like Coloceras globatum in the Carboniferous, but no
uncoiled phylogerontic forms.

In Mesozoic, Tertiary and Cenozoic times, the uniformity of the
type is conspicuous, and while it is plainly degenerating from the
Carboniferous to the present, this process is not accompanied by
the evolution of uncoiled series. The degeneration takes place as
stated above in ornamentation of the shell and in the number and
variety of the series and forms evolved, but not in the coiling,
which is really progressive, nor yet in the sutures, since Aturia is
certainly one of the most if not the most highly accelerated and
specialized of the whole order.

These facts all bear directly upon the history of the impressed
zone, since in all uncoiled whorls the primitive contact furrow tends
to disappear and the outer dorsal porcellanous layer is restored to
its full development on that side.

In Paleozoic time as well as in later times no involute shell has
yet been observed with a free gerontic volution, that is to say, when
the area of involution reached beyond the limits of the venter and
the area covered extended inwardly on to the sides of the next
inner whorls, the gerontic stage also remained involute, or, if
decreasing in its ventro-dorsal diameters, this decrease never seemed

609

to reach the extreme point of degeneracy, so as to allow the aper-
ture to become again free and complete on all sides.

This is, of course, negative evidence and it may be, as in Ammon-
oids, that the dorsal edge of the mantle never loses in any series
when restored to freedom the power to resume the shell-secreting
structures and function on the dorsal side. It can be readily seen
that as the whorl became gradually loosened from the inner whorl
the mantle border would extend the secreting furrows inwards from
both sides, or, more correctly speaking, perhaps, the non-secreting
edge of the dorsal border would be contracted and finally disappear.
There is no antecedent improbability that this might not take place
in any involute nautilian shell at a sufficiently degenerative substage
of itsontogeny. The remarkable fact, however, remains that it does
not take place so far as I know, although I have constantly been on
the watch for some such examples.

Ammonotdea.

It is not necessary to give any extended notices of observations
on special groups in this order. I have already described the
absence of the impressed zone in the ordinal radicals Bactrites and
in most of the Nautilinide on pp. 361, 362, 411, 413 and the
figures and explanations of Pl. ii, and Figs. 40-42, Pl. viii, of
Mimoceras lituum. The more specialized genera of the Goniati-
tinge have the impressed zone, but it is strictly a contact furrow and
appears as shown in figures of Agoniatites fecundus, one of the Nau-
tilinidze, sometimes very late in the ontogeny. In other still more
highly specialized species the loose coiling of the young, figured by
Sandberger in several species of Gephuroceras, Manticoceras /att-
dorsale of the Devonian and by the author in Glyphtoceras crents-
tria and atratus of the Carboniferous* indicates, that this zone is
either absent on the ananepionic dorsum, or, if present, must occur
as a slight dorsal furrow due to tachygenesis. The larger number
of the Goniatitinz, as shown by Branco and the author, have, how-
ever, such closely coiled nepionic stages that, as in all Ceratitine,
Lytoceratine and Ammonitine, so far as known, the umbilical per-
foration is closed along the mesal line as shown in Fig. 3, Pl. iii,
and is represented only by funnel-like lateral prolongations, which
do not appear to have an open connection with each other.

* Embryology of Fossil Cephalopods, PI. iii.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXII. 148. 3 Y. PRINTED AvGuST 6, 1894,

610

The impressed zone is among most of the Ammonoidea therefore
essentially a contact furrow, and the tendency to close coiling has
been accelerated to.so great an extent that contact takes place
between the permanent protoconch and the ananepionic substage and
a contact furrow is thus produced earlier than in any known Nauti-
loid. The position of the first septum in the aperture of the pro-
toconch shows that contact must have taken place before it was
deposited as the floor of the ananepionic living chamber, Zz. e., at
the very beginning of the building of the apex of the conch.

It is also obvious that this high degree of acceleration in devel-
opment was attained in the Devonian, as a permanent hereditary
character of the whole order since the Nautilinidz are the only
representatives of the Goniatitinz in the Silurian and disappear in
the Devonian. ‘There are also but very few species with open um-
bilical perforations in the Devonian, outside of the Nautilinide,
and so few in the Carboniferous, that Branco denies the correctness
of my figures of the two species above mentioned. ‘That open um-
bilical perforations should occur sporadically in the young of some
Carboniferous species of Goniatitine is of course to be expected,
and that Branco should not have found any simply demonstrates
the rarity of their occurrence.

The history of the impressed zone among Ammonoidea is par-
allel with that of the Nautiloidea in regard to the shell layers
on the dorsum. ‘These are complete in Bactrites and all of the
Nautilinidge which do not have a contact furrow and incomplete in
all Ammonoids that do have this furrow, the outer layer reaching
only to the lines of involution. This is shown in Fig. 3, Pl. iii,
and it # observable in this that the shell of the apex of the conch
appears to end at the outer edges of the umbilical perforations, but
this observation needs revision or confismation. There is a third
layer between the dorsal and ventral walls of the shell correspond-
ing to the organic black layer of Nautilus and it is often calcareous
and well preserved in some fossils.*

The extraordinary variety of degenerative series among Ammon-
oidea and their connection with the history of the impressed zone
is of great importance in this paper.

The duration of the habit of close coiling and involution in the
majority of shells from the Devonian to the Cretaceous is the most

*There is the same tendency to calcification here as in the case of the protoconch as
compared with the membranous protoconch of Nautiloids.

611

noticeable and one of the most persistent characteristics of the
general morphology of the order.

Nevertheless, in every example of uncoiled phylogerontic shells
the impressed zone tends to become less and to disappear, obeying
the same law as among the Nautiloids. There is, however, a dif-
ference in its behavior, which is at first.rather confusing. Involute
shells may have free gerontic volutions and in these the zone does
not appear to have, as a rule, so deep a hold upon the organization
of the Ammonoids that it does upon many of the Nautiloids.
For example, in deeply involute Scaphitoid shells there may be free
living chambers in the gerontic stage and the zone diminishes
greatly, almost disappearing on the edge of the aperture. In crio-
ceran and baculites-like forms, however, it does not appear to per-
sist to any marked extent upon the dorsum beyond the cessation of
contact in the young whorl.

There are no examples in the history of its retrogression which
can be compared with the persistency exhibited in a number of
Nautiloids. For example, in Lurystomites Kellogg’, Ophidioceras
and others the impressed zone, although it may not be present in
the nepionic stage before contact, and very shallow after contact,
nevertheless persists in the gerontic stage. Although showing a
tendency to disappear and finally vanishing at the aperture, the pro-
cess is slow, and it has obviously made a strong impression upon
the organism.

What has previously been said of the degenerative characteristics
and degenerative series of the Nautiloidea may be of some assist-
ance in clearing up this apparent anomaly. The phylogerontic
transformations of the Lituitidze, as stated above, are the only ones
among Nautiloids that can be compared with any of the completely
uncoiled retrogressive series of Ammonoids. Although in the
Lituitide the impressed zone is a mere contact furrow of slight
extent and obviously transient development, nevertheless they serve
as a comparative standard to show how much more complete the
degenerative changes are among the Ammonoids than among Nauti-
loids. If the observer studies any species of Ammonoid in the
gerontic stage the same morphic law becomes apparent. As I have
tried to show in Genesis of the Arietide,* the greater specialization
and more complex ephebic development of the ontogeny in Am- >

* Pp, 28-37.

612

monitinee is attended by a correspondingly intensified series of
degenerative changes in the gerontic stage.

Considering the nature and extent of these retrogressive changes
in both ontogeny and phylogeny, one ceases to be astonished that
the impressed zone disappears quickly in any individual and begins
to wonder at the conservative power of genism which preserves the
close coil of the nepionic stage as a definite record of the derivation
of such straightened out shells as Baculites. I have tried to account
for this by supposing that the young of even these degenerate forms
had similar habits as those of their ancestors, or were specially pro-
tected. The former supposition may be the true one, since it is
entirely in accord with the facts that the tendency to degeneration
should not necessarily take effect upon the development of the
earlier stages, but the latter can hardly be true.

The retrogressive forms have usually slenderer shells than the nor-
mal forms, and there is no evidence that they possessed any special
pouches or contrivances for the protection of the young.

It is interesting in this connection to notice the results of an ex-
tended research made by Dr. F. J. Pompeckj upon these extra-
ordinary Ammonitinz. His observations include about all of the
more remarkable distorted fossils of this kind from the Carboniferous
to the Cretaceous, especially those which have contracted apertures
and exhibit connections with normal forms. Dr. Pompeckj arrives
at the conclusion that the living chambers having such peculiarities
are one and all to be classed as senile characteristics.

His conclusions are as follows :

**z. Die Bildung ‘anormaler’ Wohnkammern ist nicht mit
Resorptionserscheinungen verbunden; Resorptionserscheinungen
sind an den Ammonitenschalen iiberhaupt nicht nachzuweisen.

‘¢2, Ein Ammonit mit ‘ anormaler’* Wohnkammer ist fast aus-
nahmlos als vollkommen ausgewachsen zu betrachten.

“3. Der ‘anormalen’ Wohnkammer gehen weniger verinderte
Wohnkammern voraus und schliesslich in den Jugendstadien solche,
die.in vollkommen regelmassiger Spirale gewachsen sind; man
darf daher bei der Beschreibung von Ammoniten nicht eigentlich
von einer anormalen Wohnkammer sprechen, sondern von einer
anormalen letzen Wohnkammer des ausgewachsenen Individuums.

**4. Die ‘anormalen’ Wohnkammern der Ammoniten sind
nicht auf sexuelle Unterschiede zuriickzufiihren.

*¢5. Die ‘anormalen’ Wohnkammern und die mit denselben

615

zusammenhangenden Formveranderungen des Ammonitentieres sind
als senile Charaktere aufzufassen.’’

I am not prepared to adopt without more extended study the first
of Dr. Pompeckj’s results. Although he has presented very strong
evidence, it is difficult to believe that in all cases when the aper-
ture is contracted and the whorl or living chamber is excentric that
this is never resorbed, because these so often occur in very small
shells. These small shells are apparently of the same species with
larger ones having similar chambers, and I have certainly considered
them as individuals which had inherited the degenerative tendency
to excentricity in their early stages. Dwarfs certainly occur having
prematurely degenerative characters of this kind, and it may be that
Dr. Pompeckj is right in his generalization, and that all such occur-
rences can be regarded in the same way.

Dr. Pompeckj does not deny that, when change of habit might
be such as to favor the inheritance of gerontic characters, that they
become genetic and that degenerative series might have been thus
built up. If this occur at all the appearance of gerontic characters
must take place according to the law of tachygenesis and in conse-
quence of this appear earlier in the ontogeny of descendants of the
same series. The shells in every degenerate series, therefore, ought
to show this earlier inheritance in proportion to their degeneracy
and to their place in the evolution of the series. In other words
some at least of the more degenerate species would necessarily
exhibit phylogerontic characters in their neanic stage and should
be classified not as dwarfs but as young shells.

Through the kindness of Dr. C. E. Beecher my attention has
been drawn toa species which is of importance in this connection
and this has been loaned me by Prof. O. C. Marsh, Director of
Yale University Museum. ‘This extraordinary helicoidal shell,
Emperoceras Beecheri, is exceptional in so far as it exhibits, in a
magnified and unmistakable way, the action of tachygenesis upon
gerontic characteristics.

The neanic stage has a single, straight, baculites-like cone which
turns in the same plane, building out the peculiar form known as
Hamites. This, after making the hamitean bend, deviates from
the plane of growth of the neanic stage and becomes a loose but
regular spiral which has generally heretofore been described as
Helicoceras.

614

In Nostoceras similar phenomena are observable but, in this tur-
rilites-like, closer coiled spiral, the young shells are quite different
and it is not certain that they are irregular and similar to Hamites.
The species of this genus and of Emperoceras and Didymoceras
show that the spiral coiled stage is an ephebic stage, not a true
gerontic stage of the ontogeny, because passing beyond this the
gerontic stage appears taking on the usual retroversal form. The
ephebic whorl departs from the spiral in this stage, again becoming
excentric, and then builds back towards itself and towards the
spiral, forming the peculiar crook found more or less in the parage-
rontic substage of the so-cailed Hamites, Ancyloceras, Scaphites.

Thus one gets in these two genera a demonstration that the tur-
rilites and helicoceran modes of building the shell are acquired
characteristics of the ephebic stage of the ontogeny interpolated
between gerontic and neanic stages which have the usual charac-
ters of these stages in the ontogeny of degenerate forms.

These forms are also interesting in connection with the history
of the impressed zone, because if they have close-coiled young, like
those of the crioceran and baculites-like shell already studied,
which is highly probable, they must have had a contact furrow in
the nepionic stage and then lost it in the neanic stage. The gene-
sis of another contact furrow in the still later stages of Nostoceras
and similar turrilites-like spirals, is therefore secondary and phylo-
gerontic, and is not strictly speaking a progressive characteristic.
This furrow is also situated on the lateral aspect and not on the
dorsum as in symmetrical shells.

The phylogerontic renewal of the impressed zone is also in Pty-
choceras, a generic character, as pointed out to me by Mr. T. W.
Stanton, to whose courtesy and the kind permission of Mr. C. D.
Walcott, Director of the Geological Survey, and Mr. Goode, Direc-
tor of the National Museum, I owe the fine materials described
above.

The return of close coiling in gerontic stages of this species is a
remarkable phenomenon. ‘There is a gerontic umbilical perfora-
tion formed by the sudden bending of the gerontic living chamber
which is elongated and not usually very small, but the gerontic
bend is often very abrupt. The inner side at the bend is occupied
by a gerontic dorsal furrow which reminds the observer of the dor-
sal furrow in the paranepionic substage of the coiled young of
Nautiloids. As in the young of Trocholites and Tarphyceras the

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615

dorsum of the gerontic volution is brought into contact with the
dorsum of the next younger volution and a contact furrow results,
which so far as I know occurs in all the species properly referred to
this genus, although very slight in some of them.

The significance of the facts brought out by the study of degenera-
tive series has been fully discussed elsewhere, and need not be
noticed again.

The facts and arguments brought forward seem to justify the fol-
lowing conclusions :

1. The impressed zone is primitively a contact furrow, an ac-
quired characteristic of the dorsum of the whorls of nautilian shells
having large umbilical perforations, which appeared either in the ana-
neanic or metaneanic substages, and rarely later in their ontogeny.
There is abundant positive evidence that in these primitive forms
this furrow is a purely mechanical result of the nautilian mode of
growth, not appearing in the ontogeny before contact and either
partially or entirely disappearing on the free gerontic volution.

2. The impressed zone does occur independently of contact on
the free dorsum of the paranepionic substage as a dorsal furrow in
some close-coiled, highly tachygenic, nautilian shells in the Quebec
group and in the Devonian.

3. While there is no positive proof that the dorsal furrow origi-
nated through heredity in the paranepionic substages of these nauti-
loids of precarboniferous age, there is also no satisfactory evidence
that it originated in the young of such species as have this character
through purely mechanical agencies.

4. There is positive evidence that the similar dorsal furrow which
also appears at the same age in the young shells of Coloceras glo-
batum and perhaps Coelogasteroceras canaliculatum among Carbon-
iferous nautiloids can be explained only when it is considered as a
transmitted, tachygenetic characteristic.

5. This fourth conclusion is supported by the presence of a similar
dorsal furrow in the paranepionic substage of the young shells of all
of the nautiloids of the Jura, so far as observed.

6. The fourth and fifth conclusions are rendered still more proba-
ble by the presence of the dorsal furrow at an earlier age, the meta-
nepionic substage, in all of the nautiloids so far as observed, from
the beginning of the Cretaceous, through the Tertiaries to and in-
cluding the living species of the genus Nautilus. Its presence on
this cyrtoceran volution in Cretacic shells can be explained only

616

when it is considered as a transmitted, tachygenetic characteristic
derived from ancestral, nautilian shells of the Jura, which have the
same characteristic at a later age, 7. e., in the paranepionic substage.

7. The first conclusion is also sustained by the parallel phylogeny
of the impressed zone in the ancestral forms of the Ammonoidea,
the Nautilinidz and especially in Mimoceras, the radical genus of
this family.

8. The fourth, fifth and sixth conclusions are also supported by the
presence of a contact furrow on the dorsum of the earliest age of
the conch in the specialized and highly tachygenic forms of the
Goniatitinze of the Devonian and of all of the remaining Ammonoids
to the end of the Cretaceous.

g. These cumulative results favor the theory of tachygenesis and
diplogenesis, and are opposed to the Weissmannian hypothesis of
_the subdivision of the body into two essentially distinct kinds of
plasm, the germplasm, which receives and transmits acquired char-
acteristics, and the somataplasm, which, while it is capable of ac-
quiring modifications, either does not or cannot transmit them to
descendants.

617

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

RA mE Te

- Illustrations of nepionic stage and ananeanic substage in (Vaztilus pompilius
from preparations made by Henry Brooks and drawn under his direction. They
are all enlarged to show the details uf the surface ornamentation and changes of
form.

Fig. 1. The paranepionic aperture and earlier nepionic substages seen from
the front, this preparation having been obtained by breaking down the full-
grown shell. The septum which appears here necessarily belongs to a later time
and shows the position of the siphuncle and its large size in the floor of a living
chamber older than is represented in this figure, but in the same substage. The
actual living chamber of this age was therefore deeper than is represented here at
the beginning of the paranepionic substage. The subtriangular outline of the sec-
tion of the shell is supposed to represent and probably does approximately repre-
sent the aperture. It is noticeable also that the dorsal furrow is well developed,
although the shell has not yet completed the gyroceran curve.

Fig. 2. Side view of the same showing the apex. The ananepionic substage
is not distinctly visible, but the constrictions showing apertures of the metane-
pionic substages are delineated.* This figure is especially intended to exhibit
the changes that take place in the ornamentation of the shell.

Fig. 3. The ananepionic and metanepionic substages in another preparation
seen from the front. The ananepionic is the elongated disk of the apex and scar in
the centre of this. The metanepionic includes the shell outside of this to the
outer constriction.

The details in this have not been completely drawn, but the transverse lines of
growth are shown upon the shaded side of the drawing.

Fig. 4. Same from the ventral side, showing especially the latter part of the
metanepionic substage and the deep constriction that in some specimens marks
the termination of this substage. The lines of growth show no trace of a hypo-
nomic sinus in this or any other preparation at this age.

Fig. 5. The same substages of the nepionic stage seen from the front in another
preparation. The details of the transverse striation are not fully given in this
drawing and this makes the ananepionic substage appear more gibbous than it
really is. This impression is corrected by Fig. 6.

Fig. 6. View of the same from the venter, very carefully finished in all its
details. The limits of the ananepionic substage and the aperture of the first part
of the metanepionic substage are more plainly marked in this specimen than is
usual.

* These drawings and others in this paper will appear to most observers to be upside
down. They are really right side up and the conventional mode of representing these
shells followed hitherto in all works is unnatural. It is full time that these forms should
be pictured, as are all others in scientific and popular works, as they stand in nature.
The greatest objection to this is the inconvenience of comparison with illustrations
hitherto published, but this cannot be avoided, and must be endured for the sake of
progress.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXxII. 148. 3 zZ. PRINTED AUGUST 6, 1894.

618

Fig. 7. Side view of the apex of the conch in another preparation showing the
same substages and a part of the paranepionic substage.

Fig. 8. Diagram of the exterior of the ananepionic substage. This also shows
the position of caecum and septum of the first living chamber of the metanepionic
in the interior, and supposed outlines of aperture of ananepionic substage. In
the ananepionic substage the apex of the conch is empty and this diagram there-
fore gives the erroneous impression that the czecum and first septum belongs to
this substage, whereas it is obviously a part of the metanepionic substage.

Fig. 9. Front view of the same showing outline of aperture of ananepionic
substage and also the position and size of the primitive siphuncle or caecum first
septum of the metanepionic substage.*

Fig. 10. Diagram of same and exterior of first living chamber of the metane-
pionic substage showing change of position towards the venter of the siphuncle in
the septum of the second living chamber of same substage.

Fig. 11. Front view of the same with siphuncle of the same.

Fig. 12. Side view of the exterior of two first substages and supposed aperture,
with the siphuncle and first septum of the paranepionic substage. The siphun-
cle, it will be observed, changes again towards the centre between these two
septa.

Fig. 13. Front view of the same showing approximate outline of aperture
taken from actual outline of shell in section at the constriction terminating
the metanepionic substage. This shows the nephritic character in the volution
and exhibits also the dorsal furrow beginning to form at this early age before
the gyreceran curve begins. This drawing is placed so that the observer can
compare the outlines of the shell at this substage with that of the later age of
the paranepionic substage in Fig. 1. In the latter the siphuncle has assumed the
permanent position of the ephebic stage below the centre.

* Figs. 9-11 should have been reversed to accord with the side views and with the other
figures.

Proceedings Amer. Philos. Soc. Vol. XXXII, No. 143,

¢
Plate II ( Hyatt).

619

PrAT EH) ll.

Figs. 1-6. Mimoceras (Gontatites) compressum, after Branco, Paleontogra-
phica, xxvii, Pl. viii, much enlarged, to show the loose mode of coiling, absence
of impressed zone, primitive nautiloid sutures of the young until a late stage, and
protoconch joining the conch without any constriction on the sides or abdomen,
but with a slight constriction on the dorsum, showing tendency to coil, these
being typical ammonitoid characteristics. Fig. 6, 1 and 2and x represent the
first, second, and older septum, the septa of the later stages are shown with ven-
tral siphonal lobe in Fig. 5. Fig. 20 is the same species after Sandberger.

Figs. 7 and 8. Mzmoceras (Goniatites) ambigena, after Barrande, Systeme
Silurien, Pl. iii, Fig. 22,and PI. xii, Fig. 7, showing the absence of an impressed
zone at a late stage, probably the ephebic stage of development.

Figs. 9-11. Agontatites (Goniatites) fecundus, after Barrande (7207¢.), Pl. x,
Figs. 13-15, showing the absence of the impressed zone until a late stage; Fig.
II is nearly natural size, and this shows, when compared with others of Bar-
rande’s figures of this species, which have the impressed zone in adults (Bar-
rande, Pl. vii, Figs. 10 and 11), that this characteristic comes at a much earlier
stage in some specimens, and is originated by close coiling, as it is in Agoniatites
Vanuxemi, but at an earlier stage than in 4. fecundus.

Figs. 12 and 13. Agoniatites (?) (Goniatites) crebriseptus, after Barrande
(zézd.), Pl. vii, Figs. 1 and 2, reduced one-third, showing how similar to some
nautiloids the adults of this genus may be, both in form and sutures,* with the
exception of the ventral siphonal lobe, which alone enables one to place them
among Ammonoids.

Figs. 14 and 15. Agoniatites fecundus, after Barrande (zd7d.), Pl. xi, Figs. 2
and 4, enlarged to show the variation of the coiling of two varieties in the pro-
toconchial and nepionic stages. These are both included under one name by
Barrande.

Fig. 16. Anarcestes (Gontatites) lateseptatus, after Branco, of. ci¢., xxvii,
Pl. vi, enlarged, showing the immature ventral sutures of this with the primitive
undivided siphonal lobe beginning in the second septum of the metanepionic
substage. ‘This continues substantially the same in aspect throughout life in the
genera Mimoceras, Anarcestes, Agoniatites and Pinnacites, all Silurian forms of
Goniatitinee.

Figs. 17-19. Gephuroceras (Goniatites) serratum, after Branco, of. cit., xxvii,
Pl. vi, enlarged, showing sutures of Devonian Goniatitinee with accelerated devel-
opment. The mimoceran undivided siphonal lobe is here shown in the metane-
pionic substage, 2-4 septa, but in the paranepionic, where the coil is 3 mm. in
diameter, the siphonal saddle arises in the centre of this lobe as a new character
acquired in the later stages of growth.

Figs. 20-25. These give the protoconch and young of various species of
Goniatitinz of the Devonian after Sandberger, Fahréuch d. Nass. Verein, 1851,

* Mimoceras ( Goniatites) lituus is a still larger form, also figured by Barrande, which has
no impressed zone and is very similar to many nautiloids which have similar compressed

elliptical whorl and subventran siphuncles. His figure is reproduced here in reduced
outline, Figs. 40, 41, Pl. viii.

620

Pl, ili, They are somewhat enlarged and show the loose coiling of several genera
in the nepionic stages of development during this period of their evolution. Sub-
sequently the coiling becomes closer, as has been demonstrated by Branco. Fig.
20, Mimoceras compressum ; Fig. 21, Anarcestes subnautilinus ; Fig. 22, Agonia-
tites bicanaliculatus, var. gracilis; Fig. 23, Gephuroceras planorbe, Fig. 24,
caleuliforme, and Fig. 25, sublamellosum; Fig. 26, Manticoceras latidorsale,
and Fig. 27, Glyphioceras diadema.

Figs. 28 and 29. Protoconch of Orthoceras, after Clarke, Az. Geol., xii,
August, 1893.

Figs. 30 and 31. Protoconch of Bactrites, after Branco.

Proceedings Amer. Philos. Soc.

Plate ITT ( Flyatt).

Vol. XXXII, No. 143.

prong

621

PratEs Ti:

Figs. 1-7. Deroceras (Amm.) planicosta, Hyatt, Embryology Ceph. Bult.
Mus. Comp. Zoblogy, iii, No. 5, Pls. i and il.

Fig. 1,side view of nepionic and neanic stages, X 80 diameters. Fig. 2, sec-
tion of another specimen, X 21.5 diameters; B,protoconch. Fig. 3, centre of same,
enlarged to show the umbilical perforation (U) as it occurs in Ammonitinz and most
of the Goniatitinz. Fig. 4, protoconch and first volution with ananepionic first sep-
tum; x, probably sutures of the first septum on the dorsum seen through the whorl ;
X 80.* Fig. 5, side view of protoconch, ananepionic first septum I e, and meta-
nepionic septa, 2 e, 3 e; D, shell; B,naked cast of interior of protoconch; y, coni-
cal appendage of czecum seen through the whorl. Fig. 6, section of same speci-
men exposing interior of the protoconch (y), the conical czecal prolongation, and
the fundus of the cecum and the first two septa, S, being the neck of the small
siphuncle at the third septum, which is broken off. Fig. 7, thin section of caecum
and part of conch with four septa, showing formation of czecum by the first septum
I e, the composition of the cecal prolongation y, the neck of the caecum formed
by the second septum 2 e, the siphon begun by the third septum and continued
by the fourth, both of which have funnels directed apically as in Nautiloids; S/,
organic deposit in the interior; S/’, inner layer; S//’, wall of siphuncle; X 317
diameters.

Fig. 8. Deroceras (42goc.) planicosta, Branco, Paleontographica, xxvii, Pl. x,
showing protoconch from a different point of view and less magnified. Fig. 9,
same, with first to fourth sutures showing.

Fig. 10. Pleuroceras (Amaltheus) spinatum, Branco (zé2d.), Pl. xiii, enlarged,
showing the interior of the protoconch; the septa of first whorl are cut exposing
the cecum. The septa are all convex and strictly ammonitoidal except the
first, which is concave, as in Nautiloids and the adults of Mimoceras, Anar-
cestes and Agoniatites among Ammonoids of the Silurian period.

Figs. 11 and 12. Crioceras Studeri, Branco (7b7d.), Pl. xiii, enlarged, showing
the coiled young of this uncoiled degenerate form. +

Figs. 13-18. Baculites compressus, Brown, Proc. Acad, Sci. Phila., 1891, p. 1595
1892, p. 136, Pl. ix. Fig. 13, enlarged young shell in the neanic stage, showing
the lines of growth, aperture and rostrum on the ventralside. Fig. 14, front view
of shell in the paranepionic substage; the siphuncle is not subventran. Fig. 15,
front view with the two metanepionic and four paranepionic sutures, those with a
siphonal lobe divided by a siphonal saddle being paranepionic in age. Figs. 16
and 17, front and side views, with restoration of the ananepionic substage. Fig.
18, side view of Fig. 15.

Figs. 19-21. Apex from the front and side and sutures of Mautzlus Clemen-
tinus, after Branco, of. cz¢., xxvii, Pl. ix.

Fig. 22. Sutures of Nautilus deslongchampsianus, after Branco, (2dzd.),
Plas

* This figure has no number.
+ See also for similar forms Pl. xi, Figs, 40, 41.

622

PLATE IV.

Fig. 1 Baculites compressus, enlarged sutures after Brown, see PI. iii.*

Fig. 2. Deroceras (Aegoceras) planicosta, enlarged sutures after Branco,
Paleontographica, xxvi, Pl. x. These show the ananepionic suture I, the metane-
pionic or goniatitic sutures 2-4, and the paranepionic with divided siphonal lobe
at the diameter of 1 mm. and 2 mm., and the next septum, the 7, here given, is
transitional to the first neanic septum, the 8 of this series, which shows the begin-
ning of ammonitic digitations in saddles and lobes and a divided dorsal lobe.
By comparing this with the sutures of Pl. ii, Fig, 16, Avarcestes lateseptatus, and
Gephuroceras serratum, Pl. ii, Fig. 17, it will be seen that the ephebic ventral
lobes and smooth sutures of the Goniatitinze, represented in Gephuroceras, are
limited to the paranepionic in Deroceras. The goniatitic ventral lobe in other
words is replaced in the ananeanic of Deroceras, representing the Ammonitinz,
by the digitate lobes and saddles of that suborder.

Fig. 3. Vermiceras (Arietites) spiratissimum, enlarged sutures, after Branco,
(zbid.), Pl. ix, showing also acceleration of development through the replacement
_of the ephebic characters of the Goniatitinze by those of the Ammonitinz in the
ananeanic substage.

Fig. 4-11. Zarphyceras Champlainense, (sp. Whitfield), Hyatt; Loc., Fort
Cassin; U. S. N. Mus., Walcott Coll. Fig. 4, side view slightly enlarged, show-
ing involution and small unbilical perforation ; the crack indicates the direction
of the section given in Fig. 5. Fig. 6 gives general section and the centre is of
about the same age as Fig. 6. Fig. 7 is younger and shows beginning of the
dorsal furrow narrower and deeper than in Fig. 6, Fig. 5 shows that it is
probably due to the mechanical effects of the sudden bending shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 8, ideal section showing location of sections Figs. 6 and 7. Fig. 9, section of
another specimen, natural size, showing a younger stage at the centre. Fig. Io,
side view of same specimen. Fig. 11, enlarged section of metanepionic centre of
Fig. 9, showing outline like that of Maztzlus pompilius at the same age.

Fig. 12-16. Zarphyceras prematurum, Hyatt, Quebec Group; Loc., Port au
Port, Newfoundland. Fig. 12, side view of fragmentary specimen, natural size,
giving part of livingchamber. Fig. 13, front view of same. Figs. 14 and 15, front
and side view of nepionic and part of neanic stage slightly enlarged; Fig. 16, front
view of nepionic whorl of same (x 2) showing a dorsal furrow and the abrupt
bending of the whorl. The narrowness of the umbilical shoulders is not natural,
being probably in part due to the obliquity of the septum and partly to erosion of
the outline at this point.

Figs. 17-22. Tarphyceras Aucoini, Hyatt, Quebec Group; Loc., Port au Port,
Newfoundland. Fig. 17, side view, natural size, of ephebic stage; Fig. 18, part
of neanic whorl to show sutures. Fig. 19, section of ephebic whorls, natural size,
of another specimen. Fig. 20, section, natural size, of another specimen, the upper
whorls a little depressed by pressure; Fig. 21, the nepionic stage enlarged (four
diameters) to show more accurate outline and the dorsal furrow and sudden bend-
ing of whorl and narrow umbilical perforation. Fig. 22, side viewofsame. The
apex in all of these specimens was too much eroded to show the cicatrix.

*This figure is not numbered.

VOI. AAAH NO. 140,

Proceedings Amer, PHOS. Soc.

a)

f

Plate IV ( Hyatt).

623

Figs. 23 and 24. Yrocholites canadensis, Hyatt; Loc., Falls of Montmo-
rency (?); Coll. Mus. Comp. Zoélogy, Bronn Coll.

Fig. 23. Much enlarged. ‘The siphuncle shows through the transparent venter
of the nepionic volution and it passes from subdorsan in the paranepionic below
to centren in the metanepionic above. The umbilical perforation appears beyond
the siphuncle and has a well-developed dorsal furrow, can also be seen; Fig. 24
shows the gibbous outgrowth of the dorsum in the umbilical perforation at some
distance from the gyroceran bend.

Fig. 25. Zrocholites (Lituites) internastriata (sp. Whitfield), Hyatt. This
was drawn from the centre of his original specimen, Bwl/. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.
LV. Y., Pl. xxix, Fig. 6, enlarged to show the centren position of the siphuncle in
the first septum and its gradual approach to the dorsum in the paranepionic whorl
as in 7: canadensis. This also shows a much larger umbilical perforation than
is found in Canadensis or ammonzus or the species figured by Holm.

Fig. 26. Zrocholites sp.? after Holm, 7al. Abh. Dames et Kayser, iii, Pl. v,
Fig. 11, to show the probable beginning of the siphuncle to be nearer the centre
than is described by him. His Fig. 9 of Zrocholites incongruus shows also a
small umbilical perforation and the siphuncle subdorsan, but its tip or caecum is
directed towards the centre of the apical chamber.

624

PLATE VY.

Figs. t and 2. Zurystomites undatus (sp. Hall), Hyatt; Black River, Poland,
Herkimer Co., N. Y.; Mus. Comp. Zodlogy, Walcott Coll. Natural size, show-
ing large umbilical perforation and absence of dorsal furrow. A contact furrow
is formed when the whorls come in contact in neanic stage. Siphuncle is too
small and too near the venter in both inner whorls. (Fig. 3 is blank on this
plate.)

Figs. 21-25. Eurystomites rotundus, Hyatt, Quebec Group ; Fort Cassin, U. S.
N. Mus., Walcott Coll. Enlargedslightly. Fig. 3, partly diagrammatic side view
showing direction of section. Fig. 4, section. Fig. 5, section of nepionic somewhat
nearer to that indicated in Fig. 3. Fig. 6 is about on that line and Fig. 7 is on
the further side of it in the umbilical perforation. This series shows the large
umbilical perforation and absence of impressed zone, until the whorls come into
contact in the neanic stage.

Figs. 4 and 5. Lurystomites (Naut.) Kelloggi (sp. Whitfield), Schréder;
Loc., Fort Cassin, Quebec Group; Walcott Coll. U.S, Nat. Mus. Fig. 4, reduced
one-third, showing the cast with the partly exfoliated rough shell in the gerontic
stage and the restored gerontic free whorl which is in outline. The matrix was
preserved so as to give the dorsal outline of this restored volution but not the
sides or the venter. Fig. 5, section of the termination of the gerontic whorl.
This is ideal so far as the sides and venter are concerned and may be too long
ventrodorsally, but the dorsum is correct and shows the much narrowed but still
persistent impressed zone.

Fig. 6-10. Barrandeoceras (Naut.) tyrannum (sp. Barrande), Hyatt; Loc.,
Lochkov, Bohemia; Schary Coll. Mus. Comp. Zodlogy.

Fig. 6, front view of part of the nepionic volution showing the cicatrix ana-,
meta- and part of paranepionic substages, the constriction next to the cieatrix and
the one just beyond this belongs to the ananepionic substage; the second is
also seen in Fig. 7 a, the next constrictions seen in both of these figures
belong to the metanepionic substage. There is apparently no hyponomic
sinus in these two substages and its absence indicates the limits of the
metanepionic substage. It is not plainly visible on this specimen until near the
cracked line, which is really the septum of the living chamber. Fig. 7, side view,
shell was not on the living chamber, but has been restored from other specimens,
Suture is about as indicated with ventral and dorsal saddles and broad shallow
lateral lobes. Figs. 6and 7 are X 4 diameters. Fig. 7a, an enlarged side view of
apex of Fig. 7 to show true aspect of this part. Figs. 8, 9 and Io, similar views
of another specimen showing identity of cicatrix and youngest substages in both
shells. The markings are so delicate that they are easily obliterated and are
necessarily much coarser in these drawings than in nature. Fig Io is enlarged
about four diameters.

Figs. 11-14. Barrandeoceras Sacheri (sp. Barrande) Hyatt; Loc., V. ch.
Pridoli, Bohemia; Schary Coll., Mus. Comp. Zodlogy. Fig. 11 shows the large
umbilical perforation, the sudden bending of the whorl at the end of the metane-
pionic substage ; this occurs also in Fig. 7 and Fig. 9. Fig. 12,frontofsame. Fig.

Vol. XXXIl, No. 143,

Proceedings Amer. Philos. So
Plate V ( fTyait).

Proceedings Amer, Philos. Soc. ee iad,

Vol. XXXII, No. 143.

((tiMDDB DD DDD DD),

625

13 shows the dorsal side of Fig. 11 on the paranepionic whorl inside of umbilical
perforation and just before the apex is reached. This has sutures with dorsal
lobes and is flattened as is shown in section of the same, Fig. 14; this flattening
also occurs in the paranepionic whorl of Fig 6.

Figs. 15-17. Aphetoceras boreale, Hyatt, Quebec Group; Loc., Schooner’s
Island, Newfoundland. Fig. 15, side view, and Figs. 16 and 17, sections all one-
third reduced, showing form and absence of impressed zone. For other species of
this genus see PI. vi.

Figs. 18-20. Pycnoceras apertum, Hyatt, Quebec Group; Loc., Port au Port,
Newfoundland, Fig. 18, side view, reduced one third, with apex restored. Fig.
19, view of venter of same encrusted with dorsal shell of older volution, the
remainder of this volution having been destroyed by erosion. This shell shows
the contact furrow and the dorsal lobes in the sutures of older stages. Fig. 20,
view of the part of the nepionic whorl of Fig. 18, enlarged 2 diameters, showing
the absence of dorsal furrow and the form of the metanepionic and paranepionic
substages of this species. The remnants of the dorsal] shell described above are
omitted in this figure and in Fig. 18.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC, XXXII. 143.4 4. PRINTED AuGUuST 6, 1894.

626 Ry

PLATE VL " ™.

Figs. 1-4. Zarphyceras extensum, Quebec Group; Loc., Port au Choix, New-
foundland. Reduced one-third. Fig, 1, lateral view, showing position of siphuncle,
septa in section and free volution. Fig. 2, section of living chamber at the ter-
mination restored by observation of the more perfect parts of the same volution.
Dorsum appeared to have no impressed zone in this obviously the gerontic stage.
Fig. 4, section of two ephebic whorls in part restored, showing impressed
zone and general form. Fig. 3, section of younger whorl, restoration in part.
‘Dimensions are incorrect in these sections, but the form is correct.

Figs. 5-8. Aphetoceras Americanum, Quebec Group; Loc., Port au Choix,
Newfoundland. Reduced one-third. Fig. 5, side view showing gyroceran mode
of growth, suture with ventral lobe and younger sutures with ventral and dorsal
saddles. Fig. 7, section of the outer whorl. Figs. 7, 8, sections taken at the
two contiguous breaks in the outer and next inner whorls. Dimensions of these
sections are not correct, but form is properly represented,

Figs. 9-11. Litoceras tnsolens (?) (sp. Bill.), Hyatt, Quebec Group; Loc.,
Gargamelle Cove, Newfoundland. Fig. 9, side view of young specimens, very
nearly natural size Fig. 10, interior whorls enlarged to show large umbilical
perforation, costations of metanepionic, payanepionic and ananeanic substages,
and the loose coiling of the ananeanic substage. Fig. 11, section of nepionic,
ananeanic and anephebic volutions showing the absence of impressed zones in
the nepionic and changes of form in older whorls. Compare this with the young
of Trocholitoceras Walcottt.

Figs. 12-20. Zrocholitoceras Walcott?, Quebec Group; Fort Cassin; U. S.
Nat. Museum, Walcott Coll. Fig, 12, side view of type specimen natural
size. Fig. 13, section of same. Fig. 14, section of centre of same enlarged to
show the largest diameter of the umbilical perforation and the ananepionic sub-
stage and paranepionic with impressed zone. Fig. 20 gives location of this section
and all the rest are taken between the two bisecting lines of this figure. Figs. I5—
Ig, successive sections gradually passing out of the umbilical perforation and
showing the position of the siphuncle and increasing depth of the impressed zone
after contact These sections also show that the impressed zone occurs after the ”
gyroceran bend in the beginning of the paranepionic substage, and is apparently
a result of the great increase in transverse diameters, nephritic form of whorl
and abrupt befding. Fig. 20, location of sections, ideal. The shape of the ana-
nepionic volution in Fig. 13 is more accurate than in Fig. 14 or 15.

Figs. 21-27. Schroederoceras teres (sp. Eichw.), after Holm, P2/. 46h, Dames
et Kayser, iii, Pl. vy. Figs. 21 and 22 show the subventral czecum in apical
chamber and shifting of position to dorsad of centre in the ananeanic substage.
Compare with Schroederoceras Latoni, Fig. 35. Figs. 23-27, ananepionic,
metanepionic substages, the septa belong wholly to the metanepionic. There is
no dorsal furrow in this shell until the third septum is reached and by comparing
this with sections, Figs. 21 and 22, it is seen that this indicates e‘ther the begin-
ning, Fig. 21, or the completion of the gyroceran bend, Fig. 22, although Holm’s
Fig. 25 would lead to the supposition that the bending had not yet begun.

Figs. 28-35. Schroederoceras Eatont, sp. Whitf., Hyatt, Quebec Group; Loc.,

FIUGCCUINEs Aller, . Vol. XXXH, No. 149.

Plate VI (Hyatt) Ae .

Vol, XXXII, No. 143

ceedings Amer. hilos. Soc.

Feenie
poe" i a

627

Fort Cassin; Coll. U.S. N. Mus. and Am. Mus., N. Y. Fig. 28, side view of
original (slightly changed), from Whitfield, Bad? Am. Mus., Pl. xxxii, Fig. 1.
Fig. 29, section of gerontic living chamber at the end. Fig. 30, section of ephebic
whorl just above free end of living chamber. These two show the presence of a
well-developed contact zone in the ephebic stage and its complete disappearance
on the free gerontic volution. Fig. 31, shows a section of a specimen which ex-
hibits the umbilical perforation with a core of the matrix; this cut passed inside
of the line drawn through Fig. 35 and represents the metanepionic above the
core and below it the paranepionic volution, the neanic being the next section
of a volution above the metanepionic. Figs, 32 and 33, younger ages of the
nepionic and older ages of the paranepionic volutions. Fig. 34, section along the
line indicated in Fig. 35. Fig. 35, drawing enlarged from Whitfield’s original
Pl. xxxviii, Fig. 7. Umbilical perforation may be somewhat larger proportionally
than in nature.

Figs. 36-38. Schroederoceras casinense, Quebec Group; Loc., Fort Cassin;
Coll. Am. Mus. N. Y. Fig. 36, side view (somewhat changed), from Whitfield,
op. ctt., Pl. xxxii, Fig. 2. Fig. 37, section of outer whorl of same near the line
of broken shell on the living chamber of Fig. 36. Fig. 38, shows sutures on
the venter of same specimen.

Figs. 39 and 40. Zrocholites canadense ; Loc., Falls of Montmorency, Bronn;
Coll. Mus. Comp. Zoology. Fig. 39 gives section. Compare with that of 77o-
cholitoceras Walcotti. Fig. 40 shows the centre of this; the lower volution is
the nepionic and this shows how much wider this is than the older neanic volu-
tion above.

628

PLATE VII.

Figs. 1-3. Schroederoceras tubulatum, Hyatt, pars Lit. angulatus, Saem.;
Coll. Mus. Comp. Zoél., Loc., Brevig, Norway. Reduced one-third. Fig. 1, side
view of the fragment; the free whorl is restored as shown in this figure. The
suture and form of the restoration was taken from the well-preserved dorsum and
cast of the interior of the right side of the free whorl. The umbilical perfora-
tion is probably incorrect. The aperture follows the lines of growth, but is very
likely incorrect and the ventro-dorsal diameter may be too long. Fig. 2, section,
the outer volution being restored as regards the venter and right side; the dorsum
and left side are accurate. Fig. 3, restored outline of living chamber at termina-
tion showing the obliteration of the impressed zone. See also Figs. 6-12, Pl. xiv.

Figs. 4-6. Schroederoceras casinense, Quebec Group; Loc., Fort Cassin; U. S.
Nat. Museum, Coll. Walcott. Natural size. Fig. 4, side view showing living
chamber aperture. Fig. 5, dorsum of living chamber with aperture and ephebic:
volution. This shows contact zone in the ephebic stage and its disappearance
upon the free volution; the whorl was broken away and removed at xx. Fig. 6
showing dorsal crest of the aperture and replacement of impressed zone by a gib-
bous surface just beyond the shaded area in Fig. 5. See also PI. vi.

Figs. 7 and 8. Schroederoceras Eatoni (sp. Whitf.), Hyatt, Quebec Group ;
Loc., Fort Cassin; U. S. N. Mus,, Coll. Walcott. Natural size. Fig. 7, side view
showing lines of growth, sutures, and aperture. Fig. 8, front of same with ventral
sutures and rim of aperture removed showing the remnants of impressed zone.
See also Pl. vi.

Figs. 9-12, Lstonioceras perforatum, Schréder, Silurian. Fig. 9, side view
after Schréder, Pal. Abh. Dames et Kayser, v, Pl. xxvi, Fig. 1 a, reduced one-
third, showing free nepionic and free gerontic volutions with lines of growth.
Figs. 10 and 11, Loc., Reval, Mus. Comp. Zoél., Bronn Coll., showing parane-
pionic whorl with lines of growth on the dorsum and absence of dorsal furrow
and lateral sutures, reduced one-third. Fig. 12, three sutures of upper part of
dorsum of the paranepionic substage of Figs. 10 and 11, the shell removed and
the. whorl enlarged.

Figs. 13-19. Estontoceras biangulatum, Silurian ; Loc., Breslau; Mus. Comp.
Zool., Kranz Coll. Figs. 13 and 14, reduced one-third the abdomen of Fig. 13, is
distorted by pressure.* Fig. 15, venter of paranepionic and section of neanic
below with beginning of impressed zone (this is more accurately given in Fig.
15 a); above is ephebic whorl, but this and sutures are distorted by perspective.
This view is taken from the interior of Fig, 13 with parts between fractures re-
moved. Fig. 16, venter of ephebic stage, showing sutures with ventral lobes not
saddles as on outer volution of Fig. 15. Fig. 17, dorsum of free gerontic volution
showing lines of growth with dorsal crests, sutures with dorsal lobes ; depression in
cast perhaps annular muscle, which disappears on the sides; there are faint marks
on the venter as if the upper edge of this may have risen intoa saddle on that side
as in Fig. 1, Pl. viii, of Remeléceras. The impressed zone disappears early on this
volution. Fig. 18, venter of the same, showing change in sutures and return of

*The apex of this was not clearly seen and it may be free.

Plate VII ( Hyatt).

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“Vol. XXKIL No, 143,

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629

saddles in the last three sutures of the paragerontic substage. Fig. 19, sectional
view of terminal end of Figs. 17 and 18, showing dorsum slightly broader and
flatter than venter.

Figs. 20 and 21. Estontoceras tmperfectum, after Schréder, of. cz¢., Pl. xxvii,
Fig. 5-a, b, showing young enlarged with subventran siphuncle, etc., and no im-
pressed zone.

Figs. 22-24. Edaphoceras ( Temnoch) niotense, Met. W. Geol, Ill., v, Pl. xix,
Fig. 3, much reduced in size. Fig. 23, the dorsum is more convex than the
venter.

neler Cc som

630

PLATE. Valine

Figs. 1-8.* Remeléceras impressum; no locality: Coll. Mus. Comp. Zodlogy.
Natural size. Fig. 1, side view showing sutures and annular muscle in base of
living chamber. Fig. 2, ventral side of fragment of same specimen. Fig. 3, dor-
sal side of same fragment with impressions of annular muscles on cast. Fig. 4,
section of end of living chamber showing the decrease of the impressed zone in
the anagerontic substage. Fig. 5, dorsal view of the second and younger frag-
ment of same. Fig. 6, section of older end of same showing depth of impressed
zone in the ephebic stage. Fig. 7, still younger fragment of same, showing the
dorsal sutures of a late neanic or anephebic substage. Fig. 8, section.

Figs. 9-13. Hercoceras mirum, Barrande. Figs, 9-12, slightly enlarged,
Koneprusy. Fig. 13, natural size, Hlubocerpy, Mus. of Comp. Zodlogy, Schary
Coll. Figs. 9 and Io, side view and front of the ananeanic substage showing first
beginning of contact furrow and the trochoceran form of the young which is more
marked than in the adult. Figs. 11 and 12, side view and front of paranepionic
substage of the same specimen showing the absence of the dorsal furrow just be-
fore the apex is reached.

Figs. 14and15. Hercoceras irregularts (sp. Barrande), Hyatt; Loc., Bohemia;
Mus. Comp. Zoél. Fig. 14, side view of meta- and paranepionic volution, show-
ing the peculiar coste without longitudinal ridges of this genus. Fig. 15 shows
the form in section of the meta- and paranepionic whorl and the absence of the
contact furrow in correlation with the rounded form of whorl. The cecum is not
correct; this organ is large and ventrocentran in this specimen.

Figs. 16-20. Anomaloceras anomalum (sp. Barrande), Hyatt; Mus. Comp.
Zoblogy, Schary Coll. Slightly enlarged. Fig. 16, section passing through umbil-
ical perforation which is filled with a peculiar dense shell-like deposit, not found
so far in other forms, and also cutting the meta- and paranepionic substages, The
neanic stage with a deep impressed zone and the two sections of the outer whorl
which are in the ephebic stage. The siphuncle appears to be nearer the centre
in the metanepionic substage in this and in Fig. 17 than in the later stages.
There is a dorsal furiow at the usual place beginning beyond the gyroceran curve
in the paranepionic substage in correlation with the nephritic outline of this sub-
stage. Fig. 17, view of a section of the metanepionic and paranepionic substages
of same cutting deeper into the umbilical perforation which is becoming nar-
rower. Fig. 18, a still deeper cut which has passed through the apex of the
conch and shows the first contact of the whorls. Fig. 19 shows the beginning
of the contact zone, the paranepionic section having passed into the ananeanic and
below the rounded ananepionic has replaced the metanepionic volution. Fig. 20,a
still deeper cut, showing the shell of the ananepionic substage becoming broader
through the approach of the section to the exterior of the ananepionic apex. A
shade farther and the ananeanic and metaneanic sections would blend into one
long figure and the ananepionic would disappear.

Figs. 21-23. Déscoceras Graftonense (sp. Meek and Worthen), Hyatt; Loc.,
Waukesha, Wis., Niagara Group; Mus. Comp. Zodlogy, Day Coll. Natural size.

* Fig. 1 has n0 number on the plate.

Proceedings Amer.

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Vol. XXXIl, No. 143,

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roceedings Amer. Philos, Soc.

631

Fig. 21, side view of a cast of a mould of this species. Fig. 22, a similar speci-
men, but with nepionic stage and the beginning of the ananeanic substage in
relief preserved in the centre, showing small umbilical perforation, subdorsan
siphuncle (see also Fig. 23 for front view of same) and sutures. The sutures
have slight ventral lobes in the ananeanic, but are almost if not quite straight on
the venter of the paranepionic substage (shown in Fig. 23). The first suture
was not visible in this specimen.

Fig. 24 and 25. Ophidioceras tener, Barrande; Mus. Comp. Zodlogy, Schary
Coll.; Loc., Bohemia. 3 diameters. Fig. 24, front view of section of neanic
and ephebic volutions, the nepionic in relief in the centre. The outline of the
ananepionic substage is given, but the cicatrix was unluckily destroyed by the
incautious use of acid in cleaning it. The position of the siphuncle is nearer the
venter than in older stages. Fig. 25, side view somewhat larger to show the con-
strictions on the nepionic whorl and the great comparative size of the apical
chamber and the first suture and constriction.

Figs. 26-28. Ophidioceras tessellatum, Barrande; Mus. Comp. Zodlogy, Schary
Coll. Fig. 26, X 3, to show dorsal outline of paranepionic volution without a
dorsal furrow and ananeanic dorsum just below this with the beginning of con-
tact furrow made by envelopment of the apex. Figs. 27 and 28, x 4 diameters,
to show similar characters to those of O. ¢evzer, and, the matrix filling the umbili-
cal perforation having been retained, this specimen shows also just how the
paranepionic volution strikes the apex. The absence of an impressed zone is
also noted in the paranepionic and position of siphuncle.

Figs. 29-35. Ophidioceras rudens, Barrande; Loc., Bohemia; Mus. Comp.
Zoblogy, Schary Coll. Fig. 29, natural size; Figs. 30 and 31, x 4 diameters;
Figs. 32-35, natural size; Fig. 29, side view showing general form of this species
and of the genus; Figs. 32-35 show the history of the contact furrow on free
whorl with gibbous median dorsal face and lateral dorsal furrows or faces as in
section 35, and also as on allof the close-coiled whorls. In the centre is the area
of the spur, shown in section Fig. 34, and in the lower part is the modified con-
tact furrow growing slightly narrower and shallower towards the aperture. Sec-
tion of this part is given in Fig. 33; Figs. 30 and 31, side and front views of
nepionic stage of another specimen showing cicatrix, form of ananepionic sub-
stage, which is a compressed almost ‘quadragonal ellipse, metanepionic with
venter broader than dorsum and paranepionic with dorsum broadening out more
but still narrower than venter.

Figs. 36-39. Lndolobus avonensis (sp. Dawson), Hyatt; Carboniferous; Loc.,
Joggins, Nova Scotia; Coll. L. Agassiz. Natural size. Fig. 36, side and front
views showing the ana- and metanepionic substages in the centre (see also Fig.
38, enlarged view, showing form more accurately and cicatrix). The ananeanic
substage coming in when the apex is reached and the absence of the impressed
zone until after this contact is shown above the apex in Fig. 37. Below this is
seen the dorsal sutures and deep impressed zone produced by contact (shown also
in Fig. 39, more enlarged).

Figs. 40-42. Mimoceras (Gontatites) lituum, after Barrande, of. ci¢., Pl. x,
showing the young and probably the adult of this form without any impressed
zone and its similarity to some species of Nautiloidea, reduced one-third,

632

Fig. 43. Cranoceras (Cyrt.) lineatum (sp. De Verneuil), Hyatt; Devonian,
Pelm near Gerolstein; Mus. Comp. Zodlogy, Schultze Coll. Fig. 43, outline to
show the impressed zone which seems to appear in this cyrtoceran form in corre-
lation with the nephritic outline independently of contact.

PLATE IX.

Figs. 1 and 2. 7horacoceras (Cyrt.) puzosianum after De Koninck, Cade.
Carbon. Pl. xxxiii, Figs. 10 and 11, to show in an adult of arcuate form the same or-
namentation and form that are also present in the young of the more highly
ornamented species like Zhoracoceras canaliculatum and the young of many
nautilian forms. See Figs. 11-13 of Vestinautilus Konincki.

Figs. 3 and 4. Zhoracoceras (Cyrt.) canaliculatum, after De Koninck, 7d2d.,
Pl. xxxiil, Fig. 9, to show the spinous character of the ornamentation produced by
prominent lines of growth in crossing over the longitudinal ridges ; also for com-
parison with the young of Triboloceras, Vestinautilus, Rineceras, etc.

Figs. 5-13. Vesténawtilus (Naut.) Konincki (sp. De Koninck), Hyatt; Figs.
5-8, after De Koninck, 7zéz@., Pl. xxx, Fig. 1; Figs, 11-13, Hyatt, 2m.
Ceph., Pl. 4; Figs. 9 and 10 original. This series shows ontogeny of this spe-
cies. Figs. 9 and 10, nepionic stage and ananeanic substage. Figs. 11-13, ana-
and metanepionic with rounded whorl and cyrtoceran form and ornaments like
T. puzosianum ; the roughened spinous ornaments come in later in the parane-
pionic substage. The limit of the paranepionic is shown in Fig. 9, the ananeanic
begins in last half of the first volution when the inner longitudinal ridges cease
on the sides. Compare abdomen with ephebic stage of Triboloceras, Fig. 15.
The ephebic stage begins near the end of the first half of the second volution
when the gibbous face and the lateral dorsal flutes or faces begin to appear in the
zone of involution as in Fig. 7. The anagerontic substage is shown in the loss
of the ornaments in Figs. 5 and 6, and also in the diminution of the hollow cen-
tral ventral zone ‘arfd tendency of the abdomen to become rounded.

Figs. 14 and 15. 77zboloceras (Gyroc.) intermedium, after De Koninck,
zbid., Pl. xxxili, Fig. 4.

Figs. 16-19. Vestinautilus (Naut.) pinguis, after De Koninck, 7dzd., Pl.
xxx, Fig. 6 a-c, and Fig. 7 a,b. Figs. 18 and 19 show the anephebic substage
with spinous ornaments, the loss of these in the succeeding part of the ephebic
stage and the replacement of the ventral hollow zone, which is present in the
nepionic stage of this species, by a gibbous face like that of the gerontic stage of
Konincki. Figs. 16 and 17 show the parephebic substage and anagerontic
substage, the latter occurring through loss of the lateral fluted faces as in Fig. 5,
of Konincki. In the succeeding gerontic substages the whorl loses its angularity.

Figs. 20 and 21. Rinmeceras (Gyroc) ¢essellatum, after De Koninck, 2é2d.,
PURI ba. 5, as

Figs. 24 and 25. Lispoceras (Naut.) sulciferum, after De Koninck, 77a,
BlNxxxt, Mice a, b:

Figs. 26 and 27. Phacoceras (Naut.) oxystomum, after De Koninck, 2d7@,,
Pl. xvii, Figg.

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633

PEATE! OX,

Figs. 1-14. Coloceras (Naut.) globatum (sp. De Koninck), Hyatt; Loc., Visé,
Belgium, Carboniferous ; Coll. De Koninck, Mus. Comp. Zodlogy.

Fig. 1. Side view of nepionic and neanic volution, natural size. Fig. 2, same
enlarged in front view and ends of volutions restored; compare neanic volution
with the gerontic volution of Vestinautilus pinguts, Pl. ix, Fig. 17; it will be
seen that this genus resembles the latter in the lateral fluted faces, but has rounded
sides, such as have been described as appearing in the paragerontic substage of
that species ; Fig. 2 also shows the impressed zone well-developed in the parane-
pionic substage. Figs 3-6, sections of meta- and paranepionic substage of Fig.
to, showing development of outline and correlation of impressed zone with
nephritic form. The ananeanic substage begins immediately after this on the
latter half of the still uncoiled first volution and then the longitudinal ridges dis-
appear on the abdomen and also the crease or hollow central ventral zone, the
section becomes in the metaneanic similar to that of the upper volution in Fig. 2.
Fig. 7, enlarged oblique view of apex of same, showing the ana- and metanepionic
substages and the beginning of the impressed zone in a shaded crescent near the
base of the figure. Fig. 8, view of venter of another specimen ananepionic and
a part of metanepionic showing the beginning of the hyponomic sinus in the
bands of growth. Fig. 9, end view of same with cicatrix. Figs. 10-12, views of
another specimen showing the first three sutures, impressed zone and ventral
hollow zone of the paranepionic substage. Fig. 13, shows the impressed zone
of the ananeanic substage and the beginning of the true impressed zone after con-
tact inthe shaded crescent-like depression from which the apex has been removed.
Fig. 14, another specimen of same age with the pseudo-impressed zone and the
apex (ananepionic substage) in place. In all sections the venter is the lower side.

Figs. 15-22. Potoceras dubium. Fig. 15, side view slightly enlarged showing
shape of umbilical perforation and abrupt bending of the paranepionic substage
when the zone begins. Fig. 16, front view of ana-, meta- and paranepionic sub-
stages and neanic volution in part. Figs. 17 and 18, enlarged views of same
without the neanic volution. Fig. 19, enlarged view of details of bands of growth
and longitudinal ridges taken from same. Figs. 20 and 21, views of ephebic vol-
ution, natural size. The history of the impressed zone is parallel with that
of Coloceras except that it comes in only after the abrupt bending of the first
whorl, and the form and character of the ana- and metanepionic substages
differ. Fig. 22, view of the ananepionic substage showing the flattened aspect of
apex. Figs. 22 and 9g (the latter described above) are, however, more distinct
than the specimens.

Figs. 23-26. Ephippioceras (Naut.) ferratum (sp. Owen), Hyatt; Loc., Ed-
mondson Co., Ky., Carboniferous; Mus. Comp Zoélogy. Enlarged four diameters,
Fig. 23, side of fragment of paranepionic substage, showing also umbilical per-
foration, apex restored and fragment of cast of ananeanic substage with parts of
two sutures. Fig. 26, venter of same. The longitudinal ridges are wider apart
and broader at their crests on the sides than on the central parts of the venter as
shown in Fig. 23. Figs. 24 and 25 show sections of both ends of the fragment
covered by shell in Fig. 23.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. xxxII, 143.4 B. PRINTED AUGUST 6, 1894.

634

Figs. 27 and 28. Temnochetlus (Naut.) subtuberculatum (sp. Sandberger),
Hyatt; Loc , Wissenbach; Coll. Mus Comp. Zodlogy ; Devonian.

Fig. 27, side view of ana-, meta- and paranepionic and perhaps beginning of
ananeanic substages before the whorls touch. It will be observed that the apex
is not enveloped even in this closely coiled form and that the dorsal furrow is not
present at the end of the volution, Fig 27, which is given in the section Fig. 28.

Figs. 29-31. Apheleceras (Naut.) mutadile (sp. D’Orb.), Hyatt: Loc., Car-
boniferous; after D’Orbigny, Pal. Universelle, Pl. \xxxvili, Figs. 1, 2 and 4.
Show the free apex and moulding of the dorsum to fit the hollow venter of this
species. Fig. 31 shows the surface of the shell of earlier substages.

Fig. 32. Metacoceras cavatiformis (same specimen as Figs. 16-19, p. 496 of
this paper) showing the beginning of the impressed zone at contact with the apex.

Fig. 33. Cewlogasteroceras canaliculatum, Hyatt; Loc., Edmondson Co., Ky.;
Mu:. Comp. Zoél.; Carboniferous. A section across the meta- and paranepionic
volution showing the large umbilical perforation, comparatively slow increase in
size of the first whorl and presence of a dorsal furrow in the paranepionic sub-
stage. |

Proceedings Amer. Philos. Soc. Vol. XXXII, No. 143,

Plate XI (Hyatt). a

635

PATE PSX,

Figs. 1-3. Leripetoceras (Naut.) Frieslebent (sp. Geinitz); Loc., Tunstall
Hill, England; Mus. Comp. Zoél.; Dyas. Natural size. Fig. I shows the
section through the apex of the conch, the ananeanic volution below and a
later age of the neanic stage above. Fig. 2, the cut has passed through the um-
bilical perforation, the metanepionic above this and the paranepionic below;
above the metanepionic is the paraneanic or anephebic substage. Fig. 3, the
cut has approached the farther side of the umbilical perforation and shows an
older age of the metanepionic and a younger age of the paranepionic with a deeper
and better defined dorsal furrow than in Fig. 2.

Figs. 4-8. Syringoceras (Naut.) granulosostriatus, after Mojsisovic’s MZedzt.
Triaspr., Pl. \xxxii, Figs. 7 and g, Trias. Figs. 4 and 5, nepionic stage enlarged.
Fig. 8, more enlarged view of apex, with a cicatrix. Figs. 6 and 7, paranepionic
and ananeanic substage with longitudinal striations and beginning of impressed
zone after contact.

Figs. 9-12. Syringoceras (Naut.) Linearis, after Laube; Fauna St. Cassian
Denksch. Akad, Wien, 1869, Pl. xxxvi, Trias, Fig. 12, natural size. Figs. 9-11,
enlarged. Fig. 10, to show more accurately shape of apex. All show nepionic
stage and development same as in granzlosostriatus.

Figs. 13 and 14. Digonioceras (Naut.) excavatum, after D’Orbigny, Zerr.
Furass., Pl. xxx, Lias. These show the nep onic stage with an impressed zone
existing before contact, also the annular lobe.

Figs. 15 and 16. Cesoceras (Naut.) intermedium (sp. Sow.), Balingen, De
Koninck Coll. Mus. Comp. Zo6l.; Middle Lias. Slightly enlarged. These show the
large umbilical perforation and sutures, the paranepionic and ananeanic substages.
The dorsal furrow is present only in the paranepionic substage and the beginning
of the contact furrow is shown also in the shaded area on the dorsum of Fig. 16.

Figs. 17 and 18. Cexoceras (Naut.) intermedius (?) (sp. Sow.), after Bar-
rande and Hyatt, Syst. Sz/., Pl. ececlxxxix, Fig. 7; D’Orbigny Coll. Jarden des
Plantes; Middle Lias. These show the ana- and metanepionic substages with
cicatrix and sutures, but no impressed zone.

Figs. 19-21. Digonzoceras sp. ? (similar to excavatus), Balingen; De Koninck
Coll., Mus. Comp. Zo6l.; Middle Lias. Natural size. Fig. 19 shows sutures,
ete., of paranepionic substage. Fig. 20 gives outline of same from dorsum with
the dorsal furrow in the paranepionic, the upper outline of this figure is incorrect
since the dorsal furrow begins immediately below this. Fig. 21 gives this out-
line correctly, it being the last of the ananepionic substage at the second suture;
in Fig. 21, the venter is placed uppermost for comparison with Fig, 20.

Figs. 22-27. Cenoceras lineatum (sp. Sow.), Bayeux; Coll. Duval, Mus.
Comp. Zodlogy ; Inferior Ool. Fig. 22, natural siz2, showing umbilical per-
foration, metanepionic substage below perforation and paranepionic above this,
the neanic stage being below the metanepionic volution. The dorsal furrow
is well developed in the paranepionic substage. Fig. 23, the reverse of the two
upper sections of Fig. 22.

Figs. 24 and 25, views of another specimen, showing the nepionic stage, en-
larged 3 diameters, showing the position of the siphuncle ventrad of centre and

636

dorsal furrow in paranepionic substage. The sutures, of course, belong to the
neanicstage. Fig. 25 shows the minute umbilical perforation and the close coiling
of the whorl. Figs. 26 and 27, apex of same, enlarged 3 diameters and giving
ornamentation of shell and cicatrix. ‘The dorsal furrow begins at the first or
gyroceran bend in the paranepionic substage.

Figs. 28-31. Cenoceras lineatum (?), Oolite (Naut.) aratus of Quenstedt’s
Coll., Tiibingen, from sketches in my notes, showing the nepionic stage with
dorsal furrow as in “veatus.

Figs. 32-35. Cenoceras (Naut.) aratus, Saemann’s original specimen; Mus.
Comp. Zodlogy; Middle Lias; Suabia. Figs. 32 and 33, enlarged 2 diam-
eters, showing markings on the cast, form of nepionic stage, large umbilical per-
foration and sutures. The shell probably had longitudinal ridges and bands of
growth on the dorsum as well as on the venter. Figs. 34 and 35, copied from
Embryology Ceph., Hyatt, Pl. iv, much enlarged and corrected to show ana- and
metanepionic substages and annular lobe, which begins in the third suture, The
dorsal furrow begins between the third and fourth sutures, the last being the
oldest in Fig. 35. The curvature is uniform, gradual, and there is apparently no
mechanical cause for its early appearance in this shell.

Figs. 36-39. Cenoceras (Naut.) granulosus (sp. D’Orb.), Chatillon; Coll.
Boucault, Oxfordian; Coll. Mus. Comp. Zod]. Slightly enlarged. Figs. 36 and
37, showing extraordinary quick growth of the dorso-ventral diameters in ana-
and metanepionic substages and beginning of paranepionic with dorsal furrow
in what is probably the fourth septum. Figs. 38 and 39, similar views of another
older specimen in paranepionic substage. See also Pl. xii, Fig. 31.

Fig. 40. Crioceras (?) Studerd, Ooster, after Barrande, Callovian, much en-
larged, to show the close-coiled first volution.

Fig. 41. Ancyloceras (?) calloviense, after Barrande, Callovian, much enlarged,
to show the close-coiled young.

Proceedings Amer. FNOS. o0C.

7
Plate XII (Hyatt).

637

Prams xls

Figs. 1 and 2. Diorugoceras (Naut.) planidorsatum, after Portlock, Geod.
Rep. Londonderry, etc., Pl. xxxv, Fig. 1; Carboniferous. Fig. 1, side view, re-
duced considerably. Fig. 2, section of outer whorl showing how completely the
contact furrow is moulded to the form of the whorl.

Figs. 3-5. Pleuronautilus superbus, after Mojsisovics, Das Gebirge um Hall-
stadt, i, Pl. xviii, Trias. Fig. 3, reduced one-third, showing the striated nepionic
Stage, the very large umbilical perforation, free ananepionic substage, also the -
close-coiled stages. Figs. 4 and 5, lateral, dorsal views of the fragment of what
is probably another species reduced one-third, showing an impressed zone as
described and figured by Mojsisovics.*

Figs. 6-11. Digontoceras rotundum, Oolite; Coll. Mus. Comp. Zodlogy; no
locality.

Figs. 6 and 7, side and front views of nepionic stage and ananeanic substage,
natural size, showing especially the large, pear-shaped umbilical perforation and
the amount of involution which covers only about one-half of the side. The
outer part of Fig. 6 still has remnants of the dorsal shell of the enveloping neanic
and ephebic whorl and parts of four septa clinging to it. Two older sutures in
the paranepionic volution and two younger in the metanepionic volution are also
shown and first to the third are seen in Fig. 7, which also shows the narrow ana-
and metanepionic substages. Fig 8, the same broken down, showing the apical
chamber and ceum enlarged in Fig. 9. Fig. 10, section of ananepionic substage
at first septum. Fig. I1, section of metanepionic passing apicad of second septum
and showing early beginning of impressed zone, both have the venter down-
wards.

Fig. 12. Cenoceras (Naut.) clausum, after Barrande and Hyatt, Syst. SiZ.,
Pl. ceeclxxxix ; D’Orb. Coll. Jardin des Plantes; Oolite; somewhat enlarged,
shows the well-defined impressed zone in the paranepionic substage and the first
three sutures.

Figs. 13-15. Cenoceras (Naut.) clausum (?), St. Vigor le Grand near Bayeux,
Bronn Coll. Mus. Comp. Zoél.; Lower Oolite. Fig. 13, somewhat eniarged,
showing the shape of umbilical perforation and ana-, meta- and part of parane-
pionic substages. The amount of involution is shown by the dark line. Fig. 14,
front view of same, natural size. Fig. 15, enlarged to show shape of ananepionic
substage at first septum, the venter down.

Figs. 16-21. Cymatoceras (Naut.) (sp. ?), Texas. Fig. 16, side view of ne-
pionic stage, and ananeanic substage with sutures enlarged two diameters. The
approximation of the fourth and fifth sutures appeared in several specimens of the
young of this species. The third and fourth sutures are too close together in this
drawing and the spaces between the fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth, somewhat too
wide. The spaces between these last are not so wide as that between the third
and fourth in the original, this space being also slightly less than that between the
second and third. Fig. 17, section of apex and ananeanic substage enlarged two
diameters with the deep zone of contact. Figs. 18 and 19, the appearance of the

* See p. 547, above.

638

apex as the grinding plane passed inwards. Fig, 20, same showing the metane-
pionic and paranepionic, both with dorsal furrows opposed to each other. Fig.
21, section of ana- and paranepionic volutions. ‘This cut passed in the plane of
the first septum, truncating the fundus of this and then obliquely across the suture
line of the fourth septum. The second suture has a well-defined annular lobe and
cone.

Figs. 22-27. Cymatoceras (Naut.) deslongchampsianum (sp. D’Orb.); Rouen ;
Coll. Boucault and Bronn; Mus. Comp. Zo61; Cretaceous. Figs. 22 and 23, side
and front views, natural size, nepionic stage and ananeanic substage (this shell
has faint longitudinal ridges and transverse bands on the casts not shown in any
drawings) the sutures and small umbilical perforations are shown. Fig. 24
shows metanepionic outline at second septum and paranepionic between the fifth
and sixth septum of the same specimen, both with dorsal furrows. Fig. 25, the
reverse of the same specimen. Figs. 24 and 26, part of cast of chambers in the
dorsal furrow of Fig. 24, showing the annular lobes. Fig. 27, another specimen
showing ananepionic substage at the first septum with a dorsal furrow, and para-
nepionic also with dorsal furrow between fifth and sixth septa.

Fig. 28. Cymatoceras ( Naut.) simplex (?); Yeoville, England; Coll. De Kon-
inck, Mus. Comp. Zo6l; Cretaceous ; showing the nepionic volution and part of
the neanic stage. The slight subangular, umbilical shoulders which begin to
appear in the anephebic substage. ‘The longitudinal ridges and transverse bands
are absent on this cast, but this may be due to the state of preservation.

Figs. 29 and 30. Cymatoceras (Naut.) radiatum (sp. Sow.); Rouen; Boucault
Coll., Mus. Comp. Zo6l.; Craie Chlorite. Natural size. Fig. 29, side view show-
ing the fourth and subsequent sutures with the broad bands and constrictions
beginning in the ananeanic substage. In this the eighth and ninth sutures show
closer approximation than any of the preceding. Fig. 30 shows the same with
the ananepionic substage at the first septum and the paranepionic at the fifth.
The dorsal furrow begins immediately between the first and second septum in
the metanepionic substage as is shown by the cast of umbilical perforation and
by Fig. 1, Pl. xiii.

Fig. 31. Cenoceras granulosus, showing the ana- and metanepionic substages
with fragment of the dorsal shell and septa of the ananeanic whorl clinging to the
venter indicating the amount of involution and the depth of the contact zone.

Vol. XXXII, No. 143,

Proceedings Amer. Philos. Soc.

GG) A BY BOT a) Re er)

Plate

ra

639

PLATE XIII.

Figs. 1 and 2. Cymatoceras ( Naut.) radiatum, showing the reverse of Fig. 30,
Pl. 12, enlarged to 2 diameters. The beginning of the dorsal furrow is indi-
cated by the shaded area reaching from near the first septum to the edge of the
lower or fifth septum.

Fig. 2, side view of same, showing that the dorsal furrow began on the dorsum
of the metanepionic substage between the first and second septa and in advance
of the gyroceran bend.

Fig. 3. ELztrephoceras (sp. ?); Loc., France; Duval Coll., Mus. Comp. Zodl. ;
Cretaceous; natural size; showing the dorsal furrow in the meta- and paranepi-
onic substages and section of the ananeanic stage below.

Figs. 4-8. Lutrephoceras De Kayt, Dakotah, Cretaceous, preparations by
Henry Brooks. Fig. 4, enlarged 6 diameters, and Fig. 5 same, enlarged 4 diam-
eters, view of ana-, meta- and part of paranepionic substages. The citatrix is a
double depression and the ananepionic outline is given just beyond this. There is
a plate of the nacreous layer ventrad of this and partly covering it, with a shaded
area. ‘This spot is evidently the apex of the caecum seen through the nacre. The
two first substages are very short and smooth, but the dorsal furrow is present
although exceedingly shallow before the bending begins in the later metanepionic.
The umbilical perforation is present, as shown in Fig. 4, but is very small and
elongated, comma-like in shape. Fig. 6, enlarged 4 diameters, shows the perfo-
ration in an older stage, but it is not correctly given. It is exposed by shaving
off the angle of the last septum and the perforation is consequently actually the
reverse of what it is in the centre of the umbilicus. This preparation, however,
does show accurately the contact of the paranepionic dorsum with the dorsal side
of the ananepionic substage and how close the coiling is. Figs. 7 and 8, side and
front view enlarged 2 diameters of the meta- and paranepionic substages, the
ornamentation becoming less in the latter which is terminated by a permanent
constriction in this specimen, and also the anephebic substage in which the longi-
tudinal ridges disappear and bands of growth assume the fine unbroken outlines
of the adult. Fig. 7 is erroneous in making too great difference between the
ventral lines of growth in the young parts of the whorl. The hyponomic sinus
really appears about the middle of the paranepionic substage.

Figs. 9-12. Eutrephoceras Faxoense, Faxoe, Denmark; Krantz Coll., Mus.
Comp. Zoélogy; Cretaceous. Fig. 9, front view, natural size, showing the cast of
the umbilicus continuous with the very small umbilical perforation of the young.
Fig. 10, side view of the same specimen. Fig. 11, young with first septum delin-
ealed. Fig. 12, front view of same, showing the aspect of the apex and the um-
bilical perforation, the dorsal furrow apparently beginning as in Lutrephoceras
De Kayz. Both of these are enlarged 4 diameters.

Figs. 13-16. Lutrephoceras (Naut.) imperialis (sp. Sow.); Isle of Sheppy
and Isle of Wight; Mus. Comp. Zoélogy; Tertiary. Fig. 13, front view of inner
whorls enlarged 2 diameters. Fig. 14, fragment of nepionic or neanic stages,
showing the minute umbilical perforation, the absolutely subdorsan position of
siphuncle in these early substages. This specimen has a double first septum.
Fig. 15, front of specimen from Isle of Sheppy, showing similar position of

640

siphuncle at about the same age. Fig. 16, another specimen from same locality,
showing the dorsal furrow in both metanepionic and paranepionic substages.
Both the last are enlarged 2 diameters.

Figs. 17-19. Aturia Morisst Michellotti; Baldasseres, Mus. Comp, Zodlogy ;
Tertiary. Figs. 17 and 18, front and side views of the nepionic and neanic stages
enlarged 6 diameters. Fig. 19, nepionic stage, showing the umbilical perfora-
tion, seen from the exterior as a small black spot.

Figs. 20-22. Aturia 2izac, Sow.; Mus. Comp. Zodlogy; Tertiary. Figs. 20
and 21, side or front view of specimen from Dax, Bronn Coll., enlarged ten times,
showing apical character, siphuncle, first septum with deep lobes and czecum.
Fig, 22, side view of fragment of another specimen with umbilical perforation,
ananepionic substage in section and siphuncle.

PLATE XIV.

Fig. 1. Zutrephoceras De Kayt. Reduced one-third. Two dorsal sutures,
showing the linguee form, minute, median saddles.

Figs. 2-5. Larrandeoceras Sternbergi (sp. Barrande); Schary Coll., Mus.
Comp. Zoél. Reduced one-third. Fig. 2, from Lochkoy, variety in which
whorls do not touch at all. Fig. 5, section of one, same locality, in which whorls
barely touch, showing that it has no contact furrow. Figs. 3 and 4, specimen in
which whorls touch in ephebic stage, but become free at the base of the living
chamber. ‘This has throughout a flattened dorsum, but no contact furrow. The
appearance of a furrow in Fig. 4 is due to compression. These figures show also
the narrow dorsal lobes of the sutures.

Figs. 6-12. Schroederoceras tubulatum, n.s. Reduced one-third. Coll. Mus.
Comp. Zoél.; Loc., Brevig, Norway; Silurian. Figs. 6 and 7, nepionic stage.
Figs. 8-12, ana- and metaneanic substages.

Figs. 13 and 14. Didymoceras nebrascense (sp. Meek). Reduced one-third.
Loc., near Buffalo Gap, So. Dakota; Coll., Yale University Museum ; Cretaceous,
Views of the parephebic substage and gerontic stage.

Figs. 15-17. Lmperoceras Beecheri. Reduced one-third. Loc., near Buffalo
Gap, So. Dakota; Yale University Museum; Cretaceous. Fig. 17 shows the
earlier stages with Hamites-like whorls from above. Fig. 16 shows the similar
apex of Fig. 15 corresponding in age to part of Fig. 17. Fig. 15, side view of
Fig. 16, giving the ephebic stage with its tubercles and bifurcated costa and the
parephebic substage with single costz and no tubercles.

Figs. 18-21. Ptychoceras crassum ; Whitfield Coll., U.S. National Museum;
Loc., Boulder, Col.; Cretaceous. Fig. 18, side view of ephebic and gerontic
limbs, with gerontic umbilical perforation, reduced one-third. Fig. 19, section of
same, natural size, showing the gerontic contact furrow. Fig. 20, view of dorsum
of gerontic limb, in and just orad of gerontic umbilical perforation, natural size ;
shows the gerontic dorsal furrow, with dorsal crests in lines of growth and one
costation and below the contact furrow. Fig. 21, section of the upper end of
Fig. 20, showing the gerontic dorsal furrow.

Vol. XXKH, No. 143.

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641

INDEX TO PHYLOGENY OF AN ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTIC.

Abiogenesis, 390

Acanthoceras Rémondi,
565

Acceleration, law of, 373,
374

Acleistoceras, 585
Acme, 393, 397
Acquired characters, 407
Actinoceras, 403, 404
Adelphoceras, 519
secundum, 493, 519
bohemicum, 519
/Egoceras, 446
Agassiz, Alex., 370
Louis, 353, 390, 402
Agoniatites fecundus, 362,
609
Aipoceras, 545
Anagerontic, 391
Anaplasis, 391, 393, 397,
398
Ananeanic, 391, 406, 407,
408
Ananepionic, 391, 405,
4II, 412, 414, 418, 436,
468, 583
Anarcestes, 414
Ancistroceras, 509
Bolli, 510
undulatum, 510, 51I
Dyeri, 511
Ancyloceras calloviense,
372, 614
Jennyi, 573, 577
lineatus, 577

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXxII. 148. 4c.

Ancyloceras percostatum,
569
tricostatus, 574
uncum, 577
Anephebic, 391
Angelinoceras, 457, 458,
508
anguinum, 508
latum, 508, 512
Annular lobe, 361, 408,
429
Annular cone, 429
Annular muscle, 429
Ammonitinz, 355, 371,
372, 415, 416

Ammonites ' bifurcatum,
566 ;
Ammonoceratites Con-
radi, 569

Ammonoidea, 352, 358,
359, 361, 368, 370, 371,
373, 374, 376, 378, 385,
410, 413, 416, 417, 418,
431

Anomaloceras, 494

anomalum, 494, 599,
607
Apertures, 353
Apheleceras, 528, 539
mutabile, 539, 602
Aphetoceras, 433, 447,593,
594
americanum, 447,593
attenuatum, 449
boreale, 448, 592

Aphetoceras Farnsworthi,
448

Apsidoceratidze, 535
Argonauta, 356, 357, 358
Arietidz, 367, 371, 374
Artemia, 389
Ascoceras, 513
Asiphonula, 403
Asymptoceras, 528, 545
Aturia, 563

Morrissi, 564

Zizac, 564
Auiacoceras, 355, 356
Autotemnon, 399
Auxology, 380, 381, 390
Avolution, 394

Bactrites, 361, 362,
412, 413, 590, 609
Baculites, 372, 373, 377;
395, 411, 417, 477,
566, 579, 612
baculoides, 578
Barrande, 356, 359, 365,
366, 369, 371, 372, 413,
513
Barrandeoceras, 351, 379,
408, 409, 433, 450,
454, 600
bohemicum, 600
convolvans, 451, 601
Minganense, 451
natator, 452
Sacheri, 453, 600

368,

PRINTED OCTOBER 13, 1894.

Barrandeoceras Stern-
bergi, 408, 450,
592, 600
tyrannum, 406, 453,
600
_Bather, 380, 395, 396, 397
Bathmology, 380, 390
Beale, 390
Beddard, 389

Beecher, 350, 364, 365,
392, 396, 397, 613
Belemnoidea, 352, 356,

357, 358, 373, 374
Biogenesis, law of, 390
Bioplastology, 380, 384,

39°
Blake, 396, 402, 403
Brachiopoda, 350, 392
Branco, 355, 359, 373

AIT, 413, 414, 415, 417,

609, 610
Brooks, 404, 405, 406, 407
Buckman, 380, 395, 399,

397, 417, 419

Ceecosiphonula, 464
Ceecum, 404, 41I, 412
Caeleceras, 412
Caloceras, 410
Cataplasis, 394
Cenoceras, 548, 550, 569,
604.
aratum, 551, 604
clausum, 552, 604
granulosum, 553
intermedium, 550, 604
lineatum, 551, 604
Cenogenesis, 401
Centroceras, 497
tetragonum, 497
ammonis, 497
ohioense, 497
Cephalopoda, 392
Ceratitinze, 414, 416
Choristoceras, 417
Cicatrix, 403, 411
Clarke, 350, 361, 411
Cladonema, 398
Clymeninz, 371, 563

642

Clymenia
500, 501
depressa, 489
incongrua, 488
rarospira, 467, 484
Coelogasteroceras, 498,
519
canaliculatum, 498
Coloceras globatum, 541,
602, 603
Conch, 359, 392
Contact furrow, 408
Cope, 350, 358, 380, 381,
385, 386, 387, 396
Coroniceras, 398
trigonatum, 397
Cosmoceras' bifurcatum,
566, 596, 600
Cranoceras, 409, 520, 527,
545
depressum, 527, 545
hospitale, 527
lineatum, 527
nigrum, 527
turnum, 527, 598
Ctetology, 384, 388, 389,
399
Crioceras latum, 565
studeri, 372
Cycle, 397, 398
Cyclolituites, 503, 505
Americanus, 505
applanatus, 505
lynceus, 505

antiquissima,

Cymatoceras, 548, 553,
560
Deslonchampsianum,
554
elegans, 553
radiatum, 554
simplex, 554
Cyrtoceras amplicorne,
SII

depressum, 527
hospitale, 527
lineatum, 527
liratum, 531
Murchisonia, 585
neutrum, 585
nigrum, 527

Cyrtoceras nitidum, 585
tetragonum, 497
turnus, 527
uranum, 529

Dall, 563

Darwinian doctrine, 387

Deltoceras, 433, 449
planum, 450

Deroceras planicosta, 415

Descriptive terms, 422

Dewitz, 506

Dibranchiata, 352, 353

Didymoceras, 568, 573,
614

cochleatum, 574
nebrascense, 574
tortum, 574
Digonioceras, 548,
560, 604.
excavatum, 548, 604
rotundum, 549
Diorugoceras planidor-
satum, 540, 602
Diphragmoceras, 363, 368,
405, 412, 416
Diptychoceras, 578, 581
loevis, 581
Diplogenesis, 385, 616
Discites ammonis, 497
Discitoceras discors, 545
Discoceras, 458, 500
antiquissimum,
461, 501
convolvens, 441
Denckelmanni, 469
Eatoni, 470
Graftonense, 501
teres, 467
subcostatum, 457
Dissoconch, 392
Domatoceras, 545
Dorsal furrow, 408
lobe, 408

549,

445,

Echinodermata, 401

Ectergogenesis, 390

Edaphoceras, 429, 535
hesperis, 536
niotense, 536

Effort, 385, 386
Embryonic, 391, 397, 398

Emperoceras, 566, 568,
570, 575, 578, 614
Beecheri, 575, 579,
613

Enclimatoceras, 563
Ulrichi, 563
Endoceras, 363, 368, 400,
403, 404, 582
Endoceratidee, 412, 415
Endolobus, 536, 601
avonensis, 536, 607
spectabilis, 536
Endosiphonoidea, 404
Entergogenesis, 386, 387,
39°
Epacme, 393, 397
Epembryonic, 392, 410
Ephebic, 381, 391, 397,
398, 409, 410, 417, 445,
473
Ephebology, 392
Ephippioceras, 602
Epinepionic, 392
Epineanic, 392
Ergogeny, 386
Estonioceras, 446,
520, 536, 607
ariense, 522, 536
biangulatum, 521, 523
decheni, 522
heros, 522
imperfectum,
521, 524, 584
lamellosum, 522, 526
perforatum, 521, 523,
524
Eudoceratidze, 535
Eurystomites, 433, 434;
441, 456, 592, 601
Kelloggi, 372, 442,
597, 607
gibbosum, 443, 456
rotundus, 443
undatum, 445
: Virginiana, 444
Eutrephoceras, 548, 555,
558, 560, 587, 605
Dekayi, 556, 560, 587

457,

520,

643

Eutrephoceras faxoense,
558

imperialis, 559, 605

Evolution, law of, 367,

371

Exiteloceras, 568
pariense, 577
angulatum, 577
Cheyennense, 577
Jennyi, 577
uncum, 577

Falcilituites, 433, 446, 457,
520, 522
Decheni, 457
Muellaueri, 458
Fissurella, 380, 588
Foord, 404
Funnels, 404

Genesiology, 383, 390, 412
Gephuroceras, 414
Geratology, 392
Gerontic, 381, 391, 397,
398, 410, 417, 419, 472
Glossoceras, 513
Glyphioceras atratus, 609
crenistria, 609
Gomphoceras, 585
Goniatites, 368
Goniatitinze, 355, 361, 369,
371, 410, 411, 412, 413,
414, 416, 584, 609, 610,
616
Growth, law of, 381
Gyroceras, 432
Elrodi, 454
inelegans, 535
minusculum, 493
nudum, 492
ohioense, 497
proximum, 495
Stebos, 497

Habitat, action of, 375

Haeckel, 390, 392, 393,
397

Hall, 361

Halloceras, 518

Hamites, 566, 613, 614
Fremonti, 577
Hamulina, 566
Helicancylus, 565, 570
zequicostatus, 565
Helicoceras, 566, 613
navarroensis, 572
pariense, 577
simplicostatum, 569
Stevensoni, 568
umbilicatum, 569
Hercoceratidz, 491
Hercoceras, 492, 599
irregularis, 493, 599
mirum, 492, 493, 599
nudum, 492
secundum, 493
transum, 492
Hercoglossa, 563
Hering, 384
Heteroceras, 574
angulatum, 577
Cheyennense, 577
Conradi, 569
helecinum, 573
nebrascense, 574
Newtoni, 574
Holm, 463, 468, 471, 506,
509, 570 ;
Holmiceras, 512
przecurrens, 509
Hymenoptera, 401
Hyponome, 353

Impressed zone, 407, 408

Jackson, 350, 365, 392,
396

Kinetogenesis, 386
Koninckioceratidze, 545
Kophinoceras, 518

Lamarck, 358, 387
Lepidoptera, 401
Lindigia, 569
helicoceroides, 569
Lispoceras sulciferum, 544
Litoceras, 474, 485
biangulatum, 476

Litoceras hercules, 480
insolens, 475, 476, 596
Whiteavsi, 474

Lituites, 432, 506, 520
angulatum, 460, 462
applanatus, 508
Bickmoreanus, 500
cornuarietis, 469
convalvans, 457
Decheni, 457
Denckelmanni, 469
discors, 508
Eatoni, 470, 473
Farnsworthi, 448, 49
Graftonensis, 501
heros, 522
hibernicus, 490
internastriata, 484
lamellosum, 522
lituus, 508
Lynnensis, 505
Muellaueri, 458, 521,

522
multicostatus, 502
perfectus, 508
teres, 467, 468
torniquisti, 508
Lophoceras, 537
Lytoceratinee, 355, 414,
415, 416

Macrosiphonula, 405
Macroscaphites Ivani, 566
Magilus, 588
Manticoceras latidorsale,
609
Maupas,
399, 400
Megaphyllites, 414
Melonoceras, 447, 520
Mesal, 430
Metacoceras, 496
cavatiformis, 601
Metagerontic, 391
Metaneanic, 391, 445
Metanepionic, 391,
414, 418, 466
Metaplasis, 391, 394, 397,
398
Metazoa, 394, 399

382, 383, 389,

405,

644

Metephebic, 391, 409
Microsiphuncle, 414
Mimoceras, 413, 609, 616

ambigena, 362

compressum, 361, 362,

410, 413

lituum, 362, 609
Minot, 363, 381, 382, 384
Mitroceras, 503
Mnemegenesis, 384
Monogenesis, 365

Nannoceras
603
Nautilinidz, 361, 370,
372, 373, 413, 414, 415,
609, 610, 616
Nautiloidea, 352, 359, 368,
369, 370, 371, 373, 379,
378, 385, 404, 410, 418,
615
Nautilus, 351, 352, 353,
379, 497, 432, 548,
559, 606, 610
acis, 547
acreeus, 534
anomalus, 494
aratus, 409, 551
avonensis, 536
Barrandei, 546
bucinus, 533
Calciferus, 435
cavus, 534
Champlainense, 438,
441
clausus, 552
cornulus, 530
Dekayi, 556
Deslonchampsianus,
413, 554
discors, 545
elegans, 553
evolutum, 546
gemmatus, 519
globatum, 541
granulosus, 553
granulosostriatus, 546
Hercules, 480
hesperis, 536

Frieslebeni,

Nautilus Hyatti, 537
imperialis, 559
inelegans, 535
intermedius, 550
insolens, 476
inspiratum, 519
Jason, 499
Kelloggi, 441,

443, 444
linearis, 546
lineatus, 551
liratus, 532
liratus, var. juvenis-

532
macromphalus, 560

561, 607
magister, 534
maximus, 534
oriens, 535
planidorsatus, 540
pompilius, 355, 363,

365, 379, 402, 404,

406, 409, 416, 422,

439, 514, 560, 561,

607

442,

prematurum, 433
radiatus, 554.
rotator, 452
Sacheri, 453
scoticus, 491
simplex, 554
Sternbergi, 452
subliratum, 532
subtuberculatus, 496
tyrannus, 433
umbilicatus, 354, 358,
406, 409, 431, 560,
561, 606
undatus, 445
versutus, 475
Nealogy, 392
Neanic, 381, 391, 397, 398,
406, 418, 472
Nedyceras, 520, 526
vetustum, 526, 598
Neolamarckian, 385, 388,
389
Nepionic, 381, 391, 397,
398, 402, 407, 416, 470
Neumayr, 396, 566

Neurism, 386

Newberry, 370

Nephriticeras, 531
acreeum, 534
bucinum, 533
cavum, 534
inelegans, 535
juvenis, 532
liratum, 532
magister, 534
maximum, 534
oriens, 535
subliratum, 532

Notling, 506, 520

Nostoceras, 566, 568, 569
helicinum, 569, 570,

573, 574, 614

Stantoni, 569, 570
tricostatus, 574

Oncodoceras, 545
Ontogenetic stages, 402
Ontogeny, law in rela-
tion to, 391, 407, 419
Oonoceras, 447, 520
Ophidioceras, 513,
530, 601, 602
rudens, 514
tener, 517
tessellatum, 518
Origin of species, 419
Orthoceras, 351, 361, 368,
377, 400, 582
elegans, 360
unguis, 360
Owen, Richard, 352, 359
Oxynoticeras oxynotum,
416

514,

Packard, 380, 388

- Paleonautilus hospes, 488

’ Palingenesis, law of, 390,
401

Paracme, 393, 395, 397,
429

Paragerontic,
395

Paraplasis, 391, 393, 394,
395, 397, 398, 400

382, 391,

645

Paranepionic, 391, 405,
406, 416, 418, 445, 466
471, 472, 477

Paraneanic, 391, 409, 445,
472
Parephebic, 409, 472
Patella, 380, 588
Paterina, 364
Peismoceras, 500
angulatum, 500
disjunctum, 500
opatatum, 500
placidum, 500
Pelecypoda, 350,
392, 396
Periconch, 392
Peripetoceras, 545
Frieslebeni, 546
Postembryonic, 392
Phloioceras, 519
gemmatum, 519
Phragmoceras, 586
perversum, 585
subventricosum, 528
Phrenism, 386
Phylanaplasis, 397
Phylembryonic, 397
Phylogenesis, 397, 401
Phylogerontic, 397, 410
Phyloneanic, 397
Phylometanepionic, 414
Phylometaplasis, 397
Phylonepionic, 397
Phyloparaplasis, 397
Phylephebic, 397
Phylostages, 398
Physical selections, 387
Piloceras, 403, 404.
Pinnacites, 412
Planctoceras, 433, 446
Quenstedi, 446
Planorbis oequiumbilica-
tus, 367
Plasmology, 390
Plectoceras, 499
Bickmoreanus, 500
Jason, 499
obscurum, 499
Pleuronautilus, 547
superbus, 547, 591

351,

Podocoryne, 398
Pompeckj, 607, 612, 613
Potoceras, 537

dubium, 537, 599
Prodissoconch, 351, 392
Prolecanites, 414
Primordialidz, 413, 414,

415
Protegulum, 351, 364, 392
Protoconch, 359, 373, 402,
410, 412

Protosiphonula, 403
Protozoa, 394, 399
Pselioceras, 530, 544

ophioneum, 544
Ptenoceras, 491

alatum, 492

flexum, 492

tardum, 492
Pteropoda, 360
Ptychoceras,

579

crassum, 579, 580

Texanum, 580
Pycnoceras, 433, 454, 593,

594
apertum, 455
calciferiforme, 456

566, 570,

Quenstedt, 356, 365, 375,
376, 446, 566, 568

Radical types, 378, 379
Remelé, 446, 457, 458, 506,
509, 511, 522
Remeléceras, 520, 522
Beyrichia, 512
damesi, 512
impressum, 522, 600
Oelandicum, 512
tenuistriatum, 512
Zaddachi, 512
Replacement, law of, 373
Rhadinoceras, 530
Hyatti, 531
cornulum, 530
Rhyncorthoceras, 511
dubium, 512
Rineceratidze, 543

Rutoceras, 518
Ryder, 380, 386

Scaphites, 564, 614
larvee formis, 565
ventricosus, 565
Scaphopoda, 392
Schuchert, 350
Schroder, 433, 442, 446,
463, 468, 520
Schroederoceras, 458, 474,
475, 592, 597, 607
angulatum, 460, 462
Bandonis, 469
Casinense, 473, 597
Damesi, 469
Denckelmanni, 469
Eatoni, 468, 470, 484,
485, 597
Eichwaldi, 485
Odini, 469
rarospira, 467
Saemanni, 463, 467
teres, 467, 470, 471,
485
tubulatum, 464
Sciponoceras, 578
baculoides, 578
Sepioidea, 352, 356, 357,
373) 374;
Siphuncle, positions of, 430
Solenoceras, 519
Solenocheilus, 528, 545
caledonicus, 536
Springeri, 545
Sphyradoceras, 529
Spirula, 357
Spyroceras crotalum, 360,
361, 582
Stanton, 563,.565, 572,573,
574, 579, 580, 614
Statogenesis, 386
Strombolituites, 509
Bolli, 510
Strophiceras, 518
Surroundings, action of,
377
Syncoryne, 398

646

Syringoceras, 546
evolutum, 546
granulosostriatus,

546, 602
linearis, 546, 602

Systrophoceras, 502
arietinum, 502
pingue, 502
rapax, 502

Table, descriptive terms,
428
Ontogeny, 391, 397
Phylogeny, 397

Tachygenesis, 401, 403,
404, 406, 407, 411, 415,
418, 616

Tainoceras, 497
Tainoceratide, 458, 491
Tarphyceras, 433, 441,
442, 456, 592, 594,
595, 607, 614
aucoini, 435, 437
calciferus, 456
Champlainense, 435,
436, 438
convolvens, 441
extensum, 435, 438
Farnsworthi, 435, 449
Mac Donaldi, 435
prematurum, 432,434,
435, 437
Seeleyi, 435
Tegulum, 392
Temnocheilus, 408, 494,
601
subtuberculatus, 496
Thoracoceras, canalicula-
tum, 540, 603
puzosianum, 540, 603
Thrincoceras, 544
Kentuckiense, 544
Trachyceras munsteri,
414
Triboloceratidze, 540
‘Triplooceras, 519
inspiratum, 519
regulum, 519

Trochoceras, 502
angulatum, 500
Davidsoni, 502
disjunctum, 500
Gebhardi, 503
opatum, 500
placidum, 500
regulum, 519
speciosum, 504
transiens, 492
turbinatum, 503

Tropites subullatus, 417

Trocholites, 434, 436, 458,

460, 466, 471, 472,
484, 517, 520, 584
585, 596, 614
ammonius, 484, 487
anguiformis, 490
arietinum, 502
Blakei, 490
Canadense, 486, 527,
587, 596, 605
circularis, 484, 489
contractus, 489
Damesi, 469, 489
depressus, 489
dyeri, 489
hospes, 488
incongruus, 488
internastriata, 484
macromphalus, 489
macrostoma, 489
minusculus, 490
multicostatus, 502
orbis, 489
pingue, 502
planorbiformis, 490
rapax, 502
Remelei, 484, 489
scoticus, 491
soraviensis, 489
Trocholitoceras, 458, 478,
480, 596
Eichwaldi, 484
Walcotti, 476, 480,
485, 607

Turrilites, 566
Boblayei, 567
Coynarti, 567

Turrilites splendens, 572
Valdani, 567

Uranoceras, 529
“uranum, 529

Variations, develop-
mental, 420
spontaneous, 420

647

Variations, transmission
of, 419
Vermiceras, 410
spiratissimum, 415
Vermetus, 588
Vestinautilus
540, 602
pinguis, 541
Von Baer, 365, 402
Jhering, 356

Konincki,

Wagner, 370

Walcott, 365, 442, 614
Weismann, 384, 385, 388
Whitfield, 472, 476
Wiirtenberger, 396, 417

Zitteloceras, 518
Zoon, 399

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HELD AT PHILADELPHIA
FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

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Fs ¢ . : , +a

May, 1893. No. 148.

- ’ ’ Pe ‘ = Z

| TABLE OF CONTENTS. Bee s

: Ly PAGE :
Ne Proceedings Commemorative of the One Hundred and Fiftieth aie
; ie Anniversary of the Foundation of the American Philosophi-
// eal Bocisty, “May, 22-26, 1898,..2.. 22: -.csstisevdherestenss A
3 See n order to secure prompt : attention it is requested that all corre:
* i ie We Ee ea S *
ae x a
spond ice” be addressed simply “To the Secretaries of. the American

PUBLISHED FOR THE SOCIETY ie es

-

; Ue -MacCALLA & COMPANY, : &

Miss Emily Phillips, of Philadelphia; a sister of ons ee
Phillips, deceased, presented to the American ages . iety,

adopted by the Ma

First. The Prize Endowment Fund shall be called the: ci fenr’
M. Phillips Prize Essay Fund.”

the Henry M. Phillips Prize Essay Fund.

Third. The income arising from such investment shall be appr
priated as follows: peria ton GS

(2) To making public advertisement of the prize and the sum
amount in United States gold coin, and the terms on which it sha 13
be awarded. We cia

nate the subjects for competing essays. It shall report annually t
the Society, on the first Friday in December, all its transactions, |
with an account of the investment of the Prize Fund, and of the
income and expenditures thereof.

An award of the Prize will be made during the year 1895 ; essays . <%
for the same to be in the possession of the Society before the first day
of January, 1895. The subjects upon which essays are to be Pus
nished by competitors are as follows : is

r. The sources, formation and development of what is generally
designated the Common Law of England.

2. The theory of the State, treated historically and upon principle,
with a discussion of the various schools of classical, medieval, and
modern thought upon the subject.

/

3. The historical and doctrinal relations of the Roman Lawand
the English Law, wlustrated by parallels and contrasts.

The Prize for the crowned essay on either of these subjects will
consist of the sum of five hundred dollars lawful gold coin of the
United States, to be paid upon the awarding of the Prize. - yt

The essays must be sent didhecsed to Frederick Fraley, President
of the American Philosophical Society, Hall of the Society, No. 104 aE
South Fifth Street, Philadelthia, Pa. “ae

(" Members who have not as yet sent their photographs ae
to the Society will confer a favor by so doing; cabinet size
preferred.

(=~ Members will please communicate any change of address or inac-
curacy in name. . »

Ie A few sets of the Society’s Transactions, New Series, 1818 to 18938,
XVIII vols., 4t0, can be obtained from the Librarian. Price $90.00.

tion of the certificate to be eae to the author of any su

essay. See Raat

Fourth. .Competitors for the prize shall affix to their essays some — vem
motto or name (not the proper name of the author, however), and —
when the essay is forwarded to the Society, it shall be accompanied |
by a sealed envelope containing within the proper name of the
author, and, on the outside thereof, the motto or name adopted for
the essay.

Fifth. At astated meeting of the Society, in pursuance of the
advertisement, all essays received up to that time shall be referred
to a Committee of Judges, to consist of five persons, who shall be |
selected by the Society from nomination of ten persons made .by
the Standing Committee on the Henry M. Phillips Prize Essay
Fund.

Sixth. All essays may be written in English, oe German,
Dutch, Italian “panish or Latin; but, if any language except Eng-
lish, must be accompanied by an English translation of the same.

Seventh. No treatise or essay shall be entitled to compete for the
prize that has been already published or printed, or for which the
author has received already any prize, or profit, or honor, of any
nature whatsoever.

Liighth. All essays must be clearly and /egid/y written and on
one side of the paper only.

Ninth. The literary property of such essays shall be in their
authors, subject to the right of the Society to publish the crowned
essays in its Transactions or Proceedings.

Tenth. A Standing Connitice: to consist of five members
appointed by the President, and, ex officio, the President and the
Treasurer of the Society, shall continue in office during the pleasure
of the Society, and any vacancies that may occur in said Committee

shall be filled by new appointment by the President.

Eleventh. The said Committee shall have charge of all matters
connected with the management of this endowment and the invest-
ment of the same, and shall make such general rules for publishing
the terms upon which said prize shall be competed for, and the
amount of the said prize, and, if it shall deem it expedient, desig-

— 6 el

ee

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Ny

: 5 “s
welt \ yale
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