at ts ’ \s i Zt Was tat i i Walt . as ty 3 & o is ; of r ralattels) alk LEA Wet od be! ge tne ‘ ue " peat lettetteh i Y Wiley te te tele tee le itt Uelaleh Y belstr st) he) Aah, iielhnh *. huieuhit ’ Why 1 ' GA ls eae tetetst ela! 4) dots M4 * , ; ’ " r ‘ i Gita wigs phate tat Ay ete » Nets 4 \ debe! f merge W' ae, Md lelete tele ae aaa i i haat ay 1. i Mh Anat va ete mH Muy, is ‘ bt Vote ty i betedet tedinat 44, eh tate la! ‘aiahiasaate ieee beat Witenes Haveli te ita tel 114% \ la bbelae ele iwi ) atte tele? APP HRN aitahat ate ta) ielat Vlas tal hey hist Wy VG be biel teh btstahe ny \ hs * ee sha beh bhi M hae i THM rt 14 Suh 4 ties: aan ut Be N yt tH Hered th ihe dh iehtdal Mine t ibe wale Hine Pitin rit re ne Heth te ates dia coe heap ne i a tty Aa it Tele dad bani tae \ HH Hh 4" ratte ates ee Mh + 4 shit van ote le ely ' t by ai iavalt Teeica tale 4 Mh \ i ( hy : ui ath aries nat = ay "y & it ae i ies ie | ; ae wey. i= QQ . Dr fob 52079% PROCEEDINGS ack OF ‘THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY HELD AT PHILADELPHIA FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. VOL. XLII. JANUARY TO DECEMBER, 1903. PHILADELPHIA : THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. 1903. LIST OF MEMBERS American Philosophical Society HELD AT PHILADELPHIA FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE (Founded 1743) January, 1904. 4 pa | ha an mx: , . 4 4 rot Oe hy ‘ . 1 : is! éé b , ' 4 iy re , i A (Ae here 1687. 1463. 2311. 2170. 1809. 2128. 2457. 2451. 1779. 1642. 2380. 1869. 1927. 2064. 2164. 2220. 2012. 2019. 1995, 1832. 2389. 2285. BAILtY, LL. H., Prof... . 1630. 1991. 2419, 2467. 2345. 2191. 1965. 1741. 2011. 2489, LIST OF MEMBERS OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY JANUARY, 1904. Name. ABBE, CLEVELAND, Prof... . . + ABBOT, HENRY L., Gen. U.S.A. . ABBOTT, ALEXANDER C., M.D... ABBOTT, CHARLES CONRAD, M.D.. oO ACKERMAN, RICHARD, Prof... . ADAM RLU CIEN. Sole ers) '« cits: © ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS, LL.D. ADLER, CyBus; Ph.Dui iets 2 5: AGASSIZ, ALEXANDER, Prof... . AGASsIz, Mrs. ELIZABETH. . ALLEN, ALFRED H., F.C.S. ... ALLEN, JOEL ASAPH, Prof. ... AMES, REV. CHARLES G. .... ANDERSON, ‘GEO. L., Maj. U.S.A. ANGELL, JAMES B., LL.D., Pres’t.. APPLETON, WILLIAM HYDE, Prof. ASHHURST, RICHARD L...... AVEBURY, The Right Hon. Lord. BAGH R. MERADION J o50? 6). BACHE, THOMAS HEwson, M.D. BAER, GEORGEF....... BAIRD, HENRY CAREY... BatRD, HENRY M., Prof. BALCH, EDWIN SWIFT. .... . BALCH, THOMAS WILLING .... BALDWIN, JAMES MARK, Prof.. . BALL, SIR ROBERT STAWELL. . DEBAR, HON. EDOUARD SEVE. . BARKER, GEORGE F., LL.D., Prof.. BARKER, WHARTON .....e ee BARNARD, EDWARD E., Sc.D ye Date of Election. July April Feb’y Dec. July Dec. Feb. May April Oct. May Sept. Jan'y Feb’y Oct. May April July B Jan’y Feb’y Dec. May Jan’y Jan’y Dec. May Oct. May July April April April 27, 1871, 18, 1862, 19, 1897, 20, 1889, 21, 1876, 17, 1886, 15, 18, 1901, 1900, 16, 1875, 15, 1869, 20, 1898, 20, 1878, 21, 1881, 19, 1886, 18, 19, 18, 18, 18, 1884, 2, 1877, 16, 1898, 15, 1896, 15, 1869, 18, 1884, 15, 1899, 17, 1901, 15, 1897, 15, 1891, 21, 1882, 18, 1873, 18, 1884, 3, 1903, Present Address. U. S. Weather Bureau, Wash- ington, D.C. 23 BerkeleySt.,Cambridge, Mass, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Trenton, N.J. Stockholm, Sweden. 41 Bard Sevigné, France. 23 Court St., Boston. Smithsonian Institution, Wash- ington, D. C. Cambridge, Mass. Quincy St., Cambridge, Mass. 67 Surrey St., Sheffield, Eng. Am. Museum of Natural His- tory, New York. 12 Chestnut St., Boston, Mass. Ordnance Board, Governor’s Island, New York City. Ann Arbor, Mich. Swarthmore, Pa. 319 S: 11th St., Philadelphia. High Elms, Down, Kent, Eng. Rennes, 4400 Sansom St., Philadelphia. 233 S. 13th St., Philadelphia. 1718 Spruce St., Philadelphia. Cornell University, Ithaca,N.Y. 810 Walnut St., Philadelphia. 219 Palisade Ave., Yonkers,N. Y. 1412 Spruce St., Philadelphia. 1412 Spruce St., Philadelphia. Princeton, N. J. Observatory, Cambridge, Eng. Ramsgate, England. 3909 Locust St., Philadelphia. 119 S. 4th St., Philadelphia. Yerkes Observatory, Williams Bay, Wisconsin. * 1902. 2490. 2119. 2421. 2482, 1968. 1802. 2255. 2326. 2264. 2416. 1788. . BERTIN, GEORGES... . BIDDLE, CADWALADER ..... . BRINTON, JOHN H., M.D . Brock, RoBERT C. H.. . . BROEGGER, W.'C., Prof... . . . . BROOKS, WILLIAM KEITH, Prof. . Name. BARTHOLOW, ROBERTS, M.D. . . Barus, CARL, Ph.D.,*Prof.. . . BASTIAN, ADOLPH, Prof...... BAUGH, DANIEL... .. . « & NORRIS, ISAAC, M.D: 2... he PUNOTEALDL, MRS. ZELTA*. . . s\. . Ottver, CHARLES A., M.D. ... OLNEY, RICHARD, Hon... .. . OSBORN, HENRY F., Prof... . . OSLER, WILLIAM, M.D . PACKARD, ALPHEUS §S., Prof. . . ; PACKARD, JOHN H., M.Di. 2. % » PANCOAST, HENRYS ..... LP EATTERSON, C. STUARTS co s0 16 2. PATTERSON, EDWARD, Hon... . . PATTERSON, LAMARGRAY ... . PATTERSON, ROBERT..... PATTERSON, THOMAS LEIPER .. . PATTISON, ROBERT E., Hon... PaTTON, FRANCIS L., D.D., Pres’t ee wrre*'es © Mais 8) 4) Le . PENROSE, R.A. F., M.D. .... PEPPER, EDWARD, M.D. . PEPPER, GEORGE WHARTON,LL.D. . PETTEE, WILLIAM HENRY, Prof. Pe LIS ELEN 6 6 @- © ost 's PHILLIPS, FRANCIS C., Prof. .. . PICKERING, Epw. C., Prof. ... PIERSOL, GEORGE A., M.D... . . ; PILSBRY, HONKY A., Prof... .:. p PLATT (CHARLES. sie BR obs J xil Date of Election. July Feb'y Oct. May 19, 1872, 19, 1866, 18, 1872, 17, 1895, 19, 1836, 17, 1897, 15, 1891, 17, 1897, 18, 1887, 16, 1885, 20, 1878, 18, 1867, 16, 1998, 16, 1885, 18, 1900, 20, 1898, 18, 1851, 15, 1853, 17, 1893, 17, 1897, 15, 1899, 15, 1875, 21, 1897, 8, 1878, 17, 1873, 21, 1886, 15, 1901, 21, 1886, 17, 1863, 19, 1886, 15, 1897, 20, 1898, 28, 1895, 19, 1899, 15, 1896, 15, 1897, 20, 1895, 20, 1898, Present Address. 128 Main St., Danbury, Conn. Geological Survey, St. Peters- burg, Russia. Fair Hill, Bryn Mawr, Pa. Plaza de Alvarado, Coyoacan. D. F. Mexico. 1507 Locust St., Philadelphia. 23 Court Street, Boston. 2 Rue de Sfax, Paris, France. Carnegie Museum, Shenley Park, Pittsburg, Pa. American Museum of Natural History, New York. 1 West Franklin St., Baltimore, Md. Providence, R. I. University Club, Philadelphia. a 267 E. Johnson St., German- ~ town, Phila. 1000 Walnut St., Philadelphia. Supreme Court, Appellate Div., 1st Dept., New York City. Guano, Amherst Co., Va. 329 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. 176 Washington St., Cumber- land, Md. 5930 Drexel Rd., Overbrook, Pa. Princeton, N. J. 903 Pine St., Philadelphia. 317 Walnut Ay., Roxbury, Mass. 49 Pacifie St., Brooklyn. 3316 Powelton Ave., Philadel- phia. 1947 Locust St., Philadelphia. Ciudad Mexico, Mexico. 4326 Sansom St., Philadelphia. Executive Mansion, Harris- burg, Pa. 1331 Spruce St., Philadelphia. El Afia, El Biar, Alger, Algerie. 701 Drexel Building, Phila. 554 Thompson St., Ann Arbor, Mich. 5951 Overbrook Ave., Phila- delphia. P. O. Box 126, Allegheny, Pa. Harvard Uniy., Cambridge, Mass. Chester Ave. and.49th St., Philadelphia. Academy of Natural Sciences, ~ Philadelphia. 237 S. 18th St., Philadelphia, sed. . RAWLE, FRANCIS. . . RAWLE, WILLIAM BROOKE... . . RAYLEIGH, The Right Hon. Lord. . RAYMOND, ROSSITER W...... Name. . POINCARE, HENRI, Prof...... . POMIALOWSKY, JOHN, Prof... . » POSTGATE, JOHN P., Prof... ). .°. . PREECE, Str WM. HENRY, F.R.S. . PREscoTT, ALBERT B., LL.D., Prof. PRIME, FREDERICK ... . . PRITCHETT, HENRY S, LL.D., President ... . PUMPELLY, RAPHAEL, Prof... .. 3. PUPIN, MICHAEL I., Prof. . PUTNAM, FREDERICK W., Prof. . 31. RADA, JUAN DE Dios-y DELGADO, . RAMSAY, SIR WILLIAM ..... LEVADTDVA TAT, HAC IMCD <<. sg) a) ven e | AVENEL, MAZYCKI'P: Die. « at tm (0) 6) Gevee: eo . REDWOOD, BOVERTON. ....-. . REMINGTON, JOSEPH P., Prof... . REMSEN, IRA, President. .... PRENEVIER, He. Prof... 2. 6 2 s . RENNERT, HuGo A., Prof..... SVU A UK, VR, ELOe oss Vepow Ue. REVILLE, ALBERT, Prof. .... .\. 2. RICHARDS, THEO. WILLIAM, Prof. . ROBERTS, ISAAC, Sc.D., F.R.S.. . e . ROBINS, JAMES W., Rev ..... . RoGprs, ROBERT W., Prof... . 2. Rouric, F. L. Orro, Prof..... . ROLLETT, HERMANN, Ph.D. . ROSCOE, SIR HENky E., F.R.S., LU Ga ee rs ee ehh el) 56) 0 la . ROSENGARTEN, JOSEPHG. .... ) DE ROSNY, UBON, Profi swe) a ol is . ROTHROCK, JOSEPH T., Prof. . . xii Date of Election. May 19, 1899, Oct. 16, 1885, May 21, 1886, Dee. 15, 1899, May 20, 1898, April 16, 1875, May =_:19, 1899, April 17, 1874, May 15, 1896, May 15, 1895, BEW Dec. 17, 1886, May 19, 1899, Jan’y 18, 1878, May, 17, 1901, Dec. 16, 1898, May 19, 1899, May 21, 1886, April 16, 1875, May 20, 1898, May 19, 1899, July 18, 1879, July 18, 1879, Dec. 15, 1899, Feb’y 2, 1877, Dec. 17, 1886, April 4, 1902, Oct. 20, 1893, April 2i, 1882, Feb’y 21, 1890, April 18, 1862, Oct. 16, 1885, April 3, 1903, Oct. 16, 1891, July 21, 1882, April 20, 1877, Present Address. 63 Rue Claude Bernard, Paris, France. St. Petersburg, Russia. Cambridge, England. 12, Queen Anne’s Gate, Lon- don, S. W., England. 734 S. Ingalls St., Ann Arbor, Mich, 1008 Spruce St., Philadelphia. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston. Newport, R. I. 7 Highland Pl., Yonkers, N. Y. Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass. Calle de la Corredera baja de S. Pablo No. 12, Madrid, Spain. University College, Gower St. W. C., London, Eng. Warren, Pa. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 328 Chestnut St., Philadelphia 230 So. 22d St., Philadelphia. Terling Pl., Witham, Essex, Eng. 99 John St., New York, N. Y. 4, Bishopsgate St. Within, E. C., London, England. 1832 Pine St., Philadelphia, Johns Hopkins Univ., Balti- more, Md. Univ., Lausanne, Switzerland. 4232 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. W. Ahornstrasse 2, Berlin, Ger- many. 21 Rue Guénégaud, Paris, France. 15 Follen St., Cambridge, Mass. Starfield, Crowborough, Sus- sex, England. 2115 Pine St., Philadelphia. Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, N. J. 4025 Oakland Ave., Pasadena, Cal. Baden bei Wien, Austria. Woodcote Lodge, West Horsley, Leatherhead, England. 1704 Walnut St., Philadelphia. 28 Rue Mazarine, Paris, France West Chester, Pa. 4, ScHURZ, CARL, Hon 25. SCLATER, PHILIP LUTLEY, Ph.D. . ScoTT, CHARLES F. Name, . SACHSE, JULIUs F., Litt.D. . . SADTLER, SAMUEL P., Prof... . . SAJouS, CHARLES E., M.D.... . SAMPSON, ALDEN... . < . SANDBERGER, FREDOLIN, Prof. . . SANDERS, RICHARD H....... . SARGENT, CHARLES SPRAGUE, Prof . DE SAUSSURE, HENRI...... . SCHELLING, FELIX E., Ph. D:. Prof. . SCHIAPARELLI, GIOVANNI... 2. Scott, WILLIAM B., Prof. . . 70. SCUDDER, SAMUEL HUBBARD... . STENGEL, ALFRED, M.D. . STEPHENS, H. MorRsE, Prof... . 52. SEE, THOMAS J.J., LL.D. .... . SELLERS, COLEMAN, S3.D..... . SELLERS, COLEMAN, JR... 2. . SELIGRS, WILLIAM. ..... « “ SERGI, GIUSEPPE, Prof. ..... . SHARP, BENJAMIN, M.D.. 1... . SHARPLES, STEPHEN PASCHALL, ROE sate, bo cnet LAN ar se . SHERWOOD, ANDREW . mike Tat sea 22. SHIELDS, CHAS. W., LL.D., Rev.. . SIGSBEE, CHARLES D., Admiral, O See, ee.) wis LOLS, BARS Pairwise . SINKLER, WHARTON, M.D..... . SMITH, A. DONALDSON, . SMITH, EpGarR F., Prof, ..... . SMITH, STEPHEN, M.D Bs BMOCK, JOHN'C., Prof, . . . . ..s iO a SMYTH, ALBERT H., Prof. . . . SNELLEN, HERMAN, JR., Ph.D. . . SNOWDEN, A. LOUDON. ..... . SNYDER, MONROE B., Prof. . SPOFFORD, A. R., LL.D..... . STEVENS, WALTER LECONTE, Prof. . STEVENSON, JOHN JAMES, Prof. . . STEVENSON, SARA Y., Sc.D. . » PIMGGWRLU, Liss ssc sos a . STONEY, G. JOHNSTONE, Prof., F.R.S. Xiv Ss Date of Election Feb'y Oct. Feb'y Dec. April Oct. April April April Feb’y Sept. April Feb'y Dec. Sept. Dec. July Dec. April Oct. May April Oct. Feb’y Dec. May Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. May Feb’y Oct. Jan’y Jan’y April 16, 1894, 16, 1874, 17, 1888, 17, 1897, 20, 1866, 15, 1897, 21, 1882, 18, 1873, 4, 1902, 15, 1901, 20, 1878, 18, 1873, 18, 1898, 17, 1886, 20, 1878, 17, 1897, 19, 1972, 15, 1899, 15, 1864, 16, 1885, 21, 1886, 21, 1882, 15, 1875, 2, 1877, 15, 1899, 18, 1900, 15, 1897, 21, 1887, 15, 1875, 15, 1897, 20, 1887, '16, 1894, 17, 1873, 18, 1884, 17, 1873, 3, 1903, 15, 1897, 18, 1884, 20, 1877, 18, 1895, 18, 1898, 4, 1902, Present Address. 4128 Pine St., Phila. N.E. cor. 10th and Chestnut Sts., Philadelphia. 2043 Walnut St., Philadelphia, Haverford, Fa. Univ. of Wirzburg, Wiirzburg, Bayaria. 1225 Locust St., Philadelphia. Jamaica Plain, Mass. Geneva, Switzerland. 4211 Sansom St., Philadelphia. Royal Observatory, Milan, © Italy. 54 William St., New York. 3 Hanover Square, London, W., England. Westinghouse Electric Co., Pittsburgh, Pa. Princeton, N. J. Cambridge, Mass. Mare Island Observatory, Cal. 3301 Baring St., Philadelphia. 410 N. 33d St., Philadelphia. 1819 Vine St., Philadelphia. Universita Romana, Rome, Italy Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. 26 Broad St., Boston, Mass. Mansfield, Tioga Co., Penna. Princeton, N. J. League Island Navy Yard, Philadelphia. 1606 Walnut St., Philadelphia: 1820 Chestnut St., Phila. 3421 Walnut St., Philadelphia. 57 W. 42d St., New York. Trenton, N. J. 5214 Main St., Philadelphia. Utrecht, Netherlands. 1812 Spruce St., Philadelphia. 2402 N. Broad St., Philadelphia, Library of Congress, Washing- ton, D. C. 1811 Spruce St., Philadelphia. University of California, Berke- ley, Cal. Lexington, Va. University Heights, New York 237.8. 21st St., Philadelphia, 6th St., Lakewood, N. J. Germantown, 80 Ledbury Rd., London, W., Eng. Bayswater, XV Name. Date of Election. Present Address. 2094. SuEss, EDUARD, Prof....... May 21, 1886, K. K. Geologische Reichsan ‘ stalt, Vienna, Austria. 2258. SULZBERGER, MAYER, Hon.... May _ 17, 1895, 1303 Girard Ave., Philadelphia. 2092. SZOMBATHY, JOSEF, Prof... .. May 21, 1886, Burgring 7, Vienna, Austria. ag OLS, TATA, WILGEAM®). 0:6. sis») 6 Oct. 15, 1897, 1811 Walnut St., Philadelphia 2098. TEMPLE, RICHARD CARNAC, Col.. May 21, 1886, Port Blair, Andaman Islands, : Bengal, India. 2289. TESLA, NIKOLA, LL.D. ..... May 15, 1896, Wardenclyffe,Long Island,N.Y. 2006. THomas, ALLEN C., Prof..... Jan’y 18, 1884, Haverford, Pa. 1993. THOMPSON, HEBER 8....... Jan’y 18, 1884, Sheafer Build’g, Pottsville, Pa. 1726. THOMPSON, SIR HENRY, Bart. . April 18,1873, 35 Wimpole St., Cavendish Square, London, England. 2488. THOMPSON, SILVANUS P., Prof., SED. Seite’; eoaeaceteed site -..... April 4, 1902, Technical College, Finsbury, Leonard St, City Rd., E.C., Eng. 1807. THOMSON, ELIHU, Prof. ..... April 21, 1876, Swampscott, Mass. 2507. THOMSON, JOSEPH JOHN, D.Sc., TEES ber ave. cab lcte cite Be cheay re Meiiet voles April 38, 1908, TrinityCollege, Cambridge, Eng. 1909. THOMSON, WILLIAM, M.D..... April 16, 1880, 1426 Walnut St., Philadelphia 2052. Im THURN, EVERARD F...... Oct. 16, 1885, Queens College, Neawara Eliya, Ceylon. 1530. THuRY, A., Prof. ........ April 15, 1864, Univ. of Geneva, Geneva, 2 Switzerland. 2471. TILGHMAN, BENJAMIN CHEW. . April 4, 1902, 1126 S. 11th St., Philadelphia. 2123. TOPINARD, PAUL, Prof. ..... Dec. 17, 1886, 105 Rue de Rennes, Paris, ‘ France, 2249. TOWER, CHARLEMAGNE,JR.,LL.D., ELOTICAS Sty ctaomeiael bey Toomelitaiis . . Feb’y 15, 1895, U.S. Embassy, Berlin,Gemany,. 2503. TRELEASE, WILLIAM,Sc.D.... April 3, 1903, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Mo. 2418. TREVELYAN, GEORGE OTTO, Rt. Hon. Sits. sc) 62,6)... 6 May 39)1899,, 8 Grosvenor Crescent, (Si W:. London, England. 2288. TROWBRIDGE, JOHN, Prof... .. May 15, 1896, Harv. Univ., Cambridge, Mass. 2441, TRUE, FREDERICK WILLIAM, Dr. Dec. 15, 1899, U.S. National Museum, Wash- ington, D. C. 1973. TSCHERMAK, GUSTAV....... Oct. 20, 1882, Universitat, Vienna, Austria. 2321. TSCHERNYSCHEW, THEODORE, OL ancmementeeel (nie. pasts sais May 21, 1897,. Geological Survey, St. Peters- burg, Russia. 1529. v. TUNNER, PETER R., Prof... . April 15, 1864, Leoben, Austria. 1983. TURRETTINI, THEODORE, Prof. . Dec. 19, 1890, Geneva, Switzerland. 2166. TUTTLE, Davip K., Ph.D..... Oct. 18, 1889, U.S, Mint, Philadelphia. 2163, TYLER, LYON G., Hon., Pres’t. . Oct. 18, 1889, Williamsburg, Va. 2138. Tyson, JAMES, M.D....... May 20, 1887, 1506 Spruce St., Philadelphia. oy : 2185. UNWIN, WILLIAM C., Prof... .. Dec. 19, 1890, 7 Palace Gate Mansions, Lon- don, England. We 2400. VAUCLAIN, SAMUEL M.... .. May 19, 1899, 1533 Green St., Philadelphia. 2325. VAUX, GEORGE, JR........ Oct. 15, 1897, 404 Girard Building, Phila. 1670. VosE, GEoRGE L., Prof...... Oct. 21, 1870, Brunswick. Maine. 21586. 2508. 1904. . WAGNER, SAMUEL . WARE, LEWIsS... . WILDER, Burt G., Prof PEW AEGCOX, ! . WISTER, OWEN . WiITMER, LIGHTNER, Ph.D., Prof. . WooD, RICHARD. .... PV OODISAEUA I. dune) get Slavs: 6 . WooDWARD, HENRY,LL:D_,F.R.S. Name. VIOESION, DUIS § 5 ccos ax ef DE VRIES, Huago, Prof....... . WAHL, WILLIAM H., Ph.D. ... . WALCOTT, CHARLES D., LL.D. . . WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL, LL.D, . WARD, LESTER F., LL.D... we. . WARFIELD, ETHELBERT D., Pres’t . WEIL, EDWARD HENRY ..... . WELCH, WILLIAM H., M.D... « . WHARTON, JOSEPH. .... sine va . WHITE, ANDREW D., Hon... .. . WHITE, ISRAEL C., Prof... ... SeWHITKTEED: R."Ps Prof: .)2 ¢ . WHITMAN, CHARLES OTIS, Prof. . . WILLIAMS, EDWARD H., JR., Prof. WILLIAMS, TaLcoTT, LL.D. ... . WILKS, HIRNRY, Prof. (os. 6 <7 . WILSON, JAMES CORNELIUS, M.D. WILSON, WILLIAM PoWELL, M.D.. . WILSON, WoOoDROW, Pres’t.. . .WISTAR, (GEN, ISARGG. 2... » « . WOODWARD, ROBERT S., Ph.D., Prof. . WRIGHT, ARTHUR W., Ph.D,, Prof. . WRIGHT, WILLIAM ALDIS, LL.D . 4. WUNDT, WILLIAM, Prof...... WuRTS, ALEXANDER JAY .... WurtTs, CHARLES STEWART, M.D. WyckKorFfr, A.B., Lieut. U.S.N. . YARNALL, ELLIS 1759. YOUNG, CHARLES AuGusTDS, Prof. xvi Date of Election. Dec. 19, 1890, April 3, 1903, 16, 1885, 16, 1874, 15, 1897, 18, 1873, 17, 1889, 21, 1881, 17, 1897, 16, 1885, 15, 1896, 16, 1869, 16, 1869, Jan’y 18, 1878, May 20, 1898, Dec. 15, 1899, May — 3, 1878, Feb. 15, 1895, Oct. 15, 1897, May 18, 1888, Feb’y 21, 1890, Jan’y 16, 1885, May 20, 1887, Oct. 15, 1897, May 19, 1893, May 21, 1897, Oct. 15, 1897, April 18, 1879, May 19, 1899, July 17, 1874, April 4, 1902, May 15, 1896, Feb’y 16, 1900, Feb. 15, 1895, Dec. 15, 1899, Jan’y 21, 1881, Feb’y 19, 1886, RR April 16, 1880, April 17, 1874, Present Address. Consulate of France, Bombay, India. University of Amestet lam, Amsterdam, Netherlands. Greenbank Farm, West Ches- ter, Pa. 15S. 7th St., Philadelphia. U. S. Geological Survey, Wash- ington, D.C. Parkstone, Dorset, England. 1464 Rhode Island Ave., Wash- ington, D. C. Phila.BookCo.,15S.9th St., Phila. Easton, Pennsylvania. 1720 Pine St., Philadelphia. 935 St. Paul St., Baltimore, Md. P. O. Box 1332, Philadelphia. White Library, Cornell Uniy., Ithaca, N. Y. 119 Wiley St., Morgantown, W. Va. American Museum of Natural History, New York. University of Chicago, Chi- — cago, Ill. 60 Cascadilla Pl., Ithaca, N. Y. ‘“«The Clinton,’’ 10th and Clin- ton Sts., Philadelphia. 53 Phillips St., Andover, Mass. 916 Pine Street, Philadelphia. 4036 Baring St., Philadelphia. 1511 Walnut St., Philadelphia, 233 S. 4th St., Philadelphia. Prospect, Princeton, N. J. S. E. Cor. Spruce and 17th Sts., . Philadelphia. 328 Chestnut Street, Phila. University of Penna, Phila. 1620 Locust St., Philadelphia. 1620 Locust St., Philadelphia. British Museum, London, Eng- land. 408 West 145th St., New York. 73 York Sq., New Haven, Conn. Trinity College, Cambridge, England. Leipzig, Germany. Nernst Lamp Co., Pittsburg, Pa. 1701 Walnut St., Philadelphia. Navy Department, Washing- ton, D.C. f 420 Walnut St., Philadelphia. 16 Prospect Ay., Princeton, NJ. PROCEEDINGS AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY HELD AT PHILADELPHIA FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE Vou. XLII. JANUARY-APRIL, 1903. No. 172. Stated Meeting, January 2, 1903. President WISTAR in the Chair. The list of donations to the Library was laid on the table and thanks were ordered for them from the Chair. Messrs. Joseph C. Fraley, Patterson DuBois and Harold Goodwin, the Judges of the annual election for Officers and Councillors, reported that the same had been held on this day, between the hours of 2 and 5 in the afternoon, and that the following named persons were elected, according to the laws, regulations and ordinances of the Society, to be the Offi- cers for the ensuing year: President. Edgar F. Smith. Vice- Presidents. George F. Barker, Samuel P. Langley, William B. Scott. Secretaries. I. Minis Hays, Edwin G. Conklin, Morris Jastrow, Jr., Arthur W. Goodspeed. Treasurer. Henry LaBarre Jayne. Pe te 4 MINUTES. [Feb. 6, Curators. Charles L. Doolittle, William P. Wilson, Albert H. Smyth. Councillors to serve for three years. George R. Morehouse, Patterson DuBois, Ira Remsen, Isaac J. Wistar. Stated Meeting, January 16, 1903. President SMITH in the Chair. The President, on taking the Chair, expressed his thanks for the honor conferred upon him by the Society, and then made some remarks on some recent researches in electro- chemical analysis. : Dr. I. Minis Hays was elected Librarian for the ensuing year. The Standing Committees for the ensuing year were chosen as follows : Finance.—Philip C. Garrett, Joel Cook, C. Stuart Patter- son. Publication Henry Carey Baird, Joseph Willcox, Amos P. Brown, James W. Holland, Horace Jayne. Hall.—Harold Goodwin, John Marshall, Frank Miles Day. Library.—George F. Barker, Albert H. Smyth, J.G. Rosen- garten, Edwin G. Conklin, Robert C. H. Brock. . Dr. William W. Keen was elected a Councillor to fill the unexpired term of Prof. Albert H. Smyth, resigned. Stated Meeting, February 6, 1903. President SMITH in the Chair. The list of donations to the Library was laid on the table and thanks were ordered for them from the Chair. 1908.] MINUTES. 5 The Secretaries announced the decease of the following members : Sir George Gabriel Stokes, of Cambridge, Eng., on Febru- ary 1, 1903, aged 83. Hoe: Berard Cruz, of Guatemala. Prof. H. W. Wiley, of Washington, made some remarks on the “ Investigations of the Bureau of Chemistry on the Com- position and Adulteration of Foods.” Prof. Edgar F. Smith presented a specimen of the metal calcium obtained by electrolysis. Dr. Samuel G,. Dixon made some remarks on the produc- tion of tuberculosis by inoculation with tuberculin. Stated Meeting, February 20, 1903. President SMITH in the Chair. A letter was read from Sir Michael Foster, of Cambridge, accepting membership. The list of donations to the Library was laid on the table and thanks were ordered for them from the Chair. Dr. A. C. Abbott offered some remarks on “Some of the Problems of the Bacteriologist.” Stated Meeting, March 6, 1903. President SMITH in the Chair. A list of the donations to the Library was laid on the table and thanks were ordered for them from the Chair. The decease of the following members was announced : James Glaisher, F.R.S., at South Croydon, England, on February 7, 19038, aged 94. Rear-Admiral William Harkness, U.S.N., at Jersey City, on March 1, 1903, aged 65. Prof. Angelo Heilprin made some remarks on “The Scien- tific Aspects of the Pelée Eruptions.” 6 MINUTES. [April 2, 3, 4, Stated Meeting, March 20, 1908. President SMITH in the Chair. A list of the donations to the Library was laid on the table and thanks were ordered for them from the Chair. The decease was announced of Charles Godfrey Leland, at Florence, Italy, on March 20, 1903, aged 79 years. Prof. Wilder D. Bancroft, of Cornell University, made some remarks on “The Electrolytic Dissociation Theory, with — plication to Medicine and Biology.” General Meeting, April 2,3 and 4, 1903. APRIL 2.—Morninea Ssssion, 10 A.M. President SMITH in the Chair. The President made a brief Address of Welcome. The following papers were read : “The Structure of the Corn Grain and Its Relation to Pop- ping,” by Prof. Henry Kraemer, of Philadelphia. “ Beaver County (Pa.) Orchids,” by Mr. Ira Franklin Mans- field, of Beaver, Pa. “Development of the English Alphabet,” by Prof. Francis A. March, of Easton, Pa. “ Archeology and Mineralogy,” by Prof. Paul Haupt, of Baltimore. “The Activity of Mont Pelée,” by Prof. Angelo Heilprin, of Philadelphia. “The Forward Movement in Plant-Breeding,” by Prof. L. H. Bailey, of Ithaca, N. Y. “Reaction as an Agent in Securing Navigable Depths in River and Harbor Improvements,” by Prof. Lewis M. Haupt, of Philadelphia. 1903.] MINUTES. 7 AFTERNOON SEssIon, 2 P.M. | Vice-President BARKER in the Chair. The following papers were read : “The Curtis Steam Turbine,” by Mr. W. L. R. Emmet, of Schenectady, N. Y. “The Principle of Least Work in Mechanics and Its Possi- ble Use in Investigations Regarding the Ether of Space,” by Prof. Mansfield Merriman, of Bethlehem, Pa. “The Nernst Lamp,” by Mr. Alexander Jay Wurts, of * Pittsburg. “The Problem of the Trusts,” by Mr. C. Stuart Patterson,, of Philadelphia. “On the Dependence of what apparently takes place in Nature, upon what actually occurs in the Universe of Real Existences,” by Prof. G. Johnstone Stoney, F.R.S., of London. EVENING Session, 8 P.M. At the Hall of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, S. W. Cor. of Locust and Thirteenth Streets. President SMITH in the Chair. The following papers were read : “The President’s Address—A Brief History of the Society,” by Prof. Edgar F. Smith. “The Carnegie Institution During the First Year of Its Development,” by President Daniel C. Gilman, of Baltimore. Aprit 8.—Mornine Szssion, 10 A.M. Vice-President LANGLEY in the Chair. The following papers were read : “The Double Star System 2 518,” by Mr. Eric Doolittle, of Philadelphia. Introduced by Prof. M. B. Snyder. 8 MINUTES. [April 2, 3, 4, “New Applications of Maclaurin’s Series in the Solution of Equations and in the Expansion of Functions,” by Prof. P. A. Lambert, of Bethlehem. Introduced by Prof. C. L. Doolittle. “The Constant of Aberration,” by Prof. Charles L. Doo- little, of Philadelphia. “The Degree of Accuracy of the Newtonian Law of Gravi- tation,” by Prof. Ernest W. Brown, F.R.S., of Haverford, Pa. “The Mechanical Construction and Use of Logarithms,” by Mr. Charles E. Brooks, of Baltimore. Introduced by Prof. George F. Barker. “The Theory of Assemblages and the Integration of Dis- continuous Functions,” by Prof. I. J. Schwatt, of Philadelphia. Introduced by Prof. C. L. Doolittle. “The Franklin Papers in the Library of the American Philosophical: Society,” by Mr. J. G. Rosengarten, of Phila- delphia. EXECUTIVE SESSION, 12.15 P.M. President SMITH in the Chair. Dr. Hays, by unanimous consent, offered the following pre- amble and resolution, which were unanimously adopted : “Tnasmuch as the two hundredth anniversary of the birth of Benjamin Franklin occurs in January, 1906, it is proper that the American Philosophical Society, which owes its existence to his initiative and to which he gave many long years of faithful service, should take steps to commemorate the occasion in a manner befitting his eminent services to this Society, to science and to the nation. ‘Therefore be it “ Resolved, That the President is authorized and directed to appoint a Committee of such number as he shall deem proper to prepare a plan for the appropriate celebration of the bi- centennial of the birth of Franklin, and to report the same to this Society.” 1 A MINUTES. 9 The President thereupon appointed the following members to constitute the Committee: Hon. George F. Edmunds, Chairman. Prof. Alexander Agassiz, Boston. Prest. James B. Angell, Ann Arbor. Prof. George F'. Barker, Philadelphia. Prof. A. Graham Bell, Washington. Mr. Andrew Carnegie, New York. Prof. C. F. Chandler, New York. Hon. Grover Cleveland, Princeton. Prest. Charles W. Eliot, Cambridge. Prest. Daniel C. Gilman, Baltimore. Prest. Arthur T. Hadley, New Haven. Provost C. C. Harrison, Philadelphia, Hon. John Hay, Washington. Dr. I. Minis Hays, Philadelphia. Prof. Samuel P. Langley, Washington. Capt. Alfred T. Mahan, US.N. Dr. S. Weir Mitchell, Philadelphia. Prof. Simon Newcomb, Washington. Governor 8. W. Penrtypacker, Harrisburg. Prof. E. C. Pickering, Cambridge. Prof. Michael I. Pupin, New York. Prest. Ira Remsen, Baltimore. Prof. John Trowbridge, Cambridge. Dr. Charles D. Walcott, Washington. Hon. Andrew D. White, Ithaca. Prest. Woodrow Wilson, Princeton. The pending nominations for membership were read and spoken to. The Society then proceeded to ballot for members. The tellers subsequently reported the election of the follow- ing named candidates as members : Residents of the United States— Edward E. Barnard, Sc.D., Williams Bay, Wis. Carl Barus, Ph.D., Providence, RB. I. Franz Boas, Ph.D., New York. 10 MINUTES. [April 2, 3, 4, William W. Campbell, Sc.D., Mt. Hamiltoa, Cal. Eric Doolittle, Philadelphia. Basil Lanneau Gildersleeve, LL.D., Baltimore. Francis Barton Gummere, Ph.D., Haverford, Pa. Arnold Hague, Washington, D. C. George William Hill, LL.D., Nyack, N. Y. William Henry Howell, Ph.D., Baltimore. Edward W. Morley, Ph.D., Cleveland. Harmon N. Morse, Ph.D., Baltimore. Edward Rhoads, Haverford, Pa. . Alfred Stengel, M.D., Philadelphia. | William Trelease, Sc.D., St. Louis. 3 Foreign residents— Anton Dohrn, Naples. Edwin Ray Lankester, LL.D., F.R.S., London. Sir Henry E. Roscoe, F.R.S., D.C.L., London. Joseph John Thomson, D. Bat F.R.S. Cambridge ae Hugo de Vries, Amsterdam. | AFTERNOON Session,°2 P.M. | Vice-President Scott in the Chair. The following papers were read : “Further Notes on the Santa Cruz Edentates,” by Prof. William B. Scott, of Princeton. “Some Magnetic Properties of Nickel,” by Mr. Joseph Wharton, of Philadelphia. “ A New Fresh-Water Molluscan Faunule from the Creta- ceous Of Montana,” by Mr. T. W. Stanton, of Washington. Introduced by Prof. W. B. Scott. “The Earliest Differentiation of the Egg,” by Prof. Edwin G. Conklin, of Philadelphia. “The Evolution and Distribution of the Proboscidea,” by Prof. Henry F. Osborn, of New York. “An Attempt to Correlate the Marine with the Non-marine 1903.] BROOKS—NEW GENUS HYDROID JELLY-FISHES. Na} Jurassic and Cretaceous Formations of the Middle West,” by Prof. John B. Hatcher, of Pittsburg. “Hints on the Classification of the Arthropoda, the Group a Polyphyletic One,” by Prof. Alpheus S. Packard, of Provi- dence. “Anatomy of the Flosculariidx,” by Prof. Thomas H. Montgomery, Jr., of Philadelphia. “ A Résumé of the Composition of Petroleum from Differ- ent Fields,” by Prof. Charles F. Mabery, of Cleveland. ApRIL 4.—Mornine Ssssion, 10 A.M. President SMITH in the Chair. The following papers were read : “The Most Insidious Source of Error in Quantitative Chemical Research,” by Prof. Theodore W. Richards, of Cambridge, Mass. “ A Further Classification of Economies,” by Prof. Lindley Miller Keasbey, of Bryn Mawr, Pa. “Some Features of the Supernatural as Represented in Elizabethan and Jacobean Plays,” by Prof. Felix HE. Schelling, of Philadelphia. “The Hamites and Semites in the Tenth Chapter of Gene- sis,” by Prof. Morris Jastrow, Jr., of Philadelphia. “The Warfare Against Tuberculosis,” by Dr. Mazyck P. Ravenel, of Philadelphia. ON A NEW GENUS OF HYDROID JELLY-FISHES. BY WILLIAM KEITH BROOKS. (Plate I.) (Read April 4, 1902.) GENuS DICHOTOMIA. Diagnosts of the Genus.—Hydroid jelly-fishes with four radial canals which divide dichotomously two, three, four, or more times, 12 BROOKS—NEW GENUS HYDROID JELLY-FISHES. {April 4, and open into the circular canal by sixteen, thirty-two, or more distal branches; with two sorts of tentacles—hollow ones and solid ones ; with a simple mouth and with a single circumferential gonad which extends from the wall of the manubrium on to the radial canals and their branches. Dichotomia cannoides (Plate I, Figs. 1, 2 and 3). Diagnosis of the Species —Bell subcylindrical, somewhat higher than wide, with a conical apex. Manubrium fusiform, widest at about the middle of its upper half. The four radial canals branch dichotomously four (or more?) times. Near the apex the four primary canals arise in two pairs from the ends of a short trans- verse canal. There are sixteen long hollow tentacles, and about thirty-two (or more?) short solid tentacles. The reproductive organ extends from the wall of the manubrium on to the radial canals and their branches for about half their length. Special Description.—The four radial canals do not arise inde- pendently and directly from the aboral end of the stomach, but in pairs from the ends of a short transverse canal, in such a way that the only planes which divide the jelly-fish into symmetrical halves are the two primary interradial planes. When it is divided in either of these planes each half is itself bilaterally symmetrical, consisting of halves which are reversed copies of each other. In all my larger specimens each of the primary radial canals was divided dichotomously three times, so that there were eight sec- ondary canals, sixteen tertiary and thirty-two terminal branches. In one specimen, which is shown in Fig. 1, one of these terminal canals was again divided into two, so that there were thirty-three instead of thirty-two terminal branches. It is therefore probable that the number of branches continues to increase with the age of the jelly-fish, and that older specimens may have sixty-four or more terminal branches. The subumbrella consists of two strongly contrasted regions: an upper opaque portion which is nearly hemi- spherical and which contains the arches formed by the reproductive organ on the arched subdivisions of the radial canals, and a lower portion which is cylindrical and transparent. About one-half of the total length of the system of canals is joined to the reproduc- tive organ, which extends from the wall of the manubrium to the radial canals in a system of groined arches, dividing the upper part of the subumbrella into pockets which are closed above, open 1903.] BROOKS—NEW GENUS HYDROID JELLY-FISHES. 18 below, and equal in number to the terminal branches of the radial canals. All of these pockets open at the same level below, but the sixteen pockets of the fourth set are very shallow, the eight pockets of the third set and the four of the second set are deeper, and the four primary pockets of the first set reach nearly to the apex of the subumbrella. The primary tentacles are stout, hollow, contractile, and when the jelly-fish is swimming they are stiffly extended with their tips coiled into compact spiral whorls. There are sixteen of these tentacles in every specimen that I have examined. The young specimen which is shown in Fig. 2 has sixteen distal radial canals, and a hollow tentacle arises from the circular canal in the plane of each branch of each radial canal. In the older specimen which is shown in Fig. 1 the hollow tentacles are still sixteen in number, although the distal canals are twice as numerous and although the hollow tentacles are now in the radii of dichotomy instead of being, as they are in the younger specimen, in the radii of the distal branches. The solid tentacles are short with little power of extension or contraction; they are usually turned out- ward and upward over the margin of the bell, and they remind one of the solid tentacles of the Geryonidz. In all the specimens that I have examired they are equal in number to the distal branches of the radial canals: sixteen in the young jelly-fish shown in Fig. 2, thirty-two in those with thirty-two canals and thirty- three in the one shown in Fig. 1. Color.—The gonads and the manubrium of old specimens are opaque white. The bell and the subumbrella and the tentacles are nearly colorless. The radial canals, the circular canal and the axes of the hollow tentacles are colored in young specimens by pigment-granules of a brownish-orange. Size. —The bell is about one-third of an inch high and a little less than one-fourth of an inch in diameter. Locahty.—Several specimens were taken at high tide in an inlet from the open ocean in the Bahama Islands, near Nassau, in 1887, and at Bimini and at Green Turtle, in the Bahama Islands, in 1886 and 1888. It is common and widely distributed among the Bahama Islands. If the analytical key which Haeckel gives in his System der Medusen were to be followed, the genus Dichotomia would belong among the ‘‘ Leptomedusz,’”’ in the family Cannotidz, in the sub- family Williadz, and in or near the genus Proboscidactyla (System 14 BROOKS—NEW GENUS HYDROID JELLY FISHES, _ [April 4, der Medusen, p. 158), although it is so different from the Williadz and in fact from all the ‘‘ Leptomedusz ’’ that it may turn out to be a tubularian jelly-fish, or ‘‘ Anthomedusa.’”’ The simple manu- brium and mouth, the hollow tentacles and the origin of the gonad in the wall of the manubrium are all points of agreement with the ‘© Anthomedusz,’’ The solid tentacles have an axis made up of a single row of chorda cells, but as tentacles of this sort are found in undoubted tubularian jelly-fishes they afford no ground for exclud- ing the genus Dichotomia from this group. Prof. Walcott has described, from the Lower Cambrian of Ala- bama, certain remarkable fossils (Fossil Medusa, by Charles Doolittle Walcott: Monographs of the United States Geological Survey, xxx, Washington, 1898) which he regards as the remains of Medusz, and it is worthy of note that if the Medusa which is here described were slightly distorted by pressure the digestive and reproductive organs would exhibit some resemblance to one of the surfaces of some of Walcott’s most characteristic types. At his suggestion I made a model in clay of the reproductive organs of Dichotomia in order to exhibit this resemblance, and Fig. 3 was drawn from this model. The resemblance lends additional support to the opinion that the Cambrian fossils are the remains of Medu- se, although it does not indicate that there is any relationship between Dichotomia and the fossils. In fact the resemblance is only superficial. In all the general details of their structure the Cambrian Medusze must have been very different from the one that is here described. The notes and drawings for this paper were made in 1888, although I have been forced to delay their publication. EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. Fic. 1, An adult specimen of Dichotomia cannoides, enlarged about six diame- ters. From a drawing made at Nassau, New Providence, in 1886. Fic. 2. A young specimen, enlarged about twenty diameters. From a drawing made by R. P. Bigelow at Bimini, Bahama Islands, in 1887. Fic, 3. A clay model of the reproductive organs of Fig. 1. Ps 74, a ; 5 ty} ANGE SOO BALTIMORE ry as Fig. DICHOTOMIA CANNOIDES. sdings Am. Philos. Soc., Vol. XLII, No. '72. 1903.] PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. 15 THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. BY C. STUART PATTERSON. (Read April 2, 1903.) The ‘* Trusts’? in the popular, though not in the technical acceptation of the term, are the trading corporations, and combi- nations of such corporations, which control the production or the sale of one or more natural or manufactured products. ‘*Trusts’’ thus defined do not include banks, nor other merely financial institutions, nor those ‘‘ Public Service Corporations ’’ which exercise the power of eminent domain, or which occupy public highways for their own purposes, as by laying rails, pipes or conduits. The ‘‘ Trusts’’ are the necessary result of an industrial evolution, whose successive stages have been individual ownership, partner- ships, limited partnerships, corporations and combinations of cor- porations, Partnerships supersede individual ownership because of the advantages of the combination of the capital or services of two or more individuals. Limited partnerships are organized to facili- tate the borrowing of capital by giving to the lender a compensa- tion for the use of his money exceeding the current market rate of interest, while limiting his liability to creditors to the amount of the capital loaned. The same advantages of co-operation with limitation of liability, and with added exemption from adverse and discriminating regulation in other States, can be secured by asso- ciation under *‘the Boston Trust Device.’’* Corporations are organized to assure continuity of administration ; to obtain by the issue of shares, and sometimes bonds, the use of capital contributed by a larger number of persons than can conveniently be brought together as partners; to secure to shareholders exemption from the individual liability zz sof#do of partners; and to render the shares negotiable zzfer vivos, and transferable, after the death of the owner, to personal representatives, or legatees, without the inter- vention of a court of equity in the settlement of partnership accounts. In recent years the country has enjoyed a degree of material prosperity which has far exceeded the most hopeful anticipations. 1 The Financial Chronicle, Vol. 75, p. 314, article by Richard W. Hale, Esq. 16 PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. [April 2, This has come as a result of the growth of legitimate trade, and several causes have been contributing factors of that growth. The demand for labor; our wide expanse of territory; our isolation from the struggle for the balance of power and the wars of Europe ; our comparatively light burdens of taxation ; and our free institu- tions, protecting the citizen against arbitrary power and affording full opportunity for the development of individuality, have attracted immigration and furnished recruits to the army of labor. The policy of protection, whose justification is the equalization of the conditions of competition in order that the products of home industry may control the home market, has stimulated manufactures by increasing the profits of manufacturers, has secured higher wages for workingmen than laborers in similar industries receive in other countries, has enabled our workingmen to maintain a higher standard of living, thereby made them more useful citizens, and enabled them in many instances to rise from the ranks of the employés and to become employers. The railways have overcome the disintegrating influences of distance and of conflicting sectional interests. The establishment of the gold standard has given assur- ance to the world that capital can be invested in our obligations in confidence of a return in money of full purchasing power, and has commanded for the industrial development of the country the sur- plus capital of the world. ~The business of the United States cannot be done to-day by the agencies of the past. The flatboat floating down the stream; the Conestoga wagon floundering through the mud of a country road ; the canal-boat dragged by the mules upon the towing path; the small engine, of weak power and low velocity, drawing a few cars of ten or twenty tons’ capacity upon a single-track line and the sail- ing vessel of small tonnage have all had their day. The typical agencies of modern transportation are the four or six track line, the hundred-ton steel freight car, the engine drawing its passenger train at a rate of sixty miles an hour, the electric lines expanding for every city its tributary territory, and the steamship of more than ten thousand tons’ capacity. Discoveries in science and inventions in the arts have created new subjects of commerce, and have made the luxuries of yesterday the necessities of to-day. Great mills now manufacture the goods which formerly were made in individual workshops. Daily and hourly mails, the telegraph and the telephone have brought widely 1908. ] PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. 17 separated mines and factories within the limits of combined con- trol. Machinery has increased the rapidity, while diminishing the cost, of manufacture and enlarged the possibility of output. In retail trade department stores have absorbed small shops. It is therefore not surprising that industrial organizations should have been, and should be, formed in number and upon a scale larger than ever before to compete, not only for the trade of their own cities and States, but also for the trade of the country, and in many instances for the trade of foreign countries. Competition in manufacture and trading, when uncontrolled, is wasteful. It results in reducing the selling price of goods below the minimum necessary to give the producer a fair profit ; in over- production in excess of the market demand ; in an increase of dis- bursements unconnected with production or distribution, and con- nected only with the conduct of competition ; in unnecessary cost of transportation of the raw material to distant points of manufac- ture, when that raw material could be more economically manufac- tured nearer to its point of supply ; and in the unnecessary cost of the transportation of manufactured products to distant markets, when those markets could be more economically supplied from nearer points of manufacture." Uncontrolled competition also results, in the case of weaker competitors, in lowering the standard of production and in placing upon the market inferior grades of goods. To meet these results of uncontrolled competition, there came into existence pools or agreements between competitors to secure the maintenance of prices by restrictions upon output, or by limita- tions of sales. Such agreements are clearly contracts in restraint of trade, and as such non-enforceable in law,’ and being without legal sanction were, like treaties between sovereign states, broken when either party fancied that its interests would be subserved by their abrogation. Intelligent business men then saw that the expanding trade of the country could not be conducted upon lines which, to quote the words of Mr. Schawb,? are built upon ‘‘ the restriction of trade, the increase of prices and the throttling of competition.’’ They saw also that in manufacture the maximum of efficiency at 1 The Trust Problem, Prof. J. W. Jenks, 1902. 2M. R.C. Co. uv. B. C. Co., 68 Penna. 173; Cummings v, U. B. S. Co., 164 New York, 401 ; Cohen v, B. & J. E. Co., 166 N. Y. 292. 3 Speech to The Bankers’ Club, Chicago, 21st December, Igol. PROC, AMER. PHILOS. 800. XLII. 172. B. PRINTED MAY 8, 1908. 18 PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. [April2 the minimum of cost can only be accomplished by securing a con- stant supply of raw material, by making promptly every alteration and improvement in plant and machinery which can effect greater economy in operation, by offering inducements to managers of superior administrative ability, by giving steady employment to workingmen at just wages, by accumulating a reserve fund available for extraordinary expenditures, by increasing the output so as to decrease the cost of production per unit, by expanding trade by creating new avenues for it, and by reducing the price to the con- sumer, while increasing the profit to the producer. To attain these cost-saving and profit-producing results, combinations of corpora- tions and of properties have been and are being effected, in some cases by the merger and consolidation of existing corporations, and in other cases by the organization of new corporations, to hold and acquire the properties to be consolidated, or to obtain a controlling interest in the shares of the corporations to be combined. For this there is needed the command of more capital than can be contributed by any one individual or by any group of individ- uals. Clear-sighted men saw that the prosperity of the country had not only made great fortunes for a comparatively small number of individuals, but had also aggregated in the deposits in the saving funds, in the accumulated reserves of the life insurance companies, and in the deposits in the banks and trust companies a fund of enormous and steadily increasing size, which must necessarily seek profitable investment, and which could be relied upon to make a market for the bonds and shares of corporations with a reasonably probable earning capacity, either by direct investment in those securities or by loaning funds for investment therein ; and the appeal was successfully made to these new reserves of loanable funds. Therefore, to-day the capital which is operating the railroads, min- ing the ore and running the mills of the country is not provided by the rich men of the country, but is the accumulation of the sav- ings of labor. The test of the investment value of an industrial security is its reasonable probability of a continued earning capacity adequate to the payment of fixed charges and dividends at a rate exceeding that yielded by securities of a higher grade; and that probability of continued earning capacity will be affected by the relation between the cost and the real value of the properties bought for combination by the moderation or extravagance of the compensation given to 1903.] PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. 19 the promoters and underwriters, by the soundness of the principles upon which the combination is organized and conducted, and by the freedom of the business from governmental interference. It is not surprising that the number of the industrial organizations and the magnitude of their operations should arouse the public interest and should cause more or less fear as to possible consequences. Every great industrial development has excited such fears. The steam engine, the railways and all forms of labor-saving appliances, from the spinning jenny to the typesetting machine, have seemed n their turn to threaten large additions to the ranks of the unem ployed and heavy losses to different classes of people; and yet, in each case, the result has been the opening of new avenues to employment and a substantial advance in civilization. So to-day no one who is accurately informed as to present industrial condi- tions can doubt that, because of American financial skill in secur- ing combination of resources and concert of action, the products of industry have been brought to a higher standard, the labor which produces them is better paid than ever before, and the consumer buys them upon relatively more favorable terms. Concurrently with the organization of corporations with increased capital for production, manufacture and trade, there have come into operation unions of laborers of larger membership and greater activity. Every one ought to concede that it is right that workingmen should receive full and adequate compensation for their labor and should have that legally guarded freedom of contract which will enable them to sell their labor to the best advantage. Every one ought to concede also that workingmen should form associations for the protection of their interests and to secure increases in their wages ; but it is not right that those union- should undertake to reduce the mass of workingmen to a low level of mediocrity by means of limitations of the hours of voluntary labor, and by restrictions upon the quantity and quality of work to be performed by the individual laborer; nor is it right that the unions should attempt to monopolize the supply of labor by preventing the employment of non-union laborers. Such limitations and restric- tions aggrandize the labor leaders, but they degrade the working- men ; they tend to deprive intelligent, industrious and ambitious workingmen of the opportunity to rise out of the ranks; they diminish that effectiveness of American labor which has been not the least of the causes of the country’s industrial supremacy ; and 20 PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. [April2, they endanger the continuance of our present prosperity. Combi- nations of laborers for such purposes are monopolies in restraint of trade.! The law should clearly recognize the right of association, but it should also require the incorporation and registration of labor unions in order that there may be legal responsibility for broken contracts; it should, in cases of strikes, impartially enforce law and maintain order, and it should sternly repress any attempt, by whomsoever made and howsoever made, to hinder men in the exercise of their right to work. We find nothing in party plat- forms, and we hear nothing from executive officers, legislators or candidates for office as to the need of legislative or executive action to curb the power of the labor leaders or to restrain the excesses of their misguided followers. But we hear much of the need of executive and legislative control and regulation of industrial corpo- rations. It is said, and it is doubtless true, that some industrial organiza- tions are over-capitalized. In considering the capitalization of a corporation, it must be remembered that whatever be the par of a share of stock, that par is not, like the par of a bond, a principal obligation, to be discharged in a certain number of dollars, but it is only the right to an a@/guot proportion of the net assets of the corporation, and it really represents an amount in dollars, more or less than its par, in proportion as those assets when liquidated shall realize more or less than the aggregate capital of the corporation. The market price expresses the investors’ valuation of that represen- tation as affected by the demand for and supply of the particular stock. The authorized capitalization of a corporation is, in general, determined by the probable cost of the plant, with the addition of the amount of working capital in money necessary for the success- ful conduct of the business to be transacted, and sometimes with the further addition of a capitalization of the estimated earning capacity of the plant. Obviously, the issued capital should not, in _a properly managed corporation, exceed at any time the actual value of the plant and working capital as determined by present and not prospective earning capacity. In other words, there should be no watered stock. 1 In re Debs, 64 Fed. Rep., 724, 745, 7553 158 U. S., 564; Zhe Law of Contracts in Restraint of Trade, with Special Reference to Trusts, by George Stuart Patterson, Esq. 1903.] PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. 21 It is asserted by no less eminent an authority than the distinguished lawyer who is now the Attorney General of the United States* that the necessary effect of ‘‘ over-capitalization ’’ is to unduly lower the wages of labor and to unduly increase the prices of the product by imposing upon the managers of the corporation the obligation of paying dividends upon the improper excess of capitalization. This view does not seem to be reasonable, for it would obviously be the effort of the managers at all times to keep down the expenses of operation, to make as many sales as possible, and to realize as large prices as possible, without reference to the interest or dividends to be earned or paid, if for no other reason than that of demonstrating the ability of the managers, and this effort would neither increase nor diminish because of the greater or less size of the capitalization. Indeed the only possible influence of a large capitalization upon the prices of the product of the over-capitalized corporation would be in some cases to cause a lowering of such prices, because of the necessity of making realizing sales. Complaint is made that competing corporations, in order to destroy competition, discriminate in their prices. But competi- tion is industrial warfare. The seller seeks the highest price that he can obtain ; the buyer pays as little as he possibly can. When competition is actively conducted, the seller attains his ends, not only by underselling in order to effect a particular sale, but also by carrying his underselling to the extreme limit of driving his com- petitors out of business and securing for himself complete control of the market. This is done, as Lord Justice Bowen said,’ from ‘the instinct of self-advancement and self-protection, which is the very incentive of all trade.’’ . . . . ‘*To say that a man is to trade freely, but that he is to stop short at any act which is designed to attract business to his own shop, would be a strange and impossible counsel of perfection,’’ and to attempt to prohibit it ‘‘ would prob- ably be as hopeless an endeavor as the experiment of King Canute.’’ You cannot have a real competition which does not compete. Successful commerce buys in the cheapest and sells in the dearest market. Is it proposed that there shall be a general legisla- tive regulation of prices, and if so, what would that amount to? Among the evils charged against the ‘‘ Trusts’’ are an alleged 1Speech of Hon. P. C. Knox, Pittsburg, 14 Oct., 1902. 2 Mogul S. S. Co. v. McGregor, 23 Q. B. Div. 598; [1892], C. A. 43. 22 PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. [April 2, ‘¢insufficient personal responsibility of officers and directors for corporate management.’’ It is enough to say as to this that the laws of some States do, and the laws of all States can, hold corporate managers to a strict responsibility for non-feasance and mal-feasance. It is also said that these trade organizations have ‘‘ a tendency to monopoly,’’ but except in the cases of patents and copyrights, and of those who control the sole and exclusive source of supply of a natural product, it is not possible in this day of the world’s his- tory to maintain and enforce more than temporarily extortionate prices, for the reason that there is always available a large amount of uninvested capital seeking profitable employment and keenly watching for opportunities of remunerative investment, and there- fore intelligent managers of a successful business do not advance prices to a point at which destructive competition will be invited. Prices of commodities are automatically regulated by the law of supply and demand. When, by reason of an apparent permanence of demand and a present inadequacy of the means of supply, prices rise to a level that gives a reasonable assurance of profit to pro- ducers, the surplus capital-of the world can always be relied upon to augment the means of supply. It would seem that there is a popular demand for industrial organizations sufficiently strong to overcome repressive legislation. Beginning with the Congressional Anti-Trust law of 2d July, 1890," and the Mississippi statute of the same year,? and ending at this time with the sixth section of the United States statute creating the Department of Commerce and Labor, the United States and twenty-nine States and Territories have legislated upon the subject, and two States have deemed it of sufficient importance to place an anti-Trust prohibition in their Constitutions. Some of these State statutes regulate and others of them prohibit, and all of them impose penalties by fine or imprisonment and forfeiture of corpo- rate privileges. Notwithstanding this mass of adverse legislation, industrial corporations have grown and flourished ; and yet there is a political clamor for more legislation. Attempts to regulate trade by legislation are not of new inven- tion. Whenever and wherever there has been an absolute govern- ment there have always been attempted restrictions upon trade. In 1 26 Stat. 209, c. 467. Zc, 30: 1903.] PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. yi medizeval times it was the theory and the practice that it was the ‘‘duty and the right of the State to fix hours of labor, rates of wages, prices, times and places of sale and quantities to be sold.’’! The selfish commercial policy of England, intelligently directed to the restraint of colonial trade and manufactures, was the great cause of the War of Independence. When the success of the War of the Revolution had substituted the sovereignty of the people for the supremacy of the Crown, there was naturally a jealousy of gov- ernmental power and a determination to guard individual liberty against oppression. ‘The framers of the Constitution of the United States therefore founded the government, not only upon ‘the supremacy of the federal government in the exercise of the powers granted to it, but also and equally upon the independence of the States and the freedom of the citizen. They foresaw the evil effects of an unrestrained exercise of the popular will. They endeavored to establish and make perpetual the reign of law. They crystallized into the Constitution the great principles of free govern- ment, and they made it impossible to hastily change that organic law. They declared in express terms the supremacy of the Consti- tution and the laws made in pursuance thereof; and they created a Supreme Court whose judgments should give effect to that declara- tion. They united the States in a nation, with full powers of gov- ernment for all national purposes, but they retained the sovereignty and independence of the States for all purposes of local self-govern- ment, and they reserved to the individual citizen as much freedom as is consistent with the enforcement of law and the maintenance of order. While they granted to the United States the power of regu- lating commerce, they limited the exercise of that power to foreign and interstate commerce. It is to the States, and not to the United States, that we ought to look for the legislative and administrative regulation of the indus- trial organizations of the present and the future. The power of the State is ample. A State may create corporations, with or without conditions, and it may authorize a corporation to do any business which an individual may lawfully do. A State may forbid a for- eign corporation to do business within its territory ; it may permit that business on conditions; and it may, with or without reason, revoke a permission theretofore granted.? It may, therefore, 1Mrs, Green, Zown Life in the 15th Century, aN. BP: OnCong Lexassn7 7 Ui. 28, 24 PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. [April 2, enforce with regard to foreign corporations all, and more than all, the restrictions which it enforces with regard to corporations of its own creation. On the other hand, the United States, save as the domestic government of the District of Columbia and the Terri- tories, cannot even grant a charter of incorporation, except as a means incidental to the exercise by the United States of a power of government,’ and it can, but only under the power of regulating foreign and interstate commerce, control the operations of a corporation chartered by a State. It does not avail to say that the legislation of a State can have no extra-territorial force, and that in order to have a rule of uniform application throughout the country there must be Congressional legislation, for the conclusive reply is that every State, under the Constitution, is entitled as of right to determine for itself by what agencies and under what conditions commodities shall be manufactured or sold within its territory,’ subject only to the paramount right of the United States to levy duties and taxes, and to regulate transportation. Nor is it to the interest of the people that a Constitutional amendment should be adopted vesting in the United States the proposed power of regulation. The fatal facility of compromise as shown in the history of the slavery question and the silver issue, and exhibited in every tariff act, and the lack of appreciation of the demands of legitimate business as evidenced by the failure of Congress to do away with the antiquated sub-treasury system and to authorize an elastic currency, demonstrate the unwisdom of vesting in Congress a power which, if exercised, may injuriously affect the business interests of the country. So far as concerns Congressional legislation under the Constitu- tion as it now is, it would seem that the Supreme Court has put the question at rest, for it has decided® that ‘‘ the relief of the citizens of each State from the burden of monopoly and the evils resulting from the restraint of trade among such citizens were left with the States to deal with ;’’ and that an organization to manufacture and sell is a subject matter of State regulation, for the reason that, while it may bring the operations of commerce into play, it affects 1 McCulloch v, Maryland, 4 Wheat., 316. ?U. S. v. De Witt, 9 Wall., 41; McGuire v. The Commonwealth, 3 za@., 387 ; Patterson v. Kentucky, 97 U. S., 501. » 3U. S. v. E. C. Knight Company, 156 U. S,, 1, 11. 1903.] PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. 23 commerce only incidentally and indirectly. That judgment is unreversed and unshaken, and it is to-day the law of the land. In the past, the country has had to overcome, under conditions of inadequate transportation facilities, the disintegrating tendencies of the expansion of territory and the growth of population, but as the results of the triumph of the nation in the suppression of the Rebellion, and the development of means of transportation and communication, our perils are now those of governmental consoli- dation and not those of dissolution. The silver legislation, threat- ening a degradation of the standard of value; the income taxing law of 1894, unnecessarily vexatious and inquisitorial in its provis- ions and, by reason of its exemption of incomes less than $4,000 in amount, unjust and unequal in its intended operation ; and the laws imposing taxes upon inheritances, increasing progressively in proportion to the amount of the distributive share and teaching the many to expect that the necessary expenditures of government will be borne by taxation to be levied on the few, are illustrations of _ the perils which may threaten the prosperity of the country. Any legislation which conflicts with the American doctrine that all men are equal before the law, and that equality of rights implies equality of obligations, and that subjects rights of property and freedom of contract to administrative control, is dangerous in a republic governed by universal suffrage. Every State should encourage the organization under proper conditions of manufacturing and trading corporations, and it should permit them to do any business that an individual may lawfully do. While a State should not undertake to guarantee to the public ‘‘in all particulars of responsibility and management ”’ the corporations organized under its authority, it should by con- ditions annexed to the grant of the charter protect intending and actual shareholders and creditors of the corporation, so far as can be done. It should prohibit and punish fraud in organization or administration. It should afford access to public records showing how the capital has been or is to be paid, and if paid in property, so describing and identifying that property that its value can be tested. It should require the publication at stated periods of bal- ance sheets stating the liabilities under the headings of ‘‘ shares,’’ ‘bonds, ’’ and ‘‘ other indebtedness,’’ and the assets under the headings of ‘‘real estate and machinery at cost’’ less stated amounts charged off for depreciation, ‘‘cash,’’ ‘‘ debts collect- 26 PATTERSON—THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. [April 2, ible,’’ and other ‘‘ assets,’’ and it should compel the publication at stated periods of an income account, setting forth the total amounts of gross earnings, of operating expenses, interest charges, dividends, and undivided profits. It should also protect minority shareholders by defining the powers of officers and directors, and by requiring due notification of shareholders’ meetings.’ The duties imposed upon the corporations and their officers and the requirements as to reports should be fixed by law, and should not be subjected to the discretion of public officers. If so subjected, there will be a possibility of favoritism on the one hand, or of political intimidation on the other. The officers and directors of a corporation are trustees for its creditors and shareholders. It is the duty of such trustees, and the interest of their cestud gue trusts, that there should be, on the part of the trustees, absolute good faith, and as much frankness as is consistent with the protection of the rights of shareholders. No other policy will commend the securities of a corporation to the favorable consideration of investors. Nevertheless, it is certain that no amount of legally enforced publicity will avail to prevent unwise investments and consequent loss. ‘Those who may properly encounter the risks of investment in industrial securities will not do so before they shall have obtained for themselves information as to honesty of organization and adequacy of earning capacity. Those in whom the haste to become rich, and the disinclination to wait for the slow but sure results of industry and frugality have caused a fever of speculation, will take the chances and buy for a rise in the market without regard to the condition of the corporation, real or reported. Neither the government, nor the public, nor even the purchasers of Trust products provide the capital of the ‘Trusts, but that capital is contributed by their bondholders and shareholders. In so doing, they are not making investments which are of certain return, either in principal or income. As they take the risk of loss, they are entitled to security in their business, to protection in the use of their properties, and to a return proportioned to the risk they have taken and exceeding the current market rate of interest upon securities of a higher grade. 1 1903, Report of the Massachusetts Committee on Corporation Laws, by H. M. Knowlton, C. G. Washburn, and Frederic J. Stimson. i 1903.) _ PATTERSON—-THE PROBLEM OF THE TRUSTS. 27 While the corporation is a legal entity, distinct from the bond- holders and shareholders who contribute its capital,’ nevertheless the fact remains that the bondholders and shareholders are the per- sons, or the successors of the persons, whose contributions in money or in property, real or personal, constitute the capital of the corporation, and it is they, or their successors in title, who are benefited by the prosperity of the corporation or injured by its adversity. In the days of the ‘‘greenback’’ agitation, the ‘bloated bondholder’’ was the object of fierce denunciation, but when the facts were investigated it was found that the ‘‘ bloated bondholders’’ were the saving funds, with whom were deposited the accumulated earnings of labor, the insurance companies, to whom every provident man looked for the future protection of his dependent wife and children from want in case of his death, and the banks, with whom all business men, great and small, deposited the money which they needed for daily personal and business use. Again, when the banks were assailed as heartless money lenders and oppressors, it was seen that the profits of banking accrued to the men, women, and children, who were the shareholders. Again, when Mr. Bryan, in 1896 and in 1900, denounced the holders of ‘fixed investments’? and ‘‘the idle owners of idle capital, ’’ intelligent people knew that those whose interests he threatened with destruction were the depositors in saving funds, the share- holders in banks, and the holders of policies of life insurance. It will likewise be found to-day that those whose interests will be injured by unwise legislative restraints upon trade and industry will be the workingmen to whom the Trusts offer employment, and the hundreds of thousands of individuals who are, directly or indirectly, the owners of the securities of the Trusts. The leaders of public opinion will do well to remember that, as Mr. Lecky has said,? it is an inexorable condition that all ‘‘ legislation which seriously diminishes profits, increases risks or even unduly multi- plies humiliating restrictions, will drive capital away and ultimately contract the field of employment.’’ 1 Regina v. Arnoud, g Q. B. 806, 58 E. C. L.; Van Allen uv. The Assessors, 3 Wall., 573. 2 Democracy and Liberty, Vol. I1, page 463. 28 RICHARDS—SOLVENT IN CRYSTALS. [April 4, THE INCLUSION AND OCCLUSION OF SOLVENT IN CRYSTALS. An Insipious SourcE OF ERROR IN QUANTITATIVE CHEMICAL INVESTIGATION. BY THEODORE WILLIAM RICHARDS. ‘(Read April 4, 1903.) Perhaps the most frequent and the most insidious cause of error in quantitative chemical research is the unsuspected presence of water. The disturbing effect of this impurity is frequent, because water is one of the most plentiful of substances; and insidious, because there is usually ne easy quantitative or qualitative test for small quantities of it. The object of this paper is to recount several experiments indi- cating the prevalence and magnitude of inaccuracy from this cause, to show how many published results have been vitiated by it, to emphasize the theoretical aspect of the phenomenon, and especially to point out the methods of reducing the inaccuracy to a minimum. In a number of isolated cases it has been shown by various chem- ists that substances crystallizing from a solution enclose within their crystals small quantities of the mother-liquor. It is very well known, for example, that crystals of common salt explode or decrepitate upon being heated, because of the vaporization of the enclosed water. Thus when common salt is weighed some water is weighed with it. This water is not combined as water of crys- tallization, of which common salt has none; it is entirely acci- dental. Following the nomenclature of the mineralogists, a liquid imprisoned in this way is best called ‘‘ Included solvent.’’ The mother-liquor is thus imprisoned, in addition to combined water, also in salts which contain this latter as an essential part of their crystal structure ; in these cases it is even more difficult to detect and more generally overlooked, because of the simultaneous pres- ence of the combined water. Although these facts have been thus occasionally pointed out, the frequency of the occurrence of this cause of error has not often been realized by quantitative analysts. It is no careless exagger- ation to state that in all my chemical experience I have never yet obtained crystals from any kind of solution entirely free from acci- dentally included mother-liquor; and, moreover, I have never found reason to believe that anyone else ever has. Whether the 1903.] RICHARDS—SOLVENT IN CRYSTALS. 29 solvent is water, an organic liquid, or a fused salt at high tempera- ture, and whether the crystallization is quick or slow, in small or large crystals, the effect is always traceable, although of course in varying degrees. The amount of the enclosure varies from perhaps 0.01 per cent. to 0.5 per cent. of the total weight of the crystals.’ As a general rule, the clearer the crystal, the less the included mother-liquor ; but appearance is not a wholly safe guide, since sometimes the refractive index of the mother-liquor is not far from that of the crystal. In this case the included impurity is invisible. Moreover, the inclusion may, and undoubtedly does, often occur in cells so small as to be beyond the reach of the best microscope. It is not contended that the production of a perfectly pure crys- tal from a solution is impossible, but only that no evidence has been obtained proving that this end has ever artificially been reached, while much contrary evidence is available. In looking over the records of the determinations of atomic weights, it is surprising to see how many experimenters in even this most exact field of quantitative analysis have either entirely overlooked the danger, or have taken inadequate means to over- come it. This is especially true when the salts to be weighed con- tain combined water of crystallization ; indeed it is almost safe to rule out utterly all such results, without further consideration. Among other more or less vitiated cases, where salts supposedly anhydrous have been weighed, may be mentioned especially a number of the analyses of typical salts of osmium, iridium, platinum, and palladium. Often a painstaking but unthinking chemist has spent months in eliminating the hundredth of a per cent. of some foreign metal and finally ignored the ¢emth of a per cent. of water in his preparation. It is not, however, the purpose of this paper so much to seek the errors in individual instances of past work, as to point out the ways in which these errors may be avoided in the future. ; How then is this included solvent to be eliminated without de- composing the substance which we desire to weigh? It is usually considered as a sufficient precaution to powder the material finely and expose it to the air for a short time, in order to allow the undesirable water to evaporate. This crude proceed- ing involves a double uncertainty ; in the first place, the unwar- 1 For examples of carefully obtained evidence, see Richards, Proc, Amer, Acad. Arts and Scicnces, 23, p. 177 (1887); 26, p. 267 (1891); 28, p. 11 (1893); 29, p. 60 (1893); 33, p- 299 (1898); 35, P. 139 (1899); 37, P. 434 (1902); 38; P. 411 (1902). 30 RICHARDS—SOLVENT IN CRYSTALS. [April 4, ranted assumption is made that every hidden cell containing*the mother-liquor has been split open by the pestle, and in the next place the equally unwarranted assumption is made that all the mother-liquor thus exposed evaporates into the uncertain mixture constituting the atmosphere of the laboratory. The former of these assumptions will be considered first. Is it possible to open all the cells enclosing mother-liquor by means of any finite amount of powdering ? This question cannot be answered a priori ; accurate experiments are needed to decide it, and no published work known to me seems to furnish the needed data. Accordingly a series of experi- ments was planned which involved the progressive powdering of a typical substance. In order to separate the powders of different degrees of fineness four pieces of brass netting were used, having openings about 0.5, 0.3, 0.23, and o.16 mm. in diameter respec- tively. This netting was cleaned with acid and ammonia, and showed a brilliantly clean surface in the microscope.’ The test substance chosen was baric chloride, because careful ex- periments on the atomic weight of barium had shown that it may be analyzed with ease and accuracy. A pure finely-crystallized speci- men of the salt was slowly and carefully powdered and sifted through the successive sieves. That which went through the finest sieve was still more finely powdered, until the average diameter of the particles as estimated in the microscope was perhaps one- twentieth of a millimeter, some being coarser and some finer. Each specimen was thoroughly air-dried. Thus were obtained four examples of baric chloride containing crystal-water, of four different degrees of fineness, the coarsest particles averaging about a thousand times the bulk of the finest. Upon analysis by heating to constant weight at 400° these samples yielded respectively 14.780, 14.771, 14.763, and 14.760 per cent. of water. The data, reduced to the vacuum standard, were as follows. The experiments were made in 1893: Average diameter Weight of Loss on Per cent. of No. of particles. salt, heating. water found, Bs Set acme ee 0.45 mm. 4.15929 0.61475 14.780 2, wis siiteeene tats 0.27 mm. 3.65127 0.53933 14.771 Bie ale ovat eee 0.20 mm. 4.54136 0.67047 14.763 AGS hs; < atone 0.05 mm. 10.13720 1.49620 14.760 ' The material sifted through this netting was tested for copper, with satisfac- torily negative results. 1903.] RICHARDS—SOLVENT IN CRYSTALS. 31 The results thus show a steady decrease in the amount of water as the powder becomes finer; hence each successive powdering must have opened new cells. When the figures are plotted a somewhat irregular curve is obtained, the study of which seems to show that further powdering would have but little effect upon the last-named amount of water held by the crystals. As a matter of fact, among many scores of determinations of the quantity I have never found in a pure speci- men of baric chloride less water than this. Is this limit then, observed in the very fine state of division, the true amount of water in the salt? This question is easily answered in the negative, for from the universally accepted atomic weights of barium, chlorine, oxygen and hydrogen it is easy to calculate that the theoretical amount of water is 14.744 per cent., an amount less by one part in a thousand than the lowest limit recorded above. Similar results were obtained from cupric sulphate, and it seems probable that any other salt would behave in the same way. Thus it appears that although powdering and drying will diminish the excess of solvent, it will not wholly remedy the error. It is prob- able that anything short of molecular division would fail to open the minutest enclosing cells, although the larger cells are broken up with comparative ease. The irregular shape of the curve drawn from the data given sug- gests that there is another cause of error superposed upon the effect just studied—an influence which grows in magnitude as the fineness of the powder is increased. A moment’s reflection serves to show what this new cause of error must be. It is well known that water adheres to or wets almost anything, except a few fats and oils ; and even these absorb or dissolve water to some extent. In consequence of this tendency to adhere, water is condensed or adsorbed in an invisible film, from the always slightly moist atmosphere, upon the exposed surface of nearly all substances. This adhering film increases the weight of these sub- stances. The extent of the adsorption varies with the nature of the sub- stance and in many cases is easily appreciable. With a given sub- stance it is of course dependent upon the pressure of the aqueous vapor and the temperature, as well as upon the extent of surface. Since the adsorption increases with the surface it is evident that fine pulverization, while tending to diminish the inclusion, will 32 RICHARDS—SOLVENT IN CRYSTALS. [April 4, tend to increase this new cause of error by increasing the field of its action. Thus the irregularity of curve shown by the results with baric chloride is easily explained, as well as the abiding presence of an excess of water. In the effort to escape the Scylla of inclusion the chemist has run foul of the Charybdis of adsorption. Adsorption of aqueous vapor can be eliminated by greatly rais- ing the temperature or by greatly reducing the tension of the surrounding aqueous vapor. ‘These means may be used either with anhydrous salts or with the sundry chemical vessels used for containing substances while weighing ; but unfortunately either of these changes drives out also the crystal-water contained in a hydrated salt. For these reasons tt seems to me impossible to determine with the exactness demanded in the most accurate work the true weight of any salt containing water of crystallization. In the case of anhydrous salts, which may be heated and placed in a perfectly dry atmosphere without decomposition, it is easy to eliminate adsorbed moisture, as already stated. It is not by any means so easy, however, to drive off the included solvent imprisoned in hidden cells. Some means must be used which dis- integrates the walls of these cells; and the means adopted depends upon the nature of the substance being studied. Either mechanical, thermal or chemical influences may be used to effect the disintegration. The mechanical means, pulverization, need not be further discussed. The application of heat first tends to vaporize the imprisoned solvent, if it is volatile, causing great pressure in the small space. ‘This pressure often causes the enclos- ing cell to explode, and thus the solvent is set free. It is not by any means certain, however, that all the cells are thus able to dis- charge their contents, especially in tenacious substances ; and in many cases hours of intense heating are necessary to drive off every trace of water, as with silica and iron rust. In the case of metals precipitated as such from aqueous solutions, temperatures not far from the melting-points must be used for drying, in order that their condition may be soft enough to yield to the internal pressure of the enclosed solvent. This precaution has usually been overlooked by physicists determining electro-chemical equivalents, although Lord Rayleigh pointed it out in the special case of silver twenty years ago. 1903.] ° RICHARDS—SOLVENT IN CRYSTALS. 83 A much safer plan, where it is practicable, is to fuse the cystal- line precipitate. With the freedom of motion given by the liquid state volatile iinpurities usually soon escape, leaving the fused mass free from them. It is true that there is often danger that a portion of the substance itself will evaporate, or at least that it will attack the containing vessel ; minute precautions must be used to avoid these causes of error. In extreme exigency the electrolysis of the fused mass, a plan suggested by Richard Lorenz, may be used as a means of destroying the last traces of water; but in most cases these may be’ swept out by the vapors from easily decomposed ammonium salts, just as bubbling air sweeps out carbonic acid from its solution. A yet further and better thermal means of preparing a substance free from water is to vaporize and condense or sublime it in a per- fectly dry atmosphere. Here crystals form under conditions excluding water, and the danger is wholly overcome. Unfortu- nately other impurities are usually introduced from the walls of the vessel used for the sublimation ; but frequently these may be found by analysis much more directly and precisely than the water could be. A chemical method of disintegrating the structure of a substance crystallized from'a solution has been alluded to above. This method, although not always available, may sometimes serve when the other methods are inapplicable, and is often of great use in preparing chemically pure substances. This procedure, like the others, has been used in individual cases for years ; but it does not seem to have been emphasized as a general method. In brief the chemical method is as follows: The substance is crystallized from the solution, not directly in its desired form, but rather in chemical combination with a large quantity of some other substance which may be volatilized by suitable subsequent treat- ment. ‘The clear, dry crystals are then subjected to this decompos- ing treatment, and the volatile constituent is expelled. The substance sought is thus left in the form of a porous mass, a skeleton of the former crystal, in which every cell enclosing mother-liquor has been opened by the chemical disintegration of its walls. From such a skeleton soluble impurities may often be washed out by lixiviation, and volatile ones escape at once. For example, it is easier thoroughly to dry sodic carbonate when this salt is crystallized with its maximum amount of crystal-water, PROC, AMER. PHILOS. 80C. XLII. 172. C. PRINTED MAY 8, 1903. BE RICHARDS—SOLVENT IN CRYSTALS. [April 4, . than it is when the salt is crystallized immediately in the form devoid of crystal-water. Again, it is far easier to obtain pure iron by the reduction of the oxide in hydrogen than it is by electrolytic precipitation direct from a solution. Yet another chemical method might sometimes be helpful, although inherently of a somewhat restricted usefulness. In a careful study of the behavior of gases included in oxides,’ it was found that in these compounds oxygen could work its way out from a cell in which it exists under pressure, while nitrogen could not. It is possible that this fact is typical of a general principle; that any substance may escape from. pressure when this substance forms one of the easily dissociated components of the containing walls, by a process of alternate dissociation and recombination of the materials constituting these walls. Thus certain hydrated salts, heated to a temperature of perhaps 120° in superheated steam at atmospheric pressure, might in time part with their enclosed water without losing their water of crystallization. This inference will be further tested in the near future. In this connection, one other point must be strongly emphasized, because of its important bearing both upon chemical purification and upon dynamic geology. The microscopic cells in a crystal contain not only the solvent, but also all the other substances in the solution. They are miniature samples of the solution, not per- haps in strict quantitative measure, because of varying adsorption, but at least qualitatively. Hence, if a chemically pure substance is desired, great pains must be taken to keep away from the solution anything which can- not be expelled or extracted from the disintegrated crystal, after the enclosures have been opened. For example, pure iron must be obtained by the reduction of oxide or hydroxide obtained from the nitrate, not from the sulphate. If the latter salt were used, the iron would probably contain sulphur. This practice of continually avoiding impurities obviates also the possible danger from ‘‘ solid solution,’’ as van’t Hoff pertinently terms the homogeneous distribu- tion of foreign matter in a solid. Solid solution, or occlusion, may be said to be the limiting case of cuc/usion. In this limiting case the enclosing cells are so small as to contain only single molecules. The distinction between occlusion and inclusion in solids is theoretically interesting, corresponding perhaps to the difference 1 Richards, dm, Chem. Four., 20, p. 701 (1898). 1903.] RICHARDS—SOLVENT IN CRYSTALS. 35 between true solution and colloidal solution in liquids; but for present practical purposes this difference need not be further emphasized. All these considerations have been carefully heeded in the recent determinations of atomic weights made in this laboratory. Since the fundamental properties of material have probably not changed since the archzan times of mineral growth, natural crystals must have been subject to the same effects as those grown to-day, and all except those formed by sublimation must contain traces of the solutions from which they once separated. In some cases, of course, the very slow formation might reduce the inclusion toa very small amount. ‘Those minerals coming from aqueous solutions would be supposed to contain accidentally enclosed water (often erroneously confounded with the true water of constitution), while those separating under fused or metamorphic conditions would con- tain non-volatile impurities taken from their immediate surroundings. Of these impurities the non-volatile ones must certainly remain ; and many of the volatile ones may also, if closely enough imprisoned. As a matter of fact, we are very familiar with the traces of impurity in natural crystals, even the clearest of diamonds leaving some ash on combustion. While the selective effects of adsorption and solid solution and the results of subsequent pressure must complicate the interpreta- tion of these facts, and forbid their immediate quantitative utiliza- tion, it seems to me nevertheless that these enclosed traces of impurity might be used more often than they are used in geological reasoning, in order to discover the media from which crystals have separated, and hence the mechanism of their formation. Thus a phenomenon very troublesome to the chemist might become very useful to the geophysicist. The contents of this paper may be summarized briefly as follows : (a) Experiments are recorded and quoted showing that many, if not all, crystals separated from solutions contain included mother- liquor. » (2) The experiments show also that before the mother-liquor can be eliminated by pulverization the adsorption of water from a moist atmosphere begins to augment the weight of the substance. (c) It is pointed out that this adsorption cannot be wholly over- come in the case of hydrated salts without a loss of water of crys- tallization also. Hence hydrated salts cannot be accurately weighed according to any usual procedure. 36 MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. _ [April3, (@) In the case of anhydrous salts the elimination of adsorption — is easy, but in order to remove included solvent the cell walls enclosing it must be disintegrated. (e) Mechanical, thermal and chemical methods of such disinte- gration are classified and applied to the preparation of pure materials. (/) It is pointed out that other impurities besides the solvent will usually be enclosed in the cells, and that these other impurities must never be forgotten in subsequent processes of purification. (g) Finally, it is suggested that these enclosed impurities might be used more frequently than they are as a clue to the manner of growth of natural minerals, and hence to the mechanism of geophysical processes. HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE, MAss. A RESUME OF THE COMPOSITION AND OCCURRENCE OF PETROLEUM. BY CHARLES F. MABERY. (Read April 3, 1903.) I have said and written so much about petroleum during the last fifteen years, it may seem that I have reached the limit of interest and about exhausted the subject. Twenty years ago when I first went to Cleveland I began the study of petroleum, and have since devoted a considerable portion of my time to the examination of the constituents of petroleum from many different fields. But instead of exhausting the subject it is evident that only a beginning has been made, and the foundation for what is probably the most difficult and intricate parts of this interesting field of research. The series of hydrocarbons which form the portions of petroleum - distilling below 350° zz vacuo, corresponding to 475° atmospheric pressure, are now well understood, and the members of the various 1 The subject matter of this paper is based on the results of work carried on in the chemical laboratory of Case School of Applied Science, with aid of grants by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences from the C. M. Warren fund for chemical research. 1903.] MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. 37 series have been identified with respect to their molecular weights. But concerning the structure of these hydrocarbons, except those of the series C,H,,,, and the lower methylenes nothing whatever is known. It is reasonable to assume that the members of the series C,H +42, or the so-called paraffine hydrocarbons, have the open- chain structure which characterizes the lower members of this series. In earlier literature on petroleum it was generally assumed that the ethylene hydrocarbons, series C,H,,, formed a considerable proportion of the constituents, and even after the discovery of the series C,H,,, the naphthenes, according to the earlier nomenclature of Markownikow, many writers still insisted on the presence of the ethylene hydrocarbons. It is now safe to assert that these bodies are present in any petroleum at most in very small amounts. We have found them apparently in Canadian petroleum, but in very small quantities. The series C,H,,, which has been identified in petroleum from many sources, is now well known as the methylene series. Ina paper published last year on the composition of Pennsylvania petroleum, I purposely abstained from naming the hydrocarbons with high boiling points of this series which we had separated and identified, for although it seemed probable that these bodies were methylenes, I preferred not to suggest names for the several mem- bers until more is known concerning their structure. The names suggested by Dr. Bogert in his summary of the results described in that paper for the Journa/ of the American Chemical Society, seems to refer those hydrocarbons to the ethylene series ; but any nomen- clature for these bodies must await sanction by proof of structure when some courageous investigator shall force his way into this difficult field. Another feature of the petroleum problem is the form of the hydrocarbons which form the highest boiling portions—the so- called asphaltic hydrocarbons. The main body of these high boil- ing oils are no doubt composed of series poorer in hydrogen than the methylenes, the series C,H,,_2, CaHmn_4, etc. The hydrocarbons of these series already appear in the higher boiling portions of Penn- sylvania, Ohio, Canadian, etc., petroleum, as we have shown in part, although much of this data has not yet been published. It does not at present seem clear how this problem shall be attacked. By exclusion of air and depression of boiling points the petroleum hydrocarbons can be distilled indefinitely as high as 38 -MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. [April8, 350°. Between 300° and 400° cracking begins, and it cannot be avoided by straight distillation. The heavy hydrocarbons seem to become so inert, by reason of their high molecular weights, they cannot retain their atomic composition at their boiling points; they simply fall to pieces through the influence of mass. In distillation from the crude oil evidently another influence comes into opera- tion—the effects of the oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur constituents. Since fractional distillation is the only means at present known for the separation of the homologous members of these series, the problem of their isolation becomes a difficult one. Nevertheless I regard this field as offering great attractions, provided, as I mentioned some time ago, suitable facilities are pro- vided for carrying on the work. A grant of ¢$5000 annually from the Carnegie University could be made to yield results commensur- ate with the expenditure, for there is no more promising field for research of such magnitude awaiting a vigorous hand. As for myself, I shall be content with what I have been able to accomplish with the aid of the C. M. Warren fund and the facilities of the Case School laboratory in defining the series and principal members in petroleum from different fields that has come under my obser- - vation. In presenting a general summary of present knowledge concern- ing the composition of petroleum, it may be of interest to refer to what was known on this subject twenty years ago when I began the work. At that time the only petroleum on the market in America was obtained from the Pennsylvania fields and the territory in Canada. The composition of Russian petroleum was then under investigation by Markownikow. As a result of their elaborate investigation on American petroleum Pelouze and Cahours had assigned the formula C,H,, 4, as representing the principal series of hydrocarbons. But the high specific gravity of their distillates could not have been given by hydrocarbons separated from Penn- sylvania petroleum, since these bodies give much lower values. Since the source of their products was not mentioned, it must be assumed that they came from the heavier Canadian oil, although the hydrocarbons in this oil have not the composition of the series C,H», 42 which Pelouze and Cahours deduced from their analyses, but, as we have found by results not yet published, the composition of the series C,H,,. Pentane, hexane, heptane and octane had been identified by Schorlemmer, and the classic work of C. M. 1903.] MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. 39 Warren had shown the existence in Pennsylvania petroleum of the two series of isomeric hydrocarbons from pentane to octane. The large deposits of petroleum in northern Ohio and Indiana, Texas, Colorado, Wyoming and Kansas had not then been discovered. In 1885, soon after the first well was drilled that yielded oil from the Trenton limestone, two oil inspectors brought me a five-gallon can of Trenton limestone oil and remained while I examined it for them. This was my first acquaintance with the sulphur petroleums. I recognized at once the large percentage of sulphur and soon after- »ward began a study of the sulphur compounds. I am not now fully satisfied as to the nature of those sulphur compounds. Not long after- ward I also procured the Canadian sulphur oil, and carried along together the study of these products, the one from Trenton lime- stone and the other from the Canadian Corniferous limestone. The composition of Ohio oil has only recently been determined, with respect to the principal series of hydrocarbons, by a research com- pleted during the present month, seven years after it was begun. At first I had no preconceived ideas as to the series of hydro- carbons which compose these crude oils, except what knowledge I had gathered from the work of my predecessors ; but after the work had progressed far enough to see that the crude oils from the differ- ent fields were essentially different in certain constituents, especially in sulphur, I was inclined to look on the Trenton and Corniferous limestone crude oils as a special species, the sulphur petroleums, and to agree with Peckham in his specific classification of the dif- ferent petroleums as varieties of bitumens. But I soon became convinced that no such sharp distinctions based on composition could be drawn. Now after these years of arduous labor I have reached the conclusion that petroleum from whatever source is one and the same substance, capable of a simple definition—a mixture in variable proportions of a few series of hydrocarbons, the product of any particular field differing from that of any other only in the proportion of these series and the members of the series. I arrived at this conclusion only one year ago, when it was found that the higher distillates from Pennsylvania petroleum contain the series C,H,,_., which until then I had supposed was only to be found in the heavier California arid Texas oils, or the so-called asphaltic oils. Results obtained within the last two months show that Ohio petroleum has a similar composition. In support of this definition I would suggest that, so faras known, a 40 MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. [April3, all petroleum contains nitrogen and sulphur, although the propor- tion of nitrogen in Pennsylvania and Ohio crude oils is much smaller than that in California oil, and that the percentage of sulphur is much smaller in the Pennsylvania sandstone oils—only a trace as compared with the larger amounts in Trenton limestone, Corniferous limestone, in California and Texas oils. With this definition the distinction drawn, at least in commercial circles, between paraffine and asphaltic oils disappears, for Pennsylvania crude oil contains the asphaltic hydrocarbons, although I cannot assert that California oil contains paraffine. I have crystalline hydrocarbons separated from California oil, but their identity is not yet fully established. The refiner is more definite in his classi- fication; he knows from experience that the best yield of gaso- line is from Pennsylvania oil, and none from California oil. He is fully aware that it is useless to expect to obtain a respectable yield of burning oil from California or Texas petroleum, and that he cannot hope to obtain paraffine from those heavy oils. But his very heavy lubricating oils and heavy pitches and asphalts he knows can come only from the heavier petroleums. With reference to a nomenclature of the petroleum series and hydrocarbons, no system can safely be adopted until the structure of these bodies is better understood. The aromatic hydrocarbons benzol and its homologues are present in all petroleum so far as examined, but in widely variable proportions. Pennsylvania crude oil contains the lower members in small amounts, but not the higher homologues. It is true that anthracene and its congeners have been described as separated from petroleum residues, but it is prob- able that such bodies are not present in the original oil; they are doubtless formed by decomposition during distillation. California petroleum contains much larger proportions of the aromatic hydro- carbons, especially of the xylols and others with higher boiling points. In one of our distillates from California crude oil so much : naphthaline was present that the distillate became solid on slight cooling. This distillate came over at about 215°. The only other instance in which naphthaline has been found in petroleum was its separation by Warren and Storer from Rangoon petroleum. The terminology of the series C,H.,4. has been well defined, and the names adopted by Kraft for the members with high boiling points, liquids and solids, which he separated from shale distillates are applicable to the corresponding bodies in Pennsylvania crude 1903.) MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. 41 oil. It is interesting to note that Pennsylvania petroleum alone, unless we include the analogous Berea Grit and other similar sand- stone oils of southern Ohio and Virginia, contains the unbroken series up to and including the solid paraffine constituents. Although the Ohio Trenton limestone oil and the Canadian Corniferous oil contain paraffine, the former in large proportions, the liquid members of series C,H.,4. stops with C,H. in both Canadian and Ohio oil. The liquid hydrocarbons from there on, so far as examined, are members of series poorer in hydrogen. The series C,H,, has been variously named. When first discov- ered in petroleum, and the hydrocarbons found to be identical with the hydrogen addition products of benzol and its homologues, the hydrocarbons from petroleum were described as hexahydro-bodies. On the discovery of a long series of these hydrocarbons in Russian — oil, Markownikow suggested the name naphthenes. But when later the origin and nature of the methylenes were better understood and cyclic hydrocarbons found in petroleum identical with the synthetic products, the name methylene was adopted for the lower petroleum hydrocarbons. ‘These closed-chain hydrocarbons differ in their deportment toward reagents from those with an open-chain, C,H.,4.. While it is to be assumed that the series C,H,, is rep- resented in its higher members by the methylenes, some extension of the nomenclature is necessary to include those bodies. There can evidently be but one ring with these proportions of carbon and hydrogen. For instance, the hydrocarbon C,,H,, must be regarded as a long chain with the ends connected, dodecamethylene, or a lower ring with several side chains. When the series C,H,,_, is reached it becomes necessary to assume a union of two rings attached by one carbon atom in each ring. In the series C,H,,_, the union would be between two carbon atoms in each ring and the members should include, for instance, octohydronaphthaline which would represent the hydrocar- bon C,,H,,. In the line.of this suggestion, following the analogy of naphthaline, one side chain should be capable of oxidation giving a derivative of phthalic acid. But the methylene hydrocarbons seem to possess a different order of stability toward the action of reagents, and we have observed this peculiarity in bodies separated from petroleum which appear to be derivatives of the methylenes. For instance, the nitrogen compounds separated from California crude oil cannot be oxidized into closely allied products, the 42 MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. [April3, oxidation always proceeding to the formation of ultimate products, nitrogen and CO,, and we have found it impossible to check it. The same is true of the sulphur compounds, which also appear to be methylene derivatives. ‘These bodies oxidize with the greatest ease to sulphuric acid, and it is difficult to control the oxidation. We have done this, however, and have obtained well-defined sul- phones. In general terms, the addition of hydrogen to benzol and its homologues weakens the resistive action toward reagents. This difference in stability between the series C,H.,4, and the series poorer in hydrogen appears in commercial use of the heavier pro- ducts. We have recently compared the flashing point and fire test to heavy distillates from Pennsylvania crude oil and crude oils from California, Texas, etc., and it appears that the products from Pennsylvania oil have higher flashing points and fire tests than those from other fields. We have an excellent opportunity to ascertain the general application of this observation, for we have at hand samples in gallon lots of the principal lubricators made from Pennsylvania and Ohio oils on the market, and also samples of crude oils from the various fields; for example, two barrels of crude oil from Baku in the Russian field. Products are now being prepared from the crude oils to compare with Pennsylvania lubricating oils. The inferior stability of petro- leum which the series C,H,, or series poorer in hydrogen pre- dominates has appeared in all our work on the various crude oils. For instance, the admission of air into hot Pennsylvania distillates never causes an explosion ; but explosions are sure to follow the contact of air with hot distillates from other fields where the prin- cipal series is lower than the series C,H,, 4». In combustion it is easy to see the difference in stability, in the readier separation of carbon. Then in analysis of a series, say from C,,H,, to C,,H,,, in the lower members no carbon separates in the boat, but it gradually appears with increasing molecular weight, in larger and larger amounts. The greater stability of the Hydrocarbbne C,H,, +2 doubtless ex- plains the superior quality of burning oils prepared from Pennsyl- vania petroleum, together with the fact of a larger proportion of hydrogen. The series poorer in hydrogen more readily separates carbon as soot and is more difficult to burn. A mixture of the two series C,H,,,, and C,H,, forms a good burning oil and prob- ably accounts for the excellent quality of Russian burning oil. 1903.] MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. 43 As I shall presently explain, Ohio crude oil contains a much smaller proportion of the series C,H,, 4., and it cannot be expected to yield burning oil of as good quality as Pennsylvania crude oil. Canadian burning oil should be still poorer in quality, which is easily seen by the consumer who will pay a high duty on United States oil rather than use his own product. PENNSYLVANIA PETROLEUM. As mentioned above, Pennsylvania crude oil contains minute amounts of sulphur and nitrogen compounds, and a small propor- tion of benzol derivatives ; but the great bulk of the oil is com- posed of the series C,H,, 42, beginning with the butanes and end- ing with solid hydrocarbons of such high molecular weights that they cannot be determined by any method now known. We have reached the hydrocarbon C,,H,., and it is the last one of the series whose molecular weight could be determined. It is quite proba- ble that there are as many as eight or even more of the hydro- carbons with greater molecular weight. It has been an open question with practical oil men, and per- haps is still with some, as to whether solid paraffine is contained in crude petroleum or whether it is formed in the process of distilla- tion. In the ordinary process of refining crude oil, a very consid- erable proportion of the hydrocarbons is lost in the last stages of the destructive distillation which ends with a large mass of coke. On comparing the thin liquid crude oil with products obtained from it in refining, it would be natural for the superficial observer to reason, from the appearance of coke at the end of the distillation and other heavy products, that solid paraffine should be formed in a similar way by decomposition of the light liquid crude oil. But careful consideration of the nature and origin of petroleum precludes the possibility of its formation by distillation. It is true that paraffine was first obtained by Reichenbach by the distillation of vegetable and animal organic matter, and there is no question that it has been formed ina similar manner by natural processes. But petroleum must be regarded as a final product of decomposi- tion, and while the series may be changed from one to another to a limited extent, decomposition of the constituents leads to the formation of simpler products until finally carbon is reached. Therefore, instead of paraffine as a result of decomposition of other 44 MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. [April3, hydrocarbons, paraffine itself is decomposed into hydrocarbons of lower molecular weight. But while this view is well supported by the facts observed relating to the nature of paraffine, we have not been satisfied with less than actual proof by experiment of its presence in crude oil, and several lines of work have been carried on in this direction. Last year we placed several liters of crude petroleum in a large flue of the laboratory, with strong draught, and allowed it to evap- orate during several weeks. Much the larger portion of the original _ oil had evaporated, and the residue was so very thick it would scarcely flow. By careful extraction of the oil with ether and alcohol we obtained a small amount of solid paraffine, as shown by its melting-point and resemblance to ordinary solid paraffine hydro- carbons. In another line of work, the results of which have not been pub- lished, we procured ten gallons of a semi-solid mass of hydro- carbons from a refining company at Coreopolis, Pa., that had been collected from the sucker rods in pumping oil and had never been distilled ; this oil is very heavy, light yellow in color and is used for the preparation of commercial cosmolines and vaselines. By cooling some of this product and crystallization we were able to separate from it a mixture of hydrocarbons closely resembling par- affine. A considerable portion of this pasty mass was subjected to fractional distillation, and a series of hydrocarbons separated with the composition of the series C,H,,,,. The oils separated by cooling and pressure gave results on analysis corresponding to series poorer in hydrogen. We next took up the composition of the mixtures that form the vaselines and cosmolines. The refiner makes a sharp distinction between crystallizable and uncrystallizable paraffine. But there seems to be but one form of solid paraffine hydrocarbons. Vasel- ine is simply a very heavy oil saturated with paraffine, and con- taining an excess of solid paraffine in the form of an emulsion. The oil is composed of the heavy oils of the series C,H,, and C,,H,, 42, and the solid bodies members of the series C,H,,4,. The so-called scale paraffine of the refiner is solid paraffine containing sufficient of the heavy oils to prevent it from assuming a well- defined crystalline condition. The appearance of the series C,H,, and the series C,H,,_, in Pennsylvania petroleum distillates, as shown in a paper published 1908.] MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. 45 last year, indicates that the so-called asphaltic hydrocarbons forma part of this petroleum with very high boiling points. This places Pennsylvania petroleum in the same category with the heavier petroleum from such fields as California and Texas, the chief dif- ferences being the predominating series C,H,,,, in Pennsylvania oil and the series poorer in hydrogen in the heavier products. As explained above, the large proportion of the paraffine hydrocarbons in the heavy portions of Pennsylvania oil apparently render the lubricating distillates more stable. Just what effect it has on the lubricating qualities, so far as I know, has not been completely determined. Some experiments on the very heavy lubricants from Beaumont oil have demonstrated very superior lubricating qualities. Ou10 TRENTON LIMESTONE PETROLEUM. Since the first discovery of this petroleum, there has been great uncertainty concerning its composition. In the preparation of commercial products, the refiner discovered essential differences between it and Pennsylvania oil which were fully understood with reference to its refining qualities. The first serious obstacle was the large amount of sulphur compounds that must be removed for the production of acceptable burning oil. Innumerable patents were issued for processes which included distillation over quartz, precipitation with mercuric chloride, oxidation with potassium per- manganate, and numerous other impracticable ideas that had been tried only on paper. The ordinary refiner distils over scrap iron and refines with alkaline lead oxide. From much the greater part of refining oil sulphur is removed by distilling over heated copper oxide and recovery of the oxide, a process that is said to have originated in Canada, but is known as the Frasch process. Prob- ably fifty tons of sulphur daily is a conservative estimate of the amount extracted from Ohio oil and burned off into the atmos- phere. It is claimed for this process that it is capable of removing the sulphur to 0.02 per cent., which is probably correct. Excel- lent burning oils are made from Ohio petroleum. The composition of Ohio petroleum, so far as the portions readily distilled are concerned, has only been arrived at within the last few months. Several years ago an examination of the sulphur petroleums, as Ohio and Canadian petroleum was then designated, showed that the series C,H,, ,, formed the portions of Ohio crude 46 MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. [April3, oil which distilled below 212°, and the same members were dis- covered that had been previously identified in Pennsylvania oil, although the proportion of these hydrocarbons was smaller than in Pennsylvania oil. The proportion of aromatic hydrocarbons is higher in Ohio than in Pennsylvania oil. The lower methylenes are also probably contained in larger proportion in the Ohio oil. An investigation just finished on the hydrocarbons contained in _ the limits between 112° and 280°, tension 30 mm., has identified thirteen hydrocarbons, with very satisfactory data on the propor- tions of carbon and hydrogen which establish the series, and the molecular weights and indices of refraction which identify the members of the series. The following hydrocarbons of the series C,H,, were found: C,H», CysHe., CAs; Cube Cy,Hy, Cy Hess Unfortunately the distillate that should yield the hydrocarbon C,,H,;, was lost, although its specific gravity was ascertained before filtration. Of the series C,H,, _,, the following hydrocarbons were identified : GCipHas; Cop Hs, Cas, 'CuHla; andof the series CJ 4, (Dean carbons: (Co bl4,, Cosel, optdue: The change in series is attended with a greater difference in specific gravity between adjacent hydrocarbons; for instance, the last change in series is very marked, as the following table shows: Distillate. Sp. Gr. Hydrocarbon. Difference in Sp. Gr. 224-2270 -8614 Gea is Ws 237-2409 -8639 CH .0025 253-2550 -8842 Gokia. 0225 263-2659 -8864 C, Hyg 0022 The-distillates from which these hydrocarbons were separated above 150°, 30 mm., contained a large proportion of solid paraffine. The higher fractions were solid at ordinary temperatures, but no attention was given to the solid constituents, for without doubt they are identical with the solid hydrocarbons identified in Penn- sylvania oil. Much difficulty was met with in separating the liquid constituents. The distillate was first cooled to o° and filtered, and the filtrate then cooled to —10° and again filtered. In purifying these heavy oils they were first dissolved in gasoline, and after purification the gasoline was removed by distillation. The greater preponderance of the series poorer in hydrogen in Ohio oil over Pennsylvania oil explains the higher specific gravity 1903.] MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. 47 of Ohio crude oil. The series C,H,,_, does not appear in Penn- sylvania oil within the range of distillates below 300°, but it does appear in Ohio oil. The proportions of the series still poorer in hydrogen in the residues of distillation from Ohio oil are doubtless still greater. CANADIAN CORNIFEROUS LIMESTONE PETROLEUM. In the paper referred to above, the composition of the distillates from Canadian oil was explained, including the hydrocarbons C,,H,, and C,,H.,, which were identified in the fractions 196° and 214°: This limits the series C,H,, 4. in Canadian oil to the lower members. ‘Two years ago the higher fractions were exam- ined for the individual hydrocarbons and results obtained, not yet published, that show a continuation of the series C,H,, ; and the hydrocarbons separated included the following: C,,H.., C,;H.,, CiHy,, CisH 9, C,H. These bodies were identified by combustion for the series, and their molecular weights ascertained for the individual members of the series ; the specific gravity of each hydrocarbon agrees closely with that of the corresponding hydrocarbon of Ohio petroleum. These values were still further confirmed by the formation and analysis of the chlorides. The proportions of the lower members of the series C,Hi»1;, which form the naphtha and gasoline in Canadian petroleum, is considerably smaller than in Ohio petroleum. The proportion of burning oil distillates is also less, and it is not possible to make from Canadian oil sv good burning oil. The series C,H,, shows less stability on standing than the higher series C,H,,,,. I have samples of burning oil from Canadian petroleum that have stood ten years; they have changed from ‘‘ water white,’’ the original quality of the oil, to very dark yellow. Much larger quantities of gas are evolved in refining the Canadian oil, which is run back for heating the stills. Some paraffine is made, but the yield is small. The sulphur in the crude oil gives much trouble in refining, and it is not all removed in the burning oil. The percentage of sul- phur is higher than in Ohio petroleum as a rule, usually about one per cent. Canadian petroleum should give good grades of lubrica- tors, but I have never examined these products. 48 MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. [April3, CALIFORNIA PETROLEUM. In a paper published two years ago the composition of California petroleum oil from different sections of those fields was explained, and the principal series in the range of distillates examined, which included those below 214° in all specimens of crude oils, showed the series C,H,,. Allusion was made in the former publication to a specimen of exceptionally heavy oil from Summerland, Santa Barbara county, of especial interest, since it came from wells sunk below the level of the Pacific Ocean at high tide. No distillates were collected from this oil below 200° atmospheric pressure. Under a tension — of 60 mm. continued fractional distillation separated very heavy oils that were colorless or slightly yellow. They were purified by dissolving in gasoline and agitating with sulphuric acid, com- mon and fuming, and the gasoline distilled off with the aid of a current of carbonic dioxide. The composition of these products proved to be very different from that of the other California oils, or from any others we have examined. For instance, the fraction 210°-215°, 60 mm., gave as its specific gravity at 20°, 0.9085, and the proportions of carbon and hydrogen corresponded to the hydrocarbon C,,H,,, or the series C,H,,_,. The higher members were the most viscous distillates that we have separated in what appears to be a pure form from any petroleum. So far as we have carried the examination of California petro- leum, no solid paraffine hydrocarbons have been found. From several fields oil has been obtained whose higher distillates on standing deposited large well-defined crystals, but unlike paraffine. From the fractions between 275° and 295°, 60 mm., separated from Torrey cafion oil, a considerable quantity of crystals separated on standing several months that melted at 57° to 62°. These crystals were readily soluble in benzol and alcohol, and crystallized from hot alcohol on cooling apparently in a pure form, unlike the . solid paraffine hydrocarbons that are very sparingly soluble in alcohol; sufficient of this product for complete identification has not yet been obtained. The higher portions of heavy California petro- leum offer an attractive field for study of the series poorer in hydrogen. Texas PETROLEUM. Much attention has been attracted to the recent discoveries of oil in Texas, and in some respects these deposits of oil possess a 1903.) MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. 49 peculiar interest. The older Corsicana field yields an oil that is adapted for the preparation of a fairly good grade of burning oil, but it is inferior to Pennsylvania oil, since, as Richardson has shown, it is composed chiefly of the methylene hydrocarbons. The heavier oil at Beaumont does not yield a sufficient proportion of burning oil distillate to make its preparation economical, but it is stated that a distillate can be separated in small quantities without cracking that can be refined into an inferior grade of burning oil. So far as examined the Beaumont oil does not contain members of the series C,H,,4,, which is essential in oils that yield the best grades of kerosene. The unique occurrence of this crude oil, under- lying beds of sulphur under rather loose beds of shale, should exclude any of the most volatile constituents, such as are found in Pennsylvania oil. As we have demonstrated, the predominating series of hydrocarbons include the methylenes and condensed series. The crude oil is very heavy; it easily decomposes under distillation, but by exclusion of air very heavy distillates may be separated without decomposition, from which superior lubricating oils may be prepared, especially of the heaviest type. The heaviest residue from Beaumont oil, if decomposition has been prevented, forms the best sort of petroleum asphalt, much heavier than similar products to be obtained from any other than California crude oil; in fact all the products to be obtained from Texas oil resemble those prepared from California oil. The sulphur compounds in Texas oil seem to be much less stable than those in Ohio and Canadian oils, perhaps on account of their higher molecular weight. It is worthy of note that heavy petro- leum, such as that from Texas and California fields, contain more sulphur than more volatile crude oils, like the Pennsylvania. Petroleum from other fields, such as Colorado, Wyoming, Japan and South America, all partake of the properties of the heavier products from the fields in this country. The Japanese crude oils were very carefully sampled for our examination three years ago. There is promise of a great development of oil territory in South America. I scarcely believe that the sample of heavy oil we ‘examined some years ago represents the true condition of the oil fields there. The heavy petroleums are rapidly increasing in value as fuel. Prices have recently been advanced in Texas to seventy-five cents per barrel. PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XLII. 172. D. PRINTED MAY 9, 1903. ° 50 MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. [April3, I have a large amount of unpublished data on the sulphur and nitrogen compounds in petroleum. Although I have had the sul- phur compounds under examination for nineteen years, I am not yet sure as to the form of the higher series. In a paper presented to the New York Section of the Society of Chemical Industry two years ago, and published in the Soctety Journad, a brief account of the sulphur and nitrogen compounds was given. It was explained that these bodies are members of a series C,H,,S, and that they oxidize into sulphones and very readily into sulphuric acid. These bodies are doubtless ring compounds, as was then suggested, similar to the thiophenes. California petroleum contains a larger proportion of nitrogen base than any other, so faras known. Two per cent. of nitrogen, the amount contained in several specimens of crude oils examined, corresponds to twenty or twenty-five per cent. of the basic oils, or about one-quarter of the crude oil consists of the nitrogen com- pounds. In structure these bodies are tetra- or octohydro-ring compounds in homologous series. The tetrahydro-condition is shown by their instability. It is, therefore, apparent that a similar condition of instability prevails in the methylenes, and in the sulphur and nitrogen com- pounds from heavy petroleum. The sulphur and nitrogen bodies are found in considerable quantities only in such petroleum as is mainly composed of the methylenes or series poorer in hydrogen. Another interesting series of bodies found in California, but not in Eastern oils, at least to the same extent, are the phenols, which are present in considerable quantities in some of the California oil. NATURAL FORMATION OF PETROLEUM. Muchas has been said on this attractive subject, a broader knowl- edge of facts is necessary before definite conclusions can be reached. What is known forms the basis for only one explanation concerning the formation of petroleum, and that is that it was formed from vegetable or animal matter by slow decay or breaking down from the complex forms of vegetable or animal life under the influence of natural forces, with no great elevation in tempera- ture such as is necessary for distillation. Mendelejeff's theory of the formation from carbides at high tem- peratures, recently asserted with greater force on the basis of 1903.] MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM, 51 Moissan’s work with the electric furnace, demands too many hypo- thetical assumptions, and it has too little support on the basis of fact. ‘To reason from the artificial formation of alloys and carbides in an electric furnace to the natural formation of petroleum con- taining nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen, in the form of hydro- thophenes, hydrochinolines, and phenols, demands a too broad reach of the imagination to make the connections. Bearing in mind the fact that petroleum may now be regarded as one and the same substance whatever its source, and that the deposits in different fields are composed of the same series, differing only in the proportions of these constituents, it must be admitted that it had one origin and one only. With reference to the series of hydrocarbons, it is immaterial whether its source was ani- mal or vegetable, for under the influence of natural agencies it could have been formed as well from one as from the other. This question has been attacked on chemical grounds from the wrong direction. Because hydrocarbons of the marsh gas series, ethylene series or acetylene series at temperatures of decomposition form minute quantities of the aromatic series, or that hexahydro- aromatic bodies are formed from the aromatic hydrocarbons by heating with hydriodic acid, to assume that these same changes were produced by natural agencies and resulted in the formation of the hydrocarbons which now constitute petroleum, together with the other constituents of petroleum, ascribes to these natural agencies a direction of action and power that we do not know they possess. In considering present knowledge with reference to the natural formation of petroleum, it seems to me that the following questions must be answered : 1. What is the chronology of petroleum: in what order were the deposits formed in different fields ? 2. Were the least volatile constituents formed from the most volatile or the reverse ? 3. What is a reasonable explanation of the formation of the other constituents of petroleum ? The first question must be answered by the geologist. It is natural to assume that the limestones formed by the accumu- lation of the shell remains of animal life were deposited first from the ancient sea. The sandstones, as products of erosion from the older rocks, were deposited last. The question as to whether the a 52 MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM, [April 3, different deposits of petroleum were formed 77 situ, or formed in other strata and by some natural agency transferred to their present location, has not I believe been satisfactorily answered by the geologists. In the case of the limestone petroleum, it would seem that it must have been formed where it is now to be found, as Hunt and Orton have ably maintained. The theory of distillation from some other strata is not tenable in the light of present knowledge of the constituents of petroleum. Neither could any known constituents of plants that could form petroleum be distilled, nor could the heavier portions of petroleum be distilled ; the result would be only very volatile distillates and deposits of coal or graphite. In this condition deposits of petro- leum should ‘always be accompanied by coal, or with coal in the near vicinity. In the case of Pennsylvania and the allied southern Ohio and West Virginia petroleum, it would be a great discovery to connect these deposits with the coal formations, for then the source would unquestionably be vegetable growth and would support the pre- vailing opinion that this was the source of petroleum of this class. It is reasonable to assume, as is now believed, that Pennsylvania oil was not formed in the sandstones, but found its way there by natural agencies from lower strata, probably the Devonian shales. The infiltration of the crude oil through sandstones would have a purify- ing effect. It is quite probable that the very light yellow crude oils from the Berea Grit and other sandstones were filtered a second time or more into their present positions. With reference to the source of the limestone oils, the evidence is all in favor of animal origin, and the same is true of California oil, although its formation is probably far more recent than that of the others. Texas petroleum has not been sufficiently studied in relation to its occurrence and composition, but it is evidently of more recent origin, like California oil. With reference to the second question, is it more reasonable to assume, for instance, that the solid paraffine hydrocarbons were formed from the lower members of this series, or that the lower members were formed from paraffine? On this point some experi- mental evidence may be brought to bear. Reichenbach obtained paraffine from both vegetable and animal organic matter. Engler obtained paraffine by the distillation of fish oil, as Warren and Storer had done many years previously. * 1903.] MABERY—THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM. 53 It is well known that paraffine breaks down very readily into hydrocarbons with lower molecular weights, but it is not possible to polymerize the lower hydrocarbons into the solid paraffine hydro- carbons. The tendency in cracking of any constituents of petro- leum is toward the formation of the lower series and finally carbon in the form of coke. So far as experimental evidence and observa- tion have shown the nature and relations of the hydrocarbons which compose the different series in petroleum, the conclusion is convincing that the lower members of the series were formed from the higher. A single break in the ring of a methylene is sufficient to form by the addition of hydrogen a paraffine hydrocarbon. In answer to the third question, as to the formation of the sul- phur, nitrogen and oxygen compounds in petroleum, these bodies have evidently not been built up synthetically, but are the products of decomposition of more highly organized constituents of organic bodies. It would seem that the small proportions of these bodies in Pennsylvania oil, as compared with the larger proportions in the limestone oils and California oil, should be strong evidence in favor of a different origin, that Pennsylvania oil came from organic vegetable remains, which should permit of the small amounts of sulphur and nitrogen compounds found in this class of oils. But I think it can be asserted as a fact that the very large pro- portion of nitrogen compounds in California petroleum, amounting to one-fifth or more of the total weight of the oil, can only be accounted for by accepting animal remains as the source of their formation. As a summation of what is at present known of the origin of petroleum, the following answers may be given to the questions propounded above: 1. Petroleum containing large proportions of the volatile hydro- carbons, especially of the series C,H.,4., such as Pennsylvania petroleum, was formed from vegetable organic matter. The lime- stone petroleum and California petroleum was formed from organic matter of animal origin. 2. Cellulose, starch and other similar bodies in plants, and the fats and nitrogen compounds in animal bodies, by gradual decom- position with exclusion of air, gave first the heavier bodies found in petroleum, and by natural agencies during long periods of time, with no considerable rise in temperature, further decomposition included as products the hydrocarbons with smaller molecular weights. 54 BAILEY—MOVEMENT IN PLANT-BREEDING. [April 2, 3. The nitrogen and sulphur constituents of petroleum could only have been formed directly from or through the agency of animal organic matter. There is an attractive field for the chemical geologist to study, more intimately than has ever been done, the occurrence of petro- leum in connection with its composition. CLEVELAND, O. THE FORWARD MOVEMENT IN PLANT-BREEDING. BY L. H. BAILEY. (Read April 2, 1903.) The first specific interest in cultivated plants was in the gross kinds or species. As the contact with plants became more inti- mate, various indefinite form-groups were recognized within the limits of the species. Gradually, with the intensifying of domes- tication and cultivation, very particular groups appeared and were recognized. These smaller groups came finally to be designated by names, and the idea of the definite and homogeneous cultural variety came into existence. The variety-conception is really a late one in the development of the human race. It is practically only within the past two centuries that cultivated varieties of plants have been recognized as being worthy of receiving designative names. It is within this period, also, that most of the great breeds of animals have been defined and separately named. All this measures the increasing intimacy of our contact with domesticated plants and animals. It is a record of our progress. The peoples that are most advanced in the cultivation of any plant are the ones that have the most named varieties of that plant. In Japan, to this day, the plums pass under ill-defined class-names. We have introduced these classes, have sorted out. the particular forms that promise to be of value to us and have given them specific American names. Not long ago a native professor in Japan wrote me asking for cions of these plums,*in order that he might introduce Japanese plums into Japan. ‘The Russian apples are designated to some extent by class-names; im fact, it was not until the appearance of .Regel’s work, about a generation ago, that Russian pomology may bé said to have been born. What — 1903.] BAILEY—MOVEMENT IN PLANT-BREEDING. 55 constitutes a variety is increasingly more difficult to define, because we are constantly differentiating on smaller points. The growth of the variety-conception is really the growth of the power of analysis. The earlier recognized varieties seem to have come into exist- ence unchallenged. There is very little record of inquiry as to how or why or even where they originated. That is, the quest of the origin arose long after the recognition of the variety as a variety. Even after inquisitive search into origins had begun there was little effort to produce these varieties. The describing of varieties and the search into their histories was a special work of the nineteenth century. One has only to consult such American works as Downing’s Fruzts and Fruit Trees of America and Burr’s field and Garden Vegetables of America, te see how carefully and methodically the descriptions and synonymy of the varieties were worked out. These are types of excellent pieces of editorial and formal systematic work. There have been isolated efforts at producing varieties for many years. These efforts began before the time of the general dis- cussion of organic evolution. In fact, it was on such experiments that Darwin drew heavily in some of his most important writings. Roughly speaking, however, the conception that the kinds of plants can be definitely modified and varied by man is a product of the last half century. We now believe that there is such a possi- bility as plant-breeding. It is really a more modern conception, so far as its general acceptance is concerned, than animal-breeding. But both animal-breeding and plant-breeding are the results of a new attitude toward the forms of life—a conviction that the very structure, habits and attributes are amenable to change and control by man. This is really one of the great new attitudes of the mod- ern world. Formerly, and even up to the present time, the variety has been taken as the unit for plant-breeding work, as it has been for descriptive and classificatory work. Whether we believed it or not, we have accepted it as a fairly definite thing or entity. Yet, what is a variety? Only the ideal of one man or a set of men. Custom may define its boundaries, but in fact it has no boundaries. At best, a variety is only an assemblage of forms that agree rather more than they differ: and any one of these forms may, with equal propriety, be called another variety. Shall we continue to 56 BAILEY—MOVEMENT IN PLANT-BREEDING. [April 2, consider the variety as a unit or basis from which we are to breed for the purpose of producing other varieties? Or shall we still further refine our ideals and find that the variety-conception is really only a mark of an imperfect and superficial development of an immature age? Now, plant-breeding is worthy of the name only as it sets definite ideals and is able to attain them. Merely to produce new things is of no merit: that was done long before man was evolved. A child can ‘‘produce’’ a new variety, but it may learn nothing and contribute nothing in producing it. I have myself produced 1500 new kinds of pumpkins and squashes, but I had no idea what I was to produce, the world is no better for my having produced them, and I am no wiser (except in experience) than I was before. In many ‘‘new’’ things that are produced, there may be dispute as. to whether they are new and as to whether they are distinct enough to be named and therefore to be ranked as varieties at all. This is not science, nor even breeding: it is playing and guessing. What does the world care whether John Jones produces ‘‘ Jones’ Giant Beardless wheat’’? But it does care if he produces a wheat having a half of one per cent. more protein. We must give up the production of mere ‘‘ varieties ’’; we must breed for certain definite attributes that will make the new generations of plants more efficient for certain purposes: this is the new outlook in plant- breeding. Happily, we are not without abundant accomplishment in this new field. The last ten years has seen a remarkable specialization in the producing of plants that are adapted to particular needs. The days of merely crossing and sowing tHe seeds to see what will turn up are already past} with those who are engaged seriously in the work. The old method was hit-and-miss and the result was to take what good luck put in your way : the new method proceeds defi- nitely and directly and the result is the necessary outcome of the line of effort. The crux of the new ideal is efficiency in one particular attribute in the product of the breeding. These attrib- utes are measurable: the kind of results are foreseen in the plan, or are predictable. All these remarks are typically illustrated in the experiments with corn-breeding conducted in Illinois. It is significant to note what are the reasons for breeding new corns, as stated by Professor Hop- kins in Bulletin 82 of the Illinois Experiment Station : A i \ . { 1903.] BAILEY—MOVEMENT IN PLANT-BREEDING. 57 ‘¢Tn its own publication a large commercial concern, which uses enormous quantities of corn, makes the following statements : «¢¢A bushel of ordinary corn, weighing fifty-six pounds, contains about four and one-half pounds of germ, thirty-six pounds of dry starch, seven pounds of gluten, and five pounds of bran or hull, the balance in weight being made up of water, soluble matter, etc. The value of the germ lies in the fact that it contains over forty per cent. of corn oil, worth, say, five cents per pound, while the starch is worth one and one-half cents, the gluten one cent, and the hull about one-half cent per pound. “©> MOVING BLADES CCG vx10000 exs0es DPD PPP} wovme acaves CCC STATIONARY BLADES DD PPDPPDPDPDDDDDDDDD DY MOVING BLADES ~~ . ~ ~ ~~ DIAPHRAGM vome xeesl LD} aise KER SOO = “=p drPDIDY))) ) Bi Dy Diagram of Nozzles and Buckets in Curtis Steam Turbine. 72 EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. [April 2, Velocity is imparted to the steam in an expanding nozzle so designed as to efficiently convert nearly all the expansive force, between the pressure limits used, into velocity in the steam itself. After leaving the nozzle, the steam passes successively through two or more lines of vanes on the moving element, which are placed alternately with reversed vanes on the stationary element. In pass- ing successively through these moving and stationary elements, the velocity acquired in the nozzle is fractionally abstracted, and largely given up to the moving element. Thus the steam is first thrown against the first set of vanes of the moving element, and then rebounds alternately from moving to stationary vanes until it is brought nearly to rest. By this means a high steam velocity is made to efficiently impart motion to a comparatively slowly moving element. The nozzle is generally made up of many sections adja- cent to each other, so that the steam passes to the wheels in a broad belt when all nozzle sections are in flow. ; This process of expansion in nozzle and subsequent abstraction of velocity by successive impacts with wheel vanes is generally repeated two or more times, the devices for each repetition being generally designated as a stage. ‘There may be various numbers of stages and various numbers of lines of moving vanes in each stage. The number of stages and the number of lines of vanes in a stage are governed by the degree of expansion, the peripheral velocity which is desirable or practicable, and by various conditions of mechanical expediency. Generally speaking, lower peripheral speeds entail more stages, more lines of vanes per stage, or both. Our general practice is to so divide up the steam expansion, that all stages handle about equal parts of the total power of the steam. The losses and leakages of the earlier stages take the form of more heat or more steam for the later stages, and are thus in part regained. Much water of expansion, which might occasion loss by re-evaporation, is drained out of each stage into that which succeeds it. The governing is effected by successive closing of nozzles and consequent narrowing of the active steam belt. The cut shows part of the nozzle open and part closed ; the arrows showing space filled by live steam. In the process of governing, the nozzles of the later stages may or may not be opened and closed so as to maintain an adjustment proportional to that of the first stage, which is % . 1903.] EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. fa always the primary source of governing. Some improvement of light-load economy may be effected by maintaining a relative adjustment of all nozzles; but in many cases the practical differ- ence in economy is not great, and automatic adjustment of nozzle opening in later stages is dispensed with in the interest of sim- plicity. In some machines an approximate adjustment is main- tained by valves in later stages, which open additional nozzles in response to increases of pressure behind them. ‘These are used as much for limiting the pressures in stage chambers as for maintain- ing the light load economy. The principle of the Curtis steam turbine is susceptible of appli- cation to a variety of purposes. Within the scope of this paper I intend to give only a general idea concerning existing designs for its application to electric generators. Its development, even for this purpose, is very recent, and will doubtless be subject to impor- tant future improvements. In its present state, however, it embod- ies many important advantages, as has already been stated. The most important of these advantages is the high steam economy which it affords under average conditions of service. This economy is shown by the accompanying curves, which are derived from actual tests of the first commercial machine of this type which was completed. This machine drives a dynamo of 600 Kw. capacity. The curves give its performance at a speed of 1500 R.P.M., which is a safe and practical speed for commercial operation, and which corresponds to a peripheral velocity of about 420 feet per second. The results, with superheat, given in these curves are not derived actually from tests of this turbine, but are plotted from data obtained on smaller turbines. They correspond to the results obtained on turbines of other types and are undoubtedly reliable. Curve 1 shows the steam consumption of this machine in pounds per kilowatt-hour output at various loads and under the conditions stated, the lower curve giving the steam consumption at various loads with 150 degrees superheat. Curve 2 shows the results which could be obtained from.this tur- bine if it were operated with high pressure and a high degree of superheat, these conditions of operation being perfectly practical with the machine, while with steam engines the use of such high temperatures would with ordinary constructions be prohibitive. The results shown by these curves are better than any heretofore produced by steam turbines of any make or size, and are very much 74 EMMET---THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. {April 2, better than those obtainable from the types of steam engines generally applied to the production of electricity. It should be noted that these curves show a very high efficiency at light loads, as compared with results obtainable from steam engines, and that the efficiency does not fall off at overload, as it must necessarily do with all engines which operate economically under normal full-load conditions. This light-load and overload economy is an important feature of the Curtis turbine, and arises from the fact that the functions of its working parts is virtually the same under all conditions of load. Curves 3, 4and 5 show the effect upon steam consumption of changes in the steam pressure, the degrees of superheat and in the vacuum. It will be observed that the superheat and vacuum curves are straight lines so inclined as to indicate a great advantage by the use of all degrees of superheat and also an immense advantage in the use of very high vacuum. The most important reason why the Curtis turbine so greatly surpasses the steam engine in economy is that it is adapted to use effectively the highest possible degrees of expansion, while in the steam engine it is practically impossible to provide for high degrees of expansion. As the exhaust pressure approaches a perfect vacuum, the volume naturally increases at a rapid rate—the volume of steam with a 29’’ vacuum being double that with a 28’’ vacuum. To handle high degrees of expansion, it would, therefore, be necessary to make cylinders of steam engines very large, and this increase of size and weight of parts fixes a prac- tical limit which cannot be passed without excessive cost and com- plication. In the turbine, the highest degrees of steam expansion are easily provided for, and consequently a much larger proportion of the total work in steam can be utilized by turbines than by steam engines. There are other conditions in the Curtis turbine which make high degrees of vacuum more easily attainable than they are under ordi- nary conditions. ‘The machine is so constructed that leakage of air into the vacuum chamber is easily rendered impossible. The leakage of air into condensing engines is considerable, and is gen- erally not checked owing to the small value of improved vacuum to an engine. With turbines of the type here described, no oil comes into con- tact with the steam, and consequently condensed water can be taken from surface condensers and returned to boilers. The use of a = ‘ Or 1903.) EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. surface condensers under such conditions renders unnecessary the introduction of air either in feed or circulating water, and conse- quently makes possible a very high vacuum with small air-pumping apparatus. The results shown by these curves are obtained from a machine of 600 Kw. capacity, and are naturally inferior to results which are expected from the very large units which are now being built. It is hoped that very soon after the reading of this paper a 5000 Kw. unit, which is now complete, will be put into operation in Chicago. This machine is expected to give considerably better steam econo- mies than are shown by the accompanying curves, and will be supe- rior particularly in the matter of light-load performance. The variation of efficiency in this machine from half load to fifty per cent. overload will not exceed three per cent. The external appearance and dimensions of this 5000 Kw. unit are shown by one of the drawings which accompany this paper, and another drawing shows this unit compared with an engine- driven generating unit of similar capacity. Each unit is shown as complete with prime mover and generator, one being the machine for Chicago, above mentioned ; the other, one of the units which are operating in the Manhattan Railway Company’s Power Sta- tion at New York. The comparison sufficiently illustrates the improvement which the turbine has introduced. The respective weights of these completed units, exclusive of foundation, are in the ratio of 1: 8, and the saving in foundations alone is a very important item. Other drawings which accompany this paper show a 500 Kw. unit recently installed at Newport, and also a com- parison drawn to the same scale between this 500 Kw. unit and a cross compound engine unit of equal capacity designed to operate at 1oo R.P.M. The contrast here is even more striking. If the extreme simplicity of the Curtis turbine is considered in combination with these figures and comparisons, it is easy to appre- ciate that a very great engineering advance has been accomplished. It has been conservatively estimated that engine units, like those in the Manhattan Company’s station, can be replaced by turbines like that in Chicago, and that the cost of such replacement can be paid for by saving in operating expenses in three years. Whenever an improvement has been effected in prime movers, the influence upon engineering and business conditions has been very marked. When the release cut-off principle was introduced 76 EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. [April 2, by Corliss, a certain improvement in engine economy was effected, and although this improvement was accompanied by no diminu- tion in cost, the change resulted in a very great activity in engine building, and the renewal of most of the large mill engines in the country. It is, therefore, safe to predict that the influence of the steam turbine will be of radical importance. The steam turbine is, on account of its high speed, particularly adapted to the driving of electric generators, and its introduction will consequently stimulate the use of electricity rather than other power trans- mitters. In the past the most economical use of steam has been confined to the most expensive and elaborate plants, while in the future it will be within the reach of all where condensing water is available. \ ay | AC) cc aS AY = eS es Se Pa py ae Sas et on 1903. ] EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. for Els. aN a eZN ° i) ae Opa >-—' SSAEH Qn ~ 1 Sez > aa —————————— we EST er YYUBONG GEO Cj, Wi, “YOUNG GGiK WY y Y L LY ogyywOYD' GY GGBAG Uj LAY LG YW4yny — Yip = ing Jer Step 2 eal Mer y a — Yy pp Gy aay penitent Mid, A Unify Y, MY; Jut power Sati Y, Z Y hy, 1, LA YY, “YYYIYV GG YMA: eS i PER LS Se a eam a onime LY ier i - Plan and Elevation of 5000 Kw., 500 R.P.M. Curtis Turbine with Generator. — {April 2, EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. io @) hh —— eon Ty] S ‘auIqiny, suosivg "Wid y Ook “ary SLE puv surqiny, sand ‘|Wig'Y Oogr “My 00S ‘oulqany [eae aq ‘W'd'Y 0006 ‘my Ooz jo uostredui05 jqsismn © PSL | By | LJ ©) 1903. | EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE, ss SSS ss a! — 2S = ae! — Cross-section of Parsons Turbine without Generator. 80 EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. [April 2, Too Act San CICIot {i ee | {Nee Plan and Elevation of 500 Kw., 1800 R,P.M. Curtis Turbine with Generator, 1903. ] EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. 81 J < 5 > WW ~~ ~~. ~\ ahs Sys. ’ = SSS) Da eee LN Ss ee Bat etn os Str SPSS So ee" s Se eres . Comparison of 500 Kw., 100 R.P.M. Cross3compound Engine and 500 Kw., 1800 R.P.M. Curtis Turbine. PROC. AMER, PHILOS. SOC. XLII. 172. F. PRINTED MAY 27, 1908. 82 EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. [April 2, eoetenbe NOGSRSSSGRSREReRe i au Sees Pah ea ah See PRSECE EEE SEeSGGEC /00 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 CurVE I.—Curve showing water consumption, in pounds per Kw. hour, of 600 Kw. Curtis Steam Turbine, operating at 1500 R.P.M., with 140 lbs. gauge pressure and 28.5// of vacuum. 1 Without superheat. 2 With 150° F. superheat. 1903.] EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. 83 See Re weees Peptic |b" ees eke eee (3 Sh ee Se Sea eee Reece es 2) sepals. | Paes Mas ea | Pe eS AS | Ce a SSeS = SBN ae BBE SR SS $ Pee eaters a a ¢ hin FAN GE ES) So] oe Ai SRR Rea JSS aeons 2 SaaS fe feels Wee S| ee pee A Pea 100 200 300 ‘400 500 600 700 AW. CuRVE 2,—Curve showing water consumption, in pounds per Kw. hour, of 600 Kw. Curtis Steam Turbine, with different loads; speed 1500 R.P.M.; vacuum 28.5//; pressure 200 lbs. gauge, with 1500 F. superheat. ; ERS Reese S >) Pa * MERE REBEsRe &20 REESE e Se (aah Shh See eee eee He Reese + AFI | eer sey abide, ise eae ah TI 100 110 120 130 /40 /5O0 /60 170 180 190 200 /nitial Pressure (Gauge) CURVE 3.-—Curve showing water consumption, in pounds per Kw. hour, of 600 Kw. Curtis Steam Turbine, at full load wi h different initial pressures ; speed 1500 R.P,M.; vacuum 28.5//. 84 EMMET—THE CURTIS STEAM TURBINE. [April 2, wv) 9 = © WP. Per H.W. /6 O 20 40 60 80 /00 /20 140 160 Superheaqt Degrees Fehr CurVE 4,--Curve showing water consumption, in pounds per Kw. hour, of 600 Kw. Curtis Steam Turbine, with different degrees of superheat when operating with full load at 1500 R.P.M.; vacuum 28.5/’; pressure 140 lbs. gauge. ad ee NE alc ale a Senne Se Soe PBS 2 a ON SE a Se safest (SSE [1 sd aa lea aa Me SERS ERE ESR 2S SP) UR Os a ay HT Se A i WO aH, Mihi neath eyRhe ws Pees 6 lS as cg ae RS IL FSGS SROn Be ee eC BSG ESwMER ROR aE T Py ai As in i eS I Bane aie PBRewe eae SHC ksi o. at NOB Ss MS AAO Nef PO ee Vacuum /ns. Mercury CuRVE 5.—Curve showing water consumption, in pounds per Kw. hour, of 600 Kw. Curtis Steam. Turbine, at full load with different degrees of vacuum; speed 1500 R.P.M ; steam pressure 140 lbs. gauge. SCHENECTADY, N, Y., APRIL 2, 1903. 1903. ] LAMBERT—-MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. 85 NEW APPLICATIONS OF MACLAURIN’S SERIES IN THE SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS AND IN THE EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS. BY P, A. LAMBERT, (Read April 3, 1903.) I.—INTRODUCTION. The modern theory of differential equations is based on the expansion by Maclaurin’s series of the solutions of the equations in infinite series. The striking analogy existing between the theory of algebraic equations and the theory of differential equations suggested the possibility of expressing the solutions of algebraic equations in series to be obtained by an application of Maclaurin’s series. After some experi- menting the author happened on the device of introducing a factor r into all the terms but two of the equation f(y) =0, whereby y becomes an implicit function of +. The succes- sive r-derivatives of y are now formed, and together with y are evaluated for +=0. By Maclaurin’s series the expan- sions of y in powers of + become known. If + be made unity in these expansions, the roots of f(v)=0 are found, provided the resulting series are convergent. To illustrate this method, consider the equation (1) yt—8y? + 75y—10000 = 0. Maclaurin’s series yy a yy es yg a = Yo + ae (Ot aya) + ax,33! dee ay ss dy PYo dy" ao, Se , a | where Yo, 5 IR Re TRY stand for the values f dy @y @y dy >a’ de®” de® dae -- when # is made zero, expands y, a function of x, in powers of 2. By introducing a factor x in the second and third terms of (1) an equation is formed (2) yt— dary? + T5ry — 10000 — 0 which defines y as an implicit function of 2. 86 LAMBERT—MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. [April 3, Differentiating (2) twice in succession dy (3) 4y° OU __ ay? + Toy — Gay SH 4 + 75x tr = Ae dy 9,, UY dy dy\? __ (4) dy Gat ey (4) —12y "+ 1504 — br (S*) a Be te ey 6ay — da? = + 5a qa Making x zero in (2), (3) and (4) iy | 10 S40 ey 100 0 20 — — 1195, — 2625, +. 1875 — .075 /—1, + .1875 + .075/—1 0 oy °—__ 0029, — .0029, — .0000015 + .00391/ —i,— .0000015 — .0039/ —1, Ls Substituting these four sets of values in Maclaurin’s series and placing « —1, the roots of equation (1) are found to be Y, = + 9.886, y, =— 10.261, ys = + .1875 + 9.927 Y—1, Y, = + .1875 — 9.927 V—1, all correct to the last decimal. This method will be applied to the solution (II) of tri- nomial algebraic equations, (III) of general algebraic equa- tions, (IV) of trinomial transcendental equations, and finally (V) the method will be applied to obtain expansions com- monly obtained by Lagrange’s series. II.—TrRinoMIAL ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS. The general trinomial equation of degree n has the form (1) y®—nay>*—b=0. Introducing a factor x in the second term of (1) (2) y®—naay?*—b=0. Applying the method and denoting the n“ root of b by w 2 (3) y=o + ot* a + ot (1 2 4-0) 3 + ol (1— 3k +n) (1 —8k + 2n) aT 4 wise (1 —4k-+ n) (1 — 4h + 2n) (—ae-+ Bm) sey 1903.] LAMBERT—MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. 87 To determine when series (3) is convergent, group the terms numbered 1, n+1, 2n+1, 3n+1,.... , then those numbered 2, n+2, 2n+2, 3n+2,.... , finally those num- ered, 27; Bn, 41,6... wn. Each of these n partial series is found by Cauchy’s ratio test to be convergent when a” is numerically less than k*(n—k)**b*. When this condition of convergency is satisfied series (3), by substituting for w in succession each of the n values of the n” root of 6b, deter- mines the n roots of equation (1). By introducing the factor x in the third term of equation (1) and applying the method a series is obtained which deter- mines k roots of equation (1), and by introducing the factor x in the first term of equation (1) a series is obtained which determines n —k roots of equation (1). The two series thus obtained are convergent when a" is numerically greater than k*(n—k)**b*. When a*=k*(n—k)**b* equation (1) has equal roots. There is therefore developed a complete theory of trinomial equations. The general fifth degree equation can, py Tschirnhausen transformations requiring the solution of equations of the second and third degrees only, be transformed into the tri- nomial equation y’+ay+b=0. If a@ is numerically less 625 256 ing the method to y?+ary+b=0. If a’ is numerically greater 625 than 356 to y+ay+br=0 and zy’+ayt+b=0. If a numerically equals 6255.4 206 ” moval of the equal roots makes the solution of the fifth degree equation depend on the solution of an equation of a degree not higher than the third. A third degree equation becomes trinomial by removing the second term, which is accomplished by a linear transformation. The method of this paper therefore effects "the complete solution of the general fifth degree equation in infinite series. In Weber’s Algebra, volume I, pages 396-399, the real and imaginary roots of the equation 2? —2x —2=0 are computed by a method invented by Gauss for the solution of trinomial than b*, the five roots of this equation are found by apply- b‘, the five roots are found by applying the method the fifth degree equation has equal roots, and the re- 88 LAMBERT—MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. [Apml3, equations. The convergency test shows that the series found by introducing the variable factor in the second term is con- vergent. Now the mathematician is satisfied when the con- vergency of the infinite series he uses is established, but the computer desires that the infinite series he is obliged to use shall converge rapidly. By transforming the equation x? — 2x — 2=0 into another lacking the first power, which is accomplished by placing += ya the equation 54y3 — 18y —23=0 is found. The series found by applying the method to 54y?— 18%y— 23=0 converges much more rapidly than the series obtained from the original equation. Differentiating 54y? — 18%y —23=0 four times in succession and making x zero, Yo 7524, — 8762 + .8762V —3 @Yo 4477, -- 0738 = .0738// 3 dx i oe 21 da? %, 4 1 BY = — ar ae 5 dag) = 0019, + .0010 = .0010/ —3 1 dy, = as cam ae = .0004, — .0002 = .0002/ —3. The three values of y are .889 and —.4492 + .3012/ —3, the corresponding values of x are 1.768 and — .8847 + .5898Y —1. If the computations are made by logarithms they are not very lengthy. The equation y!— 11727 y+40385=0 occurs in a paper by Mr. G. H. Darwin ‘‘On the Precession of a Viscous Sphe- roid,” published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Part II, 1879, page 508. The convergency test shows that the factor x must be introduced in the last and in the first terms. The equation therefore has two real positive and two imaginary roots. Applying the method to 1903.] LAMBERT—MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. 89 y* —11727y + 403852 =0, Yor= 22.720, — 11.360 + 11.360V —3 a Pann ty = da? 2 ‘ i ane Sa 116, 058+ .058V—3 2! dit, es Pada ze Tan ST gata (Ole, 010 .010Y —3 a Tae — 004 — 04 Three roots of the equation are 21.432 and 12.444 + 19.759V—1. Applying the method to ay*—11727y + 40385 = 0, Yo = 3.4436, ie = ,0120, 4 Sh. = ,0002. The fourth root of the equation is 3.4558. This method applied to trinomial equations proves that an equation of degree n has n roots, determines how many roots are real, and presents a uniform scheme for computing all the roots, real and imaginary. II]. —GENERAL ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS. The method applied to the complete equation of degree n (7 —1) . nN : Hes furnishes —,,—~ series, and it becomes necessary to deter- ow mine which of these series give n convergent series for the roots of the equation and if possible to insure rapidity of convergence of these n series. Suppose the equation of degree n to be AP SEIS) 1 SP oat 4 amma oA ee a oA ai + i aca -- pS + OO hm -+ Bhatti -- Cr papain tee + dye 4 dgyp mt +... try +90, and suppose the terms which are underscored to be the terms from which the two terms into which the factor « is not intro. duced must be selected by taking consecutive terms in regu- lar order from the left. The problem is how to recognize the terms which must be underscored. 90 LAMBERT—MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. [April3, If the factor x isomitted from the first two underscored terms a Y= (— 1 *. if from the second and third underscored terms a we) 1 yo=(—2)"; if from the last two underscored terms - if from the third and fourth underscored terms 1 Y= (— ‘ Lia Altogether n values of y, are found, and it is seen ata glance what values of y, are real and what are imaginary. In order that these values of y, shall be close approximations of the roots of the given equation, the suc- Tyo BYo VY UY |. 4 s . € cessive derivatives a : Berens 1 «6X? aS dat - must be small. dx» 2 Forming ove corresponding to y,= (— >) and assuming that c Ly a is of such a magnitude that the term containing c overshadows all the other terms in the numerator of = it is found that 0 Ye is necessarily small if the ratio of b**+' to a'c* is numeri- i) cally large. This same condition insures that the following BY PYo Ota ue as In like manner it is shown that the derivatives correspond- 1 derivatives . « are small. ing to I,=(— 5) are small provided the ratio of c!+™ to 4=d@' is numerically large, and that the derivatives corre- 1 sponding to y,= (—2) are small provided the ratio of d=—*— to cmsn—k-l-m is numerically large. This ratio should, if possible, be made larger than 10 to insure rapid convergence. The directions for underscoring terms are therefore as follows : Underscore the first and last terms of the equation. Such other terms are to be underscored as satisfy the condition that if any three consecutive underscored terms be chosen, the ratio of the coefficient of the middle term with an ex- 1903.) LAMBERT—MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. 91 ponent equal to the difference of the degrees of the first and third terms to the product of the coefficient of the first of the three terms with an exponent equal to the difference of the degrees of the second and third terms and the coefficient of the third term with an exponent equal to the difference of the degrees of the first and second terms shall be a large number. To illustrate the method, the following equations are discussed : (a) y& — 10y° + Gy + 1=0. Here all the terms are underscored, for the ratio of 104 to 6 is large, and the ratio of 6’ to 10 is large. The method must be applied to (1) y— 107+ 6ry +2=0, {2) xy? — 10y? + 6y +x =0 and (3) ay — 10ry*?+6y+1=0. The computation determines the following values: From (1) Yo = + 3.167, — 3.167 dy ae — 0.100, + 0.090 2 } el = — 0,008, + 0.008; Lo From (2) Yo = + 0.775, — 0.775 dYo __ ee aoa + 0.107, + 0.060 te ees Sige = — 0-008, + 0.016 ; From (3) RTE Sr ge 7 fs = SS (Uy = — 0.007. dz The roots of the given equation are y, = + 3.05, Y= — 3.06, yz= +0.87, ysz=— 0.69, y;=— 0.17. (6) at + 4a3 — 4? — ile + 4=0. Here the terms to be underscored in addition to the first and last are probably the second and fourth, but as the ratio of 43 to 11 is rather small, it is safer to transform the equation into another lacking the second term by the substitution x=y—1. There results y — 10y? + 5y + 8 = 0. The terms to be underscored are the first, second and last and the roots are obtained by applying the method to 92 LAMBERT—MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. [April 3, y' — 107?+52y+8xr=0 and xy! — 10y?+5a4y+8=0. From each of the two equations two real roots, one positive and one negative, are found. (c) Tat + 202° + 382? — 162 —8 = 0. Here the terms to be underscored are probably the first, second and last, indicating the existence of two imaginary and two real roots, one positive and one negative. All doubt is removed by transforming by x=y — .7 into Ty + Ay? — 18 42y? — 1.404y — .5093 = 0. The transformation x=y —.7 is selected because it is a simple transformation which makes the coefficient of the second term very small. (d) x + 12a + 592° + 1502? + 2012 — 207 = 0. Here probably only the first and last terms are to be underscored, indicating the existence of four imaginary roots and one real positive root. Transforming by r=y — 2, which makes the coefficient of the second term small, y° + By -b Sy? =P ay? by — Bal 0. The roots are found by applying the method to y? + 2ay*t + Bry? + 4ay? + dry — 321 = 0 (e) xt — 80a* + 19982? — 149372 + 5000 = 0. Here probably every term should be underscored, indicat- ing four positive real roots. Transforming by the substitu- tion z=y+20, y* — 402y? + 983y + 25460 — 0. Here the terms to be underscored are the first, second and last. More rapidly convergent series are found by reversing the last equation, 234600 + 9830? — 4020 + 1=0, and making the substitution »=z—.01, whence 2546024 — 35.42% — 416.2142? + 8.233062 + .9590716 = 0, When z has been computed, zx is found from 20002 + 80 Fe Ne ee a 1903.] LAMBERT—MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. 93 Only linear transformations which make the coefficient of the second term of the complete equation or of the equation reversed zero or small are used, as other transformations become too complicated to make the method practicable. IV.—TRANSCENDENTAL TRINOMIAL EQUATIONS. Let an equation of the form y+aj(y)+b=0, where }(y) is a transcendental function, be called a transcendental trinom- ial equation. Such equations are readily solved by the method, provided the resulting series is rapidly convergent, but in the absence of a transformation which insures rapid convergence the method has little practical value. Suppose the equation 2y+logy — 1000=0 to be given. Applying the method to 2y+zlogy — 1000=0, if the Napierian logarithm of y is taken, y,=5000, = = — 4.30625, 2 ia —/0 _ 4.000215, and y=4995.69; if the common logarithm dz, ies —1.84948,1 © — + 9.00018, and of y is taken, Yo= 5000, | t da,? y= 4998. 15. V.—EXPANSIONS. If y=z+ve¢(y), where v and z are independent variables, Lagrange’s series expands any function of y in powers of v. These expansions may be obtained by writing y=z+vzr¢(y) and expanding [ (y), which now becomes a function of 2, by Maclaurin’s series and making x unity in the result. The method will be illustrated by obtaining two expan- sions which occur in theoretical astronomy. From the equation H=M-+e sin EH, where EF is the eccentric anomaly, M the mean anomaly and e the eccentricity of the orbit, it is necessary to find H and (1 — ecos EL)? To find HE, write H=M-+ex sin E, whereby EL becomes an implicit function of x. Differentiating twice ir succession with respect to x, dE j d# dp ¢Sin H+ ew cos H , CEH dH he dk dg ee # ag t ex cos H daz &% sin (4 = 94 LAMBERT—MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. [April3, dk, : @E ‘ Making x zero, H,=M, =e sinM, dn? = 2 cos M sin M. 0 0 Substituting in Maclaurin’s series and making x unity, 2 E=M+esnU+ > sin(2M) +.... To find (1 — ecosH)-, write H=M-+ezxsin EH and y=(1—ecos£)~. Since y is a function of x through EH, 1 pt ey (1 — e cos #)—* sin yy dx dz Ly RE 8S os #)—+sin? wo ae 6e? (1 —ecos #)—‘sin i. 2 — Re (1—ecos H)—*cos #( ) dx — Re (1—ecosH)—'sin # ue dx* Placine: 2—0; when w=; Le =esinM and CH Lone ap 26 sin M cos M, Y = (1 — e cos M)—’, Wo _ __ 96 (1 — ¢ cos M)— sin? Wf dX 2 ayo = Get (1 — e cos M)-—‘sin‘ I, dxy as — 6e (1 — e cos M)—‘sin? YU cos M. Substituting in Maclaurin’s series and making z unity, (1 — e cos H)— = (1 — e cos M)— — 2¢ (1 — e cos M)— sin? M + 8c ( — ¢ cos M)—‘sint M — 3é (1 — e cos M)—sin’*M cos M+ .... In like manner all expansions obtained by Lagrange’s series may be obtained by a direct application of Maclaurin’s series. Of course it is evident that if e is considered a varia- ble the derivatives with respect to e may be formed and the introduction of x is unnecessary. 193.1 | LAMBERT—MACLAURIN’S SERIES OF EQUATIONS. 5 HistoricaL NOTE. Lagrange, in the memoir ‘‘ Nouvelle methode pour resoudre les Equations Litterales par le moyen des Series,” read before the Berlin Academy in 1770, found all the roots of an equation in infinite series. McClintock, in Volume xvii of the American Journal of Mathematics, obtained by his Calculus of Enlargement series better adapted to computa- tion. It was recognized that these series may be obtained by Lagrange’s series. McClintock calls the coefficients of the terms which have been underscored the dominants of the equation. The method of the present paper brings the com- putation of the roots of equations by means of series within the range of elementary instruction. Since completing this paper the author found in an extract of a letter from Cauchy to Coriolis, of January 29, 1837, published in the Comptes Rendus of the Paris Academy, an announcement of important results to be obtained by break- ing up an equation into two parts and introducing as a factor a parameter into one part, which parameter is ultimately to be made unity. Ina postscript Cauchy states he discovered the advantage of making one part a binomial. But the author has been unable to find the method sketched in this letter developed. It would indeed be surprising if a method so strikingly direct had escaped notice. LEHIGH UNIVERSITY, SOUTH BETHLEHEM, PA, 96 GOODSPEED—FIELD SURROUNDING CROOKES TUBE. [May 15, ON THE PROPERTIES OF THE FIELD SURROUNDING A CROOKES TUBE. BY ARTHUR W. GOODSPEED. (Plates II and III.) (Read May 15, 1903.) The investigation of the subject implied by the title of this arti- cle was suggested by the unexpected presence on some radiographic records of peculiar markings outlining certain bodies de/ow the plate, in addition to the expected shadows of the objects above the plate—z.e., between the sensitive film and the vacuum tube. While using an iron tripod stand with a ring-shaped top as a support for a radiographic plate, it was noticed that the plate when exposed to X-rays seemed to be influenced locally by the presence of the iron ring below. For after exposing a circular piece of bronze placed on the upper side of the plate which had rested on the stand during exposure, the development showed that just above the metal of the stand the plate was appreciably less affected through the bronze than under that portion of the latter which had not been over the metal support. ‘This startling observation suggested at once more careful investigation, especially since on first thought it would seem that if the metal below the plate could have any effect, the result should be quite the contrary to what was observed—z.e., if the metal below sends off ‘‘emanations’’ of some sort which might produce an effect on the sensitive film, the latter would be expected to show an increased density where influ- enced both by the rays from above and by the emanations from beneath. Apparent anomalies have on several occasions been noticed on radiographic plates, some similar to that just mentioned, but these have never been definite enough to invite special investigation. A large number of experiments were made at once in rapid succession with strips and plates of various substances both below and above. the sensitive film, with results ‘always the same in char- acter though differing in intensity of effect in different experi- ments and with different materials. As examples of the character of some of the tests, sheets of paraffin, mica, and of aluminum were successively placed between the under metals and the film, with the result that the effect in every case was similar, only a little less intense 1903.] GOODSPEED—-FIELD SURROUNDING CROOKES TUBE. 97 than when no screen was interposed. The original records of all these experiments and the particular conditions in each case have been carefully preserved. A single figure will be enough to illus- trate this effect. Fig. 1 shows the result when two zinc blocks, one of them pol- ished, were placed below the photographic plate upon which the latter rested. On this were a strip of copper, one of lead, a tri- angular and thicker piece of uranium, and a piece of metallic indium about one millimetre thick and three centimetres square. Fifteen centimetres above this combination the discharge tube was operated for twenty-five minutes, the rays being directed down- ward. ‘The zinc blocks were below the lateral edges of the plate and covered each about a third of its area. There certainly is nothing ambiguous about the result, and the degree of polish seems to have nothing to do with the effect. The middle third is dis- tinctly darker than the rest in those parts just under the metal pieces. The transverse strip in the middle was lead and is distinctly less pervious than the copper on the left. In looking up some of the early work of Roentgen, I found that one of his experiments was almost identical in character with those just described, but less strenuous and designed for quite a different purpose.’ He arranged star-shaped pieces of four metals, platinum, lead, zinc and aluminum, covered by a light-protected photographic plate, film towards the stars and glass towards the tube. On devel- opment after exposure to the rays from a focus tube identical in principle with that universally used at present, the metal stars showed darker than the rest of the ground. The purpose of his experiment was to demonstrate a possible reflection from the metal stars, and the result obtained was interpreted as conclusive evidence at the time that such was the case. For obvious reasons it seemed desirable to repeat Roentgen’s experiment as nearly as possible as he made it. This was done with some difficulty, on- account of the fact that the apparatus in use developed rays of such penetrating power that the glass backing of the sensitive film offered little obstruction, and even with a very short exposure the whole film was so dense as to show nothing of the metal pieces. Increasing the thickness of the glass made it possible, after several trials and by using a contrast-developer especially prepared for PROC, AMER. PHILOS. soc. XLII. 172. G. PRINTED MAY 28, 1903. 98 GOODSPEED—FIELD SURROUNDING CROOKES TUBE. [May 15, over-exposures, to produce a fairly definite result, as shown in Fig. 2. It is to be noted, however, that the parts of the film just next the pieces are Zess dense than the rest—7z.e., the shadows are light on a darker ground. Fig. 3 shows the result when to the glass of ordinary thickness was added thick blocks of zinc. The characteristics of these two plates are identical, except that the latter is more dense and shows greater contrast. In Fig 4 we have reproduced a plate made just as was that of Fig. 3, except that the exposure was thirty minutes instead of fifteen. The appearance is certainly remarkable, for though the direct X-rays had been entirely cut off by the zinc blocks the shadows are exactly as would have been produced by reversing the process and exposing directly to the Roentgen rays, though for a -much briefer time. The influence on the side of the plate remote from the tube seems to have more than neutralized the Roentgen reflection effect, -and the more so the greater the exposure. From these three experiments it seems probable that with a much less powerful X-ray generator, a suitable exposure would show the result noted by Roentgen. As is seen below, this was probably not due to reflection. The next plate (Fig. 5) shows the impression of the ring stand, above spoken of, when the former was covered with a sheet of copper about a millimetre thick and exposed twenty-four minutes. In Fig. 6 the stand is replaced by a brass ring supported by a block of wood. The penumbral effect around the inside edge is to be noted. As an interesting modification of this experiment I asked one of my associates, Dr. Richards, to hold his hand beneath the plate, protected above with thick metal blocks, and exposed the combina- tion five minutes. The result (see Fig. 7), though lacking in defini- tion, is quite like the first radiographs made without a focus tube. We seem now to be led up to a satisfactory explanation of what we have observed so far—z.e., of this apparent ‘‘ nether effect ’’ reaching completely around into the shadow of an obstruction totally impervious to X-rays proper, and acting in a direction just opposite to that of the rays from the tube. It must be noted here that so-called ‘‘ X-ray diffusion’’ has long been recognized, and an early experiment” with a fluoroscope PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. SOC., VoL. XLII. No. 172. PLATE Il. nh OD ig ass if 1903.] GOODSPEED—FIELD SURROUNDING CROOKES TUBE. 99 behind a thick steel plate was explained variously, the most thought- ful suggestion perhaps being by Prof. Elihu Thomson, who pro- posed that the screen was rendered luminous by the action of X-rays reflected from various objects in the room. From all the experiments yet made in the effort to account for what at first seemed to be, to say the least, a paradox of science, it looks as if the whole space field in the neighborhood of a focus Crookes tube in operation is full of some sort of subtle energy, radiant pos- sibly, but incapable of affecting the human eye, though leaving its mark on a photographic plate. It was found by Sagnac* that many bodies in the path of X-rays acquire the property of emitting emanations of some sort capable of causing fluorescence and photographic action. Undoubtedly then the effects above described are due to the secondary radio-activity of the air, the table and other bodies favor- ably located to be impinged by the X-rays directly. In order to gain more knowledge of the possible limitations of this ‘‘radious”’ field, metal tubes of various sizes and lengths were placed on the plate, and now for convenience the entire local order of the articles used was completely réversed. Furthermore, the Crookes tube was enclosed in a black wooden light-tight box, and all experiments were made in the night, so that every trace of optical light might be more easily excluded. We have now the tube in its box, so placed that the axis of the ray-cone is directed vertically upwards. On the upper surface of the box and over the focus of the tube is a bundle of lead plates about one centimetre thick. On this, film upward, is the photographic plate. This arrangement differs from that of Sagnac in that the fvores- cent light from his tube was not filtered out, as it is here, by the box enclosing the X-ray bulb. In Fig. 8 we have the result of a twenty-three minute exposure, when a brass tube five centimetres high, eight centimetres in diam- eter and three millimetres thick is placed on the plate, the tube being open at the top. This experiment was repeated with a thick block of pine wood, placed on top of the brass tube, with no change in result. The condition of the enclosed space is inde- pendent of the presence of the wood, and the enclosed area of the film is much affected. When however the tube is covered with a thick block of zinc, this seems to protect the sensitive film completely from outside 100 GOODSPEED—FIELD SURROUNDING CROOKES TUBE. [May 15. influence, for the density of the exposure was found to be the same over the area within as under the edge of the tube, z.e., nearly zero. It does not seem possible that this effect could result entirely from the action of the Sagnac rays, since little if any of the area at the base of the brass cylinders can be reached by a straight line from any particle of matter traversed by the direct X-rays. It can be explained as a tertiary effect, produced by the air or wood just over the top, which had received its energy from the secondary emanations of other bodies in the direct path of the X-rays, or possibly the secondary or Sagnac rays may be of the nature of dark phosphorescence, 7.¢., lasting for a time after the cause has ceased. Reasons for favoring the latter view appear as a conclusion to this paper. In this case the diffusion of the air in the room would cause the whole space to be uniformly active. The arrangement just described suggested some easy tests on reflecting or diffusing power of different surfaces, as Sagnac had made in a different way in his investigations. In a brass tube similar to the one used above, at two points 90° apart, windows were cut 1 centimetre wide and 4.5 centimetres high. This tube was capped with zinc or lead, so that nothing could enter except through the windows. It was placed on the plate and a polished zinc block arranged opposite one window. Fig. 9 shows the result, all other conditions being as before. The exposure was twenty minutes. The streak entering the window opposite the zinc is unmistakable, and the diffused ‘‘radious’’ state of the whole enclosed space is demonstrated by noting the line of contact of the tube. A little brush in at the other window, too, is clearly dis- tinguishable though faint. It seemed most desirable now, if pos- sible, to make this phenomenon optically visible, and with this in view the following arrangement was set up: Instead of the smaller lead block used with the radiographic plates, sheets aggregating one centimetre in thickness and a little larger than a 7xg screen were placed on the box. On this a barium platinum cyanide screen was placed, face up, but covered with a piece of pasteboard. In this cover a circular hole was cut just the outside diameter of the window tube described above, through which the latter was placed, resting on the fluorescent screen. Its length was doubled by placing an extension on top. This was found by experiment effectually to exclude all noticeable influence except that through the windows. PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. SOC., VoL. XLII, No. 172. PLATE Ill. ae a j Uo a . ' ‘ . ¥ 1903.] GOODSPEED—FIELD SURROUNDING CROOKES TUBE. 101 The whole was in a perfectly dark room optically, and the eye was placed above the tube looking down. After the eyes had acquired a maximum sensitiveness by the total exclusion of light for ten to fifteen minutes, the Crookes bulb was set in operation and the space within the brass tube critically examined from above. The screen was unmistakably luminous to the eye and the windows were clearly located. Now the polished zinc was moved about in front of one of the openings, in the hope of detecting a variation of luminosity on the screen opposite this window. The result was at first disappoint- ing ; the position of maximum effect was certainly not that of 45°, as employed in the photographic experiments. In fact, very incon- sistent positions seemed to give the greater illumination through the window under attention. Finally it became quite obvious that the zinc had little to do with what was visible. In fact, on laying aside the metal I was able to light up brighter than ever the inside of the brass box by holding my hand in a suitable position in front of the window. This experiment made certain by ocular demonstration that the human hand has by being placed in the path of the X-rays absorbed some sort of energy, by means of which it has acquired the prop- erty of emanating something capable of exciting fluorescence upon the screen. It remains now to demonstrate what effect these emanations will have upon a photographic plate as compared with those from the zinc, and Fig. to shows the result of a three- minute exposure with my hand only, placed opposite one of the windows, the tube resting upon a photographic plate in its usual protecting envelopes. A similar experiment was next tried (see Fig. 11) by holding a hand in front of each window, one of the latter being closed by a thin sheet of plate glass.. It is obvious from the results obtained that the physiological rays emitted by the hands affect the plate through its protecting covers, but are unable easily to penetrate glass. It is only a step now to produce a ‘‘ physio-radiogram,’’ and Fig. 12 is a reproduction of a record made by the secondary activity emanating from my own hand stimulated by a stream of Roentgen rays with an exposure of three minutes. The shadows are those of acent, a gold finger-ring and a piece of aluminum about half a millimetre thick, and it is apparent that aluminum is somewhat translucent to these rays. Although Guilloz‘* had made just such shadow radiographs with 102 GOODSPEED—FIELD SURROUNDING CROOKES TUBE. . [May 15, Sagnac rays emanating from his hand, the visible fluorescence gen- erated by the tube was not cut off by any opaque screen, and there is no reason for assuming that this light may not have played some part in his results. In the present experiments everything has been done in complete optical darkness. I have been unable to find out if Guilloz’s pictures were actually published, and so cannot compare his results in detail with my own. In connection with the present subject, my attention has been called by unpleasant personal experience to a very suggestive coin- cidence. The nature and pathology of X-ray dermatitis is, and has been from the first, surrounded with mystery. Much ‘ingenious technical literature has been published in the medical journals all over the world for the last six years, with the result that to-day little is known about either the real cause, the nature, the proper method of preventing, or the best treatment of this most distressing and lingering affliction. A comparative history of many cases reveals many inconsistencies, followed by an increased sense of ignorance on the subject. The personal experience to which I ~ refer suggests a possible step towards a better understanding of the phenomenon. During a week in June, 1902, I occupied the Roentgen ray room asasleeping apartment. At the end of this time an acute inflamma- tion of the eyes and throat appeared, all symptoms of an ordinary cold or of any digestive disturbance being absent. At the end of the week referred to I left town and the inflammation gradually subsided during the next three or four days. For similar reasons I had occasion to sleep in the same room during the first week of the present month. At the end of that time my attention was pain- fully called to a.recurrence of the symptoms observed a year ago. On ceasing to sleep in the room all trouble disappeared. As I have never had any such experiences other than those referred to, it seems not too much to infer that the peculiar inflammatory con- dition may have been due to some action of the secondary emana- tions sent out by the walls and air of the room after the generation of X-rays had ceased. Continuous breathing of such ‘‘ darkly phosphorescing ’’ air might well account for the trouble in the throat and vocal chords. In the daytime the doors and windows were always more or less open, so that the air was continuously changing, and my eyes were protected considerably by glasses, through which neither the primary nor the secondary rays pass easily. i903.| GOODSPEED—FIELD SURROUNDING CROOKES TUBE. 103 The inference seems fair that the recurrence of the inflammatory condition was not a mere coincidence, and that these secondary rays may be found to be of more importance than has been sup- posed. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1 Thompson, X-Rays, p. 70. 2 Thompson, X-Rays, p. 129. 3’ Sagnac, Compte Rendus, 1897-98. Sagnac, Annales de Chemie et de Physique (7), xxii, 1901; pp. 493-563. Perrin, Comte Kendus, Vol. cxxiv, p- 455. Townsend, J. S., Proc. Camb. Philos, Soc., 1900, x, pp. 217-226. 4 Guilloz, Compte Rendus, February, 1900. UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, RANDAL MORGAN LABORATORY OF PHYSICS, May 15, 1903. a 1 Wari ray vyh 4. WA nye a G CORO OL at me el sh / Lyi Ai Yoh pees fe ha een ii Fuente he P ; { hae ‘ Ma et rat STROLL VEL eee r Wa RdTSY as Ae 16AXE pales, tes hia Leite ph aA power N Fe iy at 4 Lay ' yy gah ont date Epa 2nd q “! oe PROCEEDINGS AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY HELD AT PHILADELPHIA FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE Vou. XLII. APRIL—May, 1903. No. 178. ON THE DEPENDENCE OF WHAT APPARENTLY TAKES PLACE IN NATURE UPON WHAT ACTUALLY OCCURS IN THE UNIVERSE --OF REAL’ EXIST- ENCES. BY G. JOHNSTONE STONEY, M.A., SC.D., F.R.S. (Read April 3, 1903.) CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. Hitherto attempts to ascertain the events that are actually hap- pening in the universe of real existences, and to ascertain what those existences are—in other words, the study of ontology—have been pursued almost exclusively from the standpoint of the meta- physician of the human mind. This mode of treatment has led to a few negative results which are chiefly of value by helping to dispel some popular errors, but it has established little that is posi- tive, or that can be of service to the scientific student of nature. And yet investigations of Natural Science have been pushed in more than one direction into contact with problems of ontology, and are there brought to a stand owing to the different levels at which these two fields of investigation lie. Examples of this are met with in physiology, when we find our progress blocked on coming face to face with the problem as to what is the true nature of the interdependence between the thoughts of animals and changes in their brains; and generally throughout physics, when we make any attempt to penetrate to the causes of the events that cccur. It appears, therefore, to be in an eminent degree desirable that an attempt shall be made to bring natural science and ontology into line by carrying on the ontological investigation from the stand- point of the scientific student of nature. PROC. AMER. PHILOS. 800, XLII. 173. H. PRINTED JUNE 6, 1903. 106 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3, There are other reasons also why the inquiry should be taken up by scientific men. The difficulties which have to be encountered are perhaps not so much intrinsic as collateral, They all arise from the circumstances under which we, men, have to carry out the in- quiry, and are of a kind with which scientific men are better fitted to cope than others. A very serious liability to error is consequent upon the excessively secluded position of the human mind in the universe of existing things. How indirect and how slender the connections will appear in the sequel. This creates illusions greater than those experienced by the old astronomers who were misled by man’s being tied to an earth that seemed to them to be stationary. Another chief source of our difficulties is that we have to enter on this study hampered by crude beliefs in which we have been brought up, which are embedded into the language we are obliged to use, and in which we habitually think; but which the inquiry shows to be a jumble of truth and error. These.we must make it our busi- ness to correct, retaining the germ of truth in each, and by slow degrees acquiring the power of amending, promptly and without effort, all those parts of these beliefs which require correction. We are far from having done enough when we merely become aware of the errors; nor is it even enough that we shall have discovered what ought to take their place. We have not accomplished our task till it becomes our second nature to do this habitually and without premeditation, with regard to all that is about us and all that is within us. This takes time. But when it is accomplished the reward is great. A special difficulty arises from our being obliged to use some one of the languages that can be understood by our fellow-men. Every language that has been devised by man implies mistaken views in ontology ; and that not occasionally, for every human language is permeated by these errors. Now, students of natural science, men who have had an exten- sive training in the study of nature, and especially those who have devoted themselves mainly to the dynamical and physical aspects. of that study, are better equipped for contending successfully with these difficulties than are their fellow-students whose main training has been confined to the tiny plot which lies within the ring-fence that surrounds the works of man—the languages he has devised, his. literature and history, his music, poetry, architecture, painting and. sculpture, his jurisprudence, his moral relations, the metaphysics of his mind, and so on; in fact, all branches of what in our universi- — |. 1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. 107 ties are called the humanities. Explorers of nature, investigators of the work done or being done: which is not man’s work, stand a better chance of success than those whose thoughts mainly travel within the narrower range: and on several accounts; first, because they find less difficulty in freeing themselves from the limitations of the human standpoint, which we may liken to the Ptolemaic point of view, and in grasping the wider resources of a more Copernican survey ; largely, too, because they more easily ‘become expert in using such symbols as words in a generalized or otherwise modified sense when it becomes necessary to do so; but perhaps most of all because they are already familiar with the contrast between the two kinds of supposition which those physicists who use language care- fully distinguish as ¢heortes and hypotheses. As some readers of the papers I have already written on these subjects have found here their chief difficulty, it appears desirable ‘to devote a chapter of this essay to its elucidation. This, indeed, is almost necessary; inasmuch as sound progress in the task before us is not even possible unless this distinction is clearly grasped, and unless a facility has been acquired in handling both hypotheses and theories without risk of the confu- sion between them which has been too often made. CHAPTER 2. OF THEORIES AND HYPOTHESES. ‘Both theories and hypotheses are suppositions—a theory means a supposition which we hope to be true, a hypothesis is a supposition which we expect to be useful. Theories accordingly are either cor- rect or incorrect, true or false, quite irrespectively of whether we, men, can make much, or little, or any use of them. Zhe merit of a theory ts simply to be true. It often, indeed usually, happens that the true theory is also useful; but it by no means need be so. Accordingly, the question whether a particular theory is of any use is irrelevant. On the other hand a hypothesis is a supposition which aims at being useful, and which ts legitimate if useful. A hypothesis may be a theory—in other words, a supposition which we make expect- ing it to help us forward in our investigation, may also be the sup- position which we think to be true: but it by no means need be so; and in fact the best, z.c., the most useful, hypotheses are often of the kind that make no pretense to being true. For example, all applications of mathematics to the investigation of nature are de- ay 4 > ‘ 108 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES, [April3, ductions from data, in which simpler machinery is intentionally substituted for complex operations going on in objective nature. Thus, in computing the mutual perturbations of the planets, the planets are treated as though they were spheres, made up of untex- tured spherical shells, each of uniform density throughout ; and it is left out of account that they approach to being spheroids, with mountains on their surface, irregularities of a like kind at greater depths, rocks in those mountains, minerals in those rocks, a differ- ent molecular texture in each mineral involving numberless motions among and within the molecules; moreover with tidal strains, heat expansions by day, contractions by night, and so on; perhaps seas and an atmosphere, vegetation and animals, all in constant and complicated movement ; with a multitude of other details. Now it is legitimate to omit all these from our calculation, for though every one of them produces its effect in actual nature, the differ- ence between their joint operation and that computed from the im- mensely simplified hypothesis made by the mathematician, can be shown to be too small to make any approach to being detected by any human appliance. Hence, for any purpose which is of use to man, the approximation arrived at by the simpler problem is sufficient, wherever the errors are of such a nature that they are not cumulative. Nevertheless, tt should be clearly recognized that tt is a model of nature—a mechanism tllustrating nature—and not nature tself, that has been mathematically investigated. So it is with all dynamical 1 This has been sometimes overlooked, A recent instance is in a determina- tion of the rate‘at which gases escape from atmospheres, based on the insufficient data commonly used in the mathematical investigation of such problems, and leading to a rate for the escape of helium from the earth’s atmosphere which is negatived by observation (see Bryan, on the Kinetic Theory of Atmospheres, Phil, Trans. of the Royal Society, vol. 196 A, 1901, p. 1; and Stoney, on the behavior of helium in the earth’s atmosphere, Astrophysical Fournal, vol. xi, 1900, p. 369). In such cases it may be difficult, and is sometimes impossible, to put our finger on the oversight that has been made. In this instance it may be conjectured with some probability that the mistake has been in the tacit assumption that the par- tition of energy between the internal and the translational motions of the mole- cules takes place with a frequency which warrants our arguing from the supposi- tion, tacitly made in the mathematical investigation, that it goes on without inter_ mission, There seems reason to believe that this partition of energy actually takes place, not at every encounter, but only at encounters as infrequent from the molecular standpoint as those that make chemical reaction possible between the molecules of a mixture of suitable gases. Now this, in the case of a mixture ee ee 1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXJSTENCES. 109 investigations: the data of nature are loaded with minute detail and are far too much involved ; they have to be simplified to bring the task within the range of man’s power over mathematical analysis. But for our present purpose a specially instructive instance is found in Geometrical Optics. The correct objective theory of light appears to be that light consists objectively of waves of alternating electro-magnetic stresses advancing through the ether. Now the whole of Geometrical Optics—which is one of our most useful sciences—is built upon:the supposition that light consists of rays— a supposition which must not be mistaken for a ¢heory of light: on the contrary, this supposition is to be employed as a useful and therefore legitimate hypothesis. In Geometrical Optics what we investigate is the succession of events, not in nature, but in a model of nature. We have substituted a model which contains far more easily handled machinery than that which operates in nature, every step in the progress of which can be foretold by the application of singularly easy mathematical analysis, can be represented in easily understood diagrams, and can be imagined and followed without difficulty by students who possess but little skill. What a loss we should sustain if that most useful hypothesis were not available ! the justification of which is that it is so easily dealt with, and that it furnishes results that are true within known limits. For example, the new machinery furnishes the correct positions of optical images, although the image itself, the geometrical image as it is called, differs in material respects from any real image. Thus, it pre- sents us with an unlimited amount of detail, much of which must be regarded as false, because it is detail which does not exist in the images produced by nature. The hypothesis is useful wz¢hzx cer- tain limits, but will mislead if misapplied. of equal volumes of hydrogen and chlorine, only occurs about once in 1000 million encounters in sunshine, and less frequently in feebler light, down to about once in 100 millions of millions of encounters, so far as the observations have been recorded. An infrequency of this kind would have but little effect at the bottom of our atmosphere, but would make the distribution of molecular speeds differ altogether from that which has been computed in that penultimate stratum of the earth’s atmosphere from which the escape takes place. 110 : - STONEY—-UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3, CHAPTER 3. OF THE ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE SIGNIFICATIONS OF TERMS. We may make use of Geometrical Optics for another purpose— to illustrate the variety of meanings which such words as existence, theory, hypothesis, actual, real, etc., may have. They are freely used in Geometrical Optics. They are there used in a relative sense, in subordination to the hypothesis that light consists of rays, which for the time being must be left unquestioned, and which we may call the master hypothesis, as it governs the use to be made of those terms. Thus we speak of ~ea/ rays in front of a mirror, and of wrtual rays behind it; we say that the true /Aeory is that the image on the retina is formed by rays reflected from the front of the mirror, but that it is legitimate to make the Ayforhesis that they emanate from a virtual image behind. When, however, we take the wider view that light is an electro-magnetic wxdulation, we recognize that what a moment ago we called real rays are not real, but a machinery substituted for what is real in the new sense that we have now to give to that word. For we are now using the term real in subordination to a much wider hypothesis, viz.: the great objective hypothesis that not only do our perceptions exist tempo- rarily, but also that each of those syntheta of perceptions which we call natural objects exists as a whole and persistently. And when we come in turn to recognize that this, in its turn, is not the true theory of existence, but only an eminently useful hypothesis— probably, indeed, the most useful hypothesis known to man—and when we find that we must advance a step behind it to reach the true theory of existence, then at last we reach the stage at which we may use the word vea/in its fullest abso/ute sense; if we succeed in acquir- ing a right to apply it to what is going on in the autic universe, the universe of real existences. Thus such terms as existence, theory, real, actual, etc., only attain their absolute, which is their fullest, meaning when applied to the events that go on in the Universe of Auta; and are to be understood in their objective, which is a rela- tive, sense when applied to what we regard as going on in that great objective hypotheton which we call nature; and in another still more removed relative sense when used in subordination to the nar- rower hypothesis which we have to entertain while investigating nature by the science of Geometrical Optics. When once this is clearly understood we are warned, and in some degree forearmed, Ta 1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. 111 against falling into mistakes between the various shades of meaning which the poverty of language obliges us to put up with in such terms as existence, theory, actual, real, etc. If in any context we have occasion to employ any of these terms in more than one of its permissible meanings, it may sometimes be advisable to distinguish between them in some such way as that which is familiar to mathe- maticians when they write a, a’, a’, etc., for different quantities. Availing ourselves of this device, we may write [real], within square brackets, when we wish to make it explicit that the word is to be understood in its absolute, that is in its autic, sense; and [real], with a dash, when the word is used in its objective, which is it principal relative, sense ; while [real]”, [real ]’”, etc., may be used to signify the other relative meanings which the term has when used in subordination to more limited hypotheses, as when we describe the rays of Geometrical Optics as being some of them [real]” and others virtual. The same treatment may be extended to any other terms that seem to require the precaution. It is against mistakes between the odjective and the auzic significations of words that we have to be most on our guard. ‘This will become clearer as we proceed. CHAPTER 4. Or AUTA: AND OF THE MEANING TO BE ATTRIBUTED TO THE WorD Zofality. It may be seen from the foregoing pages that the human mind is better fitted to cope with the scientific study of what apparently occurs in nature, than with the attempt to penetrate behind nature to the causes of these appearances. To do this requires us to inquire what has been happening in the universe of real existences, and to endeavor to determine what those existences are. In the scientific study of nature we travel along one of the great highways of human thought; in ontology we have to make our roads as well as to push our way along them. It is therefore all the more important that we should bring to our aid every help which the scientific study of nature can supply. The present essay is an attempt to avail ourselves of this assistance. Let us for convenience call the real existences aufa (ta dvta atta) —the very things themselves. An auto, then, is a thing that really exists, and in no wise depends on the way we—human minds— may happen to regard it. Our impressions or beliefs about it may be correct or may be erroneous, but the term auto means the thing ttself. 112 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3, We may also use the term wmverse to mean the Zofality of these auta. To prevent confusion, it may be well to designate the totality of natural objects by some other name. We may call it nature, or the cosmos, reserving the term universe for ‘he fofality of auta. Or, if at any time the word wmzverse is applied to the totality of natural objects, it may be written with a dash, the objective [universe]’, to distinguish it unmistakably from the autic [universe]. It is to be noted that here and elsewhere the word /ofality is to be understood as having a more comprehensive’ meaning than the word aggregate. .Any collection of auta, however disorderly, would be an aggregate of those auta. By their /ofality is to be understood those auta, uuder one definite set of conditions—viz. : under the conditions that actually prevail—with those mutual rela- tions, performing those operations, undergoing those changes that actually occur. CHAPTER 5. IN WHAT SENSE THE TERM ¢hought 1s EMPLOYED. We shall want a term which is applicable to everything of which T or my fellow-men or the lower animals can be conscious ; and as at present no word in the English language has this wide significa- tion, we shall extend or generalize the meaning of the term ¢hought, so as to make it serve. Accordingly ¢hough?t, in the generalized sense in which we shall use it, embraces sensations, perceptions, be- liefs, feelings, memories, emotions, sentiments, judgments, motives, acts of will, and so on—in fact, everything which comes within the consciousness of any animal. I shall also use the term J, or the ego, or my mind, to denote the totality (not the mere aggregate) of a certain group of these thoughts, which may be spoken of as my thoughts. Observe that the word mind is here used in one of the two significations which it has in the English language, and that it will not in the present essay be used in the other of those senses. Accordingly, in the present essay, the term znd will not be used to signify the ‘ spiritual substance’ which, according to a view very widely entertained, is supposed to be in existence, as well as the 1JIn Formal Logic the comprehension of a term is the collection of ideas which are included in the definition of the term. Accordingly, the greater the comprehension of a term, the fewer will be the individuals to whom that term can be applied. This is expressed in Logic by saying that the greater the com- prehension of a term, the less is its extension. For example, Spaniard is a term which has a greater comprehension and a less extension than European. 1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. a igs: thoughts. This supposed existence, if there is occasion to speak of it, will be called the man’s spirit ; but his #zvd, at a given time, will mean simply ¢he fotality of a certain definite group of thoughts at that time. CHAPTER 6. THE POSTULATES OF THE PRESENT INQUIRY. We are now in a position to present a list of the postulates upon which our further progress will be built. Almost all men are agreed - that these beliefs are fundamental, and most men would add con- siderably to the list. The very short list here set forth has been obtained by excluding from the longer list all that on trial were found not to be necessary for our inquiry. Postulates. First Belief.—That my present thoughts exist. Second Belief.—That my remembered thoughts have existed. These two beliefs involve a third, viz. : Third Belief.—That time relations exist. Fourth Belief.—That minds more or less resembling mine exist in my fellow-men and in some other animals. Observation.—By intercourse between my mind and the minds of my fellow-men I learn that they experience sensations which are closely related ‘to those that present themselves as a part of my mind. Whence, and from much other evidence, I infer: Fifth Beliefi—That my sensations and theirs have their source in some existing thing or things which are not any part of my own present or past thoughts. Bishop Berkeley entertained this belief as emphatically as other men. He held that sensations are produced in human minds by acts of will of a ‘‘ governing spirit.’’ Sixth Supposition.—Another belief is freely made use of in the present essay, viz.: that my organs of sense and parts of my brain are in some way associated with the introduction of sensations into my group of thoughts. This belief is, however, not a necessary postulate of the investi- gation. The argument can be stated in language which does not ' 114 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April3, include it; but the supposition is true, and therefore unobjection- able, and it is introduced thus early because without it we should be obliged to use unfamiliar forms of expression which would be less perspicuous. With the same end in view, viz., to attain lucidity, the language of causation is freely used throughout the essay, but will be found not to involve anything beyond what is included in the fifth of our postulates until we enter on the consideration of ‘‘ efficient ’’’ causes. CHAPTER 7. Or Ecorstic AUTA, AND OF SENSE-COMPELLING AUTA. My own thoughts are, at all events, things that exist (Postulates 1 and 2): they at least are auta so long as they last. They are, accordingly, while they last, a part of the universe of existing things. But they are not the whole of that universe. In the first place, the thoughts of other men and the thoughts of the lower animals are also things that exist (Postulate 4). And beside all these auta there are also auta of the kind that produce effects within men’s minds through their [organs of sense]* (Postulate 5). This is a complete enumeration of auta—things that exist—so far as known to man. The minds of my fellow-men and the minds of the lower animals may conveniently be classed along with my mind as ¢he egotstic part of the universe—being the part of the universe which I am already in a position to know consists of auta of the same kind as those that make up the ego. Auta of the other kind we may provisionally speak of as sezse- compelling auta, in contradistinction to my mind and the minds of other men and animals, which are groups of auta that receive cer- tain definite additions when and so long as our [organs of sense] are forced into action by sense-compelling auta. The totality of these sense-compelling auta we may, for brevity, designate she 1 By [organs of sense], within square brackets, are to be understood the real existences, the antitheta in the autic universe, which cause in us those percep- tions which when synthetized furnish the phenomenal objects to which the term organs of sense is also applicable, and which, when we have occasion to distin- guish them from their antitheta, may be written [organs of sense]’, with a dash. The antitheta are popularly imagined to be « material substances’ of the phe- nomenal objects: but this conception of them conveys an entirely erroneous ilea, as will appear in the sequel. See also Chapter 4, above. 1903.] STUNEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXIsTENCKS, 115 sense-compelling universe, which will accordingly mean the same as the sense-compelling part of the universe. The whole universe, then, as known to man, consists of this sense-compelling universe and of the thoughts of men and animals. This division is convenient, although it is faulty from a logical point of view, since we shall find that the parts of which it consists overlap. We shall, nevertheless, make use of the distinction pro- visionally, for the sake of its great convenience to us, z.e., to minds that consist of egoistic auta when venturing upon the study of other autic existences. CHAPTER 8. OF THE COMMUNICATIONS MApDE TO ME BY THE SENSE-COMPELLING PART OF THE UNIVERSE. Now when I open my eyes or exercise any of my other senses, sense-compelling auta transmit messages to me through my [organs of sense]. These messages finally present themselves as parts of my mind, of my group of thoughts ; and 2” the actual form in which they arise within my mind I propose to call them éekmerza*—signs within my mind that events are happening in a part of the universe that is distinct from my mind. Thus, when I look towards the fire in the room in which I sit, the actual existence, the sense-compelling auto, the antitheton of the phenomenal object, which in its rela- tion to us it is appropriate to call the aitio-fire (ro afrov, that part of the entire body of causes leading up to anything to which we may attribute that thing), transmits one message cr signal to me through my [eyes], viz.: what is commonly called the visual appear- ance of the fire. This is one tekmerion made to be a part of my mind by the aitio-fire so long as it is acting upon me. When, at the same time, I hold out my hands, it transmits a second message to me, the perception of warmth, through another of [my senses]. And it sends another tekmerion to me, another witness that it is in existence and producing effects, through my [sense of hearing], viz.: the sound of the flame playing over the coals. Thus, so long as I am employing my senses upon the fire, some cause which is distinct from my mind, 7.e., which is not a part of my little group of thoughts, is in three different ways and in each of them a very indirect way, sending me what may be called tele- graphic signals; and these three tekmeria become, for the time, a part of that fluctuating group of thoughts which is my mind. 1 Texufjpiov, a sign which is at the same time a proof of something. 116 STONEY-——UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3, To prevent misapprehension, it may be well, before going farther, to invite attention to the guarded statements that have been made, which, while embodying the whole of what may, up to the present, be legitimately inferred from the six postulates upon which we con- struct our argument, do not include the further illegitimate state- ment, which is usually added, that the aition, or source from which the messages have been transmitted to our mind, is a ‘ material substance’ occupying that portion of space which is apparently occupied by the phenomenal object. This mistake, so often made, seems to have its source in an impression that the cause (the aition) - will resemble its effects (the perceptions which, when synthetized, build up the phenomenal object). The presumption is quite the other way; notwithstanding which, when men are forming their ontological judgments (and all men have to form ontological judg- ments of one kind or another), they often tacitly assume that causes are like their effects, or suppose that the relations between the causes are of the same kind as those which they find prevailing among the effects. We should be very carefully on our guard against these errors. What may legitimately be stated is that some of the auta of the sense-compelling universe have been operating upon one another and have produced extensive changes—changes which may have affected the auta themselves or their relations and operations. Of this widespread effect, some small—excessively small—outlying portions have filtered as far as to my mind, to my little group of auta, through a chain of intermediate effects within certain narrow and tortuous channels, my [organs of sense]. In the form in which they ultimately reach me they are ¢ekmeria, signs to me that events _are occurring beyond my own mind, CHAPrER 9. Or My MInp anp Irs SyNERGOs. In ontology we are confronted with a difficulty bearing some relation to that experienced by biologists in their attempts to arrange the genera and species of plants or animals in a satisfactory natural order. In their floras and faunas they are obliged to adopt a linear arrangement ; whereas the progress of the events that brought about the morphology with which they are dealing did not follow any such single line. So, in ontology, expositions, like that here attempted, must proceed, chapter after chapter, in a linear pro- ee 1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. EEF gression ; whereas at one stage we may find ourselves in want of knowledge that cannot be satisfactorily dealt with till some subse- quent stage. We are in this predicament at present. For further progress in this inquiry it is essential that we shall know something about the synergos (ovvepyés , a coadjutor or co-operator) which is associated with my mind in all, or almost all, its operations, which contributes largely to every message that my mind receives from abroad, and to every message that comes down to it through memory from its own earlier experiences; and without which my mind would, in fact, be an absolute blank as regards all that is going on outside itself, and would be destitute of any knowledge of its own past thoughts. As the relations between this synergos and the mind have to be dealt with prematurely, the reader is requested to pardon the intrusion into this chapter of matter which cannot be adequately expounded till farther on. The [events]’ in a man’s brain! which are associated with the thoughts that are his mind, do not occur except while the man is alive ; and only, during life, when he is either awake or dreaming. All these objective events can be shown to resolve themselves in ultimate analysis into motions of one kind or another going on in, or in connection with, the brain. But they are far from being the whole of the motions of which (under the diacrinominal view of nature, see Chapter 17) the brain consists—in fact, they are an exces- sively small and quite peculiar selection from the totality of motions that are the brain. It is possible to satisfy ourselves of this by in- stituting a comparison of time relations. Accordingly, a bystander would see this selection of motions going on in my brain while lam awake, if he could make it an object of observation, and if his senses were acute enough to see all that is going on objectively. If, however, he could see all that is going on objectively, he would see a vast deal more than the changes or motions that are associated with my thoughts. We thus, and from other evidence, learn that the aitio-brain—the source in the autic universe of the perceptions and ultra-perceptions which make up that object of nature which we call the brain—is a collection of auta which in- cludes many more auta besides those that are my mind: and these ‘many more auta’ are the synergos. 1 By [events]’ is to be understood events in the od/ective world which we call nature. If written [events], without the dash, it would denote events in the universe of auta. 118 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3, The group of auta which includes the auta that make up the mind along with those that make up its synergos, is the true existence in the autic universe which corresponds to that natural object which we call the brain. The prevalent belief that the true existence is a ‘material substance’ hovering about that portion of space within which the phenomenal object appears to be situated, is an utter mis- take, although it is a belief which has been handed down to us by generations of our predecessors, and in which we were all brought up. Numberless are the errors which have crystallized about the phrase ‘material substance’; and the mischief that has been wrought by them may be judged from the circumstance that they have quite shut out of view the wonderful capabilities of the true autic existences, of which we get one very instructive glimpse when we find that the thoughts that are our mind are a small—a very small— part of one of them. Superstance would be a less misleading term than substance ; but it is better to cut ourselves completely adrift from all the mislead- ing associations bound up with the word substance. When the rela- tion between a natural object and its autic cause is under consider- ation, the present writer has found it convenient to speak of the natural object as the frothefon and the autic cause in the sense- compelling universe as its aztitheton. Using this nomenclature, the drain of a man is a protheton, and his mnd + synergos are its antitheton. The mind -synergos are a part of the true autic universe: the brain is a part of that hypotheton which we call nature.’ With this imperfect treatment of the subject we must be content 1 The labors of physiologists lead to the conclusion that no thought becomes a part of the mind of any animal without being accompanied by some change in its brain, using the word brain here to mean, not the onto-brain but the objective brain, which is a part of nature. These objective changes are motions of some kind Hence we find here an instance in which the autic anthitheta of certain motions are thoughts. The above relation is often so stated as to imply that the change in the brain is in some way the cause of the thought. This is to mistake the weather-cock for the wind. What occurs in the autic universe is the cause of the appearance of change in nature, and not vice versé. Nevertheless it is legitimate for physiologists to work, as they usually do, under the Ayfothesis that it is the objective events that cause the autic; provided that they do not make the mistake of supposing that this interchange between cause and effect is theory. 1903.] STONEY—-UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. 119 until we can resume the discussion with the advantage of having learned what a natural object is, and what space relations are. CHAPTER 10. Or PERCEPTIONS. The tekmeria, the messages from abroad, as I experience them when an auto acts on me through my [senses], are more than mere sensations. ‘To enable me to see this it is only necessary for me to direct my attention to the remarkable judgments about space rela- tions which have annexed themselves to, and in some cases even substituted themselves for, my sensations. When I hurt my foot and when I hurt my elbow there is a difference in the sensations ; and this difference my mind, largely assisted by the synergos,’ has come to translate into the perception of a space relation between these two sensations, and between them and others. Thus the first pain is felt as a pain in the foot, z.¢., 7 or about a certain position in space; the second pain I similarly /ocadize. So also with other sensations when they have come to be transformed into perceptions. The red which I now see in each coal of the fire is a sensation which seems to me of a certain shape and size, and at a certain distance from muscular sensations which I feel at the same time, viz.: the sensation of turning my head towards the fire, of con- verging my eyes in succession upon different parts of it, the sensa- tion of now and then winking, and the sensation of making and maintaining the focal adjustment of my eyes: all of which latter 1 The physiological view of these events would be somewhat as follows: the hurt foot and the hurt elbow are in communication with different regions of the brain, and the [effects ]/ produced in the brain are not the same in the two cases, Although part of these effects are the protheton of the thought in the mind, much more of them are the protheton of changes in the synergos; for, whatever the change in the brain has been, it #zzs¢ have included a body of molecular events and others with time-relations too rapidly varying to be the protheton of any such slowly changing auto as a human thought. These accordingly are part of the protheton of the synergos, since the brain as a whole is the protheton of that group of auta which includes both the thoughts that are the mind and those other auta that’ are the synergos. And as the more slowly changing events in the brain and those that change more rapidly are so interdependent that neither can be other than it is, without its affecting the other, so are the thoughts in the mind and the autic events in the synergos interwoven and they affect each other. It would also appear that in dreamless sleep, those special slower events spoken of above cease to occur within the brain. But some, at least, of the swifter ones are still present, so that at such times the whole antitheton of the objective brain consists of the synergos only. 120 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April3, sensations appear to me to be located elsewhere, viz.: at or near the centre of space, as J apprehend space. So also with the sensa- tion of warmth which seems to me to be on the surface of my hands when I hold them to the fire. Now-.sensations which thus appear to occupy positions in space are perceptions.’ In such cases the perception is far from being a mere coexistence of sensations. It is the result of a very subtle synthesis, a synthesis usually of many sensations and of my mind’s present and past experi- ence, with probably other materials. My mind assisted by its syn- ergos could not have effected this synthesis but for their inherited tendency to make it and their inherited capacity for doing so. By the synthesis which results in my wéswa/ perceptions, a very remarkable co-ordinaticn has been effected between the muscular, the tactual and the visual sensations produced in me by sense-com- pelling auta; an equally remarkable co-ordination between the per- ceptions of my own mind and the perceptions of my fellow-men and of other animals; above all a co-ordination between my own per- ceptions, past, present and future: which co-ordinations enable me promptly to form correct predictions and are of the greatest service to me in regulating my acts. Natural selection has probably helped to develop them. Of all the syntheses by which the mind assisted by its synergos succeeds in translating sensations into perceptions, that which provides us with our visual perceptions appear to accom- plish the greatest and most useful transformation. The intense ten- dency to make this particular synthesis and the extraordinary fa- cility with which I can effect it, are no doubt due to the frequent repetition of the process in an immense series of progenitors: and, in fact, there is evidence to show that the co-ordination, substan- tially as my synergos and I now make it, had been effected in my ancestors at a very remote geological period.’ 1 Perceptions are distinguished from our other thoughts by having relation to zwo situations in space—to that position in space which the object observed seems to occupy (or, in the case of warmth, to some situation on the surface of the body), and to that position which seems to be occupied by the portion of the brain which is affected when this particular thought presents itself in the mind. Our other thoughts—affections, beliefs, sentiments, motives, etc.—have relation to only one of these situations in space, viz,: to the situation in which the part of the brain affected seems to be located. ? Before birds were differentiated from other vertebrates. See the marvelous representation of balls within sockets or beans within a pod, each supported by a little stalk, which is found on the secondary wing feathers of the male Argus 2 1903. ] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. iZt A synthesis does not mean merely the act of collecting materials together. It means that and much more, viz.: the building up of a definite structure (cvyr/@jue includes the meaning of the Latin verb construere as well as of colligere). The completed structure may be conveniently called the sywtheton (obvOetov, the structure resulting from synthesis). It is to be noted that these syntheta, my perceptions, while they last are auta, real existences: they are thoughts, parts of my mind. In fact, up to the present we have been dealing exclusively with auta, things that really exist, some of them non-egoistic, others of them parts of my own little group of auta. But in the next step which the mind takes—a very important step—it transcends these limits. CHAPTER 11. Or HyYportHeETa. Hitherto we have treated of auta, z.e., real existences, with as little reference to hypotheta, or supposed existences, as was found practicable. It is impossible for a student of ontology commencing his inquiry from the mental attitude in which we, men, must start, wholly to disentangle auta and hypotheta from one another in the earlier stages of his inquiry; but this becomes more and more feasible as he proceeds, until, in the end, there need be no out- standing confusion at all. In the present chapter we direct our attention to what is probably the most important hypothesis that the human mind makes, a hypothesis of which we all make daily use, and which confers upon me and upon my fellow-men and upon other animals—in fact, upon pheasant. This most astonishing work of art produced, by nature, is effected by six or seven different colors or shades of color disposed in the same way in which a human artist would lay them on with his brush to produce the same effect. Darwin, in his Descent of Man, has shown how Variation with the codpera- tion of Thoughts in the minds of the cock and hen pheasants, can account for the development of these wonderful artistic productions. The thought on the part of the ccck is a desire or impulse to please the hen by an exhibition of his plumage, and the thought on the part of the hen is an appreciation of different degrees of excellence in the artistic effect achieved in the pictures submitted to her judgment. This implies that the hen bird possesses the same wonderful power that we possess of translating coloring and shading into form; which therefore was attained by our ancestors before birds were differentiated from other vertebrates, unless (which is less probable) it has been separately devel- oped along the two lines of descent since that time. PROC. AMER. PHILOS. 80C. XLII. 178. I. PRINTED JUNE 6, 1908. 122 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3, all the minds that consist of egoistic auta, z.e., minds which are supplied with information through organs of sense—an inestimable benefit, by creating for our advantage those supposed existences which are called natural objects. They arise in the way described in the next paragraph: and according as we make progress in tracing out the way in which they arise, it will become obvious why they do us such inestimable service. Perceptions—/.z., sensations which appear to me to be planted out in space—are the tekmeria or messages which I receive from sense-compelling auta. Auta of this kind form a part of my group of thoughts whenever and so long as any sense-compelling auto is acting on my mind and my synergos, through my senses. But the perceptions which it creates within me at any one time are but a small part of all the tekmeria that it can send tome. Which of all the possible tekmeria shall exist at any one instant de- pends on the particular line of communication which is at that time open between the sense-compelling auto and me; and when- ever I make those changes which are popularly described as ‘looking at the object from a different side,’’ ‘‘ touching it in a different place,’’ and so on, what I do is simply to change the channel of communication without altering the sense-compelling auto. But I thereby alter the perceptions, the tekmeria which reach me from it. Now the sensible 07ect—which persons untrained in the study of their own mind are apt to mistake for the cause of their sensations—is simply the result of the mind and its synergos effecting a synthesis of all these tekmeria. They cannot actually exist, except in succession ; but my mind, aided by its synergos, has the power of conceiving them as though they existed— 1. Simultaneously, 2. Persistently, and 3. Without being any part of itself. In this power of conception consists tts power of effecting this most useful synthests. [t is of importance to bear in mind that while I am what is called ‘‘looking at the object,’’ one of the tekmeria, my visual perception at that time is acfwa/—that is, it is in true autic existence; the rest of the perceptions which are compacted along with it to make up the syntheton are fofentia/—that is, they are not at present in existence, but they can be brought into existence. When I ‘turn 1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES, 123 my eyes away,’’ none of the tekmeria are actual: they are all potential. Meanwhile the originating auto continues in existence during all this performance, and will, with certainty, reproduce the first-mentioned tekmerion if ‘‘I turn my eyes back,’’ 7.¢., if the channel of communication between the sense-compelling auto and me is reopened. It thus appears that the sensible od7ec¢ is not at all made up of any of the parts of which the sense-compelling au/o consists, but only of certain minute outlying portions of the widespread effects of its great activity, viz.: those effects which, by its activity, it can produce within me through a few narrow and tortuous passages ; while at the same time most of its great activity is being expended in other directions. This clearly shows— 1. That the sensible object is not the auto; and 2. That for all human purposes my attaining a knowledge of this hypothetical existence is as useful to me as if I knew what the auto is. It, in fact, tells me, 2” a direct and in the most compendious form, what effects the auto, under every variety of circumstances, w7// produce within me; for it is itself a structure Juz/t up of these very effects put together. It is to be observed that ordinary language is throughout built upon the erroneous popular belief that the objects of the phenomenal world are existences, in the autic sense of that term; and, more- over, that they are the cause of the perceptions that come into existence when we exercise our senses, This is a mistake of the kind which is called ‘‘ putting the car before the horse’’: it is to imagine that a structure built up out of the effects of a thing can be the cause of those effects. The sensible object is built up of perceptions instead of being the cause of them. Their cause is to be sought in the sense-compelling universe of awa, not in the phe- nomenal world of odjects. We must always be careful to distinguish between autic or true existence and objective existence, which means forming a part of that great objective hypotheton which we call nature. We may sometimes find it convenient to distinguish between them by writing [existence] for autic existence, and [existence] for objective existence. Autic existence means exist- ence in the absolute meaning of that term; objective existence 124 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3, means existence in a relative sense, namely, what we are to regard as existence under the Objective Hypothesis. Ordinary language suggests to all who use it a number of mis- takes of the kind referred to in the last paragraph. It is, accord- ingly, apt to mislead us very much, and we must be constantly on our guard against illusions into which we may but too easily be led by the usages of common speech, and by associations which have grown up around familiar forms of expression. Illusions will be found to lurk in what are apparently quite harmless forms of expression, such as ‘‘I perceive a cloud moving across the sky’”’ ; and to get at what we are really justified in believing, it is well diligently to practice ourselves in converting such expressions into less misleading forms, wate/ we do so with facility. ‘Thus the fore- going statement is equivalent to— 1. I am a fluctuating group of associated thoughts, and the perception of a moving cloud is for a short time one of this group. This is an autic group. 2. The perception of a moving cloud is also a part of another group, in which it is joined, not with the other thoughts at present in my mind, but with all the other perceptions which the antitheton of the cloud could successively pro- duce in my mind. 3. This useful hypothetical group, which may be called the objective cloud, is not the cause of my perceptions. Their true cause must be sought elsewhere, and, to give it a name, it may be called the aitio-cloud, or the onto-cloud. It is the antitheton, in the autic universe, of the objective cloud. The objective cloud is the protheton of this real existence, and is a part of the great hypotheton which we call nature. Nature is here used to signify the totality of all semszble objecis. This definition is in accordance with the usual acceptation of that term. We have passed successively under review two acts of synthesis —the synthesis of the first order, whereby sensations are transformed into perceptions ; and the further synthesis, which may be called a- synthesis of the second order, whereby perceptions are built together into the sensible objects around us, each of which is a kind of synopton, or collected view, of materials only a small part of which 1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. 125 are in existence at any one time. But, in reality, these two acts of synthesis are now carried on by my mind and its synergos simul- taneously and with astonishing ease and promptitude; and it is probable that the gradually acquired power to make them was developed far passu in my ancestors at a very remote geological period. The instinct which impels us to assign a position in space to sensations affects our visual and tactual sensations most, including under the latter term our muscular sensations, as well as sensations of roughness, smoothness, resistance, hardness, softness, and some others. We also perceive it conspicuously in the allied sensations of tickling, warmth, coolness, pain, and several others. We localize with somewhat less precision our sensations of taste and smell: and of all our more conspicuous sensations sound is that which we least refer to a definite position. We have less power of doing so than many other animals who are furnished with ears which can be turned so as to distinguish the direction of sound; and far less power than some nocturnal insects who, by their feathery antenne, which are their auditory apparatus, are able to determine the direc- tion of a sound with a precision approaching that of eyesight.* In man there are but slender materials for the synthesis. It may make some parts of this and of the succeeding chapters clearer to give here a definition of the term odyect. This term might be applied to the objects of any hypothesis, z.¢., to the sup- posed existing things, which we are to suppose to be in existence so long as we are making use of the hypothesis. Thus, under the hypothesis made use of in Geometrical Optics, it would be intel- ligible to speak of rays in front of a mirror as having an odjective existence ; which would mean that they are the ‘ objects’ of that hypothesis, viz.: what we are to regard as being in existence under that hypothesis. But it is usual to make the terms object and objective more definite by restricting them to one particular hypoth- esis; and unless it is otherwise specified, they will be applied in the present essay only to the objects of that great objective hypoth- esis described in the present chapter, which by ‘the synthesis of the second order’ supplies us with what are popularly called the natural objects about us. 1See Professor Alfred M. Mayer’s experiments on the mosquito, in which he satisfied himself that the male insect can determine the direction of a sound within an angle of 5° (Pitlosophical Magazine for November, 1874, p. 380), 126 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April3, Men and dogs and other animals, and among men different indi- viduals, are able to make this synthesis with more or less success. It is made with most success when the conceived perceptions, which are so large a part of the syntheton, are correct pictures in the mind of what they would prove to be if the proper measures were taken to make them in succession actual perceptions. Accordingly, the ‘objects of nature’ about us may appear to one man somewhat different to what they do to another. In the present chapter we have dealt with them as ‘sensible objects,’ z.e., as the objects of nature, such as they present themselves to ‘the man in the street.’ In subsequent chapters we shall deal with them as they present themselves to scientific men; and it will then become apparent why the scientific objects of nature are to be regarded as con- structed with more success than the mere sensible objects of unin- structed men. It may also be noted that, while we are what is popularly described as ‘looking at’ or ‘touching’ or in other ways ‘ exercising our senses upon’ the objects about us, these syntheta of perceptions are made up of perceptions a very small part of which are in autic existence, while the bulk of them have only an’ objective, 7.e., a supposed, existence. Thus, while I am looking at a chair or table, the sensible object is made up of my actual visual perception at that time, and of a great body of conceived perceptions which have to be joined to it to make up the whole syntheton: there is, as it were, a veneer of auto with a hinterland of hypotheta; forming, when combined, a syntheton which, viewed as a whole, is a hypotheton. CHAPTER 12. OF THE PHYSICAL HYPOTHESIS. It will be well to treat of the Physical Hypothesis next, as it is a hypothesis which is entertained and made use of, with more or less success, by all men, and not by scientific men only. Natural science may be defined as the investigation of how nature [works]’, of how and why events in nature [occur]’. In this defi- nition we have to use the verbs work and occur in their objective sense, since what have [really] done the work have been, not the hypotheta which people the objective world, but their antitheta in the universe of real existences. The relation between what goes on in the autic universe and the events which as a consequence appear in the objective world may be likened to the relation between the ae 1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. 127 motions of a great machine and the movements amongst the shad- ows which the parts of the machine cast when the sun shines. If the machine moves in an orderly manner, so also will the shadows move in an orderly manner; and Natural Science is the study of these movements amongst the shadows. If we had adequate access to the machine, the best way to investigate the movements of the shadows would be to study what takes place in the machine, and from it to forecast what must happen among the shadows. But, unfortu- nately, though we can see the shadows, we can bring only an exces- sively small part of the machine under close inspection, and we have but glimpses of the rest. The only part of the stupendous autic uni- verse which a human being can adeguate/y examine is that exces- sively small group of auta which are the thoughts of his own mind, with the similarly small groups that are the minds of his fellow- men and of some other animals: he cannot even make any ade- quate study of the events that go on within the synergos which is so closely associated with his mind, and can only collect mere scraps of information as to what the real events are throughout the rest of the vast machine.. As to that tiny group of auta that are one human being’s thoughts, it bears somewhat the same relation to the mighty whole of the autic universe as their protheton, namely, some of the more slowly changing events within the cortex of his brain, bears to the enormous totality of motions that are going on objectively throughout the whole of nature. This makes it evident that the part of the autic universe that man can adequately examine is but one drop of an immeasurable ocean, and although that little drop is an actual specimen of the kind of things that auta are, it is very plain that we are not justified in assuming that it is a fair average speci- men of them. Working under these disadvantages, man (and the same is true of the more intelligent of the lower animals) has constructed the Physz- cal Hypothesis whereby to enable him to form a correct forecast of the changes which will occur in nature. The physical hypothesis is the supposition shat the objects of nature can act on one another, either directly (action at a distance) or through intervening media (which by many is supposed to be an essentially different kind of action). Now the objects of nature are syntheta of perceptions and ultra- perceptions (as appears from the last chapter read along with those which follow) ; and syntheta of perceptions cannot be what really act. Nevertheless, it is eminently useful to carry on our investiga- 128 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3, _ tion under the physical hypothesis that it is they which act, and to confine our’ efforts to tracing out what effects this action must be supposed capable of producing, and under what laws it must operate, in order that it may account for what occurs in nature. This, however, is felt by many persons to be too abstract an atti- tude of mind; and, to satisfy them, and import into the hypothesis the plausibility which they demand, by relieving the fundamental conceptions of what is oppressively felt as the absurdity of suppos-’ ing that syntheta of perceptions act, it is usual to supplement the syntheta by piling an aérial Pelion upon this solid Ossa, and by sup- posing that in addition to the sensible object which occupies any por- tion of space there is what is called 7¢s material substance occupying the same position, which, partly directly and partly by its motions, acts on other material substances—the ether being one of these so- called swdstances. According to this, which is the prevalent hypoth- esis among both scientific and non-scientific men, it is these ‘ sub- stances’ which travel about through space ; and the sensible objects, which are what we see and feel, are supposed to accompany them in their peregrinations by reason of the way in which they, the substances, act (usually through intermediate ‘ substances’) upon our organs of sense. This is the usual point of view: but more careful thinkers will do well to eschew this somewhat convenient, but by no means ne- cessary, encumbrance upon the unadulterated process of physical investigation which treats the sensible objects themselves, the bare syntheta of perceptions and ultra-perceptions, as though they were what bring about the changes that occur in nature ; and will do well to occupy themselves exclusively in tracing out the laws that must, under this Ayfothesis, be in operation in order that the effects may be what they are. This, the true physical hypothesis, is eminently useful and is therefore legitimate; but the addition that has been saddled upon it, that there are ‘ material substances’ present, is unnecessary, and as it is misleading and tends to keep out of view the really ex- istent autic universe, it ought to be discarded by all persons who ‘wish to think clearly. This is the course which all careful think- ers should prefer, because it keeps clearly before our minds that in the Physical Hypothesis we make use of a hypothesis and not of a theory. By being thus careful we avoid the risk of throwing dust in our own eyes. It cannot be too distinctly kept in view that the 1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES, 129 justification of the physical hypothesis is its utility, not its truth— its incomparable efficiency as a means of investigating nature. This is a matter about which it is far better, although it cannot be said to be essential, that students of Physics should make no mis- take. It is obvious that causation, in the full sense of that term, can operate only-between the real existences of the autic universe, and that everything else that appears to us to take place isa consequence of what occurs there. In fact, efficient cause and autic cause are synonymous terms. Nevertheless, it is convenient and quite legitimate for scientific -men to speak of ‘ physical’ causes, meaning thereby what they have to treat as causes when engaged in carrying on an investigation under the Physical Hypothesis. _A very useful scaffolding which helps us in building up our inves- tigation is the introduction of forces between the physical cause (which is always the vicinity of some natural object) and the effect to be attributed to it under the physical hypothesis. We are thus enabled to speak of the acceleration of a stone in its fall towards the earth, either as being due to the neighborhood of the earth, or as being caused by a force of gravitation which acts on it, which force is, in its turn, regarded as brought into existence by the prox- imity of the earth to the stone. The introduction of this piece of intermediate scaffolding is found to be of service— 1. Because the force can be represented by a line whose length accurately represents the intensity, and whose direction ac- curately represents the direction, of the effect upon the stone of the vicinity of the earth ; 2. Because the same effect upon the stone might have been due to other physical causes, as, for example, to a spring urging it forwards; in which case the same piece of scaf- folding, a force represented by the same line in the same position, would occupy its place between the cause and the effect ; and 3. Because the effect might have been different, while the physical cause remained the same: thus, if the stone lay on the ground, what the vicinity of the earth would have occa- sioned is stress between the stone and the ground. Accordingly, by referring effects in nature to the operation of 130 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April3, forces, we are enabled in each case to indicate with accuracy the intensity and direction of the effect, without having to specify (as) which of several possible physical causes is the one in operation, or (2) which of the possible kinds of effect is that which is being produced: and this in practice is found to be an immense con- venience. Such is an outline of the principles that underlie the dynamical investigation of nature, which is the form of investigation that penetrates most deeply into its secrets. CHAPTER 13. OF SPACE RELATIONS. In order to apprehend clearly how much has been accomplished by synthesis it is advisable that we should scrutinize more closely space relations, and man’s instinctive judgments about them: and as these judgments are a more conspicuous factor of my visual and tactual perceptions than of others, it will be instructive to treat specially of them. Many slight muscular and other feeble sensations accompany the use of my visual and tactual organs of sense. These obscure sen- sations are constantly changing while I am using those senses, and in an excessively complicated way. That out of such tangled material synthesis has been able to evolve so simple a result as my judgment about space relations is because, amid all the appar- ent disorder, there do exist [real] relations between those much varying sensations ; and the syntheton which can be produced de- pends on what these relations are. They in turn depend on what relations exist between my [organs of sense] and the various parts of the auto which is transmitting messages to me; for it is while varying these that the sensations in question arise. Hence, finally, the synthesis which can be effected depends on what relations prevail in the autic universe between my [organs of sense] and other parts of that universe. We have no reason to suppose that these onto-rela- tions as they may be called, these relations between auta, are in the least Zhe space relations, the space relations being syntheta con- structed out of the obscure sensations that are indirectly occasioned by the onto-relations, after these have been worked up by the mind and its synergos with memories of past experiences and other materials. : Whatever the onto-relations may actually be, ¢hey are at all events 1903.] STONEY—-UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. For a part of those conditions in the autic universe which determine whether auta can act upon auta. So much I know, because I have to adapt my organs of sense to them in order to get tekmeria; and it is in doing this that I experience the complicated sensations which have come, by reason of what has occurred in my long series of ancestors, to be synthetized for me into instinctive judgments of objective space relations between perceptions. It is evident then that my judgments about space relations are the result of a synthesis of materials which are themselves consequences of relations that prevail in the autic sense-compelling universe. It is these onto- relations, whatever they are, that have an autic [existence]: the space relations have only an objective [existence |’. This means that we are to treat these space relations as though they existed whenever we are availing ourselves of the great and most useful objective hypothes?s, which supposes that not only do our percep- tions exist but that the hinterland also exists which with them make _. up what are called the natural objects about us. But while making Ber every possible use of this hypothesis, we ought, if we care to think clearly, to keep steadily before our minds that this is a hypothesis to be made use of, but not the correct theory Zo be believed. CHAPTER 14. OF MorTIoNn. We are now in a position to deal with the important subject of motion. The apfsearance of motion is an auto, a perception in my mind; and while this perception lasts it is a tekmerion, a proof to me that an event capable of producing this appearance has occurred in the sense-compelling autic universe. This event could send dif- ferent tekmeria to me, according to the way I employ my senses upon it; and the syntheton formed by putting all these together is what is meant by the term motion. It is accordingly a part of the great objective Hypotheton which we call Nature. If we want to indicate the real occurrence in the sense-compelling universe, we may speak of it as the onto-motion or aitio-motion, meaning by these terms the autic event which corresponds to the syntheto- motion in the objective world. Itis an antitheton, and the syntheto- motion is the corresponding protheton. The word motion, like all similar terms, is ambiguous, and in common speech it has to be sometimes interpreted as meaning the protheton in the objective world, and in other contexts as meaning its antitheton in the uni- -? . ) “a 132 STONEY——UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3, verse of real existences. The protheton is in fact a kind of synop- ton, or conjoint view, of the actual effects which are at that time being produced and of the possible effects that might have been produced, within modern men’s minds, by its antitheton the onto- motion. It is necessary to describe it as a A¢ud of synopton, since the materials that come in, or could come in, from abroad are modi- fied by being worked up with materials contributed by the mind and its synergos. CHAPTER 15. OF THE PHENOMENON, OR PHENOMENAL THOUGHT ; AND OF ITS RELATION TO THE PHENOMENAL OBJECT. The word phenomenon has three established meanings: 1. It is used by metaphysicians to mean thought in the mind. This is the original or at least an early meaning of the term: the other mean- ings are of recent date. 2. It is used to mean an extraordinary circumstance. This is the popular acceptation of the word. 3. It is used to mean any natural object or event in nature. This is the meaning attributed to it in works on Natural Science. For the sake of convenience it is well to assign a name to my thought about an object of nature, or as it is often called a phe- nomenal or sensible object. My thought about it we may call the phenomenon, or phenomenal thought, availing ourselves of the first of the above meanings of this term. Accordingly the phenomenon within my mind at any particular time consists of all or some of the following: 1. The actual perceptions which at that time the sense-com- pelling auto is producing in me, if there are any such per- ceptions existing in my mind at that time. 2. My memory of the perceptions which that auto has on other occasions produced in me. 3. My anticipation of such perceptions as I suppose it would produce in me under other circumstances. 4. Certain suppositions with respect to this group of percep- tions. This phenomenon, or phenomenal thought, is itself an auto, a part of my group of thoughts ; while, in contrast to this, it is only as ahypothesis that ‘he object of this thought, the phenomenal object, can as a whole be regarded as in existence. Part of it no doubt ee, " ee | ee 1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. igo may be temporarily in existence, viz.: so long as the sense-com- pelling auto which is the source of the perceptions happens to be acting on me through my senses. During this time some of the perceptions that go to make up the phenomenal object are tz actual existence, but only as a part of my group of thoughts. None are in existence independently of the mind, nor are any of the rest of the perceptions that go to make up the phenomenal object in exist- ence at that time either in or out of the mind. That the whole phenomenal object is supposed to be in existence and to be distinct from the mind is therefore a hypothesis ; most useful, but not to be thought of as ¢he ¢rue theory. On the other hand, the phenomenon, 7.é., my thought about the phenomenal object, while it has the advantage of being an auto, is transitory, imperfect, very variable, and almost always erroneous in some respects; depending as it does on the extent of my information and the amount of attention I give to it: while the phenomenal object, though a hypotheton, has in it nothing in the least shifting or arbitrary. J¢ zs perfectly definite : including as it must a// the tekmeria which its antitheton, the sense-compel- ling auto, does actually or can legitimately create in human minds through human organs of sense. It is intended by the word /egi#- mately to exclude cases of illusion, or defects that arise through imperfection of the senses. Legitimately is to be understood as meaning when every part of the line of communication is working normally and satisfactorily. CHAPTER 16. OF THE PHENOMENAL OBJECT, WITH WHICH NAt- URAL SCIENCE DEALS. It is in accordance with the signification we have given to the word [real ]’, when written with a dash, that motion in the phe- nomenal world shall be deemed real when it is a syntheton of the actual perceptions which an onto-motion does or of the potential perceptions which it could produce by acting on human minds through human senses. But Science, in its progress, has found this definition too cramped. The definition would limit the stamp of being vea/ to those cases in which man’s senses are competent to act as channels of communication between the sense-compelling universe and him. Now, scientific investigation has penetrated much farther than this—even the flimsy appreciation of what goes on in nature which is necessarv for man’s everyday work, renders "a 134 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April3, essential some extension of the meaning of the word vea/—and accordingly the exigencies of common life, but more especially of scientific inquiry, have made an extension inevitable, so that a motion or other part of the Objective Hypotheton is still to be regarded as [real]’, although too small or too rapid or in some other way unfitted by its time or space relations to be a syntheton of human perceptions, whenever justification for this extension exists. The objects with which the scientific student of Nature has to deal are in fact syntheta of— 1. Actual perceptions ; 2. Potential perceptions; and of 3. Certain ultra perceptions, namely, those which scientific investigation does or can warrant. By an ultra perception is to be understood what would be a percep- tion, if our senses were more acute. These are more than the syntheta of actual and potential human perceptions which we have called sensible objects, and to distin- guish them it will be well to give them a different name. We shall call them phenomenal objects. They are in much closer relation to what is actually going forward in the autic universe than it is pos- sible for the ‘sensible objects’ to be. This is a necessary conse- quence of the restricted range of the senses possessed by man, by which the amount of detail which can be present in the sensible object is limited. CHAPTER 17. OF THE DIACRINOMINAL OBJECT. Motions are by far the most important part of the phenomenal hypotheton, as will be obvious from the following considerations. Scientific investigation has brought to light the significant facts which are described in common language by saying that men and animals receive their sensations of sound from motion in the air, of light from events in the ether which can be ultimately analyzed into motions, and in the same way their other sensations from motions somewhere in Nature. This, put into. less objectionable language, is equivalent to the statement that the auta and autic events of the sense-compelling universe which produce in me the sensation of sound through one channel of communication, viz., through my sense of hearing, are such as are also competent to produce in me through other channels, namely, through my senses of sight and 1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. 135 touch, another tekmerion, viz.: the perception of motion; or, at least, differ only from those autic causes which are capable of pro- ducing an actual perception of motion through those senses, in the way that the autic cause’ of the perception of one visible motion differs from the autic cause of the perception of a similar visible motion which is swifter or slower or on a different scale. These remarkable discoveries have led scientific men to entertain a new and very important view of nature, in which it is regarded as made up of objects each of which corsists of almost inconceivably minute and swift motions. These and the drifting about in space of some objects, 7.e., of some masses of internal motions, are the whole of this hypotheton. It may be regarded as the utmost simplification of which any synoptic view of the effects produced within the human mind by the mighty march of actual events in the real uni- verse is susceptible ; and it is therefore that synoptic view of those effects which stands in closest relation to the autic causes that have produced them. The remarkable hypothesis described in the last paragraph may appropriately be called the Diacrinominal Hypothesis, as it has dis- criminated between the various tekmeria produced within us by the autic universe, and has selected for further synthesis one special group—our perceptions of motion—on the ground that it, and that it alone, is able dy ztself and without being mixed up with other tek- meria to people Nature with objects which are complete as bodying forth in a collected form the information sent us by the real auta of the actual sense-compelling universe ; and which, owing to their simplicity, stand in a closer relation to those auta than the more * complex objects of Phenomenal Nature. Phenomenal objects are bright, warm, hard or soft, colored, sweet or bitter, and so on; as well as moving or at rest. In diacrinominal nature motions take the place of all these. An attempt was made to give a summary of the results of this hypothesis in a Friday Evening Discourse, deliv- ered before the Royal Institution of Great Britain in 1885, and printed in the Jowrna/ of that Society, so that it is the less to be regretted that it would make this paper too long to dilate upon them here. We may therefore pass at once to the consideration of the last circumstance which it seems necessary to make clear in order that we may be at length in a position to understand how the scientific study of objective Nature stands related to the real 186 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3, existences and real activities of which the true universe actually consists: which is the problem we proposed to investigate. . CHAPTER 18. Or PuysICAL CAUSES AND OF EFFICIENT CAUSES. Causation, in the full sense of that term, implying efficiency in the cause, can only prevail in the operations of auta. When an efficient cause operates within the sense-compelling universe, it produces some change therein, and if this change be such that the sense-compelling universe can produce one set of effects within human minds before the change and another set after the change, then will the hypothetical existence which we call nature also undergo a change. ‘This is because nature before the change is the syntheton made by fitting together the former set of possible effects, and nature after the change is the syntheton of the latter set of possible effects. We may liken the sense-compelling universe to a mighty machine, and nature to a shadow cast by it in a very special way. If the machine is set in motion and changed from one position to another, it produces one shadow before the change and another after; and if the change in the machine has followed a definite order, the second shadow will succeed the first in a corresponding orderly sequence: but the relation between the shadows is not the relation of cause and effect. Accordingly, in the laws of Nature which have been discovered by scientific investigation we find abundant instances of unfailingly concomitant events and of uniformities of sequence, but not a single instance of genuine cause and effect. The so-called Physical causes ’ are not causes in the full sense of that term. We might write them as [causes |’ with a dash, but not as [causes] without one. Nevertheless it is Jegitimate as an hypothesis, to treat them as though they were causes when and so long as we are engaged in making use of the Objective Hypothesis. If a stone be allowed to drop in the vicin- ity of the earth, its downward speed is accelerated by a perfectly definite law. In this case the vicinity of the earth to the stone and the acceleration of the stone’s vertical velocity are two unfailingly concomitant events. This is one of the Uniformities of Nature which scientific inquiry has brought to light. But w¢thin the domain of Physics there is no cause for the acceleration. To reach the cause we must travel beyond the hypothetical domain of Physics and study the events that have taken place in the universe of real 1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. 137 existences. If we confine our view to Nature, the facts as to what occurs can be observed ; the circumstances under which they occur can be investigated ; similar cases can be compared ; and the laws to which the simultaneous or successive events conform can be brought to light. But here the knowledge conveyed to us by the great Objective Hypothesis ends: Physical Science has said its utmost. Now all this is changed when we turn to the only field of obser- vation accessible to us in which we are dealing directly with auta. The thoughts of which I consist, the thoughts that are my mind, are auta: no doubt a very small group of auta in the stupendous totality of all auta, but still a actual sample, although a very special and perhaps one-sided sample, of what auta are. In the operations that go on in my mind I do find instances, some few instances, of causes producing effects. The familiar case of a geometrical demon- stration producing in a man’s mind a belief in the truth of the conclusion is a case in point. Here the understanding of the proof is the efficient cause of the belief in the conclusion which accom- panies that understanding. A wish to accomplish something, and a knowledge of how to go about it, are part of the autic universe since they are thoughts, and they are a part of the efficient cause of subsequent events in the autic universe, unless counteracted by other causes. A few other examples can be obtained from the same small field of investigation: and this is all that man, in his isolated position, has any right to expect; for the bulk of his thoughts are due, at least in large part, to autic causes which lie outside his mind, either in the synergos or beyond it in the sense- compelling part of the universe; and it is there also that those of his thoughts that are known to be causes usually exhibit their effects. When perceptions or when memories arise in my mind, the effect is indeed within my mind, but the cause lies beyond it ; and when ‘I move my muscles,’ the cause is within my mind, but it is outside my mind, upon the antitheta of those muscles, that it operates. The instances are indeed few where the causes and the effects are doth within my tiny group of auta, and it is only in these few cases that I can have the process of causes producing effects under my inspection. But since cases can be cited, however few, they suffice Zo estaéb- lish the fact that the relation of cause and effect in its full sense PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XLII. 173. J. PRINTED JUNE 11, 1903. 138 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3, does exist in some instances in the autic universe; whereas it has nowhere any place within the domain of physical science. I am even under the impression that every event which has occurred in the real universe, every change that has taken place there, has been, as a matter of fact, brought about by true adequate causes ; although I am bound to admit that man lives too secluded from the rest of the universe, and with channels for communicating with it that are far too indirect, for me to be entitled to dogmatize and to say to myself or my fellow-men that I absolutely know this to beso. At the same time it recommends itself to my mind as intrinsically probable; and it is supported by direct evidence which makes it seem to me prodadle in a high degree— 1. Since there are some instances in which the whole process of causation operating among auta can be observed ; 2. Since no instance can be found in which observation is possible, and in which it does not prevail; and 3. Since the alternative supposition appears to be improba- ble. The only alternative is that, while the few changes among auta which can be investigated are found to be due to adequate causes, the rest, or some of the rest, which we cannot investigate are uncaused. All men experience within themselves what is called the freedom of their Wills; and this may by some be regarded as presenting an exception to the second of the above statements. But no amount of introspection has enabled me to detect any exercise of my Will which had not been caused by some motive, z.e., by a thought which forms one of my group of thoughts, or else by some inher- ited or acquired habit ; that is, by the intervention of my synergos. This shows me that what I describe as the freedom of my Will does not exclude adequate causes. It is noteworthy that statistical inquiries have revealed to us the fact that averages taken over great numbers of the acts due to the free exercise of the Wills of human beings, conform to definite laws. This suggests that a corresponding freedom of the Will may prevail throughout the mighty Autos—the totality of all auta—and may, nevertheless, produce perceptions in egoistic minds (¢.e., in minds supplied by the Autos with information through organs of sense) of such a kind that these perceptions when synthesized into the objects of nature exhibit that orderly sequence of events which we i, Al a ~* * 1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. 139 find in nature. For this, it would be only necessary that percep- tions should be caused in us not by individual events in the mighty Autos, but by vast swarms of such events operating together and producing in us an average effect. And this, on other accounts, seems to be the case (compare, for example, the significant slowness of human thoughts with the swiftness of molecular [events]’). If this view be correct, what are known to us as the [ Laws]’ of Nature are an outcome from [Laws] of averages among auta. To attempt to penetrate farther lies beyond the scope of the present essay. We must not be tempted to engage here in the study of the little that man is competent to learn about the individual events that are in progress amongst the auta of the sense-compelling part of the uni- verse, or the efficient causes that operate there. CHAPTER 19. RECAPITULATION. What has been chiefly learned in the foregoing pages is: 1. That the objects of nature are syntheta of perceptions; and 2. That there is no warrant for our assuming that the true autic cause of human perceptions, or of the events that occur among the objects of nature, are in the least like those objects. On the contrary, every evidence that we can collect points to the conclusion that the true source of the perceptions of our egoistic minds, and of those events in nature which are usually attributed to an interaction of the objects of naturé upon one another, is in reality as utterly unlike those objects of nature as the thoughts of a man are unlike the events within his brain associated with those thoughts. These considerations when followed up lead us to reject the com- mon belief in ‘ material substances’ as erroneous, and it is more- over found to be misleading. It is an error which blinds the minds of those who entertain it to the stupendous Autic Universe, which is what really exists, and which transcends the supposed material universe as much as do the boundless range and vast variety of the thoughts of a human mind altogether differ from and infinitely transcend that selection of movements within the brain which accompanies those thoughts. A theory of existence, such as that which we have sought to expound in this essay, is to be judged, not by the use we are able to make of it, but by its truth. At the same time this theory is far from being useless to the thoughtful student of nature. It becomes 140 STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. [April 3, available just at those points where the assumptions usually made by scientific men leave us in the lurch—as when we are brought face to face with the problem of the true relation between a man’s thoughts and the events in his brain associated with them ; or when the problem is to ascertain of what kind are the true efficient causes of those events that occur about us in nature. APPENDIX. In the foregoing pages the author has freely used passages ex- tracted from others of his writings, altering them and adding to them so as to obviate, as much as in him lay, difficulties which have been felt by some of the readers of those preceding papers ; and his hope is that none of these difficulties will be felt in reading the present essay. The attempt has been made to keep to that one special path through the territory opened up to us by the study of ontology, which pursues its way among the topics of most use tous as scientific students of nature. But much may be learned by other excursions into this great field of exploration, and they end in presenting us with a spectacle of unsurpassed sublimity. It may be well so far to trespass upon this new ground as to men- tion some results of the further inquiry. In certain parts of the new territory we have to venture on less firm ground than that which we have trodden in the preceding essay, and must be content with results arrived at with probability. It is then found that such evidence as can be brought to bear appears to tend with consider- able emphasis to the conclusion that not only the auta that are our minds are thoughts, but that the same is true of the auta that are our synergos. Now the mind and its synergos are, when taken together, the antitheton or true autic existence corresponding to the objective brain. A similar conclusion is indicated with regard to the rest of objective nature. The antitheta of the objective events —the true autic events which corréspond to them—seem, with a considerable degree of probability, to be essentially thoughts; most of them no doubt with vastly different time relations to those of the thoughts that are the human mind, but still in several mate- rial respects not unlike them. If this view is correct, the only things that [really] exist are thoughts, and the effects produced by / hols Veart> : # ? ree stengsKe Sl ee a pephirnzyee a sewn. ae “ere: oa bs. bd 1903.] STONEY—UNIVERSE OF REAL EXISTENCES. 141 thoughts upon thoughts ; and the laws of averages spoken of above in Chapter 18 are part of a much greater group, viz., the Laws of Thought in general, which if this view is correct are the real ulti- mate laws of the real universe. It will of course be seen that the laws of thought here spoken of are different and altogether beyond that paltry little group—the laws of human thought—to which they stand related much in the same way as does the whole science of dynamics to the laws of the movements of a watch. Egoistic thoughts, such as those of the human mind, must be related in the way that we call being within the same consciousness, in order to be able to influence one another. The understanding of the steps of a proof by my mind does not produce any percep- tion of the truth of the conclusion in another mind. The effect and the cause must both be within a group of thoughts that fall within one consciousness. Starting from this, and collecting all the evidence available, we are ultimately led to the conclusion that the Autos, the totality of all thought, is a universal mind, meaning by a mind thoughts related to one another in the way that is described by saying that they are within one consciousness: This, if true, is a very pregnant conclusion, leading on further study to very important results. Again, the perceptions produced within egoistic minds by sense- compelling auta are an exceedingly trifling part of the great march of autic events, whence but little would be lost out of the great procession if they were discontinued, as would happen if such minds as those of men and animals ceased to be produced. With them, however, the whole ‘ material’ universe, the great ob- jective hypotheton, would come to an end. Similarly, it was cre- ated, not at once, but gradually according as the minds that consist of egoistic thoughts by degrees acquired the power of transforming sensations into perceptions, and the power of synthesizing the per- ceptions into the objects of nature. Similar reflections meet us at every turn while we are engaged in prosecuting the further investigation ; but it would lead us too far from the immediate object of our essay to refer further to them in this necessarily desultory way. The inquiry on which we have had to enter may be approached either in the skeptical or in the scientific frame of mind. These are not only different but opposed. The motive which rouses the scientific man to exertion is his earnest desire for the increase of 142 PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. [April3, knowledge. For this he is willing to do his utmost in any and every direction that is open to him. The motive which controls the philosophical skeptic is his fear of a false step. He is indis- posed to stir at all until secure of his footing. The mind when in a scientific attitude is patient even of known error, if only it can be made the basis of a really good working hypothesis that will help the inquirer forward, and which may then become susceptible of revision and correction. Numberless instances can be given in which this process has led to valuable results. In fact, most of man’s scientific knowledge of nature is owing to it. But sucha method is repugnant to the philosophical skeptic, whose attitude damps all advance unless it can be carried on from the beginning under conditions of perfection—in other words, under conditions which are impossible in the early stages of almost every inquiry. 30 LeEpBuRY Roap, Lonpon, W., March, 1903. HINTS ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE ARTHRO- PODA; THE GROUP A POLYPHYLETIC ONE. BY ALPHEUS S. PACKARD. (Read April 8, 1903.) Of the ten or twelve chief groups or phyla into which the animal kingdom is subdivided by systematists, nearly all except those of the old groups Vermes and the Arthropoda are acknowledged to be fairly well limited. There is a general agreement of opinion as to the naturalness and monophyletic origin of the Protozoa, Porifera, Coelenterata, Echinodermata, Mollusca and Chordata. Those of the ‘‘ worms’’ and the great group Arthropoda are still the cause of more or less difference of opinion. The group Arthropoda was established by Siebold in 1848, but in late years, with the increase in our knowledge of the morphology and embryology of the Arthropodan classes, especially of the Tri- lobita, Merostomata, Malacopoda (Peripatus) and Myriopoda, there has been expressed by several zoologists the opinion that the Arthro- podan phylum is a more or less artificial one, and should be sub- — divided into more natural groups—z.e., that it is composed of several phyla. Were it only a matter of convenience, the great group Arthro- ‘ey Si ha 1903.] PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. 143 poda might be retained. The fundamental characters are the pos- session of jointed or polymerous appendages, and the great reduc- tion or entire absence of a ccelomic cavity. Besides this the ante- rior body-segments are grouped into a head, while the trunk-seg- ments may be either separate and homonomous or differentiated into a thoracic and abdominal region. But it has been pointed out by Kingsley and also by Laurie that the possession of jointed legs in the different classes may be due to convergence, or to homoplasy. Kingsley and others have shown that the gills and trachez are adaptive characters, and that the retention of the groups Branchiata and Tracheata is not warranted. Gills and trachez are adaptive features. We have in the phylum Paleopoda the classes of bran. chiate Trilobita and branchiate Merostomes, while from the latter appear to have evolved the terrestrial tracheate Arachnida. The mode of respiration affords fair class characters, but not phylum characters. HISTORY OF OPINION AS TO THE POLYPHYLETIC NATURE OF ARTHROPODA. As early as 1869 the present writer’ rejected Miiller’s (1864) and: Haeckel’s view (1866) that the insects and other tracheates had descended from the zoéa of the Crustacea, and claimed their ances- try from the Annulata. Kennel?* in 1891 stated his view that the Crustacea arose by an independent line of descent from that of the Annelida, the two groups having diverged from a Preannelidan ancestor, his Protrochosphera, from which the Mollusca also sprang. The tracheate classes he traces back to the Peripatiformes, from 1 My views were stated in an article, entitled « The Ancestry of Insects,” in the American Naturalist, iii, p. 45, March, 1869. In commenting on Haeckel’s view that the ancestor of insects, spiders, and myriopods was a zoéa-like form, a view previously expressed by Fritz Miiller, and also held by Dohrn, I rejected this theory and suggested that the ancestor of insects and other tracheates “ must have been worm-like and aquatic.” A little later I referred the ancestry of both the insects and crustacea, “independently of each other, to the worms (Annu- lata)” (American Naturalist, iv, p. 756, February, 1871). 2« Die Verwandtschaftverhaltnisse der Arthropoden (Schriften Naturf. Gesells. Dorpat, vi, 1891). Kennel’s view that the Nauplius form originated from the Rotatoria was earlier expressed by the writer, as follows: “The Nau- plius form of the embryo or larva of all Crustacea also points back to the worms as their ancestors, the divergence having perhaps originated in the Rotatoria”’ (American Naturalist, v, p. 52, March, 1871). 144 PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. [April 3 which Peripatus arose, with two lines of descent, one ending in the Chilopoda and Insecta, the other in Diplopoda, Pauropoda and Symphyla, the branch finally ending in the Arachnoidea. He thus divides the Arthropoda into Branchiata (Crustacea) and Tracheata. He quotes Plate,’ who in 1889 considered that Crustacea and the Tracheates followed each an ‘‘entirely separate developmental path,’’ since he derived the Crustacea from the Rotatoria, and the Tracheata from the Annelida. In 1883 Kingsley’ inquired whether the group Arthropoda is a natural one, calling attention to the fact that the insects have been. derived from Peripatus, while the Crustacea ‘‘had an ancestor resembling the Nauplius of the Phyllopoda or the Copepoda.’’ In 1894* he divided the Arthropoda into three subphyla: I. Bran- chiata; II. Insecta or Antennata, and III. Diplopoda, rejecting the old grouping into Branchiates and Tracheates (though retain- ing the Branchiata), and he states his belief that the three divisions he makes ‘‘ are but remotely related to one another, and it may yet be proved that they have no common ancestor nearer than the Annelids.”’, * Indeed, as early as 1886, A. C. Oudemans* thus expressed his views as to the relations of Limulus with the trilobites, and of the derivation of the scorpion from the Eurypterida: ‘‘ Though some zoologists doubt the relationship of Limulus with the Trilobita, the Paleontologists have long ago been convinced of it. Among the numberless Trilobita there occur all possible transition forms be- tween them and Limulus, and to Scorpio the .Eurypterida form a partial bridge.’’ His genealogical tree represents the Xiphosura as _ originating from the trilobites and the scorpions as derived from the Eurypterida, in this respect theoretically anticipating the results attained by Pocock with Paleophonus. Oudemans also acknowl- edges the close resemblance of trilobite larve to that of Limulus. 1« Ueber die Rotatorien fauna des bottnischen Meerbusens, nebst Beitragen zur Kenntniss der Anatomie der Philodiniden und der systematischen Stellung der Raderthiere” (Zeztschrift f. Wissen. Zoologie, xlix, December, 1889). 2 American Naturalist, xvii, p. 1034, 1883. 3 American Naturalist, xxviii, pp. 118 and 220, 1894. 4« Die gegenseitige Verwandschaft, Abstammung und Classification der so” gennanten Arthropoden” (Zijdschr. d. Nederland. Dierk. Vereen, 2° Ser. Deel 1, 1886). ] 1903.] PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. 145 I also stated in 1893" that there are four lines of development in the Arthropoda (throwing out for the present the Linguatulina and Tardigrada), viz. : ‘‘ the Podostomatous line, the first to be struck oft from the Annelidan stock (the trilobites being the first forms to appear) ; second, the Arachnidan line; third, the Crustacean line, nearly coeval with the first or Podostomatous ; and the fourth, the line culminating in Myriopods, Scolopendrella and insects; and it is safe to suppose that the terrestrial tracheate groups of Arachnida, Myriopoda and insects were later products than the marine, aquatic branchiate classes—/.e., the Podostomata and the Crus- tacea.’’ Afterwards in 1898, in my Zext-Book of Entomology, as a result of the memoirs of Lankester, Kingsley, and the work of Kishinyoue on the embryology of the Japanese Limulus, from mor- phological and embryological data, having abandoned earlier opinions as to the Crustacean affinities of Limulus, I gradually was led to recognize the close affinity of the Merostomes and Arachnida, stating that the embryology of Limulus and Arachnida ‘“ shows that they have descended from forms related to Limulus, possibly having had an origin in common with that animal, or having, as some authors claim, directly diverged from some primi- tive eurypteroid merostome’’ (p. 6). Again, on p. 8: ‘The Arachnida probably descended from marine merostomes, and not from an independent annelid ancestry.’’ Again, on p. 3, ina dis- cussion of the relation of insects to other Arthropoda: ‘It is be- coming evident, however, that there was no common ancestor of the Arthropoda as a whole, and that the group is a polyphyletic one. Hence, though a convenient group, it is a somewhat artificial one, and may eventually be dismembered into at least three or four phyla or branches.”’ Subdivision of the Arthropoda into five Phyla.—I would suggest the following grouping of the principal classes of the Arthropoda, beginning with what may be regarded as the most primitive assem- blage of classes, and for which I would propose the name Pa/eopoda, in allusion to the very primitive and homonomous nature of their post-antennal or post-oral appendages, when compared with those of 1«¢ Further Studies on the Brain of Limulus Polyphemus, with Notes on its Embryology ” (Memoirs Nat. Acad. Sciences, p. 322, 1893). Compare also Zoologischer Anzeiger, April 20, 1891. 146 PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA, [April 3, the Crustacea.’ I also add what appear to be the essential characters of the phylum. Phylum I, Pat&opopa. Composed of three classes—/. ¢., Trilobita, Merostomata, Arachnida. Body trilobate (in Trilobita and many Merostomata), never pro- tected by a true carapace, composed of a head and trunk region; the head-region separate from the trunk, in Trilobites (Triarthrus) composed of (judging by the appendages) five segments (som- ites, arthromeres), in Merostomes six, while in Arachnida the head fused with the so-called thorax (cephalo-thorax) also consists of six segments. The first pair of head-appendages, in a single trilobitic genus (Triarthrus), are long, slender, uniaxial and antenniform, or biramose, chelate (Merostomata and Arachnida) ; all the post-oral appendages, in the most primitive class (Trilobita), biramose, con- sisting of an outer and inner many-jointed division, but all homon- omous, or retaining the same fundamental and primitive shape from the mouth to the end of the body, and never (as they are in Crus- tacea) differentiated into true or functional mandibles, maxille, maxillipedes, ambulatory uniaxial thoracic legs, or biramose abdominal limbs. The gnathobases, or coxal joint of each limb, especially those near the mouth, armed with inward projecting spines, acting as jaws to tear and to keep the food or prey from escaping. In the Merostomata the post-cephalic or trunk (abdomi- nal) limbs biramose and adapted for swimming, and either (in Trilobites) expanded posteriorly and probably serving both for swimming and respiration, or in Merostomes (Zzmu/us) bearing on the exopodite of each limb, except those of the first pair, a pile of numerous gill-sacs. In Arachnida, in adaptation to a terrestrial life, the six pairs of abdominal or trunk limbs are reduced, mostly atrophied, represented in the scorpion by the pectines and the four pairs of invaginated book-lungs, and in spiders by the two pairs of book-lungs (Mygale) and the three pairs of spinnerets, which are 2-3 jointed, external free appendages. A hypostoma is present and well developed in Trilobita and Merostomata, as also a double underlip, the chilaria of Limulus. The eyes of -Asaphus, etc., and of Limulus are compound, al- 1 Paleeocarida was proposed when I believed that Limulus and its allies were Crustacea; my name Podostomata was proposed for a greup embracing the two classes Trilobita and Merostomes; the present name, Palzopoda, is needed to embrace the three classes mentioned. 1903.] PACKARD—-CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. 147 ways sessile, and distinguished by the thick, either lenticular or long conical lenses, arranged in quincunx order. _ The integument.is chitinous, insoluble as in insects, never con- taining carbonate or phosphate of lime, or forming a solid crust as in the higher Crustacea. The cartilaginous plate (endoster- nite), so large and well developed in Limulus, is also present in Arachnida. In the living forms (Limulus and Arachnida) the digestive canal may be differentiated into a slender cesophagus, a proventriculus armed with rows of numerous chitinous teeth (Limulus) and an intestine, the stomach being but slightly differentiated. The liver or hepato-pancreas is large and voluminous. In the Merostomes (Limulus) there are no salivary glands, though occurring in Arach- nida. Genital openings always (Merostomata and Arachnida) proso- goneate, the oviducts or seminal ducts opening out separately on the posterior aspect of the basal abdominal limbs (Limulus), or in Arachnida united into a single terminal passage, opening bya single orifice at the base of the abdomen. In the marine forms, with gills or localized respiration, the heart is tubular and the arterial system remarkably developed and finely divided, whereas in the tracheate, terrestrial forms the arteries and veins are absent, respiration being carried on throughout the body (chiefly abdominal) cavity. In the Palzeopoda there is no true metamorphosis like chat of the Crustacea, no nauplius or zoéa stage. The first or earliest larval stage, the profaspis’ stage of Beecher, can, so far as we can see, in no way be likened to the nauplius of a crustacean. The nauplius has an oval body, not differentiated into segments, but with three pairs of slender swimming limbs, which finally become the two pairs of antenne and the mandibles of the adult. In the protaspis of trilo- bites, as defined by Beecher, the conditions are entirely different and such as suggest the origin from a polymerous Annelid ancestor. The minute disk-like or suborbicular larva of different genera of Trilobites described by Barrande and by Beecher consist of two regions, a head and trunk or abdomen. There are in the head indications of five annulations, the same number as in the adult Triarthrus; the much shorter abdominal region has from ‘‘ one 1 This term was proposed by Beecher in his paper on ‘‘ The Larval Stages of Trilobites” (Amer. Geologist, September, 1895). Previously to that, A. C, Oudemans, in 1886, in the article cited, proposed the name /roagnostus for the same stage. If used, this name might be amended to read Protagnostus stage. 148 PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. [April 3, to several annulations,’’ which probably represent segments. From this we logically infer that in the protaspis of trilo- bites there were more than three pairs of head-appendages, and possibly two or three pairs of abdominal appendages. Now the larva of Limulus is hatched with two body-regions, of the same general shape as those of the trilobites, and it is also trilobed; the embryo, sometimes before hatching, with its thick spherical body, strongly recalls the protaspis stage of trilobites, and seems to justify the view that the freshly hatched larva of Limulus is a protaspis.’ In the protaspis-like fossil Cyclus, which seems to represent an ancestral type of Limuloids persisting into the Carboniferous Period, there are traces of head-appendages like those of the embryo Limulus. The metamorphosis of the Palzopoda is, then, incomplete; the limbs of the protaspis retain the form and functions of the larva, the adult simply differing in acquiring at successive molts additional trunk-segments, with their corresponding limbs. The eggs of Limulus as well as of Arachnida are large and not sO Numerous as in some Crustacea ; those of Limulus are laid in the sand. The eggs of trilobites are also large, spherical, and evidently, like those of Limulus, were deposited in the sand or sandy mud, as they occur separately from the trilobites themselves. The embryology of Limulus presents some unique features, and yet there is such a close resemblance to that of the scorpion that the embryology of the Arachnida, as I have freely acknowledged, affords very strong proofs of their relationship to and descent from merostomes. In the embryo of the scorpion and spiders there are six pairs of head- (cephalothoracic) appendages, and the mode of origin of the book-lungs of the scorpion and spiders seems to prove that they are derivatives of the exopodites of the abdominal limbs of Limulus. It results from what is now known of the structure of the Trilo- 11 freely acknowledge that many years ago (1872) I supposed that the embryo Limulus passed through a nauplius, and that I called it a « subzoéa stage,” but this view was long since abandoned, as also my contention that Limulus was nearer the Crustacea than the Arachnida. It need hardly be added that while as pre- viously I cannot agree with the view that Limulus is an actual Arachnid, it has for some years, through the result of the work of Kingsley and Kishinyoue, been evident that the Merostomes are closely related to the Arachnida, and I adopted this view in my memoir on the brain of Limulus (1893). % Fete | Re tae ee ee ae ioe PO apg et nm etek > 1903. ] PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. 149 bita that they have no relationship with the Crustacea. To include them in that group, otherwise a mos: natural one, is not good tax- onomy. The chief characters which are given for retaining the Trilobita as a primitive group of Crustacea are the presence of the antenne-like preoral appendages of Triarthrus and one or two other genera. That this is not so important as might seem at first sight is the presence of four antennz-like appendages in the head of Eurypterus; Holm having discovered that the first pair are chelate, like those of Limulus. Both Trilobita and Crustacea have biramose limbs, adapted for swimming, but so nas any marine arthropod; the fact that the limbs are divided is the result of their inheritance in either class from Annelids with parapodia, but in the multiarticulate structure of each ramus and the entire lack of differentiation of the whole series of postoral limbs in Triarthrus we have fundamental charac- ters which are diagnostic of the Trilobites, and widely separate the class from the Crustacea. Whether the Merostomata are widely distinct from the Trilobita or not, we submit that it is a mistake to include the latter in the class of Crustacea. Entirely disagreeing with those who widely separate the Merosto- mata from the Trilobites, after repeatedly going over the subject, the close relationship of the two groups seems to us to be very apparent, the differences being only such as would separate the two classes of a single phylum. It has seemed to us that the merostomes and trilobites either had a common ancestry, which was a protaspid, or the Merostomes by way of the Synxiphosura diverged from the trilobite stem after it had been established in Precambrian times. Thus far, unfortunately, we know nothing of the nepionic stage of any of the Eurypterida. Their earliest adult form (Strabops of Beecher!) occurs in the Cambrian, while the Synxiphosura date from the Silurian. It is not improbable that some genus of this group gave origin to the Xiphosura. On the other hand, is there not so close a resemblance between some of these Synxiphosura, such as Neolimulus and Bunodes, as to suggest that the Merostomes are direct descendants of the Trilobita? If we compare the figures 1 Although Beecher refers this early form to the Eurypterida, it appears, judg- ing from his figure, to quite as much resemble certain Synxiphosura, as Bunodes and Neolimulus, in the short, broad head and shape of the trunk-segment and telson, though it has two segments more than in the Synxiphosura and one seg- ment less than in the Eurypterida. 150 PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. [April 3, of Aglaspis eatoni with that of Dalmanites (Figs. 1414 and 1331 of Zittell-Eastman’s Paleontology), is there not such a close resemblance in the shape of the head (or cephalothorax) and of the trunk-segments as to suggest a close alliance, even though mem- bers of two distinct classes? To answer this question by saying that this is a case of convergence, the objector might be referred to the other Synxiphosura, which also suggest a common origin of the two classes from a protaspis ancestor. It has been suggested that some of the Cyclidz are larval Eurypterida or Limuloids ; if this should prove to be the case (of which we are by no means sure, as no Cyclidz have yet been found below the Carboniferous), we should have an additional argument for the common origin of the two classes, for the Cyclidz somewhat resemble the larval trilobites. Relation between the Merostomata and Arachnida.—While we have from the first maintained that the Merostomes should not actually be included among the Arachnida—v. ¢., that Limulus is not a genuine Arachnidan, as claimed by Van Beneden, Lankester and later authors—from the evidence we now have as to the mode of origin of the book-lungs and the morphogeny of the appendages in general, and especially the interesting and remarkable discovery by Mr. Pocock,! that the Silurian so-called scorpions are probably marine links between scorpions and Eurypterida, whatever objec- tions I have formerly expressed to their Arachnidan affinities are now overcome, and it seems plain that the scorpion is a direct descendant of some Eurypteridan. Pocock’s fortunate discovery in the Silurian scorpion (Paleophonus hunteri) of the inner branch of a two-jointed appendage, which appears to be the homologue of a recent scorpion’s ‘‘pecten,’’ should it be confirmed by the dis- covery of additional examples ; as well as the thickness of the head- appendages, the last four pairs of which end in a single point, not in claws, as in modern scorpions—these discoveries appear to give the clue to the line of descent of Arachnida from some Merostome, one would say from some Eurypterus-like form, though, from other features observed by him, Mr. Pocock takes the view that ‘‘ Palzo- phonus occupies an intermediate position between Limulus and the Eurypterida on the one hand and recent scorpions on the other, standing, if anything, rather nearer to the former than to the latter.’’ 1« The Scottish Silurian Scorpion,” Quart. Fourn. Micr. Sc., Vol. 44, 0. S., 1902. 1908. ] PACKARD-——CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. 151 We quite agree with Pocock’s opinion that Paleeophonus was not adapted for land and aérial respiration, but ‘‘ lived in the sea, prob- ably in shallow water, its strong, sharply-pointed legs being fitted for maintaining a secure hold on the bottom.”’ In conclusion, then, we would suggest, from our present knowl- edge of the Palzeopoda, that the group is a natural one, that the line of descent of the phylum from some Annelid-like worm was independent of that of the crustacean phylum, and that the affini- ties shown by morphology and embryology to exist between the Trilobita, Merostomata and Arachnida are so close that they form a tolerably definite series of interrelated classes. Phylum If. PancarRipA. Represented bya single class, Crus- tacea. ‘The phylum name is proposed for the reason that the group is so well circumscribed, none but the genuine Crustacea or Carides belonging to it, forms as to whose position in nature all zoologists are well agreed. In this group there is a decided advance over the Palzopoda in the differentiation of the appendages into from three to six kinds, with corresponding functions. In the lower or more primitive, though somewhat modified, group of Cladocera, such as Daphnia, there are two pairs of antennz, a pair of mandibles, of maxille, | and of legs or trunk-appendages, the whole performing four different functions; while in the Decapoda there are besides the antenne, mandibles and maxillz, three pairs of maxillipedes, five pairs of thoracic and six of abdominal legs, or appendages, in all performing six different kinds of functions—a degree of differentiation and specialization not exceeded by any other Arthropodan group. The members of the phylum show an increasing tendency, as we rise towards the more specialized forms, to a heteronomous segmen- tation and also to a wonderful transfer of parts headwards (cephal- ization), the cephalothorax being covered by a carapace formed by the hypertrophy or excessive development of the tergites of the second antennal and mandibular segments. In the Phyllocarida the cephalothorax is covered by a bivalvular carapace, with a weak adductor muscle; while in Apus it, in adaptation to its burrowing in soft mud, assumes the general shape of the shield of Limulus; while in the Estheridz the entire body is protected by the two valves, which are connected by a definite hinge and ligament. On the other hand, the head-shield of the Palzeopoda, as well as the pygidium when occurring, is the result of the simple fusion of the 152 PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. [April 3, segments. While the Phyllopoda are generally regarded as the most primitive group—their swimming limbs closely resembling those of Annelid worms—it may be questioned whether the Phyllocarida are not astill more primitive group; certainly they are the most composite or synthetic, and were the earliest known group of Crustacea. Crustacea are, like the Paleopoda, prosogoneate ; but when we take into account the fact that there is in the adult but a single pair of nephridia (the green gland), or in other forms (Phyllopoda) the shell gland, there has been a great reduction in the number of pairs from what may have been the ancestral type, while Limulus still retains four pairs. In all Crustacea the eggs are carried attached to the body of the parent, and never, as in trilobites and meros- tomes, deposited loosely in the sand. In their metamorphosis, which is a complete one in all the typi- cal forms, the larval stage of the lower Crustacea being a nauplius, we have another feature wanting in the Palzopoda. As is well known, the early embryo of Moina passes through a prenauplian stage like that of Annelida, and the indications are that the nau- plius is itself a derivation from the trochosphera stage of Annelid worms. te Now, as is well known, the most primitive groups or members of a group do not undergo transformations ; and in this respect the Pancarida are a later, more specialized group than the Paleeopoda. It will be remembered that the most primitive insects (Synaptera) do not undergo a metamorphosis, and if several of the lower orders of winged insects it is incomplete, there being no larval and pupal ‘stages; in the Arachnida only the extremely modified Acarina undergo a slight metamorphosis. That of the Meropoda is slight. Enough has been stated, we think, to show that the Paleopoda are quite remote from the Pancarida, and that a union of the trilo- bites in the same class with the Crustacea brings about an unnat- ural association, and tends to an unnecessary amount of confusion. Dr. Kingsley regards the Trilobita as the more primitive sub- class of Crustacea, but we are unable to see any features in Crustacea which could have been derived from trilobites; there are no transitional forms, and the larval forms are widely distinct, as he has well shown. ‘The gap between the two groups is, on morpho- logical and embryological grounds, a very wide one. Already in the early Cambrian seas trilobites were a predominant type, while "i ty + . i A ; 1903.] PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. 153 the Crustacea were comparatively scanty in numbers, and repre- sented by primitive types showing no trace of trilobite characters. The Chief Factors in the Evolution of Classes.—Assuming that the Arachnida, represented by the most typical form, the scorpion, have evolved from the class of merostomes, in the way suggested by Pocock, the entire process or phenomenon has the most direct and instructive bearings on the method of evolution of one class from another. In the first place, the single group of scorpions—say a single gen- eric form—appears to have arisen from some genus of Eurypterida, allied to Eurypterus, and by divergent evolution the great class of Arachnida, with its eight orders, appears to have originated by one step after another from a single type, not necessarily an individual, but many, all the members of the genus being modified by similar causes, in the same manner and at the same time. The modification of a marine Eurypteroid form, perhaps living in a shallow, land-locked basin, perhaps finally becoming brackish, into a terrestrial scorpion, was due to changes in the environment, in the topography; this reacted on the Eurypterid and resulted in change of habits, and consequent adaptation to brackish, and per- haps to fresh, water, and finally to land. With little doubt, all the forms inhabiting the area underwent the same kind of modification and similar adaptation to a new medium, the same changes of func- tion resulting in the disuse of organs adapted for marine existence and the evolution of structures adapting the animal for terrestrial life. The changes by which the connecting links (Palzeophonus) be- came transformed into a genuine scorpion, the ancestor and founder of the Arachnida, were the following : 1. The loss by disuse of the abdominal swimming appendages ‘(except the pectines), and the ingrowth and reduction by disuse of the expodites, the gills attached to them being carried in, forming eventually the book-lungs of the scorpion, each with its spiracular opening, adapted for aérial respiration. 2. The four hinder pairs of cephalothoracic appendages became slenderer after the animal had left the water and adopted a life on land, under stones or the bark of trees, etc.,and the single stout claw of the original Paleeophonus became by use, in climbing trees, etc., two-clawed, like those of all Arachnida and insects. PROC. AMER. PHILOS. 80C. XLII. 173. K. PRINTED JUNE 11, 1908. 154 PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. [April3, 3. The compound eyes of the Merostomes became broken up into groups of single eyes. 4. Most remarkable changes took place in the internal organs, resulting in the development of salivary glands, none occurring in Crustacea and other marine Arthropods. 5. The acquisition of Malphigian or urinary tubes which exist in terrestrial Arthropods, Arachnida, insects, etc., but in no marine Arthropods. 6. A gradual reduction in the number of pairs of nephridia, all Arachnida having but a single pair, Limulus having four pairs, and the Eurypterida presumably as many. 7. After the scorpion type became fixed and the spiders arose, the number of pairs of book-lungs became reduced from two pairs in Mygale to one in other spiders, and then began an evolution of tracheze from dermal glands—a process seen in certain terrestrial planarian worms as well as land-leeches. 8. While the arterial system of Limulus, owing to its localized organs of respiration, is remarkably developed, in the scorpion the arterial system is greatly reduced, and in the tracheate Arachnida, such as the spiders, there are no arteries or venous lacune. It is most probable that the evolution of the Palzeophonus descen- dants, viz., the scorpions of the Carboniferous—assuming that they were true scorpions—took place with comparative rapidity, z. e., by tachygenesis, without the extremely slow method postulated by the natural selectionists, the modification suggested above having con- temporaneously affected all the individuals, many thousands or tens of thousands alike. The method was not, as Darwin imagined, the result of a single chance variation gradually and by numberless intermediate forms passing into a species which gave origin to many others, from which were gradually evolved new subgenera, genera, subfamilies and so on, but the method was radically differ- ent. The Paleophonus, an Eurypterid, became, we take it, in a comparatively few generations the parent of a scorpion, the repre- sentative of a distinct class. The class characters, great as are the differences, especially in its internal organs, between an Arachnid and a Merostome, were assumed with comparative suddenness. New classes, like new species, did not arise from a single but from a large number of individuals. This was Lamarck’s doctrine, and it has been reaffirmed by De Vries. This shows that even classes 1903.] PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. 155 are in a degree artificial or ideal conceptions. And so it was with the evolution of mammals from theromorphous reptiles, and of birds such as the Archzopteryx from reptiles. With our present knowl- edge we can trace an almost exact parallel between the tachygenic origin, by change in the medium, inducing changes in habits and the functions, of flying in sectsfrom Synapterous forms, that of the Arachnida from the Merostomes, of Amphibia from Ganoid fishes, of reptiles possibly from Amphibia like the Labyrinthodonts, of birds from dinosaurian reptiles, and of mammals from theromorph reptiles (unless the Amphibians, as some contend, were the source of mammalian life). The exciting causes of the differentiation of classes, as well as orders, families and genera, were geological and topographic changes, enforced migration and consequent isolation, adaptation to a new medium, to new conditions of life, such as a change from marine to fresh water, from fresh water to land, and in the case of pterodactyls, birds and insects, from a terrestrial life to one spent partly in the air. The early Paleozoic ages as well as the Precambrian were periods of the rapid evolution of phyla, and of class and ordinal types, as shown by Hyatt, the writer, and others. Indeed, it would seem as if the evolution and differentiation of varieties and species suc- ceeded rather than preceded the formation of genera and higher groups. It may be questioned whether the natural selectionists could make any progress in evolution, so to speak, by beginning with merely simple variations, although after the higher or more general groups were originated, and this was by far the most diffi- cult and important step, specific variations set in very rapidly, as early as Cambrian times. Few, except paleontologists, appear to appreciate the rapidity with which evolution in Precambrian and Cambrian times must have operated among the plastic forms which here and there crowded the early paleozoic seas. Phylum III. Meropopa. This group is proposed to include the classes of Pauropoda, Diplofoda and Symphyla. Prosogoneate myriopods, in which the body is in the typical forms cylindrical, the ‘trunk-segments variable in number, but usually numerous, and each segment ‘‘ double’’ —z. ¢., united bya dorsal plate, which was originally two plates which had been fused together (Heathcote), unless we adopt the views of Kenyon that the alternate plates disappeared, the remaining plates overgrow- 156 PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. ([April3, | ing those behind them, so as to give rise to the anomalous double segments ; the feet arise close together along the median line of the body, there being no sternal plates between them. In the typical Diplopoda the head consists of three segments, the preoral or an- tennal and two postoral, bearing the mandibles (protomalz) and the single pair of maxillz (deutomale) united to form the gnatho- chilarium or underlip. As all the members of this phylum agree in having from two- to three-jointed mandibles, in which respect they differ from Chilopod Myriopods and especially insects, we have given the name JZerogoda to this phylum in allusion to the primi- tive nature of these appendages, which resemble the maxillz rather than the mandibles of insects.1_ The mandibles of the Diplopods consist of three segments, a basal segment (cardo), a middle seg- ment (stipes), and a distal one (mala mandibularis), which sup- ports two lobes homologous with the galea and lacinia of the — maxilla of an insect. Diplopods are also provided with eversible coxal glands, in position like those of Scolopendrella ; these perhaps } functioning as blood-gills, and in Lysiopetalum occurring between the coxe of the third to sixteenth pair of limbs. | A primitive feature, and the one diagnostic of the Meropodaas compared with the Chilopodous Myriopods, is the paired genital j ducts and openings which are situated near the head between the second and third pair of legs. In the Symphyla the opening is single, proving the later origin of that group. Another diagnostic feature is that the male genital glands lie beneath, while in Peri- patus, Chilopods and insects they lie above the digestive canal. The tracheary system is also more primitive than in Chilopoda | and insects, the trachez not being branched (except in Glomeridz) . and anastomosing, and the tracheze themselves are without spiral threads (tenidia). In Diplopods the stigmata, which are per- manently open, are placed beneath the legs, oreven in the coxal joints. The nervous system is much more primitive than in Chilo- poda and insects. The external genital armature, a complicated apparatus of male claspers and hooks, apparently arises from the sternum of the sixth trunk-segment, and they are modifications of the seventh pair of legs. F In their embryology the Diplopoda are more primitive than the 1 There is an approach to this trimerous condition in Thysanura and Orthop- tera (Blatta) and certain Coleoptera (see my Zéext-Book of Entomology, p. 60, also p. 12), 1903.] PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. 157 Chilopoda. In Polydesmus the method of formation of the blas- toderm more resembles that of the Crustaceans and Arachnida than that of Chilopods. The larva of the Diplopods, though bearing but three pairs of legs, differs from that of any insect in that these limbs are not appended to consecutive segments ; either the second or the third segment in different species of Julus being legless, while in Blaniulus the legs are borne on segments 2 to 4 behind the head.1 The new double segments with their two pairs of legs arise at successive molts, so that the animal undergoes a partial metamorphosis ; while the Chilopods are hatched in the form of the adult, being poly- podous. Pauropopa. Nothing has been added to our knowledge of these forms since the publication of the thorough works on them by Kenyon and by Schmidt. The group was regarded as an order (Pauropoda) by Lubbock. Kenyon, however, created the order Protodiplopoda, including in it Pauropus and Polyxenus. The Pauropoda are regarded by Kenyon as degenerate Diplo- pods, owing to the absence of tracheal and circulatory systems, and distantly related to Polyxenus; on the other hand, the sim- plicity of the segmentation, the fact that there is but a single pair of legs to a segment, and other features pointed out by Kenyon, lead us to provisionally regard the group as a class more primitive and distinct from the Diplopoda. The number of mouth-appen- dages is the same as in the Diplopods; the genital aperture opens on the third trunk-segment, and the testis is situated above the intestine (the ovary below). History of the Opinions regarding the Taxonomy of the Meropoda. —The first writer to doubt the naturalness of the group Myriopoda, and to state that the Chilopoda and Hexapoda were more nearly allied than the Chilopoda and Diplopoda, was Pocock,? in 1887. A year later Dr. Kingsley ® arrived independently at the same opin- ion, adding the anatomical data in support of this view. 1 The young of Polyzonium, however, is hatched with four pairs of legs, borne on each of the first four trunk-segments (Rimsky-Korsakow, Travaux Soc. Imp. Naturalistes de St. Petersbourg, xxv, 1895, Pl. 1, Fig. 8). 2 Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist., xx, October, 1887. 3 American Naturalist, December, 1888, p. 1118. 158 PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. [April3, In 1893 Pocock?! divided the tracheate Arthropods into two sec- tions, the Progoneata (including class Pauropoda and class Diplo- poda), and Ofisthogoneata, embracing the Homopoda (class Sym- phyla and class Chilopoda) and Hexopoda (class Hexopoda). Afterwards? he placed the Symphyla among the tracheate Progo- neata. This classification of Myriopoda was adopted by Schmidt in 1895, and has been adopted by Verhoeff* and the term Myriopoda will probably hereafter be merely used as a convenient appellation for polypod tracheate arthropods. We would add that, rejecting the old term Tracheata, the proso- goneate Myriopods appear to us to constitute an independent phylum, rather than a subphylum, and for that reason we have ven- tured to propose the name Merofoda for the group (epog, a part or segment; zoug, zodos, a leg), from the fact that the mandibles are more distinctly divided into segments than in any other group of Arthropods, thus more closely resembling the other appendages of the body, whence it follows that all the limbs, including the mandibles, have the primitive feature of being composed of several . segments. The Symphyla in respect to the structure of the mandibles are less primitive than the Diplopods, but I am now inclined to agree with those who have pointed out their Diplopods affinities and to place them among the Meropods. . The Systematic Position of the Symphyla.—This is a puzzling problem. In my TZext-Book of Entomology I have with some care reviewed the chief points in the anatomy of Scolopendrella and the opinions of different authors regarding its systematic rela- tions. Having studied sections of the animals, I prepared a figure or reproduction from the sagittal sections of a female, of which the accompanying illustration (Fig. 1) is an enlarged reproduction. Comparing the digestive tract with that of Pauropus, it is divided into three portions ; the cesophageal valve opening into the stomach is seen at @. v., and the beginning of the rectum is well marked ; the two urinary tubes are large, arising at the posterior end of the intestine and ending in front at the third segment from the head 1 Zoologische Anzeiger, xvi, Jahrg. 3, Juli, 1893, p. 271. 2 Natural Science, x, February, 1897, p. 114. 3 Bronn’s KZassen. u. ord. Thier-reichs, Bd. V, VI, Abth. Arthropoda, Leip- zig, 1902. - N ’ 8.9] t i CoO! as SEER, est S Y C4 ae aoe Waeducclipigieeocon oes eetcO) Ore ae REA MaeA IAA aaa, WES a2 Fic. 1. Section through Scolopendrella immaculata ; @, cesophagus ; @.v, cesophageal valve entering the stomach ; 7, ? intestine ; 7, rectum; 47, brain; us, abdominal chain of ganglia; ova, oviduct; ov, ovary; s.g/, silk gland, and of, its outer opening in the cercus; wr. ¢, urinary tube; cg, coxal glands or blood-gills—Author, de/. 1903.] | PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. 159 (ur. ¢.). The ovary (ov.) is seen to lie partly beneath but mainly above the intestine; the median opening of the oviduct (ovd.) being indicated by the arrow between the third and fourth pair of legs. Attention should be called to the eversible coxal sacs (c. g.), of which there are eleven pairs situated at the base of the legs of each pair; the sac is largest and most developed in the middle of the body and is a convoluted tube which makes three turns. The silk gland (s. g/.) at the end of the body is large, its direct opening situated at the end of the cercus, while the gland itself extends as far forward as the third segment from the end of the body. The brain and nerve-cord are large and thick, much as in Pauropus. The dorsal vessel, fat body, rectal glands and the salivary glands are not represented. There is in Scolopendrella a mixture of Diplopod and Thysan- uran characters, the former the more primitive and predominating. My original idea that it is a Thysanuran is certainly a mistaken one. The Symphyla evidently forms a group by itself, and I am inclined to agree with Pocock and with Kingsley that it should for the present be associated with Pauropods and Diplopods. Yet were it not for the anterior position of the genital opening we should regard it as the representative of a group from which the insects have descended. The Symphyla is evidently a much less primitive group than the Pauropoda and Diplopoda, as proved by the single genital opening and the Thysanuran characters it possesses. It would seem as if it had already begun to diverge from the Diplopod stem, and was becoming modified in the direction of the Thysanura.1! It is a true composite or prophetic type which has persisted from very early paleozoic times, and we may well imagine that there once existed a form intermediate between it and the Thysanura in which the genital outlet had moved back to the position it holds in Chilopods and insects. As I state in my Zext-Book of Entomology, *‘ cer- tainly Scolopendrella is the only extant Arthropod which, with the 1 The thysanurous characters and the fact that it has but asingle pair of legs to a segment (unless, as Schmidt suggests, the parapodia “ represent the vestiges of a second pair of legs and correspond to the hinder pair of limbs of the primary double segment,” thus indicating I would add the diplopod origin of Scolopen- drella) appear to indicate that it is a form which has become considerably detached from the Diplopod stem, and has gone part way towards the incoming Thysanura. Campodea also possesses these so-called “ parapodia.” 160 PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. [April3, sole exception of the anteriorly situated genital opening, fulfills the conditions required of an ancestor of Thysanura, and through them of the winged insects’? (p. 22). Meanwhile, until the embryology of this form is thoroughly worked out and compared with that of the Diplopods on the one hand, and Campodea, as treated by Uzel, on the other, we must be content to let the Symphyla remain provis- ionally associated with the Diplopoda in the phylum Meropoda. Phylum IV. PROTRACHEATA. Class Ma/lacopoda. ‘The-arthro- podan features of Peripatus are discussed in my TZext-Look of Entomology (p. 9). Its nature as the probable ancestor of the Chilopoda is, notwithstanding the immense gap between it and Chilopods and insects, such as to still compel us to suppose that it resembles the probable progenitor of the Chilopods and of the insects. It would be difficult to know what better to do with it. It certainly cannot be placed among the Annelids, or in any other Arthropodan phylum, and it is with little doubt a very ancient type which has persisted from perhaps early paleozoic times. Phylum V, ENTOMOPTERA. Class Chilopoda and class Jmsecta (Hexapoda). While the Chilopoda are the nearest allies of the Insects, there is certainly a wide gap between them, and there are no structures in insects which unmistakably point to their origin from Chilopods, although Uzel in his account of the embryology of Campodea shows that in some respects it develops like Geophi- lus. «At present, however, we are in the dark as to the origin of the thysanurous Synaptera from any form, unless we invoke a Sco- lopendrella-like ancestor in which the genital opening has moved back to a position homologous with that of Peripatus, Chilopods and insects. The combination of Chilopoda and Insecta as here given is a new one,’ and for the Phylum, as we limit it, a new name seems necessary. As the Chilopods are a quite subordinate group, and the great mass of the orders is composed of winged forms, I have ventured to propose the term Axtomoptera to cover this great group of Arthropodous animals, reserving the name Insecta for the class which has always borne that name. Each of the phyla as here limited appears, judging from their structure and what we know of their development, to represent distinct and independent lines of development, and are submitted for consideration by zoologists. It 1The Antennata of Lang comprises all the Myriopoda and the Insects. ai awvs'-e 1903.] PACKARD—CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA. 161 may at least be claimed that the breaking up of the Arthropoda into more definite, well-circumscribed groups will lead to greater exacti- tude and definiteness when referring to them. After this article was completed I discovered that A. C. Oude- mans as early as 1886 thus expressed his views as to the naturalness of the Arthropoda: ‘‘It is desirable that the group of Arthropoda should be given up. The groups of Acaroidea, Arachnoidea, Crustacea, Pantopoda, Onychophora, and Insecta are independent of each other, and should, therefore, be treated separately in the manuals. The very complicated structure would then become clearer to the student. A comparison of the groups with each can best take place afterwards and not beforehand ” (Z. ¢., p. 20). The following diagram will roughly indicate the different Phyla and the principal classes into which they are divided. It should be observed that the Annelidan ancestors of any of these five Phyla probably had few trunk-segments, being probably primitive Tro- chozoa with parapodia already developed. Insecta Arachnida Symphyla Crustacea / | Merostomata / | Trilobita Diplopoda Chilopoda | Malacopoda Paasopoday = 0. TAR Sst | eee foot sa I II III IV Vv PALZOPODA PANCARIDA MEROPODA PROTRACHEATA ENTOMOPTERA Protagnostus (Protaspis) Annelida — Annelida Aumelida Annelida or Trochosphera PROVIDENCE, R. I., March 28, 1903. ‘ 162 MERRIMAN—LEAST WORK IN MECHANICS. [April 2, THE PRINCIPLE OF LEAST WORK IN MECHANICS AND ITS USE IN INVESTIGATIONS REGARDING THE ETHER OF SPACE. BY MANSFIELD MERRIMAN. (Read April 2, 1903.) The principle of least work has been extensively used in applied mechanics since 1879, when it was first formally stated and estab- lished by Castigliano. Previous to that time, various authors had discussed the principles of least action, of least constraint, and of least resistance, and had applied them in the solution of special problems. The principle of least work, however, is capable of more definite statement and demonstration than the other mini- mum laws, and its range of application in statical investigations on elastic structures is wide, while it has been found to be of great practical value to civil engineers. When a structure like a bridge truss contains members sufficient to prevent distortion of its panels and no more, the stresses in these members due to given loads can be readily computed by the prin- ciples of rigid statics, the members in this case being called necessary ones. If there be superfluous members, however, rigid statics cannot determine the stresses, since the number of unknown stresses is greater than the number of statical conditions. In this case the structure is said to be statically indeterminate, and the principle of least work must be applied. This principle asserts that the stresses under consideration have such values that the potential stress energy stored in all the members of the structure shall be a minimum. If there be # stresses under consideration and m statical conditions, the remaining 7 — conditions are expressed by n—m equations, which are deduced by equating to zero the deriva- tives of the expression for the total stored energy, these being the conditions that render this energy a minimum. Asa simple example the case of a rectangular table with four legs may be considered, it being required to find the stresses in these legs due to single load placed on the table in a given position. This is a statically indeterminate problem, since rigid statics furnishes but three conditions, and the solution cannot be made if the legs are rigid. The legs are, however, really elastic and each one is shortened in supporting the load, the stress in each leg multiplied by the amount of shortening being proportional to the stored os 2 1903.] MERRIMAN—LEAST WORK IN MECHANICS. 163 energy init. The amount of shortening is, moreover, proportional to the stress, if the elastic limit of the material be not exceeded. Accordingly, the stress energy in the four legs due to the given load is proportional to the sum of the squares of the four stresses, and this sum is to be made a minimum. This condition, in connection with the three statical ones, enables the four stresses due to the load to be readily determined for any given position of that load, and that these stresses actually occur is easily verified by experi- ment. A close analysis of the principle of least work as applied to any framed structure will show that its applicability and its validity depend upon the fact that the longitudinal deformation of any member is proportional to the stress uponit. ‘This law of elasticity, commonly known as Hooke’s law, is closely true for the materials used in engineering structures, provided the elastic limit be not exceeded. In all cases of the design of structures it is intended that this limit shall not be surpassed, and hence the principle of least work may be used with confidence and success in computations of stresses in statically indeterminate trusses. It is sometimes asserted that the principle of least work is a state- ment of a general law of nature which is obeyed not only by materials under stress but by.animate beings. While it may be true that men and animals endeavor to perform their tasks in the way most economical of effort, this analogy has no bearing upon the demonstration of the principle of least work. For this demonstra- tion rests upon the theorem of virtual velocities, the formula for the stored stress energy being the integral of that of virtual veloci- ties. On analyzing this proof it is seen that the integration is rendered possible by the fact that the deformation of each member is assumed to be proportional to the stress upon it. This assump- tion indeed is the same as that of the superposition of forces, for it supposes each stress to produce its effects independently of the existence of other stresses. The theorem of virtual velocities applies to all cases of equilibrium, but its integral form does not give the principle of least work unless Hooke’s law of elasticity is fulfilled. This principle, therefore, is of limited application in mechanics, and it states no general law of nature. In the method of least squares the conditions and rules for find- ing the most probable values of observed quantities are derived from the principle that the sum of the squares of the residual errors 164 MERRIMAN—LEAST WORK IN MECHANICS. [April 2, shall be a minimum. In theoretical mechanics the condition for finding the centre of mass of a system of bodies may be expressed by saying that the moment of inertia of the system shall be a mini- mum. In the mechanics of elastic bodies the principle of least work is analogous to these, for the conditions which must be fulfilled are those found by making the stored energy of the system a minimum. In all these cases the algebraic conditions are expressed by linear equations while the laws from which they are derived are in quadratic form, and these laws are only true when each elementary error or particle produces its effects independently of others. Solid beams and tubes, as well as framed trusses, are subject to the principle of least work, provided the materials of which they are made conforms to Hooke’s law of elasticity. For instance, the thick hollow cylinder of a gun tube is stressed under the pressure arising from the explosion of the powder, and the stress at any point varies inversely as the square of the distance between that point and the centre of the tube. It is easy to show that this law of variation is the one which makes the stored energy in the tube a minimum. So in a hollow sphere subject to interior pressure, the stresses throughout the spherical annulas vary inversely as the cubes of their distances from the centre, and this law of variation is the one which renders the stored stress energy a minimum. The ether that fills space and transmits the force of gravitation from every particle of matter to all others has been regarded by many physicists as an elastic solid which obeys Hooke’s law. Ifso it must be subject to the principle of least work. Any portion of matter may be supposed to exert upon the ether a compressive force, due to the fact that its molecules have displaced the ether and crowded it outwards. Then the stresses in the ether due to this displacement must be so distributed that the stored energy in the infinite sphere may be a minimum. Stating the algebraic expression for this energy due to a spherical body, it is found that its minimum value occurs when the stress at any point in the ether varies inversely as the cube of the distance of that point to the centre of the body. If gravitation be a differential effect, due to the difference of the stresses upon opposite sides of a body, the force of attraction between two spheres should vary inversely as the fourth power of the distance between their centres. From no point of view does it seem possible to deduce the actual law of 5 ¥ 4 4 » _y eae 1903.] ROSENGARTEN—“ FRANKLIN PAPERS.” 165 gravitation from the stresses which must exist in the ether under the supposition of perfect elasticity. The use of the principle of least work in investigations regarding the ether of space hence leads to negative results, as far as its appli- cability is concerned. It indicates, however, the important con- clusion that the ether is not an elastic substance in which stresses are proportional to deformations, and accordingly studies concern- ing it should be based upon other suppositions concerning its properties. Since the ether cannot be made the object of experi- ment and since all we know concerning it is from rough analogy and indirect evidence, negative conclusions are valuable. By suc- cessively discussing and rejecting one assumption after another, it is possible that in due time properties of the ether may be found which will explain not only the inertia and gravitation of matter, but also the phenomena of electricity and magnetism. LEHIGH UNIVERSITY, SOUTH BETHLEHEM, PA, THE ‘‘ FRANKLIN PAPERS”’ IN THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. BY J. G. ROSENGARTEN. (Read April 3, 1903.) In the collection of this Society there are some seventy large folio volumes of ‘‘ Franklin Papers.’’ Franklin left all his papers to his grandson, William Temple Franklin, who, after a long inter- val, published in London and Philadelphia six volumes of Frank- lin’s works. Of course, this represented but a small part of his papers. Those used in the preparation of Temple Franklin’s edition are now the property of the United States, which has never yet printed a Calendar of them. Temple Franklin selected from his grandfather’s papers those that he thought suitable for publica- tion, and left the rest in charge of his friend, Charles Fox, to whom he bequeathed them, and Charles Fox’s heirs, in turn, after a long lapse of years, presented them to the American Philosophi- cal Society, in whose custody they have remained ever since. They have been roughly classified, and are bound in a rude and careless way. Under the present efficient Librarian, Dr. Hays, a Calendar is being made as fast as the limited means at his disposal will per- 166 ROSENGARTEN—“ FRANKLIN PAPERS,” [April 8, mit, and when that is completed, it is hoped that it will be printed as a useful guide to the miscellaneous matter collected here. Sparks and Haleand Ford and Parton and Fisher and others who have written about Franklin have used them, but even the most indus- trious student may well be appalled at the labor required to master all the contents of these bulky volumes, representing Franklin’s long and many-sided activity. He kept copies of most of his own letters and the originals addressed to him, often endorsing on them the heads of his replies. These volumes contain papers from 1735 to 790—the first forty- four volumes letters to him; the forty-fifth, copies of his own let- ters; the forty-sixth, his correspondence with his wife ; the forty- seventh and forty-eighth, his own letters from 1710 to 1791; the forty-ninth, his scientific and political papers; the fiftieth, his other writings—notably his Bagatelles, those short essays which had such a vogue and are still read; the fifty-first, poetry and verse, his own and that of others, no doubt selected by him for use in his publications ; the fifty-second, the Georgia papers—he was agent for that colony; and the remaining twenty volumes, all the multifarious correspondence, other than official, mostly during his long stay in France, his various public offices at home and abroad, his enormous correspondence about appointments from men of all nationalities, who wanted to come to America, under his patronage, to fight, to settle, to teach, to introduce their inventions, for every imaginable and unimaginable purpose. Both in England and France he kept all notices of meetings, such as those of the Royal Society and other scientific bodies of which he was a member, invitations, visiting cards, notes, business cards, etc., and at home he kept copies of wills, deeds, powers of attorney, bonds, agreements, bills, etc., and drafts, checques, bills of lading, public accounts, and even certified copies of Acts of Congress, and account books, and, in addition, Temple Frank- lin left eight volumes of letters to him from 1775 to 1790. In this mass of material his biographers have found much that was of value, but there remains almost untouched the interesting correspondence of his friends in England during the years before and those of the War of Independence. There are examples of his own clever jewx ad’ esprit in the ‘‘ Intended Speech for the Opening of the Parliament in 1774,’’ in which the king himself is made to foretell the ‘‘seven or ten ‘years’ job’’ that his ‘‘ Ministers have a 1903.] ROSENGARTEN— FRANKLIN PAPERS.” 167 put upon him to undertake the reduction of the whole Continent of North America to unconditional submission.’’ His friend Hartley sent it to him in 1786, when the prophecy had been fully realized. Again in 1778 he received a full report of the famous dying speech of Chatham, and of that of Lord Shelburne in his defense of the American cause. During these eventful years, his correspondents in England and in the Colonies kept him well informed both of the actions and plans of the Government and of the Opposition. Some of these may be of interest as showing how earnestly both sides were pre- sented to him that he might use his influence to maintain peace. Priestley, who was then the Secretary of Lord Shelburne, writes from London, in February, 1776, with a due report of political and scientific information, and Lee and Wayne write to him during the campaign which was to end in Burgoyne’s surrender, and thus contribute largely to the alliance with France, which owed so much to Franklin’s influence not only with the French Court and French statesmen, but with the philosophers and the people. His correspondence in Paris is a perfect picture of the time. One day he gets an invitation to attend experiments in electricity from a correspondent, Brogniart, who reports the successful treat- ment of sick people by electric fluid, in 1778, and soon after the Curé of Damvillers asks him for a. cure for dropsy for one of his parishioners. One writer submits a plan for eliminating poverty in the United States, and Turgot asks what method Franklin advises for burning smoke and thus diminishing the consumption of wood, which was steadily getting dearer. Then comes from London an offer to disclose a method of refining common salt and using it to - cure and preserve flesh and fish, for the modest fee of 2000 guineas. Genet, afterwards so well known from his troublesome career as French Minister in this country, reports progress made in August, 1778, in translation of the Pennsylvania Gazette accounts of battles for the French papers, and the same mail brings a letter asking Franklin’s approval of mechanical and mathematical prob- lems, and for news of Fouquet, Master Gunpowder Maker at York, Pa. Brogniart invites him to witness new experiments in elec- tricity, and soon after he is told of a plan of six or eight Germans, men of letters and prominent position, to go to America to found a college, where the instruction can be given in Latin until the ‘teachers have mastered English. He receives poems and eulogies PROC, AMER. PHILOS. SOc. XLII. 178. L. PRINTED JUNE 26, 1903. 168 ROSENGARTEN—" FRANKLIN PAPERS.” [April 3, in all languages, and offers to write histories of the new Republic, provided Franklin will furnish material, maps, etc. Then comes a request to look into an invention to reunite broken bones in all cases of fracture. The Palatinate Academy of Sciences, at Mann- heim, sends its works dealing with electricity, etc., and urges establishing a German Scientific Society in Philadelphia. A man and wife, with six children and six farm laborers, desire to settle in America, and ask Franklin to get Congress to give them land near Philadelphia, enough for the support of twenty persons, their connections. Franklin notes that his reply was that land was so cheap in Pennsylvania, that there was no need to apply to Congress. Then came an offer to establish a Swiss clock and watch factory at Boston or Philadelphia. Even Franklin’s patience was tried by a request to explain the right of America to assert its independence, for on this letter he endorsed ‘‘ Impertinent.”’ The letters are a perfect picture of Franklin’s busy social life in Paris, with politics, science, literature, war, privateering, all repre- sented in his correspondence. There are many letters from John Paul Jones about his naval exploits, and frequent appeals for help in securing the release of prisoners captured at sea, for help to return them and other Ameri- cans in distress to their homes. Dr. Price writes from London to know if it is true that Washington is grown unpopular, and that his army deserts in great numbers, and that the suffering in America is excessive. William Strahan reminds Franklin that in 1763 he spoke of America as England’s strongest ally and of France as that per- fidious nation. Vaughan sends to Chaumont (who reports it to Franklin) a message of greeting for their friend who always carried spectacles on his nose and kingdoms on his shoulders. His correspondence came from England and from all parts of the Continent and from the West Indies in an unending stream. A very curious letter is one from Richard Penn, dated London, October 20, 1778, which I think has never been printed : ‘‘ Dear Sir :—Nothing but necessity could have induced me to take the liberty of begging your attention for a few moments, from those various and important affairs with which you are entrusted, and which you have executed with so much reputation to yourself and advantage to your country; at the same time I am aware that the name subscribed will nct at first sight bring you much in favour PN ee eae ee 1903.] ROSENGARTEN—“ FRANKLIN PAPERS,” 169 of the writer. Nevertheless I have too high an opinion of your character to imagine that any misunderstanding which might for- merly have subsisted between you and any part of my family, in which I myself could have had no share, will not at all prejudice you against me and in any degree withhold you from lending me your advice and perhaps assistance upon the present occasion. I flatter myself I have some slight ground to go upon in this case, which I own I am most willing to catch at. ‘‘T am married to your late ward, the eldest Miss Masters, and have now living with me her younger sister, still under age, and, of course, ina manner claiming your patronage, as well as their mother, the widow of your late friend. From this connection it is well known that I possess a very considerable property in the city of Philadelphia and its environs, besides two or three valuable estates of my own in the Province of Pennsylvania, a whole un- divided Proprietary of New Jersey; yet with all this property, I have not been able for more than two years past to procure one shilling from that country, nor have during that time so much as received a line from my friend and agent, Mr. Tench Francis, who it is probable has at this time a handsome sum of money belonging to me in his hands. The purse I brought with me to England is nearly exhausted, tho’ it has been managed with the strictest economy. Ihave not yet tried, nor would I willingly at present, what American security would produce in this country. **T should think myself infinitely obliged to you if you could point out to me in what manner I could procure either from America, or in any other way, a temporary subsistence. I have not a doubt but that in time matters will turn out much to the advantage of everybody concerned and connected with that country. ** Let me entreat you to favor me with an answer to this letter under cover to my Bankers, Messrs. Barclay, Bevan & Co., No. 56 Lombard street, in doing which you will lay a lasting obligation upon one of the many who revere your character and admire your abilities. “¢ Give me leave to subscribe myself, Dear Sir, *¢ Your very sincere friend, ** RICHD. PENN.’’ When it is remembered that the hostility of the Penns to Frank_ lin was so strong that Governor John Penn declined to be Patron 170 DOOLITTLE—ORBIT OF DOUBLE STAR JS 518. _ [April3, of the American Philosophical Society because it had chosen Franklin for its President, and that Richard Penn had been Lieutenant Governor (as Deputy for that uncle and his brother) from 1771 to 1773, it must have been difficult for Franklin not to feel that such a letter from such a man was indeed a tribute to his position, achieved solely by his own efforts. From this mass of correspondence, I have selected some letters showing the state of public opinion in New England in 1774, and from London in 1775, including a characteristic letter from Priestley and from Charles Lee and Wayne in the field. Much more might be printed to show how well Franklin kept in touch with all that was of interest during his long and busy career. It is well that this venerable Society, so largely the result of his labors, should be made the custodian of the papers that follow almost his daily thoughts, and it is to be hoped that the preparation and pub- lication of a Calendar showing their contents may be completed at no distant day, certainly by the two hundredth anniversary of the birth of our founder, and thus perpetuate his memory. Franklin’s legacy to the Philosophical Society was ninety-one volumes of the Astory of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, thus helping that collection of publications of scientific societies that make so valuable a portion of its Library. THE ORBIT OF THE DOUBLE STAR 2 518. BY ERIC DOOLITTLE. (Read April 3, 1903.) INTRODUCTION. It is well known to astronomers that many of the stars of the sky which to the naked eye appear to be but single stars are when viewed with the telescope seen to be made up of two or more stars very close together. About twenty thousand such double stars have been measured and catalogued, and the number is continually being added to through the discoveries of the great modern tele- scopes. There are scarcely fifty of these, however, of which a determination of the orbit is possible. It was in the years 1802 and 1803 that the classic memoirs of Herschel appeared, in which it was shown for the first time that pissin, Mew —* 1903.] DOOLITTLE—ORBIT OF DOUBLE STAR ~ 518. 171 the two stars of a binary system revolve in elliptic orbits about their common center of gravity. The first method for determining the orbit of the companion star about its primary was given by Savary in 1827, who applied his method to the binary ¢ Urse Majoris. This was thus the first double star of which an orbit was computed. In the method of Savary, the elements of the orbit were derived from the least possible number of measures which would theoreti- cally determine them. It was thus but very poorly adapted to secure good results, since all double star measures are liable to errors which are very large in proportion to the quantities ‘to be determined from them. The method was improved by Encke, and other methods were subsequently devised by Sir John Herschel, Villarceau, Thiele and others; but in all of these the development was from the point of view of the pure mathematician, rather than from that of the practical astronomer. The astronomer who essays to compute the orbit of a double star _ will find that he has at hand a great mass of measures, which, having been made by observers of varying experience and with instruments of all degrees of perfection, are more or less discord- ant. Each one of these measures consists of a determination at a given time of the distance and direction of the companion star from its primary. If now these measures be plotted, by taking a point on the paper to represent the principal star and laying off from this, point each measured distance and direction to the companion star, a series of other points will be obtained which will represent to the eye the path which the companion has pursued about its primary. Were the measures free from error, the points which indicate the position of the companion would lie accurately upon the perimeter of an ellipse ; but practically they are very far from doing so, especially if the double star is very close and difficult of measurement. The ellipse which the companion appears to describe does not represent the true orbit of the body in space, since the true orbit is viewed more or less obliquely. It is evidently the projection of the true orbit on a plane tangent to the celestial sphere at the point at which the double star is situated. While the true orbit in space is an ellipse of which the principal star occupies the focus, the apparent or projected orbit, though also necessarily an ellipse, will not have its focus at the principal star. Nevertheless, Kepler’s 172 DOOLITTLE—ORBIT OF DOUBLE STAR Y 518. [April3, second Law, which states that the areas swept over by the radius- vector are proportional to the corresponding times, will evidently be true, provided that in the apparent orbit these radii-vectores are drawn from the principal star instead of from the focus. Having plotted the series of measures as above described, the first step in the determination of a double star orbit is to draw the apparent ellipse in such a manner that it shall represent them rea- sonably well; the various sectorial areas are then measured with a planimeter, or otherwise, and the trial ellipse changed in shape and position until finally, after several trials, the measured positions and the law of areas are both approximately satisfied. To fix the shape of the true orbit and its position in space, and to predict the future motion, there must next be determined the following seven elements : (1) Zhe Period, P. This can be measured directly from the apparent ellipse, since, by Kepler’s Law, any secturial area is to that of the whole ellipse as the time occupied in the description of the area is to the Period. (2) Zhe Time of Periastron Passage, T. This is the date at which the companion passes the nearer vertex of the true ellipse. It can evidently be found from the apparent ellipse by an applica- tion of Kepler’s Law. (3) Zhe Eccentricity, e. This, since it is a ratio, can be ob- tained from the apparent ellipse. (4) Zhe Inchnation, ¢, of the true orbit to the tangent plane. (5) Zhe Longitude, 2, of the intersection of two planes. (6) Zhe Longitude, 4, of periastron. The last three elements are obtained ‘by solving a spherical tri- angle. The longitudes are measured from the hour circle passing through the star, from the north point in the direction of motion. (7.) Zhe Semi-Major Axis, a, The elements of the true orbit as thus obtained enable us to predict the direction and distance of the companion for any time. The next step of the computation is to obtain the computed distance and direction at the date of each observation. A comparison of the computed with the observed positions furnishes a basis for im- proving the elements by the principles of Least Squares. The same process is repeated with the improved elements, until a satis- factory agreement between the computed and observed positions is obtained. 1903.) - DOOLITTLE—ORBIT OF DOUBLE STAR 2 518. Lis THE COMPUTATION, There are available for this determination measures on 141 nights, as shown in the following table. In the first column will be found the date of observation; in the second, the measured distance; in the third, the measured angle; in the fourth, the number of nights on which the measures were made, and in the fifth, the name of the observer. Date. | p. 6. aoe Observer. di 41 ° I 1783.13 4to8 326.7 I Herschel. 2 1825.12 287 + I Struve. 3 1835 to 36 WW ~ 4 1850.94 3.96 156.60 2 Otto Struve. 5 1851.06 32 159.96 I Dawes. 6 1851.49 3.87 155.10 2 Otto Struve. 7 1853.64 3-93 158.30 3 e 8 1854.79 4.13 155.30 I “ 9 1856.80 4.51 152.90 I ‘“ 10 1857.82 4.40 153.00 I “ II 1864.84 4.45 147.60 2 Winnecke. 12 1865.89 4.26 143.95 2 Ot'o Struve. 13 1869.10 4.46 140,40 I Ss 14 1871.99 2+ 1254 I Knott. 15 1872.56 4.62 140,65 I-2 |* Otto Struve. 16 1873.99 4.27 133.90 I ss 17 1874.10 4.39 135.70 I «6 18 1875.14 3.80 138.10 I + 19 1876.11 4.01 130.50 ro & 20 1877.12 2+ 120, I Flammarion. 21 1877.84 3.36 127.50 3 Cincinnati. 22 1877.84 3.92 128,24 6 Burnham. 23 1877.95 3.94 126.45 4 Dembowski. 24 1878.14 4.36 125.50 I Otto Struve. 25 1879.05 3.49 125.38 4 Burnham, 26 1879.18 3.52 125.00 2. | Hall. 27 1879.75 3.29 120.00 1 | Cincinnati. 28 1880.09 3.28 121.30 5 Burnham, 29 1880.95 3.16 122.06 5 4 30 18381,84 3.53 119,00 Gn 8 ce 31 1882.12 2.25 {18.15 2 |) Hall, 32 1883.00 3.07 119.20 2 Burnham. 33 1883.81 3.10 115.80 2 Hall. 34 1884.16 3.74 118,20 I Herman Struve, 35 1886.00 2522 DI2.15 2 Leavenworth, a Ang 174 DOOLITTLE—ORRIT OF DOUBLE STAR 2 518. [Aprils, Date. p. 6. n. Observer, di fe} 36 1886.09 3.00 112.23 6 Hall. 37 1886.92 3.01 111.03 8 Tarrant. 38 1887.14 2.56 109.18 I-4 Schiaparelli. 39 1888.08 2.26 109.48 2 me 40 1888, 12 3.04 107.68 5 Hall. 4! 1888.84. 2.94 106.83 3 Burnham. 42 1888.87 2,31 105.05 3 Tarrant, 43 1889.03 2.87 107.59 I-2 Schiaparelli. 44 1889.12 2.79 103.55" 4 Hall. 45 1890.73 2.68 99.95 4 Burnham. 46 1890.98 1.72 99.00 3 Hough. 47 1891.01 2.62 101.49 2 Schiaparelli. 48 1891.06 2.65 98.56 5 Hall. 49 1891.78 2.48 97.38 4 Burnham, 50 1893.21 2.18 93.8 I Comstock. 51 1895.89 83.65 O-I Doberck. 52 1895.91 2.32 87.4 I Collins. 53 1897.97 2.62 77.22 3 Aitken. 54 1899.11 2.39 73.6 2 cr 55 1899.80 2.30 68.35 3 Doolittle. 56 1900.92 2.40 63.41 2 3 aT 1903.14 2.34 55-22 4 : Notes—(1) Herschel placed the pair in his ‘‘ Class II,’’ which indicates that he estimated the distance as between 4” and 8”, Otto Struve considers that at this time the distance must have been less than 4”, which seems the more probable. No use has been made of this measure in the final adjustment. (2) Excessively difficult. The angle was estimated roughly as being in the direc- tion of the principal star, of which the position angle is 107°. The entire unreliability of this measure was first pointed out by Burnham in 1894. (3) No trace of duplicity. (14) This is merely a rough estimate. Knott used a7™%inch refractor. (51) ‘‘ Nearly invisible.’’ (53) and (54) Made with the 12-inch. I have given half the theoretical weight to numbers (5), (38) and (43). (57) Was not used in the computation; these observations were made after the work was completed. These observations were corrected for precession, and then plotted as above described, and the elements of the true orbit were de- rived from them. These elements were the following: ee — rier an 1903.] DOOLIZ TLE—ORBIT OF DOUBLE STAR 2 518. "75 P = 180,084 years | Ti) NOA 2.7.2 | é= 0.129 | = 61.78 , Elements of the 8 First Approximation. Q = 148.76 ° A ==)321.22 | df a = 4.681 J ‘For the purpose of effecting a least square solution, twelve normal places were next formed from the observations of the pre- ceding table, as follows : 4 Date. é. Ai ed p. n ° ° 4] 1852.48 156.89 157.13 3.95 9-8 1857.31 152.95 153-17 4.45 2 1867.95 143.54 143-70 4.42 7-6 1874.83 134.55 134.67 4.12 4 1879.03 124.89 124.99 3.56 31 1882.54 118.35 118.44 2537 13 1887.71 108.53 108.59 2.93 31 1891.13 99.01 99.05 2.46 18 1894.06 90.60 90.62 2.25 2 1898.54. 75.81 75.82 2.50 5 1899.80 68.35 68.35 2.30 3 1900.92 63.41 63.41 2.40 2 From these there resulted twelve equations between the six unknown quantities, the residuals in angle only being employed. These equations were weighted and solved for the corrections to the elements, the results being as follows: P = 180.039 years. } Le GAG 22 | é = 0.133 | ene 62.96 \ Elements of the 2 | Second Approximation. Q = 150.01 ° A = 320.24 | 41 a= 4.681 J 176 DOOLITTLE—ORBIT OF DOUBLE STAR 2 518. _[Aprils, The residuals from these elements were not wholly satisfactory, especially between the years 1853 and 1879, when they steadily maintained the positive sign. For the purposes of a further im- provement, therefore, the original observations were next grouped into the following thirty-three normal places : Date. p. 6. n. Observer. ! 4/ ° 1850.94 3.96 156.6 2 \OiSr 1851.28 z.50. | 156.7 3 O. S., Da 1853.64 3.93 158.3 3 O..S. 1854.79 4.13 155.3 i rf 1856.80 4.51 152.9 I SOF 1857.82 4.40 153.0 I ce 1864.84 4-45 147.6 2 Wi., 1865.89 4.26 144.0 2 OS 1869.10 4.46 140.4 I s 1871.99 2 125+ I Kn, 1872.56 4.62 140.6 1-2 O.S. 1873.99 4.27 133-9 I ff 1874.10 4.39 Va5o7 I Ke 1875.14 3.80 138.1 I BS 1876.11 4.01 130.5 I a 1877.86 3.80 Reyes II D, GOs 1878.14 4.36 125.5 I OS: 1879.09 3.50 125.3 6 B., Ha. 1880.52 3:22 121.6 10 B 1881.84 3.53 119.0 6 is 1382.12 3.25 118.2 2 Ha. 1883.40 3.09 117.5 4 B., Ha. 1884.16 3.74 118.2 I Hi. is. 1886.30 3.04 II1.9 II bP ts Be be 1888.51 2.95 106.7 II Ha:s B. ike 1889.12 2.79 103.6 4 -Ha 1890.84 21247 99.6 7 B., Ho. 1891.38 PE) 98.1 9 B:, Ea. 1893.21 2.18 93-8 I Com. 1895.90 2.32 85.5 I-2 DIAG. 1897.97 2.62 Chie 3 A. 1899.53 2.34 70.4 5 A., Doo. 1900.92 2.40 63.4 2 Doo These measures were corrected for precession, and to the result- ing 33 equations there were assigned two series of weights, the first depending only on the number of nights, and the second being 1903.] DOOLITTLE—ORBIT OF DOUBLE STAR J 518. Le arbitrarily assigned. Only the residuals in angle were employed, so that there resulted 33 equations between the six unknowns. The final values obtained from this solution led to the following elements : P = 180.0288 + 2.776 years. | T = 1843.185 + 1.051 é = 0.13423 + 0.0221 | i= 63.26 40.74 | The Final Elements, ° ° Visa ho: 62-1 0.71 | ° 9° A = 319.54 +057 Mt a = 4.791 J The value of « was obtained from a series of equations of the form a = cos (2 — fc) sec (v 4+ A) psaee td (¢ —-e COS €) The weighted mean was taken for the value of a. The following table shows the agreement of the observed posi- tions with the positions computed from the final elements. These residuals are perhaps as small as can be expected with a star of this character : 178 DOOLITTLE—ORBIT OF DOUBLE STAR J 518. [April 3- ! Date. 6c. Prec. |\0c—pr.| 00. | 00—Oc ° ° ° ieee ° 1783.13 | 327.33 | +.0.58 | 326.75 | 326.7 | + 0.00 1825.12 | 234.22 0.37 | 233.85 | 287 + 1835.86 | 189.907 | 0.32 | 189.65 | 1850.94 | 1€0.15 0.25 | 159.90 | 156.60 | — 3.30 1851.06 | 160.00 0-25 | 159-75 | 159.96 | + v.21 1851.49 | 159.45 0.24 | 159.21 | 155.10 | — 4,11 1853.64 | 156.83 0.23 | 156.60 | 158.30 | + 1.70 1854.79 | 155.47 0.23 | 155.24 | 155.30 | + 0.06 1856.80 | 153.10 0.21 | 152.89 | 152.90 | + 0o.or 2857.82 | 151.91 Q.2I | 151.70 | 153.00 | + 1.30 1864.84 | 144.06 0.18 | 143.88 | 147.60 | + 3.72 1865.89 | 142.85 0.17 | 142.68 | 143.95 | + 1.27 1869.10 | 139.06 | + 0.15 | 138.91 | 140.40 | + 1.49 1871.99 | 135.49 0.14 | 135-35 | 125 + | —10.35 3872.56 | 134.80 0.14 | 134.66 | 140.65 | + 5-99 1873.99 | 132.29 0.13 | 132.76 | 133.90 | + 1.14 1874.10 | 132.74 0.13 | .132.6x | 135.70 | + 3.09 1875.14 | 131.31 0.12 | 131.19 | 138.10 | + 6.91 1876.11 | 129.89 0.12 | 129.77 | 130.50 | + 0.73 1877.12 | 128.41 0.11 | 128.30 | 120 + | — 8 30 1877.84 | 127.36 0.11 | 127.25 | 127.5 | + 0.2 1877.84 | 127.36 0.11 | 127.25 | 128.24 | + 1.0% 1877.95 | 127.19 0.1% | 127.08 | 126.45 | — 0.63 1878.14 | 126.89 0.11 | 126.78 | 125.50 | — 1.28 1879.05 | 125.44 0.10 | 125.34 | 125.38 | + 0.04 1879.18 | 125.22 0.10 | 125.12 | 125.00 | — 9.12 1879.75 | 124.25 0.10 | 124.15 | 120.00 | — 4.15 1880.09 | 123.67 0.10 | 123.57 | 121.30 | — 2.27 1880.95 | 122.19 0.09 | 122.10 | 122.06 | — 0.04 1881.84 | 120.67 0.09 | 120.58 | 119,co | — 1.58 1882.12 | 120.15 0.09 | 120.06 | 118 r5 | — 1.91 1883.00 | 118.48 0.08 | 118.40 | 119.20 | + 0.80 1883.81 | 116.89 0.08 | 116.81 | 115.80 | — 1.01 1884.16 | 116,27 0.08 | 116.13 | 118 20 | + 2.07 1886.00 | 112.13 0.07 | 112.06 | 112.15 | + 0.09 1886.09 | 111.94 0.07 | 111.87 | 112.23 | + 0.36 1886.92 | 110.10 0.07 | 110.03 | 111 03 | + 1.00 1887.14 | 109.61 0.06 | 109.55 | 1cg.18 | — 0.37 1888.08 | 107.43 0.c6 | 107.37 | 109.48 | + 2.11 1888.12 | 107.32 0.c6 | 107.26 | 107.68 | + 0.42 1888.84 | 105.52 0.06 | 105.46 | 106 83 | + 1.37 1888.87 | 105.45 0.06 | 105.39 | 105.05 | — 0.34 1889.03 | 105.05 0.05 | 105.00 | 107.59 | + 2.59 1889.12 | 104.82 0.05 | 104.77 | 103.55 | — 1.22 1890.73 | 100.39 0.05 | 100.34 99-95 | — 1.39 1890.98 99-70 0.05 99-65 99.00 | — 0.65 1891.01 99.62 0.04 99-58 | 101.49 | + 1.91 1891.06 | 99.49 0.04 99-45 98 56 | — 0.89 1891.78 97-40 0.04 99.36 97-38 | — 1.98 1893.21 | 93.10 0.04 93.06 93-8 | + 0.70 1895.89 84.17 0.02 84.15 83.65 | — 0.50 1895.91 84.14 0.02 84.12 87.4 + 2.30 1897.97 76.73 0.01 76.72 77.22 | + 0.50 1899.11 72.49 0.00 72.49 73.6 | + 1.10 1899.80 | 69.50 0,00 69.50 | 68.35 | — 1.15 1900.92 65.61 0.00 65.61 63.41 | — 2.20 T9GFI4||' 157.49 |e O 62 57-21 55.22 | — 1.99 Oo CO CO N CO.\O DaAAD B32 r Anwp OHOKH BOhana a COHQD Nw Onn - po. po—pc. “ “be 4 to 8 3.06 a“l eats — 0.02 3.87 — 0.14 3-93 — 0.16 4-13 — 0.02 4.51 + 0.29 4.40 + 0.18 4.45 + 0.19 4.26 + 003 4.46 + 0.32 2+ |— 1.99 4.602 + .65 4.27 + .38 4.39 i SE 3.80 — .02 4,01 ap dé ara || oles) 3.36 — .28 +e + .28 394° |) aR iar 4.36 + .74 SEM aes SH 3-52 = oS 3-29 gene’ 3.28 — .20 3.16 — .26 B53 7) tie 28 3-25 — 08 3.07 — 20 3-10 — chs 3-74 + .56 3-22 + 0.18 3.00 — 0.03 3.01 + 0.04 2.56 — 0.39 2.26 — 0.62 3.04 + 0.16 2.94 + 0.12 2.81 — 0.01 2.87 + 0.06 2.79 — 0.02 2.68 —"G.02 1.72 — 0.96 2.62 — 0.06 2.65 — 0.02 2.48 — 0.05 2.18 — 0.37 2.32 —o.11 2.62 + 0.26 2.39 + 0,06 2.30 — 0.02 sil MN Rw OO [s) | n.| Observer. HN HH HW nm baa) fale s 4 HH HW D = Ceeee 5 Pann necke ROS ~] PANN NINH ow eo SOOO O HH we oe ec p 5 B p Lf ° a] > HP OW m POOwO UT ss) WHC p fey Aum HN wim OD Ss NHNWNDN x! = ate = Leavenw’th Hall Tarrant Schiaparelli Schiaparelli Hall B. ‘Tarrant Schiaparelli Hall B. Hough Schiaparelli Hall HO OW HARUONW BA oo Comstock Doberck # Collins Aitkin 6 Aitkin Doolittle WNW HH Doolittle 4| Doolittle nn 1<* A very vague estimate’ (O. S.). 2“ No trace of duplicity.” 3 This is a rough estimate merely ; Knott used a 734-inch. 4 «Nearly invisible.”’ 5 12-inch. ‘ F 4 ‘ ‘ ‘ 1903.] MATHEWS—ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES. 179 There have been two determinations made of the parallax of this star ; the first determination was by the heliometer by Gill in 1882, and the second was by micrometric measures by Hallin 1884. The results were : Gill, o//,16 19.6 light years, Hall, 0//,22 14.6 light years. If we assume the ‘mean of these, or 0”.19, as the most probable value, the dimensions of the orbit and the combined mass of the two components can readily be determined. We find that the sum of the masses of the two components is nine-tenths the mass of our sun, and that the semi-major axis of the true orbit is 23.5 times the distance from the earth to the sun. The orbit is thus larger than the orbit of Uranus, but inferior to that of Neptune. UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA. SOME ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF QUEENSLAND AND VICTORIA. BY R. H. MATHEWS, L.S., MEMB. ASSOC. ETRAN. SOC. D’'ANTHROP. DE PARIS. (Read October 3, 1902.) Last year I contributed to this Society a short description of the Gundungurra, one of the native tongues of New South Wales. In the following pages it is proposed to furnish the outlines of the grammatical structure of some aboriginal languages spoken by the native tribes of Queensland and Victoria. The method of spelling adopted is that recommended by the Royal Geographical Society of London, with the following qualifi- cations : As far as possible vowels are unmarked, but in some instances the long sound of a, e, and u are indicated thus, 4, é, i. Ina few cases, to avoid ambiguity of pronunciation, the short sound of u is thus represented, wu. G is hard in all cases. R has a rough, trilled sound, as in ‘‘hurrah !’? W always commences a syllable or word. Y at the beginning of a word or syllable has its ordinary consonant value. _ The sound of the Spanish fi often occurs; at the beginning of a 180 MATHEWS—ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES. [April 3° word or syllable I have given it as zy, but when terminating a word the Spanish letter is employed. Ng at the beginning of a word or syllable has a peculiar nasal sound. At the end of a syllable it has substantially the sound of ng in ‘‘sing.”’ Dh is pronounced nearly as th in ‘‘ that,’’ with a slight sound of d preceding it. Nh has likewise nearly the sound of th in “ that,”’ but with an initial sound of the n. A final h is guttural, resembling ch in the German word ‘ bach.”’ T is interchangeable with d, p with b, and g with k, in most words where these letters are used. Ty and dy at the commencement of a word or syllable has nearly the sound of j. At the end of a word ty or dy is pronounced nearly as tch in ‘“batch”’ or ‘‘ ditch,’’ omitting the final hissing sound. All the details supplied in this article were taken down by myself from the lips of the natives speaking the languages herein dealt with—a tedious and laborious task. . THE MUuURAWARRI LANGUAGE. In acommunication to this Society in 1898 I described the social divisions and laws of intermarriage prevailing in the Murawarri tribe, together with a comprehensive list of totems, and will now proceed to exhibit the structure of their language. This tribe occupies an extensive region on the southern frontier of Queens- land, between the Warrego and Culgoa rivers, reaching also some distance into New South Wales. Languages similar in grammar to the Murawarri, although differing somewhat in vocabulary, extend northerly into Queensland for hundreds of miles. NOUNS. Number.—Nouns have three numbers, the singular, dual and plural. Gula, a kangaroo. Gulabural, a pair of kangaroos. Guladhunna, several kangaroos. The suffix daunna is frequently shortened to dhu, in rapid conversation. Gender.—Mén, aman. Mugifi,a woman. Guthera, a small boy. Gutheragamba, a small girl. The sex of animals is distinguished by using, after the name of the creature, the words dhungur, male, and guni, female, and these words take inflexion for number and ‘case. SAS gt, Oe ipt® 1903. | MATHEWS— ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES. 181 Case.—The principal cases are the nominative, causative (or nominative-agent), genitive, accusative, instrumental, dative:and ablative. ; The nominative merely names the animal or thing, as, ngurui, emu; dhaggufi, paddmelon ; wirri, bandicoot ; wagan, crow; mulli, boomerang ; kinni, yamstick ; giindal, dog; gugai, opossum ; ngura, acamp; wungga, a bird’s nest. Causative: Guladyu ngunna wirrunga, a kangaroo me scratched. Instrumental : Méndyu wagan mullinyu bundhara, a man a crow with a boomerang hit. Genitive: Mugingu kinni, a woman’s yamstick. Wagangu wungga, a crow’s nest. Dative: Dhan yanna nguranggu, come to the camp. Ablative: Dhirri yanna ngurango, go away from the camp. Accusative: This is the same as the nominative. ADJECTIVES. Adjectives are placed after the nouns they qualify, and are simi- larly inflected for number and case. Nominative: Gundal kittyu, a dog small ; gundalbural kittyubural, a couple of small dogs ; gundaldhu kittyudhunna, several small dogs. Causative: Mugindyu thurdadyu guthera bundhara, a woman large a child beat. Genitive: Méngu thurdagu mulli, the large man’s boomerang. Adjectives are compared by using such phrases as, thurda nhu, kittyu niingga, large this, small that. Superiority is implied by saying, thurdaburra, very large. PRONOUNS. Pronouns are inflected for number and person, and comprise the nominative, possessive and objective cases, some examples of which are given in the following table. There are forms in the first person of the dual and plural to express the inclusion or exclusion of the party addressed : Singular. Nominative, Possesstve. Objective. act Persog) ) i... s..- Ngadhu Ngundi Ngunna Rg ORS, Se Ngindu Ingga Bunga RCS SERENE Sah ett Yallunggo Ngumboga Bunha / 182 MATHEWS—ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES. [April 8, Dual. Biarsvere teiave Negulli Neulliga Ngullinya on { ee Ngullifiamba Ngu!ligilunna Ngullinyanumba GERMAN iY latsiiiehale oles Nula Nulaga Nulanna BONETSE Shek, 0. o's v's . Yallabural Bulaga Burannha Plural. { Efage evans Nginna Nginnaga Ngurranna ek ee Nginnadyula Nginnagadyula Ngurranadyula PAE, Ben otto ikoters Nura Nuraga Nuranna cs lal I Megs eee Yalladhunna Dhurraga Dhurrana There are forms of the pronouns signifying ‘‘to me,’’ ‘‘from me,’’ ‘“ with me,’’ and so on, as in the following few illustrations: Dhangandhera dhiga, he brought it to me. Dhirrithunggia dhigamil, he ran away from me. Ngunnhura niambu, with me rests he. Interrogatives: Ngannga, who? Nganngabural, who (dual)? Nganngadhunna, who (plural)? Ngangagu, whom belonging to? Minya, what? Minyanggu, what for? Demonstratives: This, nhu; that, nhurana. These demonstra- tives are very numerous, according as the object referred to is in front of, behind, near, or far from the speaker. Many of them ~ take inflexion for number and person. VERBS. Verbs have the singular, dual and plural numbers, the usual per- sons and tenses, and three principal moods—indicative, imperative and conditional. There is a distinctive form of the verb for each tense—present, past and future; but number and person are shown by short pronominal suffixes to the stem of the verb. These rules will be readily understood on perusing the following conjugation of the verb, bundhera, to beat: Indicative Mood—Present Tense. NSE HECKSOD), ous tice sn I beat Bundhiyu Singular.... BE) CAE ate Se eta Thou beatest Bundhindu REEL ATES ot oh athe ren He beats Bundhibu We, incl., beat Bundhili [ Ist Person....... | We, excl., beat Bundhilingmba Dual....... : ad C6 ee You beat Bundhinula | 3d OO Siavaco oat _ They beat Bundhibula ini es ie i ~————-—_— 1903.] MATHEWS—ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES. 183 ( We, incl., beat Bundhina oa J Tae feet ge We, excl., beat Bundhinadyula ural,..... 2d échc 3 SS, You beat Bundhinura | 34 £6 sapere They beat Bundhira Past Tense. ( ISt, Personw= aa. : T beat Bundharanyu Singular.... 2d eared Renee Thou beatest Bundharandu ( 3d Ds IO EOe He beat Bundharabu * future Tense. Mats Bersomertos< 2). oe). I will beat Bunggunyu Singular.... J 2d Coo at ae Se Thou wilt beat Banggundu 3d C6 irks oles fice ee He will beat Binggubu It is thought unnecessary to give the dual and plural numbers of the past and future tenses. Imperative Mood. BOSIELVES |. p tia oletar stele Beat Bungga IVGBALIWES sy) 6 5 dies Beat not Bungga wulla Conditional Mood. I may beat Wullawurri bunggunyu Reflexive. I am beating myself Bundherriyu I was beating myself Bundherriaiyu I will beat myself Bundherriguyu The inflexion continues through all the persons. Reciprocal. Dual § We, incl., are beating each other Bumbullali at hl ae | We, incl., will beat each other Bumbullaguli We, incl., are beating each other Bumbullana Piarall. ye « | We, incl., will beat each other Bumbullaguna The second and third persons of the dual and plural also take reciprocal inflexion. _ The following examples show the native way of expressing the English verb ‘‘ to be’’: x PROC. AMER. PHILOS, SOC. XLII. 173. M. PRINTED AUG. 1, 1903. 184 MATHEWS—ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES. [April 3, IBTESEDE Rac 516 Tam well Murrif indiyu (well am I) 11S BOA Ses aa I was well Murrifi indayu (well was I) ILE res eis I will be well Murrii inguyu (well will be I) ADVERBS. Yes, kaila. No, wulla. Here, nunggo. There, ngurra. Now, kunyegaila. By and bye, kunye. Yesterday, ginda. Tomorrow, burda. A few days ago, buggera dhurungga. Long ago, muttya- gaila. Perhaps, wullawurri. Slowly, min-gi. Rapidly, kurdu- gurdu. Where, dhirrungga? Where (if two), dhirrambula? Where (plural), dhirradhunna? How many, minyungurra? PREPOSITIONS. _ In front, kurbu. Behind, billungga. In the rear, durungga. Inside, mugungga. Outside, bullungga. Beside me, gurgungga dhiga. Between, dhunningga. Down, burrungga. Up, ginda. Over or across (referring to a river, hill, etc.), gurrundha. This side of, nhubarafi. The other side, beyond, gowurrigurrundha. Through, gaimyu. ‘Towards, dhai. Away from, dhirra. Several prepositions take inflexion for number and person: Be- hind me, billunggadhiga.. Behind thee, billunggabunga. Behind him, billunggabuga. Behind us, billunggangurriga, and so on. CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS. It is not thought necessary to supply illustrations of these parts of speech. NUMERALS. One, yaman. Two, kubbo. Several, murabirri. THE WamBA WAMBA LANGUAGE. This language is spoken among the remnants of the native tribes about Swan Hill on the Murray river, and extending southerly into the State of Victoria beyond Lalbert and Tyrrell creeks, the lower Avoca river, etc. The people are divided into two phratries, Gamaty and Gurgity, the men of one phratry marrying the women of the other. For lists of totems attached to these phratries, the reader is referred to a paper I contributed in 1898 to the Anthro- pological Society at Washington." 1 « The Victorian Aborigines: their Initiation Ceremonies and Divisional Sys- tems,” American Anthropologist, Vol. xi, pp. 333, 334. Map of Victoria, Plate V. 1903. | MATHEWS—ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES. 185 All the languages spoken in the eastern portion of Victoria are identical in grammatical structure with the Gundungurra language reported by me to this Society last year, although their vocabularies are altogether different. Westward of the 145th meridian of lon- gitude all the Victorian languages have the same structure as the Wamba Wamba, with the exception of a strip of country on the lower Murray river. NOUNS. Number.—Karrange, a kangaroo. Karrange bullang, two kan- garoos. Karrange girtawal, several kangaroos. Gender.—Wurtinge, aman. Laiur,a woman. Banggo, a boy. Bannulaiur, a girl. Bupu, a child of either sex. The sex of ani- mals is indicated by using the word mamo for males, and baba for females ; thus, willunge mamo, a male opossum; willunge baba, a female opossum. Case.—The nominative: Wanne, a boomerang. Kenninge, a yamstick. Wirrangin, adog. Litrnge, a camp. The Causative: Wurtulu karange dhakkin, a man hit a kan- garoo. Laiuru bupu dhakkin, a woman beat a child. Possessive: Wurtua wanne, a man’s boomerang. Every object over which ownership can be exercised is subject to inflection for number and person, thus: PSU ECESOM: er-sictseve ae My boomerang Wannai Singular .... 4 2d ie hit eee ae Thy boomerang Wannin 3d Cn eee torte His boomerang Wannu This declension extends to all the persons and numbers, in each of which one example will be sufficient : 10 1 Lee ae Our, inclusive, boomerang Wannul places arctan Our, inclusive, boomerang Wannangurkullik lara fee. 2 Our, inclusive, boomerang Wannungur Dative: Lirndal, to the camp. Ablative: Ltrnung, from the camp. ADJECTIVES. Adjectives follow the noun qualified, as kurwinge kurong-untu, an emu large. Kurwinge bannutu, an emu small. They are in- flected for number and case like the nouns, and comparison is effected as in the Murawarri 186 MATHEWS—ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES. [April 3, PRONOUNS. Pronouns have four numbers, singular, dual, trial, and plural. There are double forms of the first person to include or exclude the person spoken to. The following table shows the nominative and possessive pronouns : Singular. Ist Person...... I Yetti Mine Yenneu 2d BEA cliche lett fe Thou Nginma Thine Nginneu 3d Gage ipa s de He Kinyi or Kalu His Kikinga Dual. Pp We, incl., Negulli Ours, incl., Ngullidha Est hereon. We, excl., Negullu Ours, excl., Ngulludhu : 2d &“ You Nyuia Yours Nyuladhu ; 3d “ They Kalubulang Theirs Kinyebuladhu 1 Trial. | 2 We, incl., Yangurkullik Ours, incl., Yanguradhukullik | Ist Person... ) We, excl,, Vandakkullik Ours, excl., Yandhadhukullik 2d ‘“ You Ngutakullik Yours Ngutadhukullik 3d “ They Kaludhanakullik Theirs Dhanadhukullik . Plural. . We, incl., Yangur Ours, incl., Yanguradhu a re eee We, excl., Yandhank Ours, excl., Yandhadhu | od “ You Nguta Yours Ngutadhu , 3d “ They Kaludhana Theirs Dhanadhu There are objective forms of the pronouns, signifying me, with me, towards me, from me, and so on. Interrogative and demon- strative pronouns are also various and precise. VERBS. Verbs have the same numbers and persons as the pronouns, three tenses and three principal moods; as exhibited in the following conjugation of the verb ‘‘to sit’’: Indicative Mood—Present Tense. 1st Person, ;...-2 I sit Ngangan Singular’. aay 20M tie (steer Thou sittest Ngangar cI ae es a He sits Nganga Ba a —— - 1903.] MATHEWS—-ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES. 187 [ a ete (a e, incl., sit Ngangangul Dual We, exclu., sit Ngangangullu 7 A 2d «s You sit Nganganyulu 3d Bull, U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 128. rr. ig) 1903.] STANTON—MOLLUSCAN FAUNULE. 19 humerosa Meek, and the genus to which it belongs was not known to occur in America outside of the Bear River formation until a few years ago, when a species apparently referable to it was de- scribed from the Dakota of Nebraska, and another undescribed species is now known from the same formation in Kansas. This fact is an additional indication that the Bear River and Dakota are of nearly the same age. It is worthy of note that the Bear River fauna includes an Ostrea, which proves that the formation was deposited at or near sea level, and that the waters occasionally became brackish, at least locally. The geographic distribution of the older marine formations makes this occurrence of Ostrea still another reason for considering the Bear River an Upper Cretaceous formation. The six species of invertebrates from near Harlowton will be described on succeeding’ pages under the following names: Onio farri. Cnio douglasst. Campeloma harlowtonensis. Viviparus montanaensts. Gontobasis ? ortmanni. Goniobasts ? silberlingt. These are all new specific names, and it will be necessary to depend on the known range of the species that appear to be most closely related in attempting to determine the age of the beds from which they came. Two of the species, Unio douglasst and Campeloma harlowtonensts, have their nearest relatives in the Bear River formation. Unio douglasst is of the same general type as U. vetustus Meek and has very similar beak sculpture, though it differs considerably in out- line and proportions. Campeloma harlowtonensis resembles C. macrospira Meek so closely that it is difficult to separate them. Viviparus montanaensis, as has already been stated, is closely related to V. gé/ii M and H., which has been doubtfully referred to the Jurassic. The other species of Unio is of modern type, but apparently not very closely related to any known fossil species, while the two forms that are here referred to Goniobasis have a very modern aspect, suggesting Upper Cretaceous rather than older types. Although the evidence is not fully convincing, the indications are that this fresh-water horizon near Harlowton is not far from the hori- 194 STANTON—MOLLUSCAN FAUNULE. [April 8, zon of the Bear River formation—possibly contemporaneous with a part of it—and that it is certainly not older than Lower Cretaceous, and more probably should be assigned to about the base of the Upper Cretaceous. The facts thus briefly related should call renewed attention to the important and apparently complex history recorded in the non- marine formations of the late Jurassic and early Cretaceous of the Northwest—a history that is as yet far from being fully understood, although it is evident that the deposits contain the record of a great many facts that await the detailed investigation of the region for their interpretation. DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES. Unio FARRIn. sp. Pl. IV, Figs. 1, 2. Shell small, short and relatively convex; beaks somewhat prom- inent and inflated, situated about one-third the length of the shell from the anterior end, not sculptured nor eroded ; dorsal margin nearly straight ; ventral margin moderately convex; anterior end regularly rounded ; posterior end obliquely subtruncate ; umbonal ridges rather prominent, rounded, extending to the postero-ventral angle ; surface marked only by moderately prominent, irregularly arranged lines of growth. The type specimen measures 37 mm. in length, 22 mm. in height, and 16 mm. in convexity of both valves. The largest specimen of the eight in the collection is 45 mm. inlength. Three of the specimens are relatively somewhat more compressed and longer and have the posterior end more obliquely truncated. These differences are believed to be sexual rather than specific and are not greater differences than are seen in some living species of Unio. One of these compressed specimens (represented by Fig. 2) measures 40 mm. in length, 22 mm. in height and 13 mm. in convexity. This species is suggestive of the parvus group of living Unios, but is not sufficiently closely related to any fossil species from our Western formation to require detailed comparison. Locality.—Wettacombe’s ranche near Musselshell River, in the vicinity of Harlowton, Montana. Horizon.—Upper part of Lower Cretaceous or base of Upper Cretaceous. 1903.] STANTON—MOLLUSCAN FAUNULE. 195 UNIO DouGLAssiI n. sp. Pl. IV, Figs. 3, 4. Shell below medium size, elongate, rather slender and moder- ately convex; beaks small, inconspicuous, situated about one- fourth the length of the shell from the anterior end ; dorsal margin nearly straight ; ventral margin very gently convex ; anterior end regularly rounded ; posterior end broadly rounded below and very obliquely subtruncate above, so that its termination is acutely sub- angular ; umbonal region strongly sculptured over an area about 17 mm. long and 7 mm. high, with prominent concentric ribs, crossed on the posterior portion by two sharply elevated, linear, radiating ribs, one of which is on the umbonal ridge and the other midway between it and the postero-dorsal margin. The con- centric ribs change their direction abruptly and have their con- tinuity more or less broken in crossing the radiating ribs, especially the upper one. The rest of the shell shows only moderately dis- tinct growth-lines, except on the postero-dorsal area above the umbonal ridge, which shows numerous faint, slightly curved, irreg- ular radiating lines. An average specimen measures 56 mm. in length, 24 mm. in height and 15 mm. in convexity (both valves), the greatest height and convexity being about midlength of the shell. A few speci- mens appear to be relatively somewhat more compressed and higher, but this is due, in part at least, to accidental distortion. The species is represented by about forty specimens. This species closely resembles Uno vetustus Meek from the Bear River formation in all the details of sculpture, but it differs from that species in its smaller size and much more slender form. Locality.—Wettacombe’s ranche near Musselshell River, in the vicinity of Harlowton, Montana. Horizon.—Upper part of Lower Cretaceous or base of Upper Cretaceous. VIVIPARUS MONTANAENSIS n. sp. Pl. IV, Fig. 5. Shell small, rather stout, subovate, consisting of about five rapidly increasing whorls ; volutions rounded below and obtusely subangular and flattened above, so that they are more or less dis- tinctly shouldered ; last volution slightly expanded at the aperture, which is broadly ovate ; outer lip simple, nearly straight in profile outline; inner lip moderately thick, closely appressed to the shell above, very slightly elevated and reflexed below; surface bearing only very fine lines of growth. 196 STANTON—MOLLUSCAN FAUNULE. [April 8, The figured type, which is of about the average adult size, gives -the following measurements: Height, 12 mm.; greatest breadth, 1o mm.; height of aperture, 7 mm.; breadth of same, 5 mm. The collection contains about two hundred specimens, which show little variation except in size. Part of the specimens, supposed to be immature, are considerably smaller than the type. This species is very similar in general appearance to Viviparus gilli Meek and Hayden, which was described’ from beds provision- ally referred to the Jurassic at the head of Wind River, Wyoming, but it differs from the Wyoming form in being slightly smaller, and in having more distinctly shouldered whorls, a more oblique aper- ture, and with the inner lip more closely appressed to the shell and not so prominent. Locality.—Wettacombe’s ranch near Musselshell River, in the vicinity of Harlowton, Montana. ffTorizon.—Upper part of Lower Cretaceous or base of Upper Cretaceous. CAMPELOMA HARLOWTONENSIS n. sp. Pl. IV, Figs, 11, 12. Shell iarge, elongate subovate, consisting of about six elevated convex whorls, separated by a linear impressed suture; aperture large, ovate ; inner lip moderately thick, forming a rather heavy callus on the shell above and slightly reflexed below, so as to partly cover the small umbilical depression or chink; surface marked only by fine, slightly sigmoid lines of growth. The type, which is the largest specimen in the collection, measures 63 mm. in height (with apex restored) and 38 mm. in greatest breadth; height of aperture 34 mm. and breadth of same 23 mm. The other figured specimen is 57 mm. in height (with apex re- stored), 38 mm. in breadth, and the corresponding dimensions of the aperture are 29 mm. and 22 mm. respectively. This second specimen shows other differences in the aperture besides its relatively greater breadth, the inner lip being thicker and not so closely applied to the preceding whorl above and having a larger umbilical depression uncovered below. These variations are probably all accidental, as there is distinct evidence of injury to the shell during the life of the animal, shown by a repaired break nearly parallel to the outer lip and a few millimeters from it. 1 Palaeont. of the Upper Missouri, p. 115, Pl. V, Fig. 3, ¢, 4, Washington, 1865. Figured also by White in Bull. No. 29 and in 7hird Ann. Rept. U.S. Geol. Surv, 1903.] STANTON—MOLLUSCAN FAUNULE. 197 There are seventeen other less perfect specimens in the collec- tion, all of which agree fairly well with the type so far as their characteristics are preserved. This species is very closely related to Campeloma macrospira Meek,’ and may prove to be not more than a variety of that species from the Bear River formation in western Wyoming. Compari- son of C. harlowtonensts with the type and with a large suite of specimens from the same horizon in Wyoming show that Meek’s species averages considerably smaller, and that it is somewhat more slender, with the sutures slightly more oblique and the last whorl relatively larger. The last-named peculiarities cause a greater difference in the aspect and proportions of the shells than would be indicated by measurements. There are also differences in the form of theinner lip. There are, however, associated with the typical form of C. macrospira a few specimens that approach more closely to the form here described, and this fact suggests the question whether there are really two species, or only varieties of one variable species. Locality.—Wettacombe’s ranch, near Musselshell River, in the vicinity of Harlowton, Montana. Hforizon.—Upper part of Lower Cretaceous or base of Upper Cretaceous. GONIOBASIS? ORTMANNI n. sp. Pl. IV, Figs. 7-10. Shell small, moderately slender, consisting of about six convex whorls ; aperture elongate ovate, slightly produced below; inner lip somewhat thickened, closely appressed to last whorl above, slightly reflexed below so as to partly cover the small umbilical chink ; surface bearing inconspicuous growth-lines, usually crossed by a variable number of much more prominent sharply elevated spiral lines, which in some cases are strong enough to be called small carinz. Specimens which may be considered to have the average or typical sculpture show four spiral lines on the whorls of the spire, with about six additional on the base of the last whorl 1 Named by Meek in a list without description in Regt. U. S. Geol, Surv. Zerr., for 1872, p. 478. Described in 1877, U. S. Geol. Expl. 40th Parallel, Vol. IV, pt. 1, p. 180, with figures of a small shell doubtfully referred to the species. Figures of Meek’s original type are published by White, Zwel/th Ann. Rept. U, S. Geol. Surv. Terr., Pl. 30, Fig. 2a; Third Ann. Refi. VU. S. Geol. Surv., Pl. 8, Figs. 6,7, and Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 128, Pl. 10, Figs. 2, 3. 198 STANTON—MOLLUSCAN FAUNULE. [April 3” and sometimes a few finer intermediate lines. A few individuals show five lines on the spire, while others have only three or two. Smooth forms like that represented by Fig. 10 usually show incipi- ent spiral lines on the last whorl. Height of an average specimen, about 17 mm.; greatest breadth, 8 mm.; height of aperture, 7 mm.; breadth of aperture, 5 mm. The most striking feature of the species is the variability of its sculpture, though in this respect is comparable with such living species as G. virginica Gmelin. Of about 200 specimens in the collection nearly half either lack spiral sculpture or have it very faintly developed. The generic reference of Goniobasis is not entirely satisfactory, as the aperture differs in some respects from typical living species of the genus. It slightly suggests Lzop/acodes veternus Meek from the supposed Jurassic at the head of Wind River, but it is specifi- cally very distinct and I think not referable to the same genus. In sculpture it resembles G. ¢enuicarinata M. and H. from the Laramie more closely than any other fossil form. Locality.—Wettacombe’s ranch near Musselshell River, in the vicinity of Harlowton, Montana. _ Horizon.—Upper part of Lower Cretaceous or base of Up Cretaceous. GONIOBASIS? SILBERLINGI n. sp. Pl. IV, Fig. 6. A single fragmentary specimen associated with the preceding seems to be worthy of description, although the generic reference is very doubtful. It is the basal portion of a shell consisting of nearly two whorls and may be described as follows: Shell of moderate size, rather stout ; whorls very convex; aper- ‘ture broadly ovate; inner lip thin, slightly reflexed below over a distinct umbilical pit ; surface of the spire with four strong spiral. ridges or carine, which are unequally spaced, the space between the uppermost one and the suture and also between it and its neigh- bor being broader than the other smooth bands. The fragment measures 13 mm. in height and 13 mm. in greatest breadth; height of aperture, partly estimated, 9 mm.; breadth of same, 6 mm. The base of the aperture is broken, and it is possible that the large size of the umbilical pit is due to abnormal individual devel- opment. If this isa normal example of the species, it can hardly PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. SOC., VoL. XLII, No. 173. STANTON—NEwW FRESH-WATER MOLLUSCAN FAUNULE. PLATE IV. a ————— ee a at 1903.} HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. 199 be placed in the same genus with G.? or/manni. In sculpture it suggests the carinated forms that White has very doubtfully referred to Lioplax endlichi from the Bear River formation. Locality.—W ettacombe’s ranch, near Musselshell River, in the vicinity of Harlowton, Montana. Horizon.—Upper part of Lower Cretaceous or base of Upper Cretaceous. ° EXPLANATION OF PLATE. Unio farrit Stanton. Fig. 1. Right valve of type. Fig. 2. Right valve of compressed form, probably male. Unio douglasst Stanton. Fig. 3. Left valve of a small specimen. Fig. 4. Dorsal view of an average-sized specimen. Viviparus montanaensis Stanton. Fig. 5. Aperture view of the type, enlarged. Goniobasis ? silberlingi Stanton. Fig. 6. Aperture view of the type, enlarged. Goniobasis ? ortmanni Stanton. Fig. 7. Aperture view of fragmentary specimen with strong sculpture, enlarged. Outer lip restored from another specimen. Fig. 8. Dorsal view of a similar specimen, enlarged. Fig. 9. A specimen with only two spiral lines on the spire, enlarged. Fig. 10. Aperture view of a specimen without spiral sculpture except on back of last whorl, enlarged. Campeloma harlowtonensis Stanton. Fig. 11. Aperture view of the type. Fig. 12. Similar view of a broader, more umbilicated specimen. REACTION AS AN EFFICIENT AGENT IN PROCURING DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS IN THE IMPROVE- MENT OF RIVERS AND HARBORS. BY LEWIS M. HAUPT, A.M., C.E. (Read April 2, 1903.) Consumption, production and distribution are the three main elements of trade. Without great facilities for distribution it is not possible to maintain a nice adjustment between supply and demand. One section of the earth may be starving, while another may be burning its excess of food for lack of cheap transportation. PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XLII. 173. N. PRINTED AUG. 5, 1903, 200 HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. [April 2, The question, therefore, has its humane as well as its financial and scientific aspects. It is the aim of the engineer and the capitalist to reduce the cost of transportation to a minimum for the general welfare of mankind, The great improvements which have been effected in the railways of the world have resulted in a rapid reduction in the average rates of freight, which are still falling. Roadmakers have caught the infection and are mending their ways as rapidly as the means become available. Sailing vessels are transformed into the schooner type of greater dimensions and are designed to be handled by smaller crews, so that it may be said they represent the cheapest class of carriers. The steamer also is being greatly enlarged in its capacity with the same end in view, but it has not and cannot reach ; the limit of its economic possibilities because of the absence of adequate channels at its terminals. These great evolutions in transportation have been made possible in the United States by the concentration of mind, money and ma- terials, working in harmony and resulting in a system of overland movements which is without a rival. It is the outgrowth of private capital, employed to develop limited areas, but gradually consoli- dated into trunk lines, and which finally, assisted by the National Government, united the two oceans. The merging of these great interests still continues and the end is not yet. These bands - of steel have enabled our excess of production to reach the seaboard and be distributed to foreign markets, and it may not. be out of order to glance very briefly at the magnitude of this movement. Thanks to a beneficent Providence and the industry and intelli- gence of our people, our exports exceed our imports by an amount greater than that of all other nations. Their increase within a. generation is startling. While the population has doubled in the past thirty years, the per capita of money has increased from $17.50 to $28.66.1 The number of artisans has increased 2.7 times, while his average earnings have risen from $387 to $500 per capita per annum. ‘The capital employed has expanded fivefold and the value of the output more than threefold. In consequence the per capita of our exports has increased in this same period from $7.29 to $18.81, of which the largest part is food-stuffs. The increase in agricultural exports was over 300 per cent., and that of manufactures 750 per cent., so that this country heads the 10. P. Austin, Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, in Zhe World’s Work. 1903.] HAUPT—D#EPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. 201 list of exporting nations, having reached nearly one anda half bil- lion dollars in 1901. The United States produces more wheat than any other country of the world ; more corn than all other countries combined ; more beef and pork than any other; three-fourths of the world’s supply.of cotton ; of coal our exports exceed those of any other nation, and at far less cost. Weare the mainstay of the world for petroleum for light, heat and other purposes, and we lead in the quantity and value of manufactured articles.’ _ For the internal distribution of the nearly 900,000,000 tons of traffic, resulting from our splendid resources and energies, we have Over 200,000 miles of railways, or more than two-fifths of the world’s mileage, to say nothing of the superior facilitiés for the dis- tribution of thought by mail, telephone and telegraph. . Thus it is seen that, although the population of the country has doubled within thirty years, the productivity of the nation has far exceeded this ratio, and that it is the main reliance of Europe for many of its necessities. Our importance as a base of supplies for the Orient is also rapidly increasing, and it is reasonable to suppose that the next generation will realize even greater developments than this. The present year heralds the preparation which the great masters of transportation are making for ‘‘ round-the-world” lines by the consolidation of the ocean carriers into the International Mer- cantile Marine Company, so that our exports may be delivered in vessels under domestic control at less cost, and. our heavy freight bills to foreign flags be reduced. This is as it should be, and every possible encouragement should be given to all legitimate efforts to increase the circulation of material products and to reduce the cost, thus extending the market-range. But the mere multiplication in the number of vessels does not lower the cost‘unless it develops a keen competition between rivals. This competition is to some extent neutralized by combination, but under good management this effect may be more than offset by the reduction in fixed charges and by the use of vessels of greater tonnage, which can be operated at less cost per ton of cargo transported. This brings us directly to the crux of the argument, for the ves- sels, having already outgrown their channels are obliged to await favorable conditions, clear with partial cargoes or lighter ; in every case adding to the cost at the expense of the consumer, or restrict- ing deliveries. It has been predicted that ere long vessels of 1000 10, P. Austin, Statistician, Treasury Department, Washington. 202 HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. [April 2, feet length and forty or more feet draft would be upon us, but this economic ideal cannot be realized until some better method is developed for the creation and maintenance of much deeper chan- nels. To meet this demand for deeper water more powerful dredges are building, in the hope of combatting successfully with the ceaseless activities of the bar-building elements, by sporadic mechanical devices, costing large sums to operate and offering serious obstacles to navigation by their presence in narrow chan- nels. With the exception of Port Royal, with twenty-one feet ; Gedney’s Channel, with twenty-three feet ; the Golden Gate, with thirty-two feet, and the Columbia Bar, with nineteen feet, the nat- ural depth of scour over our alluvial bars seldom exceeds fifteen feet, and is more frequently limited to from three to twelve ; while a modern vessel, fully laden, may draw thirty-two, and should have a channel depth of from thirty-five to forty feet for safe passage over a rough bar at low water. Hence the urgent demands made upon the national treasury for larger appropriations, that at least the most important of our railroad and commercial terminals may utilize these economies in transportation. For the forty-four years prior to 1866, when our commerce was carried in much lighter-draft vessels, the total expenditure for waterway improvements was but $14,990,170; but between 1867 and 1901 they expanded to $332,487,627—-making a grand total to that date of $347,477,897, to which should be added the appro- priations of the last Congress of about $60,000,000 more, thus swelling the aggregate to over $400,000,000. In reporting the last bill the Chairman of the River and Harbor Committee stated that ‘the total amount which would be required for the completion of projects for river and harbor works . . . now considerably exceeds $300,000,000.’’ If but ten per cent. of this sum can be secured annually it is evident that our commerce must ‘* drag its slow length along’’ for many years, while the increase in the de- mand for greater facilities cannot be met unless greater efficiency may be secured in the methods in vogue. During the score of years succeeding 1867 the average expendi- tures were $4,480,000, but soon thereafter, when deeper channels were demanded and the use of the submerged and twin jetties supplemented by dredging became the main reliance, the annual average reached nearly $13,000,000, with a rapidly increasing ratio. In the past quarter century the estimates and expenditures at only 1903.] HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. 208 eight of our most important seaports, where jetties have been built or proposed for channels of modern depth, foot up to $50,515,784, but the difficulty of securing the depth has necessitated in such cases a resort to dredging to create and maintain the channel. These new conditions have resulted in the construction of powerful sea-going hydraulic dredges with great capacity, and have in a measure revolutionized the practice of deepening by scour, as it is considered by some more economical to use the dredge without regulating works. In consequence it is found that the amounts expended and estimated to complete the approved projects at only four of our principal ports by dredging alone will aggregate $41,396,129, exclusive of the large additional sums required for maintenance. In view, therefore, of the important interests involved, the unre- liability of dredged channels, the inadequacy of twin jetties and the great cost, it would seem pertinent to inquire whether the profes- sion of engineering has reached its ultimatum in this department of science. Is it not possible to utilize to greater extent the boundless resources of nature for the purpose of creating deeper channels at our ports? The magnitude of these forces will be. better understood when it is shown that the sun as a prime mover evaporates approximately 15,000 tons from each square mile of the ocean’s surface every twenty-four hours, so that his daily work upon the 150,000,000 miles of water surface represents a load of two and a quarter trillion tons, a large portion of which is carried by the wind-driven clouds to the land where it is recondensed. Assuming the precipitation to be proportional to the ratio of land to water, there would be 562 billion tons falling on the land surface, and taking the run-off at but 4o per cent., there results 225 billion tons of stored energy flowing down to the sea every day of the year, or, reducing this weight to its volumetric equivalent, we have nearly fifty cubic miles or 264,000 square miles of water one foot deep, an area greater than the State of Texas. This is the fluid solvent which, in the laboratory of nature, is daily applied to earth-sculpture, while the portion at work in the chemical and metallurgical laboratories of the interior is much greater than this. The former is all that is available for the avenues of domestic commerce, while the latter is the part which contributes to its tonnage by developing its products. 204 HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. [April 2, For the foreign commerce there is the illimitable ocean with its dynamics—the tides, winds and currents—which are not yet fully understood nor utilized. The poet Milton has aptly said : ss Accuse not Nature, she hath done her part; Do thou but thine.” This prompts the question, How? It is to answer this query that attention will be briefly directed. It is well known that engineering, like many other sciences, is largely empirical, and that more is learned from failures than from successes, for failures are the buoys which mark the channel to success. It becomes important, therefore, to review the experiences of the past, in which this country is particularly rich, that their lessons may guide us in preparing to satisfy the demands of the future. With this end in mind, a brief review will be made of a few types of harbor improvements, showing their physical features and results, and the methods which have produced them. ExistTING METHODS. The devices in use to-day for the alleviation of the evils of ocean bars are twin jetties, dredging and dynamite, either singly or com- bined. The theory of the two-jetty system has been so long and ably discussed that little need be added further than to state that it is based upon the idea of preventing a dispersion of the currents by the building up of parallel or convergent training walls to concen- trate the discharge upon a single path across the bar. The objections to this system are that, being built out from shore, the confined waters are projected upon the inner slope of the bar, which is pressed» seaward as they advance. Moreover, being at a fixed distance apart, they cannot be adapted to great ranges of stage, for if adjusted to a normal low-water discharge they will be too close to pass the floods without retardation, or the reverse. In any case there must result a sedimentation above, within or beyond the works, as will be shown later, and dredging must be applied for relief, and, furthermore, they reduce the tidal influx. Until within a few years twin jetties aided by dredging have been the panacea for all classes of harbor bars, regardless of the relations between deposits, discharge and the many other conditions affecting their 1903.) HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. 205 formation and maintenance. It is important that a careful diagnosis be made of each case to ascertain its preponderating element. PHYSICAL CONSIDERATIONS. Thus it is seen that the physical agencies become of fundamental importance, and that a clear distinction must be made between bars formed from littoral drift and those formed from the detritus car- ried down by streams. For tidal inlets it is also important to ascer- tain the prevailing direction of the littoral movements which have frequently but erroneously been supposed to follow the prevailing winds, whereas it is more frequently found to be the resultant of the configuration of the adjacent coast line and of the angular wave movements, especially during the flood tide, when the waves are most heavily charged with silt. Knowing the direction of this general resultant, the engineer can then determine on which side of the channel his protecting work should be placed, although there still seems to be a radical differ- ence of opinion as to whether it should be on the near or far side, for only recently it was recommended that if a single jetty were built at a certain inlet on the Southern coast, it should ‘‘ be located on the south of the channel, since the drifting sands come from the north. At this place, however, while the drift is comparatively slow, it is an enormous sand bank which moves, and which always moves very positively in one direction, and it is difficult to see how such a constant force from the north could avoid crowding the channel close to the jetty.’ The jetty plan was therefore rejected. Frequent experience in the construction of two jetties, where the farther one has been built in advance of the nearer one, has served to show the fallacy of this location and order of procedure. The requirements to be met at tidal inlets are, free admission of the flood tide as the only source of ebb energy, protection of the bar channel from the prevailing direction of the littoral drift, con- servation of ebb tide as it passes seaward over a narrower path on the bar, development of its potential energy in useful work locally on the bar crest and an automatic adjustment to any stages of wind or tide. All of these may be better fulfilled generally by one jetty than by two, and manifestly at about half the cost. These results are rendered possible by placing in the way of the ebb current a curved resisting medium in such position as to maintain a contin- uous reaction along its concave face. In fine, this structure be- 206 HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. [April 2, comes the tool for the conversion of the effluent energy into useful work, with lateral transportation of the eroded material. REACTION VERSUS VELOCITY. The opinion is prevalent that the deep pockets frequently ob- served at the ends of spurs or obstacles or at contractions in rivers are due to velocity, and it has been stated that because a mean ebb velocity of two feet per second maintains a depth of over 100 feet at the Narrows of New York Harbor, therefore a similar contraction on the bar near Sandy Hook would produce some such depths. This was made the basis in 1886 for a proposition to build a jetty nearly five miles long, closing three of the channels across the New York bar. The great depth at the Narrows is not a velocity but a reaction depth, due to the resistance which the converging shores oppose to the passage of the flood, not the ebb tide, which increases the head before reaching the pass, depressing the resultant to the bottom, from which it reacts and scours out a depth to com- pensate for the lateral contraction. At other points in the harbor velocities of more than two feet per second do not scour to depths exceeding three feet, so that the results must be ascribed to some other cause than mere velocity. An extended investigation of these abnormal depths leads to the conclusion that they are caused by eddies operating in a vertical plane, these eddies being caused by obstacles placed in the path of a current in such manner as to retard the flow by the interference due to converging forces, thus creating a head with a downward resultant and scour until compensation is secured by enlarged aper- ture. Here the reaction produces a change of direction of the re- sultant, which is deflected upward with dispersion of energy, deposit of material and ultimately restored equilibrium. These facts are doubtless well known to many observers, but the particular point to which attention is directed in this connection is that the downward movement producing scour is supplemented necessarily by the up- ward resultant, accompanied by deposit in the same vertical plane, so that whichever way the eddy operates, whether with flood or ebb, the bar is a sequence of the pocket, unless other forces come to the rescue. Thus it appears that an eddy both scours and deposits. These effects are reciprocal results of the same eddy, and not of two separate ones. But eddies also operate in horizontal planes, and with like results. When the obstacle is limited in extent the effect 1903.] - HAUPI—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. 207 is local, but when the resistance is maintained the reaction con- tinues to be developed and the energy to be expended until the resistance ceases. The great advantages resulting from a continous reaction pro- duced by a concave directrix appears to have been largely ignored | in the work of river and harbor improvement, and yet the location of the best channels under the concave banks of rivers attests its value to commerce. It is true that numerous curved dikes and re- vetments have been placed in the concave bends of rivers, but the object has been to protect them /vom erosion and not to encourage it. Their value as tools to cut away an ocean bar does not appear to be fully appreciated, since where single curved jetties have been built the convex face has generally been turned to the current, to encourage, as has been said, the tendency which water has to follow a convex curve. (?) The concave directrix has also the great advantage of maintain- ing the head due to centrifugal force and thus changing the direc- tion of the resultant downwardly, producing the lateral scour and resulting convex bank or counterscarp created by the stream acting as an hydraulic auger, and of automatically adjusting this counter- part to the variable requirements of its regimen. These general principles will be more fully elucidated by illustra- tions selected from surveys and models, showing the holes bored by reaction and the shifting of channels by artificial works, which are instructive.as to the intimate relation between cause and effect. A study of the natural effects found to exist under certain condi- tions enables the engineer to predict with some assurance the results which may follow a utilization of the available forces at any site. One of the most instructive examples of the vertical eddy is to be seen in the Narrows at New York, to which reference has already been made. Here the bottom currents are with the flood tide for about eleven hours out of the twelve, and this resultant flood ex- tends as far up as the Battery. The ebb resultants are greatest at the surface and diminish rapidly with the depth, reaching their point of reversion at or near forty feet in the Narrows. On the bar the ebb currents show a feeble resultant at a depth of less than twenty- four feet in but one of the channels. The remarkable ‘‘slue’’ which has maintained its position athwart the path of the currents since the earliest surveys has excited some attention as to its phenomenal position and depth of fifty-two feet. 208 HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. [April 2, It is referred to in the early Coast Survey Reports, and was made the subject of a special paper by the late honored member of this Society, Prof. Henry Mitchell, who prepared a manuscript report upon it, in connection with the physics of the lower bay, in 1858, but which was not published. It serves to confirm the claims of this paper that depths may be and frequently are the result of eddy- ing action rather than velocity. The confluence of three currents produces a resultant having a northeasterly set which impinges upon the bar at the head of Gedney’s Channel and is deflected thence by this resisting bank of sand northwardly, boring out the slue for a length of a mile and a width of a half mile. The latest survey shows a depth of fifty-three feet, with but eighteen feet on either flank. It was proposed at one time to change the direction of this resultant by cutting off one of its components and training the cur-~ rents seaward to open Gedney’s Channel by the utilization of this force, but it was not accepted. Again, the reaction at the head of Sandy Hook has produced a maximum depth of sixty-eight feet, diminishing within about a mile to thirty feet, while abreast of the point and a half mile distant the depth is but sixteen feet. The construction of the old Breakwater at the mouth of the Del- aware in 1828 furnishes some instructive lessons as to the changes effected by obstacles placed in a tideway. Here, at the ends of the ice-breaker and of the breakwater, are to be found the character- istic deep holes resulting from the head generated by the resisting structures. At the gap the pockets are on the outside of the open- ing, and the depths are the effects of the flood-tide. Both of these pockets are fifty feet deep, and the material scoured out from them has been carried into the harbor and deposited in the lee of the structures, making a shoal with only ten feet at one point. At the southeastern end of the breakwater the ebb reaction has scoured to a depth of fifty-four feet, while at the western end of the ice- breaker the hole is due to the flood, and is limited to about forty feet. Moreover, the diagrams of velocity curves show that in the centre of the harbor, where the maximum velocity of the ebb is six feet per second, the bottom has not been prevented from shoaling to about fifteen feet, while a similar ebb velocity at the ‘‘ gorge’”’ is able to maintain depths of thirty feet. If these depths are due solely to velocities they should be equal, since like causes should produce like effects. Numerous other instances of these abnormal depths due to reac- 1903.] HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. 209 tion, and not to velocity simply, might be cited, but a few must suffice. In the Thoroughfare at Longport, N. J., the landing pier has caused a hole forty-eight feet deep, while 800 feet away there was a bar bare at low water, but covered by a tidal current almost as swift as that past the pier. In the Charleston gorge the maximum depth was eighty-two feet, while on the bar seaward thereof the depth was zero, and the best crossing was six miles south of the gorge. At Fernan- dina (Cumberland Sound), Ga., the maximum depth at the head of Amelia Island, projecting into the channel, was sixty feet, and abreast of it bare at low water. The Galveston gorge shows about fifty-eight feet, while the normal bar depths were twelve to thirteen. The St. John’s river, Fla., swings to the sea through a radius of one mile, carrying a maximum depth of fifty and three-tenths feet, and as the axis straightens to a tangent the depth diminishes to twenty feet. It then strikes a jetty at an abrupt angle which develops its latent energy and scours to fifty and two-tenths feet, but as this is not maintained by the convex curve of the jetty, the channel deterio- rates to about eleven feet. The building of a spur in the Mississippi river at right angles to the bank had the effect of increasing the depth from twelve to nearly one hundred feet in consequence of the violent eddy which was created, and now that the spur is covered and the river has assumed a new regimen, the depth has shoaled to about thirty feet, which is maintained. — . From these few instances it would seem to be a fair inference ‘that depths may be developed quite as well by single lines of con- cave directing works as by two, if proper attention is given to the volume of affluent as well as to the relative amount and direction of the motion of the bar-building materials. PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. In view of the requirements as previously stated, it is evident that to protect the proposed channel from the littoral drift a sub- merged low-tide or half-tide jetty will not suffice to arrest this drift, but it should extend above the highest tide. It must also be placed between the channel and the source of the prevailing drift, just as a 210 HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. [April 2, snow- or a sand-fence must be placed to ‘‘ windward ’’ to protect a rail- or wagon-way. It must be curved, concave to the effluent currents, to develop a continuous reaction, and should be constructed inward from the outward slope of the bar, to avoid the advance of the crest and to utilize the force of gravity in cutting shoreward and downward, instead of seaward and upward. These are some of the conditions which give promise of the greatest results attainable at a given location. Taking now a few typical illustrations of the several methods in vogue, it is seen that the New York entrance is to be deepened by dredging some 42,000,000 cubic yards from the bar, beginning at the easterly end of Ambrose Channel, at a cost of about $4,000,000, but with no definite time limit. Although this sector of the bar shows a remarkable degree of permanency, it can hardly be expected that the formation of this deep cut, created by artificial means in the open sea, at a point where the natural depths are steadily maintained at from sixteen to eighteen feet, will long remain open. If it be assumed that normal conditions would be restored, say, in a period of ten years, it would represent an annual accretion of about 4,000,000 cubic yards to be removed by dredging, which at the present price would cost $360,- 000, or the interest at three per cent. on $12,000,000. Fora much smaller sum it would be possible to train the currents through this new and shorter channel by permanent works which would main- tain it and at the same time become a valuable aid to navigation. The effects of the submerged jetty type is best seen at Charles- ton, where the littoral drift is southward. Here the outer ends of the jetties are raised above high water, but the shore flanks are far below the surface, to admit the tides freely. The result is that the beach sand travels across them and forms shoals within the har- bor, while it also travels around the outer end and maintains a bar in the open sea more than half a mile beyond the works, through which the channel must be maintained by dredging. At Galveston, where the submerged plan was modified to reach above high water, the building out of the south jetty first has caused the bar to advance some three miles, adding that length to each of the jetties, which are 7ooo feet apart, and a new bar is forming across the mouth in the lee of the north jetty. The channel must also be maintained by dredging. At the mouth of a sedimentary river, like the Mississippi, where 1903.) | HAUPT—DEEPER NAVIGABLE CHANNELS. 211 the silt comes from within, two jetties give much greater promise of success, and the great work of Captain James B. Eads in open- ing the South Pass by parallel jetties curving to the westward has proven to be a boon to the country. These jetties were built under adverse conditions, as payments were conditioned upon results to be secured, and as the first pair of jetties did not suffice to give the requisite depth, it became necessary to build spurs, then a second line of works, and finally a second series of spurs before the legal depths were obtained. This, however, resulted in an over-con- traction of that outlet, and has caused the retarded currents to drop their sediment in the Pass above the jetties instead of beyond them, involving dredging. Probably the most successful work of this kind at a river’s mouth is that completed at the mouth of the Panuca river, Tampico, Mexico, where in two years’ time two parallel straight jetties were constructed about a mile and a quarter long across a bar, having depths varying from five to twelve feet, and as soon as they were finished a severe flood flushed the channel so completely that the depths of twenty-seven feet have remained ever since, the littoral current here being sufficiently strong to remove the sediment car- ried out beyond the jetties. The engineer of this work was E. L. Costhell, C.E. At Aransas Pass, a purely tidal inlet on the Texas coast, a single reaction breakwater, in an incomplete condition, has produced a progressive deepening by the control of feeble tides, unaided by dredging, and at a cost of less than one-third that of the estimated project, thus fully demonstrating the great practical utility of the single reaction jetty system at”the only point where an opportunity has been afforded for a test on a large scale in this country, after about fifteen years of persistent effort The Consulting Engineers of this work were Messrs. H. C. Ripley, Geo. Y. Wisner, and the writer. 212 RAVENEL—WARFARE AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS. [April 4, THE WARFARE AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS. BY MAZYCK P. RAVENEL, M.D. (Read April 4, 1903.) It would seem almost*superfluous to dwell on the terrible destruc- tion of human life due to tuberculosis, or to dilate on the urgent necessity that exists for general and combined efforts to lessen its ravages; yet, in spite of all that has been said and written on the subject during the last ten years, and in spite of certain encour- aging signs of awakening interest in the public mind, it is still true that there exists a lamentable and inexplicable apathy in regard to this scourge of the human race. Philanthropists are lavish in their gifts to colleges, hospitals, libraries, museums and such like institu- tions, yet in America at least there have been very few substantial donations toward the eradication of tuberculosis, though it would be hard to imagine a greater boon to stricken humanity than the accomplishment of this end. Legislators give freely to all kinds of charitable institutions, but the amount given to the army of the tuberculous is pitiably small. This attitude of legislators may to a great extent be taken as indicative of public sentiment. This sen- timent becomes harder to understand when we consider that three facts have been absolutely demonstrated in regard to the disease : 1. It is communicable. 2. It is preventible. 3. In the early stages it is curable. It is well to inquire into the causes of this lack of interest, and see if there is sound reason for them. One of the greatest draw- backs has been the persistent belief in the hereditary character of the disease, which is even now quite prevalent among the masses, and held by many physicians. While it has been shown that tuber- culosis may be transmitted in this manner, it has been equally proven that it is of very rare occurrence, and practically negligible. Among the lower animals healthy offspring may be constantly obtained from tuberculous mothers by separation at birth and artificial feeding—a plan carried out on a large scale in Denmark by Prof. Bang. It is, however, true that tuberculosis runs in families, the reason being that the children of phthisical parents are constantly exposed to infection. In man only some twenty cases of true hereditary tuber- culosis are on record (Osler), and in cattle there are less than roo to be found in the literature. Another obstacle to progress is the inevi- 1903. ] RAVENEL—WARFARE AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS. PAIS: table tendency of the human mind to grow accustomed to danger. We have grown accustomed to the death-rate from tuberculosis, and do not realize what it means. A panic would be caused in any one of our large cities by 100 deaths from cholera, yellow fever or plague, yet in New York 10,000 deaths and in Philadelphia 2800 deaths are caused each year by tuberculosis without exciting even passing comment from the average person. The only real differ- ence is that tuberculosis is with us always, demanding its lion’s share of victims with each recurring year, while the other diseases are rare visitors. The total number of deaths in the United States-each year from tuberculosis is estimated at 150,000, which means a money loss of $330,000,000 to the country. This should be sufficient reason for preventive measures on our part, even if we leave out of consider- ation the distress of the victims and their families. The slow and insidious onset of tuberculosis no doubt tends to lessen the fear we have of it, but in this very fact lies much danger, since it is more difficult to persuade persons of the relation of cause and effect than in a malady where exposure is promptly followed by attack. The magnitude of the task deters some from undertaking it. Very recently a legislator who was being urged to assist in procuring State aid brought up such an objection. The task is unquestion- ably a great one, but it can be stated with assurance that the total eradication of tuberculosis is feasible. Another class of obstructionists are those persons who regard all discoveries as ‘‘ new-fangled notions,’’ and quote the mode of life of their grandfathers, who did not find measures for the prevention of tuberculosis necessary. It is impossible to argue with such per- sons, asarule. It may be pointed out, however, that tuberculosis is essentially a disease spread by overcrowding, and, like all com- municable diseases, the more dense the population the greater nec- essity for preventive measures. Conditions change materially with increase of population, and the new conditions must be met by new measures which may have been unnecessary before. PREVENTION OF TUBERCULOSIS. All efforts at the eradication of tuberculosis to be successful must be based on the fundamental fact of its communicability, and in the main it is to be treated as the other contagious diseases, though 214 RAVENEL—WARFARE AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS. [April 4, the restrictions need not be so severe, since more or less prolonged exposure is necessary to bring about infection. Two parties are to be considered, the tuberculous person and the community, and while the former is entitled to every consideration and attention, the good of society in general must be the principal consideration which guides our actions. Fortunately, the interests of the two parties are not irreconcilable, and much can be done by education to smooth the difficulties which lie in our path. With this end in view there should be in every State, and in all large cities, societies whose object is the study of methods of prevention, and the dissemination of such knowledge in short, plainly written tracts among the people. In addition to this, Boards of Health should issue circulars constantly giving such information and advice. At present only twenty-two States and seven cities issue such circu- lars and recommendations, while five States have State societies and five cities have local societies for the prevention of tuberculosis. These societies can do much good also by shaping legislation. States and cities should have uniform laws regarding expectoration in public conveyances, buildings and on sidewalks, overcrowding of factories and tenement-houses, the construction of such build- ings as regards light and ventilation, and the employment of chil- dren under age. Health officers should have the power to force ignorant and vicious tubercular persons who persist in reckless expectoration and other offenses against public hygiene into hospi- tals provided for them bythe public. There should be notification. and registration of the persons suffering from phthisis, and apart- ments occupied by such persons should be thoroughly disinfected periodically, and always after death or vacation of the premises before new tenants are allowed to enter them. All of these things can be carried out with little or no increase of expense, and much good can be accomplished along these lines. However, the urgent need is for institutions in which the sick can be cared for and instructed. These should be of at least two types :— sanatoria, built in open country districts in regions known to be specially adapted to the treatment of tuberculosis; and, second, hospitals in or near cities for the hopelessly ill and destitute, where the maximum of comfort can be given them, and where they will cease to be sources of infection to their families and the public in general. In connection with the sanatoria convalescent farms are most useful, and may be made self-sustaining toa certain extent. On 1903.] RAVENEL—WARFARE AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS. 215 such farms patients who are well enough to be discharged from the sanatoria can find light employment under good conditions until strong enough to return to their usual avocations in factories, etc., without danger of relapse. I have not tried to outline an ideal method of dealing with tuber- culosis, and much could be added to what has been said, but have limited myself to what appears to me imperatively demanded by the conditions which confront us, and to what is entirely in our power to effect. The affair is, however, beyond private charity, and governmental aid is necessary, each State doing its share. In spite of the enormous expenditure which would be involved in providing hospital accommodations for the indigent tuberculous, it would cost less than the present money loss to the country from deaths alone, estimated, as said before, at $330,000,000 annually ; and in a few years we could confidently expect a marked and pro- gressive decrease in outlay. It must be borne in mind that the demonstration of the communicability of tuberculosis has resulted in special hardships to the poor consumptive, since most general hospitals now close their doors to these afflicted ones. The poor consumptive reaps but little aid from the vast donations from public and private sources to general hospitals ; hence the urgent necessity for special provision for them, both on the score of humanity as well as protection to the public health. Hand in hand with such measures should go efforts directed to the eradication of tuberculosis from cattle, since we must look on cattle as the source from which a certain amount of human tubercu- losis springs, chiefly in children. Without entering into matters of controversy, the following proven facts may be stated as grounds for this belief: (1) The tubercle bacillus as found in bovine animals differs from that found in man chiefly in its greater virulence for practically all experimental animals, including man’s nearest relative, the monkey. It would be an anomaly if man, one of the most susceptible of all animals to tuberculosis, were immune to the most powerful type of the germ of tuberculosis known to us. (2) There are numerous well-authenticated cases of accidental inoculation of man by the bovine tubercle bacillus, with the pro- duction of typical disease at the point of inoculation. Some of these cases have been followed by general tuberculosis, ending in death, attributable with good reason to the inoculation. PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XLII. 173. 0. PRINTED Aue. 7, 1908. 216 RAVENEL—WARFARE AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS. [April 4, (3) A number of instances have been recorded in which the onset of tuberculosis followed the use of milk from tuberculous cows. In some of these the relation of cause and effect is so close that Nocard has well said ‘‘they have almost the value of an experiment.’’ (4) That food containing bovine tubercle bacilli may and does produce tuberculosis in man seems already proven by finding in the intestinal tract (mesenteric glands) of children who have died of tuberculosis tubercle bacilli which have all the characteristics of the bovine germ, and which have an intense degree of virulence for cattle. (5) The close relationship of the human and bovine’ tubercle bacilli has been shown by the recent experiments in immunization, in which it has been proven that injections of bacilli from human sources will protect animals against virulent bovine germs. This has been done by Trudeau, De Schweinitz, and Pearson and Gilli- land in this country, and by Behring and Thomassen in Europe. Wuat Has BEEN DONE IN THE UNITED STATES TOWARD THE SUPPRESSION OF TUBERCULOSIS. Three States and four cities require the reporting of cases of tuber- culosis ; in five States and five cities report is optional; in one city it is under litigation. Two States have general anti-spitting laws, while five States have local laws, and fourteen cities have their own laws. ‘Twenty-two States and seven cities issue circulars and recommendations. The United States Goverrment has two sanatoria for persons in its employ ; five States have five special institutions, and nine States have projected sanatoria. Two States have tent colonies on a small scale. Only three cities have special municipal hospitals for con- sumptives. There are forty-two private institutions in eleven States, some supported by private charity, some partially self-supporting, and some for pay patients only. Twenty States and twelve cities have laws regarding bovine tuber- culosis. Twenty States have done nothing in regard to human or bovine tuberculosis; six States have done something to combat tuberculosis in man only, and eight States have done something against bovine tuberculosis alone." 1 These figures have been taken almost entirely from the valuable paper of Dr. S. A. Knopf, read before the American Medical Association at Saratoga, June, I902. Since then considerable advance has been made. . 1903.] RAVENEL—WARFARE AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS. ehh Comparisons are said to be odious, but in the hope of stirring up our people in the United States, I quote the most recent statistics of what is being done in Germany, which may be taken as an index of the attitude of most of the countries of Europe toward the scourge of tuberculosis. THE FicHt AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS IN GERMANY. According to the Imperial Health Office in Berlin, the deaths from tuberculosis are about one-tenth of those of all diseases. In 1899 the number of patients treated in hospitals in the empire was 226,000. According to the latest statistics there are at present 57 public sanatoriums for the tuberculous in Germany, of which 34 are located in Prussia, 6 in Bavaria, 2 in Saxony, t in Wurtemberg, 1 in Hessen, 1 in Sachsen-Weimar, r in Thuringia, 1 in Reichsland, 3 in Baden, 2 in Brunswick and 5 in the Hansa cities. Besides these there are 4 four institutions near the sea—namely, Nordeney, Wyk, Gross-Muritz, Zoppot. There are also 23 public sanatoriums nearly completed, among these being Buch, near Berlin. The city of Berlin has at the present time 3 public sanatoriums—namely, Mal- chow, Blankenfelde, Gutergotz. There are also 20 private German sanatoriums, and 1 in Davos (Switzerland). Inthe 78 sanatoriums for the tuberculous there are 7000 beds. Ifwe calculate that each bed is used by four persons in the course of a year, we find that about 30,000 tuberculous patients annually enjoy the benefit of treatment in the sanatoriums. The efforts made in the German Empire to combat tuberculosis, both by direct regulations and by general pre- ventive measures, are being actively carried on. In particular, the Imperial Government, the governments of the different States, the executive authorities, the national insurance institutions and the municipal governments are seriously and actively participating in this work. ‘The result of these efforts, which have been now carried on for some years, is already noticeable in a decrease in the number of deaths from tuberculosis, which in the future will be still more marked (American Medicine, March 21, 1903). ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY AND SERUM-THERAPY. For many years constant effort has been made to discover a serum or lymph for the specific treatment of tuberculosis, and several such - substances have been announced from time to time. All of them 218 RAVENEL—WARFARE AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS. [April 4, have proved disappointing, however, not excepting Koch’s lymph or tuberculin, the discovery of which was hailed with delight and enthusiasm by physicians and consumptives alike in all parts of the world. Recently it has been demonstrated authoritatively that it is perfectly possible to produce artificial immunity against tuberculosis in animals by a process of vaccination, as such methods are now generally termed, and with this demonstration comes the well- founded hope that we are within sight of the goal so much hoped for, the discovery of a specific serum for the cure and prevention of tuberculosis. Indeed, we have already the news that two well- known bacteriologists have produced such a substance. While the details have not yet been made public, the names of these two men, Behring, of Germany, the discoverer of diphtheria antitoxin, and Marmorek, of the Pasteur Institute, in Paris, the discoverer of streptococcus antitoxin, are of such weight as to justify strong hope that they have achieved success. We may feel assured that ig progress has been made, to say the least. I have not dwelt on the pathetic side of this question—the fearful loss of life and suffering entailed by a preventable disease. On this point I cannot do better than to quote a short editorial from a recent issue of American Medicine (March 28, 1903). While this deals with the city of New York, it is equally applicable to every city in the United States, the figures only needing modification. THE TRAGEDY OF THE HOMELESS AND FRIENDLESS. ‘¢In the year 1902, in the borough of Manhattan, there died of tuberculosis, chiefly in the various hospitals of the city, 1787 patients. Of these, 950 were ‘‘not known’’ at the addresses given; 456 gave no addresses; 275 gave the address of a lodging- house, and 106 gave an address outside of the city. It must be remembered that these deaths constituted only about one-seventh of all the deaths that took place. Moreover, for every death there are, according to Dr. Farr, about two years of illness endured. When one thinks how much our happiness, even in health, depends upon home, and love and friendship, and that in illness and death the blessedness of these things is vastly increased, and then when one realizes that there are so many thousands of the sick and dying in our cities utterly homeless and friendless, the pity of it all becomes indeed terrible. The tragedy of obviable disease and needless 1903.] KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. 219 death kindles our zeal to stop the spread of infection, to discover the means of preventing the suffering, and, when this is not pos- sible, to surround the lonely sick and dying with the best medical skill, attention and kindness that is possible. The desolation of their appalling loneliness is often doubtless greater than that of their illness and oncoming death combined.”’ PHILADELPHIA, April 4, 1903. ON ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALLIZED DOMEYKITE, ALGODONITE, ARGENTODO- MEYKITE AND STIBIODOMEYKITE. (Plate V.) BY GEORGE A. KOENIG. (Received June 1, 1903.) In a paper on mohawkite, domeykite and other copper arsenides of the Mohawk mine (Zettsch. f. Krystall., etc., Vol. xxxiv, 1 Heft), I mentioned some attempts made by me to obtain domeykite in measurable crystals by the action of arsenic vapors upon metallic copper. One experiment gave crystals, although not measurable, but further trials failed at the time, evidently through my inability to maintain the proper temperature by means of an Erlenmeyer combustion furnace. The range between the temperature at which the crystals form and that at which the crystals melt is a very nar- row one. On the other hand the eagerness with which the copper absorbs the arsenic causes heat, and hence the difficulty in adding just the right quantity of thermal energy from the outside. It occurred to me to try an electric current as a source of heat. The very first trial gave most promising results. The experiments were taken up in November, Igoo, and continued until March, 1901. The adjoining figure illustrates the simple apparatus which proved itself adequate to all requirements. In watching the rapid growth of the crystals the similarity of the phenomenon with the development of an egg occurred to me, and I applied the name ‘‘ incubator’’ to the apparatus, than which no other could be more expressive. 220 KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. [June1, The incubator consists of a piece of combustion tubing (T), closed at one end. The length is unimportant since only about three inches of it are in actual use. I have varied the diameter from three-eighths to three-fourths inch with no apparent difference in the action. The crystals do not grow any larger in a large tube than in a small one. Around the tube is wound a very thin plati- num wire (W), beginning at the closed end. In order to keep the coils separated I laid three strips of thin asbestos paper (E) length- wise upon the glass and then began winding. The first turn returns to the start, a twist is made, and thus a well-fixed start is secured = 7 a iNET which will prevent the wire from slipping. The pitch of the thread will be governed by the maximum of heat desired. This will be variable with different metals and may be varied even for the same metal, as I have frequently done, the variation being between one- eighth and one-thirty-second of an inch. The last coil is secured in the same way as the first. Twoinches of winding were mostly sufficient. Whenever the glass gets to full red heat the wire will fuse into it and will be broken in unwinding. To avoid this spoil- ing of the wire it would be the best thing to cover the whole glass surface with the asbestos sheet. But doing so would also prevent the observation of the phenomena occurring within. One might as well, or even preferably, use a porcelain tube. One would have to forego the great pleasure of seeing the so-called inanimate things 1903.] KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. 221 come to life, and one would make many more failures by either too much or too little heat. The wear and tear of the wire seems trifling when held against this loss. Being thus prepared the tube is ready to be charged. At A (Fig. 2) I place from five to ten grams of resublimed arsenic, on top of this a loose plug of asbestos (P). In the first experiments I thought copper filings would be the best material to act upon. These filings I poured on top of P, forming a column about one inch high, and secured this column by means of a second asbestos plug (P’). Such an arrangement of parts promised to restrain the arsenic vapors from passing by the copper without action. It proved an unnecessary precaution, as the copper acts toward that vapor as asponge toward water. Coarse turnings were tried instead of filings, and later solid copper bars with even better results than the filings had given. Similarly the close proximity of the copper to the plug P was found objectionable and, therefore, in all the later experiments the tube was placed, after charging the arsenic and inserting P, in a horizontal position by means of a clamp at the open end. Then the metal pieces to be acted upon were shoved into the desired distance from the plug, a loose asbes- tos plug next to the metal to avoid air currents, and finally a stop- per holding a narrow glass tube, bent at right angles, was inserted into the open end. The glass tube was then made to dip under mercury and thus expansion of the air made possible, without danger of air entering. Whatever oxygen was in the tube made As,O,, which was always found as a ring sublimate behind the metal. Fig. 1 shows the outside of the tube, clamped to the stand - S. The stout contact wires, w, w’, were found very serviceable. By their use the field of high temperature may be enlarged or restricted as well as shifted. These wires are simply laid upon the coil wire. Their position must not be shifted or altered without switching off the current; the thin wire will melt in the moment when the contact is broken. I spoiled considerable wire in this way, besides the time consumed in rewinding is quite an item. A suitable, easily changeable resistance to modify the tone of the 222 KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. [June1, thermic energy is made part of the circuit. A water resistance answers very well if a Mariotte’s bottle be provided to keep the water level, and if the one wire be fastened to a swivel ; the latter arrangement permits a quick and easy modification to ;)455 amps. In my work with the incubator a drum resistance coil with roller contact was used. The apparatus was placed into a dark room in which the faintest glow could be seen and thus the lower limit of temperature was probably 450° C., with the upper limit of C. 500° to 700°. The most satisfactory range for domeykite is about 600° C. AIMS OF THE INVESTIGATION. At the start the aim was not so much the mere production of domeykite crystals, as the demonstration that nickel and cobalt might replace copper in’the molecule without changing the symme- try, in other words to establish the isomorphous character of domeykite and mohawkite. This original scope became at once wider, when the results showed the ease with which domeykite was formed in good crystals. The action of arsenic upon iron, lead, silver, cobalt, nickel was included and equally satisfactory results were fondly hoped for. A still farther circle could be described by drawing in antimony since silver was known to unite with antimony as Ag,S,. The hopes were not realized. Under other conditions perhaps better results may be obtained, at least in somecases. I am referring here to the action in vacuo. Up to this time I have not tried the vacuum, so much other work is constantly crowding in. I will not pre-empt work in this line and shall gladly see any colleague step in to take up this undoubtedly highly interesting work. 1. ACTION OF ARSENIC VAPORS UPON COPPER IN THE INCUBATOR —DoMEYKITE. a. Coarse copper turnings were placed in the tube (C. Fig. 2) so that about three-fourths inch of free space were left between the cop- per and the asbestos plug P, and the contact wires were so placed that the evaporation of the arsenic was fairly rapid, whilst the tempera- ture of copper remained near the lower limit of say 500° C. Soon one saw shooting out from the copper very thin, brilliant leaves. The direction of growth was parallel with the tube’s axis. The growth keeps up until the entire free space is filled with the bright crystal aggregate. The latter looks much like sublimed arsenic, and that I 1903. ] KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. 2235 thought it to be until the analysis showed it to contain 72.9 per cent. of copper. The crystals even penetrated into the asbestos, and from this very extremity the material for the analysis was taken. This experiment was carried on from 8 a.M., January I1, 1900, for forty hours. Here was a phenomenon of molecular or ionic activity without parallel; at least to me extraordinary, for I had not seen any record of a similar observation. It is not difficult to understand the building up of crystals from a medium which con- tains the molecules in the liquid or gaseous state. But what I observed here implied a very different condition of things. Not - even the skyward growth of a tree, which somewhat resembles this stretching out of the domeykite toward the supply of arsenic, is comparable. For the cells draw their nourishment from the liquid sap and the gaseous air. The growing may happen from the root by pushing or by growing at the front. In the latter case the cop- per ions must be supposed to be going like the ions under the direc- tion of a current, but going in the solid condition, and this is the point at which the imagination recoils. Either alternative rests upon a push or a draw impulse. The present experiment would seem to point toward a push from the root as the cause, that is to say to a mobility of the copper arsenide molecule Cu,As. In Fig. 3 is represented one of the results of a later experiment, which gives support to the notion that the copper ions are moving and not the molecule CusAs. Here C is a piece of copper turning. On a slender stylus S sits the large domeykite crystal D (the tabular type, three millim. in diameter). The crystal is incomplete on one side. From it leads a second stylus S', and upon this another somewhat incomplete crystal of domeykite D has been growing. All the material for the crystals must have come through the stylus S. Instead of all the material, 1 should say more correctly all the copper. The stylus habit for the crystallization is very common ; Fig. 3 merely represents an unusually fine specimen of this habit. Looking at the phenomenon of molecular mobility in the solid state merely as a physico-chemical process, aside from crystalliza- tion, I can see an analogous occurrence in the so-called cementa- tion process of steel or case-hardening process. In this process a bar of soft iron is exposed to red heat in a packing of solid char- coal, and becomes gradually converted into carbid Fe,C to the very innermost parts. It would seem that the solid carbon ions become mobilized, passing from one group of iron ions to the next until 224 KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. [June1, chemical saturation has been reached. To my knowledge, how- ever, no experiments have been put on record which absolutely precluded the coaction of gasified carbon as CO; I mean that the experiments were not carried on in perfectly air-tight vessels. Yet, granted even that the solid carbon travels by exchange through a bar of iron, the phenomenon is not quite correlated to our problem. For if the two were similar then the arsensic would have to penetrate to the core of the copper chip without altering practically its original shape. But in the specimen Fig. 3 the cop- per chip C is perfectly bright metallic copper, even immediately under the stylus S. Furthermore all the other metals behaved toward arsenic vapors as iron toward carbon: the arsenic penetrates Fig. 4 and crystals do not shoot forth. Copper possesses, therefore, a unique tonic mobility. Since copper stands at the head as a con- ductor of both heat and electricity, may not this be due to that mobility of the ions ? 6. If acopper chip be placed into the incubator and both resist- ance and contact wires be so adjusted that very little arsenic vola- tilizes, and that the copper is just below glowing heat, that is dark in a perfectly dark room, then the domeykite crystals arise from the copper as very thin tabular individuals, often of perfect hex- agonal outline. Many of the crystals are only fractional (Fig. 4), and in this case look like bristles or spines, always at right angles to the surface, or if the latter be curved then the bristles will be in radial position. At first’a few scattered crystals will come out, always nearest to the supply of arsenic, but later the entire surface will become covered with bristles. Under these conditions large 1903.] KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. 225 and full-faced crystals were never obtained. The largest crystals of the tabular habitus 4-5 millim. with prismatic and pyramidal faces well developed, but striated, so that they did not serve for measurements, were grown in a twenty-four-hour experiment. The crystals are fast to the asbestos of the plug P. c. Experiment made January 14, 190. inch copper wire two and one-half inches long was wrapped at one end with asbestos cord so as to form a plug which would support the wire within the incubator in a central position, thus giving a chance for free growth in all directions. At the end of fourteen hours the wire had been modified as shown in Fig. 5. The result was unexpected, probably owing to the change of current in the 2arly morning, when the dynamo current had replaced the storage battery and the temperature had risen beyond the intended point. A piece of one-fourth Fig 5 It is, however, all the more instructive, although a failure of the intention. Exceptionally large and fine crystals were expected to form by the arrangement, hence the failure. Instead seven distinct zones appeared, each telling a different story. Zone 1st(a@). The end of the wire nearest to the asbestos plug and the arsenic and in the centre of the heated field is completely fused, showing a lead-gray color and dull compared to its neighbor. The end is deeply converted into arsenide and this has been fused. Zone 2d (6). Bright gray of the color of antimony, a jumble of crystal- line faces, but no crystals, has been partly fused. Zone 3d (c). A narrow strip of small but well-formed crystals, which belong to 226 KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF ORYSTALS. [June 1, thick tabular type, has not been fused. Zone 4th(@). A collar of bristling hexagonal plates, some with prismatic and pyramidal faces, but withal belonging to the thin type. This collar of crys- tals looks jet-black, the contrast with the bright gray both striking and beautiful. In different light the crystals always appear black, only in reflected light the color is gray. This zone marks the mini- mum of temperature at which combination of copper and arsenic takes place. Zone 5th(%). Is very narrow and dull gray; it reveals miniature crystals of the thin type. Zone 6th (7). Shows the beautiful pale red color of pure copper. Evidently arsenic vapors surrounded this part of the wire ; the temperature sufficed to let this arsenic combine with the oxygen of the surface, and thus give the latter the pure copper color, the peroxyd subliming. Next to this we find the wire with the usual red color due to a thin film of cuprous oxide. ad. A piece of quartz two inches long and just wide enough to go into my largest combustion tube, that is three-fourths inch, had a number of native copper crystals, pseudomorphous after quartz. This specimen was incubated. A growth of thick tabular domey- kite crystals formed all over the one side of the quartz. The arti- ficial nature is disguised by the quartz and the epidote in the asso- ciation to such an extent that any mineralogist would take it as a thoroughly natural production and hence a most unique specimen. 2. ACTION OF ARSENIC VAPORS UPON ALLOYS OF COPPER, NICKEL AND CoBALT—MOHAWKITE, KEWEENAWITE. An alloy was made of the three metals in about the same propor- tion in which they are found in the natural mohawkite, that is Cu = 74 Ni = 21 coq 5 100 The alloy was cast into a bar one-fourth inch wide, and parts of this bar were successively exposed in the incubator under differ- ent conditions of temperature, of rapid or slow evaporation of arsenic. First Experiment, December 18, 1900.—The alloy is converted into filings and these are put directly against the plug P in the 1903.] KOENIG—-ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. 227 manner as described under copper, but the filings only occupied the lower half of the tube. Upon the upper flat surface crystals form of the thick tabular type, the first pyramid prevailing over the basal plane. The crystals are coherent laterally, crustlike, over a loose aggregate of bright, light gray crystalline matter with indistinct faces. At the time I thought these two materials were alike. But recently, on re-examination, it is seen that whilst the crystals have become much tarnished, the gray material has not changed at all. The crystal layer was detached as much as possible from the loose substance, for the analysis, but it was not possible to do this thoroughly. The analysis of the crystals gave (0.216 gram) : Gui 66.37): 63) == 1. O05 27 (Ni + Co) = 2.43: 58.6 = 0.0415 PG EES Beiaio His = 0.4120 1.0930 99-70 Ratio: (CuNi Co) : As = 2.655 : 1.000 The analysis of the gray loose material gave (0.2325 gram): Cu = 44.30 :63 =0.7032 Ni = 12.54 } : 58.6 = 0.2822 0.9854 Co= 4.00 AS = 39-25 275 = ee 100.09 Ratio: (CuNi Co) : As = 1.88: 1.00 = 2:1 This then is typical Keweenawite, described recently by me (Amer. Journ. Sci., Vol. xiv, December, 1902) as found at the Mohawk mine. The non-tarnishing quality is inherent also in the natural mineral, as mentioned 7. c. The crystals on the other hand are mohawkite; the excess of arsenic making the ratio 2.655: 1 instead of 3: 1 is explained by the impossibility of separating the crystals from the adhering keweenawite. Experiment of December 24, 1901.—Instead of filings, two frag- ments of the alloy were exposed in the incubator for twenty-seven hours. Hexagonal plates, very thin, formed upon a crust of gray material strongly crystalline. The plates stood at right angles to the surface and could be brushed off with small camel’s-hair brush. 228 KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. [June 1, The analysis with 0.0867 gram of the absolutely pure crystals gave : Cu (605402 103) Fe —— rOoe f 1.1463 (Ni + Co) = 2.70 : 58.6 = 0,0461 ‘ AS ae Be as 0.3750 100.13 Ratio: (CuNi Co) : As = 3.06: 1.00 = mohawkite Both experiments show conclusively that nickel and cobalt will enter the crystals without changing the hexagonal symmetry; that domeykite and mohawkite are indeed isomorphous. At the same time the interesting fact is to be dealt with that nickel and cobalt do not pass into the arsenide with the copper in the ratio in which the alloy exposes them to the action of the arsenic vapors. That in fact the ionic mobility of nickel and cobalt is only approximately one-sixth that of the copper. For in the alloy the ratio of copper to nickel and cobalt is nearly 4 : 1, whilst in the crystals it is 25: 1. The highest percentage of Ni + Co furnished for mohawkite was 4.51, but the analysis was otherwise unsatisfactory. 3. ACTION OF ARSENIC VAPORS UPON NICKEL. Two cakes of nickel were exposed in the incubator for twenty- four hours. No crystals could be obtained, not even of the most imperfect type. A brittle material formed as a thin crust of a dull gray color. It was not analyzed. The action upon cobalt was similar. The ionic mobility of these metals under these conditions seems to be near zero. We may infer that in the previous experi- ments Ni and Co were moved by infection from the copper’s ionic vigor. 4. ACTKON oF ARSENIC VAPORS UPON AN ALLOY OF COPPER WITH SILVER—ARGENTODOMEYKITE. The metals were melted together in the proportion 9:1. The alloy was cast into a bar and fragments of this were exposed in the incubator. Experiment of January 22, 23, 1901.—The material for action is a solid piece of the bar about 15 x 25 millimeters. The crystals grew out of this alloy towards the arsenic as rapidly as out of pure cop- per. They are of the tabular variety, medium thickness. The 1903.| KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. 229 pyramidal faces are hollow (see Dr. Wright’s Fig. 3). The dark gray crystals are surrounded at the base by a fringe of sz/ver- white crystals of the thin plate type. It happened that the exposure began about 9 A.M. ona Saturday morning. At.6 P.M. the crop of crystals had developed finely, but I hoped that they would become extra large by longer exposure. On Sunday I was prevented from going to the laboratory, and on my arrival on Monday I found the incubator barely warm to the touch. The storage battery had run down over Sunday, and to this accident we owe this beautiful and interesting preparation which I now hold in my hand. On seeing the silver-white crystals I thought, first thing, that I was beholding a silver arsenide, but the analysis proved my judgment to have been in error. The composition is Cui== 80.49 91/63, 5 1.2773 Ag == 2:60):3107.6'—= 0.0242 t #3085 As sl Olosi75) 0.2257 Hence the ratio: (CwAg): : As = '5.77.4 1 == 62 This substance then is argentoalgodonite. The dark gray crystals have the composition : Cu = 70.40 Ap .2.20 (By difference) As = 27.30 100,00 This is the ratio: (CuAe)s As == 3705 or what I will name argentodomeykite, which we shall, sooner or later, find undoubtedly as a natural mineral. But how about the algodonite? In no other experiment was it observed. Since the form of the crystals is identical with the argentodomeykite, I ven- ture to assert that the algodonite is pseudomorphous after the domeykite, and owes its existence to a retrogressive process in this way: when the temperature was slowly going down (with the cur- rent from the battery) the arsenical atmosphere became more and more rarefied with the greed of the metallic copper still active. Hence the copper began to draw the arsenic from the nearest 230 KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. [June1, domeykite crystals and the latter became algodonite. Since the algodonite is only found at the base, near the copper, the explanation seems to me plausible enough. Experiment of January 5, 6, 7901.—A piece of silver was ; exposed in the incubator. It was supposed to be quite pure; but, as will be ‘seen from the analysis, it contained several per cent. of copper. For several hours no action appeared to take place, behavior being simi- lar to nickel. Then the edges began to round and towards even- ing the piece of alloy went into complete fusion at a temperature certainly not above 450°C. Seen by candle-light, through the glass tube, the material had the appearance of a large drop of mercury, being seemingly very mobile. The following morning (with the weaker current) it was found solidified, but nosign of crystals. The substance broke readily under the hammer; the fracture shows cleavage faces.and a light gray color. The analysis gave (0.4795 gram): Atoms. Aoi 7.22 0.688 ee Gee 763 ic—«, Te 0.075 ie (Difference) As = 20.96 0.273 100.00 Ratio: (AgCu) : As = 2.79: 1.00 There is, therefore, a molecule Ag;As with a tendency, how- ever, to pass into Ag,As; some of the latter is shown in the ratio %, instead of 3, which corresponds exactly to 4 Ag,As + Ag,As. Experiment of January 21, 1901.—Piece of alloy (1 copper, 1 silver) exposed twenty-one hours. A beautiful growth of thick tabular crystals, which sit up on a gray crystalline layer, under which appears a thin zone, silver-white in color, 1/2 millimeters thick ; then comes copper-red. The growth is entirely in the axis of the piece and tube towards the arsenic. The analysis of the crystals gave: Cu 62'62 0.9844 | Ag = satan oateaeip a AS = 26.57 0.3569 100.00 Ratio: (CuAg) : As = 3.05 : 1.00 1903.] KOENIG—-ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. 23] The silver-white zone under the crystals demonstrates to the eye the difference in the ionic mobility of copper and silver. One sees how the copper is drawn away from the silver. It would be of in- terest to know whether the outermost crystals carry less silver than those nearest the metallic base, but as this gain of knowledge would also involve a destruction of the specimen I abstained, satisfied with the average result as exhibited in the above analysis. Lxperiment of February 24, 1901.—An alloy of 1 copper with 1 silver was made and a piece weighing about 5 grams was exposed in the incubator for fourteen hours (overnight). The front and upper sur- face of the ingot was found covered with crystals. They are not good, but they show distinctly the habitus of the thick tabular domeykite. There is no tendency to rise ; the silver is evidently as little mobile as the nickel and acts depressingly upon the activity of the copper. The crystals are laterally grown together, forming a strongly coher- ing crust, which cracks off with the hammer blow. Analysis of the crust gave (0.3057 gram) : Atoms. Cr .87 = 0,88 Ag = oot — oa t nowt (By difference) As = 29,12 = 0.388 100.00 Ratio: (CuAg) : As = 2.65 : 1.00 This corresponds to a mixture of 5 (CuAg),As with 3 (CuAg),As. The tendency is always rather for the building up of Cu,As than of Cu,. Experiment of February 28, rg0r.—A piece of alloy 1 Cu + 1 Ag exposed in incubator for two days and nights at very low temper- ature. The end reaching towards the arsenic showed a fused, bluish-gray, apparently homogeneous material. At the opposite end are small crystals with bright faces. Habitus: steep hexago- nat pyramid with striated sides, capped by the normal or funda- mental pyramid.. Analysis with 0.3412 gram gave: Atoms. Cu = 4094 — 0,650 -98 4 Ag = 36.62 — 0.339 t es (By difference) As = 22.44 = 0.2992 100-00 Ratio: (CuAg) : As = 3.3: 1.00 PROC, AMER. PHILOS. 80C. XLII. 173. P. PRINTED AUG. 7, 1903. 232 KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS, [June1, This is the single instance in which the metal exceeds the 3 ratio, if we exclude the instance of the algodonite. I venture to explain it by a similar process of retrogression, or, perhaps, better, by ingression of the still very mobile metal ions into the molecule # after the arsenic vapor had become too rarefied for addition from the outside, as the temperature was sinking—z.e., the current going down. All the experiments with the copperssilver alloy prove: 1. Silver and copper together replace one another isomorphously in the molecule ?. 2. The representation is 63 Cu by 107.6 Ag— z.e., divalent copper with monovalent silver. 3. There isa molecule, Ag,As, whose melting-point is below the temperature of forma- tion ; hence not crystallizable in the incubator. 4. Higher temper- ature tends to forming Ag,As, same as Cu,As, 5. THE ACTION OF ARSENIC VAPORS UPON AN ALLOY OF COPPER AND ANTIMONY—STIBIODOMEYKITE, If copper and antimony were melted together in such proportion as Cu,Sb, which corresponds nearly to copper 3 parts, antimony 1 part, in percentage Cu = 75.6, Sb = 24.4, and such an alloy were to be exposed at the proper temperature to the arsenic vapors, one might be justified in supposing that by simple addition of one atom of As we would get Cu,Sb + As = 2 Cu,(SbAs) if there were a tendency in the elements to form such a combina- tion; or if the molecule Cu,Sb(Cu = 66 Sb = 34) were exposed, then one As might couple together two molecules of Cu,Sb. Experiment of February 1, 2, 3, 1901.—The alloy Cu,Sb was exposed for three days and nights at very low temperature. In the absolutely dark room the wire coil showed dull redness. Very large tabular crystals form, drawn in the axis of the tube forward the arsenic. The crystals have the color and habitus of domey- kite. Their composition is: Cu= 69.34 (0.1422 gram) Sb= _ 1.26 (By difference) As — 29.40 100.00 Ratio: Cu: CASSb) = 2.76): 1.00 1903.] KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. 233 The analysis reveals two points: 1. Arsenic does not add itself to a ready-formed molecule Cu,Sb. The same preferential attrac- tion towards copper comes into play as in the case of the metallic constituents of copper alldys. The ionic mobility of antimony is low; at any rate, at the low temperature in use during this experiment. 2. The ratio indicates that antimony is probably merely mechanically carried along so long as copper is at hand for the arsenic; for if antimony be considered out of the mole- cule the ratio will be Cu: As= 2.82: 1.00. But even this is unsatisfactory for a crystallized body with no mechanical admix- ture likely, for the crystals were all separate and large enough to be fully scrutinized. For more light I went to examine into the material directly under and back of the large crystals. This material is loose, in small loose grains of angular habitus, not scaly at all, as the large crys- tals. Habitus quite unlike that of the domeykite ; color darker gray. The analysis of this material (0.0570 gram) gives: CuO = 0.0393 Chesed Awe) 03 0 08800 Sb,S, = 0.0028 Sb 92/53 2 122.0028, As,S, = 0.0480 AS'== 401665"): 175 0.5421 t ar 99.61 Ratio: Cal CASSb)) — Ssor57 0 —-3 Ooi. 2 As the copper becomes scarce, the arsenic being still plentiful, this new 3/2 molecule forms. In spite of the superabundance of antimony, the selection of copper continues. With nickel we saw in similar conditions the forming of 2/1 molecule. The affinity for antimony is quite low, and yet it is probably the influence of the Jatter through which 3/2 and not 2/1 are brought into being. The excess of arsenic in the large crystals accounts for itself by the presence of this 3/2 molecule under the influence of antimony. Lxperiment of February 4, rgoz.—The same alloy Cu,Sb was ex- posed for thirty-six hours at a higher temperature, about 550° C. Two products were obtained. Forward, towards the arsenic, a lus- trous gray mass, apparently of fused crystals. The outermost part of this mass was broken off, revealing a hollow center, an inner layer of dark-gray mass, an outer layer of lighter color. Could not separate the two. Let this be material (a). The second substance 234 KOENIG—ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF CRYSTALS. [June1, is composed of crystals of the domeykite habitus, thin and thick tabular ; all but very few show rounded edges—that is, incipient fusion. 2 Calculated according to scheme given in Winkeltabellen, von V. Gold- schmidt, 240 WRIGHT—CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PROPERTIES. [June1, scope lighted by auto-colimation the basal plane frequently appears covered with three systems of fine lines, cutting one another at an angle of 60° and running parallel to the outer edges of the crystal. The strize are usually so fine that they are invisible to the naked eye and have no effect on the sharp reflexion signal from the face.’ 2. The form a, «© (1120) is rare, occurring but once on one crys- tal, and then somewhat rounded. From the correct position of the reflexion signal, however, the character of the zone and relations to the other faces, the form was considered probable. Its position on the crystal is given in Fig. 4. 3. The form 4 (10To), «© o was observed on ten of the twelve measured crystals, often perfectly even and flat, at times, however, striated parallel to the basal edge—a phenomenon especially notice- able on the hollow skeleton-like crystals (Fig. 3), and due probably to the imperfect formation of the face. 1903.] WRIGHT—CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PROPERTIES. 241 The character of the three pyramidal faces z, v, f, is uniform and unvaried. Long narrow faces exhiting occasionally fine strize parallel to the basal edge, particularly on the hollow crystals. The form z, 2 o (2073) appeared on three of the measured crys- tals, v, 10 (1071) on ten, and the form 4, 20 (2021) on ten and on one crystal as the only pyramid (Fig. 5). The form x, 4 (1172), like a, «© 0, occurred but once and on | the same crystal with the latter, as a small rounded face (Fig. 4). Its reflexion signal was approximately in its correct position. The form is considered probable. Fig. 1 gives a gnomonic projection of all the observed forms on domeykite. Types of Crystal Habit.—Fig. 2 (crystal No 1, dimensions 1.2 < 1.2 X 0.3 mm.) illustrates the first and most common type of domeykite crystals. Flat, thin tabular cystals with the forms 0, © 0, Io, 20, the last three as narrow, sharp faces fre- quently striated horizontally. These artificial crystals are occa- 242 WRIGHT— CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PROPERTIES. [June 1, sionally hollow and resemble then Fig. 3 (crystal No. 8, 1.1 X 1.0 Ja. SP ‘ -1903.] PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 301 observed, showed true parthenogenesis, and Leuckart (1857) _ expressed the same opinion for Daphnia. In 1858 males of Asus were discovered and were examined by v. Siebold and he thus learned that some broods can go on developing parthenogenetically, like the Lepidoptera (Thelytoky), while other broods have both sexes present. For several years he watched a small pool near Munich, and at one time with great care removed every individual and found no males in 5796 individuals. In pools where both sexes occurred the proportion of males and females was very variable, and y. Siebold was led to believe that in these cases the males are dis- appearing, since from examinations in different years he found a constantly increasing proportion of females. v. Siebold foresaw the objection that males might have been present previous to the examination of the pools, and consequently ‘examined the male genital organs and spermatozoa and then the ovaries and their development. He never succeeded in finding any spermatozoa in the female genital organs. The structure of the ovum made this observation decisive since he found a hard egg- _ shell formed in the uterus and no micropyle, so that if fertilization takes place it must be before the egg is laid. Brauer (1872) found that fertilized eggs of Afus produced males. Several other groups of Crustacea show a similar method of development, but do not differ toany extent from 4fus. Partheno- _ genesis has been observed in the Phyllopods, Ostracods and Cope- pods, but in none of the Malacostraca. In Artemia salina, Joly (1840) found no males in 3000 individ- uals examined and explained this as due to hermaphroditism, but Gerstacker (1867) and especially v. Siebold (1871) established this as a case of true parthenogenesis. In A. Milhauseniz, Fischer v. Waldheim (1834), Rathke (1836) and Fischer (in Midden- dorf’s Reise, Zoologie) found that males are rare, and the same is. true for Limnadia Hermanit, both cases being explained like that of A. salina. ‘The maturation of the parthenogenetic egg of 4. salina (Brauer, 1893) is discussed in another place. A case worthy of note is that of Zeptodora hyalina, a Daphnid, in which the winter eggs follow the usual plan of Crustacean devel- opment and form a Nauplius stage, while the summer eggs develop directly into an adult form with all limbs present. This is one of the striking cases which indicate that parthenogenesis is acquired ap v bi, a7) 302 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [0ct.16, _ where it is desirable to produce individuals quickly, since here the larval stages are omitted. Unisexual and bisexual generations alternate with each other in various ways in Crustacea and the mode of the alternation is remarkably related to their environment, as has been shown by Weismann. According to whether the causes of destruction visit a colony once or several times during the year we find forms which have one or several cycles of parthenogenetic and bisexual genera- ~ tions, and finally species are known which show no alternation. These are designated as monocyclical, polycyclical and acyclical respectively. TREMATODES. The development of the cercaria and redia stages of Disto mum has been the subject of much discussion for a long time. — Leuckart, in his Parastten des Menschen, gives an historical account of our knowledge of the development of these forms up to the date of its issue (1879). That there is a development with- out fertilization is admitted on all sides, but the question as to whether the vedig develop from true germ cells is still a peint of dispute. Leuckart (1882) and Schwarz (1886) consider this as a true case of pedogenesis, the internally developing redie being looked on as arising viviparously from cells of the germinal epi- thelium. On the other hand, Wagener (1857) and Biehringer (1885) maintain that they arise from cells of the body wall and are therefore not produced sexually but by budding. Korschelt and Heider, in their Zext-Book of Embryology (1890), do not consider this difference of great significance. ‘‘*This difference does not seem to us to be important, for we have already seen that the parietal cells and the germ cells are embryologically of the same origin. In a portion of the cells of the body wall even, a differen- tiation into separate histological elements appears not to have taken place, and for this reason they may continue to develop in the same way as the real germ cells. In harmony with this view is” the statement of Thomas,* who derives the rediz from both the germ cells and the cells of the body wall; if the supply of the former were exhausted, then the latter might take their place.”’ 1]J. Bd., p. 488 and following pages. ? Page 183, Vol. I, English Translation. 5’ Thomas (1883). ° PT 4 a] ¢ 7 b* i atm — 4 ‘ ¥ ) 1903.] PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 808 If such an explanation be the true one, then it would appear that the difference between sexual and asexual reproduction is not so great as is generally supposed. ROTIFERS. The phenomena of development are very complicated in the Rotifers. In most cases the males differ from the females in being smaller and in the absence of an alimentary canal. The eggs are of two kinds, the same difference being seen here be- tween summer and winter eggs as in Aphids. Cohn (1856-58) first worked out the development of this group and found that the winter eggs are fertilized, while the summer eggs are not. Huxley (1857) looked on these summer eggs as sexless buds, but the work of Joliet (1883), Plate (1884-85) and Maupas (1889-90) established this as true parthenogenesis. Here, asin Aphids and Daphnids, the males appear at the beginning of an unfavorable period in the life cycle. Under the subject of the Maturation of Parthenogenetic Eggs the work on Rotifers is mentioned, and the results there recorded are the most interesting features in connection with the phenomenon of parthenogenesis in the group. The principal point of interest is that the male and female eggs behave differently during their maturation, although eggs of both sexes have the power of develop- ment without fertilization. Lauterborn (1898) found that the Rotifers could be classified into three groups as follows: (1) Species found all the year around ; (2) Species found in summer, and (3) Species found in winter. In the summer and winter species the fertilized and yolk-laden eggs appear after-a long series of parthenogenetic generations ; they are monocyclic. In the species found during all seasons of the year the appearance of the males and the consequent fertilized eggs may occur twice or more times during the year; they are polycyclic. Probably some species are acyclic; that is parthenogenetic forms can be produced indefinitely and ‘‘ winter’’ eggs are unknown. The determination of the appearance of males in Rotifers has been variously explained, the amounts of heat (Maupas) and nutrition (Nussbaum) being often considered as the causes. Lauterborn con- cludes that such external causes do not fully explain this but that some internal factor is the principal cause. The cyclic appearance 3804 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [0ct. 16, of fertilized eggs recalls the periodic ’occurrence of conjugation among protozoa, and according to Wesenberg-Lund (1898) and Lauterborn (1898) senility is an important factor in determining the length of the cycle. That lack of nutrition and the appearance of a senile condition are intimately connected seems very probable, if we may be permitted to reason from analogy on work done on Paramecium caudatum. Calkins, in a recent paper,’ records that he has been able to raise Paramcecia for six hundred and sixty-five generations by fission, and they were rejuvenated five successive times by change of food rather than by conjugation, or as he expresses it ‘‘ parthenogenetically.”’ VERTEBRATES. The question as to whether there is a parthenogenetic develop- ment among any of the Vertebrates is one which has been much discussed. If there are any cases at all they are cases of partial par- thenogenesis, since in no case is it claimed that development goes farther than the first few cleavage stages. Bonnet (1899) discusses at some length the evidence on this subject, and since he has so well reviewed the literature it is not necessary to do more here than state the general conclusions to be reached from a survey of what has been reported. Eggs of Amphioxus lanceolatus (van der Stricht, 1895) show a tendency to divide if not fertilized. This is not pronounced. Cleavage of unfertilized eggs in the ovary are reported among the Gadide by Burnett and Agassiz (cited by Oellacher, 1869), for the Sturgeon by Bellonci (1885), and for the Trout by Oellacher (1872). Oellacher attributed this to the retention of the eggs for too long a time. For the Frog and other Amphibia many. investigators have claimed parthenogenetic cleavage, since it frequently happens that eggs which pass from the female when she is not copulating with a male show cleavages, but these are generally irregular. Pfliiger (1882) was able to show rather conclusively that such cases are due to fertilization of these eggs by spermatozoa in the water which are nearly dead, and consequently the development is short and irregu- ular. Kulagur (1895) and Bataillon (1900) did some experiments 1 Calkins, Gary N., 1902, “Studies on the Life History of Protozoa,” III. The Six Hundred and Twentieth Generation of Paramcecium caudatum, zo/. Bull,, III, No. 5, pp. 192-205. 4 ; 4 4 i ; tae Pee oe aaa — & 1903.] PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 805 on artificial parthenogenesis, but these must not be considered as arguing for a true natural parthenogenesis. Among Reptiles, Strahl (1892) reports irregular parthenogenetic cleavages. In the Birds, the evidence for a parthenogenetic development is perhaps the strongest of that for any vertebrates. It frequently happens that a blastoderm is formed on an egg which is appa-. rently not fertilized. Cases of this kind are found in the Chick (Coste, 1859; Oellacher, 1869 ; Koelliker, 1879, and others), in the Turtle Dove (Motta Maja, 1877; cited by Duval, 1884), and for several other birds (Duval, 1884). Balfour (1880) pointed out that care must be exercised in passing judgment on these cases, since it is known that spermatozoa can live for a considerable time in the female and that possibly these are really cases of fertilized eggs. ‘This is entirely upheld by the later work of Lau (1895) and Barfurth (1895), who show that eggs from virgin hens do not show cleavage in thé same way as do those from hens which have copu- lated with a cock even a considerable time before. In eggs from virgin hens the blastomeres do not have a cellular character, since all but a few lack nuclei, and when nuclei are present they do not divide mitotically. The blastoderm lacks all power of assimilation, the blastomeres are irregular and the whole shows no thickening at the posteriorend. There is never a segmentation cavity. Lauand Barfurth looked on such cases as due to a physico-chemical process, caused partly by evaporation and partly by coagulation of the pro- toplasm. Cases in which the female has previously copulated would then appear to be similar to those of the frog, in which there is a fertilization accomplished by a partially devitalized male cell. Even in Mammals, cases are recorded of the cleavage of the egg while still in the Graffian follicle. Janosik (1896) reports several cases (Rabbit) in which a cleavage has taken place, asemblance of a cleavage cavity formed and the whole mass has broken away from the membrana pellucida as in normal development ; but the phe- nomenon is so evidently connected with disintegration from the very beginning that it must not be considered as parthenogenesis. The question as to whether Dermoid cysts are due to the par- thenogenetic development of an egg has received a great deal of attention, and the exceptional case reported by Répin (cited by Duval, 1895) would point strongly to such an explanation as the true one. This cyst had four limbs and terminated in a kind of 306 PHILLIPS—-A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [0ct. 16, head composed of bones arranged in a cube and surmounted by three teeth. The bones of the feet and hands were perfectly rec- ognizable. There was no alimentary canal in the body, but beside it was a tube which histologically resembled an intestine. It would appear then that these phenomena are not true partheno- genesis, unless it be that we consider that as the explanation of the cysts. The fact that the cleavages do not follow the regular plan of fertilized eggs would not of itself bar these cases as being classed as a true development from an unfertilized egg, since in other cases, where there is undoubtedly a parthenogenetic development, the method of growth differs from that of the fertilized egg of the same species, ¢.g., Leptodora. Neither must we bar these cases because the development goes but a short distance, since the life of an individual must be considered as beginning with the unsegmented egg, and if that egg shows a power of development without ferti- lization, that phenomenon is as truly parthenogenesis as if an adult animal resulted. However, since in these casés we find the segmentation of the egg to be more in the nature of a physico- chemical change than a true cleavage, we must consider it as entirely different, and we must, of course, bar out all cases in which the proper amount of care has not been taken in proving that fertilization has not been aftected bya half-dead spermatozoon. ARACHNIDS. But one well authenticated case is known to exist in Spiders (Campbell, 1883). Parthenogenesis in this group has recently been discussed by Montgomery (1903), and it is not necessary to repeat his discussion since it has been done so recently. In many other animals there is a marked tendency for the mature egg to go on dividing if fertilization does not take place. This is often observed in Echinoderms, some Annelids and Molluscs. Such eggs never develop beyond a very early stage, and only a very small proportion of eggs show this cleavage. A point worthy of note is that these very forms are the ones which have yielded the best results in work done in Artificial Parthenogenesis, and the explanation which seems to follow from this is that such eggs normally require a very small amount of stimulus from the male cell, and the addition of some chemical to the water is enough to take the place of the male stimulus. In fact the results of artificial 1903.] PHILLIPS—-A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 307 parthenogenesis differ from what is normally found only in the greater proportion of parthenogenetic eggs. THE MATURATION OF PARTHENOGENETIC EGGS. The main point of interest in parthenogenesis is perhaps that of the maturation of the parthenogenetic eggs, cn account of its gen- eral bearing on the theory of fertilization and on account of its support of the theory of the individuality of chromosomes. Minot (1877), in an article on the theoretical meaning of matu- - ration, suggests that parthenogenesis may be due to failure to form polar bodies, and since the entire mass of chromatin remained in the egg it would be hermaphrodite and capable of development without the addition of any chromatin from the male cell. Balfour (1880) follows out the same line of thought in suggesting that the function of forming polar bodies has been acquired by most ova to prevent parthenogenesis, and van Beneden (1883) held a nearly similar view. Weismann (1886) found that one polar body is given off in the case of Polyphemus (Daphnid), and he later determined the same thing for parthenogenetic Ostracodes and Rotifers.* Blochmann (1888) found in Aphids that one polar body is given off in the case of eggs which develop parthenogenetically, while two are produced in eggs which require fertilization. Weismann was thus led to the view that the second polar body is of special significance in par- thenogenesis. In insects (Blochmann and others) the polar bodies are not thrown out of the egg as in most other animals, but the chromatin masses remain embedded in a vesicle in the proto- plasm of the egg, near the periphery, and are called ‘polar nuclei.’’ Boveri (1887) found in Ascaris megalocephala that the second polar body might remain in the egg (as is normally the case in insects) and give rise to a nucleus indistinguishable from the pro- nuclei. He, therefore, suggested that parthenogenesis might be due to the retention of the second polar body in the egg and its use as a male pro-nucleus.? ‘‘The second polar body would thus, in a certain sense, assume the rdéle of the spermatozoon, and it might 1 Compare Lenssen (1899), Erlanger u. Lauterborn (1897) and Mrazek (1897). 2 Boveri (1887), p. 73. 308 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. /[Oct. 16, not without reason be said: Parthenogenesis is the result of fer- tilization by the second polar body.’’ This conclusion was in part confirmed by Brauer (1893) on the parthenogenetic egg of Artemia salina. ‘There are two types of maturation in parthenogenetic eggs occurring in the same animal, one in accordance with the idea of Boveri and the other not irre- concilable with it. Fora brief description of the two methods in Artemia the statement of Wilson ' is quoted : Jn both modes typical tetrads are formed in the germ-nucleus to the number of eighty-four. In the first and more frequent case but one polar body is formed, which removes eighty-four dyads, . leaving eighty-four in the egg. There may be an abortive attempt to form a second polar spindle but no division results, and the eighty-four dyads give rise to a reticular cleavage-nucleus. From this arise eight-four thread-like chromosomes and ¢he same number appears in later cleavage stages. S Se “Tt is the second and rare mode that realizes Boveri’s concep- tion. Both polar bodies are formed, the first removing eighty-four _ dyads and leaving the same number in the egg. In the formation of the second, the eighty-four dyads are halved to form two daugh- ter groups, each containing eighty-four single chromosomes. oth these groups remain in the egg and each gives rise to a single reticu- lar nucleus, as described by Boveri in Ascaris. These two nuclei place themselves side by side in the cleavage figure, and give rise each to eighty-four chromosomes, precisely like two germ-nuclet in ordinary fertilization. The one hundred and sixty-eight chromosomes split lengthwise and are distributed in the usual manner, aud reappear in the same number in later stages. In other words, the second polar body here plays the part of a sperm-nucleus precisely as maintained by Boveri. ‘*Tn all individuals arising from eggs of the first type, there- fore, the somatic number of chromosomes is eighty-four; in all those arising from eggs of the second type, it is one hundred and sixty-eight. This difference is clearly due to the fact that in the latter case the chromosomes are single and univalent, while in the former they are bivalent (actually arising from dyads or double chromosomes). ‘The remarkable feature, on which too much em- phasis cannot be laid, is that the numerical difference should 1 Wilson, Zhe Cell in Development and Inheritance, pp. 281-284. 1908.1 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 809 persist despite the fact that the mass and, as far as we can see, the quality of the chromatin is the same in both cases.’’ Blochmann (1889) studied the maturation of drone and worker eggs in Afis meliifica with the following results: The first polar nucleus is given off normally and remains undivided, but the second polar nucleus often appears to divide. The fact that these three nuclei are not, as in some cases, due to a division of the first polar nucleus is proven by the position of this nucleus, which is always found just under the surface of the egg and separated by some dis- tance from the other two. The female pro-nucleus soon becomes vesicular in form and goes to the axis of the egg, where it forms 9 spindle and gives rise to the blastoderm cells. The polar nuclei change as in Musca vomitoria, but do not become vesicular in form, approach one another and are enclosed by a rather large vacuole of the superficial protoplasm, which is free from yolk. In this vacuole they break up into fine chromatin granules, which become. scattered through the whole cavity of the vacuole. We may suppose that the contents are later removed from the egg. In fertilized eggs the ovarian nucleus undergoes the same divisions as the unfertilized. Platner (1887) also found two polar nuclei in Lzfaris dispar, a parthenogenetic Lepidoptera. These two cases, the first two recorded, are not in accord with the previous views of Weis- mann, and in 1891 he sought to explain these cases as follows: ** Das Kernplasma einzelner Eier einer Art das Vermégen des Wachs- thums in grésserern Masse als du Majoritat derselben besitze, oder, im Falle der Biene, jedes Ei besitze de Fahigeit, sein auf die Halfte reducirtes Kernplasma, wenn es nicht durch Befruchtung wieder auf das Normalmass gebracht wird, durch Wachsthum wieder auf die doppelte Masse zu bringen.’’ Petrunkewitsch (1901), studying Afzs, found that eggs laid by the queen in drone cells never showed any signs of having been fertilized. As in a fertilized ovum the first polar nucleus is separa- ted by an equatorial division, in the second maturation there is a reduction of chromosomes to one-half. Similarly the first polar nucleus always divides with a reduction and the peripheral half is liberated and perishes. The restoration of the number of chro- mosomes in non-fertilized eggs probably occurs by a longitudinal splitting of the chromosomes, but with a suppression of the corre- sponding division into two daughter nuclei. The central half of 310 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [Oct. 16, the first polar nucleus conjugates regularly with the second polar nucleus and forms a ‘‘ Richtungscopulationkern,’’ with the nor- mal number of chromosomes. ‘This nucleus in the drone egg gives rise by three divisions to eight cells with double nuclei. In ferti- lized ova and in drone eggs laid by fertile workers this nucleus forms a spindle, which either simply disappears or gives rise to a number of nuclei, one to four; but these always show disruption phenomena in the chromosomes and ultimately disappear. In a later paper the same author (Petrunkewitsch, 1902) asserts that the products of the Richtungscopulationkern ultimately become the testes of the adult drone. Paulcke (1899) found that in drone eggs there are four groups of chromosomes. Of these two seem to be the result of division of the first polar nucleus, one of the second polar nucleus and the fourth the egg nucleus. In twelve eggs examined from worker cells, fifteen minutes after they were laid, eight show sperm nuclei with their radiating systems. In eight hundred drone eggs exam- ined no sperm nuclei were seen, but in three cases dark corpuscles were observed, which might have been sperm nuclei. In fertile worker eggs there were no indications of male pvro-nuclei. Mrazek (1897) and Erlanger und Lauterborn (1897, studied the maturation of the eggs of Asplanchna, a Rotifer. They find in this genus three kinds of eggs: (1) Parthenogenetic male eggs; (2) parthenogenetic female eggs, and (3) female eggs which require fertilization. When the female eggs requiring fertilization begin to develop, all other eggs begin to show cleavages of a degenera- tive nature, not like the normal cleavage, probably due to lack of nutrition (Mrazek). The parthenogenetic female eggs give off one polar body which never divides, while the parthenogenetic male eggs give off /wo polar bodies, the first of which normally divides. The female eggs requiring fertilization act like the parthenogenetic male eggs. In the parthenogenetic male eggs there is no indica- tion of a union of the second polar body with the egg. The num- ber of chromosomes is not determined (Erlanger und Lauterborn).’ Riickert (1895) found that in Cyclops sternuus the second matura- tion division cuts off a polar nucleus which remains in the egg, in a direction tangential to the second division figure. It does not . 1See also Lenssen, 1899, ‘* Contribution & l’Etude du developpement et de la maturation des ceufs chez 7? Hydatina sexta,” Cellule, xiv, pp. 421-51, 2 pl. - &s a a — 1903. ] PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENKSIS. dll form the primordial germinal cells. The first’ maturation division gives off a true polar body. Causes of Parthenogenesis.—When we consider the difference in behavior of various parthenogenetic eggs during maturation and the differences in sex relations exhibited by the various groups, together with the wide range of the scattered cases where such development occurs, it is evident that parthenogenesis has had a separate origin in many places in the animal scale. All that is necessary in the maturation of a parthenogenetic egg is that the normal number of chromosomes shall be retained, and this may be brought about by the retention of the second polar body, fertilization by the second polar body or perhaps by the division of the chromosomes without the corresponding cell division. In seeking for a cause for the appearance of parthenogenesis in a group of animals, it must be borne in mind that we are dealing with a phenomenon that to all practical purposes is like asexual reproduc- tion, in that the species is not dependent on the union of the two sexes for the propagation of all the individuals of the species and that the causes for the appearance of asexual and parthenogenetic reproduction are practically identical, it being merely a question as to which method of agamic reproduction is most readily acquired by a given form when the necessity for such a thing arises. And, too, it is probable that the cause is not the same in all cases, since the environments and habits of the various forms possessing this power are so varied. In the first place, parthenogenesis is generally associated with and probably caused by the necessity of the appearance of a great many individuals suddenly at a certain period of the year or of the life cycle. A large part of the forms exhibiting this method of reproduction are small short-lived animals which are represented during the winter or some adverse time in the life cycle by a very few individuals and, in order that the species may survive, are compelled to acquire some method of rapid agamic reproduction. In the case of the Aphids the necessity is for females and we find thelytoky evolved ; in the case of the Honey Bee the necessity is for males, so that the queens may not go unfertilized, and we find arrenotoky. The question of economy enters very largely into the problem and is, in fact, almost identical with the preceding cause. In many 312 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. [Oct. 16, cases males are exceedingly rare at all'times or except at certain seasons, and it is manifestly to the advantage of the species if it is able to survive without the presence of any but propagating individuals. ‘Thus in the case of the bee, previously mentioned, it would be detrimental to the species to have countless drones feed- ing on the hive supplies during the winter; but for the purpose of increasing the hereditary influence, it is beneficial to the race to feed these males for a brief period when food is plentiful, in order that the fertilization may bring about the results known to come in all cases from such a union. In still other cases the very habits of the animal make the chance of the occurrence of a sexual union too small, and in consequence the females have acquired the agamic methods of reproduction. The case of Cercaria offers a good example of this. If we accept the conclusions of Thomas, we see that here we get a transition from unisexual to asexual reproduction; and. while these two processes are usually widely separated, yet the same difficulty of a sexual union may be looked upon as the probable cause of either phenomenon. Determination of Sex.—From what has gone before we see that the problem of sex determination is very closely related to that of parthenogenesis, since parthenogenetic eggs so frequently show such peculiar sex relations. In some groups unfertilized eggs produce only males (arrenotoky), in others only females (thelytoky), while in some both sexes are produced (amphoterotoky). ‘Taking as an example the Honey Bee, we know that the male eggs are not fertil- ized and the female eggs are ; and reasoning from this, it seems true that the act of fertilization is the one determining factor, since no one has yet been able to find any other fundamental point of difference. As was shown under another heading, other explana- tions, such as differences in food or size of cell, have been advanced, but these have already been answered. Such work as that of Mrs. Treat (1873) on Caterpillars, of Born (1881) and Yung (1881) on Amphibia, and of Nussbaum (1897) on Rotifers would seem to indicate that lack of nourishment favors the production of males; but until we have more evidence we are perfectly justified in explaining these cases as simply survivals of the more fit sex under trying conditions, and cannot use them as arguing for theories like those of Dickel. In fact Cuénot (1899) did not succeed in verify- ing the results of Mrs. Treat, for he found that the proportions of , a 4. “aes 4 ; es Br 1903.] PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 813 males and females remained approximately the same under all food conditions, and concluded that sex is determined in the ovary in insects. There have recently appeared two papers of interest in this con- nection as offering suggestions for future work. Beard (1902) and v. Lenhossek (1903) conclude, on theoretical grounds, that sex is determined in the ovary of the mother and that there are in all cases two kinds of eggs, male and female, fundamentally differing from one another. Cases where such a state of affairs is known to exist are Phylloxera, Dinophilus, some Rotifers and _pos- sibly in Raza batts (Beard, 1902). According to these views, the sex is determined before leaving the ovary and consequently fertil- ization can have no influence, but at present we cannot look on these theories as more than interesting suggestions. It must be admitted that the determination of sex by fertilization is in direct opposition to what we know to be true for the great majority of animals where both sexes alike arise from fertilized eggs, and on a@ priort grounds the theory of Cuénot, Beard and von Lenhossek seems probable; but in this instance, as in all others in zoology, @ priori reasoning is unsafe and we must wait for future investigations to decide whether there is any truth in these suggestions. Comparison of Various Sex Relations.—As has been pointed out by several investigators, the process of fertilization has two distinct purposes—the giving of a stimulus for development to the mature egg, and the increasing of the number of hereditary tendencies of the offspring by giving it a blending of hereditary traits from two parents. The power of parthenogenetic development possessed by some animals takes the place of the stimulation of the male sex cell, since the ovum has given to it in the ovary enough vital force to go on dividing mitotically even after it becomes a part of another gen- eration. The second office of fertilization is simply omitted where fertil- ization does not occur, the advantage of agamic development more than balancing the advantage to be gained by the meeting of two lines of heredity. During ordinary maturation the egg gives off in its polar bodies one-half of the number of its chromosomes, the heredity carriers, and by the aequisition of an equal number from the male cell, carrying hereditary tendencies from the male parent, the original number is regained ; and in order that the normal num- PROC, AMER. PHILOS. SOC. xLiI. 174. V. PRINTED DEC. 15, 1903. 314 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS, [Oct. 16, ber may be retained in parthenogenetic eggs the reduction division is omitted, or in some other way the same result is accomplished. This omission of a mixing of two lines of ancestry in the repro- duction of a species is, if our conception of its significance is correct, a very important one. There is, however, a great differ- ence in the extent of this omission in the various kinds of partheno- genesis. In Arrenotoky at every second generation a crossing occurs of necessity, since the females are produced from fertilized eggs. In Thelytoky, on the other hand, a mixing may be very rare or even entirely wanting; while in Amphoterotoky it generally occurs at regular intervals, as in the fall in Aphids. On the other hand, Thelytoky and Amphoterotoky are much more beneficial to a species from the standpoint of its propagation, since at no time is fertilization an absolute necessity, while in Arrenotoky fertilization is necessary for the production of the individuals which do the most toward the reproduction of the species. What the species loses in hereditary influences is more than made up by the increased advantage of these two most specialized kinds of parthenogenesis. Pedogenesis—lf we look on parthenogenesis as a phenomenon which has arisen in various groups of animals so that the species may be reproduced rapidly and without so much dependence on chance, then it is but another step in the same direction to find this process shifted back to an embryonic stage of development so that the reproduction would not be delayed until the female reached the adult state. The same precocious segregation of the reproductive process is met with in forms which always require the fertilization of the egg, ¢.g., Amdlystoma (Axolotl), but in these cases the coin- cident phenomenon of parthenogentic development has not been necessary or desirable and we distinguish such cases as Proiogony. We may look on certain groups of the Diptera as in a transition stage, between the parthenogenesis like that observed in Chivonomus Grimmit and that of Mastor. The species of Afzastor has still further acquired the advantage of viviparity for the protection of the youngest embryonic stages, and seems almost to have reached the limit of advantage that a species can acquire for the propagation of its kind. Partial Parthenogenesis.—As has been seen, eggs which have not been fertilized often begin to develop, but after a short time die. On this account it has been argued that such cases are not really par- thenogenesis, since an adult or a sexually mature individual does not <= 1903.) PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. 315 result from the division. Such an argument cannot hold, since the fundamental principle involved is the same whether an adult results or not. We must consider that the life of the individual begins with the unsegmented egg, and if that egg has in itself the power of growth, manifested by cell division, then we must class it as a parthenogenetic egg; the only difference between such cases and examples like the male eggs of the bee being that there is in the former not so much of the power of unisexual development: it is merely a difference in degree and not in kind. It would seem that many of the cases of artificial parthenogenesis described are exactly similar to these cases of partial parthenogenesis, and that the change in environment produced artificially simply allows the egg the power of growth already in it to go on for a short time exactly as if fertilized. LITERATURE LIST. Adler,H. 1877. Beitrige zur Naturgeschichte der Cynipiden. Deutsche Entom. Ztschr., 21, pp. 209-48; Abstract, Entom. Nachricht., 3, 1877, pp. 151-4; Popular Se. Rev., N. Ser., 1, 1877. 1881. Ueber den Generationswechsel der Eichen-Gallwespen. Z. wiss. Zool., 35, pp. 151-246; Abstr., Jr. R. Mic. Soc., 2 ser., 1, 1881, pp. 443-4; Arch. Zool. Exper., 9; Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 5 ser., 8, pp. 281-8; Trans. by Lichenstein in Fr. Montpellier; Extract in Rev. Se. Nat. Montpellier, 3 sér., 1, pp. 369-72. ‘Adlerz,G. 1886. Myromecologiska Studien II Svenska Myron och deras lefnadsférhallanden. Beh. till Svensk. Vet.-Akad. Handl. Stockholm, 11, 329 pp. Albrecht, J. P. 1706. 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Ueber die ersten Entwickelungsvorginge im parthenogenetischen und befruchteten Raderthierei. Zool. Anz., 20, pp. 452-56. Fabre, J. H. 1879. Etudes sur les mceurs et la parthénogénése des Halictes. Ann. sc. nat. (6), Zool., 9, Art. 4, 27 pp.; C. R., 89, pp. 1079-81. 1880. Mceurs et parthénogénése des Halictes. Guide d. Natur- alist, 2, pp. 27-8; Rev. internat. sc., 5, p.83; Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), 5, pp. 194-6. 1885. Etudes sur la répartition des sexes chez les Hyménopteres. Ann. se. nat. (6), Zool., 17, Art. 9, 53 pp. ; Filachou, J. Em. 1886. De la parthénogénése. Etudes phil. nat. (5), No. 6; Paris, Pedone-Lauriel, 12mo, 78 pp. Filippi, F. de. 1856. ~ Della funzione reproduttive negli animali in com- plemento all’ edizione italiana der corso elementare di Zoologia del Sig. Milne-Edwards. 2 ediz., Milano, Vallardi, 8vo, vide p. 77.. Fischer, J. G. 1881. Ueber die Hierlage der Bienenkénigin und die Theorie von Dzierzon. Verh. ver. Hamburg, 4, pp. 181-91. Fletcher, J..E. 1877-8. 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Zur Parthenogenesis beim Seidenspinner. Zool. Anz., 13, pp. 44-5. Vogel, Friedr. 1866. Die agyptische Biene, III. EHichstidt. Bienen Ztg., 22, pp. 5-8. Vonhof,O. 1893. Abschied an die Parthenogenesis, ete. Bremen, Svo, 27 pp. Wagener, R. G. 1857. Beitriige zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Ei- geweidewiirmer. Haarlem. 1858. Helminthologische Bemerkungen. Z. wiss. Zool., 9. 1860. Ueber Gyrodactylus elegans v. Nordn. Arch. Anat. u. Phys. Wagner, Nicol. 1862-5. [Development of Insect larve] In Russian. (For reference see Taschenberg, Bibliotheca Zool., II, p. 1394.) 1863. Beitrag zur Lehre von der Fortpflanzung der Insecten- larven. Z. wiss. Zool., 13, pp. 513-27. 1865. Ueber die viviparen Gallmiickenlarven (from a letter to von Siebold). Jbid., 15, pp. 106-17. , Meinert, Pagenstecher, Ganin. [Summary] Observations sur la reproduction parthénogénésique chez quelques larves d’Insectes diptéres. Ann. sc. nat., (5), Zool., 4, pp. 259-91. Wagner, Rud. 1857. Anzeige von Siebold’s ‘‘Wahre Parthenogenesis.”’ Gétting. Gelehrt. Anz., 20 u. 23, pp. 633-44. Walsh, Benj. D. 1864. On Dimorphism in the Hymenopterous genus Cynips, with an appendix containing hints for a new classification of the Cynipide. Proc. Ent. Soc. Philadelphia, 2, pp. 443-500; Abstr. Am. Jr. Se. Arts, (2) 38, p. 180; Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 14, p. 400. Warren, E. 1899. An observation on Inheritance in Parthenogenesis. Proc. R. Soc. London, 65, pp. 154-8. Wasmann, E. 1890. Ueber die verschiedenen Zwischenformen von Werbchen u. Arbeiterinnen bei Ameisen. Stettin. Ent. Ztg., 51, pp. 300-9. 1891. Parthenogenesis bei Ameisen durch kiinstliche Tempera- turverhiltnisse. Biol. Centralbl., 11, pp. 21-3. Watase, S. 1891. Studies on Cephalopods, I. Cleavage of the Ovum (ef. Weismann u. Ischikawa, 1899). Jr. Morph., 4, pp. 247-302. Weijenbergh, H. 1868. Eenige entomologische aanteekeningen. Tijd- sehr. Entom. Deel., 9, pp. 87-91. 1870. Quelques observations de Parthénogénése chez les Lépodoptéres. Arch. néerl sc. exact. et nat., 5, pp. 258-64; Stettin. Ent, Ztg., 32 (1871), p. 28; Ztschr. ges. naturw., 37 (1871), p. 199. Weismann, Aug. 1876. Zur Naturgeschichte der Daphniden I. Ueber die Bildung von Wintereiern bei Leptodora hyalina. Z. wiss. Zool., 27, pp. 51-112; Separate, Leipzig, Engelmann, 8vo, 64 pp.; Theil II-VII; Ibid., 28 (1877), pp. 93-254; Ibid., 30. Supplement (1878), pp. 123-64; Ibid., 33 (1879), pp. 55-264; Separate, Leipzig, Engel- mann, 1876-9, 8vo, 486 pp. 344 PHILLIPS—A REVIEW OF PARTHENOGENESIS. ([Oct.16, Weismann, Aug. 1880. Parthenogenesis bei den Ostracoden. Zool. Anz., 3, pp. 82-4. 1885. Die Continuitéit des Keimplasmas als Grundlage einer Theorie der Vererbung. Jena, Fischer, 8vo, 122 pp. Vide, pp. 88-122. 1886. Die Bedeutung der sexuellen Fortpflanzung fiir die Selec- tions-Theorie. Jena, Fischer, 8vo. 128 pp.; Abstr. Tagebl., 28, vers. deutsch naturf. u. 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New York, Macmillan. Wocke, M. F. 1853. Ueber die schlesischen Arten der Tineaceen-Gat- 1903.] MINUTES. 345 tungen, Taleporia, Solenobia, Diplodoma, Xysmatodonta, Adela, Nematois. Arb. schles. Ges. vaterl. Cultur, pp. 181-3. Woltereck, R. 1898. Zur Bildung und Entwicklung des Ostrakoden Eies. JKerngeschichtliche u. biologische Studien an parthenogene- tischen Cypriden. Z. wiss. Zool., 64, pp. 596-623. Yung, #. 1881. Del’influence de la nature des aliments sur la sexualité. C. R., 93; Arch. éxper. Zool. (1883). 1885. De Vinfluence des variations du milieu physico-chemique sur le développement des Animaux. Arch. sc. phys. nat., 14, p. 502. Zaddach, E. G. 1841. De Apodis ecancriformis, Schaeff, anatome et historia evolutionis. Dis. Inaug. Bonne, C. Georgii, 4to, 72 pp. Zelinka,C. 1891. Studien ii. Riderthiere. III. Zur Entwicklungsge- schichte der Raderthiere nebst Bemerkungen ii. ihre Anatomie und Physiologie. Z. wiss. Zool., 53, pp. 1-159; Arb. zool. inst. Graz, 4, pp. 323-481. Zenker, W. 1851. Physiologische Bemerkungen tiber die Daphnoiden. Miiller’s Arch., pp. 112-21; Qr. Jr. Mic. Se., 1 (1853), pp. 273-8 Zoja, R. 1893. Contribuzione allo studio delle sostanze cromatofile nucleari di Auerbach. III. Nelle uova parthenogenetische dell’ aphis rose. Boll. scient., 15, pp. 65-7. Stated Meeting, November 6, 1903. President Samira in the Chair. A letter was read from the Schlesische Gesellschaft fir Vaterlandische Cultur, announcing the celebration of its one hundredth anniversary on December 17, and inviting the Society to send a representative to take part in the celebra- tion. The Hon. Charlemagne Tower was thereupon ap- pointed as such representative. The decease was announced of Prof. Robert Henry fhurs- ton, at Ithaca, on October 25, et. 64. Prof. Charles F. Chandler, of New York, read a paper on “The Electro-Chemical Industries at Niagara Falls.” Dr. Hans Goldschmidt, of Essen, Germany, explained his method for producing intense heat by his Thermite process. | A paper on “Dying American Speech-Echoes from Con- PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XLII. 174. X. PRINTED JAN. 23, 1904. 346 PRINCE, SPECK—-DYING AMERICAN SPEECH-ECHOES. [Nov. 6, necticut,” by Prof. J. Dyneley Prince and Frank G. Speck, was read. The Amendments to the Laws recommended by the Officers and Council, and duly proposed at the meeting of May 1, were adopted. DYING AMERICAN SPEECH-ECHOES FROM CONNECTICUT. BY J. DYNELEY PRINCE, PH.D., AND FRANK G. SPECK. (Read November 6, 1903.) It was my good fortune last summer to light upon a small and little-known reservation on the west bank of the Housatonic river, about two miles south of Kent, Litchfield County, Conn., occupied by sixteen Skaghticoke Indians. There are, however, about one hundred and twenty-five individuals not on the Reserve who claim tribal rights and relationship with this clan. The present Indians on the Reservation are mixed with a very appreciable percentage of negro and white blood and, according to their own account, came originally from various Connecticut tribes. The clan is said to have been founded in 1728 by one Gideon Mawehu (the modern family name Mawee, evidently a corruption of English Mayhew) who was either a Pequot or a Wampanoag. The ranks of the Skaghticoke settlement were swelled by refugees and stragglers from other tribes, until in 1731 they reckoned one hundred and fifty warriors. DeForest mentions among these foreign elements Potatucks from Newtown and Woodbury, Paugussets from the upper Housatonic territory, Salisbury and Sharon Indians origi- nally from Windsor, besides Pequots, Narragansetts and Wam- panoags. This mixture of race is evidenced in the various loan- words of New England origin pointed out below by Professor Prince. From one man, James Harris, who claims to be a full-blood and whose skin certainly shows the dark red hue characteristic of the eastern Algic races, I was able to obtain in the old language twenty-three words and three connected sentences which Professor | 1903.] PRINCE, SPECK—DYING AMERICAN SPEECH: ECHOES. 347 Prince has analyzed below. Harris has only a vague and dis- connected idea of the language. What little he knows he learned in early youth from his grandmother, one of the Mawee family, who, according to his statement, had a connected speaking know- ledge of the ancient idiom. The present Skaghticokes are Indians more by tradition than fact, and with the single exception of Harris have little of interest to impart to Americanists. The name Skaghticoke was originally pronounced 7’ sha‘tikuk, z.¢., ‘fat the forked river,’’ from the same stem as Abenaki fp skaot’ kwen ‘*branch’’-++the ending -¢vkw, which always means “*river’’ incomposition. The river-names Piscataquis (Maine) and Piscataqua (New Hampshire) are undoubtedly corruptions of the same word and have an identical meaning (see Prince, American folklore Journal, 1900, pp. 125 ff.). : FRANK G. SPECK. Thanks to the efforts of Mr. Speck, who is a student in my department in Columbia University, a modern form of the ancient Pequot-Mohegan dialect has been discovered in its last throes (see Prince and Speck, American Anthropologist, V, pp. 193-212). Mr. Speck has now found the still more scanty remains of another Connecticut language, that of the Skaghticokes, which, as will appear from the following exposition, is probably the last surviving remnant of the Delaware-Mohican idiom formerly used at Stockbridge, Mass., which was expounded by J. Edwards, Jr., and J. Sergeant (see Pilling, Bibliography of the Algonquian Languages, s. v. these authors). This Skaghticoke language is distinctly not a New Eng- land product, but came from the Hudson river region with that branch of the Lenni Lenape called Mohicans who settled at quite an early date on the site of Stockbridge, Mass. This AZohican idiom is only indirectly connected with the AZohegan1-Pequot lan- guage just mentioned, found by Speck at Mohegan, near Norwich, Conn. Perhaps the longest specimen of the Stockbridge Mohican tongue has been preserved in J. Quinney’s Assembly Catechism, printed at Stockbridge in 1795. For the modern dialect of the Delaware Lenape, see Prince, American Journal of Philology, XX1, Pp. 295-302. 1Nete that Mohican and Mohegan, although both forms of the same word; are now used purely arbitrarily, the first to indicate the Hudson River Lenapian Mohican clan, and the second to denote the Pequot mixed race at Mohegan, near Norwich, Conn. 848 PRINCE, SPECK—DYING AMERICAN SPEECH-ECHOES. TNOV.6; The name Mohican=Mihiganiik means “‘ those dwelling on the tide-water’’ from Del. makhaak ‘‘great’’ and hican ‘‘tide” (so Zeisberger) and plainly shows the geographical origin of the tribe, How this name came to be applied to the Pequot-speaking Mohegans. of Mohegan, Conn., has been explained at length by us (Anthropologist, V, pp. 194 ff.). The Skaghticokes apparently do not know the name Mohican as applied to themselves. It is curious and characteristic of human nature that a number of obscene words and phrases have survived with some accuracy in the mouth of Harris, Mr. Speck’s informant. Such words would naturally live longer than others in the speech of the uncultivated, no doubt owing to their desire to speak of such subjects with secrecy. It is quite plain that Harris has only a very imperfect knowledge of.his grandmother’s language, as he does not know the exact mean- ing of two out of the three sentences which he gave to Mr. Speck. His three connected sentences are as follows :—(t) Wichowan tipa- stik stihdgitinon, ‘hurry up to the hotel and get adrink.’’ This seems to me to mean ‘‘ come along, my friends, and we will have a drink.”? See Glossary, S. Os hdgitinon, tapastck sae wichiwan. (2) Gikwi dia n pirmids ‘‘o sleep in the barn.’’ This should be translated ‘* you sleep there or the night.” See Glossary, 5. U. giikwi and n'pimids. (3) Mani'pa maénik lift up your clothes,” said with obscene intention to a woman. This translation. is correct, as will appear s. v. munu‘fa and mdnuk. Finally, in this conpection, it should be noted that Harris gives the incorrect forme mamitukkit for manitikki af devil’ niskéhikian for miskahikian “cider,’” n'pimids for n'piwids ‘at night’’ and Lapasik for nitdpésik “my friends’’ (see Glossary, s. v. these words). The following words of the pone are all Delaware Mohican : : gukwi ** thou Sleepest “5 ; kwon SJESe os mamitickkts for ménitiskhic ‘xdevil*"; nishahikian hoi miskahikidn ‘cider; 2 ’ pimids for n ‘parwids ‘ceat night '; samut “tripe’’; Skzk in Shikarik © snake 3 tipiisik for nitapisick ‘‘my friends’’; 77/ipds ‘‘ tortoise’’; wichdwan ‘come along.’’ On the other Hand: the following are probably New England loanwords froin native Connecticut dialects akin to the Natick :—chakis Begs de ; hanikwok, pl. of kinkdi ** private parts”; manth “coat,” «* paca. = ritig “* crushed corn ae skwa ** dai if . sukkita¥ “ succotash ”; 3 tipi ‘* devil’’; and waniix ‘‘white man.’’ These loanwords are, of course, not surprising in ae 1903] | PRINCE, SPECK—-DYING AMERICAN SPEECH-ECHOES. 349 a language spoken in such an environment... The words swdx (=Del. gohan, but Natick 66; Peq. nur—yes, so Stiles? in his vocabulary) and Spuiti ‘anus ’’==Del. sapurti, would, alone be sufficient proof of the Lenapian character of the Skaghticoke idiom. The Skaghticoke actually preserves the jesqunnilc so rare in modern Algic, in the words ritig ‘crushed corn”? and skikaris ‘snake.’ This is, so far as I am aware, the only modern: instance. of ~ in Algic, except. in one dialect of the northern Cree. The x undoubtedly existed in Lenape.at the time of the Old Swedish occupation of New Jersey and Pennsylvania (see Brinton, Zhe Lenape and their Legends, p. 96 and, below, s. v. ritig). As was the case among the Abenakis, this » changed to /at a very early date. In Rasles’ dictionary of the ancient Abenaki, it is the regu- lar rule to find 7 for modern /, but no living Abenaki pronounces 7 in the modern language. A most interesting parallel case is found in the Iroquois idiom spoken at the St. Regis Falls Reservation, where the Indians, instead of the x so common in Iroquois speéch, now pronounce a thick medial consonant between 7 and Z. Only the old people retain the primitive r-sound. My Iroquois informant tells me that a pure Z will probably be pronounced by. the next generation. I must regard it as most fortunate for students of Algic philology that Mr. Speck has been able to collect these scanty and incorrectly preserved relics of a lost Algonquian language. GLOSSARY OF. SKAGHTICOKE WorDS. Chakis “negro ’? is undoubtedly cognitive with Stiles’s Pequot auchugyeze ‘* blackbird’? which must stand for chokésu; cf. RW.® suckésu “he is-black’’.from suck? ‘‘ black.’? The Del. sukach- qualles negro’? is evidently a more distant cognate. I believe that chd@#iis was a New England loanword among these Skaghticoke Indians. The Aben. mazawigit ‘‘negro’’ is perhaps cognitive with Natick mz, the regular word for ‘‘ black”’ in that language.* 2 President Stiles was the author of a Pequot vocabulary, the MS. of which is now in Yale University Library. This glossary is extensively quoted in J. Trumbull’s Wasick Dictionary, Washington, 1903. 3RW denotes Roger Williams in his Aey into the Language of America, which is-a treatise'on the Narragansett idiom, . 4 In indicating the pronunciation of the Skaghticoke words in this article, I have’ used the Italian yowel values, except #—=w in “‘ but,”’ and ’=a short inde- 350 PRINCE, SPECK—-DYING AMERICAN SPEECH-ECHOES. [Nov. 6, Gikwi did ‘‘ you sleep there,’’ from 4=2 p.+hawi “sleep” (=Del. gauwin, Aben. kawi); diéd=talli ‘“‘there.’’ Cf. Peq. dai=dali, Aben. az; da/i after a vowel. Kigitinon « get a drink”? (so Harris); I think the full form is k stkagitinon ‘we (incl.) shall drink,’’ see below s. v. wichowan. Kédgi is the same stem seen in Peq. gehiwit ‘*he is drunk’’ (Prince and Speck, Anthrop., V, p.'206), but it also occurs in Del. 42 kaki- wus ** thou art drunk.” m 9 : Kanukwok ‘private parts,’’ a plural of 4inkdi. (g. v.), is probably.a N. E. loanword from the same stem as Natick dinuk- kinum ‘he mixes, mingles’; cf. Nat. Renugke ‘among.’ In modern Peq. hanithi ‘“privates.”’ Kinkdi, given a Harris as ‘‘anus,’’ undoubtedly means either “ membrum virile’? or “* pudendum femina,”’ 7. e. ‘the mixer.” It seems to be the singular of hanikwok, Q. U. Kwon ‘‘yes"’-is undoubtedly identical with Del. gohan ‘‘ yes” (Brinton, Lenape Dict., p. 45, 2). Mamitickkic “devil” is a corruption of manitikhit Bai is the: (evil) spirit.”’ Note in Natick mastanttoog ‘‘devils.’" In Del. manito is the regular word for ‘‘ ae God’’; cf. Aben. madahido “«devil’’; Peq. muzundo ‘‘ God.”’ Manuk is a-very interesting survival of a New England a word, 7. ¢., from Nat. monak ‘“‘an English coat, a petticoat ’’; cf. _ RW. maunek <* a European garment ”’ (see Natick Dict., p. 266). Niskéhikian must stand for ' miskahikian Scien widen is a derivative from Del. masgichien ‘‘ May apple’. (Len. Dict., p. 74, 19): _ LV'piimids is translated by Harris ‘ barn,’’ but is clearly a form of Del. mzbahwi, 7. e.=n ’ piwids as eit the men ’?; cf. the Del. xidahwi and Aben. 2/6é/w7 ‘in the night-time.’ Nini Le ‘‘lift up’’ must. be a reduplicated form of Del. nipachton ‘raise up.’” “I think the guttural breathing should have been on the third a ae ipsulgaas: Riitig “¢crushed corn ’’; Peq. yokeg ; Nat. xuhkik, lit. -** some- terminate vowel similar to a short €. The consonants have the same values as in English, except f=s and ‘, which is a soft rough breathing like the Arabic medial 4. * In the Abenaki the 6 is a nasal asin French om in mon.- The Natick and Narragansett words are quoted in the English system which was followed by Eliot and Roger Williams, while the Delaware material is given in the German, notation, following the usage of Brinton’s Lenape Dictionary. x 4 1903.] PRINCE, SPECK—-DYING AMERICAN SPEECH-ECHOES. 351 thing softened,’’ according to Eliot, “flour.’”? This word appears as rucat in the old New Jersey Lendpe trading idiom: Cf. Aben. nokhigan ‘* flour’’; Del. Zoken, from the stem Jokenummen ‘smash up, crush.’’ .Note that 7, y and x interchange in the N. E. Algic dialects; cf. Nat. wit, Quiripi 7#¢ and Peq. jaf (Stiles yews) aire?’ (see s. v. Shikari®).. Samit ‘“tripe’’ 8 e 42 Euphrates N........ 42 II 371 Mean 34 Mean *33 North Tropic Canals—25°-10° Lat. North. LETS Se et Sao eee 42 Pyriphlegethon N.... 34 PDPUBOUD So) crepes, sere. >) - 43 Jamuna N.........-- 47 Libycum,........-+- 54 * Denotes 2 canal extra ordinem, which is omitted in the starred mean. a4 a a “haat Te | air Pee ix ras % z 7 a rs Mi LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS, [D No. Days After Name. of Canals, Summer Solstice. HS GHLETOL ters): 1a ie reiehere 35 PASS avie wat eee 64* INilokerassln, aes. 42 TGEhesic a eee eee “ 44 Photh as teeeiys a uialete 25% Tiddelcel = sana sere 55 Tamyras Noses ere ORMSH eer cet 42 Usanins | Ae eras 28 TS ayes Rhian oma Phu 40 KO DUS: Fee eek B aya acer 31 Gihonis Dwar eer ns 50 SitacustS ahs. Bic —14* INTNEMUNES 2a eee 67* BIDS v5.) Uh eit ee ote 18* 5 PCAN AS WM ae warspnae es 46 FAVOASDES' wu store 45 22 838 Mean 40. Mean *32% North Equatorial Canals—ro°-o° Lat. North. GigasiNi si son Boke ios te 46 ORGUSies fucet eee 50 EA GENIK. choys rere teri te avs 4 45 Cerberus N,).0...2.. 49 Euphrates S........ 48 IPisonins si ene yee 47 Chryssorrhoas,...... r 42 LUE CNN Care Guess hae 47 Nepemnthes. .\e i fajrts 2 25* MCTCOM ars eeetts shen ye 26* Bontunee sects ee ees 46 Ganiges 3 apes 47 12 516 Mean 43/008 ; Mean *47 a af i ~ South Equatorial Canals—o°-10° Lat. South. a No. Days Atter Name. of Canals. Summer Solstice. BYOREGS S22. aed oh 2 50 Clitummnus, see eee 52 Pyriphlegethon S,.... 54. ——— 1903.] LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. 3861 Lat. No. Days After S. Name. of Canals. Summer Solstice, Bae Litahl Sie ss. ae ce ces 60 Awe Jamiunarisee 25.5% 2 = 53 Be aerbergsy Se), bi. shen tis 54 oe atartarushs 2s bo a 63 Seat HEVSSES. 5) 5 5hci. c/s lale’ «ais 71 Guan lecestry conte sy: ete e/aens 52 CY ClOPS sat cctee Soules ss 46 See OLOSINESE fe sta senses, 6 58 MOSeMAUNSONIUIMN, «ers rai os 66 Me GATOR co (ete cae «o's 56 13 735 Mean 57 South Tropic Canals—1o0°—25° Lat. South. Roce eEryimanthuss.aisae.-- «< 54 TEGO ASS fever oret elateie i 54 Me SILEDITIS AS xicis/opays sieve. 63 Dee MatHONIAS. hoe ew ele 73 yom Waneamanes!s. o..s 76 menue lisont. 1 eee 68 MO Cee AUNTIE EJs 21s STA 73 Sere WOGUGAlich isc. tare afl oe 80 8 541 Mean 68 South Sub- Tropic Canals——25°-35° Lat. South. Se EIN CRIA inna a aioe y «se I 95 Mean 95 Of the eighty-five canals the number falling into each zone respectively was as follows : BUREMENAGILE cia pt Mtge ad aiecrahelt k's o'd la apolar ou besiege 7 Canals. SLD EACLLCEZON CM ey cae keine ciaccth sareda vice eye Pomme a oe tals 6 “ NWoninie RemperateyzOney eh own catatie ais csin cysianeds odes 7 ‘ INOREMPSMD -ALOPICEZONE)1 00s... ad cas ceys aude oe eis Io ec RG POPIC ZOOM ns at oie sha ee Seek ea ee Eola 22 “é INGUIN Gitatorial ZONE foe clave era's ch aisle ye cis itm tee 12 “ MGOMUAMECUAtOTIAlNZOME saci Wo ec) eset shed dice tect 13 «“ Donte Mrapre: Zone: Lays ing). Gaited soe ate iteatass asec eee hs a ‘“ HOUMA SGD -UTOMIC ZONE Mi vot ai hss aieiolebis meee st aais I “ 85 Naturally the canals on a globe are more numerous near the equa- PROC. AMER. PHILOS. Soc. xLiI. 174, Y. PRINTED JAN, 26, 1904. 862 LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. [Dec. 4, tor. Why the north tropic ones are more numerous than the south tropic in the list we shall see later. Taking now the position in time of the minimum value of the curve of each canal within a given zone, and then determining the mean minimum for all the canals in that zone, we find as follows: Mean Minimum, in days after the Or Exclusive of Summer Solstice. Starred Canals. Arctic Zone x... >... wiacebe Grob ect Sehueent ie fo) o* DL YATCHEIZONE koe). c\ers terns ieee a hee aioe 13 Lge North bemperateszone)s2 5.102) ero bee 22 22* Niarllgiincpit pZOney rive cone, Veg teins ae 34 3a7 North Sub-lropie:Zone i. . farce ee cee 40 42* North Equatorial ,zone 23... s si. 4.20056 43 LM fis South Equatorial Zone, |... 06s ose ees oe 56 56* South! Dropicizone vs. acs tees ennce eee 68 68* South Sub-Fropic’ zone’, 2/005 sk. «aim osu. 95 95* Disclosed stands a steady progression in the time of minimum development of the canals as we travel from the neighborhood of the polar cap to the equator. The orderly advance becomes even more noticeable when certain canals which appear to contain mis- takes or misidentifications or mutual exchanges of visibility are eliminated. Such seem to be the Amenthes-Thoth-Nepenthes- Triton system, in which just after opposition the Thoth-Nepenthes- Triton apparently replaced the Amenthes, and then died down later as if nothing out of order had happened. The Indus and the Gihon II, or that part of the Gihon north of the Deuteronilus, are not impossibly another case of interchange. The two Sitacus and the Apis may be cases of straight li; masked in their earlier presentations by distance and unfavorable seeing. For the out-of- place development of the Isiacum, I am at a loss satisfactorily to account. Omitting the above canals from the count we get the second row of minima, which show a yet closer approach to uni- formity of progression. Indeed, if we now plot the mean curves or cartouches of the mean canals at ordinal intervals corresponding to the degrees of latitude at which they occur, we shall find that a straight line will nearly pass through all the points. This is shown in Plate XV, which, based on Mercator’s projection, makes of the straight line a curve slightly convex on the advancing side. But what is more remarkable, the progression does not stop at the Pa ow lela + ee ~ i a a eR Sa ae — 1903.] LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. 368 equator, but continues on into the planet’s southern hemisphere, the sign curvature changing when it crosses the line. Thus much of canal development the curves definitely state ; but we may infer more. Whatever constitute the canals, it is evident that their develop- ment proceeds from the pole down the disk, and, furthermore, that it advances over the surface at a fairly regular rate. It starts at the summer solstice; that is it follows the melting of the polar cap. ‘This suggests the source of the quickening. In consequence of the water then let loose the ‘‘ canals’? come into being. That this can be due to a bodily transference of matter, the water in ques- tion, seems negatived by the area concerned. More darkened area is gained than is lost. But this is not an easy point to be sure of. More forthright is the negativing of such transference by the time taken. Water would make its presence felt long before the actual darkening takes place. For at the latitude of 75°, the mid-latitude of the Arctic canals, the darkening begins on the day of the sum- mer solstice, which is considerably after the date of the most rapid melting of the cap. But though water directly does not account for the phenome- non, water indirectly does. A quickening to growth of some kind would produce the counterpart of what we see. And these statis- tics furnish us with a key to its character. It is a seasonal change, but a little consideration will suffice to show us that it is quite unlike in behavior the seasonal change we know on earth. Could we get off our earth and view it from the standpoint of space we should mark, with the advent of spring, a wave of ver- dure sweep over its face. If absence of cloud permitted of an unveiled view this flush of waking from its winter’s sleep would be evident, and could be watched and followed as it crept higher and higher up the parallels. Starting from the equator shortly after the sun turned north, it too would travel northward toward the pole. Here, then, we should mark, much as we mark it on Mars, a wave of darkening, the blue-green of vegetation superposed upon the ochre of ground, spreading over the planet’s surface; but the two would differ, the mundane and the Martian vegetal awakening, in one fundamental respect—the earthly wave travels from equator to pole ; the Arean from pole to equator. Clearly the causes com- pelling them differ. Yet are they both seasonal in character. To what then is the difference due? ‘To the presence or absence of moisture. 364 LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. [Dee. 4, Two things are necessary to the begetting of vegetal life, the raw material and the reacting agent. Oxygen, nitrogen, water and a — few salts make up the first, the sun does the second. Unless both | be present the quickening into life never comes. Now the one may be there and the other not, or the other there and the one not. On earth the material including water is, except in certain destitute spots, always present; the sun it is that periodically withdraws. Observant upon the coming of the sun is then the annual quicken- ing of vegetal life. On Mars, on the other hand, it is the water that is lacking. This we know from many other phenomena the disk presents. There is no surface water there save for what comes from the periodic thawing of the polar caps. Vegetation cannot start in any quantity until this water reaches it. Vegetal change, there- fore, on Mars should start from the pole and travel equatorward. On the earth it should do the precise opposite. _Nowsuch is exactly what the curves of visibility of the canals exhibit. Timed prima- rily not to the coming of the sun but to the coming of the water, vegetal dife there follows not the former up the latitudes but the latter down the disk. We may conclude then that the canals are strips of vegetation fed by water released from the polar cap. The two curves of phenological quickening, the mundane and the Martian, are shown in Plates XVI and XVII. The stars mark the dead-points at successive latitudes. We now come to a deduction from the evidence before us even more startlingly pregnant of information. Glancing at Plate XV of the mean canals, we see that the quickening proceeds rapidly and very nearly if not quite uniformly down the disk. It takes a the darkening only fifty days to descend from the seventy-first parallel to the equator, a journey of some 2600 miles. This means a speed of fifty-three miles a day, or two and two-tenths miles an hour. And it does this in the face of gravity. For the spheroidal _ flattening of Mars, ;3, of the polar diameter, shows that the figure of the planet is in fluid equilibrium under the axial rotation. A particle of water, therefore, would know no inclination to move from where it initially was. Of its own accord it would not flow toward the equator. And as it does flow toward the equator, and with a remarkably steady progression too, the inference seems — inevitable that it must be carried thither by artificial means. We are thus led to an artificial origin and maintenance of the markings called canals, and one which in essence justifies that appellative. Nor do I see any escape from the deduction. 1903.1 LOWELL---THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. 365 This idea is strengthened by another circumstance connected with the development exhibited by the table. The progress of the minima, which betoken the later and later starting of the quicken- ing down the disk, does not stop at the equator, but advances with fine indifference to that natural limit into the planet’s other hemi- sphere. Now there the physical conditions to affect it are the precise opposite of what they were in the first ornorthern one. If, therefore, it were due to such cause the action should there be reversed. That it is not shows that we are here face to face with a phenomenon not simply inexplicable on natural laws but abso- lutely antagonistic to them. ° The study here presented leads, then, to three conclusions: (1) The ‘‘canals’’ develop down the disk from material supplied by the melting of the polar cap; the development proceeding across the equator into the planet’s other hemisphere. (2) The canals are from their behavior inferably vegetal and (3) of artificial origin. Boston, December 4, 1903. 366 LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. R Days before Sol Serine Days after ° JO 60 go 720 ' Lat.78°N Mean Long.74° Lat.75°N Sirenius N. Mean Long 110° iz HE a Lat.74°N W. Kison Mean Long 355° Lat 72°N E.Kison Mean Long 345° Lat7i°N Jaxartes MeanLong 25° J. i Lat 69N Rhiztus Mean Long 300° © - * (@) @) @) ie) , @) (@) Lat 65°N Hades MeanLong 168° - Sale Fe a oS > * = Minimum Visibility ARCTIC CANALS Plate I. 1903.] LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. 367 | Days before — Sor'erice _ Daysafter 30 0 ior iS} 8 So 8 iy is} 3 Lat.64N Syrgis Mean Long. 300° ee Lat 63°N Em petis Mean Long.266° Lat 62°N Pierius Meantong.320° a © 6) @ © Lat 58°N Callirrhoe MeanLong o° os 2 ® 1 | * * @) () } oi Bu (*) Lats7°N. Singames MeanLong.235° Lat 52°N. Jomanes Mean Long.318° (9) | se {*) a ce = Minimum Visibility SUB-ARCTIC CANALS Plate II. , koko aaah ee eee Bah. r 4 7 latAd & b a F Rt aS . e 368 LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. (Dee. 4 Days before sovarvct Days after | -30 ° 30 60 90 £50 & (@) (s) (*) . Arnon So) Mean Long 34r : S ome Lat 4g°N Dis N oR bas: @) @) Ee (*) | Lat 47°N Geraunius S. MeanLong. 98” Lat 42°N Halex Mean Long 105 Lat 42°N Styx Mean ong 211” Lat 42°N Udon r Mean Long 86 be Let 36°N StreniusMiddle MeanLong 124° PV IAT AL © © & = MinimumVisibshity NORTH TEMPERATE CANALS Plate III. 4 j 1903.] LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. 369 j = Sera Re]: im Days before Sea Days after ~j0 Lat 35°N Cthonit 7 Mean Long 15° a Lat 34°N [51acum Meanlong 282° Lat 33°N Broriles N. ‘= Mean Long 159° © Lat 33°N Titan N Meanlong 16q” _ Lar 32°N Brittanta Mean Long. 303° Lat 32°N Nasamon MeanLong 275 ° Lat 30°N Sitacus N Meanlong 300° tat 26°N Dis J. Mean Long 201° Lat z8°N Nilokeras MeanLong.s2° Lat 28°N Phisor N. Mean Long 308° & = Minimum Visibilily |}—___—}-| wlewe roe rocn ad | ee go ——— NORTH SUB-TROPIC CANALS | Plate IV. ~30 Lat.27°N. LuphratesN. Mean Long 336° Days before SOLSTICE SUMMER Days afte ” go * = Minimum Visibility NORTH SUBTROPIC CANALS, (continued) ate Plate V. 370 LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. [Dee 4, _ Days before ipl aie Daysafter = Lat.2s°N | Phrixus MeanLong:so° Lat 25°N PyriphiegethonN. Mean Long 140° Lat.23°N. Djithoun Mean Long o° S (@) @) i | @) Lat 23°N Jamuna N. MeanLong 38° Lal 23°N Libycum Mean Long. 269° iw ite Lat.z2"°N Acheron Mean Long 133° Lat 22°N Indus MesnLong 20° a let 22°N Nilokeras/1. MeanLong 48° Lat 21°N Lethes Mean Long 240° Lat 2iN. Thoth Mean Long 258° ign we ~ oe ©) = MinimumVisibility NORTH TROPIC CANALS SS Plate VI. The broken lines denote such portions of the curves as for certain intrinsic reasons seems the more probable. 4 if 1903.] LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. 371 Raysbefora SSS, Daysafter . Oo Lat.20°N. Hiddeket Mean Lang. 350° Lat.zo°N. TamyrasN. Mean Long.149° a F DA ae Lat.1g°N. Uranius Mean Long. 84° RE eee Lat.18°N Ls Mean Long.2° a () ; = ee | Lat.17°N. Erebus Mean Long.180° Lat.16°N. Gthon Lt MeanLong. 3° Lat.16°N. Sttacus S. MeanLong.335° Lat.is°N. Amenthes MeanLong.253° ae & ae on a & = Minimum Visibility NORTH TROPIC CANALS, (continued) SUMMER SOLSTICE Lat 12°N. Mean Long. 243° LatirN. Hydaspes } MeanLong.28° & = Minimum Visibility NORTH TROPIC CANALS, ( concluded.) Plate VIII. 372 LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. SUMMER Daysbefore Solstice Days after Lat.ro°N. GigasN. Mesn Long. 123° Lat.8°N. Orcs MeanLong.183° Lat.7°N. Phenix MeanLong.240° Lat.6°N. CerberusN MeanLong.207° _ | vats. Euphrates S. MeanLong.336° Cam em Md Lat 5°N. Phisons. MeanLong.325° Lat.4°N. Chrysorrhoas Mean Long.74° | oO Lat. 4°N. Irts MeanLong.105° Lat.3°N. Nepenthes MeanLong.270° Lat.2°N. Triton MeanLong.257° () * =MinimumVisibility WORTH EQUATORIAL CANALS. Plate IX. Days before SUMMER i HS 30° oO Lato* Fortunae Mean Long 100° oo = * = MinimumVisibility pene CANALS, continued ) Plate X. Lat o° Ganges MeanLong 60° i ! / 1903.] LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. 373 Days before Penrice Days after eid o 30 60 go i20 150 pe Lat.o° (es) 2 Brontes S. = MeanLong.i66° ts) © t+ © | Lat.1°S. 1 Clitummis £2) MeanLong.67° © © oH Lat.2°S. ‘O; © Pyriphlegethon S. MeanLong.117° Lat.2°S. Titans. MeanLong.169° Lat.4°S. Jamunas. MeanLang. 49° Lat.5°S. Cerberus. MeanLong-225° Lat.5°S. Tartarus Mean Long.182° Lat.s°S. Ulysses MeanLong.115° Lat.6°S. Laestrygonr MeanLong,201° Lat.7°S. Cyclops Mean Long. 217° SouTvH EQUATORIAL CANALS *& = Minimum Visibility Plate XI. SUMMER SOLSTICE Orostnes Mean Long. 290° Lat.10°S. Ausonium Mean Long. 280° Lat.10°S. Dosaron Mean Long.300° Daysbefore symmen, 5, Deer 90, £20 Lat 2°S, Erynanthus Mean Long.278° Lati2°S. Gigas S. MeanLong.155° Lat.12°S StrentussS. MeanLong.124° , Lat15°S Tithonius Mean Long.go° “Lat 7°S Dargamanes Mean Long.28° Aurum Mean Long.to” Lat.22°S Deucalion MeanLong.340° SOUTH TROPIC CANALS * = MinimumVisibility Plate XIII. 1908.] LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. SUMMER SOLSTICE Days before Lat.27°S. Nectar Mean Long.78° Days after *& =MinimumVisibility 0; = SOUTH SUB-TROPIC CANAL Plate XIV. MEAN CANAL CARTOUCHES. E\RsT Arctic Meen Lat 72° SeebArctic Mean tat 58° N Temperate Mean Lat 425° NV SubTropic MeenLet 31° N Tropic Mean lat 18° N Equatorial Meen Lat 5° S Equatoriac Mean Lat -5° STropic Mean Lat -17° S Sub-Tropic Meen Let - 27° -jo - o UMMER | Days before — Soustice -%= Minimum Visibility (add Cartals tazen) ‘A a ° — &) 7 Days after += Minimum Visibility (starved ones excepted) Plate XV. : af i cua 3) an ay A. SS - bates. 376 LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. Days before SURMer Days after o R 60 x ane a0 £20 med ; i 50 mehr at S. Sub-Tropic 27°S. STropte pon J Equator pal ss. N Temperate 4° 425N. SubAretic SEN. 15 N, ia ? to at ea —-< 240° 260° 280° 300° 320° 340" zoe Co Go° 100° 120° 140° £60° 180” 200° 220° PHENOLOGY CURVES —MARS. = Dead Point of Vegetation. Plate XVI. 1903.] LOWELL—THE CARTOUCHES OF MARS. 377 ———— Days before SS Ce Days after s30 o 70 60 #20 iv 74 +4 ; "20° 40° 60° 80° 100° 720” 140° 100° 180° 160° [40° 720° 100° 80° 60° go° 20° O° PHENOLOGY CURVES —EARTH. % = Oead Point of Vegetation. Plate XVII. ty PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XLII. 174. Z. PRINTED JAN. 25, 1904. 378 ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. (Nov. sf 7 TESTIMONY OF THE HUACOS (MUMMY-GRAVE) POT- — TERIES OF OLD PERU. BY ALBERT S. ASHMEAD, M.D. (Read November 20, 1903.) When we search the cemeteries of old Peru, we find by the side of every mummy a number of objects which are useful for him. — His pious hands have withia ready reach whatever is needed for his eternal voyage. Drink being indispensable in a country of so much dryness as Peru, good care was taken to place convenient to — his hands a quantity of water or wine vessels to appease thirst. These clay vessels have human form and give rise to our admira- tion, just as do the statuettes of the Egyptian tombs or the earthen Cuites found in those of Tanagras among the Greeks. Historians agree in recognizing in these Egyptian and Grecian — images the doudb/e or duplicate or soul which survives the departed. Death was definite only if these statuettes disappeared. The belief in a soul, very widespread among every eo existed in Peru. And to satisfy it these people found it convenient to transform the drinking vessel into a sow/, that is to say, an image — . resembling the deceased. Besides, these little rotteries had reality — 3 pleasing to the artist. The varieties of them are great, representing the child, the woman, the old man, the fat, the lean, the noble and the poor man, with every expression of physiognomy, as sorrow, joy, anger, etc. Occasionally the figures have pendants on the ears or the nasal septum perforated for the introduction of a ring. This last character of figure is in the Museum of the Trocadero, — Paris. Some of these potteries show signs of diseases. I have seen one — representing a double hare-lip. Syphilitic and lupoid (wolf- — cancer) lesions are very frequently shown on the faces, especially — . the nose and upper lip. We know that these diseases existed — in America long before the time of Columbus, and some eminent — scientists have made the mistake to believe that because the former disease was very widespread, so common that the old Mexicans had deified it by incarnation into a god (Nanahuatl), that it was carried _ first to Europe by returning Spaniards. But this is a great mistake, — for Virchow shows that this disease had existed in Europe certainly — as early as 1472. And Raymond, of Paris, who dug up the bones of 1903.] ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. 379 the ‘‘ Madeleines’’ of France, as the cemeteries of the old leper asylums of the middle ages are called, found unmistakable evi- dences of its presence as early as the eleventh, twelfth and thir- teenth centuries. Evidently many persons afflicted with that destructive disease were thought to be lepers and were locked up to die with them. In ancient Mexico this disease was considered as that of the nobles, the great, a sort of ‘‘ King’s evil.”’ The origin of it in America has been thought by the same scientists to be by a migration of those ancient races from Asia. This is also a great mistake. For had that disease come from Asia, leprosy would have come with it. Now there was no leprosy in those ancient races until Spaniards, Portuguese and negroes had inoculated them with the germs. Syphilis originally in America was the disease of the ancient llama, the pack-animal of Incans and Aymarans. When the ice age had retreated northward and the rivers and valleys of South America became flooded, man emigrated in two ways, in latitude with his beloved and necessary reindeer north- ward with the snow, and in altitude with his beloved and necessary llama to escape the floods. This animal was a part of his house- hold—his horse by day and his blanket by night, for its alpaca wool kept him warm on Andean heights. Thus man contracted the disease which belonged to the llama. As to the origin of lupus (wolf-cancer), which is also represented frequently on the ‘‘ huacos pots’’ of the mummy-graves, it came from the birds, especially parrots, of the Andes. Lupus is skin- consumption. Its germ is the bacillus of Koch. Insects would feed on the parrots dead of aviary tuberculosis and then inoculate human beings. Thus there would be local contamination, skin- tuberculosis, which quickly became systemic. As soon as the lungs of man became affected, his sputum acted as a means of pro- pagating the disease in his family and village. Amputation of the feet is also a common representation on these potteries and it is real, with flaps covering the ends of bones. But never is a hand shown as amputated. Noses and upper lips are represented as clean cut off, evidently by a surgeon of skill, to cure wolf-cancer of those parts. This surgical procedure must have been quite commonly practiced in those pre- Columbian days. In the guano beds of the Chincha Islands, as Mantegazza tells 380 ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. [Nov. 20, us in his Z’ Amour dans [ humanité, there have been found some wooden figures bearing about the neck a serpent which was believed to devour the body. These images were zdo/s, and this representa- tion was the expression, as I defined it, of the disease, syphilis, before those ancients of Peru had a word for it in their language. The serpent is represented in the act of devouring a certain part of the body in a series of the figures preserved in the Museum of the Trocadero. There is also one of these figures in the American Museum in New York. Here are five of these Peruvian vessels, presented to the Museum of Paris by Mr. Drouillon and derived from Moche. All show in diverse degree some destructive lesions of the upper lip and of the nose. Figure I, Peruvian Vase from Moche’ Figure 2. Limited destruction of the (Museum of the Trocadéro). The upper lip. extremity of the nose is destroyed. In the first the extremity of the nose (septum and wings) is destroyed. There is no other alteration. The rest of the nose and the upper lip are intact. The second subject has undergone a limited destruction of the middle of the upper lip. A portion, in the form of an obtuse angle with its summit bordering on the septum, has disappeared, throwing into view the gums and teeth which remain intact. The borders of the lesion are clean, and appear cicatrized ; the nose seems pointed, and the two wings are strongly spread out. 1903. ] ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. 381 Figure 3. The upper lip is eaten Figure 4. Cicatrization following ne- away. crosis of the upper jaw. The third subject expresses an alteration most grave. The upper lip is devoured, likewise the nose, uncovering the gums, which are red and bleeding. The teeth are complete, but the end of the nose has disappeared ; this is of abnormal shortness and appears too high. The fourth pottery is even more interesting. There has been ne- crosis and loss of the superior maxilla, which has undergone a retrac- tion over the inferior. A cicatricial tissue has formed, tight and inextensible, which leaves the teeth uncovered and obstructs the entrance of the nostrils. The lower eyelid of the right eye, held by the cicatricial tissue, leaves uncovered the ocular globe, while that of the left eye is normal. The last pottery of this series represents a mother, who holds her infant in her arms. In her case also there exists a loss of the upper jaw. But here the nose is destroyed at its root ; the extremity, in- tact, is turned up. This form of nose has been well described by Fournier, the syphilographer of France. Similar potteries are not rare. They exist likewise in the Mu- seum de la Plata, Argentina, South America. A beautiful collec- tion of photographs of this last Museum is on exhibition at the 382 » ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES UF OLD PERU. [Nov. 20, Trocadero. You can see there a subject who has lost his nose in like manner ; a person whose face is covered with soft tissue, which is drawn tight, and reminds one of sclerous tissue. The mouth is puckered and reduced to a very small aperture, the lips have lost Figure 5. Nose lost at the root. their apparent elasticity, as if they could neither be opened nor closed, and the teeth remain uncovered. Certain subjects of lupus to-day offer this very aspect. In America, I have for many years made a very minute examina- tion of all such potteries, mostly derived from Chancan or Chim- bote, Peru. Some of them were buried with the mummies of Ancon, the oldest cemetery of Peru, where most of the thermal springs were located. Here surely would congregate, before death, the diseased of those. ancient races, and many must have died there on the very spot. However, it has been impossible to locate the exact mummy to which each piece of pottery belongs, through the fault of the explorer.’ I have also examined all the Ancon mummies in the United States, and caused to be examined by the eminent anthropologist, Dr. Emile Schmidt, all those of the Leip- zig Museum, where is to be found the finest collection of American objects in the whole of Europe. The Leipzig authorities in col- lecting specimens even A&7l/ed a. Guayaquis Indian in South America to obtain his skull! Their agent recently paid in Lima as high as one hundred dollars in gold for one of these little pot- 1903.] ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. 3838 teries, which I was myself trying to get possession of. There is not a pottery with deformed face now in Peru which can be bought. Leipzig has the market for them cornered. The finest collection of these pots, however, can never be obtained, as it belongs to a woman who will not sell. She has a thousand specimens, of which she has promised me photographs. I also had Dr. A. Bastian, Director of the Royal Museums of Ber- lin, go over his collection of mummies and pots in Dr. Edward Seler’s American Department, for evidence of pre-Columbian diseases. But in none of all the mummies I examined, or caused to be exam- ined, was there found even atrace of the disease which M. Virchow claimed was represented on some of the huacos potteries. M. Virchow argued against me for five years in the Berlin Anthropo- logical Society. He believed himself able to recognize on those potteries signs of leprosy. In these discussions Dr. Leopold Gliick, of Sarijivo, Bosnia, and Dr. Armauer Hansen, of Bergen, Norway, stood with me in concluding that they did not represent leprosy, for the hands and feet were never shown to be diseased, as would have been the case with lepers. I finally proved to the sat- isfaction and recorded acceptance of the anthropological world that those representations were really only what is shown still further by the evidence of these five Trocadero potteries which I reproduce here, and that is, that syphilis and lupus occurred together in the same individual. This opinion has been now concurred in by the authorities of the Smithsonian, of the Museum de la Plata of South America and by the Spanish authorities, because on these potteries, as on the others which have been critically examined, there is shown the upper lip retracted or destroyed, a character which is seldom if ever seen in leprosy; the faces, too, of these pots never present tubercles, tubers or the appearance called leontiasis (Zom- face), which belongs to tubercular leprosy, and which surely would have delighted the old Peruvian artists to depict inclay ; but, most important of all, the hands of all the pottery subjects are always . represented intact and perfect, while in lepers they are so often mu- tilated. Those artists of old Peru conscientiously would never have neglected the horrible appearance of tuberculation of the face or the clubbed and clawed hands of a leper. It would have pleased them beyond measure to picture such deformations on the anthro- pomorphous image supposed to'represent the sou/ of the individual buried.. Those little gems of human representation were true im- 884 ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. [Nov. 20, ages of the departed, and they would not have made them false. Amputation of hands was never represented on a pot, because arti- ficial hands were necessary to carry the drinking water to the lips. On not one single pot anywhere in the whole Museum world{is there represented a mutilated hand or a tuberculated face. This in itself is conclusive evidence that leprosy was wo¢ pre-Columbian in America. These potteries of the Trocadero offer more perfect signs yet in favor of syphilis and of lupus representations; those multiple lesions of the nose are characteristic of syphilis, or of syphilis and lupus combined. If there is any doubt of it, it is not in favor of leprosy but off lupus, as is shown in the subject Fig. 4. Even this subject derived from the Museum de la Plata, with retraction of the skin of the face, might equally be afflicted by lupus. A last argument is furnished us by an examination of the thou- sands of pre-Columbian bones of American graves. Not one offers a leprous lesion, as we find them represented in the graves of the cemeteries of the ‘‘ Madeleines’? of France, where are found the little bones of leper hands as if me/fed away to a fine thread, but never so in ancient American graves. Quite a number of the Amer- ican bones from ancient American graves, undoubtedly pre-Colum- bian, on the contrary, are syphilitic. We all must admire the dexterity of those old, Peruvian artists, who have given us such good representations of the ulcerative lesions of these diseases. Besides the evidences of an ‘eating disease’’ on the faces of these clay vessels of the graves of Old Peru, there are a number which appear as if the nose and upper lip had been cleanly cut off with a knife. Here is a photograph of one such, which Prof. Bastian, of the Royal Museum of Berlin, kindly sent me (Fig. 6). There are others with this same exhibit in the Bandelier Collection of the American Museum of Natural History, New York. Mr. Wilhelm Von den Steinen, to whom the original of this pot belongs, says: ‘‘It is from Chimbote. The tip of the nose and the upper lip are ered the cheeks ‘ flown out’ and furrowed with wrinkles orscars.’’ I submitted this photograph, after Prof. Bastian had sent it to me, to Dr. Hansen, of Bergen, Norway (the discoverer. of the leper-bacillus), and he replied that ‘‘ it did not present signs 7 ; , q 3 1903.] ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. 3885 of leprosy.’’. ‘‘ There are no tubercles on it,’’ he said, ‘and no phenomena of anesthesia.’’ This photograph has always appeared to me as if the person it represents might have been mutilated by a surgeon’s knife for lupus. Figure 6, Dr. Ugaz, the best authority in Peru to-day on this last-named disease, concludes an interesting article, ‘‘ Etiologia topografia y tratamiento de la Uta (lupus),’’ as follows: ‘‘ Uta (gallico, llaga, Ilianya, tiacarafia, Qquespo Spondyle) of Peru is bacillary tuber- culosis, generally localized in the uncovered parts of the skin (tuberculo-derma), and its ov/y treatment is endermic and surgica/.’’ My own conclusion is that this Uta, gallico, llaga, etc. = pre- Columbian lupus (with or without complication with syphilis), is the disease represented on the huacos potteries, for some of those specimens represent the effects of the surgical treatment of that dis- ease, the cutting off of nose and upper lip. It is highly probable that some of the deformations of those ancient Peruvian figures were intended to represent lupus and syphilis combined and not leprosy. For, as I said, Ancon, the pre-Columbian graveyard of Old Peru, was also the place of baths where the ‘‘ luposos and sarnosos ’’ congregated for curaiive treat- ‘ment. Had Ancon been a resort for lepers, somewhere in an European or American Museum we should be able to discover a mummy show- ing loss of fingers or toes, for most lepers are thus mutilated. But, 386 ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. [Nov. 20, quite to the contrary, no such disfigurement of pre-Columbian remains up to this time has been found in any Museum of the world. I have searched all over for such and without success. Moreover, had there been lepers in pre-Columbian Peru, they surely would have gone to those baths along with the luposos and syphili- tics. Only the syphilitics could have been cured, while the luposos and lepers, being incurable without surgery, would have died there. Thus the absence of leper remains from the graves of Ancon is double proof that leprosy did not exist in pre-Columbian Peru. In determining in some of these representations of diseases on these ancient potteries what disease each one is, it must not be over- looked that even in the living subject the diagnosis between leprosy, syphilis and lupus is sometimes most confusing to a physi- cian and even to a trained leprologist. This is especially true when the patients belong to degenerate or dying-out races. How much greater then must the difficulty be to dctermine the identity of one of these diseases whose representation was carved on the face of a small clay image by an artist who was not a medical man. We must observe, moreover, that in the representation of a disease on the clay figure of a man, intended to record what belonged to the corpse, and to be forever buried with it as its ‘* double?’ or soud, the failure to show in that clay figure a mutilation of fingers or toes or tuberculation of face, the most usual deformities of leprosy, should indicate to us that the disease which the handicraftsman had illustrated was not leprosy at all but some other disease. There is a specimen of ancient Peruvian pottery in the Royal Museums for Ethnology in Berlin which I have figured in the American Journal of Cutaneous Diseases. These photographs orig- inally were given to me by Prof. Bastian, of the Berlin. Museum. It is the figure of a man, apparently-a dwarf, whose skin is covered with tuberculous lumps. The question is, What does it represent ? And, more especially, does it afford any proof of the existence of either syphilis or leprosy in ancient Peru? It is quite clear that the artist has copied from some living subject, and we have at any rate offered for our inspection'a very early delineation of the dis- ease. This pottery is probably a thousand years old. Jonathan Hutchinson, F.R.S., of London, to whom I submitted the photograph, argued with me that there is no reason ‘to consider the disease leprosy, for the man is scratching very vigorously and. clearly has no anesthesia of the skin, which would belong: to him 1903.] A>HMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. 387 had he leprosy. His head is thrown back. Nor in the tuberose form of leprosy are the tubercles ever so freely developed on the trunk as is here shown. Mr. Hutchinson believed that the figure represented Molluscum fibrosus, a disease of skin which does not exist in Latin America to-day; and had it existed there in pre- Columbian time, would it not be found in Peru to-day? Besides these objections to Mr Hutchinson’s diagnosis there is the upper lip shown to be eaten away, as is so common in the other Peruvian potteries. Molluscum is not essentially pruriginous, but scabies or pediculosis might have been present to account forthe itching. To my mind, it is another instance of /upus representation. I have also nine representations of the grave potteries of old Peru. The first is indentical with a huacos pot in the Field Columbian Museum, Chicago, a photograph of which was kindly sent me by Dr. Dorsey, and which I published in my article, ‘‘ No Evidence in America of Pre-Columbian Leprosy,’’ in the Canadian Medical and Surgical Journal, March, 1899 The 4th, 7th and gth are identical with those of the Bandelier Collection of the American Museum of Natural History, which I published, with permission, in the Journal of the American Medical Association, in an article en- titled ‘‘ Pre-Columbian Leprosy,” April, May and June, 1895, and in the Verhandlungen of the Berlin Leper Conference. The2d, 3d, 5th, 6th and 8th of these images are representants of lupus and syphilis in their deformations. It should be noticed, as we pro- ceed, that in every case the fingers are represented normally. As to the question of pre-Columbian origin of these vases, those must be regarded as cer¢ain/y pre-Columbian which have been found with a certain gold ornamentation, the gold brow feather, the exclusive ornament of the Inca family. I have seen these ‘‘ brow feathers’’ in the collections in the Ethnological Museum known as the Bassler, formerly belonging to Herr Kratzer, of Lima, and also in the new collection of Mr. Kratzer. Besides some of the images were buried with diseased bones, notably one sent up by Mr. Bandelier, ‘the explorer, from Lake Titicaca, of Peru, to the American Museum of New York, which was dug up along with a pre-Columbian Pachacamac syphilitically diseased skull. I took a photograph of this skull to accompany my contribution to the Berlin Leper Conference (article entitled ‘‘ The Question of Pre-Columbian Leprosy in America, and Photographs of Three Pre- Columbian Skulls’’), Dr. Patron, of Lima, and Dr. Manuel A. 388 ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. [Nov. 20, Muniz, of the same city of Peru, have studied the subject of these potteries, so far as they relate to leprosy. Dr. Patron says, ‘* Lep- rosy has remained an unknown thing to the native born of Peru, as is evidenced by the lack of a word for leprosy in the Kechuan and Aymaran languages.’’ When leprosy appeared with the invad- ing Spaniards and negroes, a phrase became necessary to be added to the language. Bertolini, in his dictionary of Aymara, gives for leprosy the word ‘‘ Caracha,’’ which means ‘‘itch.’’ And Gonzales Holguin, in his book on the Ketchua language, defines ‘‘ Liutlasca Caracha’”’ as ‘‘itch.”’ Dr. Muniz wrote me that ‘the first introduction of African negroes into Peru was in 1536.” ‘‘ The first negro was with the thirteen of the Isle of the Cock before the conquest of Peru. There were maroon negroes in Peru in that same year. The king granted to Pizarro the privilege of importing negroes.” These Spaniards and negroes introduced leprosy to Peru. Dr. Patron thinks that the diseases which can produce mutilations like those seen on the pottery are syphilis, boils, verruga-Peruana, or Peruvian warts, a disease with fever and peculiar to Peru (this is described by Odriozala, Paris, 1898, as Maladie de Carrion, for Dr. Carrion, a pupil who died from self-inoculation of it to determine its specific characters), and ‘‘ Uta’’ (lupus). The word ‘‘ Uta’’ means ‘‘ to eat away,’’ and would naturally be applied to a disease which destroys the tissues. ‘The disease is called variously in different localities: Gallico (‘‘ French Disease’’=the Spanish name of syphilis when it first appeared in Spain) ; llaga, Ilianya, Tiac— Arafia and Qquespo. All the best authorities attribute this disease to the sting of insects, or by deposition of their eggs beneath the skin. Insects are especially attracted to the mouths and noses of sleeping persons, and those parts especially would be most liable to be inoculated by such a disease as lupus, which has for its germ the tubercle-bacillus of Koch, for aviary tuberculosis in Peru existed long before human tuberculosis was known. The Indians of the Peruvian Sierras are extraordinarily susceptible to lung tuberculosis directly they are transferred to the coasts, while in altitudinal Andes this phase of this pre-Columbian disease does not appear. Dr. Patron’s great remedy to-day for Peruvian lupus is cauterization with the Paquelin battery. In other words, all authorities agree on the cure of it by no other means than the knife or by burning it out. 1903. ASHMEAD—HUACO3S POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. 389 Mr. Bandelier, of the American Museum, in reply to my ques- tion whether the Peruvian images labeled Chancan and Chimbote, which he had sent up, were to be considered pre- or post-Columbian, said that some of them were and some were not. The question of the pre-Columbianism of these pots, which arose when I brought them to the attention of the Berlin Leper Conference, was afterwards thoroughly discussed in the Berliner Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte (see Zeitschrift, 1897, 1898 and 1899), by eminent Americanists, such as Polakowsky, of Berlin; A. Stiibel, of Dresden; Reiss, of Ber- lin; Dr. E. W. Middendorf, Dr. Edward Seler, of Berlin; Dr. Marcus Jiminez de la Espada, of Madrid; Dr. A. Bastian, the Director of the Royal Museums of Berlin; Prof. Virchow, Presi- dent of the Society; Dr. Carrasquilla, of Bogota; Dr. Lenz and Dr. Lehman-Nitsche, of La Plata Museum, and Von den Steinen, etc. I brought before these eminent and learned gentlemen all the evidence furnished me by Mr. Bandelier and the anthropologists of America. Mr. Bandelier had written me that all his ‘‘ finds ’’’ were op Wl ma u mn UN: Figure 7. pre-Columbian, and especially described a huacos pot represent- ing a human amputated foot, which I had described in my original paper. The fact that it was a diseased foot would indicate that it had not been amputated as a punishment ‘‘ for crime,” as Dr. 090 ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. [Nov. 20, Carrasquilla, of Colombia, South America, had thought. That it is a disease representation is shown by the toes of the clay figure being elevated from the ground, as if the sole of the foot was greatly swollen. This Pachacamac foot-pot was dug up from a grave twelve feet deep; not a bead nora piece of glass or copper was ever found in that pre-Columbian burial-ground. This is an indica- tion of pre-Columbianism. Moreover, this pot, which I reproduce here, shows the bone protruding and the flesh cut away, just as would appear on a foot that had been amputated, for the flesh flaps must be thus provided to cover the stump of the leg. Mr. Bande- lier wrote me as follows of this peculiarity of the figure: ‘‘I think that the figures represented without feet ought to be considered as amputated, so that they have nothing to do with the question of leprosy or syphilis.’’ Certainly a people that could trephine a skull as admirably as these same Incas, as is shown by one photographic specimen sent me from Peru (which I here reproduce for purpose of illustration), could just as well amputate with the stone knife a foot properly (see «Pre-Columbian Surgery,’’ Ashmead, Univ. Med. Mag., 1896). Wi 4 , Figure 8, Trepanation of the Incan Epoch (Squier’s skull), This Fig. 8 shows a trepanation of the Incan epoch: A cranium of Yucay. Nelaton and Broca determined that it belonged to the 1903. ASHMEAD—-HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. 391 indigenous race and that it was ante-mortem. Broca concluded that such an operation was performed for extravasation of blood in the cranium from a number of causes~—wounds, punctured fracture, violent inflammation, suppuration, delirium, coma, etc.—just as is done by our surgeons to-day. I have also pictures of ten huacos potteries of La Plata Museum, Argentina, which Dr. Lehman-Nitsche submitted to me. As will be seen also by a reference to those of the Bandelier Collection of the American Museum, New York, while amputation of the feet is often represented, in not one single pot is there a hand amputated. Dr. Polakowsky raised the point that if these amputations were due to disease there should be representations of amputated hands as well as feet. But he overlooked the important fact that then the soul of the departed could not reach out his hand for the wine or water- bottles which are necessary for his future life in the grave or for his four days of journey to Paradise. The whole intent of putting these little bottles in the grave with the corpse is to keep death from becoming definite. A fand/ess soul representation would destroy their religious belief. Therefore, even if the hand of the corpse was amputated, they would put on the image they buried with that corpse, good hands to help the individual in the other world. * Dr. Carrasquilla was of opinion that these amputation represen- tations do not treat of disease at all, but of punished criminals ; that for little faults they cut off the nose and upper lip, and when they punished ‘‘relapsers’’ they amputated also the feet, for the purpose of hindering them from committing new crimes or to keep them from running away. Dr. Carrasquilla promised to send documentary proofs of this belief of his, but they were found to be totally insufficient to prove his point. Dr. William Von den Steinen has consulted all the lit- erature of South America, like, for example, the works of Cieza de Leon, of Garcilaso de le Vega, and he has zof been able to find indications of mutilations that prove that the representations on the clay figures have been produced by punishments which had been applied to the individuals. He believes that they refer to the rep- resentations of a disease. Mr. Sttibel participated in the same belief. Mr. Bastian and Mr. Middendorf thought that they treated simply of punishments applied to criminals. Mr. Seler believed that leprosy had existed in pre-Columbian d/exico, because of the '‘ 392 ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. [Noyv. 20, well-known word ‘‘ teococolitzli,’’ which was applied to leprosy and to skin diseases generally! Mr. Jiminez de la Espada gave the question a new turn, that he did not believe that leprosy nor ele- phantiasis (its variety) had been of pre-Spanish origin in Peru; there were no documentary proofs known to him which supported such opinion, and he was not in accord with the opinion of Carras- quilla, Bastian and Middendorf, who thought they treated of criminals and beggars. He claimed that they did not apply muti- lations of the body as punishment, unless death was intended to follow them, and that there were no beggars at all among the Incans, due to their social order so perfect. According to his judgment, these vessels, or better said these votive figures, repre- sented a disease special to Peru, an endemic variety of tuberculo- sis (‘‘ llaga’’ or ‘‘ hutta—uta’’). Mr. Espada knew only one note in the old literature which refers to mutilations of the lips and the nose. ‘‘ The reyezuelos 6 caracas of the Isle of Puna mutilated in this way their eunuchs, for the purpose of making them unattrac- tive to the concubines.’’ Zarate relates it (Wistorre de la decou- verte et de la Conguete du Perou, translated from the Spanish of Augustin de Zarate by S. D. C.; first Vol., Paris, by the Com- pagnée des Libraries, M.D.CC.XLII, with the privilege of the King, page 25): ‘‘Le Seigneur de cette isle (de Puna) était fort crainte et fort respecte par ses sujets, et si jaloux que tous ceux qui étoient commis a la garde de ses femmes, et méme tous les domes- tiques de sa maison, étoient eunuques; et on coupoit non seule- ment les parties qui servent a la generation mais pour les defigurer on leur coupoit aussi le nez.”’ Oviedo says that the lips also were sometimes amputated. Herrera mentions no mutilation. Nor do Rivero and Tschudi (Antigiiedades peruanas, Vienna, 1851). Bas- tian (Die Culturlinde des Altes America, Berlin, 1878, Tom. 1, P- 593) says the same as Oviedo, that ‘‘ they also amputated the nose and lips, so that they would not present a seductive appear- ance.’’ Prof. Virchow formulated his judgment, saying that he neither believed that they treated of punished criminals, because it was not related in the literature. Besides there exists statues of wood’ of prisoners, derived from the Isla Chincha (Guana isles); two are well preserved, one great and the other small. The great one is on foot, the little one is represented as a truncated body. On V (See Virchow, Verhandlungen, 1873.) 1903.] ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. : 3898 both figures the arms are held arranged behind, like a person who listens tranquilly. The large idol has a cord round the neck, which is tied in front by a coarse knot. One of the ends of the cord goes down to the stomach. The nose in both takes the form of an eagle’s beak. David Forbes says these wooden idols represent prisoners holding a cord or a serpent to the neck. Forbes and H. B. Frank suppose that they have thus symbolized syphilis, a disease original to the mountains of Peru and characteristic of the alpaca or llama, an animal which transmitted it to man by unnatural vice. Neither of these idols nor those described by Weiner represent mutilated nose and lips. ‘Therefore a// prisoners were not punished by amputation of nose and lips. (See rich col- lection in La Plata Museum.) Polakowsky divides all these vessels into groups: 1. Clay figures representing mutilation of nose, of pathologic origin; 2. Those where it is doubtful whether they treat of disease or of surgical operation. | Polakowsky does not think they treat of punished criminals, be- cause he has searched for data in the literature and failed to find such. He lived twenty-five years in South America. Von den Steinen found in the Royal Museum of Berlin representant vases of heads and entire bodies, one of them stretched on his belly, the other on the knees or with the legs crossed. All had mutilations of the point of the nose and the greater part of the upper lip. In four of the pieces the feet were lacking, on the others the lower part of the body was covered with a cloth which enveloped it from the hips, in a manner which made one think they also had lost the feet. Now in ceramics too: First, we have types undoubtedly of pris- oners, representing a person on foot with hands behind and bound with a cord, but no other indication to show that it treats of a pris- oner. Secondly, aprisoner on his knees, halting, or sitting with the feet crossed. Moreover, he has a cord tied around his neck. A third represents the serpent eating a certain part of his body (penis), while his hands are tied behind hisback. But in zome of these clay figures which represent undoubtedly prisoners, was there mutilation of any part of the face or of the body.. The testimony of the huacos potteries, therefore, is to the effect that the Old Incans did not mutilate their prisoners by amputation of the feet. Moreover, in PROC. AMER. PHILOS, 80C. XLII. 174. AA. PRINTED JAN. 30, 1904. 394 ASHMEAD—HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. [Noy. 20, these ceramics whenever amputation of feet is represented (for the flaps are shown) there is evidence of disease in the face. Does there exist such a disease of the face, which would also affect the feet to require amputation of them and both equally? Yes! I believe that the amputated feet of the huacos potteries have relation with the mutilations represented on the face. Mr. Ambrosetti (Vota de Arquelogia Calchagit Instituto Geogra- phico-Argentina, tomo xvii) thinks that the stumps are due to the imperfect work of the artist, like in Calchaque idols, whose feet are are not moulded in form at all. But then there are images shown stretched on the belly, apparently intended to be shown in a helpless condition! I have seen one representing a person who was dressing his stump with a cup of medicine, the stump thrown | across the opposite leg; and besides there are the flaps shown and also that foot specimen itself, like a foot that had been cut off. Some of these amputated figures are represented with the hand ex- tended for alms ; some hold a stick to creep or hobble with on their knees, with their feet cut off. In the images of the La Plata Museum, shown among the ten which I print in this article, it can be seen by the originals (for all the kneeling figures are without feet, the ends of their limbs show- ing flap-stumps as if amputated, which cannot be seen by a front view) that in no case is amputation represented without the image showing a diseased face. Now the ancient Incans cut off the hands and ears of prisoners, but not the feet. Yet this mutilation of hands and ears is not shown by a single specimen of pottery that I have seen, and besides I believe that they never buried a c/ay soud-. figure with such a criminal. TZhey wanted him to die. ‘The pot buried with him would keep him alive. In a report of the Viceroy, Dr. Martin Henriquez, of the year 1582, which mentions the manner of government of Peru, the cus- toms and usages of the Incas, and where it is said in a general way that amputation of limbs was a punishment of criminals, he goes on to say: ‘‘ But in my opinion such amputations were no simple bodily punishment which left the sufferer alive, but a kind of capi- tal execution like hanging, or other like.” The text, which is here translated literally, says: ‘‘ Executions were public and very crude. Some were precipitated from rocks (of Andean precipices), others had their limbs amputated, etc.’’ Von den Steinen says: ‘‘As to the mutilations of the legs, whether ‘ 1903.) ASHMEAD—-HUACOS POTTERIES OF OLD PERU. 395 it be amputation or disease we have no case made out. In all Peruvian vases where feet are represented they are easy to be recog- nized as such. ‘The accuracy in the rendering goes even so far that in some representations of persons with tucked-under legs the form of the feet is expressed on the bottom of the vase. That the Old Peruvians liked to find in their vessels the forms of persons affected with remarkable manifestations of disease is shown also in the Berlin collection, by the large number of them blind, one- eyed, with lop-sided jaws, etc. As to the finding places of these vases, they are unfortunately not safely established, the greatest part has the indication of Chimbote, and besides there is Trujillo and Chancay.”’ I point out, in conclusion, here that the influence of cold of the Andean heights might have had to do with the necessity of ampu- tation of feet. There was a great deal of barefoot walking in Incan climates, while the hands would be better clad. We must renounce, however, the giving of a positive judgment as to the mutilations of the feet of Old Peruvians. So far no other explana- tion has been found but a pathological one. Prof. Bandelier wrote me from Lake Titicaca, where he was engaged in explorations for the American Museum: ‘‘ All the Pachacamac remains, a few specimens perhaps excepted, which I cannot now remember, belong to the so-called Yunca (hot country) or coast Indian type of artifacts, and they are certainly anterior in date to 1532. Ido not wish to be understood to say that all the Pachacamac finds to be made, or made previously, are not post- Columbian ; but the site where I caused the excavations to be made and the depth at which the objects were taken out, point to the conclusion that my finds are indeed pre-Columbian, or at least with very few exceptions only. The human foot alone and in appear- ance amputated is not rare among coast pottery, and the Museum must have another one sent by me from Lambayeque, with its sandal perfectly normal as well as handsomely ornamented. I remember having ‘seen other specimens of the same description. But none of them were deformed as the Pachacamac foot is. ‘¢ The deformed faces on the pottery are generally regarded as representations of syphilis, and I never heard leprosy mentioned in connection with them.” This is what I read of the ancient languages of Old Peruvians as written in their graves: There was never a migration of these dis- 396 MINUTES. [Dec. 18, eases from Asia, nor did their religious beliefs about the soul emanate’ from Asia. The surgery of ancient America was not of Asiatic deri- vation. The civilization or culture-growth of ancient Peruvians was purely an American institution which had developed from preéxisting savages on ‘this hemisphere. New YorK, 333 W. 23d St. Stated M eeting, December 18, 1903. President SmirH in the Chair. The list of donations to the Library was laid on the table, _ and thanks were ordered for them. The decease of the following members was announced: G Rev. Henry Clay Trumbull, D.D., at Philadelphia, on December 8, xt. 73. | Dr. Gustave Schlegel, at Leyden. Mr. Rosengarten presented a communication on “The — Earl of Crawford’s MS. Gakic) in the Library of the Ameri- _ can Philosophical Society.’’ : a Dr. Leonard Pearson was introduced by the President, and | presented a paper on ‘‘The Animal Industries of the United . States.’’ The President delivered his ‘‘ Annual Address.’’ 1903.) ROSENGARTEN—EARL OF CRAWFORD’S MS. HISTORY. 397 THE EARL OF CRAWFORD’S MS. HISTORY IN THE LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN PHILO- SOPHICAL SOCIETY. BY JOSEPH G. ROSENGARTEN. (Read December 18, 1903.) In the Library of the American Philosophical Society there are four folio MS. volumes, in old binding with clasps, but with noth- ing on the Library records to show how they ever got there. The 1st volume is labeled ‘‘ Account of Some Campaigns of the British Army from 1689 to 1712, and Journal of a Campaign under Prince Eugene on the Upper Rhine, and Miscellaneous Papers.’’ The 2d and 3d volumes, ‘‘ Journal of a Voyage from the Thames to Russia, and of Campaigning with the Russian Army, 1738-9.”’ The 4th volume, ‘‘ Journal of a Campaign with the Russian Army against Turkey, 1739.”’ They are all in admirable condition, in uniform clerkly clear thandwriting, and with a large number of fine maps, executed by Henry Képp by order of the Earl of Crawford, and inscribed to the King of England, Lord Loudoun and other noted persons high in command in the British army. The 1st volume contains: “ast. ‘*A Short Treatise of Fortification and Geometry,”’’ pp. ‘33. 2d. “A Method of Discipline proposed for the Behaviour of a Regiment of Foot upon action,’’ pp. 29. 3d. ‘*An Account of the most remarkable Transactions which happened in the Campaigns I made from the Year 1689 to the Con- clusion of the Peace of Ryswick in 1697.’’ It begins as follows: ‘‘The Regiment I served in is very well known by the Title it bears of the Royal Regiment of Foot in Ireland, from which Regt. I may without Vanity say our British Infantry had the Ground- work of their present Discipline.’’ It describes Schomberg’s Irish campaign of 1689, pp. 12; then the campaigns of 1694-5-6-7, pp- 14. Then, 4th, The Campaigns of 1702-12, pp. 63. Then, 5th, comes ‘‘ A Journal and Remarkable Observations dur- ing Three Campaigns made by a friend to the Trade of War, in Three Volumes. Vol. First: Journal of a Campaign made with the Imperial Army under the Command of Prince Eugene of Savoy on 898 ROSENGARTEN—EARL OF CRAWFORD’S MS. HISTORY. [Dec. 18, the Upper Rhine in the Year 1735.’’ It beginsin London, May 24, 1735, pp- 87, and closes: ‘‘I shall conclude this Campaign with the inserting a few usefull Papers I collected during the Operations of it, and of the following (I dare venture to say) exact Plan of the Country we march’d over.’’ Then follow twelve well-executed maps or plans giving the successive positions of the armies, the last an elephant folio map of the Rhine from Coblenz to Carlsruhe. 6th. ‘‘ The following March Root [szc] ordered by Prince Eugene . . . . Tinsert asa Model... . of a very difficult part of Duty in the Trade of War,’’ pp. 5. 7th. ‘‘ Un detail exact et bien calculée [szc] de ce que coutoit par mois en 1681 la plus florissante marine que la France aie ene,’’ pp. 8. 8th. ‘ Un Traittes Touchant Les Conquétes qu’on pourroit faire en Amerique sur la Maison de Bourbon au cas que la Guerre devienne generale et qui seuls peuvent retablir 1’Equilibre de l’Europe,’’ pp. 6. gth. ‘‘ Tabulated Lists of the French Army in 1735.”’ roth. ‘‘ Reflexions sur les Evenemens de la Mosellé,’”’ pp. 2 [imperfect ]. 11th. ‘‘ Treaty and Cartell made and Concluded between His Im- perial and Catholick Majesty on the one part, and his most Chris- tian Majesty on the other, concerning their Prisoners of War in their Armies on the Rhine, 1735,’’ pp. 16. t2th. ‘The Troops in the Black Forest, Friburg and Brisac— Specifications of the Imperial Regiments 1735. A List of the Im- perial Regiments both Horse and Foot, the Names of the Comis- sioned Officers, Comanders and Agents, together with the Num- bers of men in each Compleat Regt.,; and the places where they are now,’’ pp. 24. On the fly leaves are a tailor’s bill in German and some heads of letters, etc. The 2d and 3d volumes are labeled ‘‘ Journal of a Voyage from the Thames to Russia and of Campaigning with the Russian Army.” It begins at Gravesend, April 13, 1738, and contains personal expenses, phrases in English, German and Russian, maps, drawings of scenes, camps, etc., and.a sermon on Peter the Great. The 2d vol. pp. 287, the 3d vol. pp. 398. There are eighteen maps of sieges, operations, defences of Belgrade, etc., etc. One of the maps is dedicated to George the Second. The 4th volume opens with ist. ‘©A Tabular List of the Imperial Troops in 1737,’’ followed by (in French) za a « 1903.) ROSENGARTEN—EARL OF CRAWFORD’S MS. HISTORY. 399 2d. ‘‘ Journal of the Hungarian Campaign of 1737,” with General Orders, Maps, etc. 3d. ‘‘ Relation des Operations de la Campagne 1738,’’ by Cheva- lier de Forrestier, Captain of the Regiment of the King’s Infantry. 4th. ‘‘A Diary of the Army under the Duke of Lothringen, 1738-9 ’’ (in German). The bills for personal expenses are made out to the Earl of Craw- ford, and this is the only identification. These volumes were no doubt prepared by his secretary, under his direction, as material for establishing the record of his services for preservation in the family archives, and for use in a posthumous biography. The author and owner of these MS. volumes was John Lindsay, ' twentieth Earl of Crawford. The ational Dictionary of Biogra- phy gives, in Vol. 38, p. 305, etc., the following sketch of his life: 1702-1749. ‘‘ After attending the Universities of Glasgow and Ed- inburgh, he was sent in 1721 to the Military Academy of Vau- dreuil, Paris. In 1726 he was appointed to a company in one of the additional troops of the Scotch Greys. He early acquired a reputation for resolution and daring, and while not neglecting intel- lectual accomplishments, attained exceptional proficiency in athletic - exercises, especially in shooting, fencing, riding and dancing. On the disbandment of the additional troops of Scots Greys in 1730, he .. . . devoted his more serious attention to military studies and his leisure to boating and hunting. On January 3, 1732, he obtained command of a troop of the 7th Queen’s own regiment of dragoons, .. . . in February, 1734, he obtained a captain lieu. tenancy in the rst regiment of foot-guards, and in October a cap- taincy in the 3d regiment of foot-guards, but being desirous of acquiring practical acquaintance with the art of war, he got permis- sion, in 1735, to join the Imperial army under Prince Eugene. He specially distinguished himself at the battle of Claussen on October 17. In April, 1738, he sailed from Gravesend to St. Petersburg, and having received from the Czarina Anna the command of a regiment of horse, with the rank of general, he, after a perilous journey of one thousand miles, joined the army of Marshal Munich, then engaged in a war against the Turks. He soon acquired great proficiency in the mode of warfare practiced by the Russians. . . . . After the retreat of Munich to Kiow, Crawford left him and joined the Imperialists near Belgrade. When the army went into winter ; 400 ROSENGARTEN—-EARL OF CRAWFORD’S MS. HISTORY. [Dee. 18, quarters, he accompanied Prince Eugene’s regiment to Comorn, and thence proceeded to Vienna, still occupying his leisure princi- pally in military studies. In April he rejoined the Imperialists at Peterwardein under Marshal Wallis. ... . He left in August, 1741, and returned to England. In July, 1731, he had been made colonel of horse and adjutant-general ; in October, Colonel of the 42d Highlanders, and in December, Colonel of the Grenadier Gard. 2. aye In May, 1743, he joined the army under the Earl ~of Stair at Hochstet, when he was made colonel of the Scotch troop of horse guard and adjutant-general. At the battle of Det- tingen, on June 16, he commanded the brigade of life-guards, . with the rank of brigadier-general. He joined the allied army near Brussels in the following May, and at the battle of Fon- tenoy, April 30, 1745, he succeeded ... . in so covering the retreat that it was effected in perfect order. On 30th May follow- ing he was made a major-general. On the outbreak of the rebellion in Scotland in 1745, he was appointed by the government to the command of six thousand Hessians, with whom he secured the towns of Perth and Sterling and the passes into the lowlands. ... . He rejoined the army in the Netherlands. On the day of the battle of Roncroux, October 5, 1746, he was surprised while reconnoitring, but coolly assuming the character of a French general, ... . was permitted to pass unmolested... .. In December he was appointed to the command of the 25th foot .... on May 20, 1747, to that of the Scots Greys, and on September 20 was made a lieutentant-general. .... Crawford joined the Duke of Cumber- land in the campaign of 1748. .... Returning after the peace to London, he died there September 20, 1749.” The Dictionary of National Biography refers to ‘‘ Memoirs of the Life of the Right Hon. John Lindsay, Earl of Crawford and Lindsay, by Richard H[should be RJolt, London, 1753, 4to,’’ reprinted in 1769, under the title ‘‘ Memoirs of the Life of the late Rt. Hon. John Earl of Crawford, describing many of the high- est achievements of the late wars,’’ and ‘‘ Lord Lindsay’s Lives of the Lindsays, London, 1849, 3 volumes, 8vo.’’ In Vol. 2, p. 235, etc., there is a sketch of his life, and on p. 237 a note says: ‘‘ The diary of this journal [¢.e¢., from Petersburg to General Munich’s quarters |, dictated by Lord Crawford and corrected by his own hand, a large folio, is now in my possession, with various other journals and military MS., the bequest of my kind relative, Lady 193] ROSENGARTEN—EARL OF CRAWFORD’S MS. HISTORY. 401 Mary Lindsay Crawford, sister of the last Earl of Crawford of the Byres line.’’ The full title of Rolt’s book is ‘‘ Memoirs of the Life of the late Right Honorable John Lindesay, Earl of Craufurd and Lindesay, Lord Lindesay of Glenesk and Lord Lindesay of the Byers, one of the sixteen Peers of Scotland, Lieutenant General of his Majesty’s Forces, and Colonel of the Royal North British Grey Dragoons, by Richard Rolt, author of The True History of the Late War. London, Printed for Henry Képp; and sold by Mr. Newberry, in St. Paul’s Church Yard ; Mr. Owen, at Temple Bar; and Mr. Paterson, in the Strand. 1753, 4to, pp. 432, with appendix.” Much of this book is a reprint of the principal parts of the four MSS. yolumes inthe Library of the American Philosophical Society, viz. : . Chapter 2. An account of the rise of the war between the Emperor and France in 1733 to the campaign on the Rhine in 1735, when the Earl of Craufurd served as a volunteer under Prince Eugene and Count Seckendorff; the action at Claussen ; and the end of the war. Chapter 3. The rise of the war between the Russians and the Turks in 1736, wherein the Imperialists were auxiliary to the former; the state of those empires, with a short account of the campaigns in Tartary and Hungary in the years 1736-7. Chapter 4. An account of the Earl of Craufurd’s preparations for the Russian campaign of 1738; his voyage to St. Petersburg; | his reception at that Court, and his journey from thence to the Russian army in Bessarabia. His reception by Feldt-marshal Munich; an account of the Tartars; as also of the campaign in Turkey, and the Earl of Craufurd’s journey to the Imperial army in Hungary. His reception by the Grand Duke of Tuscany, an account of the campaign in Hungary, and his lordship’s journey to Vienna. Book III, Chap. 1. The campaigns of 1739, containing the journal of the campaign in Hungary, together with a general plan of the whole, which was generally printed for this work by his Royal Highness Prince Charles of Lorraine ; as also an account of the same campaign written by the Earl of Craufurd, with a descrip- tion of the battles of Krotza and Panscora; to which is added a short detail of the Russian campaign, with his lordship’s observa- 402 ROSENGARTEN—EARE OF CRAWFORD’S MS. HISTORY. [Dec. 18, tions on the whole and several plans drawn under the direction of his lordship. No. 1. The journal of all the motions made by the Imperial and Turkish armies, from the opening of the campaign in 1739 until the peace of Belgrade; together with a plan of operations. ... . No. 2. A description of the battle of Krotzka, .... with observations . . . . by the late Earl of Craufurd. Chapter 2. A short introduction to the siege of Belgrade; a journal of the siege, wrote under the direction of the Earl of Crau- - furd. Chapter 3. . . . A journal of his voyage up the Danube from Belgrade to Vienna... .. Book IV, Chapter 1. His journey to Milan and Genoa in 1743, when he joined the Austrian army commanded by Marshal Traun . his campaign of 1743 in Germany and the battle of Det- Chapter 2... . The campaign in Flanders in 1744... . his opinion at a council of war. .... Chapter 3. His remarks on the opening of the campaign in 1745, and his account of the battle of Fontenoy. Chapter 4. His conduct toward suppressing the rebellion in Scotland. The campaign of 1746 in the Netherlands, with a par- ticular instance of the respect shown to his lordship by Marshal Saxe... . his remarks on the battle of Roticoux. A short account of the campaign of 1747 in the Netherlands, and of that of 1748. The author of the maps, both in this Life and in the MS. volumes, is Henry Képp, for whom the Life was printed. He was secretary and draughtsman for Lord Crawford, although Rolt says in his Life of Crawford, on p. 87, that ‘‘the Earl’s greatest amusement (in his periods of inactivity) was in revising his journal . . . . making observations of what he had seen, and in embellishing the plans of the marches and encampments of which he had been a spectator.’’ Rolt says (p. 116, etc.) that he sent eleven horses to Vienna, following (on the advice of Prince Cantemir, the Russian Ambassa- dor to England) five months later, with three servants and as many horses and three friends, who were desirous of acting as volunteers. . One of the maps, that of the operations on the Danube in tee campaign of 1739, is dedicated to General Oglethorpe by Henry Képp; three others printed in the Life, and identical with those in the MS. volumes, are dedicated to the Earl of Loudoun: ita Det ee ae el ie i le 1903.] ROSENGARTEN—EARL OF CRAWFORD’S MS. HISTORY. 403 ‘* A View of the Imperial and Turkish Armies . . . . at Winscha’”’; but even more curious is the ‘‘ Plan designated by the Earl to shew the disposition in w™ his lordship conceived the Imperial Army might have been formed, on its Junction with Count Neuperg’s Corps, during the night between between the 22nd and 23rd of July 1739; in w™ situation... . it would have been more eligi- ble to have renewed the Battle against the Turks, on the 23d, than for the Imperialists to retreat as they did in the night time of the a3d.”” There are, however, many original maps in the MSS. volumes, not reproduced in the Life, no doubt owing to the expense. At p. 430 of the Life, Rolt says Lord Craufurd ‘‘ designed and drew plans with such great accuracy, that he beautifully represented all the heights, and the hollows; every small break, every ditch, hedge, bush, and other obstruction, which could in the least, in- commode an army forming in the line of battle, in its movements ; whereby any person, a little acquainted with drawing, could easily perceive which of the armies had the advantage of the ground, and which of them had improved it the most for their own security.” Further, ‘‘ He was of the opinion that it would be a great advantage . to introduce archery into our armies . . . . each battalion should have from twenty to four or five score able bodied men, who had been trained to shoot at butts, from their youth... . to en- courage young men to train themselves to the use and exercise of these weapons .... to... . be detached a little before the front of the first line to throw their arrows among the enemy’s cavalry, after which they should lay aside their bows and quivers, and fall in with their small arms, with their battalions.’’ He also advised the use of heavy firearms ‘‘ such as were used by the Span- iards under the Duke of Alva, which they levelled upon the rest of a fork fixed to the piece by a swivel, for these arms carried a very heavy shot and did execution at a great distance.”’ How did these MSS. volumes come to this country and to the Library of the American Philosophical Society? Were they used by Rolt in preparing his Life of Lord Crawford, or had Lord Crawford a number of copies of his MSS., all enriched by maps and plans, and bound under lock and key? These curious volumes ought to be in the Library of the United States Military Academy at West Point, or in that of the General Staff College, soon to be opened in Washington, for they constitute a contemporary docu- o 1 RE EE eR Se ae | en: 3 on i) aa : , bya ts 404 ROSENGARTEN—EARL OF peteoees MS. HISTORY. (Dee. 18, ment of value to students of military history. The Philosophical Society would no doubt be glad to exchange them for books bet suited to its peaceful scientific pursuits and to its legend, prescrib by its great founder, Franklin, ‘‘ For promoting useful knowledge.”” Pr yy OBITUARY NOTICES OF MEMBERS DECEASED. JOSEPH MILLER WILSON, A.M.,C.E. (Read May 1, 1903.) To meet Joseph M. Wilson in ordinary intercourse afforded an opportunity to learn of the good, true and beautiful in human nature; to know him better, in relation to the sciences and arts, was a privilege fraught with instruction, aid and a constant pro- gression onward and upward toward greater knowledge of things as they are ; to know him spiritually, to recognize the Holy Spirit of Truth within him dominating all else, was to feel the influence of that more profound, ennobling, holier enlightenment, based upon sincerity and Divine purpose, which ‘‘ shines reflected in the human face.’’ To adequately appreciate the strength and force of character which lay back of his admirable work, it is important to recall some of the conditions which brought it about, for, from the varied stand- points of heredity, individual endowment, education and oppor- tunity, Mr. Wilson was favored above many, and the excellent use he made of what he possessed appeals to the very best that philosophy can recognize. Joseph M. Wilson was a worthy member of a long line of men eminent in professional walks of life, notably as experts in the engi- neering profession, each of whom had made his mark in public service by ability founded upon integrity, and inspired by a pro- gressive spirit which, while ignoring nothing in nature, conserving the best from the past, ever led onward toward the further better- ment of men and things. His earliest American ancestor was Robert Gibbes (1644-1715), who came from his native place, Barbadoes, to the Province of South Carolina; was Chief Justice of that Province (1708) and Governor (1710-1712). His great-great-grandfather was James Wilson, an engineer and architect of Stirling,’ Scotland, whose son John Wilson (1755-1798) was Lieutenant in the Seventy-first Brit- ish Foot (Highlanders), and served throughout the American Revo- lutionary War as an engineer under Major Moncrief, of the Royal il : OBITUARY NOTICES. Engineers ; was wounded at the siege of Charleston ; later on mar- ried there a daughter of Dr. Robert Wilson, a prominent physician of that place, and eventually returned to Scotland. In the next generation, John Wilson (1789, Scotland—1833, ‘America), the grandfather of the subject of this sketch, having completed his education at the University of Edinburgh, returned (1807) to his mother’s native land, and entered upon the profession of engineer and surveyor in Charleston. His professional thor- oughness and accuracy are matters of record to this day. A map of South Carolina made by him for the State Government is yet considered the standard authority for all but subsequent improve- ments. He became a naturalized citizen of the United States at an early period, and during the war with Great Britain (1812) served as engineer for the construction of the works of defense of the city of Charleston; held office of State Civil and Military Engineer for South Carolina under Board of Public Works (1818— 1822), and in, 1826 removed to Philadelphia, from which time Major John Wilson became identified, as Chief Engineer, with that extensive system of improvements for the State of Pennsyl- vania which during his life materialized in the Philadelphia & Columbia Railroad. Of his son, William Hasell Wilson (1811- 1902), who followed directly in his father’s footsteps, the important and enduring work performed by him is still fresh in the memory of many yet living. He was closely identified with the onward march and development of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company’s system from its very infancy, when with his father’s corps in 1826 ; through the formative period of the organization, when the standard was set for high achievement which has since obtained; through the Civil.War period, when, as Chief Engineer of the Pennsylvania Railroad, his Department of Maintenance and Construction was called upon to preserve intact the highway itself for the transporta- tion of armies and munitions of war as well as the general public and freight traffic; through to the end of a professional career, embracing many positions of trust and responsibility, of excep- tional usefulness and duration (actual service, seventy-six years). William Hasell Wilson was finally looked upon as the Nestor of his profession, respected, honored, followed, served by many a younger man _of-his-own corps who..can. to-day rise up and -call his name blessed.: Such were some of the anUEEBEEA? which cr “pas + the subject of this sketch. JOSEPH MILLER WILSON, ili Joseph M. Wilson possessed by heredity those inestimable privi- leges and advantages which come from things of good repute in ‘professional life and practice. He was keenly sensitive in uphold- ing the high standard and family traditions thus bequeathed unto him, and he did so with a constancy and fidelity unto himself quite above the control of policies and politics, either secular or religious, which he did not approve. Born at Phoenixville, Pa. (June 20, 1838); passed a portion of his youth upon his father’s farm, Chester county, Pa.; attended private schools, and entered the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N. Y. (September, 1854). After graduation, with degree of C. E. (1858), took a special course of two years in Analytical Chemistry with Prof. F. A. Genth, at Philadelphia, and in March, 1860, entered the service of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company as Assistant Engineer. His services with that company covered the important period when the introduction of cast and wrought iron, and later on steel, in lieu of the previous wood-construction for bridges and buildings, involved much original research and experiments more or less novel to the profession. Mr. Wilson was among the early investigators to apply such -in actual practice, and became a valued source of information and experience in each of the three departments of this development, viz., mathematical investigation involving the theory of strains, the development of designs, and work executed. His technical papers, published then and later on, form part of the history and literature of the profession in the United States. He held various positions in the service of the company in line of pro- motion, and as Engineer of Bridges and Buildings embraced oppor- tunities involving increased responsibility by the embodiment of new ideas in construction. He continued in that service until 1886, during which time he constructed, among many works, the original Broad Street Station, Philadelphia, which for purity indesign was eminently character- istic of him. As early as 1873, when the National Congress and citizens at large became interested in the approaching international celebration of the first centennial of the nation, Mr. Wilson at once took an active part, both as citizen and professionally....Later on, after -the adoption of the design for the Main Building, which was finally erected in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, he became associated with lV OBITUARY NOTICES. the writer of this sketch in the building thereof. The Machinery Hall, the first of such dimensions and pretensions in the history of the country, was subsequently designed and erected under similar auspices, Mr. Wilson taking the leading part. The execution of works having international significance and relations in any field of effort is apt to produce a desire, an impetus to greater comprehensive effort, embodying collateral information and more extended professional skill and practice. Mr. Wilson embodied this progressive spirit in a pre-eminent degree, his quali- fications for such progress being excellent, his standard of the highest, his spirit confident. His success which followed is asso- ciated with that of his brothers, under the firm-name of Wilson Bros. & Co. (organized 1876), of which he was for many years the senior member. The scope of his work in this relation embraced a field exceptionally large, under auspices much varied, and in loca- tions far distant in other countries; the variety of information necessary to attainment not confined to technical matters, but in- volving special studies of diverse character, not a few of which resulted in published papers giving much specific data for reference as well as professional opinion. Some of these papers were pre- pared to aid philanthropy in general, and not only those engaged in the actual construction of buildings. The scope of his work thus became in time very extensive. Whether in the designing and erection of hospitals or of banking buildings, of comprehensive systems of shops for railroad corpora- tions or structures for industrial enterprises ; whether buildings for administrative purposes or Union Depots; whether as engineer or architect, in consultation or for expert testimony, in reference to elevated railways in cities, the water-supply of cities, or the mam- moth suspension bridges connecting adjacent centres of population ; whether as engineer of subways under municipal control, or as trustee for carrying out of bequests to institutes for the education of future generations; whether as President of the Franklin Insti- tute for ten years, or as member of learned societies, both at home or abroad ; whether as author of technical papers for the British Institution of Civil Engineers, London, or as an American author bringing home from France and England his study of trade-schools to improve their construction and administration here—in all these Joseph M. Wilson took part. His constant desire was for a more comprehensive and advanced wie > ;, =, oe | eS ee JOSEPH MILLER WILSON. Vi knowledge of actual facts and powers in nature, ever with a view to their direct application in new phases of work, and this kept him in touch with investigation in many fields. He was never visionary ; imagination was not his strong point, not even in his moments of relaxation, when music (the organ in particular), painting or photography were cultivated because of the fine-art appreciation which they called for. Yet few recognized more than he what scientific research contains, potentially, for further advancement by co-operation toward the revelation of truth in unity. From his point of view this was the highest ideal as to material things, fer se, demanding constant touch with the progress of the age, and treatment both subjective and objective in life-work. To study, control and utilize the forces of nature was his busi- ness in life, and he did so according to the most approved methods. If this were all, this tribute to his memory might well close at this point with one phrase: a man of high cultivation and refined feel- ing, an eminent engineer, whose works do follow him. With him, however, this was not all. It was not all of life to live and work— not by any means, neither in science nor religion. To those who knew him best his personality was most sympa- thetic, responsive and pure in communication. He was never idle, but constantly seeking in the domain of fine art and kindred fields to gratify a refined taste and keen appreciation of the beautiful as well as the good and true, thus producing impressions which ap- pealed through their spiritual import. These traits characterized his moral nature as forcibly as the more exact sciences and arts appealed to his intellect. His numerous descriptive manuscripts of travel, containing sketches and illustrations drawn on the spot from nature, are as a mine of wealth to those left behind. These studies of nature in its refined aspects—the optimism in nature— touched a chord which vibrated with still higher harmonies. With him the progressive spirit was not only onward but upward toward the eminent domain of theologic aspect—theology the queen of all sciences. No one realized his own limitations better than himself, but the ideal he ever held before him was fundamentally not subject to limi- tations, being neither more nor less than the Divine Personality who had said unto him, ‘‘I am the way, the truth and the life. Follow me.’’ This dictum was to Joseph M. Wilson the most profound vil OBITUARY NOTICES. yet comprehensive, from any point of view, ever uttered to hu- manity. He endeavored to lead the life thereby called for, and his . works certainly do follow him, as he followed that ideal. He was kindness and love itself, even unto self-sacrifice—constant and enduring in good effort. In one word, the life and career of Joseph M. Wilson manifested in well-balanced harmony the two conditions, material and spirit- ual, which call forth the best within a man as the wisdom of this age now perceives the truth in things as they are—viz., a sound, reasonable basis (scientific) for physical needs and intellectual life in all he studied, designed, advocated and executed—this being an up-to-date application of truth as natural science now recognizes it ; also, a marked spiritual discernment of truth progressiveas manifested in and through the religious consciousness of humanity under the ever-active ministry of the Holy Spirit of Truth in man himself— an inner life of good thoughts, giving utterance in good words, good deeds—an example of one who did follow in sincerity on- ward and upward toward the brightest and best. Mr. Wilson married (1869) Sarah Dale Pettit, daughter of Judge Thomas McKean Pettit; great-granddaughter of Col. Charles Pettit and of Commodore Richard Dale, of Revolutionary memory, and of Chief Justice and Governor Thomas McKean, signer. He left one daughter, Mrs. John T. Gibson, of New York. His domestic virtues were as beautiful, steadfast and altruistic as his professional life was admirable, sincere and progressive. He passed away in full belief of that higher existence in which there is “activity for all our powers, and power for all our activities.”’ March 23, 190}. HEnry PETTIT. OBITUARY NOTICES. vil EXTRACT FROM THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. BY EDGAR F. SMITH. (Read December 18, 1903.) Amid the activities of the year, while we all have been busy in our several vocations, word has been passed from time to time that the grim Messenger had appeared in our circle and summoned to the silent majority not a few of our fellow-members. This roll included— Dr. CHARLES SCHAFFER, who was born in this city sixty-six years ago. He graduated from the Medical Department of the Univer- _ sity of Pennsylvania at the age of twenty-one. His poor health prevented him from devoting himself wholly to his chosen profes- sion. He was deeply interested in the natural sciences and their applications. He took an active part in the affairs of the Academy of Natural Sciences, the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, the Franklin Institute, the Photographic Society of Philadelphia, the American Association of Mining Engineers, and was particularly well known in the scientific world for his work in the field of bot- any. His knowledge of the local species of plants and shrubs was profound. He made a special study of the mountain flora of Brit- ish Columbia. He died November 23, 1903. Dr. THomas G. Morton was born in this city on August 8, 1835. After preparation in the city schools and the College of the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania he entered the Medical Department, from which he graduated in 1856. He devoted himself chiefly to general surgery and was a resident physician in the Pennsylvania Hospital for some time. He was one of the founders of the Polyclinic Hospital and the Orthopedic Hos- pital. His many services to the State on various boards and com- missions included the erection of the State Hospital for the Insane for the Southern District of Pennsylvania. In 1880 he was chosen President of the Pennsylvania Society for the Restriction of Vivisection and Vice-President of the Society to Protect Children from Cruelty. Dr. Morton had great success as a surgeon. His clinical lectures at the Pennsylvania Hospital were attended by thousands of students from all parts of the world. He was a member of various foreign and American professional bodies, Vill OBITUARY NOTICES. and a frequent contributor to journals of medicine. His own books are Zhe Transfusion of Blood and The Surgery of the Pennsylvania Hospita/, together with a history of the latter institution. He was actively engaged in public school work in this city, and for many years was a member of the Board’s most important committees. He was a member of the Academy of Natural Sciences and of the Union League. He died May 20, 1903, at Cape May. Rev. Henry CLay TRUMBULL was born in Connecticut, June 8, 1830. He received his education in Williston Seminary. In 1858 he became a missionary for the State Sunday School Association, which had its headquarters in Hartford. He was a chaplain in the Tenth Regiment in the Civil War. In 1863 he was taken prisoner before Fort Wagner and sent to the Charleston jail, later to Libbey Prison, where he was held for several months. Five of his books treat of his army experiences. They were Some Army Soldiers, The Knightly Soldier, A Biography of Major Lenry Ward Camp, The Captured Scout of the Army of the James and War Memoirs of an Army Chaplain. At the end of the war he returned to Sunday School work. In 1866 he received the degree of M.A. from Yale, and in 188r the degree of D.D. from Lafayette College, and the same degree from the University of New York in 1882. In 1875 he took charge of the Sunday School Times of this city, and during his editorial career wrote a number of books of a devotional character. He traveled in Egypt, Arabia and Syria, where he studied the track of the Exodus and identified the site of Kadash-Barnia. Following this sojourn abroad he prepared a number of volumes, some of which bear these titles, Zhe Zen Commandments as a Covenant of Love, Light on the : Story of Jonah, Subjects in Oriental Social Life, The Threshold Covenant, The Covenant of Saul, etc., etc. He died in this city on ‘December 8th. Pror. RopeERT H. THURSTON was born in Providence, R. I. In 1859 he graduated from Brown University with the degree of Civil Engineer. He served throughout the Civil War, beginning in 1861, being finally promoted to the position of chief engineer of one of the monitors. For six years he was an instructor in the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis. In 1871 he became Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the Stevens Institute of Technology. OBITUARY NOTICES. 1x This position he held until 1885, when he was called to the direc- torship of the Sibley College of Mechanic Arts at Cornell Univer. sity. His work in both of these institutions of learning was most successful. It was characterized by great energy and executive ability. In 1873 Dr. Thurston was United States Commissioner to the Vienna Exposition. In 1875 he was appointed a member of the United States Board to Test Metals. In connection with this work he devised a machine for torsional tests, and made numerous inves- tigations in the Mechanics of Materials. In 1883 he published a work in three volumes, bearing the title The Materials of Engineering. Other books by him, such as the Handbook of Engines and Boiler Trials, Stationary Steam Engines and Boiler Explosions, have had a wide circulation. His JZanual of the Steam Engine, in three volumes, was translated into French. Some of his other publications are Friction and Lubrication, Fric- tion and Lost Work, The Animal as a Machine and Prime Motor, and Zhe Life of Robert Fulton. His contributions to scientific and engineering periodicals ran up into the hundreds. He was a member of many scientific societies at home and abroad. He was one of the founders of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and its first President. He was a Vice-President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1877, 1878 and in 1884. The scientific and engineering work of Professor Thurston was of great benefit to mankind, for he made engineers better scientists, promoted engineering education, helped to put engineering upon a higher plane, and was constantly watching to dispel the fogs of pre- judice by help of the truths of science. He was the recipient of the honorary degree of LL.D. from his alma mater, and of the degree of Doctor of Engineering from Ste- vens Institute. ‘Tn all his relations to general University problems he exhibited the spirit of the scholar and the wisdom of the man of affairs. Serene in temper, sound in judgment, swift and certain in action, he justly exercised a weighty influence. ‘As a colleague he exhibited an interest in all good learning and bespoke a good scholar and a general fellow-worker. As a friend and companion, he manifested a cordial sympathy that attracted all who knew him and held them in the bonds of an increasing affec- x OBITUARY NOTICES. tion. In all the relations of life he moved upon the highest levels and showed forth the better qualities of our nature.’’ His loss falls heavily upon all—his colleagues, his friends and his University—but most heavily upon his family, with whom we deeply sympathize. WILLIAM VancentT McKean was born in Philadelphia, October 15, 1820, and died March 23, 1903. He was associate editor of the Pennsylvania with John W. Forney in 1852; chief clerk of the House of Representatives from 1853 to 1855 ; examiner of the Uni- ted States Patent Office ; private secretary to James Buchanan ; an editorial writer for the Philadelphia Inquirer and Public Ledger. He edited the Wational Almanac Record for 1864, and wrote a report favoring the money order system for the United States in 1858, What the Navy Has Done During the War in 1864, General Mc Clellan’s Campaign in 1864, and delivered an address in Inde- pendence Hall on July 2, 1876, entitled ‘‘ The Centennial of Amer- ‘ican Independence.”’ THEODORE D. Ranp was born in Philadelphia, September 16, 1836, and graduated from the Episcopal Academy and the Poly- technic College. In 1858 he was admitted to the Bar and practiced Law for a time. He was chiefly known for his scientific work in connection with Mineralogy and Geology, having published a num- ber of papers on these branches and lectured very frequently before scientific bodies. He was a member of the Mineralogical section of the Academy of Natural Sciences, also the Franklin Institute and the American Institute of Mining Engineers. He died on April 24, aged sixty-seven years. Epwarp Ruoaps. It was only last spring that this young scien- tist was received into our membership. No one at that time dreamed that he would not be with us now in the full vigor of man- hood. His history is briefly as follows: Dr. Rhoads graduated with honors from Haverford College in 1893. He studied from 1896-1898 at Johns Hopkins University, from which institution he received the degree of Doctor of Philos- ophy. Immediately thereafter he became instructor in physics in the Worcester Polytechnic Institute. Leaving here in 1901 he was OBITUARY NOTICES. xi appointed to a similar position in Haverford College. Among his publications we find the following titles: “‘The Effect of the Fibrous Structure of Sheet Iron on the Changes in Length Accompanying Magnetizations.’’ ‘* Experiments on the Change in Dimensions Caused by Magneti- zation in Iron.”’ ‘‘ Relations Between the Changes in Thermo-Electric Power Caused in Magnetization.’”’ Dr. Rhoads was unmarried and resided with his mother in Ger- mantown. He was a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. CHARLES GODFREY LELAND was born in Philadelphia in 1824, and received his education at Princeton and the Universities of Heidel- berg, Munich and Paris. He was very active in the Revolution of 1848 and was one of the American delegates to congratulate the Provisional Government. He studied and practiced Law in Philadelphia for four years, be- ginning with 1849, and then devoted himself to Journalism and the writing of books. In 1869 he removed to Europe, living chiefly in London, and was occupied with literature. On his return to Amer- ica in 1880 he devoted much time in introducing the minor arts as a branch of instruction in public schools. Since 1886 he has been residing in Florence. He has been a frequent contributor to the Oriental, Social Science and Folklore Societies. He published Poe/ry and Mystery of Dreams in 1850, Hans Breitman’s Ballads in 1858, English Gypsies in 1852, English Gypsy Ballads in 1873, Life of Abraham Lincoln in 1881, The Minor Aris in 1881, Gypsy Sorcery in 1891, Etruscan Roman Forms in 1892, and numerous other books. His specialty seems to have been the study of tradition and folklore. He passed away on March 20, 1903, in Florence, Italy. JAMEs GLAISHER, F.R.S., an honored foreign member, attained the grand age of ninety-four years. ° When but twenty years old he was made an assistant on the principal triangulation of the Ordnance Survey of Ireland. His chief work during his life was the investi- gation of subjects on practical Meteorology. His contributions in this field and in Astronomy are exceedingly numerous and valuable. His hygrometrical tables, first published in 1847, passed through xii OBITUARY NOTICES. eight editions, and with his Zravels in the Air, Diurnal Range Tables, Report on the Meteorology of India and Meteorology of Pat- estine, are among his chief writings. In the interests of meteorol- ogy he made twenty-nine balloon ascensions in four years. In the one of September 5, 1862, he and his companion attained the high- est distance from the earth (37,000 feet) ever reached. He was a pioneer in the systematic organization of meteorological observa- tions. In 1850 he was one of the founders of the Royal Meteoro- logical Society, being its original Secretary, ‘‘ who nursed it through its infancy and youth, and left it to other hands only when it was -old enough and strong enough to walk alone.’’ He passed away February 7, 1903. Pror. WILLIAM HarkKNEss was born in Scotland on December 17, 4839. He died at Jersey City, N. J., U.S. A., February 28, 1903. From Science we learn that he graduated in 1858 as an A.B. from “Syracuse University, from which institution he also received the de- -grees of A.M. (1861) and LL.D. (1874). In 1862 he received the -degree of M.D. from a New York school, and in August of that year became aid to the U. S. Naval Observatory. In August, 1863, he was commissioned Professor of Mathematics in the Navy with the rank of lieutenant-commander. From October, 1865, to June, 1866, he served on the U. S. Monitor Monadnock, making obser- vations on the behavior of her compasses under the influence of the heavy iron armor of the ship. This was the most elaborate discus- sion of the behavior of compasses on armed ships that has ever been made. His report was published by the Smithsonian Institution in a volume of 225 quarto pages. On his return to Washington he was attached to the Hydrographic Office for one year, and thereafter for seven years to the Naval Observatory, during which period he observed the total solar eclipse at Des Moines, Iowa, and discovered the famous coronal line KX 1474, also the total solar eclipse of De- cember 22, 1870, at Syracuse, Sicily, and in 1871 was appointed one of the original members of the U.S. Transit of Venus Com- mission to arrange for the observation of the transits of that planet in 1874 and in 1882. He devised most of the instruments for the purpose and fitted out the various expeditions in this country. His own station was at Hobart, Tasmania. In 1875 he studied the observations of the U. S. parties from a series of wet collodion photographs on glass plates. He suc- OBITUARY NOTICES. xill ceeded where others failed, and in the course of his study in 1877 invented the spherometer caliper. In 1879 he discovered the theory of the focal curve of achromatic telescopes. In 1876 he set up the Government astronomical exhibit at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, Pa. In 1878 he observed the transit of Mercury at Austin, Texas, and the total solar eclipse at Creston, Wyoming, in July of that year, 1878. He carried on extensive experiments in astronomical photography, and in 188r to 1883 was engaged in re- ducing the zones of stars observed by Capt. Gillin at Santiago, Chile, in 1849 to 1852. In 1888-9 and 1890 he gave much time to the preparation of his work on Zhe Solar Parallax and Its Related Constants. From 1891-1899 he was chiefly occupied in following the erection of the new Naval Observatory, in devising and mount- ing its instruments, etc., etc. In 1894 he became astronomical director of the Naval Observatory, with complete control of all its astronomical work. He also became director of the Vautical Al- manac in June, 1897. These offices he held until his retirement for age, December 17, 1899, with the rank of rear-admirgl. He was the author of many scientific papers and member of numerous sci- entific societies, President of the Washington Philosophical Society in 1887, and President of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science in 1893. Pror. J. PETER LESLEY. There are those in this audience who can speak more fully of this departed friend than the speaker. These halls knew the great geologist well. The interests of this Society were his. Many hours did he bestow upon its affairs, and about us there are many eviderces of his unselfish labors. My knowledge of him was very slight. I saw him frequently in the halls and the museum of the University of Pennsylvania, but be- yond the formal bow it was not my privilege to know him. In the September issue of the American Geologist for 1903 Our associate, Dr. Persifor Frazer, has recorded a picture of this successful teacher and investigator, from which we abstract the following facts. This city was Lesley’s birthplace. The natal day was September 17, 1819. His training was received here and in the University, where he completed his studies in 1838. At Princeton he studied Theology from 1841 to 1843, and in 1844 obtained his ministerial license, The year of 1844-45 he spent in study at the University of Heidel- berg. For five years (1846-1851) he officiated as pastor of the X1V OBITUARY NOTICES. Congregational Church in Milton, Mass. At the expiration of that period he left the ministry and devoted his whole time to geological pursuits. In 1872 he became Professor of Geology and Mining in the University of Pennsylvania, as well as the Dean of its Faculty of Science. In 1874 he was entrusted with the directorship of the second geological survey of this State. ‘¢The hundred volumes and thousands of maps and sections of this survey will be his most enduring monument.”’ He threw great light upon the rock oil problem. He was one of the original members of the National Academy of Sciences; Presi- dent of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1884, and author of Man, His Origin and Destiny, from the Plat- form of the Sciences; Coal and Lis Topography, etc. “¢ Lesley’s character was wholly noble. He was generous to pro- digality towards others while careless of his own ease and comfort. Plain living and high thinking was the motto which moulded his life.’ Surrounded in his closing years by a loving wife and devoted daughters, he peacefully passed away on June 1, 1903, at Milton, Mass, Sir GEORGE GABRIEL STOKES was born August 13, 181g, at Skreen, County Sligo, of which parish his father was rector. He entered Pembroke College, Cambridge, in 1837, graduated in 1841, became Fellow of the College in the same year, and in 1849 was elected Lucasian Professor of Mathematics. Professor Tate writes, ‘‘To us, who were mere undergraduates when he was elected to the Lucasian Professorship, but who had with mysterious awe speculated on the relative merits of the man of European fame whom we expected to find competing for so high an honor, the election of a young and (to ws) an unknown candi- date was a very startling phenomenon, but we were still more startled a few months afterwards when the new Professor gave pub- lic notice that he considered it part of the duties of his office to assist any member of the University in difficulties he might encoun- ter in his mathematical subjects. Here was, we thought, a single knight fighting against the whole melee of the tournament, but we soon discovered our mistake, and felt that the undertaking was the effect of an earnest sense of duty on the conscience of a singularly modest but exceptionally able and learned man, and so it has OBITUARY NOTICES. xV proved.’’ Stokes may justly be looked upon as in a sense one of the intellectual parents of the school of Natural Philosophy which Cambridge has nurtured, the school which numbers in its ranks Sir William Thompson and Sir William Maxwell. He was really a great discoverer in Mathematics and Physics. Stokes fully apprehended the physical basis of spectral analysis and pointed out how it could be applied to the detection of the con- stituents of the atmosphere of the sun and stars. In some of his earlier papers he has laid down the scientific distinction between rotational and differentially irrotational motion, which forms the basis of Helmholtz’s magnificent investigations about vortex mo- tion. His papers on the (long) spectrum of the electric light, and particularly those on the absorbent spectrum of the blood, are of very great value. Sir William Thompson says that Stokes roamed over the whole domain of Natural Philosophy in his work and thought, Electricity being the single field which he looked upon from the outside. He even enriched pure Mathematics of a highly transcendental kind. Mathematics with Stokes was the servant and assistant, not the master. In science his guiding star was Natural Philosophy. In 1843 he published his Zheory of the Viscosity of Fluids and a little later his Zheory of Oscillatory Waves. ‘*The Dynamical Theory of Diffraction’’ was one of his most important contributions on the subject of light. In his paper on ‘‘ The Change of Refrangibility of Light’’ he described his now well-known discovery of Fluor- escence, according to which a fluorescent substance emits in all directions from the course through it of a beam of homogeneous light. Stokes’ scientific work and scientific thought are but partially represented by his public writings. He gave generously and freely of his treasures to all who were fortunate enough to have the oppor- tunity of receiving from him. Sir William Thompson says ‘‘that his teaching me the principles of solar and stellar Astronomy while we were walking about among the Colleges, sometime prior to 1852, is but one example of his gen- erosity.” The funeral of this great man took place last February at Cam- bridge, England. The most distinguished representatives of many branches of learning were present. The University church was crowded in every part. The assembly constituted a living witness Xvi OBITUARY NOTICES. of the esteem in which the memory of Sir George Stokes is held in the intellectual world. The coffin containing the late Master’s body was first carried around the court of Pembroke College, in accordance with an ancient custom reserved for Masters, the pro- cession being formed of the choir and officiating clergy, the Fel- lows of the College, former Fellows, Masters of Arts, Bachelors of Arts and undergraduates. The interment took place at Mill Road Cemetery. In the words of Lord Kelvin, ‘‘ The world is poorer through his death, and we who knew him feel the sorrow of bereavement.’’ Pror. Jostan WILLARD Gipps. From the American Journal of Science for September, 1903, we glean that he was born February 11, 1839, in New Haven, where his father was professor of Sacred Literature in the Yale Divinity School. He entered Yale College in 1854 and graduated in 1858. During his academic course he received several prizes in Latin and Mathematics. In 1863 he won the Ph.D. degree and was appointed to a tutorship in the College. The winter of 1866-67 he spent in Paris, and the year following went to Berlin, where he heard Magnus and others in physics and mathematics. In 1868 he listened to Kirchhoff and Helmholtz at Heidelberg. In 1871 he became Professor of Mathematical Physics at Yale; this position he held until the time of his death. It was not until he was thirty-four years old that he gave to the world, by publication, evidence of his extraordinary powers as an investigator in Mathematical Physics. In 1876 and 1878 appeared two parts of his great paper ‘‘ On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances.”’ The third overshadowed these somewhat. This is his most impor- tant contribution to physical science. It is one of the greatest and most enduring monuments of the wonderful scientific activity of the nineteenth century. The publication of this work was universally regarded an event of the first importance in the history of Chemistry. It founded a new department of chemical science. Yet years elapsed before its value was generally recognized. It was translated into German in 1891 by Ostwald, and into French in 1899 by LeChatelier. In 1881 and 1884 he printed for private use a concise account of vector analysis. This he applied to some of the problems of astron- omy. In 1888 to 1889 he contributed five papers on points in the electro-magnetic theory of light and its relations to the various elas- OBITUARY NOTICES. "xvii tic theories. His last work was upon Z/ementary Principles in Sta- “istical Mechanics. The value of Williard Gibbs’ work to science has been formally recognized by many learned societies and universities at home and abroad. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the Royal Institute of Great Britain, the Royal Society of London, etc., etc., and the recipient of honorary degrees from Williams Col- lege and from the Universities of Erlangen, Princeton and Chris- tiana. In 1881 he received the Rumford medal from the American ~ Academy of Boston, and in 1901 the Copley medal of the Royal Society of London. His life was uneventful. He made but one visit to Europe. He lived in New Haven, in the same home which his father built, a few rods from the school where he prepared for College and from the University, in the service of which his life was spent. He never married. He was retiring in disposition, went little into society and was known to few outside the University. His modesty in regard to his work was proverbial. ‘‘ Unassuming in manner, genial and kindly in his intercourse with his fellow-men, devoid of personal _ambition of the baser sort, or of the slightest desire to exalt him- self, he went far toward realizing the ideal of the unselfish Christian gentleman.’’ He died April 28, 1903. They are gone. The world and we shall miss them. May the good they have accomplished serve as further incentives to us to press forward—each in his own specialty—without ceasing, in quest of the all-satisfying, all-enlightening truth. INDEX TO VOLUME XLII. Page OGTCSS OF LHe) PTeSiGeNt: ATUL. oes ew waists at eine” wr. ch aol Sie eRe Pete € “a O90 Arch roOOcy, ang Mineralopy, Haupt; Pauly is.) Si. wo ecct. sis oti ekiel tesa ehiet ee atoeae 6 AU MOIA PHONE, Phil, “sia, losev he nate toe. a) syne w len ate he!) laueelretrayeap iets) Cora 352 Alpuabet. Development of the Pnelish’.. Sosa 6 aie ed sien elles ee tel tereaine 6 Amercan Philosophical Society, Brief History of - 3) i 6c diss ss wee ee 7 Animal Industries of the United States, Pearson .....-.......+0-2 -o har aan: Arthropoda, Hints on the Classification of the ..... ...... een ti ea U7 Ashmead, Testimony of the Huacos (Mummy-grave) Potteries of Old Pera oe B02, at8 Assemblages, Theory of, and Integration of Discontinuous Functions ........- 8 Bailey, The Forward Movement in Plant-Breeding. ........+4-e+.s-ess86-. 6, 54 Eee NCTA ASK HrOUMGLET 6 Tseng Sah [o1\d) Bly ap ete ta! (aN Sea Ua = Relea Alef ASU 352 ESRC AIO" ACULVILY: to .ca/tsi vas aloe. seis) secw-e’ seen ot Sunk tee aewemeay et Lt aie lca c:oe Srmenrataes 266 Brooks, Mechanical Construction and Use of Logarithms. .............. 8 Brooks, New Genus of Hydroid Jelly-Fishes: .. oJitis Wits 6 deelieaivc ois 0) a's ens ace dil Brow, Amos ©:, Geological Tour to labrador <.. .<.. -.:)i (ewes) =) Leet o) ey 352 Brown, E. W., Degree of Accuracy of the Newtonian Law of Grayitation. ...... 8 Carnegie Institution during the First Year of its Development. ........... 7 Chandler, Electro-Chemical Industries at Niagara Falls ... ...........- 345 Channels, Deeper Navigable... .. 2... 5-2 26 ee eee ee «cin ee eel ee COMMEMCES: StanGin eo; LOM OOS, va laitel le loll + 03 Ub aw ee, we ne) ae renee Gonklin’ Earliest) Differentiation of the Egg... Ws. .c. Se Sel ee ee) wheter ate 10 WOM eA VOLO ANG: HUI CNESIS) e\s, lense Wier athe ee CMM AN is ee 10 ER er TC PATIO erecta. te weleyey tal vein’s (teh w cuie uate; verted tate a) SUR TRAE SRD ae oh 10 PEL CCE OM VITULT TITEL ers els tate od fon 2.8 Site cwwavias to. 2) sgtaay be MEDALS ec e alt ce » 0 Howell, William Henry......., at ee seth oo: Ba ld Sd mea he vg ae 10 PENISCSL ETS EWEN oy ici aul seis Le okra) Vous res) het) or)~ AMES ON On han Me. ieee ae 10 MO MC Vena Waite: ahi Vaya s, oes Scere, oo call ohio in i es UL re re 10 MOLSOMEMEMIOMBNG! | cruclisela’ wim. ese cnl i, ioe telei teint a de ' aren ey 1 10 TERK Esed Din hie DiRG thy oe UNO aN ER iets SR ee Se me Sea PAR APE PRIN ry pvr 1h 10 PROSCOC WHEN TY He ore he Satie te lal cys ee ERC CAN MEIC ICS RP OREM ad EG es ec 10 TOT PAE CO mmm ralenietie Peitat Ings iat Frys Pa hie,) ake Reber vel pu iel to Hietr ope cae oe eae 10 EN OWISOM LOSC PU OLIN Pewee a. le Venetia: slea” elpet itm UAC: -SUmBMRL. couch acento is tl ue ty lini 10 PMG GA NC AVVUECDIIRE I Bee re! See hS Rigo | Wen eA. sul Oa cl de SS 10 Tey WARES 18 TSI NS | oe. A A es el Bar eee Rea ty Se Bre RAPT ey eh ae Sl 10 MESA ONS ECS CINIC (Uri R smal er Wis an elt Cie lit Salon te Cah bo) a, tutorenae vel bute eh ebealt ibs Oh apt 265, 266 Merriman, Principle of Least Work in Mechanics and Its Possible Use in Investiga- MOG er arin sie MENeMOnSDAGe, «Give Neniactd as, 0 ie) =) ey enleelsliel delat elise 7, 162 Montgomery, Anatomy of the Plosculartide, <0). 50) se \ cere se bh eyes ee tw at SHEE ICO MEA GCLEVLON WG oe o\ ely ah ehhisnere! Vee Uy sp ley oe teh feloysil al Va tial We oe decue utes at laure Gel aghaee 6 MERAH AH OMAN Gr. OMITUANV OL. yes Sc) ars we eave chery cael’ hues Zana “ale MEARSU END EAU POUR Oath at ane PPT RIN Doh A aig, Vora AN oe Len a EP oly ena thay, oy ah Cogan eee maeieh tee 7 Nirekel Some MaenotiGyPrOperclesiOL: et sy .0). Was. es ues Wier ou jolie’ 2) fe) ulate cpt eete elie 10 (OTRPLETAG IS TREC AS ECCT a Et) Vengo SAP Don EDR ee SEAL AA mE ep SEAS Saadeh oF eos yey ey 7) 6 Osborn, Evolution and Distribution of the Proboscidea. ............+.-. 10 Packard, Hints on the Classification of the Arthropoda. ............ 11, 142 Ie MOS EOCSIN MAGNE VOW OL chic oh al’ sig ieiwal il issscens seme e menial otiety taki 274, 275 HABeISOL eT Nee TODLeM On Une LlUStels tics co) eis! cute! levee le) acai cota ee tee teeta mone vj 3 Pearson, Animal Industries of the United States ............2-+.4-+7- 396 Retrolewum, Composition and Occurrence:Ofs . (ce Fils) elem tee 4 fofe es) Slee 11, 36 Petit, Obiiuary.o1goseph Miller WilsOm << ...5 20.3. .%s Sw eo ee ws we ah 2OGyuT RLM ee CMOP CHESTS) So '.0u Jape ie: ome estes ve bit lance antl, eUnethlal We inne ie) Malar 274, 275 Pigntbrecdines., Worward MOoOvementin i). seis 6 site, es el tons 6, 54 Potteries, The Testimony of the Huacos (Mummy-grave), of Old Peru. .... 302, 378 President’s Annual Address. SR See sien PA eh ie Me ie tet SN eh, hy 'S 396 Prince, Dying American Speech-Echoes .... ..... a ate CABS eN cl tne 346 Proposciges. Hyolution and Distribution Of the. . 20.05). ee re a we ele nels ene 10 PavchokmavaNOOera, ia DOLatOryzOt.| . \isilc#s c's Wiis! ver are xe) ve} eben teenies wih tenet fella 266 Quantitative Chemical Research, Most Insidious Source of Errorin .... .... Il EAI EC ENVIUD Oats yd va ry b ral ‘a hrelta\ice task. Sais) almaltm Meme Bad eho ty ee Reva SY 04) RG Rand, Theodore D., Obituary of. ........ aed iel alent Aehcst ier, ehbalmee Menai yA sl Mao teihe 3. Ravenel, Warfare Against Tuberculosis. ..... IN EL CIRCE Oar dM ERIE 11, 212 RATION mE OR OEM L on ha2 cp ers pratt oth epee ’n Nideu chy atti o) USES ole pan rsrbicph teres act of Dale ay ed ns x: Richards, Inclusion and Occlusion of Solvent in Crystals. ...... cea e eats 28 XXi11 INDEX, Page Richards, Most Insidious Source of Error in Quantitative Chemical Research .,.. 11 River and Harbor Improvements, Reaction as an Agent in Securing Navigable Depths in, Haupt, Ls, Meas. a4. cet ee tasad bn ok each ake een o/s. 9 alten Rosengarten, Earl of Crawford’s MS. History in the Library of the American Philo- Sophical Societys. cing h inine (chic 1s 1 aye leat to ve, Aa gt Meanie Ue A vs aS red een Rosengarten, Franklin Papers in ae Library of the Ammeripaat Philosophical Society, 8, 165 panta Cruz Edentates, Scott. Siti) sj. see el ye las apace ait ap ee os, 0 eae Schaffer, Charles, Obituary Of }o<< 6.5 90/40! ssw ta oe, ene eRe ee oe es Nae Schelling, Supernatural as Represented in Elizabethan and Jacobean Plays. .... 11 Schlesische Gesellschaft fiir Vaterlandische Cultur, One Hundredth Anniversary . . 345 Schwatt, Theory of Assemblages and the Integration of Discontinuous Functions. . 8 Scott, Santa Cruz Mdentates, 22.5.2 )siy. plies diate aue aah ened alee ee «a ny eee Smith, Edgar ¥., Brief History of the Society . 2... ~~. 6. +.).0 ss 2st cet ee ee Poe Speech-Echoes, Dying American. 5 oo: sien dats nora ue Gy oh eae en eae te - . 345, 346 Stanton, Fresh-Water Molluscan Faunule from the Cretaceous of Montana . . . 10, 188 Stokes;'Sir' George, Obituary OF) <0... ese iehct ph oes Ln aug «helene ern ane xiv Stoney, Dependence of What Apparently Takes rriaes in Nature, Upon What Actually Occurs in the Universe of Real Existences........... 2 Wy 1S Supernatural as Represented in Elizabethan and Jacobean Plays. ........ ahevegas Synonymy, HrroneOus is a; ~ se sso ver 'el opts "2 45 he, lens, ooh ta ems ae eee 263, 267 Thermite Process for Producing Heat. ........ ato. 's tees’ pu ate ee oo) Sa hurston,.Robert JH. (Obituary Of 2 6.3 4. ese ve ne Reel eA elo ee eee 4 ea Tower, Appointed to Represent Society at One Hundredth fen of the Schlesische Gesellschaft fiir Vaterlandische Cultur........ oo Se eee Trionychide, Existing Genera of the, Hay ...........- 2 4G &! & ise eee Prumbull; HenryClay Obituary Ol; <<). "os.ue-. ~ see seen keke eles 0d Oke nne Prusigy The PrOblGmGl the. oe 0 .o 5 se the. is Sn be Sele es nl 4. Piece s&s Tuberculosis, Warfare Against. ...... fe Hea, ra Son in eee, ly ee es 11, 212 Universe of Real Existences, Dependence of What Apparently Takes Place in Nature Upon What. Actually Octursanithe =o... SO ela = Se ee 105 Volcanic Phenomena in Martinique cys peta. =~ 8s 3! os oo Uns ee eee iii Wharton, Some Magnetic Properties of Nickel ..... .........-. ee Wiley, Investigations of the Bureau of Chemistry on the Composition and ‘Aduibteeas tion ‘Of FOOdSs, +... +... he fees Be es via he +s Sal fla Hajtee: baa hey Ne Ne) Meaee n, S a) Wilson, Joseph Miller; Obituaryof ho). so. 2 eS RS 5 A ee i Witmer, Modern Laboratory of Psychology... ........2...2.6s+-+-- . . 266 Wright, Artificial Production of Crystals .). 2°... .. 2.20... - - 219, 267 Wright, Crystallographic Properties. 72°: 4 2 J.) axe es eee 237 Warts, The' Nernst Lamp »< +s\s,5 Vor. XLIT. - JANUARY-APRIL, 1903. No. 172. Bet ' CONTENTS ae . PAGE 4 Stated Meeting January 2......... 0... eee cece ee ees eies fas ee 3 + s REE COLUAG 5 SUMUAP IEA anu ons «cin opine ws Coe nO os sl alvre eee cae 4 ee “Stated Meeting, February 6... 6... 0... e ccc ececccccuccsectecuceles 4 oer — Stated Meeting, PADEUEONY CO se oo. «+ cides hi Roms oa oe cele Utes or oe 5 z es . Stated Meeting, March 6............... Peete ee i 5 é peered Meeting, Mare 20.3. eco. eee Pee dal es a ceed wane 6 ee General Meeting, April 2, 3 and 4... .. 66. 0cc cc cece ce ec ede vceteeeens 6. 2 On a new Genus of Hydroid Jelly-Fishes (with plate). By WILLIAM oe, ICR Hess ROOKET ete Like Get is). woes swe ebisa cee nana te, apo 11 The Problem of the Trusts. By:C: Stuart PATTERSON =. .!.....45- 15 The Inclusion and Occlusion of Solvent in Crystals. An Insidious iz = Source of Error in Quantitative Chemical Investigation. By ERS PHEODORE, WILLIAM RICHARDS... 2.0.2... 0.2 2c cece ee seeaeus 28 A’ Résumé of the Composition and Occurrence of Petroleum. By ; Deepening eM TNIG Ts So saci oe, ce a aie c id a Re aids pele a He LEE 36 oe. ‘The Forward Movement in Plant- -breeding. By L. H. BarLey...... 54 “The Curtis Steam Turbine. By W. L. R. EMMErT Peet Saar eae Aric =! 68 sb: iad ‘Applications of MacLaurin’s Series in the Solution of Equations — fe -and in the Expansion of Functions. By P. A. LAMBERT..... 85 ; ae the. Properties of the Field surrounding a Crookes Tube (with ; Plates). By ARTHUR W. GOODSPEED. .2.......-cececeeseeees 96 PHILADELPHIA : THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, 104 South Fifth Street. 1902. To THE SECRETARIES OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL $0 Members will please communicate to the Sec inaccuracy in name or address as given on a the wra number. — . Sat eae a Jee It is requested that the receipt of this number _ Proceedings be acknowledged to the Secretaries. = _ 3 are = s Members who have not as vet sent th IAGELLANIC PREMIUM. “JOHN HYACINTH De MAGELLAN, OF LONDON. 1903. = Tue temein Pri P HILOSOPHICAL Society, _ Held at Philadelphia, for Promoting Useful Knowledge ANNOUNCES THAT IN DECEMBER, 19038, ae es IT WILL AWARD ITS MAGELLANIC GOLD MEDAL : to the uttiog of the best discovery, or most useful invention, relating to Navi- gation, Astronomy, or Natural Philosophy (mere natural history ~ _ only excepted) under the following conditions : i 82 1. The candidate shall, on or before November 1, 1903 deliver, free ak Be postage or other charges, his discovery, invention or improvement, addressed to the President of the American Philosophical Society, No. 104 South Fifth Street, Philadelphia, U.S. A., and shall distinguish his. Bs performance by some motto, device, or other signature. With his dis- _ covery, invention, or improvement, he shall also send a sealed letter Be containing the same motto, device, or signature, and subscribed with the ‘Teal name and place of residence of the author. - 2, Persons of any nation, sect or denomination whatever, shall be % admitted as candidates for this premium. 3. No discovery, invention or improvement shall be entitled to this remium, which hath been already published, or for which the author J been publicly rewarded elsewhere. 4. The candidate shall communicate his discovery, invention or im- ~ provement, either in the English, French, German, or Latin language. 5. A full account of the crowned subject shall be published by the C-Bielety as soon as may be after the adjudication, either in a separate. - publication, or in the next succeeding volume of their Transactions, or n both. : 6. The premium shall consist of an oval plate of solid standard gold of the value of ten guineas, suitably inscribed, with the seal of the Society annexed to the medal by a ribbon. _ To THE SECRETARIES OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, No. 104 SOUTH FIFTH STREET, PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A. “TRANSACTIONS ~ OF THE American Philosophical ss HELD AT PHILADELPHIA, BIRSS FOR PROMOTING Pee KNOWLEDGE. hee Vol. XX, New Series. gto, pp. 397) with 9 Plak Fust Published. . CONTENTS. > Art. I.—The History of the Pelycosauria, with a Des 1 tion of the Genus Dimetrodon Cope. of Baur and E. C, Cass.