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PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

AMERICAN ACADEMY

OF

ARTS AND SCIENCES.

Vou. LIK

FROM MAY 1917, TO MAY 1918.

BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY THE ACADEMY
1918

The Cosmos Press
EDW. W. WHEELER

CAMBRIDGE, MASS.

eh ee

VEL.

CONTENTS.

The Algae of Bermuda. By F.S. Cottins anp A. B. Hervey

The Genus Fraxinus in New Mexico and Arizona. By ALFRED
REHDER

The Australian Ants of the Ponerine Tribe Cerapachyini. By
W. M. WHEELER Sp cometh ck ae ats

Thermo-electromotive Force, Peltier Heat, and Thomson Heat under
Pressure. By P. W. BripGMan

The Dyadics which occur in a Point Space of Three Dimensions.
By C. L. E. Moore ann H. B. Patties

Post-glacial History of Boston. By Hervey W. SHiMeR

Ancient Chinese Paper Money as Described in a Chinese Work on
Numismatics. By A. McF. Davis

Rotations on Hyperspace. By C. L. E. Moore

Extra-American Dipterophilous Laboulbeniales. By Rowand
THAXTER

ReEcorDs oF MEETINGS

BrioGRAPHICAL NOTICES

OFFICERS AND CoMMITTEES FOR 1918-19 .

List oF FELLOwWs AND ForEIGN Honorary MEMBERS

STATUTES AND STANDING VOTES .

RUMFORD PREMIUM

INDEX

PAGE.

1

197

213

267

387
439

465
649

695
753
775
877
879
897
911
913

Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Vou. 53. No. 1.—Aveust, 1917.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE BERMUDA BIOLOGICAL STATION
FOR RESEARCH, No. 69.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA.

By Frank S. CoLiins aND ALPHEUS B. HERVEY.

Wirs Srx Puates.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE BERMUDA BIOLOGICAL STATION
FOR RESEARCH, No. 69.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA.
By Frank 8. Coniins anp AupHEus B. Hervey.

Brrmupa consists of a little group of islands of not more than twenty
square miles of dry land, lying in latitude 32° 14’-32° 23’ north and
longitude 64° 38’-64° 53’ west, about 700 miles southeast of New
York, and 600 miles east of the coast of South Carolina. They are
some three or four hundred miles south and east of the Gulf Stream.
This situation accounts for the very marked uniformity as well as the
mildness of the climate of the islands.

All of Bermuda now above sea level consists of limestone, from a
fine sand to hard crystalline rock. The lime comes from the various
organisms inhabiting the water, in part animal but more largely
vegetable; many of these lime-producing algae are included in the
following pages, but Lithothamnium and its allies, stony algae be-
longing to the Florideae, which furnish the larger part of the material,
we have not been able to include here. The fine powder formed from
the remains of these various organisms is carried by the wind and
spread out over the ground. Rainwater dissolves a certain amount
of it, which when the water dries up is deposited and acts as a cement.
Crystallization goes on more or less within the masses after formation,
and so some parts become much harder than others. Erosion from
rain or from the sea is continually going on, and its action being
greater in the softer than in the harder parts, we have a great variety
of fantastic forms along the shore, and many caves underground.

It has long been supposed that there was a core of solid rock under
the limestone, but only recently have any definite data been obtained
in regard to it. Pirsson, 1914, gives the particulars in regard to a
boring made in the hope, which was not fulfilled, of obtaining a supply
of fresh water. The boring was in Southampton parish, about a mile
west of Gibbs Hill Lighthouse, 135 feet above sea level. To 380 feet

1 For a summary of the results of investigations as to the parts taken in the
formation of ‘‘coral’’ islands, by animal and vegetable organisms, see Howe,
1912.

4 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

below the surface it was the ordinary soft limestone; then to 695 feet,
earthy, decomposed lava, in the lower part of the range with frag-
ments of solid lava, sometimes waterworn; then to 1413 feet, the
lowest point reached, solid lava. Considering these data in connec-
tion with our knowledge of the present under-water Bermuda, the
slope from the present island to the ocean floor, the conclusion is
reached that a great volcanic cone was formed, perhaps in the early
Eocene, with its summit where the present island is, rising about
11,000 feet above the sea. The 718 feet above the bottom of the
boring and an unknown distance below consist of the unchanged lava
of the cone; the 315 feet layer above this was produced by the dis-
integration of the upper part of the cone; the foraminifera found in
the 380 feet of limestone indicate that its formation, by the same
processes that are now at work, began before the end of the Eocene;
while the occurrence of the limestone 245 feet, and the decomposed
lava 560 feet below sea level, indicate a long-continued subsidence.

At the present time there are no bodies of fresh water on the islands;
rain water sinks almost immediately into the porous soil, which is
also honeycombed by large and small caves and passages; brackish
water can be obtained at sea level anywhere, but strictly fresh water
nowhere. A curious instance of this permeability was told us by Mr.
Reid Trott, owner of the aquarium known as the Devil’s Hole; this
is on the shore of Harrington Sound, distant a quarter of a mile, rather
high ground, from the south shore; in a southerly storm the surf is
very heavy on the south shore, and white from the fine lime of the
beaches; within a day or two the water in the aquarium becomes
milky. The only visible outlet of Harrington Sound is by the nar-
row passage at Flatts Bridge; but though the rise and fall of the
tide in the Sound is only a few inches, it has been calculated that it
represents a flow through unseen passages of much more than passes
under the bridge. Devonshire Marsh forms a sort of bowl, with
higher ground on all sides; surface drainage into this fills the ditches
with practically pure fresh water after rains, but it soon disappears,
and only a few species of fresh water algae are able to avail themselves
of the short opportunity.”

A few species of “ Fucus” are mentioned by Turner, Icones Fucorum,
1808-1819, but actually our knowledge of the algae of Bermuda

2 A *is placed before the name of each fresh water or terrestrial species
listed, including some Myxophyceae found here within range of tides, though
not normally marine.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 5

begins with the list published in the Canadian Naturalist by the Rev.
Alexander F. Kemp (Kemp, 1857), who visited the islands in 1856
and collected somewhat extensively. Sixteen years later J. J. Rein,
who had been a tutor in an English family at Bermuda, published two
papers on the vegetation of the islands, one of them with a list of the
algae (Rein, 1873). In 1881 Prof. W. G. Farlow made quite extensive
collections, and some of the material obtained was distributed in the
set of exsiccatae, Farlow, Anderson & Eaton, Algae Exsiccatae Boreali-
Americanae. At a later visit, in 1900, Farlow collected additional
species, a few of which were distributed in Collins, Holden & Setchell,
Phycotheca Boreali-Americana, but otherwise no publication has been
made of the material collected by him. The Challenger Expedition
visited Bermuda, and the results are given in a preliminary paper
(Dickie, 1874) and in a volume of the Results of: the Challenger
Expedition. In these are included the species listed by Kemp and
Rein and those distributed by Farlow, with comparatively few addi-
tions. In the Journal of Botany George Murray published a Cata-
logue of West Indian marine algae (Murray, 1889), including in it
the Bermuda lists above mentioned; noting that Bermuda did not
belong to the West Indies, geographically or politically, but might
be considered as having a similar flora. Setchell, 1912, is a paper
calling attention to several species in the Farlow herbarium. Longer
or shorter lists of algae occur in local publications, traveller’s guides
etc., but based on the papers above noted, and adding nothing to
what is found in them. Occasional references to Bermuda occur in
general works, but only as citations from the works mentioned, or
referring to some specimen collected by Farlow.

Through the kindness of Mrs. Jane A. Sutherland, daughter of Mr.
Kemp, we have been able to examine his collection, which still includes
nearly all the species listed by him. Professor M. Mobius very kindly
sent us for examination the Rein algae, now preserved in the collection
of the Senckenbergischer Gesellschaft at Frankfurt a/m.; by the
favor of Dr. D. Prain, Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,
we have examined specimens of the species added by the Challenger
expedition; and Professor Farlow has given every facility for the
study of his rich material, including beside his own collecting, speci-
mens collected by G. Tucker in 1856 and Walter Faxon in 1882. In
the collection of one of the writers is a considerable number of algae

collected in 1890 by W. S. Wadsworth. Miss Wilkinson of Ripleigh,

3 A similar set is in the herbarium of the University of California.

6 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

Hamilton, has kindly allowed us to refer to an interesting collection
she has made, and we are also much indebted to her for information
as to stations of some of the rare species. In 1882 Miss Kate Peniston,
now Mrs. Matthews, sent one of us some algae from the Harrington
Sound region; comparatively few specimens, but including some of
much interest. Several species from Bermuda are recorded by Dr.
M. A. Howe in his papers in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical
Club, and some of them have been distributed in the Phycotheca
Boreali-Americana. An occasional specimen from some other col-
lector will be noted in its appropriate place. Collections were made
by ourselves in the years from 1911 to 1917, during which period one
or the other of us has been in Bermuda rather more than half of the
time, collecting in practically all parts of the islands and in all months
except June. While future additions are of course to be expected,
we think that the main characters of the algal flora are fairly settled,
and the greater part of the species determined. A special effort has
been made to distribute in the Phycotheca Boreali-Americana as full
a representation as possible of Bermuda algae, and fascicles XX XVII,
XXXIX, XLI, XLII and XLIV consist entirely of specimens from the
islands.* We have distributed in this way every species of which
sufficient material was available.

A number of new species are described and figured in the following
pages, and we have tried to give all details of value in regard to them.
In case of other species, whenever we could add anything to previous
knowledge of them, we have tried to do so, but no full descriptions
have been given except for new species, varieties ete. Concise keys
however, have been furnished, and we think will prove useful. We
have been rather full in notes as to character of station, as this is
something sadly lacking in many floras. Exact localities have been
given, for the aid of future students, and the date of collecting is
given by month, but it has not seemed necessary to give the year.
No full synonymy is given, but pains have been taken to give for
each species the proper name under the international rules; the ori-
ginal name, if published under another genus; and when possible
reference to a good figure. Whenever specimens from Bermuda have
been distributed in the Alg. Am.-Bor. Exsice. or in the P. B.-A.,
reference is given by number. Other references are given in cases

4A set of these fascicles will be found at the Bermuda Agricultural
Station, to whose Director, Mr. E. J. Wortley, we are indebted for many
kindnesses during our visits to the islands.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. a

where it seemed desirable, especially from distinctively American
works, like Harvey, Nereis Boreali-Americana and Bérgesen, The
Marine Algae of the Danish West Indies. The latter is specially
useful in connection with the present work, being a careful study of
the marine flora of a small group of islands, of character not unlike
Bermuda, though somewhat farther south. As Bérgesen’s work is
still incomplete as this paper goes to press, full comparisons are not
yet possible.

We had hoped to publish with the present paper somewhat full
comparisons of the floras of Bermuda and other regions, but the list
for the Danish West Indies, perhaps the most instructive, is not
fully available. We have reluctantly had to omit from our list the
families Rhizophyllidaceae, Squamariaceae and Corallinaceae; with-
out careful study of the types any conclusions in these critical families
would be uncertain, and in the present European conditions such
study has not been practicable. In view of this we have made only a
short statement, by classes, showing the percentage of the Bermuda
species common to nine of the best known regions where a similarity
might be expected. If later we are in position to take up the families
now omitted, and a full account of the algae of the Danish West Indies
is available, the proposed full comparison may be made. In the
present comparison we have not included the Class Myxophyceae;
first because the species of this class are largely cosmopolitan, second
because in many regions where the other classes are fairly well known,
the Myxophyceae have been little studied. We have considered a
species as common to two regions, though represented by different
forms or varieties in each; pelagic species, known only as washed
ashore, have not been included.

Percentage of Bermuda algae represented in other floras.

Chlorophyceae Phaeophyceae Rhodophyceae Total

Great Britain 28 34 26 27
N. and NW. France 24 30 26 25
Bay of Biscay 11 20 25 18
Mediterranean 29 34 33 31
Canaries 19 28 23 21
New England 22 24 16 19
Florida oe 43 44 40
Jamaica 38 63 32 41

Barbados 33 41 32 33

8 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

The nine regions used in the above comparison are not equally well
known; the affinity to an intensively studied region like Great Britain
is somewhat overstated, that to a less thoroughly studied region, like
the Canaries, understated; but some general indications may be ob-
tained. Perhaps the most striking is the distinctness of the Bermuda
flora, having only 41 per cent in common with Jamaica, and not so
much in common with any of the others. Taking the three classes
represented, there is only one in which more than half the species are
common to another region, again Jamaica, which has 63 per cent of
the Bermuda brown algae. Taking all the regions, the similarity is
greatest in the brown algae, least in the green. The affinities of the
Bermuda flora are evidently strongest with the Florida-West India
region, next with the Mediterranean, and after that with more north-
ern localities. New England has probably the least in common with
Bermuda of all the regions compared, its slight numerical superiority
over the Canaries being probably due to the less thorough exploration
of the latter.

The following list of important stations, with indication of the
characters of each, will, we think, be of use to future collectors; in a
region where the coast line is so long in proportion to the surface area,
many such stations must exist, but we think we have listed the more
important ones.

In this list of stations we aim to conduct our readers around the
whole island and point out the places where we have found certain
forms of algae most common. Driven in on all sides by the winds
one will find abundance of Sargassum natans “gulfweed” of which
the farmers make so profitable use as a fertilizer. This grows in mid-
ocean and is never found attached to the shores. Other species of
the same genus are found growing all about the island along with other
litoral plants. Many other forms such as Ulva, Bryopsis, Caulerpa,
Codium, Laurencia, Dictyota, Padina, Spyridia ete. will be found al-
most everywhere, and so will not require special mention. We will
start from Hamilton, going west to Fairyland and Grasmere; there
we shall find shallow water and abundance of plants. Breaking into
the land opposite Agar’s Island is a large bay; as we first come to it
on our left we shall find a large growth of mangrove trees among the
roots of which in shallow water we will find abundance of the endemic
Halymenia bermudensis, the loose, small form. Farther along in
front of a cottage is rich collecting ground; another of the new plants,
Chondria curvilineata occurs here, and very large masses of Valonia
macrophysa; alarger form of the Halymenia was gathered in abundance

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 9

in a little bay that comes up in front of the Grasmere Hotel. Beyond
the hotel is a water called Mangrove Creek, lying between the hotel
and Spanish Point, where good collecting may be had. At the ex-
treme end of Spanish Point are two little bays, the larger of which is
called Stovel Bay; this furnished good specimens of Dudresnaya
crassa and Liagoras in the spring. It is well to make a careful search
all about Spanish Point as far east as the Admiralty House. Beyond
that as far as the Ducking Stool the shore is for the most part high
and precipitous, and we did not find much to reward the climb down
and up; but coming in a boat one finds a fairly rich flora, Liagora ete.,
at the base of the cliffs.

From the Ducking Stool to the Inlet of Harrington Sound most of
the collecting was of the smaller forms, some of them microscopic.
At one point, perhaps half a mile from the Inlet, was found at one
time an abundance of Coelarthruwm Albertisit, as it was also on the
outer point of the Gibbet Islands. These two islands and the little
beaches on either side, being near our place of abode, were carefully
studied, and yielded from time to time several interesting things,
among them the new Lophosiphonia Saccorhiza, growing on a Codium;
Halymenia Agardhit and Antithamnion cruciatum var. radicans also
occurred here. The Inlet of Harrington Sound is good collecting
ground for several species; on the south side is plenty of Ceramiuwm
nitens, and on the wall of the Frascati Hotel may be found at all times
a fine growth of Callithamnion Halliae; Heterospora Vidovichii also
grew on this wall, and Avrainvillea nigricans grows buried in the mud
in the lower part of the Inlet. Over on the north side in the shallow
water one may find abundance of Udotea and Penicillus. Within the
Sound near the bridge is always an abundance of Wrangelia penicillata,
and always also Griffithsia tenuis; in Tucker’s Bay at the west end of
the Sound we first found Neomeris annulata, afterwards found at
several other stations; farther to the north, in Major’s Bay, were
two or three species of Bryopsis. At the farther end of the Sound in
a little cove near Walsingham House, called Dingle Bay, we found
rich collecting; it is the best station for characteristic Hypnea musci-
formis and for Champia parvula, rare in Bermuda, and the only station
for the new Dasya spinuligera, also the original station for Nitophyl-
lum Wilkinsoniae; on the south side of the Sound we found our best
growth of Acetabularia crenulata in a little pool near the chapel;
the species is common in many other places, however; the shores
of the Sound everywhere abound in species of Bryopsis and Laurencia.

About a mile north of Flatts Village we come to Shelly Bay, a fine

10 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

beach; here in its season may be found the new Chondria polyrhiza,
and at the north end of the Bay is a fine growth of Udotea flabellum;
half a mile beyond Shelly Bay is Burchell Cove, well worth a visit;
here we found splendid specimens of Callithamnion Halliae. Bailey’s
Bay, something over a mile beyond, is a good place for collecting;
here we found some of our best specimens of Euchewma denticulatum.
In going on towards St. George’s it would be worth while to take the
old and now unused road about a quarter of a mile beyond Bailey’s
Bay, and follow along the shore to the old ferry, and then past Joyce’s
Caves to the Causeway. At the north end of the Causeway we come
to Long Bird Island,° on the southeast side of which all the way to
the Swing Bridge is good collecting, especially of Helminthocladia
Calvadosiit and Castagnea.

Beyond Swing Bridge the road winds with many a picturesque turn
along the shores of Mullet Bay into St. George’s; these waters ought
to be fertile grounds for they are for the most part shallow and easily
accessible. Once in St. George’s we aré in the immediate neighbor-
hood of some of the best collecting grounds in Bermuda; going to the
shore northwest of the city we first come to Tobacco Bay which is in
fact two quite distinct bays near together; plenty of Bryopsis and
Liagora here. -A little farther along very near the old fort at St.
Catherine’s Point, where the shore makes a right angled turn to the
east, is a little bay called Achilles Bay, where Helminthocladia may be
found in abundance in its season. Following the shore for a mile to
the east we pass several little coves.which may be worth a visit; but
just before we come to the place where the sewer from the hospital
comes down, we come to Judy’s Hole, so called in honor of a colored
woman whose body was washed ashore here. Here we found splendid
specimens of Wrightiella Blodgettit and Naccaria corymbosa floating
in on the breakers. Farther along is Sylvester’s Bay and beyond
that Buildings Bay, so named from the fact that here Sir George
Summers built the little ships in which he sailed away for Virginia.
It is a little cove extending in behind an old fortification; there is a
little beach at the head of the bay; comparatively few plants grow
on the rocks along the shore or on the bottom, but among them is the

5 This is the ““Oblongarum Avium Insula”’ of the map in Jansen’s atlas,
Vol. III, 1646. This map, a copy of the original survey of 1622, is remarkably
full and accurate; names of places have hardly changed at all, and the family
names of many of the owners there given appear today everywhere in the
islands. This accuracy and fullness is the more remarkable in contrast with
the maps in the same volume, covering the mainland from Labrador to Florida;
contours are vague and uncertain, and names strangely transposed.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. Tal

“Staghorn”’ Codiwm, the very large form of C. decorticatum. But
many things that come in there on the tide show that there are very
fertile grounds outside; there is Dudresnaya crassa, Trichogloea
Herveyi, Naccaria corymbosa, Dasya pedicellata and several other
Dasyas, Crouania attenuata, Callithamnions, Liagoras etc.; there are
probably more things to be found here than in any other like place in
Bermuda. Just beyond this is Gates Bay, noted for abundance of
Crouania, Liagora and Laurencia, for the most part epiphytic on
Sargassum.

On the harbor side of St. George’s may be found some good col-
lecting; here by an old wharf at the eastern end of the city we found
Antithamnion cruciatum and our only specimens of Caulerpa verticil-
lata. 'Taking the ferry to St. David’s and crossing over to the south
side of the island near the lighthouse we come to a beach where we
found a fine growth of Gracilaria dichotomo-flabellata and some small
specimens of Eucheuma Gelidium. At the west end of the Causeway
we find a new road leading ardund the shore to Walsingham House;
there is good collecting all along here; first of all at the left, a growth
of mangrove trees, on the amphibious roots of which is abundance of
three species of Bostrychia, mingled with Caloglossa Leprieurit and
Catenella pinnata; these plants grow on such roots, as well as on rocks
covered only at high tide, in every part of the island. There are two
little tide pools in the immediate vicinity of Moore’s calabash tree in
one of which are two or three species of Cawlerpa and Udotea flabellum;
in the other, smaller, one, partly under a big rock, the bottom is
carpeted with delicate fronds of Caulerpa sertularioides; in the neigh-
borhood of Walsingham House are several little coves rich in plants;
one a hundred yards or so to the right of the driveway leading up to
the main road always contains Chrysymenia uvaria in fine form; here
also in 1915 we found a splendid growth of Halymenia pseudofloresia,
and it is the only place in which we found more than a single frond
or afragment. Over on the shore of Castle Harbor in April we found
a good collection of Spyridia aculeata var. hypnoides.

Following the southwest shore of Castle Harbor for a mile and a half
we come to Tucker’s Town, another fruitful locality; here in a little
grotto, back of the concrete wharf, growing at all seasons are Haly-
menia bermudensis and Galaxaura obtusata; on the shore in front of
the wharf where a small stream runs into the sea are quantities of
Gelidium pusillum and around the point to the left a heavy growth
of Eucheuma denticulatum; all about the wharf are fronds of Ulva, yards
long. A boat can be taken from Tucker’s Town to Cooper’s Island,

12 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

famous as a rich station; here in a single day in 1881 Farlow found
Dudresnaya caribaea, D. bermudensis, Calosiphonia verticillifera and
Kallymenia perforata, none of which except the second have been
found in Bermuda since; we have made several visits to the island in
the hope of finding them, but in vain, but each trip was rewarded by
unexpected good things.

From Tucker’s Town way along the South Shore to Ely’s Harbor,
a distance of some fifteen miles, the shore presents an alternation of
long beaches and high precipitous rocks, with but here and there a bay
where one can collect algae. The reef runs along parallel to the shore,
from a quarter to a half a mile outside. There are two or three little
bays in Southampton which we have not explored; but we have found
that the flora of the west end of the island is not nearly as rich as that
of the east end. On the south shore east of the meridian of Hamilton
are a few bays that should be mentioned; these are in the neighbor-
hood of Devil’s Hole, viz., Pink Bay, Smith’s Bay and Gravelly Bay;
a reference to the text will show what plants have been collected in
these localities; special attention is called only to the last of the three,
Gravelly Bay. It is not more than a quarter of a mile across the
island from Devil’s Hole; it has proved a remarkably fertile place;
it is the only station where we have found Gracilaria horizontalis,
Turbinaria tricostata and Dilophus guineensis, though the latter was
found by Farlow in Paget. The place is rich in several species of
Dictyota, also in Zonaria lobata and Dictyopteris Justii in their seasons.
Here also we first found Trichogloea Herveyi, and we have found it
there every season since; a little cave near the bay has yielded a
number of species, rarely found elsewhere.

About a mile farther along towards the west we come to what is
known as Spanish Rock; here at the foot of a high precipice, Col-
pomenia sinuosa and Hydroclathrus cancellatus cover the rocks, and
may be collected at low tide; another mile along in the same direction
we come to Harris Bay, another good station; here several species of
Spyridia and Liagora abound, also two species of Sphacelaria, Wrigh-
tiella Blodgettii, Digenea simplex and others; it is the only station for
Udotea conglutinata and Rosenvingia intricata. Devonshire Bay just
beyond we did not find very productive, but a mile and a half farther
on is Hungry Bay, which will reward several visits at different seasons;
Dictyotas and Dictyopteris abound here in summer, and in the tidal
creek Howe collected Acicularia Schenckti, the only time it has been
found in Bermuda; in this creek also is excellent Ernodesmis verti-
cillata. Geminella scalariformis forma marina was found in a pool in
the rocks on the west side of the bay.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 13

Ely’s Harbor and Mangrove Bay towards the west end of the
group are noted for nothing in particular, but are by no means barren;
in the former we found a better growth of Porphyra atropurpurea
than elsewhere. Now crossing the land to the shore on the inside of
the great hook that this end of the group makes, and going along to
the neighborhood of Gibbs Hill light, we come to Jew’s Bay and
Heron Bay, in both of which good collecting may be had, especially
in the latter, with its shallow still water and sunny exposure; we
found it very fertile with several species of Gracilaria, Laurencia,
Spyridia, Chondria curvilineata and other things. Coming back to
Hamilton we may find something at Salt Kettle. The wall of the
quay at Hamilton below low tide is well covered with algae, and a big
timber float lying there yielded a rich harvest of Polystphonia foeti-
dissima. This brings us round to the point of beginning.

14 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

Crass MYXOPHYCEAE.
Famity CHROOCOCCACEAE.

Curoococcus Nageli.

1. Cells 3-8 » diam., 1. C. membraninus.
1. Cells 18-25 p» diam. 2. C. turgidus.

*1. C MEMBRANINUS (Menegh.) Nageli, 1849, p. 46; P. B.-A.,
No. 2151; Plewrococcus membraninus Meneghini, 1842, p. 34, Pl. IV,
fig. 1. In brackish pool near race course, Aug.; in ditch in South
Shore marshes, Sept., Collins. In the material from the locality first
named the cells were dividing rapidly, and average smaller than in
P. B.-A., No. 1201, about like Wittrock, Nordstedt & Lagerheim,
No. 1538. Sometimes the division of the cells goes on so much
faster than the separation of families that a mass resembling a
Microcystis is formed.

2. C. TuRGIDUS (Kiitz.) Nageli, 1849, p. 46; Protococcus turgidus
Kiitzing, 1845-49, p. 5, Pl. VI, fig. 1. In gelatinous masses in brackish
pools, and in films on decaying algae near Flatts Bridge, April, Collins.

SYNECHOCYSTIS Sauvageau.

* S. AQUATILIS Sauvageau, 1892a, p. CX VI. On rocks near Hungry
Bay, April; in cave, Agar’s Island, Aug., Collins.

SynEcHococcus Nageli.

* S. AERUGINOSUS Nageli, 1849, p. 56, Pl. I. E, fig. 1. Among other
algae in brackish pool near race-course, Aug., Collins. Cells about
14 X 7 uw, which is rather small for this species.

CHROOTHECE Hansgirg.

1. Cells seldom under 20 » diam. 1. C. Richteriana.
1. Cells not over 3 » diam. 2. C. eryptarum.

1. C. RicHTERIANA forma MARINA Hansgirg, 1889, p. 5; P. B.-A.,
No. 702. Farlow; rather common on shaded stone work and on sides
of caves, Collins.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 15

2. C. cRYPTARUM Farlow in P. B.-A., No. 752; Forti, 1907, p. 30.
Farlow; on walls and roofs of caves, often in company with C. Rich-
teriana. Gloeothece rupestris often occurs in company with these two
species, the whole forming a continuous stratum, generally one or two
mm. thick, extending from just above low water mark to much above
high water mark. Between tide marks it is a rich green and gelatinous,
but beyond the range of tides it is yellowish or whitish and crumbly.

Guorocapsa Kiitzing.

1. Cell without wall, 1.5-2 4 diam.; tegument yellow or brown.
1. G. fusco-lutea.
1. Cell without wall, over 2 » diam.; tegument colorless or nearly so. 2.
2. Colony amorphous, soft; cell without wall, 2-5 » diam.
2. G. montana.
2. Colony subspherical, firm; cell without wall, 4-6 u diam.
3. G. atrata.

*). G. Fusco-LUTEA (Nag.) Kiitzing, 1849, p. 224; P. B.-A., No.
2153. G. ambigua var. fusco-lutea Nigeli, 1849, p. 50. On rocks,
Hungry Bay, in company with Synechocystis aquatilis, April, Collins.
The color of the tegument varies from dark brown to pale yellow.

*2. G. montana Kiitzing, 1843, p. 173; 1845-49, p. 14, PI. XIX,
fig. 2. On wall of cave near Causeway, high up, April, Collins.

*3. G. atrata (Turp.) Kiitzing, 1843, p. 174, Pl. VI, fig. 1; Globu-
lina atrata Turpin, 1830, Pl. V, fig. 6. On cliff, away from the sea,
in company with Scytonema etc., Aug., Collins. The colonies are
usually quite regularly spherical; they range from about 30 yu diam.,
containing only two cells, to above 140 uw diam., with hundreds of cells.
The contents is bright green, somewhat granular; the surface inside
the wall is usually thickly set with very short, bristle-like projections;
bacterial?

GLOEOTHECE Nigeli.

1. Cell without tegument, about 2 » wide. 1. G. confluens.
1. Cell without tegument, about 5 u wide. 2. G. rupestris.

*1, G. conFLUENS Nigeli, 1849, p. 58, Pl. I. G, fig. 1. On wall
of shallow cave, by inland road, April, Collins.

*2. G. RUPESTRIS (Lyng.) Bornet in W. & N., No. 399, 1880;
Palmella rupestris Lyngbye, 1819, p. 207, Pl. LXIX, fig. D; G. mem-
branacea Bornet, 1892, p. 175. Common all about the islands in

16 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

clefts of rocks, rock pools, roadsides, within reach of salt water or far
from it. As noted by Bornet, 1892, p. 175, it varies much in the
appearance of the stratum, from thick gelatinous masses to thin
films, also in the development of the concentric walls; in a rock pool
of fresh water, near the Old Ferry road, we collected a form quite
without these walls, closely resembling Aphanothece microscopica,
P. B.-A., No. 552; but it seems probable that it is merely a state of
the present species corresponding to Bornet’s section I, in which he
includes Microcystis microspora Menegh. This form distributed as
P. B.-A., No. 2154. Lyngbye’s specific name, used by Bornet in
1880, is the oldest, and must supersede the name used by Bornet in
1892.

ENTOPHYSALIS Kiitzing.

E. GRANULOSA Kiitzing, 1843, p. 177, Pl. XVIII, fig. 5; Bornet &
Thuret, 1876, Pl. I, figs. 4 & 5. On rocks, North Shore, Aug., Collins.

Microcystis Kiitzing.

* M. MARGINATA (Menegh.) Kiitzing, 1845-49, p. 6, Pl. VIII;
Anacystis marginata Meneghini, 1836, p. 6; 1842, p. 93, Pl. XIII,
fig. 1. With other algae on wall of cave near Causeway, April,
Collins.

MERISMOPEDIUM Meyen.

1. Families 50-150 u square. 1. M. glaucum.
1. Families 1-4 mm. square. 2. M. convolutum.

*1. M. ctaucum (Ehrb.) Nageli, 1849, p. 55, Pl. I. D, fig. 1;
Gonium glaucum Ehrenberg, 1838, p. 56, Pl. III, fig. 5. Among other
algae in pool by race course, Aug., Collins.

*2. M. convo.tutum Brébisson in Kiitzing, 1849, p. 472; 1855,
p. 13, Pl. XX XVIII, fig. IX. Among various algae in Harrington
Sound; in cave at Gravelly Bay, Jan., Hervey.

Oncopyrsa Agardh.
O. MARINA (Grun.) Rabenhorst, 1865, p. 68; Hydrococcus marinus

Grunow, 1861, p. 420. On Dictyopteris Justii, Gravelly Bay, Aug.,
Collins; on Sphacelaria, Spanish Rock, March, Hervey.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 7

CHLOROGLOEA Wille.

C. TUBERCULOSA (Hansg.) Wille, 1900, p. 5, Pl. I, figs. 1-6; Pal-
mella ? tuberculosa Hansgirg, 1892, p. 240, Pl. VI, fig. 9. On Bostry-
chia, Catenella ete., in company with other minute Myxophyceae.

Famity CHAMAESIPHONACEAE.
PLeurRocapsa Thuret.

P. conFERTA (Kiitz.) Setchell, 1912, p. 229; Palmella conferta
Kiitzing, 1845, p. 149; 1845-1849, p. 12, Pl. XVI, fig. IV. On
Rhodochorton speluncarum, in cave, Agar’s Island, Aug.; on Gelidiwm
pusillum, Harrington Sound, April, Collins.

Hyewxia Bornet & Flahault.

H. caEspirosa Bornet & Flahault, 1888a, p. 162; 1889, p. CLXV,
Pl. X, figs. 7-8, Pl. XI. In dead shells, in company with Gomontia,
Mastigocoleus and Plectonema, but usually the least abundant of the
four.

DERMOCARPA Crouan.

1. Cells scattered. 1. D. solitaria.
1. Cells laterally united in pulvinate expansions. 2. D> prasing,

1. D. solitaria sp. nov.; P. B.-A., No. 2155. Cellula solitaria,
clavata, circa 8 » diam., supra discum basale paullo majus; superne
uniformiter incrassata, vel interdum prope basin parvam expansio-
nem annulatam ferente, usque ad apicem rotundatam, circa 20 u
diam.; longitudine ad 75 u; ad maturitatem in duas cellulas divisa,
superiore in gonidangium subsphaericum mutanda, gonidia pro more
8-12, 5-6 uw diam., continente; cellula inferiore obconica, supra plana
vel concava, contentu laete aeruginoso; membrana crassa, sublamel-
losa.

Cell solitary, clavate, about 8 « diam. above the slightly larger basal
disk, increasing in diameter upwards uniformly, or sometimes with a
slight ring-like expansion near the base, to the rounded apex, about
20 4 diam.; height up to 75y. At maturity dividing into two cells,

18 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

the upper a subspherical gonidangium, containing gonidia, 5-6 4
diam., usually 8-12 in number; the lower cell obconical with flat or
concave upper surface, contents bright blue-green; wall thick, some-
what lamellate.

On older parts of fronds of Spermothamnion gorgoneum and Cera-
mothamnion Codii, which grew on Codium decorticatum, in company
with Xenococcus Schousboei, Lyngbya Meneghiniana and other small
algae. The cells are always scattered, never forming cushion-like
masses, as is the case with most species of Dermocarpa. The general
appearance of the plant is not unlike that of some small species of
Codiolum, except for the shade of color, and that the colorless stipe
is shorter.

2. D. prasrna (Reinsch) Bornet & Thuret, 1876, p. 75, Pl. XXVI;
P. B.-A., No. 2051. Sphaenosiphon prasinus Reinsch, 1875, p. 73,
Pl. XII. Not D. prasina P. B. A., No. 1, which is D. Farlow Borgs.
On Catenella Opuntia var. pinnata generally. i.

XeEnococcus Thuret.

X. Scuoussoret Thuret in Bornet & Thuret, 1880, p. 74, PI.
XXVI, figs. 1-2; P. B.-A., No. 2052. On Lyngbya confervoides, in
ditch back of Shelly Bay, Aug., Collins. Cells mostly separate
and exactly spherical; but sometimes closely packed and compressed.

Var. PALLIDA Hansgirg, 1889, p. 5. On algae on roof of cave,
Gravelly Bay, April, Collins. What may be a species of Xenococcus
with minute cells was found on Oedogonium from Devonshire marshes,
but could not be specifically identified.

Famity OSCILLATORIACEAE.

SPIRULINA Turpin.

1. Trichome rose-color. 1. S. rosea.
1. Trichome aeruginous. 2.
2. Trichome less than 1 » diam., spiral loose. 2. S. tenerrima.
2. Trichome over 1 yu diam., spiral close. 3. SS. subsalsa f. oceanica.

1. §S. rosea Crouan ex Gomont, 1893, p. 273. Forming a pinkish
film on Amphiroa between tide marks, North Shore, Sept., Collins.
*2. S. TENERRIMA Kiitzing ex Gomont, 1893, p. 272; Kiitzing,

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 19

1845-49, p. 25, Pl. XXXVII, fig. I; P. B.-A., No. 2054. Among
other algae in a coating on rock between tide marks, North Shore,
Sept., Collins.

3. S. SUBSALSA forma OcEANICA Gomont, 1893, p. 274; P. B.-A.,
No. 2053. Among other algae at various stations.

OscILLATORIA Vaucher.

1. Filaments torulose. 2.
1. Filaments not torulose. 6.
2. Trichomes 18-36 yu diam., loosely spiral. 1. O. Bonnemaisonii.
2. Trichomes not spiral. 3.
3. Trichomes and stratum dull red. 2. O. miniata.
3. Trichomes and stratum not red. 4,
4. Limicolous; trichomes 17-29 uw diam. 3. O. margaritifera.
4. Trichomes 6-12 »u diam. 5,
5. Limicolous or saxicolous; black-olive. 4. O. nigro-viridis.
5. Epiphytic; aeruginous, light green or light brown. 5. O. Corallinae.
6. Trichomes not attenuate at tip. te
6. Trichomes attenuate at tip. 8.
7. Trichomes 4-10 » diam. , 6. O. tenuis.
7. Trichomes less than 3 » diam. 7. O. amphibia.
8. Apical cell capitate. 8. O. amoena
8. Apical cell not capitate. 9.
9. Trichomes 3 » diam. or more. 10.
9. Trichomes less than 3 u diam. 11. O. longearticulata.
10. Distinctly marine. 9. O. laetevirens.
10. Plant of fresh water pools. 10. O. formosa.

1. O. BonNEMaAtIsonit Crouan ex Gomont, 1893, p. 235, Pl. VI,
figs. 17-18; P. B.-A., No. 2055. Forming floating masses in ditch
in Pembroke Marsh, Aug., Collins.

2. O.mintaTa Hauck ex Gomont, 1893, p. 236; P. B.-A., No. 2156.
Hungry Bay, April, May, Collins. Forming a deep red film on the
bottom, also floating clots adhering to everything. The filaments are
usually about 20 uw diam., but occasionally as high as 45 u. The plant
decays very quickly, and even when put on paper with a promptness
ample for most Oscillatorias, the coloring matter stains the paper pur-
ple, and the filaments remain nearly colorless.

3. O. MARGARITIFERA Kiitzing ex Gomont, 1893, p. 236, Pl. VI,
fig. 19. In brackish pool with other algae, April, Sept., Collins.

4. QO. NIGRO-viRIDIS Thwaites ex Gomont, 1893, p. 237, Pl. VI,
fig. 20. On rocks wet by salt water, Jan., Farlow.

20 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

5. O. CoraLtinaE Gomont, 1893, p. 238, Pl. VI, fig. 21. On
Codium tomentosuwm, Cooper’s Island, April, Collins.

*6. O. TENUIS Ag. var. TERGESTINA Rabenhorst ex Gomont, 1893,
p. 241. Among other algae in a ditch in meadow by Shelly Bay, Aug.,
Collins.

*7. O. AMPHIBIA Gomont, 1893, p. 241, Pl. VII, figs. 4-5; P. B.-A.,
No. 1852. In brackish pool among other algae, April, Aug., Collins.

*8. O. AMOENA Gomont, 1893, p. 245, Pl. VII, fig. 9. Forming a
thin coating on rock at Inlet, Aug., Collins.

*9. ©. LAETEVIRENS Crouan ex Gomont, 1893, p. 246, Pl. VII,
fig. 11. Among other algae, Tucker’s Town, May, Collins.

*10. O. Formosa Bory ex Gomont, 1893, p. 250, Pl. VII, fig. 16.
In a puddle of rain water in road, April, Collins.

11. O. LoNGEARTICULATA Hansgirg ex Forti, 1907, p. 176. On
Codium, near Causeway, April, Hervey. We have not seen an au-
thentic specimen of this species, but our plant agrees with the original
description, with no description in Gomont, and with none but this
in Forti.

TRICHODESMIUM Ehrenberg.
T. THrEBAUTI Gomont, 1893, p. 217, Pl. VI, figs. 24; Wille, 1904,
p. 57, Pl. I, figs. 17-22. Hamilton Harbor, Wille, 1. c.®

PuHorMipiuM Kiitzing.

1. Trichomes strongly moniliform. 1 -Patracile:
1. Trichomes not moniliform. 2.
2. Stratum purple or pink. 2. P. luridum.
2. Stratum greenish or blackish. 3.
3. Trichomes 3 u diam. or less. 3. P. valderianum.
3. Trichomes 4-12 p» diam. 4. P. Retzii.

1. P. FRAGILE Gomont, 1893, p. 183, Pl. IV, figs. 13-15. Among
other algae in an incrustation in rock between tide marks, April,

Collins.
*2. P. LuRIDUM Gomont, 1893, p. 185, PI. IV, figs. 17-18; P. B.-A.,

6 Catagnymene pelagica Lemmermann var. major Wille, 1904, p. 51, pl. I,
fig. 7, is reported by Tilden, 1910, p. 159, as occurring at Bermuda, but we
are unable to obtain any confirmatory evidence. Wille, l. ¢., reports it from
open sea, at several points. Dermocarpa Leibleinii (Reinsch) Bornet var.
pelagica Wille, also appears in Tilden, 1910, p. 55, as from Bermuda, on
authority of Wille, 1904, p. 50; but Wille’s record is 39° 4’ N., Long. 57° 8’ W.,
“ ungefahr in der Mitte zwischen den Bermuda-Inseln und New Foundland.”

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 21

No. 2056. Forming a pinkish film over rocks between tide marks,
North Shore, Aug., Collins.

*3. P. VALDERIANUM Gomont, 1893, p. 187, Pl. IV, fig. 20; P. B.-A.,
No. 2157. Among other algae in a blackish coating on rocks and
on Bostrychia, Aug. In thick wrinkled sheets on brackish water,
near old race course Dec. Collins.

*4. P. Retz Gomont, 1893, p. 195, Pl. V, figs. 6-9; P. B.-A.,
No. 2057. Forming a light green, firm coating on rock between tide
marks, North Shore, Sept., Collins.

Lynesya Agardh.

1. Filaments attached at the middle. 1. L. Meneghiniana.
1. Filaments attached at one end or free. 2.
2. Trichomes over 5 » diam., usually over 7 yu. 3:
2. Trichomes 4 u diam. or less, seldom over 3 yu. 5.
3. Trichomes 16-60 » diam., dissepiments not granulate. 2. lL. majuscula.
3. Dissepiments granulate. 4,

4. Trichomes 9-25 » diam., apex not attenuate nor capitate.
3. L. confervoides.
4. Trichomes 5-12 u diam., apex usually attenuate and capitate.
4. L. semiplena.
5. Trichomes 2.5—-4 u diam., straight or flexuous, not regularly spiral.
5. L. lutea.
5. Trichomes about 2 diam., more or less spiral. 6. L. Lagerheimii.

1. L. MENEGHINIANA Gomont, 1893, p. 145. Mangrove Creek,
Farlow; on Codium, Cooper’s Island, Collins; Gibbet Island, March,
Hervey. The only representative here of the subgenus Leibleinia,
the filaments bent hairpin-shape, attached in the middle, both ends
free.

2. L. MasuscuLa Harvey ex Gomont, 1893, p. 151, Pl. III, figs.
3-4; Harvey, 1858, p. 101, Pl. XLVII. A; P. B.-A., No. 2001. Rein;
Moseley; Walsingham Grotto, March, Alden Fish pond, Dec., Hervey.
Usually blackish green, occasionally reddish or violet.

3. L. conFERVoIDES Agardh ex Gomont, 1893, p. 156, Pl. III,
figs. 5-6; including forma violacea Collins, P. B.-A., No. 1853. Com-
mon in floating masses in quiet waters, as attached tufts in more
exposed places, nearly everywhere. A brownish or yellowish green
is the more usual color, but violet and reddish shades are not uncom-
mon. These are in striking contrast to the normal color, but from
our observations on the species of Lyngbya found at Bermuda, we are

2 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

of the opinion that there is no justification for keeping color forms
distinct taxonomically. Both colors occur in nature, both in dried
material; plants originally aeruginous may change to red, plants
originally red fade to pale green. We have no suggestion to make as
to the causes determining these changes, except the general principle
in regard to filamentous Nostocaceae, that red forms generally occur
where the plant is always under water, not left exposed at low tide.

4. L. SEMIPLENA J. G. Agardh ex Gomont, 1893, p. 158, Pl. III,
figs. 7-11. Not uncommon among other small algae; rarely pure.

5. LynNGBYA LUTEA Gomont, 1893, p. 161, Pl. III, figs. 12 & 18.
Among various small algae, not found pure; bright red form on
Codium, Harris Bay, Dec., Hervey.

*6. L. LAGERHEIMII Gomes 1893, p. 167, Pl. IV, figs. 6-7. On
decaying Sargassum, near Shelly Bay, April, Collins.

SympLoca Kiitzing.

1. Cells 1-2 diam. long, aeruginous. 1. S. muscorum.
1. Cells much shorter than their diam., violet. 2. S. violacea.

*1. S. muscorum Gomont, 1893, p. 130, PI. I, fig. 9. On rock by
roadside, Aug., Collins.

2. S. vioLacEa Hauck ex Forti, 1907, p. 311; Hauck, 1885, p. 507,
fig. 224. On ground near margin of pool in woods by Walsingham,
April, Collins. This appears to have been overlooked by Gomont in
his monograph either as an accepted species or among “species in-
quirendae”’ or “species excludendae.” Hauck’s record is included
by Forti in the Sylloge, and by the international rules, which fix
Gomont’s monograph as the point of departure for homeocysted
filamentous Nostochineae, 1907 is the date of publication. The
Bermuda plant agrees with Hauck’s description and figure; the violet
color and short cells distinguish it from all other marine species.

PLEecTONEMA Thuret.
*P. NostrocoruMm Bornet ex Gomont, 1893, p. 122, Pl. I, fig. 11.
Common in gelatinous masses of algae of various kinds.

PoRPHYROSIPHON Kiitzing.

*P_ NorarisiI Kiitzing ex Gomont, 1893, p. 69, Pl. XII, figs. 1-2.
On Juniperus bermudiana, Aug., Collins.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 25

MicrocoLteus Desmaziéres.

1. Terrestrial. 3. M. vaginatus.
1. Marine. Py
2. Trichomes 2.5-6 » diam. 1. M. chthonoplastes.
2. Trichomes 1.5-2 » diam. 2. M. tenerrimus.

1. M. curHonopiastes Thuret ex Gomont, 1893, p. 91, PI.
XIV, figs. 5-8; P. B.-A., No. 1854. Common among other small
algae in incrustations on rocks, and on bottoms of shallow pools;
occasionally nearly pure, as a thin, blackish coating; also in fresh
water reservoir near Spanish Rock, Hervey.

2. M. TENERRIMUS Gomont, 1893, p. 93, Pl. XIV, figs. 9-11.
Occasional filaments among M. chthonoplastes, less commonly among
other small algae.

*3. JM. VAGINATUS var. MONTICOLA Gomont, 1893, p. 94. On
moist ground at roadside near Flatts Bridge, Dec., Hervey.

HyprocoLeum Kiitzing.

1. Trichomes 14-24 p diam. 2
1. Trichomes 8-144 diam., rarely to 164; sheaths irregular, gelatinous,
often quite diffluent. 2. H. lyngbyaceum.

2. Color of mass of violet shade; sheaths cylindrical, distinct.
1. H. comoides.
2. Color of mass dull green or yellowish; sheaths irregular, becoming
shapeless and diffluent. 3. H. glutinosum.

1. H. comormpEs Gomont, 1893, p. 73, Pl. XII, figs. 3-5. Farlow,
fide Gomont, |. c.; on rocks, Hungry Bay, April, Collins.

2. H. tynepyacreum Kiitzing ex Gomont, 1898, p. 75, Pl. XII,
figs. 8-10; P. B.-A., No. 2058. Farlow, fide Gomont, |. c.; occasional
in pools, Collins. The latter resembling var. rwpestre Gomont, l. c.

3. H. GLuTINosuM Gomont, 1893, p. 77. Rocks east of Elbow
Bay, Dec., Collins, forming a thin, tubercular coating on rocks
between tides.

ScHIZOTHRIX Kiitzing.
1. Among algae in pools; trichomes 2-3 » diam. 1. S. vaginata.
1. On damp walls; trichomes 1-1.7 uw diam. 2. S. calcicola.

*1. §. vacrnaTa Gomont, 1893, p. 40, Pl. VII, figs. 1-4. In a
gelatinous mass with other algae, North Shore, Sept., Collins; Har-
rington Sound, Nov., Hervey.

24. COLLINS AND HERVEY.

*2. §. caLcicoLa Rabenhorst ex Gomont, 1893, p. 45, Pl. VIII,
figs. 1-3; P. B.-A., No. 2158. On shaded wall of house near South
Road, Dec., Collins.

Famity NOSTOCHACEAE.
ANABAENA Bory.

1. Spores ovoid, not contiguous to heterocysts. 1. A. variabilis.
1. Spores subeylindrical, contiguous to heterocysts. 2. A. torulosa.

*1. A. VARIABILIS Kiitzing ex Bornet & Flahault, 1888, p. 226,
P. B.-A., No. 2059. Sphaerozyga Thwaitesii Harvey, 1846-51, Pl.
CXIII. B. Brackish pool, April, Collins; in reservoir near Spanish
Rock, Jan., Hervey. In the material from the latter station the
filaments were sometimes straight, but oftener curved as in A. flos-
aquae Bréb.; the spores were those of A. variabilis.

2. A. ToruLosA Lagerheim ex Bornet & Flahault, 1888, p. 236.
Among other algae, North Shore, Aug., Collins.

Sterile filaments of an Anabaena or Cylindrospermum were found on
ground wet by rain, near Flatts Bridge, Aug., Collins. The cells
were about 4 uw diam., spherical, or just after division discoid.

HorMOTHAMNION Grunow.

H. convolutum sp. nov. Trichomatibus pallide aerugineis, in-
terdum rubescentibus, parallelis, elongatis, 3-5 » diam.; cellulis 1-4
diam. longis, cylindricis, nodis leviter copstrictis; heterocystis ovoi-
deis vel sphaericis, 8-10 » diam.; sporis ?; fasciculis tenuibus, inter
utriculis hospitis penetrantibus, curvatis.

Trichomes pale aerugineous, sometimes with a shade of red, parallel,
long, 3-5 u diam.; cells 1-4 diam. long, cylindrical, slightly constricted
at the nodes; heterocysts ovoid to spherical, 8-10 » diam.; spores ?;
fascicles slender, winding among the utricles of the host. On Codiwm
tomentosum, Cooper’s Island, Aug. 29, 1913, F. S. Collins. Type in
Collins herb., No. 7239.

More slender than the other species of the genus, the cells relatively
longer. The cluster of filaments winds about among the utricles of
the host, the continued growth of the two plants causing the endophyte
to turn and twist very sharply.

bo
or

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA.

Nostoc Vaucher.

*N. COMMUNE Vaucher ex Bornet & Flahault, 1888, p. 203; P. B.-A.,
No. 1901; N. ciniflonwm Bornet & Thuret, 1880, p. 102, Pl. XXVIII,
fig. 13. Common everywhere, especially on sandy soil; thin brittle
skins in dry weather, expanded thickish soft masses in wet weather.
No spores seen. Native name, “ Devil’s Tobacco.”

Famiry SCYTONEMACEAE Kiitzing.

MicrocHakte Thuret.

M. vitrensts Askenasy ex Bornet & Flahault, 1887, p. 85. Scat-
tered filaments on Wrangelia penicillata, Harris Bay, Jan., Hervey.

ScytoneMA Agardh.

1. Sheaths not lamellate. 2.
1. Sheaths lamellate. By
2. Trichomes 5-7 pu diam. 1. S. varium.
2. Trichomes 6-14 u diam. 2. S. ocellatum.
3. Branches usually geminate, free and divergent. 4,
3. Branches frequently solitary, adherent at base. 5. S. crustaceum.
4. Filaments 15-21 4 diam.; sheath thin at apex. 3. S. figuratum.

4. Filaments 18-36 » diam.; sheath thick throughout. 4. S. myochrous.

*]. S. vartum Kiitzing ex Bornet & Flahault, 1887, p. 97; Kiitzing,
1850-52, p. 6, Pl. XXIII, fig. IJ. High up on walls of a cave at Wal-
singham; shore of pool near Walsingham, April, Collins.

*2. S. ocELLATUM Lyngbye ex Bornet & Flahault, 1887, p. 95;
P. B.-A., No. 711, on dunes, Paget, Farlow.

*3. S. FiguRATUM Agardh ex Bornet & Flahault, 1887, p. 101;
S. thermale Kiitzing, 1850-52, p. 5, Pl. XVIII, fig. II. High up on
wall of cave near Walsingham, April, Collins.

Bornet, 1889a, p. 155, shows that Conferva mirabilis Dillwyn, 1807,
Pl. XCVI, is identical with Scytonema figuratum of Agardh, and of
earlier date, and therefore changes the name to S. mirabile (Dillw.)
Bornet. But as the starting point for nomenclature of the hetero-
cysted Nostochaceae is definitely fixed at the Bornet & Flahault
monograph, it appears as if the later name by Bornet cannot be sub-
stituted.

26 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

*4. S. myocHrous Agardh ex Bornet & Flahault, 1887, p. 104;
Kiitzing, 1850-52, p. 7, Pl. XXV, fig. III; P. B.-A., No. 1902. On
perpendicular cliff, Paget, Aug., Collins; and common in company
with Calothrix species etc. on rocks between tides. This species has
a very wide distribution as a plant of rocks ete., dripping with fresh
water, but in Bermuda it is commonly found with distinctly marine
species, in mats on flat rocks in the litoral zone.

*5. S. crustaceum Agardh ex Bornet & Flahault, 1887, p. 106.
On sand near Mangrove Creek, Hamilton, Jan., Farlow.

ToLypoTHRIx Kiitzing.

*T. venus Kiitzing ex Bornet & Flahault, 1887, p. 122; Kiitzing,
1850-52, p. 9, Pl. XXXI, fig. II. Among Oedogonium, in ditch in
Devonshire Marsh, April, Collins.

Hassauuia Berkeley.

*H. BYSSOIDEA Hassall ex Bornet & Flahault, 1887, p. 116. On
bark of Juniperus bermudiana, rather common.

Famity STIGONEMACEAE Hassall.

MasticocoLeus Lagerheim.

M. resTaruM Lagerheim ex Bornet & Flahault, 1887, p. 54; 1889, ©
p. CLXII, Pl. X, fig. 4. In dead shells of mollusks, with Gomontia
CLG:
HapatosipHon Nigel.

*H. intricatus W. & G. S. West, 1895, p. 271, Pl. XV, figs. 16-28;
P. B.-A., No. 1855. In ditch in Devonshire Marsh, April, Dec.,
Collins.

StriconEMA Agardh.

*S_ INFORME Kiitzing ex Bornet & Flahault, 1887, p. 75; Kiitzing,
1850-1852, p. 15, Pl. XX XVIII, fig. 3. Feb., H. Kennedy in Farlow
herbarium.

FISCHERELLA Gomont.

*F, amptgua Gomont, 1895, p. 49, Pl. III. On stone wall, Jan.,
Farlow.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. ard

Famity RIVULARIACEAE.

CaLoTHRIx Agardh.

1. Heterocysts basal only. 2.
1. Heterocysts basal and intercalary. 6.
2. Trichomes violet. 1. C. fusco-violacea.
2. Trichomes olivaceous or aerugineous. 3
3. More or less endophytic. 3. C. parasitica.
3. Not endophytic. 4,
4. Filaments in stellate tufts on other algae. 6. C. confervicola.
4. Filaments not in stellate tufts; saxicolous. 5S.
5. Trichomes olivaceous. 2. C. scopulorum.
5. Trichomes aerugineous. 4. C. aeruginea.
6. Filaments attached at the middle. 7. C. pilosa.
6. Filaments attached at one end. Ue
7. Filaments 9-10 uw diam. 4. C. aeruginea.
7. Filaments 12-40 uw diam. 5. C. crustacea.

1. C. Fusco-vioLacEa Crouan ex Bornet & Flahault, 1886, p. 352;
P. B.-A., No. 2060. On Enteromorpha, Ectocarpus ete., rock pool,
South Shore, Jan., Hervey.

2. C. scopuLtoruM Agardh ex Bornet & Flahault, 1886, p. 353;
Bornet & Thuret, 1880, p. 159, Pl. XXXVIII; P. B.-A., No. 1856.
On flat rocks between tides, Causeway, Shelly Bay, etc., common.

3. C. parasitica Thuret ex Bornet & Flahault, 1886, p. 357;
Bornet & Thuret 1880, p. 157, Pl. XX XVII, figs. 7-10. In Trichogloea
Herveyi, Cooper’s Island, April, Collins; in gelatinous mass of various
algae, in drip from Aquarium outlet, Aug., Collins. Occasionally
found in various loose-tissued algae.

4. C. AERUGINEA Thuret ex Bornet & Flahault, 1886, p. 358;
Bornet & Thuret, 1880, p. 157, Pl. XX XVII, figs. 1-6. On rocks,
North Shore, mixed with Schizothrix etc., Nov., Hervey.

5. C. crustacea Thuret ex Bornet & Flahault, 1886, p. 359;
Bornet & Thuret, 1876, p. 13, Pl. IV. Spanish Rock, April; on
Sargassum, Gravelly Bay, Dec., Hervey.

6. C. conrervicoLa Agardh ex Bornet & Flahault, 1886, p. 349;
Bornet & Thuret, 1876, p. 8, Pl. III. On Cladophora erystallina,
Harrington Sound, Collins.

7. C. prtosa Harvey ex Bornet & Flahault, 1886, p. 363; Harvey,
1858, p. 106, Pl. XLVIII. C. Common in shallow pools and on flat
rocks between tides.

28 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

DicHoTHRIX Zanardini.

1. Onrocks; filaments 15-20 u in branches of last order. 1. D. Baueriana.
1. Epiphytic; filaments 20-30 » in branches of last order. 2. D. fucicola.

*1, D. Bavertana Bornet & Flahault, 1886, p. 376. On rocks
between tides, North Shore, Oct., Nov., Hervey; Hamilton Harbor,
Noy., Collins. Known heretofore only as a fresh water species, but
the Bermuda plant is distinctly marine, though agreeing in characters
with European and American specimens from fresh water stations.

2. D. Fucicota Bornet & Flahault, 1886, p. 379; Schizostphon
fucicola Kiitzing, 1850-52, p. 18, Pl. LV, fig. II. On various algae
forming a mat at the bottom of a pool, Gibbet Island, Hervey.

PotyTHRIx Zanardini.

P. conymposa Grunow ex Bornet & Flahault, 1886, p. 380; P. B.-A.,
No. 1903; Microcoleus corymbosus Harvey, 1858, p. 109, Pl. XLVIII.
B. Common on rocks between tides in quiet water all around the
islands.

RivuLaria Roth.

R. potyotis Bornet & Flahault, 1886a, p. 360; P. B.-A., No. 1904;
R. hospita Bornet & Thuret, 1880, p. 168, Pl. XLI. Rocks near high
water, South Shore, Feb., April, Collins; grotto, Tucker’s Town,
Dec., Hervey.

BRACHYTRICHIA Zanardini.

B. macuLtans Gomont, 1901, p. 127, Pl. V, figs. 5-7; P. B.-A,
No. 2159. Forming a thin film on roots etc. of mangroves between
tides, in company with Dichothriz and Calothriz species, Fairyland,
Dec., Collins.

Originally described from material collected in Siam, this species
now makes its second appearance half way round the globe.

Famiry CRYPTOGLENACEAE.

CrypToGLENA Ehrenberg.

C. aMERICcANA B. M. Davis, 1894, p. 101, Pl. XI; P. B.-A., No. 1851.
Among Cladophora expansa and other algae, in a brackish pool be-
tween Harrington Sound and the North Shore, April, Collins.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 29

Crass CHLOROPHYCEAE.
Famity DESMIDIACEAE.

CLosTEeRIuM Nitzsch.

1. Apices subacute; median diam. 17-87 yu. 1. C. Leibleinii.
1. Apices obtuse; median diam. 33-50 wu. 2. C. moniliferum.

*]. C. Lersiernn Kiitzing ex Ralfs, 1848, p. 167, Pl. XXVIII, fig.
4; Wolle, 1884, p. 46, Pl. VII, figs. 13, 14, 20; G.S. West, 1904, p. 141,
Pl. XVI, figs. 9-14; P. B.—A., No. 2061. In small quantity in an
artificial reservoir for fresh water, near Spanish Rock, Dec., Hervey.

*2. C. MONILIFERUM Ehrenberg ex Ralfs, 1848, p. 166, Pl. XXVIII,
fig. 3; Wolle, 1884, p. 45, Pl. VII, fig. 15; G.S. West, 1904, p. 142, PI.
XVI, figs. 15-16; P. B.-A., No. 1961. Very abundant in an artificial
reservoir for fresh water, near Spanish Rock, Dec., Hervey.

CosMARIUM Corda.

1. Uniformly granulate; semi-cell ovate-pyramidal, 51-68 uw wide.

4. C. botrytis.

1. Smooth. Ze
2. Semi-cell semicircular to semielliptic; 34-36 uw broad. 1. C. Cucumis.
2. Semi-cell truncate-pyramidal, 19-30 uw broad. 2. C. granatum.

2. Semi-cell trapezoidal to truncate-pyramidal; about 33 » broad.
3. C. pseudonitidulum.

*1. C. Cucumis Corda ex Ralfs, 1848, p. 93, Pl. XV, fig. 2; G. S.
West, 1905, p. 152, Pl. LIX, figs. 18-20; P. B.-A., No. 1858. Among
Sphagnum in a ditch, Devonshire Marsh, April, Collins. Distributed
as C. subcucumis Schmidle, but agreeing better with C. Cucumis.

*2. C. GRanatum Brébisson in Ralfs, 1848, p. 96, Pl. XXXII,
fig. 6; Wolle, 1884, p. 60, Pl. L, fig. 13; G.S. West, 1905, p. 186, Pl.
LXIII, figs. 1-3. Rather scanty, among Oedogonium Itzigsohnii, ditch
in Devonshire Marsh, April, Collins.

*3. C. PSEUDONITIDULUM Nordstedt, 1873, p. 16, Pl. I, fig. 4;
Wolle, 1884, p. 62, Pl. XVIII, fig. 19; G. S. West, 1905, p. 195, Pl.
LXIII, fig. 26; P. B.-A., No. 2063. Among various algae in a ditch
in South Shore marshes, Sept., Collins.

30 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

*4. C. Botrytis Meneghini ex Ralfs, 1848, p. 99, Pl. XVI, fig. 1;
Wolle, 1884, p. 74, Pl. XIII, fig. 5; G.S. West, 1911, p. 1, Pl. XCVI,
figs. 1, 2, 5-15; P. B.-A., No. 2062. In artificial reservoir for fresh
water near Spanish Rock, Dec., Hervey.

MESoTAENIUM Nageli.

*M. ENDLICHERIANUM Nageli, 1849, p. 109, Pl. VI. B; G. S. West,
1904, p. 56, Pl. IV, figs. 20-21; P. B.-A., No. 1857. Among other
algae in a ditch, fresh water or nearly so, Devonshire Marsh, April,
Collins.

Famity ZYGNEMACEAE.

Sprrocyra Link.

S. SUBMARINA (Collins) Transeau, 1915, p. 25; S. decimina var.
submarina Collins, 1909, p. 110; 1912, p. 72. Ditch in South Shore
marshes, Sept., Collins. This was first described as a variety of
S. decimina, which it considerably resembles, and it was known from
three widely separated stations in New England. The Bermuda
material emphasizes the differences from S. decimina; the long cells,
up to 8 diam., and the considerably swollen fertile cells; the material
from the Elizabeth Islands, Collins, 1912, p. 72, has cells as small as
21 uw diam.

Famity VOLVOCACEAE.
A Chlamydomonas was found in abundance in the water of an old

tank, near Trott’s Pond, Aug., Collins, but we have not been able to
determine the species.

Famity TETRASPORACEAE.

TeTrAspora Link.

*T. tuBrica (Roth) Agardh, 1824, p. 188; Collins, 1909, p. 139,
fig. 26; Ulva lubrica Roth, 1806, p. 168. On dead leaves in ditch in
Devonshire Marsh, Dec., Collins.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 3l

Famity PROTOCOCCACEAE.

Protococcus Agardh.

*P. viripis Agardh, 1824, p. 13; Plewrococcus vulgaris Nigeli, 1849,
p. 65, PI. IV. E, fig. 2; Collins, 1909, p. 304, fig. 106. On shady side
of trees, walls ete., all over the island; it occurs in similar stations in
all temperate regions, and possibly also in tropical. Wille, 1913, p. 3,
Pl. I, fig. 1, has pointed out the confusion that has long existed in
regard to this species and Plewrococcus vulgaris Meneghini, and by
examination of type specimens, cleared up the matter.

Cutorocystis Reinhard.

C. Count (Wright) Reinhard, 1885, p. 4, Pl. I; Moore, 1900, p. 100,
Pl. X; Collins, 1909, p. 148, fig. 35; Chlorochytrium Cohnii Wright,
1877, p. 367, Pl. IV-V. In Ulva Lactuca, Hungry Bay, April, Collins.
Spores, apparently the smaller kind, had been formed in some of the
cells.

Famity SCENEDESMACEAE.
Oocystis Nageli.
*O. BorGEI Snow, 1903, p. 379, PI. II, fig. VII; Collins, 1909, p. 160.
Among Oedogonium Itzigsohnii, in ditch in Devonshire Marsh.

SCENEDESMUS Meyen.

*S. Buuca (Turp.) Wittrock, Nordstedt & Lagerheim, Alg. Exsicc.,
No. 1567; Collins, 1909, p. 168; Achnanthes bijuga Turpin, 1828, p.
310, Pl. XIII, fig. 4. Among Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum in an
artificial reservoir near Spanish Rock, Dec., Hervey.

Famity ULOTHRICHACEAE.

GEMINELLA Turpin.

G. SCALARIFORMIsS forma marina G. S. West in litt.; P. B.-A., No.
2002. Forming a floating gelatinous mass in an upper tide pool,

oe COLLINS AND HERVEY.

at the entrance to Hungry Bay, April, Collins. The typical form of
this species is a fresh water plant from Barbados, described and
figured as Hormospora scalariformis by G. S. West, 1904a, p. 282, PI.
CCCCLXIV, figs. 6-7. In the Bermuda plant the cells are some-
times longer in proportion to the diameter, and the wall of the fila-
ment shows no differentiated portion about the individual cell. It is
probable that Hormotrichum bermudianum Harvey is the same plant,
but the specimens of the latter cannot be found. Rein, 1873, p. 153,
gives this name as Harvey, sp. n. Dr. Mobius has kindly looked for
it in the collection at Frankfort, and was unable to find it. Professor
Dixon of the University of Dublin tells us that he cannot find it in the
Harvey herbarium. The nomen nudum cannot of course stand against
West’s name, but it would be of interest to recover the material.

SticHococcus Niageli.

*S. SUBTILIS (Kiitz.) Klercker, 1896, p. 103; Hazen, 1902, p. 162,
Pl. XXI, figs. 10-13; Collins, 1909, p. 191; Ulothrix subtilis Kiitzing,
1845, p. 197. Among other algae, in a ditch in South Shore marshes,
Aug., Collins. Straight filaments a few cells long, scattered among
Spirogyra, Rhizoclonium ete.

Microspora Thuret.

1. Cells thick-walled, 20 » or more diam. 1. M. Wittrockii.
1. Cells thin-walled, 11-14 » diam. 2. M. Willeana.

*1. M. Wrirrrockxi (Wille) Lagerheim, 1887, p. 417; Hazen,
1902, p. 172, Pl. XXIII, figs. 5-7; Collins, 1909, p. 193; P. B.-A.,
No. 2066; Conferva Wittrockii Wille, 1887, p. 461, Pl. XVII, figs. 35—
41. Fresh water pool near Shark’s Hole, Feb., Hervey.

*2. MM. Witieana Lagerheim in De Toni, 1889, p. 228; Hazen,
1902, p. 175, Pl. XXIV, figs. 5-7; Collins, 1909, p. 194. Among
Oedogonium ete. in ditch in Devonshire Marsh, April, Collins.

Famity ULVACEAE.

ENTEROMORPHA Link.

1. Cells not in longitudinal series except in the very youngest parts. 2.
1. Cells mostly in longitudinal series. 3.
2. Cells 10-20 uw diam. 6. E. intestinalis.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 33

2. Cells 5-7 u diam. 2. E. minima.
3. Fronds simple or with a few proliferations. 4,
3. Fronds more or less branched. 5.

4. Fronds inflated and flexuous. 5. E. flexuosa.

4. Fronds compressed-filiform. 3. E. marginata.
5. Branches largely monosiphonous. 1. E. plumosa.

or

Branches not monosiphonous, except occasional proliferations.
4. E. prolifera.

1. E. piumosa Kiitzing, 1848, p. 300, Pl. XX, fig. 1; Collins, 1909,
p. 198; Boérgesen, 1913, p. 7; P.B.-A., No. 2065; E. Hopkirkit
Vickers, 1908, Pl. V. Rein, as EF. percursa; North Shore, Jan.,
Gibbet Island, Feb., March, Devonshire Bay, Feb., Harris Bay,
March, Hervey; Tucker’s Town, Harrington Sound, Shelly Bay,
April, Hungry Bay, May, Inlet, Aug., Collins. The most frequent
species of the genus here and quite distinct from our other forms, by
the rather large, longitudinally seriate cells, and the many branches
of a few series or a single series of cells. Sometimes long, subsimple
branches occur, of two series of cells, much resembling E. percursa
(Ag.) J. Ag, with which a plant of this kind was identified by Rein.
It is the E. plumosa of Bérgesen, the E. Hopkirkii of Vickers, as shown
‘by authentic specimens; whether the plants passing under these
names in the North Atlantic are identical with this and with each
other may be questioned. If there should prove to be two species,
an examination of original specimens would be needed to decide what
names to use.

2. E. minima Nageli in Kiitzing, 1849, p. 482; 1856, p. 16, PI.
XLIII, fig. 3; Collins, 1909, p. 201; P. B.-A., No. 2005. Grasmere,
March, Hervey; on old fish car, Hungry Bay, April, in drip from
outlet of aquarium, Agar’s Island, Aug., Collins.

3. KE. mareinata J. G. Agardh, 1842, p. 16; Kiitzing, 1856, p. 15,
Pl. XLI, fig. 1; Collins, 1909, p. 202. On old Sargassum, below
Flatts Bridge, May, Collins.

4. KE. prouirera (Fl. Dan.) J. G. Agardh, 1882, p. 129, Pl. IV,
figs. 103-104; Collins, 1909, p. 202; Ulva prolifera Flora Danica,
Vol. V, p. 5, Pl. DCCLXIII, 1782. Rein, as E. compressa. Rein’s
specimen is the only one of the species that we have seen from Ber-
muda, but it may be not uncommon. Little branched forms might
easily be mistaken for E. minima or E. flexuosa, until examined micro-
scopically.

5. E. FLexvuosa (Wulf.) J. G. Agardh, 1882, p. 126; Collins, 1909,
p. 203; P. B.-A., No. 2004; Conferva flexuosa Wulfen, 1803, p. 15.
Miss Peniston; Harrington Sound, Feb., Dec., Devonshire Bay, Feb.,

34 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

Inlet, March, Hervey; Harrington Sound, April, Collins. In some
specimens cells may be found as large as 20» square, but in other
parts of the same individual they are of normal dimensions, little
over 12 uy.

Forma submarina f. nov.; P. B.-A., No. 2161. Natans: frondi-
bus inflatis, contortis.

Floating; fronds inflated, contorted. In extensive floating mats in
brackish water, near old race course, Dec., Collins.

6. E. INTESTINALIS (L.) Grev. forma TENUIS Collins, 1903, p. 23;
1909, p. 205; P. B.-A., No. 2003. In brackish water, South Shore
marshes, Aug., Collins. The thickness of the frond, 20-30, is
greater than that of the plant on which this form was founded. The
latter grew in fresh water, remote from the sea; the present form,
growing in brackish water, may be considered as intermediate between
the form from fresh water and the typical species growing in the sea.
A specimen in the Kemp herb., marked Ulva linza, seems to be typical
E. intestinalis, but it is not in good enough condition for certainty.

Monostroma Thuret.

1. Frond 25 u thick or less, cells more or less in twos and fours.
1. M. latissimum.

1. Frond 30 » thick or more; cells not in twos or fours. 2. M. orbiculatum.

1. M. natisstmum (Kiitz.) Wittrock, 1866, p. 33, Pl. I, fig. 4;
Collins, 1909, p. 211; P. B.-A., No. 1859; Ulva latissema Kiitzing,
1856, p. 7, Pl. XIV. On mangroves just below Flatts Bridge; on
Salicornia, Hungry Bay, April, Collins. This plant made its first
appearance at Flatts Bridge about the middle of April, 1912, and grew
rapidly. None was to be seen at the same station from July to Sep-
tember, 1913, nor elsewhere during those months.

2. M. orpicuLatuM Thuret, 1854, p. 388; Wittrock, 1866, p. 37,
Pl. II, fig. 6; Collins, 1909, p. 212; Alg. Am.-Bor. Exsice., No. 173.
The material collected and distributed by Farlow is all that is recorded
for Bermuda.

Uxtva Linnaeus.

1. Frond divided into linear lobes. 2. U. fasciata.
1. Frond rounded or of irregular outline. ee Uplbactuca.

1. U. Lactruca L. var. Latisstma (L.) De Candolle, 1805, p. 9;
Collins, 1909, p. 215. Rein; Moseley; April, June, Kemp, as U.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 35

latissima; in high pool near Tucker’s Town, April, Collins; in quiet
waters elsewhere, but less common than var. rigida.

Var. RIGIDA (Ag.) Le Jolis, 1863, p. 38; Collins, 1909, p. 215; P. B.-A.,
No. 2064; U. rigida Agardh, 1822, p. 410. Rein; Kemp, as U.
Lactuca; Tobacco Bay, Grasmere, March, Harrington Sound, July,
Hervey; Inlet, Aug., Collins. Rather common both in sheltered
and exposed places; sometimes quite near to U. fasciata.

2. U. rascrata Delile, 1813, p. 153, Pl. LVIII, fig. 5; Collins, 1909,
p. 216. Miss Wilkinson; Harrington Sound, March, Hervey. Ap-
parently not common; not easy to distinguish from forms of U.
Lactuca var. rigida, but generally of darker color, especially near the
margin of the linear, dentate or crenate lobes; the frond is thicker
than in most forms of U. Lactuca, and the cells more elongate verti-
cally.

ProToDERMA Kiitzing.

P. martnuM Reinke, 1889, p. 81; Collins, 1909, p. 217. On pebbles,
North Shore near Inlet, Aug., Collins. Probably common everywhere
but inconspicuous.

Famity CYLINDROCAPSACEAE.

CYLINDROCAPSA Reinsch.

*C. INVOLUTA Reinsch, 1867, p. 66, Pl. VI, fig. 1; P. B.-A., No.
2067; C. geminella Wolle, 1887, p. 104, Pl. XCI, figs. 1-17; Collins,
1909, p. 222; C. geminella var. minor Hansgirg, 1886, p. 224, fig. 122;
Hormospora geminella, Wolle, 1877, p. 140. In artificial reservoir near
Spanish Rock, among Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum etc., Feb., Hervey.
In explanation of the synonymy just given, we must go into a little
detail. The genus Cylindrocapsa and the species C. involuta were
founded by Reinsch on vegetative characters only; the fructification
was discovered by Cienkowski, described and well figured by him, 1876,
p. 560, Pl. TX, figs. 50-65. Wolle, 1877, p. 140, described Hormospora
geminella, vegetative characters only; in 1887, p. 104, Cylindrocapsa
geminella with description of fructification. Pl. XCI, figs. 1-17 is
supposed to represent the latter, but is not very instructive. No
reference is made to Hormospora geminella. Hansgirg, 1886,’ p. 223,

7 The date on the first title of the Prodromus is 1886; a second title, intro-
ducing a “‘Schlusswort”’ with separate paging, is dated 1888; under C. gemi-
nella there is a reference to the author’s ‘‘ Phye. u. algol. Studien, 1887.”

36 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

records for Bohemia “C. geminella Wolle (Hormospora geminella
Wolle Bull. of the Tor. Bot. Club 1877)” and describes var. minor.
The diameter of cells given for the typical C. geminella, 20-24 wu, does
not agree with Wolle’s figures, 16-21 » for Hormospora, 14-16 uw for
Cylindrocapsa, but are nearer.C. involuta Reinsch, 23-30 yu. Hans-
girg’s var. minor is said to be 12-15 y, diam., exceptionally 18-25 uy, in
very young filaments 9-12 u, which would certainly include Wolle’s
C. geminella. On comparing all the descriptions and figures, we can
find no real distinction between C. involuta, C. geminella and C.
geminella var. minor; and in the Bermuda material we can match
practically every figure. We have therefore used the oldest name.

Famity OKEDOGONIACEAE.
OEDOGONIUM Link.

1. Oogonium with a whorl of conical projections. 3. O. Itzigsohnii.
1. Oogonium without whorl of projections. 2:
2. Filaments 14-20 uw diam. 1. O. Pringsheimii.

2. Filaments seldom over 12 » diam., usually in stellate clusters.
2. O. consociatum.

*1. O. PrinasHEemmit Cramer ex Hirn, 1900, p. 170, Pl. X XVII,
fig. 155; Collins, 1909, p. 246; P. B.-A., No. 1861. In ditch in Devon-
shire Marsh, April, Collins.

*2. QO. consociatum sp. nov. Plate I, figs. 1-4; P. B.-A., No.
2068. Diocum (?), macrandrium; oogonia solitaria, globosa vel
depresso-globosa, operculata, rima mediana vel subsuperiore, angusta
sed distincta; oospora globosa vel depresso-globosa, oogonium im-
plente, membrana laevi; cellula basali depresso-globosa; cellulis vege-
tativis plus minusve distincte clavatis.

Dioecious (?), macrandrous; oogonia single, globose to depressed-
globose, operculate, division median to superior, narrow but distinct;
oospore globose to depressed globose, filling the oogonium, membrane
smooth; basal cell depressed-globose; vegetative cells more or less
distinctly clavate.

veg. cell, female, 6-12 (20) » diam., 1-4 diam. long.
oog. sh ja 26-28 pu
oosp. 26 24-26 uw «

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. ad

In an artificial fresh water reservoir near Spanish Rock, Jan., Hervey,
Aug., Collins. Type in herb. Collins, No. 7812.

The basal cell is depressed-globose, 20-24 u diam., 12-16 uw high;
the first cell above is 6-8 w diam., 2-3 diam. long; the filament may
continue of the same diameter, or may increase up to 12 y, the cells
1-2 diam. long; occasionally the diam. reaches 20 u, the cells about
one diam. long and moniliform; at any point a larger filament may
suddenly change to the smaller diameter, a cell of 8-10 u following a
cell of 12-20 4. Oogonia were not uncommon, but were very gener-
ally abortive; in the few instances where they seemed normal they
were regularly globose, and contained a globose oospore, quite filling
the oogonium, of orange yellow color. The division of the oogonium
was median or slightly higher; no antheridia were seen.

The study being made from formalin material, the development of
the zoospores could not be followed, but they must have been pro-
duced in immense numbers. Cells of Pithophora kewensis were seen,
completely covered with zoospores which had affixed themselves, but
still retained the spherical form, and were 16-24 wu diam.; the appear-
ance was much like that of a filament of Lyngbya covered with Xeno-
coccus, as shown in Bornet & Thuret, 1880, Pl. XXVI, fig. 1. The
zoospores seemed to secrete some adhesive substance from the cell
wall, forming a sort of collar underneath the cell, extending beyond
the diameter of the cell, so as to be visible from above as well as from
the side. Something similar is seen in Chantransia collopoda Rosen-
vinge, 1898, fig. 10, A. As the densely packed zoospores germinate,
the host soon becomes indistinguishable, the sporelings forming a
bristly mass, to the filaments of which more zoospores attach them-
selves, adhering to the young Oedogonium filaments in the same way
as to the Pithophora. It seems probable, however, that often the
zoospores adhere to each other in a larger or smaller rounded mass;
when they germinate the radiating filaments form an echinate body,
which is different from anything we find recorded for the genus, except
the figures of O. pachyandrium in Wolle, 1887, Pl. LX XIII, figs. 38 and
39.

These figures though rude and in no way showing the evolution of
the cluster, give a fair idea of the appearance. These masses often
contain hundreds, probably thousands of spores, and before germi-
nation has much progressed, look like bits of fish roe. In the material
of No. 7812 the Pithophora appeared to be fairly smothered by the
Oedogonium, many of the cells dead; the greater part of the spores
were attached to Oedogonium filaments or to each other; in No. 7368

38 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

material the Oedogonium was less abundant, and except a few loose
clusters was all on the Pithophora, which was still uninjured; Rhizo-
clonium hieroglyphicum was much more common in this material than
Pithophora, but was quite free from the Oedogoniwm. The nearest
relative would seem to be O. inverswm Wittr., which has capitate cells
of approximately the same size, and a broadened basal cell, but has
cells uniformly 12-14 » diam., and up to 8 diam. long; rather larger
oospores, with quite low division; the basal cell is attached by the flat
lower surface, while in O. consociatum the lower surface is convex,
resting in the ring by which it is affixed to the host.

*3. O. Irzicsonnit De Bary ex Hirn, 1900, p. 177, Pl. XXVIII,
fig. 167; Collins, 1912, p. 86; P. B.-A., No. 1860. In ditch, Devon-
shire Marsh, April, Collins.

Sterile filaments of at least two other species have been found in
collections from a roadside pool near Old Ferry Road, Aug., and from
a ditch in South Shore marshes, Sept., Collins.

Famity CHAETOPHORACEAE.

DIPLOCHAETE Collins.

D. souiTartA Collins, 1901, p. 242; 1909, p. 278, fig. 99. Occa-
sional individuals on Laurencia and other algae, never in any abun-
dance.

Buastopuysa Reinke.

B. ruizopus Reinke, 1889a, p. 27, Pl. XXIII; Borgesen, 1911, p. 151,
fiz. 13; 19135p..8, fie. 2; Collins, 1912, p. 99; fig. 125) PB -Ac No:
1905. South Shore, Jan., Hervey; marsh near racecourse, Aug.,
Collins. At the South Shore in the basal layer of a growth of Sphace-
laria tribuloides; at the marsh on Ruppia maritima, among other small
algae; in Ulva Lactuca, Harrington Sound, Aug., Collins.

PHAEOPHILA Hauck.

P. FLORIDEARUM Hauck, 1876, p. 57; 1885, p. 464, fig. 200. Harris
Bay, Jan., Hervey. This minute plant occurred among various other
algae from a pool, the whole forming a thin, crisp, light green incrus-
tation of about the consistency of some thin, encrusting sponge. It

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 39

is probably not uncommon, but is easily overlooked, as it can be found
only by microscopic examination. It has been found in small quan-
tity in Halymenia bermudensis, Grasmere, March, Hervey.

ENDODERMA Lagerheim.

1. Cells mostly irregular. 1. E. viride.
1. Cells mostly cylindrical. 2. E. filiforme.

1. E. vir1DE (Reinke) Lagerheim, 1883, p. 74; Collins, 1909, p. 279;
P. B.-A., No. 2006; Entocladia viridis Reinke, 1879, p. 476, Pl. VI,
In the cell wall of various algae, common.

2. E. filiforme sp. nov. Filamentis lateraliter vel dichotome
ramosis, cellulis vegetativis cylindricis, prope apices circa 2 uw diam.,
longitudine diametrum pluries superante; inferne ad 6 uw diam., longi-
tudine diametrum duplo superante, forma plus minusve irregulari;
quavis cellula matura in sporangium mutata, circumscriptione cir-
culari supra visa, 6-12 diam., depresso-hemisphaerica lateraliter
visa, membrana crassa; prolongatione papilliformi per membranam
plantae hopsitis protrusa, mox aperta ad exitum sporarum (?); sporis
(?) 2 diam., in cellula paucis; setis, cellulae continuis, haud raro
membranam hospitis penetrantibus, basi circa 4 uw diam., mox ad 2 yu
attenuatis, neque bulbosis nec constrictis; chromatophora parietali,
pyrenoideo unico, magno, munita.

Filaments branched laterally or dichotomously; vegetative cells
cylindrical, near apex about 2 uw diam. and several diam. long, below
up to 6 w diam. and 2 diam long, more or less irregular; any cell of the
older portion changing to a sporangium, circular in outline seen from
above, 6-124 diam., depressed hemispherical in side view, with
thick wall; a small papilla-like extension passing through the wall of
the host, then opening to permit the exit of the spores (?); spores
about 2 uw diam., few in a cell; bristles continuous with the cell also
occasionally passing through the wall of the host, the base about 4 u
diam., quickly tapering to 24, no constriction or bulb. In wall of
Lyngbya confervoides, Bailey’s Bay, Jan. 18, 1913, Hervey. Type in
Collins herbarium, No. 7419a.

The older part is not unlike EZ. viridis, but the long, very slender,
often quite straight filiform branches distinguish it from that as well
as from other species; these branches seem usually to run lengthwise
of the host, dividing mostly dichotomously; the older cells increase
rapidly in width, and send off many branches at right angles, often

40 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

in secund series, passing around the host; in older plants the branching
may be quite dense, with no regularity discernible. The wall is very
thin in the younger cells, but becomes quite thick in the older; the
chromatophore is dense, and nearly or quite covers the wall. Bristles
appear to be rare, and those we saw were short, evidently broken off.
In the oldest parts of the plant, most of the cells had become sporangia,
many of them had emptied, and only one was seen containing spores;
these appeared spherical, but no details could be made out from the
formalin material. The host has thick, distinctly laminate walls,
and the Endoderma seems to push apart the laminae without difficulty;
in one case two plants were seen, one outside the other, separated by
one of the laminae of the host. In another case a plant was seen
quite on the outside of the host wall; in this the cells were quite small
and spherical; it seems probable that the lamina of the host under
which they grew had peeled off, and the cells took the unusual form
on release of the pressure.

PRINGSHEIMIA Reinke.

P. scutaTa Reinke, 1889a, p. 33, Pl..X XV; Collins, 1909, p. 288,
fig. 95. On Wurdemannia, Gibbet Island, Aug., Collins; on Ulva,
Harrington Sound, Aug., Collins.

MicroTHAMNION Nagel.

*M. KurTzIncIANuM Nageli in Kiitzing, 1849, p. 352; Hazen, 1902,
p. 191, Pl. XXVI, fig. 1; Pl. XX VII, figs. 2-4; Collins, 1909, p. 294.
Among Tetraspora lubrica, on dead leaves in ditch in Devonshire

Marsh, Dec., Collins.
Urococcus Kiitzing.

*U. mnsiGNis (Hass.) Kiitzing, 1849, p. 207; Wolle, 1887, p. 201,
Pl. CXXIII, figs. 11-12; Collins, 1909, p. 306; P. B.-A., No. 1862;
Haematococcus insignis Hassall, 1845, p. 324, Pl. LXXX, fig. 6.
Among Sphagnum in Devonshire Marsh, April, Collins.

Guotococcus A. Braun.

*G. mucosus A. Braun, 1851, p. 170; Collins, 1909, p. 310, fig. 122.
Among Oedogonium ete., in ditch in Devonshire Marsh, April, Collins.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 4]

Famity TRENTEPOHLIACEAE.

TRENTEPOHLIA Martius.

*T. auREA (L.) Martius, 1817, p. 351; Collins, 1909, p. 316; Byssus
aureus Linnaeus, 1753, p. 1168. Common on shaded cliffs all over
the islands, forming little orange-colored tufts of soft filaments, some-
times confluent and covering considerable spaces.

Famity CLADOPHORACEAE.

CHAETOMORPHA Kiitzing.

1. Filaments under 100 » diam. Pie
1. Filaments over 100 u diam. . 3.
2. Filaments attached, not over 25 u diam. 1. C. minima.
2. Filaments not attached, 40-70 » diam. 2. C. gracilis.
3. Filaments 500 u diam. or more. Ja © crassa:
3. Filaments 400 u diam. or less. 4.
4. Light green; filaments 200-250 uw diam. 4. C. Linum.
4. Dark green; filaments 125-175 yw diam. 3. C. brachygona.

1. C.mimima sp. nov.; Plate I, figs. 5-7; P. B.-A., No. 2007.
Filamentis disco affixis, cylindricis vel plus minusve clavatis, 10-20 u
diam., ad nodos interdum constrictis; cellulis 2-4 diam. longis,
membrana crassa distincte laminata; zoosporis (?) in quavis cellula
formatis, per foramine laterale liberatis.

Filaments attached by a disk, cylindrical or more or less clavate,
10-20 » diam., nodes sometimes constricted; cells 2-4 diam. long,
wall distinctly laminate; zoospores (?) formed in any cell, escaping
by a lateral opening in the wall. On fronds of Codiwm, Cladophora ete.

The smallest species yet known in this genus; C. californica Collins,
P. B.-A., No. 664 was the smallest heretofore known in the attached
state, and its filaments average about twice the diameter of the present
species; as regards length, the contrast is even more striking, as in C.
californica the fronds reach a length of a decimeter, while in C. minima
5 mm. is the longest observed. It was first found growing on the
rounded ends of the utricles of Codiwm tomentosum, sometimes singly,
sometimes many individuals close together. Being quite imper-

42 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

ceptible to the eye, it was noticed only in the examination of the
Codium material preserved in formalin, so that nothing can be said
as to the characters of the supposed zoospores; everything was how-
ever similar to the formation and emission of zoospores in the larger
and better known species of Chaetomorpha. Emptied cells were
common, sometimes every cell of a filament being fertile, even the
basal cell; in one instance a filament consisted of a single cell, which
had emptied itself through the small round lateral opening. In the
form of the cells, thick laminate wall, dense chromatophore with many
pyrenoids, the plant is a microscopic copy of forms like C. Linwm.
Rather curiously, it is the only attached form we find in the islands.
The type is in the Collins herbarium.

2. C. GRaciLis Kiitzing, 1845, p. 203; 1853, p. 17, Pl. LII, fig. 1
P. B.-A., No. 2162. Hungry Bay, in dense masses, April, Collins.

3. C. BRACHYGONA Harvey, 1858, p. 87, Pl. XLVI. A; Collins,
1909, p. 325. Fish pond, Walsingham, Nov., Hervey, lying loose on
the bottom of the pond.

4. C. Linum (Fl. Dan.) Kiitzing, 1845, p. 204; C. aerea forma
Iinum Collins, 1909, p. 325; P. B.-A., No. 1863. Conferva Linwm
Flora Danica, Vol. V, p. 4, Pl. DCCLXXI, 1782; Harvey, 1846-51,
Pl. CL. A; Moseley; Rein, as C. geniculata; Hungry Bay, Pool by
Moore’s calabash tree, April, Collins; Walsingham, Causeway, Nov.,
Tucker’s Town, Dec., Hervey. Common and variable.

5. C. crassa (Ag.) Kiitzing, 1845, p. 204; 1853, p. 19, Pl. LIX,
fig. 11; P.B.-A., No. 1864; Conferva crassa Agardh, 1824, p. 99.
Kemp, as Hormotrichum; Pool near Walsingham, April, Lagoon near
Fairyland, Aug., Collins. Not always easily distinguishable from
C. Linum; study of the various forms in their natural condition if
continued over a considerable time, might lead to considerable re-
arrangement.

Ruizocionium Kiitzing.

1. Cells rarely under 30 uw diam., wall thick, often lamellate. 2.
1. Cells rarely over 30 u diam., usually 10-25 u. 3.

2. Filaments 50-100 » diam., usually with frequent short branches.
4. R. Hookeri.

2. Filaments 33-44 diam. branching from basal cell only.
5. R. crassipellitum.

3. In fresh or slightly brackish water. 2. RK. hieroglyphicum.
3. In salt water. 4.
4. Cells 20-25 u diam. 3. R. riparium.

4. Cells 10-15 uw diam. 1. R. Kerneri.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 43

1. R. Kernert Stockmayer, 1890, p. 582; Collins, 1909, p. 329.
Forming a coating on mangroves, Hungry Bay, April, Collins.

*2. R. HIEROGLYPHICUM (Ag.) Kiitzing, 1845, p. 206; Collins,
1909, p. 329; P.B.-A., No. 2009; Conferva hieroglyphica Agardh,
1827, p. 636; Pool in rock by Old Ferry landing, Aug.; ditch in South
Shore marshes, Sept., Collins; artificial reservoir near Spanish Rock,
Feb., Hervey. Mostly the typical form, but with some var. macro-
meres Wittr.

3. R. ripartum (Roth) Harvey, 1846-51, Pl. CCXXXVIII;
Collins, 1909, p. 327; Conferva riparia Roth, 1806, p. 216; Hungry
Bay, April, Collins; Causeway, Nov., Hervey. On mangroves and
other objects between tide marks; apparently not very common;
mostly the form known as var. implexum (Dillw.) Rosenvinge.

4. R. Hooxert Kiitzing, 1849, p. 383; 1853, p. 21, Pl. LXVII,
fig. III; Collins, 1909, p. 330. Shore of Harrington Sound, April;
Hungry Bay, May, Collins; Walsingham, Jan., Hervey. A rather
coarse species, varying in diameter of filaments from 50 to 100 yu;
the same filament is not infrequently double the diameter in one part
that it is in another. The branches are mostly short, but have dense
chromatophores the same as in the cells of the filament. Beside the
localities given, it occurs on the walls of caves along high water mark,
and on shaded sides of quarries, and even in reservoirs of quite fresh
water.

5. R. crRassipELuitum W. & G. S. West, 1897, p. 35; Collins, 1909,
p. 330. In small pools, Ely’s harbor, April, Hervey.

CLaDopHoRA Kiitzing.

1. Fresh water. 19. C. fracta.
1. Marine. 2.
2. With distinction of prostrate and erect filaments. 16. C. Howeéei.
2. No distinct prostrate filaments. 3.
3. Forming a low matted expansion. 4,
3. Erect. 5.
4. Filaments 100-150 » diam. throughout. 17. C. repens.
4. Filaments 70-100 » diam. below, 60-80 above. 18. C. frascatii.
5. Main filaments 150 u diam. and upwards. 6.
5. Main filaments seldom reaching 150 yu. 10.
6. Lower cells 10 diam. long or more. 14. C. catenifera.
6. Lower cells less than 10 diam. long. ie
7. Diam. of filaments about the same throughout. 15. C. fuliginosa.
7. Terminal divisions markedly smaller than main axes. 8.

44 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

8. Ramuli clustered. 10. C. fascicularis.

8. Ramuli not clustered. 9.

9. Ultimate ramuli very short, often of a single cell; cells in ramuli ovoid,
1—2 diam. long. 8. C. brachyclona.

9. Ultimate ramuli not extremely short, cylindrical or nearly so.
13. C. utriculosa.
10. Cells generally with a sharp constriction near base. 3. C. constricta.

10. Cells without regular constrictions. ike
11. Fronds floating except at earliest stages. 12.
11. Fronds always attached during active growth. 13.

12. Main filaments 30-60 » diam. 4, C. ecrispula.

12. Main filaments, 100-150 » diam. 7. CC. expansa.
13. Main filaments distinctly angled or flexuous. 14.
13. Main filaments straight or nearly so. 15.

14. Pale yellow-green; cells 6-8 diam. long. 2. C. luteola.

14. Light to bright green; cells 2-6 diam. long. 6. C. flexuosa.
15. Main filaments 60 u diam. or less. 1. C. delicatula.
15. Main filaments 80 u diam. or more. 16.

16. Some branches decumbent, attaching by rhizoids. 5. C. corallicola.

16. No decumbent branches. if
17. Color pale, glossy, substance soft. 9. C. erystallina.
17. Color darker, substance crisp. 18.

18. Cells 38-5 diam. long; ramuli scattered. 11. C. piscinae.

18. Cells mostly 1-2 diam. long; ramuli closer and seriate.
12. C. rigidula.

1. C. peLicatuLa Montagne, 1850, p. 302; Kiitzing, 1856, p. 1,
Pl. I, fig. 2; Collins, 1909, p. 337; P. B.-A., No. 2070. Ely’s Harbor,
April, Hervey. Some of the plants were young and vigorous, reaching
a length of 10 cm.; others were evidently old, the main branches with
laminate walls up to 15 u thick, and covered with minute epiphytes;
new proliferous growth was very abundant, with delicate, thin walls,
and generally like the younger plants.

2. C. LuTEoLa Harvey, 1858, p. 81; Collins, 1909, p. 338. Rein;
Merriman in Farlow herb. We have not collected this species, and
only these two records exist for Bermuda.

3. C. constricta Collins, 1909a, p. 19, Pl. LX XVIII, figs. 4-5;
1909, p. 339. Hungry Bay, Feb., Hervey. Not over 3 cm. high,
while the original material from Jamaica reached a height of 10 cm.
The Bermuda plant occasionally sends out a very long, slender rhizoid
from one of the lower cells; this has not been seen in the Jamaica
material.

4. C. crisputa Vickers, 1905, p. 56; 1908, p. 19, Pl. XVI; Collins,

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 45

1909, p. 339; Bérgesen, 1913, p. 24, fig. 15. P. B.-A., No. 2011.
Harrington Sound, March, Hervey. To this species we have referred,
with some doubt, a form found in floating masses, which agrees in size
and length of cells, and in manner of branching, with C. crispula, but
does not form contorted, rope-like strands. It seems to us that these
may be a later development, and that our plant represents an earlier
stage. Similar conditions are well known in species of Rhizoclonium
and Chaetomorpha.

5. C. coraiicota Borgesen, 1913, p. 21, figs. 11-12; P. B.-A.,
No. 2010. Tucker’s Town, Dec., Hervey. Growing matted among
old fronds of Bryopsis; the slender rhizoids characteristic of the
species are well developed, and occasionally branch.

6. C. FLExuosa (Griff.) Harvey, 1846-51, Pl. CCCLIII; Collins,
1909, p. 339; Conferva flexuosa Griffiths in Wyatt, Alg. Danm.,
No. 227. Gibbet Island, June, Howe; North Shore, Tucker’s Town,
April, Inlet, Aug., Collins., A delicate plant but often reaching a
length of 2dm. Late in its season it becomes unattached and may
be found in large floating masses, in Castle Harbor and similar places.

7. C. ExpaNsA (Mert.) Kiitzing, 1853, p. 27, Phe CBX: tie. 1
Collins, 1909, p. 340; Conferva expansa Mertens in Jiirgens, Algae
Aquaticae, Dee. V. Brackish pool between North Shore and Harring-
ton Sound, April, Collins. Forming loose floating masses, sometimes
pure, sometimes in company with Lyngbya and Enteromorpha. In the
latter case the algae form a felted stratum on the surface of the
water so firm that the shore birds may be seen in large flocks, walking
on it as if it were land, while they pick the small animals living among
it. Whether this plant is the same as C. heteronema Kiitz., as described
by Bérgesen, 1913, p. 25, may be a question. C. flavescens Harvey,
1846-51, Pl. CCXCVIII, Collins, 1909, p. 339, is certainly distinct,
but we have not found it here; it seems to be a more northern form.
Reinbold, 1893, p. 196, considers Conferva expansa of Jiirgens Alg.
Aquat. as distinct from Cladophora fracta forma marina, and refers
for details to Farlow, 1881, p. 56; but the C. fracta forma marina of
Farlow is a plant of much smaller filaments than the Hauck plant of
the same name. We have found a plant in Harrington Sound, that
could, without violence, pass for a slender form of C. fracta forma
marina of Hauck, but it seems’ to us to fit equally well, if not better,
in C. expansa, as We understand it.

8. C. BRacHycLona Montagne in Kiitzing, 1849, p. 394; 1853,
p. 27, Pl. XCVI, fig. II; Collins, 1909, p. 344. A single specimen
from Miss Peniston, without definite locality, is the only American

46 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

record for this Mediterranean plant. The specimen is well developed
and characteristic.

9. C. crysTaLtina (Roth) Kiitzing, 1845, p. 213; 1854, p. 4,
Pl. XIX, fig. II; ‘Collins, 1909, p. 342; P. B.-A., No. 1865; Conferva
erystallina Roth, 1797, p. 196. Rein, as C. glaucescens; Gravelly
Bay, Feb., Dec., Hervey; Hungry Bay, April, North Shore, Harring-
ton Sound, May, Collins. A handsome plant, soft and silky, growing
on rocks on somewhat exposed shores, more commonly and luxuriantly
in quiet water, where it sometimes becomes detached and continues
growing in the floating state.

10. C. FascicuLaris (Mert.) Kiitzing, 1843, p. 268; Vickers, 1905,
p. 56; 1908, p. 18, Pl. XIII; Collins, 1909, p. 345; P. B.-A. No.
2163; Conferva fascicularis Mertens in Agardh, 1824, p. 114. Har-
rington Sound, Feb., Hervey. A quite variable species, common
from Florida to South America, but found only once in Bermuda.

11. ©. piscinae sp. nov. P.B.-A., No. 2165. Filamentis pri-
maris 100 diam.; ramulis ultimis 50; cellularum longitudine
diametrum 3-5-plo superante; nodis haud constrictis; cellula ter-
minali rotundata vel truncata, longitudine cellulas ceteras non super-
ante; ramificatione inferne per dichotomias patentes, distantes,
aequales, cellula dichotomias gerente plerumque sed non semper
ceteris breviore; ramis superne ramulos distantes, patentes, ferenti-
bus; colore laeteviridi; chromatophora laxe reticulata; substantia
subcrispa, nec fragili.

Main filaments 100 u diam.; ultimate ramuli 50 u; length of cells
3-5 diam., nodes not constricted; terminal cell rounded or truncate,
not longer than other cells; branching below by wide, equal, distant
forkings, the cell bearing the forking usually but not always shorter
than the others; above with distant patent ramuli; color light green;
chromatophore a loose network; substance somewhat crisp but not
fragile. In an old fishpool at Godet’s Island, Nov. 30, 1915. Type
in Collins herbarium, No. 8427.

The water in this pool is quite still, the tide having access only by
small openings in the wall. The plant formed a loose mass, over one
meter in diameter, the lower part caught on coral; the appearance was
quite that of a loose Spirogyra. Though crisp to the touch, the fronds
collapsed immediately on being taken from the water; the living plant
is of a light green color, but this becomes dark in drying. There is
some similarity in the characters above to those of the description of
C. Macallana Harv., but that is a stouter and stiffer plant, with differ-
ent habit. C. patens Kiitz. has cells 4-8 diam. long, larger main fila-

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 47

lents and smaller ramuli than C. piscinae. C. erystallina, the most
nearly related Bermuda species, has larger main filaments, smaller
and more closely set ramuli, longer cells, more fasciculate habit, softer
substance, and does not become dark in drying.

12. ©. rigidula sp. nov. Filamentis primariis cirea 120» diam.,
secundi ordinis 100», cellulis ultimis 80; cellularum longitudine
diametrum 1-2-plo superante; nodis haud constrictis; cellula termi-
nali plerumque longiore, interdum ad 3 diam., rotundata vel subacuta;
ramificatione prope basin per dichotomias patentes, primo approxi-
matas, deinde distantes; ramis partis superioris frondis longis, rectis,
ramulos gerentibus fere vel omnino sub angulo recto egredientes, dis-
tantes sparsosque inferne, in seriebus secundis prope apicem; colore
viridi diluto obscuro; chromatophora subtiliter reticulata, pyrenoi-
deos multos, minutos, nitidos monstrante; substantia firma crispaque.

Main filaments about 120 u diam., secondary 100 yu, ultimate cells
80 u; length of cells 1-2 diam., nodes not constricted; terminal cell
usually longer, sometimes 3 diam., rounded or subacute; branching
at base by broad forkings, at first frequent, later distant; branches
in upper half of frond long, straight, with ramuli nearly or quite at
right angles, distant and scattered below, near the tips in secund
series; color rather dull light green; chromatophore a fine network
with very many small bright pyrenoids; substance firm and crisp.
In a stone tank above the bridge at Fairyland, Dec. 13, 1915. Type
in Collins herbarium, No. 8513.

Though occurring in a station similar to that of C. piscinae, and in
some points resembling the latter, it has seemed to us better to con-
sider it a distinct species than to combine the two by too vague a
description. C. piscinge, though crisp, promptly collapses when
taken from the water, C. rigidula long keeps its shape and stiffness;
the distinction is as marked as that between Polysiphonia violacea
and P. fastigiata. In C. piscinae the cells are seldom under three or
over five diam. long; in C. rigidula they are seldom over two diam.,
often only one diam. for a good part of the frond; the terminal cell is,
however, often three diam. long. In both the ultimate ramuli are
patent, often at a right angle; in C. piscinae they are scattered and
usually distant, in C. rigidula closer and often in secund series. The
differences can hardly be due to the station, as each grew in a stone
tank, sea water going in and out with the tide, but with no active
current, and no disturbance of the surface. On the other hand it has
some resemblance to the plant from Harrington Sound which we
distributed, P. B.-A., No. 2014, as C. utriculosa, but is still further

4S COLLINS AND HERVEY.

removed from the typical Mediterranean form. In the latter the
cells below are 6-8 diam. long, 2-4 diam. above, while in the present
species only the terminal cell is usually over 2 diam. long. It seems
to us safer to treat it as a new species than to put it in a species whose
typical form, at least, is so distinct.

13. C. urricuLosa Kiitzing, 1843, p. 269; 1853, p. 26, Pl. XCIV,
fig. I; Collins, 1909, p. 346; P. B.-A., No. 2014. Harrington Sound,
Wadsworth, March; same station, Oct., Hervey. A common Medi-
terranean and West India species. Wadsworth’s plants are rather
more slender than the typical, but otherwise quite the same. The
material collected by us in October formed loosely floating masses.
evidently a later condition; all branching was wide; the dichotomies
in the lower part about 120°, the ramuli, usually quite short, about 90°.

14. C. cATENIFERA Kiitzing, 1849, p. 390; 1853, p. 24, PI.
LXXXIIL, fig. I; Collins, 1909, p. 347; P. B.-A., No. 2069. Kemp in
herb., as Cladophora sp.?; Howe; Red Bay, St. David’s Island, June,
cave at Gravelly Bay, Feb., April, Dingle Bay, March, Hervey.
The most striking of our species of the genus, with stout stem and
main branches, very long cells, firm lustrous cell wall. Bermuda
plants are 10-20 em. high; at Jamaica it sometimes reaches a height
of 50 cm. In February only very small plants were found.

15. C. ruticinosa Kiitzing, 1849, p. 415; Collins, 1909, p. 348;
P. B.-A., No. 2012. Kemp, St. George’s, unnamed specimen in
herb.; Harris Bay, Jan., Apr., Gravelly Bay, Dec., Inlet, Dec.,
Hervey; Gravelly Bay, Aug., Collins. A coarse species, generally
distributed and common; always infested with the fungus Blodgettia
Borneti Wright. The combination of the two forms the Blodgettia
confervoides Harvey, 1858, p. 48, Pl. XLV. C,

16. C. Hower Collins, 1909a, p. 18, PI. LXXV II, fig. 1; 1909,
p. 349. Tide pools, Gibbet Island, June, 1900, Howe. The short,
subsimple filaments arise from a dense mass of prostrate filaments, a
character found in no other of our species. Gibbet Island is the type,
and so far as known, the only, station for the species; so for the pres-
ent it may be considered as endemic.

17. C. repens (J. Ag.) Harvey, 1846-51, Pl. CCXXXVI;
P. B.-A., No. 2071. Conferva repens J. G. Agardh, 1842, p. 18;
Aegagropila repens Kiitzing, 1854, p. 15, Pl. LXX, fig. II. Gravelly
Bay, Jan., Feb., Hervey. A low, densely matted plant of dark color,
not however, with prostrate and erect filaments clearly differentiated.
The plant from California distributed under this name as P. B.-A.,
No. 727 has since proved to be C. trichotoma (Ag.) Kiitz.; the present
record is therefore the first for America.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 49

18. C. frascatii sp. nov.; P. B.-A., No. 2164. Humilis, 1-2
em. alta; ramificatione irregulari, inferne plerumque dichotoma,
dichotomiis patentibus; superne partim conformi, sed etiam laterali,
patente, saepe rectangulari; ramulis ultimis 1—3-cellularibus, prope
vel omnino rectangularibus, saepe secundis latere exteriore rami
recurvati; cellulis inferne 70-100 uw diam., 2-5 diam. longis, cylin-
dricis; ramulorum 60-80 diam., 2-3 diam. longis, leviter inflatis,
nodis constrictis; cellula terminali obtusa.

Low, 1-2 em. high, branching irregular, below mostly dichotomous,
with wide forkings; above partly similar, partly lateral, patent, often
at a right angle; ultimate ramuli 1-3-celled, nearly or quite at right
angles, often secund on the outer side of a recurved branch. Cells
below 70-100 diam., 2-5 diam. long, cylindrical; in the ramuli
60-80 u diam., 2-3 diam. long, somewhat swollen with constricted
nodes; terminal cell obtuse. In matted tufts in tide pools near
Frascati Hotel, Jan. 11, 1914, A. B. Hervey. Type in Collins herb.

Growing in similar places to C. repens, and forming similar matted
tufts, but distinct by the smaller dimensions and the lateral, secund,
submoniliform ramuli.

*19. C. rracta (FI. Dan.) Kiitzing, 18438, p. 263; 1854, p. 10,
Pl. L; Collins, 1909, p. 353; P.B.-A., No. 2013. Conferva fracta
Flora Danica, Vol. V., Pl. DCCCCXLVI,-1782. Artificial Reservoir
of fresh water near Spanish Rock, Dec., Hervey. Some of the
material isin a vigorously growing state; some in a hibernating state,
cells with thick walls, dense contents, few branches.

CLADOPHOROPSIS Borgesen.

C. MEMBRANACEA (Ag.) Bérgesen, 1905, p. 288, figs. 8-13; 1913,
p. 47, fig. 33; Collins, 1909, p. 362; P. B.-A., No. 1866; Conferva
membranacea Agardh, 1824, p. 120. North Shore, Jan., Tucker’s
Town, March, Harris Bay, Shelly Bay, April, Hervey; Inlet, May,
Hungry Bay, July, Collins. A very common species, forming cushions
on rocks, and on and under mangroves; in still pools it is sometimes
also in floating masses.

PirHopHora Wittrock.

*P. KEWENSIS Wittrock, 1877, p. 52, Pl. I, fig. 8; Pl. II, figs. 1-12;
Pl. III, figs. 1-9; Pl. IV, figs. 2-11; Pl. V, figs. 9-10; Collins, 1912,
p- 98; P. B.-A., No. 2072. With Rhizoclonium ete. in reservoir of
fresh water near Spanish Rock, Dec., Hervey.

50 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

ANADYOMENE Lamouroux.

A. sTELLATA (Wulf.) Agardh, 1822, p. 400; Vickers, 1908, p. 21,
Pl. XXI; P. B.-A., No. 1906; A. flabellata Harvey, 1858, p. 49, PI.
XLIV. A; Alg. Am.-Bor. Exsice., No. 172; Ulva stellata Wulfen
in Jacquin, 1786, p. 351. Common in shallow water everywhere
about the islands, and dredged down to 18 m.; in quiet places as large,
thin fronds, in exposed places masses of short, irregular, densely
packed fronds. Apparently equally common at all times of the year.
Aug. 11, 1913, in the cave at Agar’s Island, young plants were found
growing on the rocks between tides, forming a continuous coating,
the individual plants not over 1 mm. high. In some individuals the
lamina was beginning to form, but most of the plants resembled young
Cladophora, except that the branching was in one plane. There was
a distinct filiform stipe, attached at the base by slender coralloid
projections.

DiIcTYOSPHAERIA Decaisne.

D. ravutosa (Ag.) Decaisne, 1842, p. 32; Bérgesen, 1913, p. 33,
figs. 20-22; Collins, 1909, p. 367, fig. 137; P. B.-A., No. 2015; Valonia
favulosa Agardh, 1822, p. 432. Harrington Sound, Farlow; South
Shore, Jan., Feb., Hervey; Hungry Bay, Tucker’s Town, April,
Reef, Ely’s Harbor, Aug., Collins. Grows both in sheltered and in
exposed stations, perhaps more generally in the latter.

Famity GOMONTIACEAE.

Gomontta Bornet & Flahault.

G. potyrHiza (Lagerheim) Bornet & Flahault, 1888a, p. 164; 1889,
p. CLVIII, Pl. VI-VII; Collins, 1909, p. 370, fig. 135; Codiolum poly-
rhizum Lagerheim, 1885, p. 22. Common in dead shells of mollusks
along the shore, giving them a more or less deep grass-green color.

Famity VALONIACEAE.
VaLoniaA Ginnani.

1. Fronds bullate, unbranched. 1. V. ventricosa.
1. Fronds branched. 2.
2. Branches in whorls. 4. V.pachynema.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. Si

2. Branches not whorled. oe
3. Cells spherical, ovoid or pyriform. 2. V.macrophysa.
3. Cells cylindrical to clavate. 3. V. utricularis.

1. V. ventRIcosa J. G. Agardh, 1886, p. 96; Vickers, 1905, p. 56;
1908, p. 21, Pl. XXIII. A; Collins, 1909, p. 373; Bérgesen, 1913, p.
27, fig. 16. July, Kemp; Gravelly Bay, Aug., Collins. At Gravelly
Bay this plant was washed ashore; the plants were 1-3 cm. diam.,
smooth and glassy, spherical or slightly ovoid. Murray states that
it is sometimes as large as a hen’s egg.

2. V. MACROPHYSA Kiitzing, 1843, p. 307; 1856, p. 30, PI.
LXXXVII, fig. I; P. B.-A., No. 1867; V. fie eae Alg. Am.-Bor.
Exsice., No. 171, not of Agardh. Rian Sound, Walsingham,
Jan., Tucker’s Town, Dec., Hervey; pool near Moore’s calabash
tree, Ducking Stool, April, Ely’s Harbor, July, Gravelly Bay, Gibbet
Island, Aug., Fairyland, Nov., Collins. Grows usually in dense masses
sometimes as large as a man’s head; the individual plants are only
loosely attached, and are easily separable; under water it usually
shows a very brilliant iridescence. The turgor in the living cell is
considerable; when the cell is punctured by a dissecting needle, it
sends out a fine stream which may reach a distance of a meter or more.

3. V. UTRICULARIS (Roth) Agardh, 1822, p. 431; Collins, 1909,
p. 373; Conferva utricularis Roth, 1797, p. 160, Pl. I, fig. 1. Dredged
in 18 meters, Hamilton Harbor, Dec., Collins.

Forma crustTacEa Kuckuck, 1907, p. 180; Bérgesen, 1913, p. 30,
figs. 17-18; P. B.-A., No. 2074. The typical V. utricularis is rather
loosely branched, but in forma crustacea the cells form a dense mass,
and might be mistaken for one of the solid-fronded species of Dictyo-
sphaeria, but under the microscope it is easily distinguished by the dif-
ferent manner of attachment of the cells. It has some resemblance
to V. macrophysa, but the cells are smaller, closely adherent and more
elongate. It appears to be a form of shallow water, forming dense
masses, as well in the quiet water at Grasmere as on the reefs, always
awash, at Ely’s Harbor.

4. V. pacuyneMa (Martens) Weber, 1913, p. 61; V. confervoides ®
Harvey, Alg. Ceylon, No. 73; J. G. Agardh, 1886, p. 100; Collins,
1909, p. 373; Bryopsis pachynema Martens, 1866, p. 24, PLAY aig. 2.
Miss Wilkinson.

8 Mme. Weber calls attention to the fact that Valonia confervoides was
nomen nudum until 1886; hence V. pachynema has priority.

BZ COLLINS AND HERVEY.

ErnopesMis Borgesen.

E. VERTICILLATA (Kiitz.) Borgesen, 1912, p. 259, figs. 10-12; 1913,
p. 66, figs. 51-54. P. B.-A., No. 1907; Valonia verticillata Kiitzing,
1849, p. 508; Collins, 1909, p. 373. Kemp, April, St. George’s,
unnamed specimen in herb.; Castle Harbor, Farlow; Harrington
Sound, 3-10 dm., June, Howe; cave by Gravelly Bay, April, tidal
stream, Hungry Bay, July, Collins. Generally grows in dense masses
of crisp fronds, but easily separable.

SIPHONOCLADUS Schmitz.

1. Primary cell long, erect; substance soft. 1. S. tropicus.
1. Primary cell short; substance firm. 2. S. rigidus.

1. §S. Tropicus (Crouan) J. G. Agardh, 1886, p. 105; Bdérgesen,
1913, p. 61, figs. 44-51; Collins, 1909, p. 374; Vickers, 1908, p.
20, Pl. XVIII; Apjohnia tropica Crouan in Mazé & Schramm, 1870-—
77, p. 105. Harris Bay, in pools, a few individuals only, Feb.,
Hervey.

2. S. R1cIpus Howe, 1905, p. 244, Pl. XII, fig. 1; Pl. XIV; Col-
lins, 1909, p. 374, fig. 1389; P. B.-A., No. 2169. On flat rock at low
water mark, Agar’s Island, Dec., Collins.

PETROSIPHON Howe.

P. ADHAERENS Howe, 1905, p. 248, Pl. XV; Collins, 1909, p. 375;
P. B.-A., No. 2073. Forming a closely attached crust in pools at
Harris Bay, March, Hervey.

STRUVEA Sonder.

S. ramosa Dickie, 1874a, p. 316; Murray & Boodle, 1888, p. 280,
Pl. XVI, fig. 3; Collins, 1909, p. 377. This species was described
from specimens collected by Moseley with the Challenger Expedition;
there is no record of it since, either here or elsewhere.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 53

Famity DASYCLADACEAE.

ACETABULARIA Lamouroux.

A. CRENULATA Lamouroux, 1816, p. 249; Harvey, 1858, p. 40,
Pl. XLII. A; Collins, 1909, p. 378, fig. 131; P.B.-A., No. 1908.
St. George’s, Kemp; Achilles Bay, June, Harrington Sound, Oct.,
Hervey; Fairyland, July, Harrington Sound, Aug., Collins. Com-
mon, at least during summer and autumn, on rocks and pebbles in
shallow water, also brought up by dredge from about 5 meters off
Spanish Point. Ripe aplanospores were found in plants from Fairy-
land, distributed as P. B.-A., No. 1908. At this station it covers the
bottom in patches many meters square, just below the low water level.

AcICULARIA d’Archiac.

A. ScHENcKI (M6b.) Solms, 1895, p. 33, Pl. ITI, figs. 4, 9, 11, 12, 14,
15; Collins, 1909, p. 380; Acetabularia Schenckii Mobius, 1889, p. 318,
Pl. X, figs. 8-12. Hungry Bay, in the tidal stream under the man-
groves, June, Howe. Resembling Acetabularia crenulata, but with
disk usually smaller, stipe shorter and stouter. It probably occurs
in other stations, but has been overlooked on account of its resemblance
to the more common plant.

NeEomeERIs Lamouroux.

N. annuLaTa Dickie, 1874, p. 198; Howe, 1909, p. 87, Pl. I, fig. 2;
Collins, 1909, p. 382, fig. 143; P. B.-A., No. 1909; Borgesen, 1913,
p. 71, figs. 55-57; N. Kelleri Vickers, 1908, p. 28, Pl. XLVI. In
shallow water on rock and especially on small stones, and dredged in
18 meters. Faxon; Miss Wilkinson; White Island, June, Howe; Ely’s
Harbor, July, Harrington Sound, Aug., Collins; Harrington Sound,
Oct., Nov., Hervey. Probably to be found in quiet shallow water
everywhere in the islands; other species of Neomeris, equally common
in the West Indies, have not been noticed here.

DasycLabus Agardh.

D. CLAVAEFORMIS (Roth) Agardh, 1828, p. 16; Collins, 1909, p. 383;
P. B.-A., No. 1868; Conferva clavaeformis Roth, 1806, p. 315. Cooper’s

54 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

Island, April, Collins; Pink Bay, Spanish Point, March, Hervey.
In habit much like Batophora Oerstedi var. occidentalis, but growing in
more sheltered places.

Batopuora J. G. Agardh.

B. Orrstep1 J. G. Agardh. 1854, p. 108; Collins, 1909, p. 383,
fig. 145; Borgesen, 1913, p. 73, fig. 58; P. B.-A., No. 1910. Fairy-
land, July, with ripe aplanospores, Collins.

Var. OCCIDENTALIS (Hary.) Howe, 1905a, p. 579; Collins, 1909,
p. 384; P. B.-A., No. 2016; Dasycladus occidentalis Harvey, 1858,
p. 38, Pl. XLI. B. Rein; Spanish Point, June, Howe; Shelly Bay.

Dec., Hervey. A condensed form, growing in more exposed localities.

Famity CODIACEAE.

Coprtum Stackhouse.
1. Prostrate. 1. C. intertextum.
1. Erect. 2.
2. All divisions contracted at base, enlarging upwards.

4. C. isthmocladum.
2. No distinct contractions at base of divisions. ay

3. Peripheral utricles 100-150 » diam., exceptionally 200 wp.

2. C. tomentosum.
3. Peripheral utricles rarely under 300 nu. 3. C. decorticatum.

1. C. intertextum sp. nov.; P. B.-A., 2018. Fronde prostrata,
tereti vel complanata, saxo arcte adhaerente, apicibus autem vulgo
liberis; ramis brevibus, irregularibus, stratum subcontinuum for-
mantibus, strato interiore siphonum dense implicatorum strato
corticali cincto, utriculorum longorum, cylindricorum vel subclava-
torum, apicibus truncatis, subrotundatisve, diam. 70-904; colore
atroviridi; substantia subfirma, nec maxime gelatinosa.

Frond prostrate, subterete or flattened, closely adherent to the rock,
but with tips usually free; with short, irregular branches, forming an
almost continuous coating. Interior layer of densely packed, slender
tubes, surrounded by a cortical layer of long, cylindrical or somewhat
clavate utricles, with truncate or somewhat rounded ends, 70-90 u
diam. Color dark green, substance rather firm, not specially gelati-
nous. Forming a continuous belt a few dm. wide on upright or

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 55

sloping rocks, at low water mark; Harrington Sound, Castle Harbor,
ete.

In habit somewhat resembling C. adhaerens and C. difforme, but
the frond in these is continuous, with margin entire or lobed; in C.
interteztum the frond is narrow and branching, the branches being so
densely set as to make an almost continuous coating, one branch
often over another. The utricles are of much the same size and shape
as in C. adhaerens, but the structure of the latter is dorsiventral, the
utricles on the upper side only, the lower, adherent surface consisting
of the slender tubes, which in C. intertextum form a central layer,
surrounded on all sides by the utricles, rarely the middle part of the
under surface without the utricles. C. repens Crouan, also a prostrate
species, has utricles even larger than C. tomentosum, of the order of
size of C. decorticatum; its branching is not as dense as that of C.
intertextum, being more like that of C. tomentosum, but without the
erect habit. The utricles vary somewhat in shape and size, as in all
species of the genus, but the long, slender shape, the end either sharply
truncate or slightly capitate, is distinct from the shape in all other
American species except C. adhaerens. ‘Type 7070 in Collins her-
barium, from Tucker’s Town, April 25, 1912. Also from Ely’s
Harbor, July, Gibbet Island, Sept., Collins; Gravelly Bay, Dec.,
Hervey. All records of C. adhaerens for Bermuda probably belong
here.

2. C. TomMENTosUM (Huds.) Stackhouse, 1795, p. 21, Pl. VII;
Harvey, 1846-51, Pl. XCIII; Collins, 1909, p. 388; P. B.-A., No.
1869; Conferva tomentosa Hudson, 1762, p. 480. Tucker, No. 4,
1856; Tucker’s Town, Farlow; Kemp in herb; Moseley; Buildings
Bay, Harrington Sound, Shelly Bay, March, Hervey; Hungry Bay,
April, Ely’s Harbor, Aug., Collins. Rather common about the
islands; sporangia found in May.

3. C. pEcortTIcATUM (Woodw.) Howe, 1911, p. 494; P. B.-A.,
No. 2017; C. elongatum Vickers, 1908, p. 22, Pl. XXVII; Collins,
1909, p. 388; Ulva decorticata Woodward, 1797, p. 55. Faxon; Miss
Peniston; Harrington Sound, April, Aug., St. David’s Island, April,
Cooper’s Island, Gibbet Island, Aug., Collins. Very variable in
habit and size, but usually less densely branched than C. tomentosum,
the branches often quite virgate; usually compressed more or less at
or below the axils. But there are often cases when the two species
are indistinguishable by external characters; the size of the utricles
must then determine; in C. tomentosum 100-150 w diam. rarely to
200 uw; in C. decorticatum 300-400 » diam. rarely to 200. There has

56 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

been some question as to whether the distinction between these two
species should be based on the size of the utricles, or on the presence
or absence of compression; the matter is fully discussed by Bornet,
1892, p. 216. We have adopted the former plan. It must be kept in
mind that in actively growing plants or parts of plants, small and
immature utricles occur among those of normal size. C. decorticatum
sometimes grows to a large size; one plant which we found growing
below low water mark in Harrington Sound was nearly a meter long
and over 10 cm. wide in the expanded part; it was the largest alga we
have seen in Bermuda, except possibly some Sargassum. It is un-
fortunate that the rather appropriate name of elongatum should have
to be replaced by the quite inappropriate decorticatum, but as shown
by Howe, it seems inevitable.

Var. clavatum var. nov. Fronde habitu formam cylindricam C,
decorticatt. approximante, sed substantiae firmioris, vix gelatinosa,
colore laete viridi; utriculis forma multo variantibus; aliis cylindricis
vel leviter clavatis, 80 X 480 uy; aliis 500 longis, sursum dilatatis
ad caput subsphaericum 145 diam.; aliorum inflatione terminali
ad 200 » diam., a parte subeylindrica minus distincta; aliis obcam-
panulatis, 650 uw longis, 350 uw diam., apice spatio brevi paullo latiori-
bus; aliis turbinatis, 640 u longis, apice 470 4 diam.; inter omnes,
formis intermediis.

Habit that of a rather densely branched cylindrical C. decorticatum,
but of quite firm substance, hardly gelatinous, color light green.
Utricles very variable in form; some cyclindrical or slightly clavate,
80 < 4804; some 500 y long, increasing in size upward to 1124,
then with a subspherical head 145 diam.; in others the capitate
swelling up to 200 diam., but less sharply marked off from the
subeyclindrical part, 120 u diam.; others inverted bell-shape, 650 u
long, 350 » diam., somewhat wider for a short space at the truncate
top; others turbinate, 640 uw long, 470 uw wide at top; with all inter-
mediate gradations.

The largest utricle observed was 980 uv long, 480 4 diam. The plant
is so firm in texture that it does not collapse when taken from the
water; but when dried it is thin and papery. Sporangia ovoid, largest
at the middle, obtuse at each end; sporangia apparently not mature,
160 X 64u, 275 X 105 yu, 280 X 1004; mature sporangia, packed
with spherical spores about 12 diam., 190 X 100 y, 240 X 120 u.
Type specimen, from stone wall at Inlet, by Frascati Hotel, Dec. 20,
1912, Hervey, No. 7322 in Collins herb. Also at Devonshire Bay,
Gravelly Bay, Feb., Causeway, March, Hervey.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. Sf

4, C.1stTamMocLaDvM Vickers, 1905, p. 57; 1908, p. 23, Pl. XXVIII;
Collins, 1909, p. 388. Shelly and Gravelly Bays, March, Hervey.
Probably not uncommon, resembling a condensed form of C. tomento-
sum, but with the divisions more or less contracted at the base,
gradually increasing in diameter to the next forking. The utricles
are larger than in C. tomentosum, approaching the size in C. decorti-
catum.

AVRAINVILLEA Decaisne.

1. Filaments distinctly moniliform. 1. A. nigricans.
1. Filaments nearly or quite cylindrical. 2. A. longicaulis.

1. A. NieRICANS Decaisne, 1842, p. 96; Howe, 1907, p. 508, PI.
XXVIII, figs. 8-25; Collins, 1909, p. 390. Walsingham, Feb.,
Harris Bay, April, Hervey; Inlet, Cooper’s Island, Aug., Collins.
Very variable, from small, delicate plants to coarse, heavy and
unsightly ones.

Var. FuLVA Howe in P. B.-A., No. 1480; Collins, 1909, p. 390;
P. B.-A., No. 2171. Stouter, coarser, with less difference between
stipe and flabellum; color more yellowish than in the type.

2. A. LONGICAULIS (Kiitz.) Murray & Boodle, 1889, p. 70, as to
name only; Collins, 1909, p. 391; P. B.-A., No. 2170; Rhipilia longi-
caulis Kiitzing, 1858, p. 13, Pl. XXVIII, fig. 2. Walsingham, Feb.,
Mangrove Bay, Feb., Harrington Sound, Nov., Inlet, Dec., Hervey;
Fairyland, Dec., Collins. Growing in company with A. nigricans,
from which it is frequently indistinguishable, except that the fila-
ments of the latter show distinctly moniliform on microscopic exami-
nation, while those of A. longicaulis are nearly or quite cylindrical.
The name is a somewhat unfortunate result of following the rules of
botanical nomenclature; the authors of the binomial used it for a
different plant, A. nigricans. Rhipilia longicaulis, from which it
derives its specific name, is according to the type specimen the
present species, while the description and figure given by Kiitzing
belong better to a third species, A. sordida Murray & Boodle. The
arguments in favor of the name used here are found in Howe, 1907,
p. 509; those in favor of preferring A. Mazei Murray & Boodle in
Gepp, 1911, p. 27; a later summation will be found in Howe, 1911, p.
133.

PENIcILLUS Lamarck.

1. Surface of stipe smooth. 1. P. capitatus.
1. Surface of stipe rough. 2. P. pyriformis.

58 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

1. P. capiratus Lamarck, 1813, p. 299; Harvey, 1858, p. 45,
Pl. XLII. B; Collins, 1909, p. 392; P. B.-A., No. 1911. Kemp,
specimen in herb.; Rein; Moseley; Wadsworth, No. 75; Tucker’s
Town, Farlow; Hungry Bay, June, Howe; Gravelly Bay, March,
Mangrove Bay, Feb., Harris Bay, Oct., Nov., Inlet, Dec., Hervey;
Cooper’s Island, April, Jew’s Bay, July, Ely’s Harbor, Inlet, Hungry
Bay, Aug., Collins. Common practically everywhere in shallow
water and dredged down to 10 m.

Forma ELONGATUS (Dene.) Gepp, 1911, p. 83, figs. 166-167;
P. B.-A., No. 1912; P. elongatus Decaisne, 1842, p. 97 (reprint).
Jew’s Bay, July, Harrington Sound, Mangrove Lake, Aug., Collins.
A form with long stipe, pyriform head, filaments stouter than in the
typical form, in company with which it grows, the two shading into
each other.

Forma Laxus Borgesen, 1913, p. 98, fig. 80. Walsingham, Feb.,
Hervey. A form with long and slender stipe, head more or less
irregular in form, filaments loose and slender. In the specimens
which we identify with this form the branching of the stipe is not
unusual, each division having a head of the normal shape for this
form.

2: BP. pyrmormis Gepp, 1905; p:. 1; PE CeCCLXVIIIy her 1.
Collins, 1909, p. 393; P. B.-A., No. 2075. June, Howe; Feb., Far-
low; Harris Bay, Jan., Oct., Dec., Inlet, Dec., Hervey. Often grow-
ing with P. capitatus, but less common.

Upotea Lamouroux.

1. Whole flabellum with a stony coating. 2. U. flabellum.
1. Flabellum flexible, individual filaments encrusted. 1. U. conglutinata.

1. U. conatutinata (Soland.) Lamouroux, 1816, p. 312; Howe,
1909, p. 96, Pl. II, Pl. VIII, figs. 1-13; Collins, 1909, p. 395; P. B.-A.,
No. 1913; Corallina conglutinata Solander in Ellis & Solander, 1786,
p. 125, Pl. XXV, fig. 7. Rein; Kemp; South Beach by Paget, Feb.,
Farlow; Harris Bay, Jan., Feb., March, Nov., Hervey. In tide
pools, a small form only; dredged in 10 meters by the Challenger
Expedition.

2. U. FLABELLUM (Ell. & Sol.) Howe, 1904, p. 94; Gepp, 1911,
p. 131, Pl. III, figs. 26-28; Collins, 1909, p. 395; P. B.-A., No. 1914;
Corallina flabellum Ellis & Solander, 1786, p. 124, Pl. XXIV. Rein;
Kemp; Tucker, No. 23; Walsingham, Farlow; many stations, Hervey,

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 59

Collins. Grows practically everywhere in shallow water, varying
much in size, texture, outline, etc. Some forms are rounded and
entire, wider than broad; some plane, others folded longitudinally;
some cuneate and much divided, some consisting of a few linear
laciniae from the top of the stipe, the laciniae up to 3 dm. long and
less than 1 em. wide. All pass gradually into each other, so that
varietal or form names are useless.

Hauimepsa Lamouroux.

1. All segments except those bearing branches cylindrical. 4. H. Monile.

1. Most segments ovoid or flattened, not cylindrical. Zs
2. Segments distinctly ribbed. 3. H. tridens.
2. Segments indistinctly or not at all ribbed. 3.

3. Segments strongly calcified, firm, thick. 2. H. simulans.

3. Segments lightly calcified, flexible, thin. I, He shuns:

1. H. Tuna (Ell. & Sol.) Lamouroux, 1812, p. 186; Collins, 1909,
p. 400; P. B.-A., No. 1918; Corallina Tuna Ellis & Solander, 1786,
p. 111, Pl. XX, fig.e. Kemp; Moseley; Walsingham, Farlow; Howe;
Harrington Sound, Jan., Inlet, Dec., Harris Bay, Dec., Hervey;
cave, Agar’s Island, Aug., Hamilton Harbor, dredged in 5 meters.
Dec., Collins. Not uncommon, but less frequent than H. tridens and
H. Monile. Our H. Tuna'seems all to belong to forma typica Barton,
1901 pd, Pl. fT, fie. T.

2. H. smmutans Howe, 1907, p..503, Pl. XXIX; Collins, 1909,
p. 401; P. B.-A., No. 1916. Tucker’s Town, Dec., Hervey. Found
only in this one locality and in small quantity. Its segments have the
outline of those of H. Tuna, but are thicker and more calcified.

3. H. TRIDENS (Ell. & Sol.) Lamouroux, 1812, p. 186; Harvey,
1858, p. 24, Pl. XLIV. C; Collins, 1909, p. 398; P. B.-A., No. 1917;
Corallina tridens Ellis & Solander, 1786, p. 109, Pl. 20, fig. a. Rein;
Moseley, as H. incrassata; Walsingham, Farlow; many stations,
Collins and Hervey, dredged down to 18 meters. Common nearly
everywhere and very variable. Of the various varieties and forms to
which names have been given, we have

Forma typica (Barton) Collins, 1909, p. 398; H. incrassata forma
typica Barton, 1901, p. 27, Pl. IV, fig. 39. A stout, stony form, with
lower joints short, more or less adherent, upper joints three-ribbed
or three-lobed.

Forma TRIPARTITA (Barton) Collins, 1909, p. 399; H. incrassata
forma tripartita Barton, 1901, p. 27, Pl. IV, fig. 43. A more slender

'

60 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

form, less branched, the lower joints longer, the upper joints ending
in three cylindrical lobes.

Forma GraciLis Bérgesen, 1913, p. 111, fig. 89. Joints small, sub-
circular in outline, not strongly calcified.

These forms all pass into each other. Bérgesen considers H. Monile
and H. simulans also as forms of this species, and it may be that he is
right as to the former, but the differences between these two, and the
three forms that we consider to belong to H. tridens, are greater than
the differences among the latter. Gepp and Bérgesen prefer the name
H. incrassata to H. tridens; the case for the former is stated by Bor-
gesen, 1911, p. 136, that for H. tridens by Howe, 1907, p. 501.

4. H. Monte (Ell. & Sol.) Lamouroux, 1812, p. 186; Collins,
1909, p. 399; P. B.-A., No. 1915; H. incrassata forma monilis Barton,
1901, p. 27, Pl. IV, fig. 40; Corallina monilis Ellis & Solander, 1786,
p. 110, Pl. XX, fig. c. Inlet, Jan., Oct., Dec., Bailey’s Bay, Jan.,
Walsingham, Nov., Tucker’s Town, Dec., Hervey; Hungry Bay,
April, Collins. Rather common; the forms recognized by Bérgesen
both occur here.

Forma RosustA Borgesen, 1913, p. 113, fig. 90. Densely branched,
the upper joints cylindrical, the lower tripartite and sometimes resem-
bling the upper joints of H. tridens forma tripartita.

Forma CYLINDRICA Borgesen, 1913, p. 113, fig. 91. Less branched,
the joints nearly all cylindrical.

Famity BRYOPSIDACEAE.

Bryopsis Lamouroux.

1. Ramuli distichous. 2. B. pennata.
1. Ramuli not distichous. 2.
2. Main branches virgate, with very slender ramuli. 3. B. Duchassaingii.
2. Outline pyramidal, branching of several orders, no sharp distinction
between branches and ramuli. 1. B.hypnoides.

1. B. HypnorpEs Lamouroux, 1809, p. 333; 1809b, p. 135, PI. I,
fig. 2, a & b; Collins, 1909, p. 403. Harrington Sound, Jan., Feb.,
April, Walsingham, March, Hervey; Kemp, May, as B. plumosa, in
part; cave by Gravelly Bay, April, Collins.

Forma PROLONGATA J. G. Agardh, 1886, p. 28; P. B.-A., No. 1870;
B. hypnoides Harvey, 1846-51, Pl. CXTX. Harrington Sound, May,
Dec., Collins; Old Ferry, April, Hervey.

2. B. Ducuassarine J. G. Agardh, 1854, p. 107; Collins, 1909,

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 61

p. 403; Trichosolen antillarum Montagne, 1860, p. 171, Pl. XI. C.
Kemp; Harrington Sound, March, Hervey.

Var. filicina var. nov. Frondis circumscriptione late vel anguste
lanceolata; axi primario non diviso; axibus secundariis approximatis,
aequidistantibus, saepe oppositis, a basi ramulis tenuissimis aequilongis
dense obsitis.

Outline of frond broadly to narrowly lanceolate; main axis not
divided; secondary axes closely and uniformly set, often opposite,
densely beset from the base with very fine ramuli of equal length.
Near Flatts bridge, Feb., Hervey. Type in Collins herb.

The habit of this variety is strikingly different from that of typical
B. Duchassaingii, and the very regular pinnate branching makes it a
beautiful object; but in a genus where there is so much variation
within each species, it is hardly safe to consider this a distinct species.

3. B. PennatTa Lamouroux, 1809, p. 1383; 1809b, p. 134, Pl. III,
fig. 1; Collins, 1909, p. 405; P. B.-A., No. 1871. Rein, as B. plumosa;
Kemp, as B. plumosa, in part, B. hypnoides, in part. In Collins, 1909,
B. pennata, B. Leprieurti and B. Harveyana were kept distinct, chiefly
on the judgment of Miss Vickers, who was familiar with them at
Barbados. Since then we have examined some 200 specimens of
Bryopsis of Miss Vickers’ collecting, and some hundreds of specimens
from Bermuda, and we have come to the conclusion that while typical
examples of these three are quite distinct, intermediate forms are more
common, and specific distinction is impracticable. So far we agree
with Borgesen, 1911, p. 145, and 1913, p. 117, but we cannot agree
with him in placing them all under B. plumosa (Huds.) Ag. The
normal form of B. pennata seems to be a long, simple rachis, with
short, distichous ramuli of uniform length, giving a linear outline to
the frond. In B. plumosa the rachis bears lateral branches, increasing
in length from the apex to the base, so as to give a triangular outline,
usually broadly triangular, to the frond. Each of the branches has a
similar triangular outline. There is much variation in luxuriance of
branching, but in examining a considerable series of B. plumosa from
northern Europe and America, to the Mediterranean on one side, to
North Carolina on the other, we have seen nothing like the linear form.
Among the abundant material from Barbados and Bermuda we have
found no plants with repeated triangular outline of the frond and its
divisions. We recognize the same varieties as Bérgesen, but place
them under B. pennata, the oldest name for the distinctly linear forms.
The species and its varieties are to be found almost everywhere in the
islands, but one must expect more intermediate than typical forms;
moreover old plants become denuded, and present many puzzles.

62 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

Var. secunda (Harv.) comb. nov.; B. plumosa var. secunda Harvey,
1858, p. 31, Pl. XLV. A, figs. 1-3; B. Harveyana Collins, 1909, p. 405.
This variety shows a certain dorsiventral arrangement, the ramuli
on both edges of the rachis curving towards each other on one side.

Var. Leprieurii (Kiitz.) comb. nov.; B. Leprieurii Kiitzing, 1849,
p. 490; 1856, p. 27, Pl. LX XV, fig. 2; Collins, 1909, p. 404. In this
variety the ramuli are in short secund series, separated by short vacant
spaces.

Famity DERBESIACEAE.

DERBESIA Solier.

1. Filaments 100-600 » diam. 3. D. Lamourouxii.
1. Filaments less than 100 » diam. DP
2. Filaments 40-50. diam., dichotomously branched.
1. D. vaucheriaeformis.
2. Filaments 50-70 diam., simple or with short lateral branches.
2. D. marina.

1. D. vAUCHERIAEFORMIS (Harv.) J. G. Agardh, 1886, p. 34;
Collins, 1909, p. 406; D. tenuissima Farlow, 1881, p. 60, Pl. IV, fig. 4;
Chlorodesmis vaucheriaeformis Harvey, 1858, p. 30, Pl. XL. D. On
Dictyopteris Justii, Gravelly Bay, Aug., Collins. With sporangia.

2. D.martna (Lyng.) Kjellman, 1883, p. 16; Collins, 1909, p. 407;
Vaucheria marina Lyngbye, 1819, p. 79, Pl. XXII. On Acantho-
phora spicifera, Hungry Bay, May, Collins. With sporangia.

3. D. LamMovrovuxii (J. Ag.) Solier, 1847, p. 162, Pl. IX, figs. 18-
30; Collins, 1909, p. 407; P. B.-A., No. 2168; Bryopsis Balbisiana var.
Lamourouxu J. G. Agardh, 1842, p. 18. Castle Harbor, near landing
at Tucker’s Town, March, Hervey. The fronds are much stouter than
in the two other species of the genus, sometimes simple, sometimes
with a few irregular tufts of ramuli. Old and denuded plants of
Bryopsis have some resemblance to it, but always show the scars of
fallen ramuli.

Famity CAULERPACEAE.
CAULERPA Lamouroux.

1. Stolon and fronds filiform, without distinct ramuli. 1. C. fastigiata.
1. Stolon and fronds different in character. Zz.
2. Fronds very slender, ramuli whorled, near the summit. 3.
2. Fronds stouter, ramuli not in distinct whorls. 4,

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 63

3. Fronds not over 1 cm. high, stolon and base of frond hairy. 2. C. pusilla.
3. Fronds to 5 em. high, hairs wanting or few. 3. C. verticillata.
4. Fronds flat or with ramuli in one plane. oe
4. Ramuli not in one plane. 8.
5. Frond flat, entire or with proliferations. 4. C. prolifera.
5. Frond pinnate. 6.
6. Pinnules flat. 5. C. crassifolia.
6. Pinnules cylindrical or compressed. Ue
7. Pinnules narrowed at base and tapering to tip. 6. C. taxifolia.
7. Pinnules at base somewhat larger than at the curved and mucronate
tip. 7. C. sertularioides.

8. Ramuli peltate. 8. C. peltata.
8. Ramuli not peltate. 9.

9. Ramuli varying from long-clavate to spherical-pedicellate.
9. C. racemosa.
9. Ramuli short, of various form, the lowest always rostriform.
10. C. cupressoides.

1. C. rastierata Montagne, 1838, p. 19, Pl. II, fig. 3; Collins,
1909, p. 411. Dingle Bay, March, Hervey; Hungry Bay, April,
Collins. Fine, Vaucheria-like tufts or mats on mangroves and other
objects near low water mark. The Hungry Bay material seems to be
the floating form known as var. confervoides Crouan.

2. C. pusitua (Kiitz.) J. G. Agardh, 1872, p. 6; Weber, 1898,
p. 266, Pl. XX, fig. 6; Vickers, 1908, p. 25, Pl. XXXVIII; Collins,
1909, p. 412; P. B.-A., No. 2019. Stephanocoelium pusillum Kiitzing,
1847, p. 54. Tide pool, Harris Bay, Oct., Nov., Hervey. The
branching stolon creeps over the loose sand etc., on the bottom of the
pool, forming with other small algae a thin but firm turf, which has to
be forcibly torn apart to show the character of the plant. The ramuli
are in two or three whorls; in the Bermuda plants these whorls are
more closely set than in the forms figured by Mme. Weber and Miss
Vickers, and can often be distinguished only by dissection.

3. C. VERTICILLATA J. G. Agardh, 1848, p. 6; Weber, 1898, p. 267,
Pl. XX, figs. 7-10; Collins, 1909, p. 412; Bérgesen, 1907, p. 355, figs.
1-3; 1913, p. 121, figs. 95, 96. St. George’s, April, Hervey.

4. C. PROLIFERA (Forsk.) Lamouroux, 1809, p. 332; Weber, 1898,
p. 278, Pl. XXII, fig. 1; Collins, 1909, p. 413; P. B.-A., No. 1872;
Fucus proliferus Forskal, 1775, p. 163. Rein; Kemp; Walsingham,
Farlow; Walsingham, April, Hervey; Pool by Moore’s calabash
tree, April, Somerset Bridge, July, Ely’s reef, July, Collins. Typical
form, passing into

Forma opovata J. G. Agardh, 1872, p. 11; Bérgesen, 1907, p. 359,

64 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

fig. 4; 1913, p. 127, fig. 100; Collins, 1909, p. 413; with broad, little
proliferous fronds.

Forma ZOSTERIFOLIA Boérgesen, 1907, p. 359, fig. 6; 1913, p. 127,
fig. 101; Collins, 1909, p. 413; with narrow, proliferous fronds;
Fairyland, Dec., Collins.

5. C. crassiroiia (Ag.) J. G. Agardh, 1872, p. 18. Typical C.
crassifolia has not been found here; forma laxior is common, and is
apparently a well marked endemic form, not having been reported
elsewhere; forma mexicana is the common form of Florida and the
West Indies, and though not rare in Bermuda is less common than
forma laxior.

Forma LAxtor (Weber) Collins, 1909, p. 413; P. B.-A., No. 1919;
C. pinnata forma laxior Weber, 1898, p. 291; C. crassifolia var. mexi-
cana Alg. Am. Bor. Exsicc., No. 170. Walsingham, April, Hervey;
Hungry Bay, Tuckertown, Gravelly Bay, Pool by Moore’s calabash
tree, Cliff pool, April, Harrington Sound, May, Collins.

Forma MEXICANA (Sond.) J. G. Agardh, 1872, p. 13; Collins, 1909,
p. 413; C. mexicana Sonder in Kiitzing, 1849, p. 496; Harvey, 1858,
p- 16, Pl. XX XVII. A; Gibbet Island, Bailey’s Bay, Jan., Hervey.

The form from Cliff Pool deserves special notice; Cliff Pool is a
name we have used for a small but deep pool, near the SW. corner of
Harrington Sound, between Tucker’s Bay and Green Bay. It has a
steep cliff on the side towards the sea; on the other side it is near the
Sound, but separated from it by land considerably above its level.
It evidently has underground connection with the Sound, the water
rising and falling somewhat with the tide. On the surface of this
pool, in April and May, 1912, was a floating mass of algae, chiefly
C. crassifolia, C. racemosa and C. sertularioides. The stolons floated
on the surface, the fronds extending beside them, the tapering rhi-
zoids hanging straight down, sometimes reaching a length of 2 dm.,
reminding one of the roots of a Lemna or Spirodela, on a larger scale.
Borgesen, 1907, p. 344, classifies the Caulerpas under three types.
(1) The epiphytic or mud-collecting Cauperpas. (2) The sand and
mud Caulerpas. (3) Rock and coral-reef Caulerpas. These three
types are represented in Bermuda, and we can now add a fourth, the
floating Caulerpas. Evidently this form can occur only at a station
with considerable depth of water, not reached by surf, sheltered from
winds, and with no current. Specimens collected here in May
have been distributed as P. B.-A., Nos. 1873 and 2021. The station
was revisited in August, 1913, but only a few bleached individuals were
found; apparently the plants could not endure the intense heat of the
midsummer sun.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 65

6. C. raxiroura (Vahl) Agardh, 1822, p. 435; Weber, 1898, p. 292;
Borgesen, 1907, p. 363, figs. 9-10; 1913, p. 181, figs. 104-105; Collins,
1909, p. 414; Fucus taxifolius Vahl, 1802, p. 36. Farlow; Walsing-
ham, a single plant, Hervey. Apparently rare, but may have been
mistaken for the commoner C. crassifolia or C. sertularioides, from
both of which it can be distinguished by the opposite, sickle-shaped,
narrow pinnules, with contracted base.

7. CC. SERTULARIOIDES (Gmel.) Howe, 1905a, p. 576; Collins,
1909, p. 414; Fucus sertularioides Gmelin, 1768, p. 151, Pl. XV, fig. 4.

Forma LONGISETA (J. Ag.) Svedelius, 1906, p. 114, fig. 10; Collins,
1909, p. 415; P. B.—-A., No. 1873; C. plumaris forma longiseta Weber,
1898, p. 295. Harrington Sound, Oct., Hervey; Cliff Pool, April,
Collins.

Forma BREVIPES (J. Ag.) Svedelius, 1906, p. 114, fig. 7; Collins,
1909, p. 415; C. plumaris forma brevipes Weber, 1898, p. 294. Wal-
singham, March, Hervey; Ely’s Harbor, July, Collins.

8. C. peLTaTA (Turn.) Lamouroux, 1809, p. 332; 1809c, p. 145, PI.
III, fig. 2; Weber, 1898, p. 373, Pl. XX XI, figs. 9-11; Collins, 1909, p.
421; Fucus chemnitzia var. peltatus Turner,.1819, p.8, Pl. CC. Faxon,
a single quite typical specimen; Bethel’s Island, Dec., Collins.

9. C. RAcEMosa (Forsk.) J. G. Agardh, 1872, p. 35; Weber, 1898,
p. 357, Pl. XXXII, figs. 5-8; XXXII, figs. 1-7; Collins, 1909, p. 419;
Fucus racemosus Forskil, 1775, p. 191. A very variable species,
with no acknowledged typical form, apart from the many forms and
varieties into which it has been divided. It is uncertain to which of
these should be referred the C. clavifera of Rein and Moseley.

Var. CLAVIFERA (Turn.) Weber, 1898, p. 361: Vickers, 1908, p. 28,
Pl. XLV; Collins, 1909, p. 420; Fucus clanfer Turner, 1808, Pl.
LXXVII. Harrington Sound, March, Wadsworth, No. 71; Hamil-
ton, Farlow; these are the only records of the typical form of this ~
variety, but forms between this and vars. wvifera and laetevirens are
not uncommon.

Var. UVIFERA (Turn.) J. G. Agardh, 1872, p. 35; Weber, 1898, p.
363, Pl. XX XIII, figs. 6-7; Collins, 1909, p. 420; P. B.-A., No. 2022.
Fucus uvifer Turner, 1819, Pl. CCX XX; Gravelly Bay, Feb., Hervey.

Var. OCCIDENTALIS (J. Ag.) Bérgesen, 1907, p. 379, figs. 28-29;
1913, p. 152, fig. 124; Collins, 1909, p. 420; P. B.-A., No. 2021. C.
chemnitzia var. occidentalis J. G. Agardh, 1872, p. 37; Walsingham,
Jan., March, Tucker’s Town, Feb., Dec., Hervey; Cliff Pool, Hungry
Bay, April, Hamilton Harbor, dredged down to 18 meters, Dec.,
Collins. Agrees well with Borgesen’s description and figures, and with

66 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

the plant distributed as W. N. & L., No. 1586. The Cliff Pool plants
have mostly more distant ramuli, but some individuals are quite
typical. At Hungry Bay a form was found in which the ramuli were
produced on one side of the frond only; not secund in the usual sense,
as they were not in a single series, but were placed, apparently irregu-
larly, on one semi-cylinder of the axis, the other being naked.

Var. LAETEVIRENS (Mont.) Weber, 1898, p. 366, Pl. XX XIII, figs.
8, 16-22; Bérgesen, 1907, p. 386, fig. 30; 1913, p. 154, fig. 125; Col-
lins, 1909, p. 420; P. B.-A., No. 2020. C. laetevirens Montagne, 1842,
p. 16. Kemp, in herb.; Wadsworth, No. 70; Walsingham, March,
Hervey; Tucker’s Town, April, Cooper’s Island, Aug., Collins.

10. C. cuprEessoIpDEs (Vahl) Agardh, 1822, p. 441; Weber, 1898,
p. 323; Collins, 1909, p. 416; Fucus cupressoides Vahl, 1802, p. 29.
A species containing many forms, all intergrading, once held to be
distinct species.

Var. Typica Weber, 1898, p. 326; Bérgesen, 1907, p. 368, figs. 14-16;
1913, p. 137, figs. 109-111. South Beach, Paget, Farlow.

Var. MAMILLOSA (Mont.) Weber, 1898, p. 332, Pl. XX XVIII, figs.
2-7; Collins, 1909, p. 417;. Alg. Am.-Bor. Exsicc., No. 96; P. B.-A.,
No. 1920; Caulerpa mamillosa Montagne, 1842, p. 13. Outer reef,
Ely’s Harbor, July, Somerset Bridge, July, Gravelly Bay, Aug., Collins.
At Gravelly Bay it grew exposed to the waves, the stolon adhering
firmly to the rock and covered with sand, so that only the short fronds
were visible, often only the tips.

Var. ERICIFOLIA (Turn.) Weber, 1898, p. 335; Collins, 1909, p. 417;
Fucus ericifolius Turner, 1808, p. 124, Pl. LVI, “found at Bermuda
Islands, Herb. Banks.” Kemp, in herb. as C. ericifolia; Gravelly
Bay, Aug., Collins. A few plants at Gravelly Bay, among var.
mamillosa, distinguished by the cylindrical ramuli.

C. Ashmeadii Harvey, is recorded in Collins, 1909, p. 414, as occur-
ring at Bermuda. We have not been able to confirm this record,
and as we have not ourselves found this species, we do not include
it in the present work.

Famity VAUCHERIACEAE.

VaucHeErRIA DC.

*V. SPHAEROSPORA Nordstedt, 1878, p. 177, Pl. II, figs. 7-8;
Collins, 1909, p. 429. In “Millbrook”? Dec., Collins, with oogonia
and antheridia. This species has been found in Greenland, Denmark,

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 67

Sweden and Great Britain, and also in Uruguay. The Bermuda
plant is dioecious, agreeing in that respect with the South American
form; in Europe the species is monoecious. Another Vaucheria was
found at Hungry Bay, Collins, but being sterile could not be specifi-
cally determined.

DIcHOTOMOSIPHON Ernst.

D. PusILuus Collins, 1909, p. 431; P. B.-A., No. 2023. Bailey’s
Bay, Jan., Harrington Sound, March, Inlet, March, Hervey; Shelly
Bay, Hungry Bay, April, Collins. Apparently common, forming
dark green or almost black mats on rocks, Udotea ete., or loose floating
felts. At Bailey’s Bay it was found with filaments 50 » diam.; the
normal diam. does not exceed 30 u. In the material from Harrington
Sound, the contents of the filaments is often divided into sections,
approximately as long as their diameter, separated by a narrow trans-
parent space in a plane at right angles with the axis of the filament.
This may be preliminary to the formation of spores of some sort, but
no more advanced stage was seen.

Famity CHARACEAE.
Cuara Agardh.

*C. eyMNnopus var. Berteror A. Braun, 1882, p. 195. Pembroke
Marshes, Jan., Farlow. The specimen in the Farlow herbarium was
characterized by Nordstedt, in litt., as “forma tenuior” which we
understand to be merely descriptive, not a name.

6S COLLINS AND HERVEY.

CLtass PHAEOPHYCEAE.

Famity ECTOCARPACEAE.

PYLAIELLA Bory.

P. FULVESCENS (Schousboe) Bornet, 1889, p. 5, Pl. I; P. B.-A., No.
2076; Conferva fulvescens Schousboe ms ex Bornet. On sand-covered
rocks by lighthouse, St. David’s Island, May, 1913, Hervey. The
plant agrees fully with Bornet’s figure as to form and dimension of
horizontal filaments and sporangia; the erect filaments are in part
simple, as figured by Bornet, in part like those figured by Sauvageau,
1896a, fig. 1, being recurved near the tips, and bearing numerous
longer or shorter branches, mostly on the outer side of the curve. The
unilocular sporangia are rare, but well developed. P. Hooper,
Barbados, Miss Vickers, seems hardly distinct. In comparing the
description of P. fulvescens by Bornet with that of Pylaiella sp.
(Ectocarpus Hoopert Crouan) on the following page, the chief dis-
tinctive character of the latter would seem to be the Rhizoclonium-
like ramuli near the base; such ramuli were occasionally seen in the
Bermuda plant, but were not at all abundant.

Ectocarpus Lyngbye.

1. Lower part of frond endophytic. 2.
1. Not endophytic. 3.
2. Only slightly endophytic, in Dictyopteris Justii; largely free; pluri-
locular sporangia cylindrical. 8. E. luteolus.

2. Mostly endophytic, in Halymenia; plurilocular sporangia ovoid.
9. E. parasiticus.

3. Erect filaments arising from prostrate, branching filaments. 4.
3. No distinct prostrate filaments. oe
4. Erect filaments with plurilocular sporangia near base, no other branch-
ing. 7. E. elachistaeformis.

4. Erect filaments freely branched, bearing sporangia throughout. 9.
5. Plurilocular sporangia seriate on upper side of branches, near base. 6.
5. Plurilocular sporangia variously placed, not seriate. 8.
6. Plurilocular sporangia cylindrical. 3. E. Mitchellae.

6. Plurilocular sporangia ovoid to conical. iG

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 69

7. Branching irregular, branches patent. 4. KE. coniferus.
7. Branches subsecund, ramuli long, pectinate. 5. E. Sandrianus.
8. Plurilocular sporangia fusiform, unilocular unknown.

1. E. confervoides.
8. Plurilocular sporangia short-conical, unilocular ovoid or subspherical.
2. KE. siliculosus forma arctus.

9. Plurilocular sporangia variable, always blunt or truncate.
6. E. Duchassaingianus.
9. Plurilocular sporangia acute. 10. E. Rallsiae.

1. E. conrervoIDEs (Roth) Le Jolis, 1863, p. 75; Kuckuck, 1891,
p. 19, fig. 3; Ceramium confervoides Roth, 1797, p. 151. Floating,
Gibbet Island, March, Hervey. Somewhat variable, but mostly
of the typical form.

2. E. stzicutosus (Dillw.) Lyng. forma arctus (Kiitz.) Kuckuck,
1891, p. 18; P. B.-A., No. 1922; Ectocarpus arctus Kiitzing, 1843,
p. 289; Corticularia arcta Kiitzing, 1855, p. 23, Pl. LX XX, fig. II.
On sand covered rocks, below low water mark, Gibbet Island, March,
Harris Bay, April, Hervey; floating, Tucker’s Town, April, Harring-
ton Sound, May, Collins. E. acanthoides Vickers, Barbados, No. 95,
seems to be the same plant. We have not found in Bermuda the
typical form of E. siliculosus, which is common on both sides of the
North Atlantic.

Sa He MircHEErAm Harvey, 1852, p. 142, PL XI. G; Po Bea,
No. 1921; E. virescens Thuret in Sauvageau, 1896, p. 18 of reprint.
Harris Bay, Heron Bay, Jan., St. David’s Island, Feb., Harrington
Sound, Shelly Bay, March, Hervey; Shelly Bay, Harrington Sound,
Cooper’s Island, April, Collins. A common species, growing on corals,
larger algae, aquatic phanerogams, and on submerged twigs of live
Tamarisk. Plurilocular fruit apparently always abundant, mega-
sporangia and meiosporangia in about equal numbers. The former
have not been recorded for the Atlantic coast of North America,
where the species is common, but were found in California, and dis-
tributed as P. B.-A., No. 671. When growing on any hard substance,
rhizoidal growth is usually insignificant; on Castagnea, Helmintho-
cladia etc., the rhizoids are strongly developed, penetrating well into
the tissue of the host.

4. E. contrerus Borgesen, 1914, p. 164, figs. 131-132. Shelly
Bay, April. Hervey, among FE. Mitchellae. This species was quite
recently described from the Danish West Indies, and its occurrence
at Bermuda is of interest, indicating that it may be found at other
stations in the Atlantic.

70 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

5. E.Sanprianus Zanardini, 1843, p. 41; 1865, p. 143, Pl. LX XIV.
B; E. elegans Thuret in Le Jolis, 1863, p. 77, Pl. I, fig. 1-2; not
of Menegh. Shelly Bay, Jan., St. David’s Island, Feb., Hervey; with
plurilocular sporangia. In both cases mixed with other species
of Ectocarpus; this mixture of species of Ectocarpus is quite com-
mon and sometimes perplexing. It is the rule rather than the excep-
tion.

6. E. DucHassaincianus Grunow, 1867, p. 45, Pl. IV, fig. 1;
Vickers, 1905, p. 59; 1908, Pl. XX VII; Bérgesen, 1914, p. 159, figs.
127-128; P.B.-A., No. 2077. Major’s Bay, March, Hervey. On
sticks and twigs, outlet of aquarium, Agar’s Island, Aug., Collins.
The Major’s Bay plant agrees with Bérgesen’s description and figures,
and with a specimen of Miss Vickers, Barbados, No. 89. The plant
from the aquarium outlet differs in the absence of hairs, and in the
greater variability of form of the plurilocular sporangia. These are
often exactly like Bérgesen’s figures, but in other instances the eylindri-
cal or clavate body of the sporangium has a shortly acuminate or
subulate apex; the same occurs in Miss Vickers specimen. Unilocu-
lar sporangia were not seen. The cells were all very densely packed,
and it was only in the youngest that the irregularly rounded disks of
the chromatophores could be seen. Though there were no hairs, the
branches often ended in a long simple filament, 10-14 4 diam., with
longer cells than in the rest of the plant, but all were well supplied
with chromatophores. The sporangia were sometimes sessile, oftener
on a short pedicel, occasionally terminating a branch, as shown in
Borgesen’s fig. 128e. The cell bearing a sporangium was usually
distinctly shorter than the adjacent cells, as in E. indicus Sonder, as
noted by Mme. Weber, 1913, p. 129, fig. 34. We are inclined to agree
with Bérgesen that EL. Duchassiangus may be merely a form of E.
indicus, but for the present it seems better to retain the former name.
The station where this plant occurred is a peculiar one; the salt water
outlet of the aquarium is well up in the rock at the shore of the island;
the water runs down into the sea, stalks of grass and other objects
reached by it being covered by a dense coating of various kinds of
algae, Enteromorpha predominating, but also other Chlorophyceae
and several Myxophyceae; the variations of this material from the
type may be due in some way to the exceptional conditions.

7. EE, ELACHISTAEFORMIS Heydrich, 1892, p. 470, Pl. XXV, fig. 14;
Borgesen, 1914, p. 174, fig. 187. On Codiwm decorticatum, Cooper’s
Island, Aug., on Galaxaura squalida & Helminthodadia Calvadosii,
St. David’s Island, April, Collins. The form reported by Bérgesen

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. vi

differs somewhat from the typical, but not enough to raise any ques-
tion as to identity. Our form comes nearer to the type from New
Guinea. The only marked difference is in the basal portion of the
plant growing on Codium. When growing on Sargassum it formed a
more or less definite basal layer, from which short rhizoids issued,
entering the host. On the Codium there is no definite basal layer,
but a compact bundle of irregular rhizoidal filaments, narrower than
the assimilating filaments, with few chromatophores, and cells up
to 10 diam. long. The lower ends of these rhizoids separate more or
less, and spread among the utricles of the host. This difference is
explainable by the difference in structure of the hosts. On the Gala-
xaura the rhizoids are less conspicuous. Plurilocular sporangia, simi-
lar to those figured by Heydrich, were abundant.

8. E. LuTEOLUS Sauvageau, 1892, p. 25, Pl. II, figs. 14-19. On
Dictyopteris Justii, South Shore, Aug., Collins. The lower part of the
frond inhabits the tissue of the host; the upper part forms a fine down
on the surface.

9. KE. PARASITICUS Sauvageau, 1892, p. 28, Pl. III, figs. 20-23;
Streblonema parasiticum (Sauv.) De Toni, 1895, p. 575. In Haly-
menia pseudofloresia, Jan., Hervey. Mostly endophytic; the plants
from Maine, distributed as P. B.-A., No. 1337, were chiefly external,
the difference being probably due to the firmer tissue of the host
in the latter case, Cystoclonium purpurascens.

10. E. Rauustar Vickers, 1905, p. 59; 1908, Pl. XXXII; Borge-
sen, 1914, p. 169, fig. 1383; P. B.-A., No. 2172. On Helminthocladia
calvadosii, Old Ferry, April, Hervey. The main filaments are occa-
sionally stouter than in the Barbados and St. Thomas material, up to
40 » diam., but usually not over 30 yu, in lesser divisions down to 20 yp,
in hairs to 10. There is a system of descending filaments, irregular
and twisted, but otherwise like the erect filaments, extending for quite
a distance in the tissues of the host; plurilocular sporangia agree in
form, dimensions and position with Bérgesen’s figure.

STREBLONEMA Derbés & Solier.

S. SPHAERICUM Derbés & Solier in Castagne, 1851, p. 100; Sauva-
geau, 1897, p. 18, figs. 2-3 (of reprint); Kuckuck, 1899, p. 28, figs.
6-7. In Castagnea Zosterae, Cooper’s Island, April, Collins. With
uni- and plurilocular sporangia; generally in company with Myrio-
trichia, which it much resembles.

“J
bo

COLLINS AND HERVEY.

AscocycLus Magnus.

A. ORBICULARIS (J. Ag.) Magnus, 1874, p. 73; P. B.-A., No. 1878;
Myrionema orbiculare J. G. Agardh, 1848, p. 48. On marine phanero-
gams in shallow water, Cooper’s Island, April, Collins. Probably
elsewhere, but easily overlooked.

Famity SPHACELARIACEAE.

SPHACELARIA Lyngbye.

1. Propagula with broad body. De
1. Propagula slender, branching. Be
2. Filaments mostly 30-40 u diam.; lateral cell of propagulum not divided.
3. S. tribuloides.

2. Filaments mostly 55-75 uw diam.; lateral cell of propagulum divided into

two. 4. S. novae-hollandiae.
3. Propagulum with three rays from summit of pedicel. 2. SS. fusca.
3. Propagulum with two rays from summit of pedicel. 1. S. furcigera.

1. S. rurcicERA Kiitzing, 1855, p. 27, Pl. CX; Sauvageau, 1901,°
p. 145, fig. 35. On small spider crab, Hungry Bay, July, on floating
Turbinaria, Dec., Collins; with propagula.

2. S. Fusca (Huds.) Agardh, 1828, p. 28; Sauvageau, 1902, p. 206,
fig. 43; Conferva fusca Hudson, 1798, p. 602. Spanish Rock, April,
Hervey, with propagula.

3. S. TRIBULOIDES Meneghini, 1840, p. 2; Sauvageau, 1901, p. 123,
figs. 28-29; P. B.-A., No. 1923. Not uncommon in shallow rock pools
and on various submerged substances. In pools, South Shore, Far-
low; Harris Bay, Feb., March, Dec., Gravelly Bay, Jan., Hervey;
on Galaxaura, St. David’s, April, Collins. Found once on twigs of
Tamarisk that drooped into the water of Harrington Sound. Propa-
gula common; no sporangia seen.

4. §$. NOVAE-HOLLANDIAE Sonder, 1845, p. 50; Sauvageau, 1901,
p. 137, fig. 33. In small quantity, among S. tribuloides, Spanish Rock,

9 In references to this work, the page given is that of the completed and
separate issue; the date, however, is that of the original publication in the
Journal de Botanique.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. io

Harris Bay, March, Hervey. The species is a native of Australia,
but has been found at Martinique and at Barbados; in both these
places it was in company with S. tribuloides, as at Bermuda. It is
a stouter plant than the latter, and the technical difference, though
not striking, seems to be constant.

Famity ENCOELIACEAE.

CoLPOMENIA Derbés & Solier.

C. stnuosa (Roth) Derbés & Solier, 1856, p. 11, Pl. XXII, figs. 18-
20; Boérgesen, 1914, p. 176, fig. 138; P. B.-A., No. 2024; Ulva sinuosa
Roth, 1806, p. 327, Pl. XII, fig. 2. Rein; Moseley; Kemp, as Aspero-
coccus sinuosus; Gibbet Island, Tucker’s Town, Gravelly Bay, Har-
rington Sound, Feb., Hungry Bay, April, Hervey. Very common
from Feb. to April, disappearing entirely in July and August, and at
least the first part of September. On exposed shores it forms a nearly
continuous coating, firmly adherent to the rock; in quiet water,
such as the tidal stream at Hungry Bay, it takes the form of sub-
spherical vesicles, up to 20 cm. diam.

HyprociatTurus Bory.

H. canceLLatus Bory, 1825, p. 419; Vickers, 1908, Pl. XXIII;
Borgesen, 1914, p. 177, fig. 139; P. B.-A., No. 2078. Spanish Rock,
March, April, Hervey. Apparently not common.

ScyTosipHon Agardh.

S. Lomentaria (Lyng.) J. G. Agardh, 1848, p. 126; P. B.-A., No.
2079; Chorda Lomentaria Lyngbye, 1819, p. 74, Pl. XVIII. E. Inlet,
Feb., Dec., Bailey’s Bay, Jan., Mangrove Bay, Feb., Hervey. Ap-
pears to be a plant of winter and early spring, varying in different
years as to date of appearance, in some years not appearing at all ata
station where it was plenty the year before. It is a rapid grower,
and disappears soon after maturity.

74 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

RosENVINGIA Borgesen.

R. rntricaTa (J. Ag.) Borgesen, 1914, p. 182; P. B.-A., No. 2173;
Asperococcus intricatus J. G. Agardh, 1847, p. 7; Striaria intricata
Vickers, 1905, p. 59; 1908, p. 41, Pl. XXIV. Harris Bay, Feb.,
Hervey, with plurilocular sporangia.

Famity MYRIOTRICHIACEAE.

Myriorricuta Harvey.

M. rerens Hauck, 1879, p. 22; Kuckuck, 1899, p. 21, Pl. III (of
reprint); P. B.-A., No. 2025; Dichosporangium repens Hauck, 1885,
p. 339, fig. 141. In fronds of Castagnea Zosterae, Cooper’s Island,
April, Collins. The creeping filaments bear abundant unilocular
sporangia; the erect filaments bear each a terminal cluster of pluri-
locular sporangia; no unilocular sporangia were seen on the erect
filaments. Streblonema sphaericum, with both kinds of sporangia,
accompanies the Myriotrichia. As pointed out by Kuckuck, it is
practically impossible to distinguish the two species when both bear
only unilocular sporangia, as is often the case; the presence of erect
filaments in Myriotrichia and their absence in Streblonema is the only
distinguishing character.

Famity MESOGLOIACEAE.

CASTAGNEA Derbés & Solier.

C. ZosTERAE (Mohr) Thuret, fide Bérgesen, 1914, p. 184, figs.
144-145; Castagnea mediterranea P. B.-A., No. 1879. Kemp, as
Mesogloia vermicularis, M. Griffithsiana and M. Chordariae; Castle
Harbor, Bailey’s Bay, March, Wadsworth; Shelly Bay, Jan., Castle
Harbor, Feb., Hervey; Cooper’s Island, April, Collins. As _ this
plant seems to be the same as that from the Danish West Indies, we
provisionally give the same name used by Borgesen. It was distrib-
uted by us as C. mediterranea (Kiitz.) Bornet, but is not Cladosiphon
mediterraneus Kiitzing, as shown by comparison with an authentic
specimen of the latter, for which we are indebted to the kindness of

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 75

Dr. M. A. Howe. It is certainly not C. Zosterae Farlow, 1881, p. 86,
Alg. Am.-Bor. Exsice., No. 162, but resembles C. virescens Farlow,
1881, p. 85, Eudesme virescens P. B.-A., No. 33, which is the same as
Mesogloia virescens Carmichae] in Wyatt, Alg. Danm., No. 49.
Though some writers speak of C. virescens as having a solid axis, C.
Zosterae as hollow, for instance Bornet, 1892, p. 236, the statement is
true of the former only in the earlier stages. “A section of the frond
of a well-developed C. virescens shows a circle of roundish cells around
a central cavity”; Farlow, |. c. The description and figure of C.
Zosterae Bérgesen, agree with the Bermuda plant.

In New England and northern Europe there are two species of
Castagnea, which are well distinguished by Farlow as C. virescens and
C. Zosterae; the former resembles the Bermuda plant; the latter,
quite distinct, is the Myriocladia Zosterae Crouan, Alg. Mar. Finistére,
No. 49, and the Castagnea Zosterae of Le Jolis, 1863, p. 85, fide spec.
authent.; but it may be open to question whether it is the Mesoglova
virescens var. zostericola Harvey, 1846-1851, Pl. LX XXII, of which
Harvey says “only differs in being of smaller size, with less compound
ramification; there is no microscopic character to distinguish it.”
And in the Nereis Bor.-Am., part 1, 1852, p. 127, where he recognizes
two species as distinct, he questions the identity of his Mesogloia
Zosterae with the species of Lyngbye and Areschoug. His plate X. B,
M. virescens, is drawn from a specimen from Sand Key, Florida, to
which we will refer later; we do not think it is the MW. virescens of
New England and northern Europe. Plate X. A, M. Zosterae, is
incorrect and misleading, as pointed out by Farlow. If it should
prove that Rivularia Zosterae Mohr, 1810, p. 367, was identical with
Nesogloia virescens Carmichael, Castagnea Zosterae would be the proper
name for the spring plant of New England and northern Europe, and
a new name would be needed for the smaller summer plant now known
by that name. As to the identity of C. virescens of New England and
northern Europe with the Bermuda plant, we are not now prepared to
point out distinctive characters. But the southern plant is usually
stouter, less branched, and with a firmer gelatine. For the purpose
of comparison we have examined a large number of specimens of
Castagnea (or Mesogloia) virescens of northern Europe and New Eng-
land, including specimens from Mrs. Griffiths, Mrs. Wyatt, Greville,
Harvey, Le Jolis ete.; with very few exceptions they bore unilocular
sporangia; none had plurilocular. Of Castagnea (or Myriocladia)
Zosterae we have examined a considerable number, including speci-
mens from Le Jolis and Crouan, and the No. 162 of Farlow, Anderson

76 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

& Eaton; with one exception, sterile, all had plurilocular sporangia,
none unilocular. Of the Bermuda plant we have examined many
specimens of different ages and from different stations; with the
exception of a very few, very young or very old individuals, sterile,
all bear both uni- and plurilocular sporangia on the same individual.
To add to the confusion, the plant from Florida, distributed as C.
mediterranea, P. B.-A., No. 481, when compared with the Bermuda
plant now seems to be distinct both from that and from Cladosiphon
mediterraneus Kiitz. The peripheral filaments seem to be not so
much laterally attached to the external longitudinal filaments as
continuations of them or their branches; the basal cell, up to 25 u
diam., followed by several similar colorless cells rapidly diminishing
to about 12 u diam.; above this begins the peripheral filament proper,
with colored cells about 7-9 diam.; this is several times dicho-
tomous, the cells, except the few lower ones, spherical, increasing in
size up to 15 yu, sometimes to 20 u diam., the filaments strongly in-
curved; unilocular sporangia, 70-80 55-60 uw in the lower forkings.
The frond does not exceed 10 cm. in height, and has few branches.
Harvey’s figure of Mesogloia virescens, 1852, Pl. X. B, was drawn
from a plant from Sand Key, Florida, and we have examined two
specimens collected by Harvey at that place at that time; they agree
with P. B.-A., No. 481, except that they have no fruit. In Harvey’s
plate fig. 4 represents quite well the upper part of a peripheral filament
of this plant, but is quite different from a filament of C. virescens.
We have found only one European specimen agreeing with P. B.-A.,
No. 481; this is “No. 572, Société dauphinoise, 1882, Cladosiphon
mediterraneus Kiitz. (Vidit Bornet, 1882) Portofino (Ligurie orientale)
sur les feuilles de Posidonia Caulini. Dr. A. Piccone, Mai, 1876.”
This specimen was received by one of us from Dr. Piccone. Sauva-
geau, 1897, p. 46, discusses Castagnea, assuming correctly enough that
if Castagnea is maintained, Cladosiphon WKiitzing should be divided
between Castagnea, Nemacystus ete. But the name Cladosiphon
clearly antedates Castagnea, and under the international rules should
be retained for C. mediterraneus and its congeners. Eudesme J. G.
Agardh seems to have no claim to distinctness from Cladosiphon.
We refrain from making any new combinations, in the hope that
Kuckuck’s work on the Phaeophyceae may soon appear, and bring
order out of the present chaos.

~J
“I

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA.

Famity STILOPHORACEAE.

StitopHoraA J. G. Agardh.

S. raIzopEs (Ehrh.) J. G. Agardh, var. apriatTica (Ag.) J. G.
Agardh, 1848, p. 85; Sporochnus adriaticus Agardh, 1827, p. 646;
1828-35, Pl. XXX. Harrington Sound, April, Hervey, with pluri-
locular sporangia. More slender and delicate than the typical S.
rhizodes, which is of a more northern range.

Famity SPOROCHNACEAE.

Sporocunus Agardh.

S. Botteanus Montagne in Kiitzing, 1859, p. 33, Pl. LXXXI,
fig. II; P. B.-A., No. 2174. Dredged in 22 meters on coral rocks
in June, Kemp, as S. pedunculatus; handsome plants with assimila-
tive filaments well developed, Castle Island, Miss Wilkinson; a simi-
lar plant, Miss Peniston, no data; Gravelly Bay, old plants with
mature fruit, washed ashore, Aug., Collins; dredged near Challenger
Reef, in 60 meters, Aug., 1903, Bermuda Biological Station.

Famity TILOPTERIDACEAE.

Heterospora Kuckuck.

H. Vipovicni (Meneg.) Kuckuck, 1895, p. 318, Pl. IV, figs.
1-20; Haplospora Vidovichit Bornet, 1891, p. 363, Pl. VIII, figs.
1-5; P. B.-A., No. 2026; LEctocarpus Vidovichit Meneghini in
Kiitzing, 1845, p. 233; E. crinitus Hauck, 1885, p. 330, not of
Carmichael. Forming rather dense tufts, up to 4 dm. long, on wall
of inlet by the Frascati Hotel, March, Hervey, with monosporangia.
The occurrence here of a representative of the family Tilopteridaceae
is of much interest; barely half a dozen species are known, and all
but this one inhabit the colder waters of the Atlantic. H. Vidovichii
inhabits the Mediterranean, and this is its first recorded occurrence
elsewhere.

78 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

Famity FUCACEAE.

ASCOPHYLLUM Stackhouse.

A. noposum (L.) Le Jolis, 1863, p. 96; Fueus nodosus Linnaeus,
1763, p. 1628; Harvey, 1846-51, Pl. CLVIII. Wadsworth, in Farlow
herb.; Inlet, Jan., May, Gravelly Bay, Feb., Shelly Bay, March,
Hervey; Gravelly Bay, April, Shelly Bay, Bethel’s Island, Dec.,
Collins. This species is not uncommonly found among the floating
algae left by the tide but it has never been found attached, and as it
is a conspicuous plant, it is not likely that it has been overlooked. It
is common on the American coast from New Jersey to the arctic
regions, but rarely reaches to low water mark, and does not grow in
places exposed to the full force of the waves. There is no reason to
suppose that it grows here in deep water, or on the outer reefs awash
with the waves, the only class of localities not well explored. Prof.
Sauvageau, to whom we are much indebted for information as to its
habits in Europe, writes us “Jamais je n’ai vu l’Ascophyllum dans
les stations franchement exposées au choc des vagues, mais toujours
dans les stations plus ou moins abritées, par exemple dans les anses
rocheuses, dans les petits ports, sur les rochers qui émergent parmi
la vase. C’est une plante de mi-marée.” As regards the general
question of brown algae washed ashore in places on the Bay of Biscay,
where they do not grow, he says, “En résumé, |’ Ascophyllum, rejeté,
arrive en trés bon état, fructifié ou non, selon la saison, mais on ne
peut dire s'il a flotté trés longtemps, puisqu’il vit sur les rochers 4 une
trentaine de kilometres de 1a. L’ Himanthalia est dans le méme cas.
Mais le Cystoseira concatenata et le Sargassum vulgare viennent sure-
ment de trés loin, et cependant leurs organes reproducteurs sont aptes
alafecondation. Les algues brunes, normalment fixées, se conservent
trés bien a l'état flottant, beaucoup mieux qu’on le croit generalment.
Done, 4 mon avis, il n’est nullement nécessaire que |’ Ascophyllum
croisse aux Bermudes pour que vous l’y trouvez rejeté; il peut y
arriver en trés bon état, et méme capable de produire des fécondations
et des germinations, bien qu’il provienne d’un pays lointain et qu'il
ait flotté longtemps.” It seems to us quite unlikely that the plants
found at Bermuda could have come from the American coast across
the Gulf Stream. The chances are certainly greater for its European
origin, and there is good reason to suppose that it forms a portion,

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 79

a relatively small portion, to be sure, of the living and floating brown
algae of the North Atlantic, which have given a certain district of it
the name of the “Sargasso Sea.”’ Bouvier, 1907, p. 35, says “Ca et la,
parmi les Sargasses, on rencontre quelques fragments de Fucus nodo-
sus, arrachées certainement aux rivages des Canaries, de Madére ou
des Acores.” To be sure, Sauvageau, 1907, p. 1084, points out that
the Fucus (Ascophyllum) has never been reported growing at the
Canaries, Madeira or the Azores; but Bouvier’s erroneous assumption
does not invalidate his record of the occurrence of the plant as
described. Bérgesen, 1914a, p. 14, note, says “Professor Gran has
most kindly communicated me that Ascophyllum was found in the
northern part of the Sargasso Sea, and rather abundant.”’ We think
it may be concluded that Ascophyllum, the original derivation
unknown, continues to live in a floating state among the Sargassum of
the North Atlantic in active vegetation, and at least occasionally
fruiting.

Fucus Linnaeus.

F. vestcuLosus Linnaeus, 1763, p. 1636. A single battered but
unmistakable fragment was found washed ashore, Hervey.

TURBINARIA Lamouroux.

T. TRIcosTaTA Barton, 1891, p. 218, Pl. LIV, fig. 3; P. B.-A., No.
1877. Gravelly Bay, Jan., Feb., March, April, Aug., Oct., Nov.,
Dec., Hervey; Hungry Bay, July, Collins. Except a few plants
from near the entrance of Hungry Bay, the only locality we have
observed is at Gravelly Bay, where it grows abundantly in pools at
low water mark and sometimes higher up. YT. trialata Kiitz., the
common species of the West Indies, we have not found, and though
the two species have much in common, we have found no plants
that would raise any doubt as to their distinctness. Quite young
plants were found in August; in these neither alae nor costae had yet
been formed. The mature plants, in December and January, are
from 10 to 15 em. high; the root is rather slender, much branched,
2-4 em. long; as the plants grow close together, the roots are inter-
mixed, but so loosely that individual plants can be separated without
difficulty.

80 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

SarGassumM Agardh.

The Sargassa abound everywhere in warmer water; there have been
very many species described, and new ones are continually added to
the list; undoubtedly there have been many cases where observers
from distant regions have described the same species independently
and in good faith; ultimately one of the names must give way to the
other. On the other hand more conservative botanists have used
the name of a well-known species for a form found at a station distant
from the home of the species, and sooner or later the later named form
will have to be segregated. Whether mistakes made by too radical
or by too conservative treatment are more harmful, will probably
remain an open question in botanical as in other matters. In our
treatment of the Bermuda species, we find in some of them more or
less noticeable differences from the species of the same name elsewhere,
and we have given an account of the characters of each of the species
we recognize, and have drawn these characters from Bermuda speci-
mens, not from descriptions of others.

Key to the Species of Sargassum.

1. Always floating, without fruit or basal attachment. 2.
1. Attached, fruiting. 3.

2. Slender throughout, the leaves very narrow, with aculeate teeth.
1. S. natans.

2. Stouter; leaves lanceolate with triangular teeth. 2. S. fluitans.
3. Stem densely muriculate or with short proliferations. 4,
3. Stem not muriculate, or only slightly and occasionally so. Gy

4, Leaves ovate or broadly lanceolate. 4. S. lendigerum.

4. Leaves narrowly linear, simple or 1-several times forked.
3. S. linifolium.
5. Fructification long, slender, filiform, loosely branched.
6. S. Filipendula var. Montagnei.

5. Fructification not so slender or elongate. 6.
6. Receptacles with dentate wings. 8.8. platyecarpum var. bermudense.
6. Receptacles wingless. ie

7. Individual receptacles on slender pedicels. 3. S. linifolium.

7. Receptacles fertile throughout. Se
8. Receptacles forming a dense glomerule. %. 8. Hystrix
8. Receptacles repeatedly forked, branches separate. 5. S. vulgare.

1. S. natans (L.) J. Meyen, 1838, p. 185; Borgesen, 1914, p. 7;
P. B.-A., No. 2180; S. bacciferum Agardh, 1821, p. 6; Harvey, 1852,

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 81

p. 54; Fucus natans Linnaeus, 1753, p. 1160; Fucus bacciferus Turner,
1808, p. 105, Pl. XLVII. Stem long, slender, smooth, with more or
less distant similar branches; leaves long, slender, linear, with many
sharp teeth, cryptostomata wanting or inconspicuous; vesicles numer-
ous, on long slender pedicels, and usually with a filiform prolongation;
fructification unknown; unattached, floating near the surface of the sea,
forming loose floating patches, or strips in the line of the direction of
the wind; in quiet water the tips of the leaves project above the water,
like bristles; drifting ashore at all times, and in case of storms in
immense quantities, and used as a fertilizer. It inhabits a large area
in the North Atlantic, within a boundary formed by the Gulf Stream
and its subsidiaries, reaching the coast of Europe, turning south and
then west to its origin in the Gulf of Mexico. It has an active vege-
tative growth, the lower part of the stem decaying, increasing the
number of individuals by fragmentation. It has never been found
attached nor in fruit, and though in all probability originally derived
from an attached form, it now appears to be so changed by its mode of
life that it is unlikely that the attached species from which it was
derived will ever be certainly determined.?°

In several instances there have been reports of finding this species
in fruit, but in each case when examined there are circumstances
leading to the conclusion that the plant observed belonged to some
other species.

2. §S. FLUITANS Borgesen, 1914a, p. 222; P. B.-A., No. 2177; S.
Hystriz var. fluitans Borgesen, 1914, p. 11, fig. 8. Stem rather stout,
mostly smooth, occasionally with a few spines, much branched;
leaves lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate, thickish, cryptostomata present
but not conspicuous, teeth short and triangular; vesicles spherical,
about 5 mm. diam., short-pedicelled, usually without prolongations;
fructification unknown. Floating with S. natans, but less abundant;
propagated by fragmentation only. It may be derived from S.
Hystrix J. Ag., but if so the derivation is remote and the differ-
entiation considerable. Both S. natans and S. fluitans are lighter in
color than the attached species.

3. §. LINIFOLIUM (Turn.) Agardh, 1848, p. 18; P. B.-A., No. 2179;
Fucus linifolius Turner, 1811, p. 64, Pl. CLXVIII. On rocks above
and below Flatts bridge and at other points in Harrington Sound and
in Hamilton Harbor, Hervey, Collins. From acommon base but with-
out any general trunk arise several axes with more or less frequent

10 For fuiler discussion of floating Sargassum, see Collins, 1917.

82 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

branches, elongate, virgate, bearing leaves, fructification, and short
branches; stems slender, terete, densely muriculate with short simple
or forked papillae, which are occasionally more scattered on the older
parts; leaves thickly set at the tips of the main branches and along
short lateral branches, linear and attenuate to both ends, 1—2 mm.
wide, up to 5 em. long, simple or forked, margin irregularly dentate with
small distant teeth, in young leaves larger and more frequent; midrib
not specially conspicuous; cryptostomata rather large, a single series
each side of the midrib, rather irregularly spaced; vesicles 3-6 mm.
diam., smooth, or sometimes with cryptostomata, subspherical on a
filiform pedicel of uniform diameter, or pyriform on a pedicel enlarged
above; pedicel smooth, length one and one half to three times the
diameter of the vesicle, usually unarmed, occasionally with a small
mucro, rarely with a short filiform prolongation. Rachis of fructifica-
tion usually short, sterile and filiform, or fertile and torulose, bearing
several alternate, torulose, fertile branches, with subacute tip, one
half to one cm. long; fructification mostly on the lower part of short
branches of the second order with leaves about them on the branches.

The above description refers to the attached plant of quiet waters,
but individuals more slender than the typical form can be found, in
which the stem is almost entirely smooth and the rachis of fructifica-
tion quite elongate. As with other species of Sargassum, individuals
are to be found among the masses of S. natans floating after storms,
and these show a certain resemblance to the latter, but their condition
shows indications of their not persisting.

4. S. LENDIGERUM (L.) Agardh, 1820, p. 9; P. B.-A., No. 2178;
Fucus lendigerus Linnaeus, 1763, p. 1628; Turner, 1808, p. 107, PI.
XLVIII. South shore, various points, Jan., Feb., Apr., Dec., Hervey;
Little Agar’s Island, Nov., Collins. Common on exposed rocks in
shallow water all around the islands. A stout torulose trunk, 1-3 em.
high, divides into several main axes, often unbranched, occasionally
rather freely branching; axes and branches terete, usually thickly set
with short, simple or forked proliferations, rarely over 1 mm. long;
leaves ovate or broadly lanceolate, margin irregularly undulate or
slightly dentate; occasionally forked, usually much crisped, midrib
distinct, cryptostomata small, scattered; vesicles spherical, smooth,
usually about 3 mm. diam., occasionally 5 mm., on filiform pedicels
usually shorter than the diameter of the vesicle, rarely with short tips.
Fructification of filiform branching receptacles, the main rachis usually
distinct, stouter than the radial branches, which may reach a length
of 2 cm. in the looser forms, but usually do not reach a length of 1 em.;

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 83

branching more or less dense, when dense often apparently dichoto-
mous, tips acute; sometimes fertile throughout, sometimes rachis or
even branches sterile. Fructification mostly on the upper part of
the axes, often occupying these to the exclusion of leaves and vesicles,
but also sometimes on short branches on the lower part of the axes.
Specially a plant of exposed shores.

5. S. VULGARE Agardh var. FOLIOsISssIMuM (Lamour.) J. G. Agardh,
1889, p. 108; Fucus foliosissimus Lamouroux, 1813, p. 36, Pl. VII,
fig. 1. Cooper’s Island, April, Hervey. From a very short trunk
arise several main axes, mostly smooth, sometimes slightly muricu-
late, bearing more or less numerous similar branches; leaves lanceo-
late to oblong, the margins finely and closely dentate; midrib distinct,
cryptostomata abundant and without definite order on the younger
leaves, often obsolete on the older and thicker leaves; vesicles spheri-
eal, 3-5 mm. diam., without prolongation, on a pedicel equal to the
diameter or longer; receptacles axillary, branching, fertile through-
out, verrucose, shorter than the leaves.

At Spanish Point, March, Hervey, was found a form probably
belonging here, but without fruit; the leaves are narrower and nearly
entire; it may be S. vulgare, typical; S. vulgare varies much in the size
and form of the leaves.

6. S. Frurpenputa Ag., var. Montagnei (Bailey) comb. nov.;
S. Montagne Bailey in Harvey, 1852, p. 58, Pl. I. A; S. vulgare var.
Montagnei Farlow, 1881, p. 103; S. Filipendula forma subedentata
J. G. Agardh, 1889, p. 120. Kemp; near Wistowe, floating, Aug.,
Collins. Stem long, slender, filiform, smooth except for a few minute,
scattered papillae on the younger parts, loosely branched; leaves
linear, usually 3-6 mm. wide, up to 15 cm. long, often one or more
times forked, the divisions sometimes equal and symmetrical, oftener
subpinnate and alternate; leaves tapering gradually or abruptly
to the subacute tip; midrib distinct throughout leaves and their
divisions; cryptostomata few, small, scattered, rarely showing a
linear arrangement; margin even or slightly undulate or indistinctly
dentate; vesicles spherical to subpyriform, 2-3 mm. diam., tipped
generally with a mucro, often with a leaf; pedicel in length one and
one half to three times the diameter of the vesicle, sometimes filiform,
often compressed, or with midrib and margin. Rachis of fructifica-
tion filiform, smooth, sterile, elongate, bearing rather distant lateral
branches at first with sterile base, later fertile throughout, sometimes
with a second series of similar branches, all branches at right angles,
of uniform diameter, torulose; ultimate divisions up to 3 cm. long.

84 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

Generally characterized by the slenderness and delicacy of all the
parts; typical S. Filipendula, stouter and shorter, with broader and
more dentate leaves and more condensed fructification, has not been
found here.

7. §S. Hysrrix J. G. Agardh, 1847, p. 7; 1889, p. 91, Pl. VI. Stem
terete, smooth; leaves thickish, lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, entire
or obscurely dentate, 3-6 cm. long, 4-8 mm. wide, midrib rather
indistinct, no cryptostomata; vesicles spherical, up to 7 mm. diam.,
pedicel short, sometimes imperceptible; fructification in dense glom-
erules of short, verrucose branches; receptacles, vesicles and leaves
densely packed along the little branched axis. Harris Bay, Dec.,
attached, Hervey; washed ashore on Agar’s and Bethel’s Islands
after a storm, Dec., Collins. Apparently recently torn from its
attachment.

While our plant appears to agree in all other respects with S. Hystriz,
the receptacles, though quite verrucose, show no spines or teeth.
We should hardly have ventured to give it this name, but for what is
said by Reinbold in Weber, 1913, as to sexual dimorphism in Sar-
gassum, with presence or absence of spines on the receptacles accord-
ing to sex. We suspect that another instance of dimorphism may be
found in S. platycarpum Montagne and S. vulgare Agardh, at least
the plant distributed under the latter name as P. B.-A., No. 178.
We have seen a large number of plants from Florida, some with smooth,
some with spiny receptacles, otherwise indistinguishable.

8. S. pLatycarpuM Montagne var. BERMUDENSE Grunow, 1915,
p. 389. We have not seen this, and include it only on the authority
of Grunow.

Famity DICTYOTACEAE.

SpatoGcLossum Kiitzing.

S. ScHROEDERI (Mert.) J. G. Agardh, 1880, p. 113, in part; 1894,
p. 38; P. B.-A., No. 2027; S. Areschougit Vickers. 1905, p. 58; 1908,
part II, p. 38, Pl. XI; Ulva Schroederi Mertens in Martius, 1826, p. 21;
1827, Pl. I, fig. 3; Taonia Schroederi Farlow in Alg. Am.-Bor. Exsice.,
No. 159. Gravelly Bay, Feb., March, Hervey; Gravelly Bay, April,
Aug., Cooper’s Island, Aug., Collins. Observed only at these two
stations, and apparently not common. In the water it shows a bril-
liant iridescence. Tetraspores, much like those of Dzctyota, were
found on a few plants; there does not seem to have been any previous

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. SS

record of them. Tufts of hairs were common; the cells in a definite
rectangular region divide, four cells from an original cortical cell,
and each of these cells grows out into a hair; the hairs are contracted
at base, lower cells about as long as their diameter, moniliform, with
rich contents; upper cells 5-6 diam. long, cylindrical, nearly empty.
It does not seem to us that the distinction made by J. G. Agardh
between S. Schroederi and S. Areschougii can be maintained. Ber-
muda specimens show the forms of frond and characters of dentation
characteristic of both species, as well as intermediate gradations.

ZoNARIA Draparnaud.

1. Frond rounded, little divided; mostly dorsiventral and prostrate.
1. Z. variegata.
1. Frond erect, with many deep and narrow divisions. 2. Z. lobata.

‘1. Z. vARIEGATA (Lamour.) Mertens in Martius, 1826, p. 21; 1827,
p. 6, Pl. I, fig. 2; Vickers, 1905, p. 58; 1908, Pl. VI. B; Bérgesen,
1914, p. 197, figs. 151-152; Dictyota variegata Lamouroux, 1813, p. 57,
Pl. V, figs. 7-9. Kemp, including some specimens marked Z. lobata;
Wadsworth, No. 6; Moseley, from shallow water down to 31 fathoms;
Hamilton Harbor, Agar’s Cave, Jan., Walsingham, Feb., Farlow;
Gravelly Bay, Jan., Harrington Sound, Feb., Harris Bay, Jan., Nov.;
Inlet, Dec., Hervey; Ely’s Harbor, Aug., Collins. Common nearly
everywhere. It is sometimes found with one side of the lamina quite
firmly attached; sometimes the frond is quite free, with little differ-
ence between the two sides; these differences do not seem to depend
on the depth of water. Dickie, 1874, p. 311, notes that the plants
dredged in 31 fathoms were mostly bluish green in color.

2. Z. Lopata Agardh, 1824, p. 265; Harvey, 1852, p. 105, Pl. VII.
C; Vickers, 1905, p. 58; 1908, Pl. VI; Bérgesen, 1914, p. 199; P. B.-A.,
No. 1876. Kemp; Tucker, No. 5; South Beach, near Paget, Farlow;
Wadsworth, No. 11; Inlet, Jan., Dec., Gravelly Bay, Feb., March,
Dec., Hervey; Gravelly Bay, July, Aug., Ely’s Harbor, Hungry Bay,
July, Cooper’s Island, Aug., Collins. Young plants are common
in Dec.; by the last of Jan. good sized plants are common, and the
plants continue in good condition till May; after that, only old, bat-
tered fronds are to be found. It is common in quiet water as well as
on exposed shores. The best locality we observed was at Gravelly
Bay, where it grew in great tufts in pools and on rocks at low water
mark. The color varies from light to dark brown, the substance from

86 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

thin and membranaceous to coarse and leathery; the dark, zonate
lines are distinct in the thin, light colored form, imperceptible on the
old, coarse and dark fronds. It differs much in the extent of division
of the fronds, from broad-cuneate and little parted, to fronds consisting
of innumerable narrow divisions, sometimes broad below, narrow
above, always more or less cuneate with apex truncate. Under water
it shows a very brilliant iridescence of peacock blue and green.

Paptna Adanson.

1. Epidermis persistent as an indusium over the spores. 2.
1. No indusium; spore band in middle of each second zone between bands
of hairs. 4. P. gymnospora.

2. Frond dark and thickish, not much calcified; in middle part 2-3 cells
thick; bands of spores alternating with bands of hairs. 3. P. variegata.

2. Lighter colored and thinner; distinctly calcified. 3.
3. Band of spores above each second band of hairs; frond normally 2 cells
thick. 1. P. sanctae-crucis.

3. One band of spores above and one below each second band of hairs; frond
normally 3 cells thick. 2. P. Pavonia.

1. P. sancTaE-crucis Bérgesen, 1914, p. 201, figs. 1538-154;
P. B.-A., No. 2082. Harris Bay, Jan., Nov., Hervey; Shelly Bay,
April, Jew’s Bay, Ely’s Harbor, Hungry Bay, July, Gravelly Bay,
Aug., Collins. A rather thin, delicate species, growing mostly in
shallow, quiet water. The color is usually a quite light yellowish
brown on the upper side, the under side being usually covered with a
continuous but quite thin calcareous coating, white or bluish in color.
The dried plant is papyraceous and brittle. Only tetrasporic fruit
has been found, which was on plants collected in July and August.
The indusium consists of the epidermis, which is pushed up by the
spores as they grow, and finally ruptured; being very thin and trans-
parent it is not always easy to make out, but it often happens that
when it is pushed away from the frond, it retains the markings out-
lining the layer of cells beneath; in such case a fine network corre-
sponding to the cells can be seen with the microscope by careful
focusing, on a level with the top of the spores. This form of indusium
has been noted in Zonaria variegata by Sauvageau, 1905, p. 11 (of
reprint.)

2. P. Pavonta (L.) Gaillon, 1828, p. 371; Harvey, 1846-51, PI.
XCI; P. B.-A., No. 2081; Fucus pavonius Linnaeus, 1763, p. 1630.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 87

Gates Bay, March, Gibbet Island, April, Hervey. In the Bermuda
material identified with this species the frond is smaller throughout
and generally more delicate than in P. variegata, averaging much the
’ size and consistency of P. sanctae-crucis, and with a similar calcareous
coating. Tetrasporic fruit was well developed on the material from
both stations noted above. Sterile plants resembling the two species
just mentioned abound in warm shallow water, but can be distin-
guished only by sectioning and counting the layers of cells. In P.
Pavonia the sexual plant, which we have not found here, is monoecious;
in P. variegata it is dioecious, in both it is rare. While all American
forms of Padina were formerly placed under P. Pavonia, this seems to
be the first occurrence of the species on this side of the Atlantic. The
material from Florida distributed as P. Pavonia, P. B.-A., No. 1442a,
and that distributed as P. Durvillaei, P. B.-A., No. 580b, should be
referred to P. variegata; 1442b to P. gymnospora. The plant distrib-
uted as P. Durvillaei, 580a, closely resembles P. gymnospora, but in
the specimens now accessible the frond is uniformly two cells thick,
which would bring it under P. australis Hauck; but Mme. Weber, 1913,
p. 180, suggests that the latter may be only a form of P. gymnospora.
The true P. Durvillaei Mont., appears to be found only in the Pacific.

3. P. vaARIEGATA (Lamour.) Hauck, 1887, p. 42; P.B.-A., No.
2083; Bérgesen, 1914, p. 205, figs. 157-161; Diuctyota variegata
Lamouroux, 1809, p. 331. Kemp, May, June, July, as P. Pavonia;
Shelly Bay, Harris Bay, Jan., Gibbet Island, Jan., Nov., Dec., Hervey;
Inlet, July, Aug., Collins. Very variable in form, from orbicular
and undivided up to 15 cm. diam., to fronds split into innumerable
strips, or with many rounded proliferations; in texture from thin and
papery to thick and tough. It is however always darker than the
two preceding species, and with less conspicuous calcification, and
it is more than two cells in thickness, except at the growing edge, and
may be six layers in the older parts. Tetrasporic fruit is rather
common, oogonia infrequent; antheridia are known in this species,
but we have not found them here.

4. P. eymnospora (Kiitz.) Vickers, 1905, p. 58; 1908, Pl. VII;
Bérgesen, 1914, p. 202, figs. 155-156; Zonaria gymnospora Kiitzing,
1859, p. 29, Pl. LXXI, fig. 11. Farlow, 1881, without exact station.
Observed once only, but in good condition and fruit. Characterized
among our species by the absence of indusium, the frond with one
layer of small cells and one layer of large in cross section, the larger
cells sometimes dividing so as to give a section of three cells; the spore
bands in the center of every second space between hair bands.

SS COLLINS AND HERVEY.

Dicryoprerts Lamouroux.

1. Frond thick, wide, Fucus-like. 7, 1D), Amtsjit:
1. Frond thin, delicate. 2.
2. Diagonal veins from midrib to margin. 3. D. plagiogramma.
2. No lateral veins. 1. D. delicatula.

1, D. pELicatuLA Lamouroux, 1809, p: 332, Pl. VI; fig: 2B;
Vickers, 1905, p. 58; 1908, part 2, Pl. III; Borgesen, 1914, p. 216,
fig. 166; P. B.-A., No. 1924. Castle Harbor, Jan., Farlow; Cave,
Gravelly Bay, Oct., Harris Bay, Heron Bay, Dec., Hervey. Not
uncommon, but mostly small plants, not over 10 em. high.

2. D. Justi Lamouroux, 1809, p. 330, Pl. VI, fig. 2 A; Vickers,
1905, p. 58; 1908, part 2, Pl. V; P. B.-A., No. 1925. Rein, as Haly-
seris polypodioides; Mosely, dredged in 31 fathoms; Wadsworth,
March, No. 9; St. David’s Island, April, Kemp, as Fucus ceranoides;
Faxon; Gravelly Bay, Jan., Feb., Oct., Dec., Hervey; Gravelly Bay,
April, July, Aug., Tucker’s Town, April, Outer Reef, Ely’s Harbor,
Hungry Bay, July, Cooper’s Island, Aug., Collins. Occasionally
found growing just below low water mark, but mostly floating, coming
from deeper water. Old and battered plants came in abundantly in
August; only young plants were found in February. It may grow to
a length of 40cm. Most reports of species of Fucus from Florida and
the West Indies are based on large specimens of this species. Tetra-
spores were found in abundance on plants collected in August; they
occur on both sides of the frond, the sori originally circular, about
1 mm. diam., or elongate, about 1 mm. wide. They increase in size,
often become confluent, forming irregular patches, more than 1 cm.
across. The sporangia are broadly pyriform, about 45y high, 25-
35 w diam. seen from above, and closely packed.

3. D. PLAGIOGRAMMA (Mont.) Vickers, 1905, p. 58; 1908, part 2,
Pl. IV; Haliseris plagiogramma Montagne, 1837, p. 356. Kemp,
May, as Haliseris polypodioides; this single specimen, large and in
fine condition, is the only Bermuda record.

Dicryota Lamouroux.

1. Margin with small sharp teeth. 3; DW) ciliata:

1. Margin even or uneven, without teeth. 2.

2. Frond rather broad, with more or less distinct rachis, bearing alternate
divisions; tips not tapering, either blunt or with two points.

8. D. dentata.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 89

2. Frond dichotomously branched, with or without lateral proliferations.
3.

3. Frond usually rather broad, very regularly dichotomous, axils usually
wide, tips rounded, proliferations on old plants only. 1. D.dichotoma.

3. Not with above combination. 4,
4. Frond very narrow, almost filiform throughout. i.
4. Frond of varying width, not appearing filiform throughout. 6.

5. Regularly dichotomous, few or no proliferations except in very old plants.

2. D. linearis.

5. Dichotomous in younger parts, elsewhere with many proliferations, often

much entangled. 6. D. divaricata.

6. Fronds narrow, dichotomous, few or no proliferations. tes

6. Fronds broad or narrow, divisions of dichotomies often unequal, some-

times appearing subpinnate, proliferations frequent.

5. D. Bartayresu.

7. Dichotomies distant, regular, divisions equal. 3. D. indica.
7. Dichotomies close, some divisions long, some short, patent, acute.

4. D. cervicornis.

1. D. picHoroma (Huds.) Lamouroux, 1809, p. 331; Harvey,
1846-51, Pl. CIII; P. B.-A., No. 2175; Ulva dichotoma Hudson, 1798,
p. 476. Rein; Hamilton, Kemp; up to 31 fathom depth, Moseley;
Tucker, No. 11; Cave near Ducking Stool, Farlow; Faxon; Build-
ings Bay, Inlet, Dec., Hervey. This species, the common one of
Europe and the most widely distributed of the genus, seems to be
rather uncommon in Bermuda; we have found it of only moderate
size, not at all like the large plants from North Carolina distributed
as P. B.-A., No. CXX. Antheridia have once been observed, but
no other form of fruit. There is little indication of rhizoidal filaments
in the Bermuda plants.

2. D. tingaris (Ag.) Greville, 1830, p. XLIII; Kiitzing, 1859, p.
9, Pl. XXI, fig. II; P. B.-A., No. 2031; Zonaria linearis Agardh,
1820, p. 1384. Jew’s Bay, July, Collins. In loose floating masses,
antheridia fairly frequent, no other fruit observed. The frond is
very narrow, seldom over 1 mm.; the forkings are rather distant,
axils narrow. The lower part of the frond was old and dry, but
showed no proliferations; no rhizoidal filaments were seen.

3. D. rnpica Sonder in Kiitzing, 1859, p. 8, Pl. XVII, fig. 1;
Vickers, 1905, p. 59; 1908, part 2, Pl. XVIII; P. B.-A., No. 2030.
Kemp, as D. fasciola, in part; Ely’s Harbor, Aug., Collins. Our
plants agree with the narrower form distributed by Miss Vickers under
No. 78; the width of the frond from 1-2 mm. remaining practically
the same throughout in each individual. The divisions are quite

90 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

regularly dichotomous throughout, the axils rather wide and rounded,
the divisions immediately incurving and often becoming parallel, the
apices rounded. Antheridia of the usual form were found on these
plants; also, on the same plants, scattered or in twos, tetrasporangia;
none of these were found showing the regular division into fours, but
in many the contents had divided into many small squarish cells, the
sporangium enlarging to two or three times its former dimensions,
and developing a point of growth at the tip. This closely parallels
the development in D. dichotoma, described and figured by Reinke,
1878, p. 8, Pl. I, figs. 31-35. The occurrence on the same frond with
antheridia is, however, noteworthy. We hardly see how D. volubilis
Vickers, Algues de la Barbade, No. 78a, can be distinguished from the
present species, apart from the spiral twisting of the frond. A plant
in the Kemp herbarium, marked D. fasciola, is intermediate between
D. indica and D. volubilis of the Algues de la Barbade.

4. D. cEervicornis Kiitzing, 1859, p. 11, Pl. XXIV, fig. II; D.
fasciola Harvey, 1852, p. 108, Pl. VIII. B., not of Lamouroux. Rein,
as D. fasciola. The true D. fasciola has slender fronds, regularly but
not very closely dichotomous, the divisions all developing equally and
ending at nearly the same level. In D. cervicornis one division is
frequently short, acute and erect, giving quite a different habit, which
is well characterized by the specific name.

5. D. Barrayresi 1 Lamouroux, 1809, p. 331; D. Bartayresiana,
Harvey, 1852, p. 110, Pl. VIII. C.; P. B.-A., No. 1874. Kemp, as D.
fasciola, in part; in shallow water, Moseley; St. David’s Island, from
half tide down, April, Shelly Bay, May, Gravelly Bay, Hungry Bay,
July, Cooper’s Island, Aug., Collins; Gibbet Island, Jan., Oct., Dec.,
Hervey. This seems to be the species of Dictyota occurring most
frequently in Bermuda. It is quite variable, and narrow forms cer-
tainly show similarity to D. divaricata. On comparing the accounts
given of the species by different authors, and the specimens from dif-
ferent localities distributed under this name, one is led to suspect that
more than one species is really in question. As originally described,
stress was laid on the acute apices, but later authors include forms with
distinctly blunt apices. Both forms occur among the Bermuda
material we have studied. It is probable that all species of the genus

11 This species is generally known as D. Bartayresiana, but in the original
publication by Lamouroux the specific name is Bartayresii. | Few authors
refer to this rare and neglected paper, almost all starting from a later publi-
cation of the same year, 1809a, p. 43, in which the author, without stating
any reason, substitutes the name Bartayresiana.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 91

are subject to much variation with age and environment, and much
study of living plants is needed before we can get a clear idea of specific
lines. What we consider as the normal form of the species in Bermuda
closely resembles No. 72 of Miss Vickers Algues de la Barbade; in
this some apices are acute, some rounded, on the same individual.
The branching seems intermediate between D. dichotoma and D.
dentata, with a suggestion of lateral branching not found in the former,
but not the distinctive character as in the latter. Antheridia were
common in material collected at all seasons; tetraspores occurred
occasionally on the same individual with antheridia, in July and
August. No rhizoidal filaments were seen. Mme. Weber, 1913,
p- 182, states that the type of D. Bartayresit cannot be found; she
speaks of Harvey’s figure as excellent, and we have taken it for our
standard.

6. D. prvaricatTa Lamouroux, 1809, p. 331, not of Kiitzing, 1859,
p. 10, Pl. XXIII, fig. 1; D. acutiloba Kiitzing, 1859, p. 13, Pl. XXIX,
fig. 1, not of J. Ag. Inlet, Gravelly Bay, Dec., Hervey. Fronds as
narrow as in D. linearis, but the dichotomous habit, distinct in young
growing branches, is quite obscured in the older parts by the abundant,
mostly short, proliferous branches. By these the fronds are often
so densely matted that it is not easy to disentangle any individual
plant. Antheridia are abundant in this material, but no other form
of fruit was observed. The fronds seem to attach themselves by inter-
laced proliferous branches, with a few short, monosiphonous rhizoidal
filaments close to the tip.

7. D. cuiata J. G. Agardh,’? 1841, p. 5; Harvey, 1852, p. 110,
Pl. VIII. A.; D. crenulata P. B.-A., No. 1875, an J. Ag. ?. Rem;
Kemp, May, June; South Shore near Paget, Feb., Castle Harbor,
Feb., Farlow; Gravelly Bay, Jan., Feb., Harris Bay, Dec., Hervey;
Causeway, April, Shelly Bay, May, Hungry Bay, July, Collins.
There is considerable variation in the material which we now include
under D. ciliata, but after a re-examination of the form that we dis-
tributed as D. crenulata, we do not feel justified in keeping it distinct.
It seems to us also that D. crenulata from Barbados, Vickers, No. 75,

12 The first use of the combination Dictyota ciliata is by Lamouroux, 1809,
p. 331, where a synonym is given, Fucus pseudociliatus Lamouroux, 1805,
p. 41; a description is given of the latter and figure, Pl. XXX, fig. 2; the
locality is the Mediterranean. It is now generally acknowledged to be
Taonia atomaria (Good. & Woodw.) J. Ag. Being a name proposed for a
plant recognized by Lamouroux as already named, Dictyota ciliata Lamouroux
abe had any standing, and cannot interfere with the subsequent D. ciliata

Ag:

92 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

of which we have examined several specimens, belongs under D.
ciliata. Agardh, 1848, p. 94, says of D. crenulata “‘margine tenui
dentibus brevissimis late triangularibus initio fere serrato, demum
dentato aut crenato.” Harvey, 1852, says “The margin is undulated,
and closely eroso-denticulate, or jagged with unequal, deltoid or subu-
late, tooth-like processes.” In the Bermuda plants the margin is
quite even, and the teeth are of uniform size and never very closely
set. We have, however, seen a specimen of D. crenulata from the
Suhr herbarium “West Indien,” that fully agrees with Agardh’s
and Harvey’s descriptions. In the Bermuda material of this species
confervoid rhizoidal filaments arise from the lower part of the main
axis of the frond, often forming a dense, continuous mass for several
em.; proliferations are few and insignificant. Antheridia and oogonia
were found on specimens collected in February, tetrasporangia on
specimens collected in July.

8. D. pentTaTa Lamouroux, 1809, p. 331; Kiitzing, 1859, p. 15,
Pl. XXXV, fig. I; D. Mertensit (Mart.) Kiitzing, 1859, p. 15, ‘Pl.
XXXVI, fig. I; Ulva Mertensit Martius, 1826, p. 21; 1827, Pl. I;
P. B.-A., No. 1926; D. Brongniartii J. G. Agardh, 1841, p. 5; Kiitzing,
1859, p. 15, Pl. XXXV, fig. II; D. subdentata Kiitzing, 1859, p. 14,
Pl. XXXIII, fig. I]. Kemp, as D. crenulata, in part; Gravelly Bay,
Jan., Hervey, Aug., Collins; Hungry Bay, July, Collins. J. G.
Agardh, 1880, p. 98, gives D. Mertensii as a synonym of D. Brong-
niartii, mentioning D. subdentata without expressing an opinion as to
whether it should be referred to D. dentata or D. Brongniartii; later,
1894, p. 70, he recognizes D. dentata, D. Mertens and D. Brongniarti
as distinct species. Hauck, 1888, p. 466, unites all four under the
oldest name, D. dentata, as it seems to us rightly. The distinctive
characters are found in the greater or less distinctness of the axis and
branches, and in the character of the terminal segments. In the
abundant material we found in Bermuda, there were individuals with
the primary axis narrower and firmer than the lateral segments, and
others, apparently mostly younger individuals, in which all was
uniformly membranaceous. Typical D. dentata has segments ending
in acute, spinous tips; typical D. Mertensii has segments short-
cuneate, with truncate or emarginate tips. It is not uncommon to
find both these types on the same individual. In comparing the
vegetative structure of D. dentata with that of D. dichotoma, as de-
scribed by Reinke, 1878, several points are to be noted. The main
axis is thick, and somewhat flattened, but can hardly be described as
a “rundtrieb.” In old plants, there grow from this, for a distance of

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 93

three or four em. from the base, descending, terete, branching fila-
ments, of an average diam. of one half mm., forming a loose felt. A
cross section shows a densely cellular structure, the cells much smaller
than in the median layer of the frond, the superficial cells much like
those of the frond. From the superficial cells issue, not continuously
but in groups, monosiphonous filaments, 20-25 u diam., the cells 2-4
diam. long, nodes somewhat constricted; these filaments are mostly
simple, occasionally with short branches; when a filament reaches the
substratum the terminal cell forms a coralloid expansion as an organ
of attachment. Other species of Dictyota, D. ciliata for instance, are
attached by rhizoidal filaments of a similar character, but arising
directly from the frond; D. dentata is the only Bermuda species in
which they arise from descending cellular branches. In older plants
prolifications are common from the surface of the frond, sometimes
papillose to clavate, sometimes flattened with rounded outline.
None were observed over 1 mm. in length; the papillose-clavate
form seemed to be of a similar character to the descending filaments
developed near the base. Antheridia were common in material col-
lected in Jan., July and Aug.; no other fruit was observed.

Dinopuus J. G. Agardh.

D. GUINEENSIS (Kiitz.) J. G. Agardh, 1880, p. 108; Vickers, 1905,
p. 59; 1908, part 2, p. 37, Pl. IX; Bérgesen, 1914, p. 214, figs. 164—
165; P. B.-A., No. 2080; Spatoglossum guineense Kiitzing, 1843, p. 339;
1859, Pl. XLVI, fig. I. South Shore near Paget, Farlow; Gravelly
Bay, March, Hervey.

94 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

CLiass RHODOPHYCEAE.

Famity BANGIACEAE.
Banota Lyngbye.

B. FUSCOPURPUREA (Dillw.) Lyngbye, 1819, p. 83, Pl. XXIV.
C; P. B.-A., No. 2084; Conferva fuscopurpurea Dillwyn, 1809, p. 54,
Pl. XCII. On exposed rock, North Shore near Shelly Bay, April,
Fairyland, Dec., Collins; in tufts on wall by Palmetto Vale, Harring-
ton Sound, March, Hervey. In the North Shore and Fairyland
stations there were scattered filaments only, imperceptible except on
microscopic examination. At the Sound station the tufts were sev-
eral em. long. In all cases it was a slender form, mostly monosi-
phonous, rarely over four cells to a segment.

PorpHoyra Agardh.

P. ATROPURPUREA (Olivi) De Toni, 1897, p. 17; P. B.-A., No: 2085;
P. leucosticta P. B.-A., No. 1927; Ulva atropurpurea Olivi, 1791, p.
153, Pl. I-III. Kemp, May, as P. laciniata; “Spitall Lake Ferry”
May, Kemp, unnamed specimen in herb.; on mangroves below Flatts
Bridge, April, May, Collins; Ely’s Harbor, May, Hervey. At Flatts
Bridge the Porphyra began to be visible about April 20, 1912, growing
on mangroves in company with Monostroma latissimum; both minute
when first observed, but growing rapidly up to May 3, when we left
Bermuda. When next at this place, from July to Sept., 1913, the
Porphyra was not to be found. The Ely’s Harbor plant is of moderate
size, up to 6 em. long; the specimens in the Kemp herbarium reach
10 em. in length. P. vulgaris of Moseley is undoubtedly this species.

ERYTHROTRICHIA Areschoug.

E. CARNEA (Dillw.). J. G. Agardh, 1882, p. 15, Pl. I, figs. 8-10;
P. B.-A., No. 2032; E. ceramicola Farlow, 1881, p. 113; Conferva
carnea Dillwyn, 1809, p. 54, Pl. LXXXIV. Common on various
algae, Jan., Feb., Hervey; April, May, July, Aug., Nov., Dec., Col-
lins; on submerged tamarisk branches, Harrington Sound, May,
Collins.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 95

ERYTHROCLADIA Rosenvinge.

E. suBINTEGRA Rosenvinge, 1909, p. 73, figs. 13-14; Bdérgesen,
1915, p. 7, figs. 3-4; P.B.-A., No. 2086. On Bryopsis pennata,
Tucker’s Town, April; on Caulerpa crassifolia, Hungry Bay, May,
Collins; on Cladophora catenifera, Gravelly Bay, Feb., Hervey.
Probably common, but perceptible only on microscopic examination
when it appears in the form of minute orbicular disks, of closely set
radiating filaments, dichotomously branched, united laterally except
at the edge, closely adherent to the host. At Gibbet Island it grew
in company with Pringsheimia scutata, the fronds of which have much
the same structure; their bright green color contrasts strongly with
the red of the Erythrocladia.

GonroTRIcHUM Kiitzing.

1. Filaments one or at most two cells wide. 1. G. elegans.
2. Main filaments many cells wide. 2. G. Humphreyi.

1. G. ELEGANS (Chauv.)’Le Jolis, 1863, p. 103; Rosenvinge, 1909,
p. 75, fig. 15; Boérgesen, 1915, p. 4, fig. 2. Bangia elegans Chauvin,
1842, p. 33. On many species of algae, especially on Codiwm and its
epiphytes, very frequently met with as isolated individuals, rarely
in large quantity. The filaments are often simple; when branched,
the branching approaches lateral rather then dichotomous; the cells
are 10-15 uw diam., spherical or slightly compressed or elongate; they
are smallest at the base of the filament, largest near the apex, while
the filament is largest at the base, up to 25 yu, tapering slightly towards
the apex. Lateral division of cells by an oblique wall is not uncom-
mon. It is quite distinct from the duplication by displacement
described by Rosenvinge, 1909, p. 75, and seems to be a normal process.

2. G. Humpsreyi Collins, 1901, p.. 251; P.B.-A., No. 421;
Bangiopsis subsimplex Bérgesen, 1915, p. 10, figs. 5 and 6, not Comp-
sopogon subsimplez Mont. Among other algae, Ectocarpus Mitchellae,
Calothriz fusco-violacea, Enteromorpha species, etc., forming a dense
growth on the bottom of a rock pool near Gravelly Bay, Jan.,
Hervey. The fronds are more freely branched than in the material
from Jamaica, but the main stems are not as stout; otherwise they
are identical.

96 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

Famity HELMINTHOCLADIACEAE.

ACROCHAETIUM Nagel.

A conservative course has been followed by us in regard to the
plants belonging to this genus. No such richness of new forms has
been found here as by Boérgesen in the Danish West Indies, but we
cannot claim to have made as thorough a study as he has, and it is
very unlikely that all the Bermuda forms have been discovered and
listed. We include under Acrochaetium the marine species formerly
passing under Chantransia, many of which have recently been juggled
back and forth, only too often.

1. Original spore remaining manifest at base of filament. 2.
1. Original spore not distinguishable. 5,
2. Basal cell with descending endophytic and erect free filaments. 3).
2. No descending endophytic filaments. 4.
3. Cells 8-10 » diam., 4-5 diam. long. 3. A. corymbiferum.
3. Cells 12-14 uw diam., 2-3 diam. long. 4. A. barbadense.
4. Cells short, subspherical. 2. <A. erassipes.
4. Cells long, cylindrical. 1. A. Dufourii.
5. Frond arising from a disk. . 8. A. Thuretii.
5. Frond not arising from a disk. 6.
6. Horizontal filaments on surface of host. ike
6. Horizontal filaments endophytic only. 9. A. Hypnae.

7. Horizontal filaments producing endophytic branches. ;
7. A. Nemalionis.

7. Horizontal filaments without endophytic branches. 8.
8. Erect filaments 6-12 u diam. 6. A. Sagraeanum.
8. Erect filaments 4-5 » diam. 5. A. leptonema.

1. A. Durovurn Collins, P. B.-A., No. 1594; Chantransia Dufourii
Collins, 1911, p. 187; P. B.-A., No. 2087. On Dictyota ciliata, Hungry
Bay, Dec., Hervey. Forming a dense fringe on the edge of the host.
The basal cell (original spore) remains distinct, attached to the host
by a circular disk, of diameter larger than that of the cell. This
development is of the same character as that in Chantransia collopoda
Rosenvinge, 1909, p. 81, but on a smaller scale; it is found also in
another Bermuda species, A. crassipes.

2. A. CRASSIPES Bérgesen, 1915, p. 20, fig. 11; Chantransia cras-
sipes Borgesen, 1909, p. 1, fig. 1; P. B.-A., No. 2033. On Ceramium
clavulatum and Polysiphonia ferulacea, St. David’s Island, Feb., and
on Callithamnion Hookeri, Gravelly Bay, April, Hervey.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 97

3. A. corymbiferum (Thuret) comb. nov.; Chantransia corym-
bifera Thuret in Le Jolis, 1863, p. 107; Bornet & Thuret, 1876, Pl. V,
fig. 3; P. B.-A., No. 1880. On Dudresnaya crassa, Salt Kettle, Feb.,
Spanish Point, March, Buildings Bay, April, Hervey; Shelly Bay,
May, Collins. In Europe and California this species occurs on Hel-
minthocladia calvadosii; although the latter is common in Bermuda,
the Acrochaetium has not been observed on it, but seems to occur
generally on the Dudresnaya. Its filaments have some resemblance
to those of the host, and the resemblance might puzzle one unfamiliar
with both. But usually antheridia or cystocarps can be found.

4. A. BARBADENSE (Vickers) Borgesen, 1915, p. 45; Chantransia
barbadensis, Vickers, 1905, p. 60. On Liagora elongata, Buildings Bay,
March, Hervey. This plant resembles A. corymbiferum, but is kept
distinct by Bornet, 1904, p. XX, as well as by Miss Vickers, the dis-
tinctive characters being the stouter and shorter cells, and the less
developed basal portion. We have compared our plant with an
authentic specimen from Miss Vickers, also on Liagora elongata, and
find them to agree, except that while in the Bermuda plant most of
the filaments are composed of cells agreeing in dimensions with Miss
Vickers plant and description, in others the dimensions approach
those of A. corymbiferum. It is possible that future observations
may show that the difference is not specific.

5. A. LEPTONEMA (Rosenv.) Bérgesen, 1915, p. 31; Chantransia
leptonema Rosenvinge, 1909, p. 118, figs. 47-48. On Dictyopteris
Justii, Gravelly Bay, Aug., Collins. Our smallest species of the
genus.

6. A. SacraEanum Bornet, 1904, p. XXI; P.B.-A., No. 2181;
Cladophora Sagraeana Montagne, 1838, p. 459. On Zonaria lobata,
Gravelly Bay, Aug., Collins; On Dictyopteris Justii, Buildings Bay,
July, Hervey. The Buildings Bay plant almost entirely covers the
Dictyopteris with a dense coating, the individual plants up to 5 mm.
high, main filaments about 12 diam., branches seldom under 7 uz.
These dimensions are greater than those given by Bornet in his
description, but as all other characters agree, it must be considered a
luxuriant form of this species. Monospores, 18-22 * 8-10 u were
observed, on unicellular pedicels in a series on the inner side of a
branch near the base. On other individuals were observed tetraspores,
not before known for the species. They were arranged similarly to the
monospores, but were larger and relatively broader, 28-34 & 17-27 u.
The division is in the form indicated by Rosenvinge, 1909, p. 85, as
characteristic of the genus, cruciate with the first division horizontal;

98 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

sometimes the division proceeds no farther, but usually a vertical
division occurs in one of the halves, often in both, but in the latter
case the divisions of the two are seldom in the same plane.

7. A. NEMALIONIS (De Not.) Bérgesen, 1915, p. 55; Chantransia
Nemalionis Rosenvinge, 1909, p. 126, figs. 53-54; Callithamnion
Nemalionis De Notaris in Erb. Critt. Ital., No. 952. Harrington
Sound, April, Collins, growing on Tamarisk branches which had bent
down until submerged. As in A. Sagraeanum the erect filaments
arise from a plexus of irregular horizontal filaments, but in A. Nema-
lionis the latter emit descending filaments which penetrate the host.
In the Bermuda plant these are less developed than in the European
plant growing on Nemalion, probably on account of the more resisting
character of the substratum of Tamarisk, as compared with Nemalion.

8. A. Thuretii (Bornet) comb. nov.; Chantransia Thuretit Kylin,
1907, p. 119, fig. 28; C. efflorescens forma Thuretit Bornet, 1904, p.
XVI. On Codiwm decorticatum, Cooper’s Island, Aug., Collins.
With monospores.

9. A. Hypneak Borgesen, 1915, p. 51, fig. 54; Chantransia Hypneae
Boérgesen, 1909, p. 2, fig. 2. On Ceramium clavulatum, in company
with A. crassipes, St. David’s Island, Feb., Hervey. With mono-
spores.

TrICHOGLOEA Kiitzing.

T. Hervey Setchell ms.; P.B.-A., No. 2034. In tide pools,
Gravelly Bay, March, April, Hervey; from low water mark to two
meters depth, near Cooper’s Island, April, May, Collins. Extremely
gelatinous, not calcified. Appearing in March, but not found after
midsummer.

HetmintHocrapia J. G. Agardh.

H. catvaposit (Lamour.) Setchell in P. B.-A., No. 2035; Dumontia
calvadosii Lamouroux in Duby, 1830, p. 941; Nemalion purpureum
Harvey, 1846-51, Pl. CLXI; Helminthocladia purpurea J. G. Agardh,
1851, p. 414. Bailey’s Bay, Feb., Castle Harbor, March, Wadsworth;
Dingle Bay, March, North Shore, April, Old Ferry Road, April,
Hervey; Tucker’s Town, St. David’s Island, Long Bird Island, April,
Collins. Specimens in Kemp herbarium, marked Helminthora diwari-
cata and Helminthocladia divaricata both belong here. On _ stones
from half tide down, not uncommon in quiet water; antheridia and

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 99
eystocarps in April. Prof. Setchell has called our attention to Lamou-
roux’s name which considerably antedates the Harveyan name in

general use.

Liacora Lamouroux.

1. Not calcified. 4, L. pectinata.
1. Calcified. 2.
2. Very soft and gelatinous. 3. L. pulverulenta.
2. Firmer. 3).
3. Caleareous coating continuous and smooth. 1. L. valida.

3. Calcareous coating loose, penetrated by assimilative filaments.
2. L. elongata.

1. L. vatipa Harvey, 1853, p. 138, Pl. XXXI. A; Bérgesen,
1915, p. 70, figs. 71-75; P.B.-A., No. 1929. Rein; Kemp; St.
David’s Island, Feb., April, Buildings Bay, April, Hervey; Cooper’s
Island, April, Aug., Collins. The most common of the Bermuda
species of Iiagora, and generally easily recognized by the continuous
calcareous coating and firm, little gelatinous consistency. It occurs
in its best condition just below low water mark, but may extend up
nearly to high water mark. In many places it forms a continuous
zone between tide marks, the individual plants short and stunted,
mostly chalky white. When growing in more favorable conditions
a pinkish shade shows through the coating more or less.

2. L. ELonGaATA Zanardini, 1851, p. 35; 1858, p. 274, Pl. VI, fig. 1;
Borgesen, 1915, p. 67, figs. 67-70; P. B.-A., No. 2088; L. corymbosa
J. G. Agardh, 1896, p. 104. Kemp, July, unnamed specimen in herb.;
Miss Wilkinson; Gates Bay, Buildings Bay, March, St. David’s
Island, May, Hervey; Cooper’s Island, Aug., Collins. Cystocarps
in March. Not as variable as other species of the genus, and usually
recognized easily by the light purple-brown color, the light and loose
calcification, and the long, rather distantly dichotomous fronds, of
nearly uniform diameter. L. corymbosa, according to J. G. Agardh,
1896, p. 104, “ Hab. ad littora Floridae et insulas Bermudas.” Speci-
mens agreeing fairly well with Agardh’s description were collected at
Castle Harbor by Wadsworth, March, 1890; at Tobacco Bay, March
11, 1914, Hervey; but it is impossible to separate them from L.
elongata. As to characters derived from internal structure used by
Agardh in his treatment of the genus, |. c., we have not been able to
apply them, as we find them inconstant. He divides Liagora into
two subgenera, Huliagora and Goralia, the former with an inner layer

&e

100 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

of longitudinal filaments, subdistant, large and small intermixed, the
outer usually small, the fascicles of the cortical layer free from each
other except as united by the general gelatinous coating. In Goralia
the larger filaments of the inner layer are densely packed, the smaller
being on the surface only, the fascicles of the cortical layer adherent
and confluent. ZL. pulverulenta is placed in Euliagora, L. valida in
Goralia; but in both species as they occur in Bermuda we have found
large central filaments branching and producing smaller filaments,
with no definite position in the central strand; generally the cortical
fascicles are borne on the smaller filaments of the central strand,
but not infrequently on the larger ones. The density of the cortical
fascicles and their mutual adhesion or freedom seem to depend largely
on age or activity of growth; they often vary much in the same in-
dividual.

3. L. PULVERULENTA Agardh, 1822, p. 396; Bérgesen, 1915, p. 80,
figs. 87-92; P.B.-A., No. 1928. Miss Peniston; Castle Harbor,
Harrington Sound, Cooper’s Island, March, Wadsworth; St. David’s
Island, Feb., May, Tobacco Bay, March, Hervey; Cooper’s Island,
Shelly Bay, April, Collins. Very soft and gelatinous, collapsing into
a shapeless jelly when taken from the water, but not difficult to ar-
range in natural form on paper if dried without pressure or with very
slight pressure.

L. pectinata sp. nov. Fronde submolli, ecalecarea, rubro-purpurea,
ad 20 cm. alta; ramis primariis inferne nudis vel ramulis paucis
brevibus munitis, superne ramos gerentibus frequentes breves, alter-
nantes vel secundatos, ramulos similes gerentes; ramis et ramulis
omnibus, primariis exceptis, plus minusve sinuosis et curvatis, ultimis
patentibus, in- vel recurvatis, saepe pectinato-secundatis; apicibus
abrupte acutis. Strato axili, cirea 150y diam., filamentis dense
compactis; cellulis cirea 204 diam., 4-8 diam. longis; fasciculis
filamentorum assimilatori'um 600-800 4 longis, densis, aequilongis,
superficiem aequalem continuam frondis formantibus; filamentis
repetite dichotomis, cellulis inferioribus 5-7 uw diam., 5-8 diam. longis,
subeyclindricis; superioribus brevioribus, crassioribus, ovoideis;
terminalibus 8-10 u diam., 2-3 diam. longis, interdum pilos breves,
circa 4 diam., ferentibus. Fructificatione ignota.

Frond rather soft, without incrustation, dull red-purple, up to 20 em.
high; main branches naked below or with a few short ramuli, above
with numerous alternate or secund branches, bearing similar ramuli,
all but the main branches more or less sinuous and curved, the lesser
divisions patent, in- or recurved, often pectinately secund; all tapering

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 101

suddenly to an acute point. Central strand about 150 yw diam., of
closely packed filaments, cells about 20 diam., 4-8 diam. long;
fascicles of assimilative filaments 600—S00 » long, dense, even-topped,
making a continuous smooth surface to the frond; filaments many
times dichotomous, lower cells 5-7 uw diam., 5-8 diam. long, subeylin-
drieal; upper cells shorter, stouter, more ovoid; end cells 8-104
diam., 2-3 diam. long, occasionally with a short hair, about 4 u diam.
Fructification unknown. Cooper’s Island, April, Hervey.

The peripheral filaments do not arise directly from the cells of the
central strand; at the summit of one of these cells a short conical or
ovoid cell is formed, from which radiate the basal filaments of several
peripheral fascicles; these filaments are usually straight and un-
branched for 200-400 yu, then dichotomous. The substance is softer
than in L. valida, not as soft as in L. pulverulenta. The reference to
the genus Liagora is from the structural characters; we have found
no fruit. As is well known, the amount of calcification varies much in
the different species, but there is only one species recorded practically
free from lime, L. dubia (Bory) Bornet in De Toni, 1905, p. 1628;
Cladostephus dubius Bory, 1832, p. 331, Pl. XXXVIIbis, fig. 6.
Little is known of this species beyond Bory’s plate and description,
but it seems to be quite distinct from the present species.

Famity CHAETANGIACEAE.

ScinatA Bivona.

S. COMPLANATA (Collins) Cotton, 1907, p. 260; Setchell, 1914, p.
100, Pl. XI, figs. 19-22; S. furcellata var. complanata Collins, P. B.-A.,
No. 836; 1906, p. 110. Farlow. A single specimen in the Farlow
herbarium is the only representative of the species and genus that we
have seen from Bermuda; as the segregation of the forms till recently
included under S. furcellata has only just been made, it is impossible
to locate the S. furcellata recorded by Moseley, “a single specimen
dredged.”

GaALAxaurRA Lamouroux.
Representatives of this genus are common all around the islands,

but the distinguishing of species is very difficult. We note below five
species in regard to which we feel some confidence, but we have many

102 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

collections that cannot be placed under any of them, and to which
we do not venture to give names. Kjellman, 1900, gives full descrip-
tions of many species founded by him on material in Scandinavian
herbaria, but without descriptions of older species, and with little
indication of the distinguishing characteristics between the latter and
his new species. Howe, 1917, shows that in one case what Kjellman
considers as two sections of the genus are really sexual and asexual
forms of the same species. Beside the five species listed below, we
can only say that we have also forms resembling G. fasciculata Kjellm.,
G. ramulosa Kjellm., and G. fruticulosa Kjellm. Moseley reports
G. rugosa and G. lapidescens, from both of which species, as formerly
understood, Kjellman segregated new species. Rein reports G. fas-
ligiata, but we have not been able to see a specimen.

G. FLAGELLIFORMIS Kjellman, 1900, p. 47, Pl. IL, figs. 2-11; PI.
XX, fig. 16; Bérgesen, 1916, p. 93, figs. 99-101. Castle Island, Feb.,
Hervey.

G. squaLIpA Kjellman, 1900, p. 55, Pl. VI, figs. 1-12; Pl. XX, fig. 9;
Borgesen, 1916, p. 102, figs. 108-111; P.B.-A., No. 1882. Harris
Bay and other points on the South Shore, at all seasons. In pools
from half tide to low water, in dense tufts or often a much branched
individual plant, about 10 em. high, varying much in smoothness,
firmness, and in density of branching; a favorite host for many species
of small algae.

G. cytinprica (Ell. & Sol.) Lamouroux, 1821, p. 22, Pl. XXII,
fig. 4; Kjellman, 1900, p. 64, Pl. VIII, figs. 34-42; Pl. XX, fig. 53;
Borgesen, 1916, p. 106; Corallina cylindrica Ellis & Solander, 1786,
p. 114, Pl. XXII, fig. 4. Miss Wilkinson, a single specimen, without
exact locality.

G. MARGINATA (Ell. & Sol.) Lamouroux, 1816, p. 264; Kjellman,
1900, p. 77, Pl. XX, fig. 44; Bérgesen, 1916, p. 106, figs. 115-117;
Corallina marginata Ellis & Solander, 1786, p. 115, Pl. XX, fig. 6;
Brachycladia marginata P. B.-A., No. 1930. Near low water mark,
Gravelly Bay, Jan., Hervey; at and below low water mark, Cooper’s
Island, Aug., Collins.

G. oprusaTAa (Ell. & Sol.) Lamouroux, 1816, p. 262; Kjellman,
1900, p. 88; P. B.-A., No. 1881; Corallina obtusata Ellis & Solander,
1876, p. 113, Pl. XXII, fig. 2. Faxon; Tucker’s Town, Feb., Dec.;
Walsingham, April, Hervey. Varies much in amount of calcification,
which sometimes is entirely lacking. Usually there is not a gradual
diminution of the amount of calcification, often the lower part of a
frond is thickly calcified, this part sharply marked off from the upper
part, quite uncalcified.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 103

Famity GELIDIACEAE.
WRANGELIA Agardh.

W. PENIcILLATA Agardh, 1828, p. 1388; Harvey, 1853, p. 148, PI.
XXXIV. B; Bérgesen, 1916, p. 120, figs. 131-132; P. B-A., No. 1883.
Rein; Kemp; Merriman, No. 5; Harris Bay, Jan., Castle Harbor,
March, Tucker’s Town, May, Harrington Sound near Flatts Bridge,
Dec., Hervey; Shelly Bay, washed ashore, Hungry Bay, Nov., young
plants only; dredged in 18 m. Noy., Collins. Abundant and luxuriant
near Flatts Bridge from Dec. to Feb., seldom seen during the summer
months.

Naccartia Endlicher.

N. corymsosa J. G. Agardh, 1899, p. 109; P. B.-A., No. 2036.
Cooper’s Island, Feb., Farlow; Buildings Bay, April, Hervey. Bornet,
1892, p. 266, incidentally refers to Farlow’s specimens as V. Wigghii;
comparison with the type specimen of NV. corymbosa from Key West,
in Agardh’s herbarium, shows that the Bermuda plant is the same.
Whether the differences between the American and the European
plant are specific may require further study.

GELIDIUM Lamouroux.

1. Basal layer well developed; erect shoots seldom over 2 cm. high.
4. GQ. pusillum.

1. Basal layer scanty or wanting; erect shoots 5-50 cm. high. 2:
2. Frond compressed or flat throughout, pinnate. 1. G. corneum.
2. Frond terete, at least in the lower part. 3.

3. Fruit in ovate terminal expansions. 2. G. crinale.

3. Fruit in terminal expansions of irregular form, the edges dentate or

ciliate. 3. G. spathulatum.

1. G. corneum (Huds.) Lamouroux, 1813, p. 41; Fucus corneus
Hudson, 1798, p. 585; Turner, 1819, p. 146, Pl. CCLVII, fig. a.
Kemp, June, July. Two specimens in the Kemp herbarium resemble
ordinary European forms; one is marked “var. k, abnorme Harvey”
but is hardly like the figure in Turner for that variety. We have not
ourselves found anything we should refer to this species.

2. G. cRINALE (Turn.) Lamouroux, 1825, p. 191; P. B.-A., No.

104 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

2089; Fucus crinalis Turner, 1819, p.4, Pl. CXCVIII. North Village,
Dingle Bay, Jan., Hervey. A slender, irregularly branching form;
the erect filaments are more flattened than in the common northern
forms, and the branching is scanty, but there seems to be no better
place for it than here.

3.-:G. SPATHULATUM (Kiitz.) Bornet, 1892, p. 268; G. crinale
var. spathulatum Hauck, 1885, p. 193, fig. 84; Acrocarpus spathulatus
Kiitzing, 1868, p. 13, Pl. XXXVI, d-g. Harrington Sound, Feb.,
Hervey. Resembles G. crinale, but the upright fronds are terete ex-
cept at the summit, where they are suddenly flattened; in the fruiting
specimens numerous short branches arise here, making a tubercular
mass, but always showing a distinct flattening.

4, G. pusILium (Stack.) Le Jolis, 1863, p. 139; RepeAe , No. 2182;
Fucus pusillus Stackhouse, 1795, p. 16, Pl. VI. North Short Jane,
Nov., Tucker’s Town, Feb., Hervey; above and below Flatts ade
April, May, Aug., Collins. Tetraspores in March, April, Nov. Very
common on pebbles, shells and flat rock bottom in shallow quiet
water all about the islands, forming a dense mat, usually not over
one cm. in thickness, the creeping basal part and the lower part of
the upright growth terete, the upper part flat. As we understand
this species, it includes G. pulvinatum (Kiitz.) Thuret, and G. repens
Kiitz. Forms corresponding to Kiitzing’s plates of both of these, as
well as to typical G. pusillum, are found in Bermuda material, with
all intermediate forms.

Var. concuicoLta Piccone & Grunow in Piccone, 1884, p. 316,
P. B.-A., No. 2183, is a reduced form, common on small shells in
shallow water; the upright fronds seldom reach 5 mm. high; they
are mostly flat for their entire length, and only sparingly branched.
But the same form occurs also on stones, and every intermediate can
be found up to plants with erect fronds, 2 cm. high. Forms which
we refer to G. pusillum occasionally occur in which the terete stipe
expands into a flat frond, up to 5 em. long and 3-5 mm. wide. This
is very different in appearance from the usual form, but it intergrades
so that it and var. conchicola must be regarded as extreme forms of a
very variable species.

WuRDEMANNIA Harvey.

W. sEeTacea Harvey, 1853, p. 246; P. B.-A., No. 1887. A very
common plant in quiet shallow water, all about the islands and
dredged down to 18 m. It is quite variable in size, amount of rami-

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 105

fication ete. It often forms dense mats, attached to the substratum
by frequent rhizoids; at other times only the bases of the filaments
are attached, the upper part forming loose tufts. Cystocarps and
antheridia are unknown, tetraspores seldom occur, but were found in
plants collected at Smith’s Bay, Nov., Hervey. Short much branched
forms might be mistaken for Gelidium, but on sectioning, the absence
of the fine descending rhizoidal filaments of the internal layer is a
sufficient distinction. Gelidiopsis gracilis Vickers, Algues de la .
Barbade, No. 126, seems to be this species; we have compared her
specimen with an authentic specimen of W. setacea from the Harvey
herbarium, and both with Bermuda material, and can find no differ-
ences.

Famity GIGARTINACEAE.

GIGARTINA Stackhouse.

G. ACICULARIS (Wulf.) Lamouroux, 1813, p. 48; Harvey, 1846-51,
Pl. CIV; P. B.-A., No. 1884; Fucus acicularis Wulfen, 1803, p. 63.
Kemp, June, as G. Teedii; Burchell’s Cove, Feb., Gravelly Bay,
April, Tucker’s Town, March, May, Dec., Hervey; pool near Moore’s
calabash tree, April, Collins. Forming a somewhat matted coating
on floors of caves or on bottoms of pools.

KattyMEnNIA J. G. Agardh.

K. perForata J. G. Agardh, 1871, p. 9; 1876, p. 219. Washed
ashore, Cooper’s Island, Feb., Farlow. There is much variability
as to the amount of perforation; some fronds 6-7 cm. diam. are quite
imperforate, while others, no larger, are little more than a network.

Famity RHODOPHYLLIDACEAE.

CATENELLA Greville.

C. Opuntia (Good. & Woodw.) Grev. var. PINNATA (Harv.) J. G.
Agardh, 1876, p. 588; Alg. Am.-Bor. Exsice., No. 149; P. B.-A., No.
1885; C. pinnata Harvey, 1853, p. 201, Pl. XXIX. B. Common
between tide marks in quiet waters all about the islands, on ground,

106 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

rocks and mangroves, usually in company with Caloglossa Leprieurii,
species of Bostrychia, Cladophoropsis membranacea and the like.
Cystocarps were found on plants collected near Flatts Bridge in
August, Collins. The pinnate branching is usually quite manifest,
but occasionally plants are found where it is not at all conspicuous;
these are quite close to the typical C. Opuntia of Europe.

MerisToTHeca J. G. Agardh.

M. Ducuassatnem J. G. Agardh, 1871, p. 36; 1879, Pl. XXXI,
figs. 1-38. A single specimen among other algae collected March 4,
1911, Hervey, without exact locality. Evidently not common in
Bermuda, as this one specimen, about 2 em. high, is all that is recorded.
It grows to a considerable size along the coast from Florida to North
Carolina, specimens from Beaufort, N. C., reaching a length of 4 dm.
It is usually very rough with short, stiff proliferations on the surface
and margin, but occasionally it occurs quite smooth, when it is not so
easily recognized. The difference is not one of maturity, as large
smooth plants are found as often as small ones.

Evucueuma J. G. Agardh.

1. Fronds flattened. 1. E. Gelidium.
1. Fronds stout, subterete, very spinous. 2. E. denticulatum.

1. E. Gewipium J. G. Agardh, 1851, p. 627; 1876, p. 602; P. B.-A.,
No. 2184; Sphaerococcus Gelidium Kiitzing, 1869, Pl. XX. St.
David’s Island, Feb., Hervey, a few small plants only; South Shore,
April, Collins.

2. E. denticulatum (Burm. f.) comb. nov.; E. spinosum J. G.
Agardh, 1847, p. 16; E. wstforme Harvey, 1853, p. 118, Pl. XXIV;
P. B.-A., No. 1886; Fucus denticulatus N. L. Burman, 1768, p. 28;
F. spinosus Linnaeus, 1771, p. 313; Turner, 1808, Pl. XVIII. Rein;
Moseley; April, May, June, Kemp; March, Wadsworth; Tucker,
No. 14; Castle Harbor, Jan., Farlow; Bailey’s Bay, Mrs. Hastings
in Farlow herb.; Bailey’s Bay, Jan., Gibbet Island, Jan., Cooper’s
Island, April, Devonshire Bay, Harris Bay, Dec., Hervey; Gravelly
Bay, Tucker’s Town, April, Aug., Collins. As may be inferred from
the list of stations and collectors, this plant is plentiful and attractive.
The living plant is of a dull red, and if prepared without exposure to

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 107

sun or air, the color darkens, sometimes becoming nearly black. But
if the plant has grown where it is exposed to the full sunshine or if it
has been exposed long to the air, the red becomes lighter and clearer,
and later takes on a yellow shade. Exposure to the air for several
days, if not in full sunshine, gives handsome color without disinte-
grating or decomposing the plant, if quite fresh when collected. It
occurs in all sizes from 5 to 50 em. high, and varies much in diameter
of frond, frequency and regularity of branches, and especially as to the
frequency, position and form of the conical or spinous ramuli. In
the typical form these ramuli are arranged in whorls, distinctly
separated, but forms occur, especially in old and large individuals,
in which this whorled arrangement is hardly perceptible. The same
differences occur in this species as found on the Florida coast, where it
is common. At some stations in Bermuda a form occurs which we
have not seen elsewhere; the frond is not over 10 em. high, is relatively
slender, but is so densely and so repeatedly branched that no trace of
regularity is seen. This form was collected by Wadsworth in 1890,
and has been found by us each year we have collected here. The
American plant was described by Agardh, 1822, p. 271, as Sphaero-
coccus isiformis; J. G. Agardh, 1847, p. 16, proposed the new genus
Eucheuma, including this and other species of Sphaerococcus, and the
name has been continued since that time. Comparing the original
description of Sphaerococcus isiformis with the species following, S.
spinosus, the only distinctions of importance are, first that the former
is described as “cartilagineo-gelatinosa’”’ the latter as “ gelatinoso-
cartilaginea’’; second, the former “papillulis ramorum verticillatis,”
the latter “papillulis solitariis, vel binis ternisve.” The question of
the distinctness of the two species was raised by Sonder, 1871, p. 60;
under E. spinosum he notes that he found it with long, naked branches,
also beset with papillae, either scattered or whorled. This alga is
sold as an article of food in eastern countries, and most of the speci-
mens that had then reached Europe were coarse forms obtained in
the markets. J. G. Agardh, 1876, p. 601, referring to Sonder’s criti-
cism, says “Quae potissimum conveniunt, E. spinosum atque E. 1si-
forme, stadio fructifero omnino diversae obvenerunt.”’ But we find
on E. isiforme fruit of the character attributed by him to EF. spinosum,
as well as that attributed to E. isiforme. Later, 1892, p. 12, in a
revision of the genus, he uses vegetative characters, giving as the
reason that the cystocarps were unknown to him on many of the
species. Under E. spinosum he says “Icon Turneri tab. 18 pro suo
tempore egregia.” E. isiforme he considers as represented by Harvey’s

108 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

plate, 1853, Pl. XXIV, and the specimens distributed as Alg. Am.-Bor.
Exsice., No. 12. Turner’s plate of Fucus spinosus was drawn from
the specimen in the Linnean herbarium, and represents the type of
the species. It has papillae partly whorled, partly scattered; there
would be no trouble in matching it from Bermuda material, while
Harvey’s plate is quite typical of the ordinary, well developed plant.
We think we are justified in discontinuing the name F. isiforme.
But on referring to the original description of Fucus spinosus, Linnaeus,
1771, p. 313, we find that he gives as synonym “ F. denticulatus Burm.
prodr. 28’’.18 Referring to that page we find the description “Caule
compresso ramoso ramis dentato-geniculatis ramulosis subdicho-
tomis.” This, with the reference by Linnaeus, necessitates the new
binomial we have used.

We have examined specimens from the Cape of Good Hope, Singa-
pore and the Sunda Islands, quite indistinguishable from the American
plant.

Famity SPHAEROCOCCACEAE.

GELIDIOPSIS Schmitz.

G. ricipa (Vahl) Weber, 1904, p. 9; P. B.-A., No. 2090; Gelidiwm
rigidum var. radicans Alg. Am.-Bor. Exsice., No. 142; Fucus rigidus
Vahl, 1802, p. 46. Forms dense mats at and below low water mark,
generally coarse and unattractive.

GRACILARIA Greville.

1. Fronds stout, prostrate, attached to the substratum. 8. G. horizontalis.

1. Frond erect. 2.
2. Frond plane. 3.
2. Frond terete or compressed. 4,

3. Frond membranaceous, dichotomous, axils wide and rounded, apices

obtuse. 7. G. dichotomo-flabellata.

3. Frond cartilaginous, axils acute, divisions tapering, acute.
6. G. multipartita.
4. Branches long, filiform, slender. 1. G. confervoides.

4. Branches not filiform. 3.

13 There is an error in the paging of this work; the pages run 1-28, then
25, 26, 27, 28, and thereafter correctly; the present reference is to the second
p. 28.

©
z

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 109

on

Frond coarse, stout, branches mostly short and blunt. 5. G. Wrightii.

Frond less stout; many short, acute branches. 6.
6. Branching corymbose; short acute branches near summit.

4. G. damaecornis.

6. Short acute branches throughout. ie

Frond pyramidal, branchlets dense, erect. 2. ‘G.jerox.

Frond irregular, delicate, branches scattered, patent. 3. G. divaricata.

on

~I -~J

1. G. conFeRVOIDEs (L.) Greville, 1830, p. 121; Harvey, 1846-51,
Pl. LXV; Fucus confervoides Linnaeus, 1763, p. 1629. Kemp, a
single plant of typical character; another specimen, marked G. com-
pressa, is probably also G. confervoides.

2. G. rerox J. G. Agardh, 1851, p. 592; 1876, p. 414; P. B.-A.,
No. 1932. Faxon; In shallow water, Moseley; Kemp; Rein, as G.
armata; Dingle Bay, Inlet, Heron Bay, Jan., Grasmere, March,
Hervey; Grasmere, Aug., Collins. Several species of the general
appearance of G. ferox have been described, and it is by no means
easy toseparate them. There is a good deal of variety in the Bermuda
forms we have included under this name, but they seem to agree in
the terete but apparently distichously branched frond, with short
acute branches, subsecundly placed. We have found it quite com-
mon in warm shallow water, such as the lagoons near Grasmere and
Fairyland. -

3. G. pivaricaTa Harvey, 1853, p. 109. Mrs. S. A. Boggs;
Bailey’s Bay, Feb., Wadsworth; reported by Kemp, but no specimen
found in his herbarium. The two specimens we have seen agree
well with Harvey’s description, and there seems no other place for
them. The habit is much like that of Ochtodes filiformis J. Ag., and
the latter species, from Jamaica, was erroneously distributed as G.
divaricata in P. B.-A., No. 789. The Ochtodes has an articulated fila-
mentous axis which is not found in Gracilaria.

4. G. DAMAECORNIS J. G. Agardh, 1851, p. 597; 1876, p. 415. In
shallow water, Grasmere, Aug., Collins; Miss Wilkinson. As we
understand this species, it is stouter than G. feror, drying very hard
and firm; the branching is more regularly dichotomous, the ramuli
short and subulate, near the ends of the branches. We have found
it once only, when it grew among G. ferox, but could be distinguished
from the latter by its appearance, even as seen from the boat.

5. G. Wricuti (Turn.) J.G. Agardh, 1851, p. 599; Fucus Wrighti
Turner, 1811, Pl. CXLVIII; including G. Poitei J. G. Agardh, 1851,
p- 596 and G. cornea J. G. Agardh, 1851, p. 598. Castle Harbor,
Feb., Farlow; Elbow Bay, Dec., Collins. We have carefully examined

110 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

a large amount of material from the Florida-West India region,
including specimens determined by J. G. Agardh, and can find no
line of demarcation between the three species mentioned. Fucus
Poitei Lamouroux, 1805, Pl. XXX, figs. 2-3, antedates F. Wrightii,
but now proves to be a Laurencia, and the next oldest name is Turner’s
which we adopt. It includes most of the coarse, fleshy or cartilagi-
nous Gracilarias of the warmer Atlantic; probably always terete when
alive, but often appearing compressed in herbarium material. It is
not common at Bermuda.

6. G. muttrpartira (Clem.) Harvey, 1846-51, Pl. XV; Fucus
multipartitus Clementi, 1804, p. 311. Kemp, July, two specimens
in herb.; Building’s Bay, Feb., one small frond, Hervey.

7. G. DICHOTOMO-FLABELLATA Crouan in Mazé & Schramm, 1870-
77, p. 218. Mrs. Boggs, 1895; St. David’s Island, Feb., May, South
Shore, April, Hervey; tetraspores in May. This species varies con-
siderably in color and texture, from thin membranaceous and clear
red to subcartilaginous and brownish. In the former case the shape
and subdivision of the frond are indicated by the specific name;
in the latter the division is more irregular. The Bermuda plant as a
rule has a thinner frond and narrower segments than the Florida
material distributed as P. B.-A., No. 334. We were at first inclined
to identify this plant with G. Textorii (Suringar) Hariot, 1891, p. 223,
Sphaerococcus Textorii Suringar, 1870, p. 36, Pl. XXIII, and a speci-
men from Province Boshu, Japan, for which we are indebted to the
kindness of Dr. K. Yendo, has much resemblance to the Bermuda
plant. But the plant figured by Okamura, 1901, p. 65, Pl. XXIII,
and distributed in his Algae Japonicae Exsiccatae No. 13, differs
considerably, having a habit more like the common little divided forms
of Rhodymenia palmata. Our plant agrees with Crouan’s species,
as represented by an authentic specimen in the Museum d'Histoire
Naturelle, at Paris, and it has seemed to us better on the whole to
retain for the present Crouan’s name, under which the plant had
already been distributed in P. B.-A. J. G. Agardh, 1889, p. 25, refers
to G. dichotomo-flabellata as a possible synonym of Chrysymenia haly-
mentoides Harvey, mentioning Chrysymenia dichotomo-flabellata Crouan
as perhaps the same; the latter has been distributed as P. B.-A., No.
385; it is probable that it is, as suggested by J. G. Agardh, a form of
Chrysymenia halymenioides, but the plant distributed as P. B.-A.,
Nos. 334 & 1931 is certainly a Gracilaria. The following short diag-
nosis, in connection with the material distributed as P. B.-A., Nos. 334,
1931, will probably give a sufficient idea of the species.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. a

Gracilaria dichotomo-flabellata Crouan in Mazé & Schramm,
Algues de la Guadeloupe, p. 218, without description.. A disco parvo,
stipite brevi subtereti vel compresso, mox in frondem planam regulari-
ter dichotomam abeunte, segmentis linearibus 5 mm. ad 2 em. latis,
apicibus obtusis vel truncatis; avxillis latis, rotundatis; substantia
membranacea, juniore tenuiore, adultiore crassiore et firmiore; colore
laete- vel fusco-rubro; tetrasporangiis sparsis; cystocarpiis magnis,
ad superficiem utrinque sparsis.

8. G. horizontalis sp. nov. Fronde a disco centrali irregulari
horizontaliter expansa, ramis quoquoversum exeuntibus, subteretis,
crassis, ramos ferentibus densissimos, minime attenuatos; cellulis
interioribus magnis, corticem versus minoribus, cortice submonostro-
matico, cellularum minutarum coloratarum. Fructificatione ignota.

Frond expanding horizontally from a central irregular disk, emit-
ting on all sides very densely set branches, tapering very little; inte-
rior cells large, becoming smaller towards the submonostromatic
cortex, which is formed of small colored cells. Fructification unknown.

The habit is unique in the genus; the plant seems to creep over the
bottom of the pool in which it grows, much in the same way as do the
haptera of a Laminaria; the tips of the branches, or short projec-
tions on the margins or lower surface, adhering to the substratum quite
firmly. Ifa young but vigorous frond of Laminaria were cut off at
the base of the stipe, just at the level of the upper haptera, the remain-
ing basal part would give a good idea of the appearance of this species.
Plants growing together are almost inextricably entangled, and even
when a plant is not in contact with others, it is difficult to detach it.
The substance is tough and cartilaginous, the color of the more or
less wrinkled surface is dull yellowish brown, but the lower part, not
exposed to the light, is of the clear purplish red found in other species
of Gracilaria. It was found in rock pools at low water mark at
Gravelly Bay, Aug. 27, 1913, Collins. Type in Collins herb., No.
7818. Since found at the same station in Feb. and April, at Harris
Bay, April, Hervey.

Hypnea Lamouroux.

1. Branches long, virgate, often with hooked tips. 1. H. musciformis.
1. Branches not virgate, no hooked tips. 2.
2. Forming a low, dense, matted expansion. 3. H. spinella.

2. Erect fronds from a matted base, slender, with patent ramuli.
2. H. cervicornis.

1 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

1. H. muscrrormis (Wulf.) Lamouroux, 1813, p. 43; Hauck,
1885, p. 188, fig. 81; P. B.-A., No. 2185; Fucus musciformis Wulfen
in Jacquin, 1789, p. 154, Pl. XIV, fig. 3. Rein; Kémp; Miss
Peniston; Dingle Bay, Bailey’s Bay, Jan., St. David’s Island, Feb.,
Grasmere, March, Buildings Bay, Heron Bay, April, Hervey;
Hungry Bay, April, Cooper’s Island, Aug., Collins. Generally dis-
tributed; the well developed plants with long, virgate branches,
beset with short ramuli, and with tips hooked, are not to be mis-
taken for anything else, but young and stunted forms are hard to
distinguish from other species of the genus.

Wulfen’s type was from Trieste, where he found the plant growing
on crabs for sale in the fish market. His plate is excellent, and shows
a slender form with filiform ramuli, often with constricted bases. We
have seen similar plants from the Mediterranean and the Adriatic,
and on the American shore from Cape Cod to Florida and the West
Indies. A form different in appearance has been distributed by
Bornet, collected at Biarritz; it is stouter, the ramuli shorter and
more patent, and mostly with distinctly wider base, in dried specimens
often like rose thorns; hooked tips are very rare in this form, common
in the other. This form we have seen from various parts of the At-
lantic coast of France, and on the American coast from Beaufort,
N. C., to Florida and the West Indies. The two extreme forms are
distinct in appearance, though less characteristic forms can be found.
Sterile plants can be found in both, but as far as we have observed,
eystocarpic plants usually have all the ramuli of the thorn-like type,
always some ramuli of this form; while tetrasporic plants have the
filiform ramuli with base ultimately constricted. The appearance
of the two types is so different that in Agardh’s treatment of the genus,
1851, p. 441, the former would come under Sect. I, Virgatae, “ ramulis
adultioribus basi constrictis,”’ the other, p. 446, Sect. Spinuligerae,
“ramulis subulatis, a basi latiore acuminatis.’”” Both forms occur in
Bermuda.

2. H. cervicornis J. G. Agardh, 1851, p. 451; 1876, p. 564. Miss
Peniston; Old Ferry, April, Hervey. This lacks the hooked apices
of H. musciformis, and is a more slender and more densely branched
plant; but the line between the two species is by no means clear.

3. H. sprnetua (Ag.) J. G. Agardh, 1847, p. 14; Sphaerococcus
spinellus Agardh, 1822, p. 323. Cave by Gravelly Bay, Apr., Hervey.
Forming a dense, inextricable mat on rocks, usually 1—2 em. thick.

There is probably no genus of red algae of this region the species of
which are so poorly defined, and the plants so little characteristic, as

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. Ls

Hypnea. Well developed plants of H. musciformis are easily recog-
nized, but practically everything else is vague and doubtful, and our
determinations of other species are only tentative. In regard to the
smaller forms, it seems as if no two authors used the same name for
the same plant, and even the best authors are often inconsistent with
themselves. For instance, J. G. Agardh, 1876, p. 564, under H. cervi-
cornis, refers to H. spinella Kiitzing, 1868, Pl. XX VI, as a synonym;
under H. spinella (Ag.) J. Ag., on the next page, he refers to the same
plate. We have collections of Hypnea from several stations to which
we do not feel willing to give specific names. H. cornuta reported by
Moseley proves to be Chondria polyrhiza Collins & Hervey.

Famity RHODYMENIACEAE.

CorDyLEcLaDIA J. G. Agardh.

C. rigens (Ag.) comb. nov.; P. B.-A., No. 2186; C.? irregularis
Harvey, 1853, p. 156; Sphaerococcus rigens Agardh, 1822, p. 332;
Chylocladia rigens J. G. Agardh, 1851, p. 362. In dense matted tufts
between tide marks, Harrington Sound, Feb., Farlow; Fairyland,
Dec., Collins. Comparison with authentic specimen of Chylocladia
rigens shows the identity with Harvey’s species, and the fructification,
see Collins, 1901, p. 255, is that of Cordylecladia.

CHRYSYMENIA J. G. Agardh.

1. Frond with solid terete stipe and vesicular ramuli. 2.
1. Frond without solid stipe. 3.
2. Branches long, virgate, with spherical or ovoid ramuli. 4. C.uvaria.

2. Branches short, stout, with larger, pyriform ramuli. 5. C. pyriformis.
3. Frond tubular, branches proliferous with constricted base.
3. C. Enteromorpha.

3. Frond compressed, dichotomous or irregularly cleft. 4,
4. Frond slender, divisions linear. 2. C. halymenioides.
4. Frond broader, divisions lanceolate or ovate. 1. C. Agardhii.

1. C. Acarpui Harvey, 1853, p. 189, Pl. XXX. A. Cooper’s
Island, Feb., Farlow; shallow water, Moseley. Apparently rare, as

114 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

neither of us has found it. In Kemp’s list mention is made of Chylo-
cladia rosea. No specimen with that name is to be found in his
herbarium; the species is northern in its range, and not likely to occur
here; some forms of Chrysymenia Agardhit have habitual resemblance
to Chylocladia, and may have been the basis for this record.

2. CC. HALYMENIOIDES Harvey, 1853, p. 188, Pl. XX. A. One very
small plant, Moseley.

3. C. ENnTEROMoRPHA Harvey, 1853, p. 187. Dredged in 60
meters on Challenger Bank, Aug., 1903, Berm. Biol. Sta.

4. C. uvarta (L.) J. G. Agardh, 1842, p. 106; Harvey, 1853, p.
191, Pl. XX. B; P. B.-A., No. 1933; Fucus uvarius Linnaeus, 1767,
p. 714. Rein; Kemp; Moseley; Faxon; Walsingham, Jan., March,
Hervey, April, Collins. Appears to grow chiefly in sheltered places
among rocks, and may be more common than would appear from the
single locality in which we have found it.

5. C. PpyRIFoRMIS Borgesen, 1910, p. 187, figs. 8-9. A single,
well-developed plant, on the perpendicular wall of a “chasm” near
Tucker’s Town, below low water mark, April, Collins.

CoELARTHRUM Borgesen.

C. ALBERTISII (Piccone) Bérgesen, 1910, p. 189, figs. 11-12; P. B.-
A., No. 2091; Chylocladia Albertisit Piccone, 1884a, p. 37, figs. 3-5.
Attached to Corallines, Ducking Stool, Jan., Farlow; floating off
Cooper’s Island, Feb., Farlow; Miss Wilkinson; Shore of Gibbet
Island, Jan., Feb., North Shore, March, washed ashore, Buildings
Bay, Feb., Hervey; dredged in 18 m., Nov., Collins. This species
was founded on a single specimen collected at the Canaries, 1882;
a single specimen with the ms. name Chrysymenia Lomentaria Crouan
is in the Thuret herbarium at Paris; it was dredged once, in about
30 meters, in March, in the Danish West Indies; these are the
only records outside of Bermuda. In January and February small
plants are found among the roots of Sargassum, seldom over 1 cm.
high; the larger plants are found washed ashore, probably from
deep water. These plants were packed together in crisp masses,
with rounded surfaces, like the masses of Valonia macrophysa, but
on a smaller scale. No fruit was found on the specimens of our col-
lecting, but there were cystocarps on those collected by Farlow in
February, tetraspores on those collected by Bérgesen in March; both
are figured by Borgesen.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 115

LoMENTARIA Gaillon.

L. uncrnaTa Meneghini in Zanardini, 1840, p. 21; Farlow, 1881,
p- 154. Miss Wilkinson; Walsingham, Jan., Hervey. Rather small
plants.

Var. FILIFORMIS (Harv.) Farlow, 1881, p. 155; Chylocladia Bailey-
ana var. filiformis Harvey, 1853, p. 185, Pl. XX. C, fig. 2. Very
small plants among Polysiphonia macrocarpa, on mangroves, Hungry

Bay, May, Collins.

CHAMPIA Desvaux.

C. parvuta (Ag.) Harvey, 1853, p. 76; P. B.-A., No. 1934; Chon-
dria parvula Agardh, 1824, p. 207; Chylocladia parvula Harvey, 1846-
51, Pl. CCX. Gibbet Island, Jan., Heron Bay, April, Hervey; Gib-
bet Island, Sept., Fairyland, Dec., Collins. On Sargassum, Coel-
arthrum and other algae; mostly with tetraspores; small plants,
seldom over 3 em. high.

Famity DELESSERIACEAE.

NITOPHYLLUM Greville.

N. Wilkinsoniae sp. nov.; P. B.-A., No. 2037. Frondes usque
ad 10 cm. altae, dense di- polychotomae, divisionibus linearibus
cuneatisve, latitudine centimetrum raro superantibus; marginibus
dentes minutas ciliiformes plus minusve approximatas ferentibus;
venis nullis; fronde monostromatica, juniore 15 uw crassa, adultiore
usque ad 604; cellulis in superficiem visis irregulariter polygonis,
30-80 uw diam.; in sectione transversali junioribus elongatis, adultiori-
bus subquadratis. Tetrasporangiis tripartitis, ad 60 diam., soris
rotundatis vel elongatis per totam frondem sparsis, utrinque pro-
minulis; cystocarpiis ignotis; substantia tenuissima; fronde viva,
colore malvacea; emersa cito in aurantiacam mutata; siccata rosea.
Plate I, fig. 8, Plate II, fig. 9, Plate V, figs. 32-33.

Fronds up to 10 em. high, densely tufted, di- polychotomously
divided, divisions linear or cuneate, seldom over one cm. wide, margin
more or less densely set with small ciliform teeth; no veins; mono-
stromatic, 15 w thick in the younger part, up to 60 u in older parts;
cells regularly polygonal in superficial view, 30-80 » diam., in cross

116 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

section, elongate in younger, squarish in older parts. Tetraspores
tripartite, up to 60 w diam., densely packed in small roundish or oval
sori, generally distributed over the frond, slightly projecting on both
surfaces; cystocarps unknown. W. Faxon; Miss Wilkinson; Har-
rington Sound, Ducking Stool, Feb., Farlow; Dingle Bay, April,
eaves at Tucker’s Town, May, Collins. On rocks below low water
mark; forming dense masses, crisp when first taken from the water,
but soon softening into a shapeless mass. The branching is so dense
and the substance so tender that it is difficult to disentangle individual
plants. When growing the color is mauve, on exposure changing
almost instantaneously to orange; when mounted on paper lake or
rosy red. In habit like NV. marginatum Harvey, Ceylon Algae No. 26,
but that species lacks the ciliiform teeth, and has somewhat smaller |
cells but larger tetraspores, which are in less dense sori, and tend to
form a confluent marginal band. A specimen of N. venulosum Zan.,
from Trieste, leg. Hauck, also resembles NV. Wilkinsoniae, but has more
slender segments, less densely branched and tufted, and distinct
though microscopic veins.

Hypociossum Kiitzing.

H. hypoglossoides (Stack.) comb. noy.; H. Woodward: Kiitzing,
1843, p. 444, Pl. LXV, fig. 1; Delesseria Hypoglossum Harvey, 1846-
51, Pl. Il; Fucus hypoglossoides Stackhouse, 1795, p. 76, Pl. XIII.
Jan., 1912, a single specimen, without exact locality, Hervey. The
rather unfortunate combination we now use for the first time, appears
to be required by the international rules.

Catoatossa J. G. Agardh.

C. Leprigeurm (Mont.) J. G. Agardh, 1876, p. 499; P. B.-A., No.
2038; Delesseria Leprieurit Montagne, 1840a, p. 196, Pl. V, fig. 1;
Harvey, 1853, p. 98, Pl. XXII. C. Among other algae on mangroves
and other objects between tide marks, less commonly pure or nearly
so. Farlow; Burchell’s Cove, Feb., Ely’s Harbor, Dingle Bay,
April, Hervey; Hungry Bay, May, Collins. Tetraspores in April.
The Bermuda material corresponds to C. mnioides J. G. Agardh, 1876,
p. 500,'4 the segments being ovate, sometimes quite broadly so, and the

14 Later, 1898, p. 235, J. G. Agardh intimates that most of the described
species of the genus may be only forms, depending on locality. This appears
to be his latest expression of opinion on the subject.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 117

cells in the membrane narrowly rectangular, in quite distinct series
to the margin. Compared with the very narrow form from brackish
water at West Point, New York, the distinctness of species seems jus-
tified, but intermediate forms occur, some from Florida having as wide
segments as the Bermuda plant, but with polygonal or rhomboidal
cells in indistinct series. The variation can hardly be due to climate,
as a specimen of Miss Vickers, Algues de la Barbade, No. 144, has
fronds as narrow as in the plant of Long Island Sound and Hudson
River.
TarEniomMA J. G. Agardh.

T. PERPUSILLUM J. G. Agardh, 1863, p. 1257; T. macrowrum
Thuret in Bornet & Thuret, 1876, p. 69, Pl. XXV; P.B.-A., No.
1935; Polysiphonia perpusilla J. G. Agardh, 1847, p. 16. In a gela-
tinous mass among small algae, Gibbet Island, April, Hervey. Tetra-
spores were common in this material; a single mature cystocarp was
found, but unfortunately was lost before notes and figures could be
made.

Famity BONNEMAISONIACEAE.

ASPARAGOPSIS Montagne.

A. taxiformis (Delile) comb. nov.; A. Delilei Montagne, 1840, p.
XIV; Dasya Delilei Montagne, 1840, p. 166, Pl. VIII, fig. 6; Fucus
taxiformis Delile, 1813, p. 151, Pl. LVI, fig. 2. Merriman; Cooper’s
Island, Feb., Farlow. Apparently rare, as we have not met with it,
nor have we found it in any other collections than as above. As
Montagne refers to Fucus taxiformis Delile, but changes the specific
name to do more honor to the author, the original name must be
restored according to the international rules.

Famity RHODOMELACEAE.

LavuRENcIA Lamouroux.

1. Ultimate ramuli short, often tubercle-like. PP
1. Ultimate ramuli longer. 3:
2. Ultimate ramuli distant, simple. 2. L. Poitei.

2. Ultimate ramuli densely set, mostly lobed. 3. L. papillosa.

118 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

3. Frond decumbent, rooting, densely matted. 1. L. perforata.
3. Frond erect. 4,
4. Outline of frond and of main divisions narrowly pyramidal. 5.
4. Outline broader. 6.
5. Slender, 3 or 4 em. high. 5. L. obtusa var. gelatinosa.
5. Stout, 1-2 dm. high. 6. L. paniculata.
6. Branching mostly opposite or whorled. 5. L. obtusa.
6. Branching subdichotomous, corymbose. 4. L. cervicornis.

1. L. pErForAaTA Montagne, 1860, p. 155; Kiitzing, 1865, p. 18,
Pl. XLIX, figs. e-g; P. B.-A., No. 1889. Bailey’s Bay, Jan., Harris
Bay, Jan., Nov., Gravelly Bay, Oct., Hervey; Tucker’s Town, May,
South Shore, Aug., Collins. This species occurs not uncommonly in
caves and potholes, where it forms dense matted masses, the filaments
adhering to the rock and to each other by numerous holdfasts. The
surface of the mass sometimes has an iridescence of remarkable
brillianey, chiefly in metallic blues and greens. The iridescence is on
the upper surface only, and persists for a short time after the plant is
taken from the water.

2. L. Porrer (Lamour.) M. A. Howe, 1905, p. 583; L. tuberculosa
J. G. Agardh, 1852, p. 760; P. B.-A., No. 1937. L. gemmifera Harvey,
1853, p. 72, Pl. XVIII. B.; Fucus Powter Lamouroux, 1805, p. 63, PI.
XXXI, figs. 2-3. Harrington Sound, Farlow; Cooper’s Island, a
slender form, Wadsworth; Heron Bay, April, Hervey; Fairyland,
July, Collins. In warm shallow water, where it forms loose-lying
masses in warm weather. JL. tuberculosa has been described by J. G.
Agardh as “fronde compressa distiche decomposito-pinnata,”’ but it
may well be that the compression and distichous branching in Agardh’s
plant are due to the manner of preparation; the Bermuda plant has
no such characters.

3. L. pAPILLOSA (Forsk.) Greville, 1830, p. LIT; P. B.-A., No. 1936;
Fucus papillosus Forskil, 1775, p. 190. Castle Harbor, Farlow;
Harris Bay, Jan., Heron Bay, April, Hervey; Jew’s Bay, July,
Cooper’s Island, Harrington Sound, Aug., Collins. Quite common
and usually easily recognizable.

4, lL. cERVIcOoRNIS Harvey, 1853, p. 73, Pl. XVIII. C; P. B.-A.,
No. 2187. Wadsworth, No. 19; Miss Wilkinson; Cooper’s Island,
April, Aug.; dredged in 4 m., Dec., Collins; Buildings Bay, April,
St. David’s Island, May, Hervey. This species appears to be little
known to European botanists; De Toni, 1903, p. 781, gives it as a
synonym under L. implicata, but it is certainly not the L. «mplicata
of Harvey, 1853, p. 72, Pl. XVIII. D., fide authentic specimens. L.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 119

cervicornis has a frond of rounded outline, branching subdichotomous,
distant below, increasingly close upward; all branches, long or short,
are of about the same diameter, about that of the main axis of a
frond of L. obtusa, medium size. Proliferous ramuli, very short,
may be abundant or nearly or quite wanting. It is found in rather
sheltered stations, the color a somewhat deep and translucent red
in the living plant, growing darker in the mounted specimen. It
usually adheres fairly well to paper.

5. L. oprusa (Huds.) Lamouroux, 1813, p. 42; Harvey, 1846-51,
Pl. CXLVIII; P. B.-A., No. 2092; Fucus obtusus Hudson, 1798, p.
586. A very common and variable species, occurring nearly every-
where in quiet water, and often in somewhat exposed places, and
dredged to a depth of 18 m. The genus Laurencia is very puzzling;
though typical forms can be found of all the species, intermediate
‘forms are equally common, and it is very difficult to draw any sharp
lines. Of what may be considered the typical form of L. obtusa there
are two varieties, differing sharply in color, but not otherwise; one is
reddish or yellowish brown, lighter where exposed to sunshine, darker
below; the other a light, glaucous blue-green. They grow in similar
stations; often, as in the lower part of Harrington Sound, both are
found together, but as separate individuals or tufts; we have seen no
intermediate forms under these conditions.!® Beside the typical form,
two varieties may be noted.

Var. GRACILIS Kiitzing, 1865, p. 20, Pl. LIV, figs. ec and d; L. dasy-
phylla Kemp, in herb. A delicate, soft and slender form.

Var. GELATINOSA (Desf.) J. G. Agardh, 1852, p. 751; P. B.-A., No.
1888; Fucus gelatinosus Desfontaines, 1798, p. 427. Mrs. Hastings;
Spanish Rock, Jan., Gravelly Bay, March, Dec., Hervey. Tetraspores
in Jan. A low and slender form of exposed rocky shores; in spite of
its name it is firmer and less adherent to paper than L. obtusa,
typical. In connection with L. obtusa we have found forms near to
L. setacea Kiitzing, 1848, p. 854; L. intricata Kiitzing, 1865, Pl. LXI,
figs. a-c,® but they shade into the typical L. obtusa so plainly, and in no

15 It is of interest to note that practically the same forms occur at Naples;
see Falkenberg, 1901, p. 247. ‘‘Um Neapel, wo die Pflanze das ganze Jahr
hindurch zu den gemeinsten Formen gehért, kommt sie in zwei Varietiiten
vor, welche, im iibrigen gleich, durch ihre Farbung sich wesentlich unter-
scheiden, die eine ist gelbrothlich, die andere griinlich. Beide Formen treten
gesondert in unregelmiissig durch einander gewirrten Rasen an den gleichen
Standorten auf.”

16 L. intricata Lamouroux, 1813, p. 43, Pl. IX, figs. 8-9, is nomen nudum,
hence Kiitzing’s name of 1848 has priority.

120 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

case are they quite typical L. setacea, that it seems best to consider
them merely forms of the common and variable L. obtusa. A specimen
in the Farlow herbarium, collected by G. Tucker, No. 10, is near
L. implicata J. G. Agardh, 1852, p. 745, and a similar form was found
on the outer reef, Ely’s Harbor, July, Collins, and this also we have
considered as a local form of L. obtusa. This form is found rather
commonly when dredging.

6. L. pantcutata (Ag.) J. G. Agardh, 1852, p. 755; Chondria
obtusa var. paniculata Agardh, 1822, p. 348. Faxon; Dingle Bay,
Jan., Buildings Bay, Mangrove Bay, Feb., Hervey. Connected by
intermediate forms with L. obtusa, but in its typical form quite dis-
tinet by the firmer, little adhesive substance, the narrowly pyramidal
form of the frond and of its principal divisions, the main axis distinctly
projecting.

CuonpriA, Agardh.

1. Rhizoids frequent; tetraspores in specialized branches. 4. C. polyrhiza.
1. No rhizoids except at extreme base; tetraspores in normal branches. 2.

2. Ends of pericentral cells showing as a wavy line across the frond.
1. C. curvilineata.

2. Pericentral cells not showing externally. 3.
3. Ramuli acute or subacute. 3. C. atropurpurea.
3. Ramuli blunt or truncate. 2. C. dasyphylla.

1. C. curvilineata sp. nov.; P. B.-A., No. 2039. Fronde tenui,
axibus principalibus diametro } mm. raro superantibus, ramos paullo
minores paucos pluresve alternantes ferentibus, ordinum duorum,
raro plures, cylindricos vel ad basin et apicem paullo contractos;
puncto vegetationis ad fundo foveae apicalis, folia brevia ferente;
foliis similibus secundum ramos sparsis; segmentis diam. duplo longi-
oribus; cellulis corticalibus diam. duplo longioribus; apicibus cellu-
larum centralium per corticem manifestis ut lineis curvis, latere
convexo apicem versus; cystocarplis sessilibus; substantia submolli;
colore rubro obscuro. Plate II, figs. 10-11.

Frond slender, main axes seldom reaching $ mm. diam., with more or
less numerous alternate branches of two orders, seldom more, of only
slightly less diam., cylindrical or slightly contracted at base and apex;
growing point at bottom of an apical pit, with a tuft of short leaves,
similar leaves occurring also at scattered points on branches; seg-
ments about 2 diam. long; cortical cells about twice as hong as broad;
swollen apices of pericentral cells showing through the cortication as

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. Vt

rounded lines, the convex side towards the apex of the branch; cysto-
carps sessile on the branches; no other organ of fructification ob-
served; color dull red; substance rather soft. Type specimen in
Collins herbarium, No. 7509, Heron Bay, April 19, 1913, Hervey;
also at St. David’s Island, Feb., near Wistowe, Dec., Hervey.

This plant belongs to the subgenus Coelochondria Falkenberg, but
is distinct from all but one of the species of the subgenus by the peculiar
transformation of the upper ends of the pericentral cells, which show
even under a slight magnification as curved lines, two or three showing
in the width of the branch. This same character is found in C.
succulenta (J. Ag.) Falkenberg, 1901, Pl. XXII, figs. 22-23, an Aus-
tralian species, but that is a large and fleshy plant. In some speci-
mens of C. curvilineata this character is less conspicuous than in others,
but it is always quite distinct at the base of a branch, where the
cortication is thin.

2. C. DASYPHYLLA (Woodw.) Agardh, 1822, p. 350; Fucus dasy-
phyllus Woodward, 1794, p. 239, Pl. XXIII, figs. 1-38; Lawrencia dasy-
phylla Harvey, 1846-51, Pl. CLII. St. David’s Island, May, Hervey.
A single plant, well developed and typical.

3. C. ATROPURPUREA Harvey, 1853, p. 22, Pl. XVIII. E. Heron
Bay, March, Hervey. A single, quite typical plant.

4. C. polyrhiza, sp. nov.; P. B.-A., No. 2040. Fronde tenui, axi
principali diametrum 4 mm. raro attinente, ramos paullo minores
paucos pluresve alternantes ferente, ramulis secundi vel tertii ordinis
minoribus brevioribusque, ad basin plus minusve contractis, prope
apices conicos foliis brevibus deciduis armatis; ramis ordinum omnium
plus minusve flexuosis; cellulis corticalibus linearibus, longitudine
latitudinem 3-4-plo superante; tetrasporis in ramulis ultimis, partis
fertilis margine subdentato, apice breviacuto; basi a parte inferiori
sterili ramuli evidenter distincto, parte fertili diametro partem sterilem
duplo superante; segmentis per corticem tantum in parte extrema
juvenili manifestis; rhizoideis brevibus unicellularibus in fasciculis
densis ex partibus omnibus frondis exeuntibus; substantia subfirma;
colore rubro pallido. Plate II, fig. 12.

Frond slender, main axis seldom reaching 3 mm. diam., with more
or less numerous, alternate patent branches of slightly less size, with
one or two orders of smaller and shorter branches with more or less
contracted bases, and with tufts of short, fugacious leaves near the
tapering apices; branches of all orders more or less flexuous; cortical
cells linear, 3-4 times as long as wide; tetraspores in ultimate ramuli,
the fertile portion showing a subdentate outline, the apex short-

122 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

pointed, the base sharply distinct from the lower sterile part of the
ramulus, which is usually about half the diam. of the fertile part;
segments of pericentral cells showing indistinctly through the corti-
cation in the youngest portions only; dense fascicles of short, unicel-
lular rhizoids issuing from all portions of the plant; color pale red;
substance rather firm. Type in Collins herbarium, No. 8007, Shelly
Bay, Jan. 10, 1913, Hervey; also at North Shore near Wistowe,
Jan., Feb., Hervey; dredged in 18 meters, Dec., Collins.

The cylindrical fronds and the absence of apical pits place this
plant in the subgenus Euchondria Falk.; the abundant rhizoids are
of the same type as in the genus Herpochondria, but there is neither
the dorsiventral structure nor the lateral adherence of the latter.
The rhizoids may occur in short cylindrical fascicles, or may form a
dense mass along the frond for a distance equal to several diameters;
they may occur on branches of any order, even on the stichidia with
mature tetraspores.

ACANTHOPHORA Lamouroux.

A. SPICIFERA (Vahl) Bérgesen, 1910, p. 204, figs. 18-19; P. B.-A.,
No. 1938; A. Thierta Harvey, 1853, p. 17, Pl. XIV. A; Fucus spici-
ferus Vahl, 1802, p. 44. Aug., Kemp; Rein; Tucker, No. 13; Wal-
singham, Farlow; common in quiet waters generally, Jan., March,
Oct., Hervey; April, May, July, Aug., Collins. In July and August
lying loose on the bottom, but continuing to grow. On submerged
tips of live Tamarisk branches, Harrington Sound, Aug., Collins.

FALKENBERGIA Schmitz.

F. HitLeBRANDI (Born.) Falkenberg, 1901, p. 689; Boérgesen, 1910,
p. 199, fig. 17; P. B.-A., No. 2043; Polystphonia Hillebrandi Bornet
in Ardissone, 1883, p. 376. Growing in matted tufts on various algae;
Miss Peniston; cave by Ducking Stool, April, cave, Gravelly Bay,
Aug., Dec., Gibbet Island, Aug., Bethel’s Island, Dec., Collins; Har-
rington Sound, Oct., Nov., Dec., cave, Gravelly Bay, Dec., Hervey.
In the plants collected at Gravelly Bay in December, were found
tetraspores, which have not before been recorded for the species;
they are tripartitely divided, and formed from one of the pericentral
cells of a ramulus, quite as in Polysiphonia, but occurred singly, not
in series.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 1233

PoLysIPHONIA Greville.

1. Pericentral cells 4. 2h
1. Pericentral cells more than 4. 4,

2. Forming low, dense, more or less even-topped tufts or mats.
2. P.macrocarpa.

2. Taller, more open in growth. 3.
3. Segments seldom over 1 diam. long; tetraspores in densely forking,
divaricate ramuli. 4. P. ferulacea.

3. Segments in main axis usually over 1 diam. long; tetraspores near tips
of normal branches. 1. P. havanensis.

4. Pericentral cells 8-13; soft and dense. 3. P. foetidissima.
4. Pericentral cells 20-24 in main axis; firmer. 3. Peopaca.

1. P. HAVANENSIS Montagne forma mucosa J. G. Agardh, 1863,
p. 960; P.B.-A., No. 1941; P. havanensis Harvey, 1853, p. 34.
Spanish Rock, April, floating by Causeway, Oct., Inlet, Oct., St.
George’s Bay, Dec., Hervey. On Penicillus, Halimeda, Sargassum
etc.; cystocarps in April. Fairyland, Dec., Collins. The fine soft
filaments and rich red-brown color are characteristic of this form;
the segments vary from one to four diam. long in the same plant.
The cystocarps are globose below, broadly urceolate above. The
leaves are long and much branched; normal branches are formed in
their axils.

2. P. macrocaRPa Harvey’ in Mackay, 1836, part 2, p. 206;
P. B.-A., No. 2093; P. pulvinata Harvey, 1846-51, Pl. CII. B, not of
J. Ag. On mangroves, with Dichotomosiphon pusillus ete., Hungry
Bay, May, Collins. Forming a close and rather dense coating. The
filaments resemble P. subtilissima Mont., but are more slender, and
the habit is quite different. An account of the distinction between
this plant and the original P. pulvinata (Roth) J. Ag. will be found in
Bornet, 1892, p. 306. Our plant is more slender than the European
but otherwise the same.

3. P. rortTipissima Cocks in Bornet, 1892, p. 314; British Sea-
weeds, No. 29; P. B.-A., No. 1890. On timbers by sea wall at Hamil-
ton, Jan., on stones on beach at St. George’s, April, Hervey; cysto-
carps and tetraspores in Jan. An apparently little known species,
but quite well marked. The filaments have 8-10, rarely to 13 peri-
central cells, are creeping at the base, then erect, much branched,
reaching a height of 15 em. The substance is soft, the color deep
purplish red. It decays promptly when taken from the water, and
then thoroughly justifies its specific name.

124 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

4. P. FERULACEA Suhr in J. G. Agardh, 1863, p. 980; P. B.-A.,
No. 1940; P. breviarticulata Harvey, 1853, p. 36, Pl. XVI. B, not of
J. Ag. Rein, as P. nigrescens in part; Moseley, as P. subtilissima;
Spanish Point, Harrington Sound, Jan., Gravelly Bay, Feb., April,
Tucker’s Town, Feb., Dec., Hervey. A rather common and generally
distributed species. Harvey’s figure represents the plant quite ac-
curately, except as to the quadrangular section of the filaments,
which was probably due to the use of dried material; the Bermuda
material shows the usual circular section. Rhizoids are well devel-
oped on the lower, prostrate part, arising each from a pericentral cell,
often one from each segment. Where the creeping filament is near
to a firm substratum, the rhizoids are short and stout; where there is
no such stratum near, the rhizoids may be much elongated, up to
3 mm. long, becoming very slender. In the actively growing tips,
the segments may have a length of only one fifth their diameter;
in older parts the segments may be slightly longer than their diameter;
the usual length is about one half a diam. Leaves are abundant,
branches being produced from their axils.

At Heron Bay we found a plant agreeing quite closely with P. fracta
Harvey, 1853, p. 38, and with an authentic specimen in the Farlow
herbarium; it seems to us, however, to be only an old and battered
form of P. ferulacea. Authentic specimens of the latter, in the Farlow
herbarium, confirm this view. ;

5. P. opaca (Ag.) Zanardini, 1842, p. 165; P.B.-A., No. 1891;
Hutchinsia opaca Agardh, 1824, p. 148. Kemp, as P. fibrillosa; Rein,
as P. nigrescens, in part; On rocks, Heron Bay, Jan., March, Ely’s
Harbor, April, Hervey; in grotto, Tucker’s Town, April, Fairyland,
Dec., Collins. We have included under this name all the many-
tubed Polysiphonias that we have found in Bermuda. Some speci-
mens agree well with the European form, others, specially those from
Fairyland, considerably resemble P. simulans Harvey, but we have
not been able to draw any line between these and the more typical
forms. Tetraspores were found in April. Branches arise in the axils
of the leaves.

DicENEA Agardh.

D. stmpLex (Wulfen) Agardh, 1822, p. 389; Harvey, 1853, p. 29,
Pl. XIII. D; P. B.-A., No. 1939; Conferva sumplex Wulfen, 1803, p. 7.
Castle Harbor, Farlow; Gravelly Bay, Feb., Mangrove Bay, Feb.,
Harris Bay, April, Dec., Hervey; St. David’s Island, April, Collins.
Fairly common at various places, but plants usually small compared
with ordinary forms of Florida and the Mediterranean.

ce |

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 2

WRIGHTIELLA Schmitz.

1. Main axes virgate, except in the older parts beset with short, subequal
ramuli. 1. W. Blodgettii.

1. Branches of successive orders diminishing in size; ramuli of varying length.
2. W. Tumanowiczi.

1. W. Biopcetrtm (Harv.) Schmitz, 1893, p. 222; P. B.-A., No.
1942; Alsidium Blodgettii Harvey, 1853, p. 16, Pl. XV. B. Kemp,
specimen in herb. as Dasya mucronata, also unnamed specimen; Shelly
Bay, Feb., Harris Bay, Walsingham, April, Hervey; in pot-hole,
Gravelly Bay, April, Bethel’s Island, Dec., Collins; tetraspores in
Jan. and April.

2. W. Tumanowiczi (Gatty) Schmitz, 1898, p. 222; P. B.-A., No.
2095. Dasya Tumanowiczi Gatty in Harvey, 1853, p. 64. Moseley;
Buildings Bay, April, with cystocarps, Hervey. In this collecting a
single plant was found, dense and bushy and over 7 dm. high; over 30
good mounted specimens were made from it, but it was throughout
more slender than much smaller individuals of W. Blodgettti. In
appearance the two species are quite different, the stout spinous
branches of the latter are quite visible to the naked eye, and set all
over the plant; in W. Tumanowiczi they are hardly visible without a
lens. Technically, it is hard to find distinguishing characters; tetra-
spores and cystocarps are quite alike, and as suggested by Falkenberg,
1901, p. 559, they are certainly closely related.

MurRAYELLA Schmitz.

M. PEerRiIcLapos (Ag.) Schmitz, 1893, p. 227; P. B.-A., No. 2096;
Hutchinsia periclados Agardh, 1828, p. 101; Bostrychia Tuomeyi
Harvey, 1853, p. 58, Pl. XIV. E. Among Bostrychia species, on man-
groves and rocks, Tucker’s Town, Hungry Bay etc., Common as
scattered individuals among other species, rarely pure or constituting
the greater part of the growth.

HERPOSIPHONIA Niageli.

1. Branches recurved. 3. H. pecten-veneris.
1. Branches straight. 2s
2. Determinate branches about the same size as the axis. 1. -H. secunda.
2. Determinate branches about half the size of the axis. 2. H. tenella.

126 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

1. H.secunpa (Ag.) FalKenberg, 1901, p. 307, Pl. III, figs. 10-12;
P. B.-A., No. 2041; Hutchinsia secunda Agardh, 1824, p. 149; Poly-
siphonia pecten-veneris Var. B Harvey, 1853, p. 46, Pl. XVI. D. On
reef, Ely’s Harbor, Aug., Collins. In this material the erect branches
are often abortive, and the regularity of position of branches charac-
teristic of the species is obscured.

2. H. TEnNELLA (Ag.) Nageli, 1846, Pl. VII, fig. 2; P. B.-A., No.
1943; Hutchinsia tenella Agardh, 1828, p. 105. On rocks, corallines
and other algae, Harrington Sound, Bailey’s Bay, Gibbet Island,
Jan., Smith’s Bay, Feb., Nov., Harris Bay, April, Tucker’s Town,
Dec., Hervey.

3. H. PECTEN-VENERIS (Harv.) Falkenberg, 1901, p. 315; Polysi-
phonia pecten-veneris Harvey, 1853, p. 46, Pl. XVI. C. Among
Gelidiopsis, Harris Bay, April, Hervey. A delicate and attractive
species; the graceful recurving of the branches easily distinguishes it.

LopHosIPHONIA Falkenberg.

1. Pericentral cells 10-16. 3. L. obscura.
1. Pericentral cells 4. 2s
2. Basal filament attached to substratum by filiform rhizoids, with or
without disks. 1. L. bermudensis.

2. Basal filaments penetrating the host by rhizoids much inflated below.
2. LL. Saccorhiza.

1. L. bermudensis sp. nov.; Cellulis pericentralibus 4, interdum
5 aut 6; filamentis prostratis 100-110 diam., cellulis 1-2 diam.
longis; filamentis erectis numerosis, ad 60 segmentis longis, 60-80 u
diam. a basi ad prope apicem; cellulis 13-2 diam. longis, interdum
solummodo 3 diam.; ramis plus minusve ramosis, aliquando densissime;
ramis brevibus. Antheridiis conicocylindricis, 160-200 u X 40-50 yu,
ad apicibus ramorum aggregatis; cystocarpils subglobosis, lateraliter
sessilibus, vel ad pedicellum perbreve, circa 250 » diam.; tetraspor-
angiis circa 80 u diam., 2-5 in seriem rectilineam, in ramulis subin-
crassatis, saepe curvis. Plate III, figs. 18-21.

Pericentral cells 4, occasionally 5 or 6; prostrate filaments 100-110 u
diam., cells 1-2 diam. long; erect filaments numerous, up to 60 cells
long, 60-80 » diam. from base to near apex, cells 13-2 diam. long,
occasionally only 4 diam.; more or less branched, sometimes quite
densely, branches short. Antheridia conical-cylindric, 160-200 X
40-50 w, clustered at apices of branches; cystocarps subglobose,

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 127

sessile or lateral on very short pedicels, about 250 u diam.; tetra-
sporangia about 80 yu diam., 2-5 in a straight series, in somewhat
swollen, often curved ramuli. Rhizoids filiform, varying in size but
usually slender, attached to the substratum by a terminal disk. Type
in Collins herbarium. Gravelly Bay, Feb., Hervey, Fairyland, Cave
at Agar’s Island, Aug., and dredged in 6 m., Collins. A rather delicate
plant, usually on Sargassum or Zonaria, but also on limpet shells.
The variation in number of pericentral cells is something exceptional
in a plant of normally four. The increased number does not seem to
be limited to any part of the plant, but may occur in horizontal or
erect filaments, younger or older. It has some resemblance to L.
subadunca (Kiitz.) Falk., but that has uniformly six pericentral cells.

2. L. Saccorhiza sp. nov.; P. B.-A., No. 2042. Cellulis peri-
centralibus 4; filamentis prostratis 50-704 diam., segmentis 1-2
diam. longis; filamentis erectis numerosis, ad 2 mm. longis, 25-45 u
diam., ad basin abrupte, apicem versus longissime attenuatis, prope
apicem folia bene evoluta sed fugacissima gerentibus; segmentis 2-3
diam. longis, ad apicem diametro brevioribus; filamento prostrato
ad plantem hospitem rhizoideis numerosis affixo a parte inferiore fila-
menti ortis, primo cylindraceis vel ortu complanatis axis filamenti
sensu, mox In saccos ovoideos éxpansis, ad 800 u longis, 160 » diam.,
inter utriculos plantae hospitis penetrantes. Tetrasporangiis uniseri-
atis in parte superiore filamenti erecti sitis, diametrum filamenti
ad duplo superantibus; cystocarpiis subsphaericis, cirea 100 u diam.,
apicibus ramorum proximis, segmentis proxime inferioribus saepe
ramulos breves solitarios vel paucos gerentibus. Antheridiis folio-
tum eyolutione ortis, conico-ovoideis. Colore roseo; substantia
molli. Plate II, figs. 13-14, Plate III, figs.15-17.

Pericentral cells 4; prostrate filaments 50-70 4 diam., segments
1-2 diam. long, erect filaments numerous, up to 2 mm. long, 25-45 u
diam., contracted abruptly at base, gradually towards apex, segments
2-3 diam. long, at growing tip shorter than the diam.;° well developed
but very fugacious leaves formed on the upper part; prostrate fila-
ments attached to the host by numerous rhizoids issuing from the
lower pericentral cells of the prostrate filament, one or more from a
segment, at first cyclindrical in section, or flattened in a line with the
axis of the filament, below expanding into an ovoid sac, up to 800 u
long, 160 « wide, penetrating between the utricles of the host. Tetra-
sporangia in a single series in the upper part of a filament, up to twice
the diameter of the filament. Cystocarps subspherical, about 100 u
diam., near end of erect filament, one or more short branches issuing

128 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

from the segments next below. Antheridia developed from leaves,
conical-ovoid. Color rosy red; substance soft.

From the few 4-tubed species of Lophosiphonia this is distinguished
by branching characters, but specially by the great development of
the rhizoids, which show a remarkable adaptation to its habitat, the
fronds of Codiwm. The rhizoids take the shape of utricles, of much the
same shape and size as those of the host, but in reversed position. At
first a relatively slender cell, cyclindrical, or occasionally flattened in
a line with the axis of the filament, as soon as the rhizoid has pene-
trated between the stouter parts of the Codium utricles it expands,
and wedges itself in tightly among the latter. As seen under the
microscope, there is a striking contrast between the rosy color of one
set of utricles, and the green of the other. Type in Collins herbarium,
No. 7456, Gibbet Island, March, 1913, Hervey; also from Gibbet
Island, Jan., Smith’s Bay, -March, Hervey; Tucker’s Town, April,
Cave near Ducking Stool, Hungry Bay, May, Collins.

3. L. opscura (Ag.) Falkenberg, 1901, p. 500; P. B.-A., No. 1892;
Hutchinsia obscura Agardh, 1828, p. 108; Polysiphonia obscura
Harvey, 1846-51, Pl. CII. A. Moseley, as Polysiphonia exilis;
Smith’s Bay, Spanish Rock, Jan., Gibbet Island, March, Harrington
Sound, Dec., Hervey; North and South Shores, April, May, July,
Aug., Collins. Common everywhere on rocks between tide marks,
’ and in caves, where in well sheltered places it reaches even above
ordinary tides. It varies considerably in size and in luxuriance of
branching, but is not likely to be mistaken for any other species.
Young plants bear long hairs (leaves) in dense branching tufts.

Bostrycut1a Montagne.

1. Main axis ecorticate. 1. B. rivularis.
1. Main axis corticate. oma:
2. Long monosiphonous ramuli present. 2. B. tenella.
2. Only a few terminal segments monosiphonous. 3.
3. Tips of branches incurved; rather coarse. 4. B. Montagnei.
3. Branches straight; slender. 3. B. sertularia.

1. B. rtvuzaris Harvey, 1853, p. 57, Pl. XIV. D. Walsingham,
April, Hervey. This species, the only one occurring as far north as
New England, has been found only once in Bermuda, and then in a
quite small form, not over 2 cm. high. It was sparingly scattered
among B. Montagnet.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 129

2. B. TENELLA (Vahl) J. G. Agardh, 1863, p. 869; P. B.-A., No.
1894; Alg. Amer.-Bor. Exsice., No. 137, as B. calamistrata; Fucus
tenellus Vahl, 1802, p. 45. Common on roofs and walls of caves, flat
rocks, under mangroves, ete., at all seasons; tetraspores in Nov.
The most common species of the genus; the species of Bostrychia
usually grow intermixed with each other, and with Caloglossa and
Catenella; it is exceptional to find any one species pure, while the
combination of two or more, in varying proportions, is to be found
everywhere in the stations noted for this species. B. tenella is quite
variable, and the extreme forms seem quite distinct. Forma tenuior
J. G. Agardh, 1863, p. 869; B. calamistrata Harvey, 1853, p. 56, PI.
XIV. C, and forma densa J. G. Agardh, 1863, p. 869; Rhodomela
calamistrata Montagne, 1846, p. 36, Pl. IV, fig. 1, both occur, often
in the same collecting, connected by intermediate forms.

3. B. serTuLARIA Montagne, 1859, p. 176; P. B.-A., No. 2094;
Alg. Am.-Bor. Exsice., No. 138. Grotto, Tucker’s Town, Dec.,
Hervey; Gravelly Bay, April, Collins. The tetraspores of this species,
of which there seems to have been no record, were found in material
from the cave at Gravelly Bay, and are also in material distributed
by Farlow, in Alg. Am.-Bor. Exsice. A stichidium is formed in the
limited branch of a main axis, usually occupying only a small part of
its length, in the majority of cases below the middle, the unchanged
branch extending both above and below the stichidium, bearing
both above and below ramuli of normal construction; this appears
to be an exception to the usual formation in this genus. B. sertularia
has been considered by some as a synonym of B. tenella, e. g., De Toni,
1903, p. 1162, but the two seem quite distinct. JB. tenella is a plant
of softer substance, with long monosiphonous ramuli, and long-
lanceolate or linear-lanceolate stichidia; B. sertularia is firmer, only
a few of the extreme segments of a ramulus being monosiphonous;
the branching is strictly distichous, and the stichidium occupies the
middle part of the otherwise unchanged ramulus of the penultimate
or ultimate order.

4. B. Montaenet Harvey, 1853, p. 55, Pl. XIV. B; P. B.-A., No.
1893; Alg. Am.-Bor. Exsice., No. 136. H. Kennedy, Feb. in Farlow
herb.; July, Kemp, as B. scorpioides; Hungry Bay, April, May,
Collins; Causeway, Nov., with cystocarps, Hervey. The largest and
coarsest species. The cystocarps are large, depressed-globose, and
terminal on rather long ultimate ramuli.

130 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

Dasya Agardh.

1. Divisions few, subsimple, ramelli very dense at tips. 1. D. ocellata.
1. More branched; ramelli less dense at tips. 2.
2. Ramelli all unbranched or forkings narrow. 3.
2. Ramelli divaricately or squarrosely branched, at least near base. 5.

3. Ramelli deciduous, leaving short, acute, spinous branches.
3. D. spinuligera.

3. Ramelli more persistent; no spinous branches. 4,
4. Ramelli very slender, short-celled, generally distributed on all but the
oldest parts. 2. D. pedicellata.

4. Ramelli larger, longer-celled, in more or less distinct whorls.

4. D. punicea.
5. Ramelli stout near their base, diminishing at each forking, very slender
at apex. 6.
5. Ramelli nearly uniform in size throughout. 5. D. arbuscula.
6. Ramelli forming a very dense coating, especially near tips of branches.
6. D. ramosissima.

6. Ramelli in minute, subcorymbose clusters, not denser near apices.
7. D. corymbifera.

1. D.ocetuata (Grat.) Harvey in Hooker, 1833, p. 335; 1846-51,
Pl. XL; Ceramium ocellatum Grateloup, 1807, p. 34. Cooper’s
Island, Feb., Farlow; on Sargassum, Gibbet Island, Jan., Gravelly
Bay, Feb., Hervey; tetraspores in Jan.

2. D. pepiceLLata Agardh, 1824, p. 211; D. elegans Harvey,
1853, p. 60; Kiitzing, 1864, p. 21, Pl. LIX. Kemp, as D. pediculata;
Merriman; Miss Peniston; Miss Wilkinson; Shelly Bay, April,

-Collins; Buildings Bay, March, Hervey. The common Dasya of the
Atlantic coast from Cape Cod to Florida, but evidently not common
here. Though the name D. elegans has been long familiar, it will
have to be given up for D. pedicellata, the priority of which is unques-
tionable.

3. D. spinuligera sp. nov.; P.B.-A., No. 2188. Cellulis peri-
centralibus 5, corticatis, cortice glabro, continuo, cellular'um minorum,
elongatarum; ramis paucis, elongatis, ramulos breves, patentes,
acutos, gerentibus; apice ramuli junioris fasciculum densum ramel-
lorum ferente, adultioris nudo; ramellis. densissimis, deciduis, mono-
siphoniis, dichotomis, rectis nec divaricatis, cellulis 2-3 diam. longis,
superne 1 diam. modo, diametro ubique aequali; stichidiis conicis
vel cylindro-conicis, prope basin fasciculi ramellorum ortis; tetra-
sporangiis 2-4 in verticillo; frondis substantia firma; colore rubro
obscuro. Plate IV, figs. 24-25.

Pericentral cells 5, corticate, cortex smooth, even, of small elongate

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. Lol

cells; with few elongate branches, bearing patent, acute ramuli, the
younger with a dense fascicle of ramelli at the tip, the older naked;
ramelli very dense, deciduous, monosiphonous, dichotomous, straight,
not divaricate; cells 2-3 diam. long, above only 1 diam.; diameter
the same throughout; stichidia conical or eyclindric-conical, arising
near the base of a fascicle of ramuli; tetrasporangia 2-4 in a whorl.
Substance of the frond firm; color dark red. Type in Collins her-
barium, No. 7248; collected at Shelly Bay, May 4, 1912, Collins.
When ramelli are abundant, this plant somewhat resembles D. punicea,
but the ramelli show no tendency to a verticillate arrangement, and
fall off more easily. The surface of the frond after the ramelli have
fallen is smooth and even, not knotted and irregular as in D. punicea;
the cells are small and regular, not large and irregular as in that species.

4. D. puntcEa Meneghini in Zanardini, 1842, p. 171; 1865, PI.
LII. Dingle Bay, March, Hervey; Bethel’s Island, Dec., Collins;
both with tetraspores. In habit somewhat resembling D. pedicellata,
but the ramelli are larger, of longer cells, and with a distinct tendency
to issue in whorls.

5. D. arsuscuta (Dillw.) Agardh, 1828, p. 121; Harvey, 1846-51,
Pl. CCXXIV; P. B.-A., No. 1944; Conferva arbuscula Dillwyn, 1809,
Pl. G. Shelly Bay, Jan., Smith’s Bay, March, Harris Bay, April,
Hervey; Hungry Bay, April, in dense floating masses and attached to
mangroves, Collins.

6. D. RAmosisstmMa Harvey, 1853, p. 61; Kiitzing, 1864, Pl. LXIX,

figs. d-e; P. B.-A., No. 1945. On vertical rock between tides, Pink
Beach, Jan., Feb., Smith’s Bay, March, Gibbet Island, Dec., Hervey.
In habit not unlike D. corymbifera, but the divisions of the ramelli are
incurved.
7. D. corymBirera J. G. Agardh, 1841, p. 31; D. venusta Harvey,
1846-51, Pl. CCX XV; D. arbuscula P. B.-A., No. 1097b, not 1097a; D.
arbuscula forma subarticulata P. B.-A., No. 493. Washed ashore from
deep water, Buildings Bay, Feb., Hervey; dredged in 4 m., Nov.,
Collins. Sometimes confused with D. arbuscula which it resembles
in habit; both have a dense coating of divaricately branching ramelli,
but in D. corymbifera the tips of the ramelli are much more slender
than their bases.

HETEROSIPHONIA Montagne.
H. WurpemaNnnl (Bailey) Falkenberg, 1901, p. 638, Pl. XVI, fig. 11;

P. B.-A., No. 2097; Dasya Wurdemanni Bailey in Harvey, 1853, p. 64,
Pl. XV. C. Cooper’s Island, Feb., Farlow; Harrington Sound, Jan.,

t32 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

March, Gibbet Island, Dec., Hervey; Hungry Bay, April, Cooper’s
Island, Aug., Little Agar’s Island, Nov., Collins. On Gelidium and
other algae, but most frequently on Sargassum; a careful search would
probably discover it in any lot of old Sargassum, but it is seldom found
in large quantity.

Famity CERAMIACEAE.

SPERMOTHAMNION Areschoug.

1. Cells 5-20 diam. long; tetraspores usually in corymbose clusters.
3. S. macromeres.

1. Cells 2-7 diam. long; tetraspores solitary. 2.
2. Filaments 15-20 u diam. 1. S. investiens.
2. Filaments 40-50 » diam. 2. §S. gorgoneum.

1. S. INnvESTIENS (Crouan) Vickers, 1905, p. 64; Callithamnion
investiens Crouan in Mazé & Schramm, 1870-1877, p. 141. On
Galaxaura squalida, Gravelly Bay, April, St. David’s Island, April,
Collins; Harris Bay, Dec., Hervey. The dimensions of the Bermuda
plant agree with those given by Miss Vickers for the Barbados plant;
Borgesen, 1909, p. 17, fig. 10, describes and figures var. cidaricola from
the Danish West Indies; the dimensions are considerably larger than
in the typical form, but the habit and the tetraspores are the same as
in the Bermuda plant.

2. S. GorGoNEUM (Mont.) Bornet in Vickers, 1905, p. 64; Callith-
manion gorgoneum Montagne, 1857, p. 289. Common on fronds of
species of Codiwm. 'Tetraspores with tripartite division were found
in Bermuda material, borne on an upcurved pedicel.

3. S. macromeres sp. nov.; P. B.-A., No. 2044. Filamentis pros-
tratis circa 65 uw diam., cellulis 3-5 diam. longis, rhizoideis magnum
discum terminalem ferentibus, affixis; filamentis erectis 5-S mm.
longis, basi circa 50 » diam., sensim diminutis, in ramis ultimis circa
30 w; cellulis 5-20 diam. longis, cylindricis vel leviter clavatis, cellulis
ramiferis valide clavatis; ramificatione distante, apparenter dicho-
toma, axi ramoque subaequalibus, minime divergentibus; tetraspor-
angiis in ramo laterali evolutis, ramum vegetativum referente, vel in
ramis brevibus oppositis; ramis tetrasporangiferis raro simplicibus,
vulgo di- trichotome ad cellulam quamque repetite divisis, cellulis
brevibus, clavatis; tetrasporangiis terminalibus, tripartitis, 50-55 uw
diam., globosis vel paullo elongatis, membrana crassa; antheridio

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. ls

latere interiore rami evoluto, loco rami vegetativi, ovoideo-cylindrico,
125-130 X 50-60 4; cystocarpio cellula brevi clavata suffulto, loco
rami vegetativi evoluta.

Prostrate filaments about 65 u diam., cells 3-5 diam. long, attached
by rhizoids with a large terminal disk; erect filaments 5-8 mm. long,
about 50 diam. at base, gradually diminishing to about 30 in
ultimate divisions, cells 5-20 diam. long, cylindrical or somewhat
clavate, branch-bearing cells strongly clavate; branching usually
distant, apparently dichotomous, the axis and branch nearly equal in
size and diverging very slightly; tetrasporangia produced on a short
branch arising like a vegetative branch, or on two short branches
opposite on the axis; tetrasporic branches rarely simple, usually di- or
trichotomously divided, the divisions each of a short, clavate cell;
tetraspores borne on the ultimate divisions, tripartite, 50-55 w diam.,
globose or slightly elongate, with wide pellucid wall; antheridium on
the inner side of a branch, occupying the place of a vegetative branch,
ovoid-eylindrical, 125-150 X 50-604; cystocarp borne on a short,
clavate cell, taking the place of a vegetative branch. Type in Collins
herbarium, Smith’s Bay, Jan. 18, 1913, Hervey. Also at the same
place, Feb., March, Nov., Dec., Hervey.

The extremely long cells in this species, 20 diameters long being not
uncommon, distinguish it from other species of the genus. The erect
filaments are usually very sparingly branched, though in the upper
half there may sometimes be a branch from every cell; in other cases
the erect filament branches only two or three times in its whole length;
the branch is hardly distinguishable from the axis, either by size or
direction. The tetrasporangium may be terminal on a relatively
short cell, 2-3 diam. long, arising from the axis; or this cell may divide
one to several times, in the latter case twenty to thirty tetrasporangia
being borne at the apices of the divisions, forming a dense, corymb-
like cluster. The antheridia appear sessile, as they take the place of
normal branches on the inner side of a secondary axis, the unmodified
cells of which are shorter than the normal, though not as short as in
the tetrasporic clusters; occasionally both branches of a forking are
transformed into antheridia. Cystocarps are formed in the same
position as antheridia, but the lower cell of the transformed branch
remains unchanged. Antheridia were plentiful in material collected
in January, tetraspores at all seasons; cystocarps were found in Jan-
uary material only, scarce and somewhat immature. The prostrate
filaments are affixed by numerous short, stout rhizoids with much
expanded terminal disks; occasionally a more slender rhizoid is pro-

134 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

duced by the lowest cell of an erect filament. The plant grew on
the top of sand-covered rocks, covered at high tide; the coral sand
sifted in among the alga, forming a dense fibrous mass.

CERAMOTHAMNION Richards.

C. Coptt Richards, 1901, p. 264, Pl. XXI; P. B.-A., No. 1899;
Plate III, fig. 22; plate IV, fig. 23. Common on Codiwm tomentosum
and other species of Codium all about the islands, at all times of the
year, almost always in abundant fruit. It was once found on Lauren-
cia cervicornis. A few notes can be added to the quite full description
of Richards. He observed only a single ripe tetrasporangium at a
node; we have found not uncommonly two, rarely three, in one
instance four, of apparently equal age, side by side; branches occa-
sionally occur independently of the polyspores; we have found organs
quite agreeing with his figures of the latter, but also similar organs,
larger, up to 160 uw diam., spherical, containing up to 45 spores, and in
appearance quite indistinguishable from cystocarps of Ceramium.*"
Against the identification of these organs as cystocarps must be
reckoned our failure to discover anything like procarps, and the
question must be left open. The rhizoids offer some interesting
peculiarities, doubtless due to adaptation to their position, between
the closely-packed utricles of the host; at first terete, they soon
become flattened, and often two or more unite laterally, in a mem-
branous expansion, which may be as much as 10 cells wide. In one
case three rhizoids from one individual united with two from another
to form one membrane. The cross walls in these rhizoidal membranes
are often much oblique, and the arrangement of the cells reminds one
somewhat of that in the leaf of a moss. See Figures 22 and 23.
The material from which this species was described was collected in
Bermuda in 1898 and 1899; the only other record of its occurrence
is at Barbados, Vickers, 1905, p. 65.

GriFFiTHsta Agardh.

1. Vegetative cells cylindrical throughout. 1. .G. tenuis.
1. Lower cells subcylindrical, upper ovoid. 2. G. Schousboei.
1. All cells subspherical. 3. G. monilis.

17 Schiller, 1913, has made extensive observations on organs of this char-
acter in genera allied to Ceramothamnion, and he reports that in every case
they were accompanied by tetraspores of normal character on the same
individual. This is not the case with this species.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 135

1. G. TENUuIs Agardh, 1828, p. 131; P. B.-A., No. 1895; Plate VI,
figs. 38-39; G. thyrsigera Askenasy, 1888, p. 36, Pl. IX, figs. 1 & 4;
Vickers, 1905, p. 64; Callithamnion tenue, Harvey, 1858, p. 130.
Inlet, above and below Flatts Bridge, Jan., Feb., March, April, Dec.,
Heron Bay, Jan., Hervey. Common at these stations in late winter
and early spring; cystocarps, antheridia and tetraspores all produced
from January to March. The similarity between Griffithsia tenuis Ag.
and Callithamnion thyrsigera Thwaites has been noticed more than
once. Harvey, 1858, p. 130, kept up the distinction with some doubt.
Grunow, 1874, p. 8, considers the latter merely a robust form of the
former. Harvey had compared the plant from Beesley’s Point,
New Jersey, with an authentic Mediterranean specimen; we have
compared with a Beesley’s Point specimen of the original collecting
specimens from Atlantic City, N. J. (S. R. Morse), Nantucket (L.
L. Dame), Falmouth, Massachusetts (Collins), and G. thyrsigera,
Vickers, Algues de la Barbade, No. 182. All agree in essential details
with each other, and with the figures and text of Askenasy. The
Bermuda material seems to be more luxuriant, especially the tetra-
sporic; it is not uncommon to find 15 tetrasporangia in a whorl, five
whorls of tetrasporangia, mature or nearly mature, and two whorls of
immature, at once on an axis. Antheridia are borne on a pedicel of
one to three cells; Askenasy reports one-celled pedicels only. The
cystocarps were unknown until found on our Bermuda material; they
are characteristic of Griffithsia, and the generic position of the species
may now be regarded settled. Rhizoids were frequent on the older
plants, of the usual form, unicellular, longer or shorter as required to
reach the substratum, where an expanded disk was formed. They
have thicker walls than the filament cells, and contain nearly as deeply
colored chromatophores.

2. G. ScHousBoEr Montagne in Webb, 1839, p. 11, Pl. X. Washed
ashore, St. George’s, Feb., sand covered rock, Pink Bay, March,
Hervey. Agrees with the European plant in vegetative characters,
but in the absence of fruit the identification is only provisional.

3. G. MONILIS Harvey, 1855, p. 559; in Hooker & Harvey, 1855-
1860, p. 332, Pl. CXCV. B. In cave, Gravelly Bay, Dec., Jan.,
March, on sand-covered rocks, Smith’s Bay, March, Hervey;
Bethel’s Island, Dec., Collins. Tetraspores in Jan. G. monilis is
an Australian species, and its occurrence here is of interest. Agardh
calls attention to its similarity to G. Schousboei, but while what we
take for that species occurs in Bermuda, it has most of the cells
cylindrical, a few ovoid, while in G. monilis the cells are strictly
globose, or a little elongated or depressed.

136 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

CALLITHAMNION Lyngbye.

1. Branching distichous, pinnate. 2:

1. Branching radial or dichotomous. 3
2. Little cortication, cells long, ultimate ramuli long, slender.

4. C. roseum.

2. Much cortication, cells short, pinnae decompound, ultimate ramuli,

short, stout. 5. (CC. Hookeri.

3. Branching alternate throughout. 1. C. byssoideum.
3. Branching at least in part dichotomous. 4,
4. Ultimate divisions long, slender. 6. C. cordatum.
4. Ultimate divisions shorter and stouter. 5.
5. Alternate branching usually confined to axis and branches of first order,
otherwise dichotomous. 3. C. Halliae.

5. Only smaller divisions dichotomous; distance very short between forkings.
2. CC. corymbosum.

1. C. ByssompEUM Arnott var. JAMAICENSE Collins, 1901, p. 258;
P. B.-A., No. 2045. Gravelly Bay, Jan., Feb., March, Oct., Hervey;
April, Aug., Collins. Growing in dense patches, not over 3 cm. high,
just below low water mark, in a small cave. In the water it shows
a peculiar bluish iridescence, like the bloom on a plum.

2. C. corymposum (Eng. Bot.) Lyngbye, 1819, p. 125, PI.
XXXVIII. C.; Harvey, 1846-51, Pl. CCLXXII; Conferva corymbosa
Eng. Bot., 1811, Pl. MMCCCLII. Washed ashore, Cooper’s Island,
Feb., Farlow; on Wrightiella Blodgettii, Harris Bay, April, Collins.
In both cases with abundant tetraspores.

3. C. Ha wie Collins in P. B.-A., No. 698; 1906, p. 111; P. B.-A.,
No. 1896. Outlet of Harrington Sound, Jan., Feb., March., Hervey,
large and handsome plants; tetraspores in Jan., no other fruit;
Burchell’s Cove, Feb., large rich purple patches on bottom in shallow
water, Hervey; shore of Agar’s Island, Dec., Collins.

4. C. roseum (Roth) Harvey in Hooker, 1833, p. 341; Harvey,
1846-51, Pl. CCXXX; Ceramium roseum Roth, 1798, p. 46. On
Codium, near Causeway, Feb., Hervey, with tetraspores. The plants
are attached to the Codiwm by a dense mass of slender filaments with
red protoplasts, penetrating deeply the tissue of the host. They are
continuations of the descending growths from the bases of the branches,
which cover the lower part of the axis, as a cortex.

5. C. Hooxert (Dillw.) Agardh, 1828, p. 178; Harvey, 1846-51,
Pl. CCLXXIX; P.B.-A., No. 2046; Conferva Hookert Dillwyn,
1809, Pl. CVI. Kemp, as C. spongiosum. Pink Beach, Jan., Feb.,

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 137

March, Gravelly Bay, Feb., March, April, Hervey. At Pink Beach
this plant grew buried in fine sand, on an exposed rock; at Gravelly
Bay in the cave with C. byssoidewm var. jamaicense, not as large nor
as well fruiting as at Pink Beach. At that station it bore tetraspores
along the upper edge of the ramuli, as figured by Harvey; antheridia
in rounded tufts at the same points; cystocarps large, spherical to
ovoid, on opposite sides of a branch; the three on separate individuals.
Paraspores were often found at the ends of the ramuli, ovoid, of
varying size, up to 50 X 35 uw including the rather thick wall. Tetra-
spores were occasionally found on the individuals producing the
paraspores, but no other organ of fructification. We saw no seriate
paraspores, such as are found in Seitrospora Griffithsiana Harv., but
sometimes two were side by side, touching each other, at the end of an
ordinary cell. Kylin, 1907, p. 152, figures and describes paraspores
of C. Hookeri, but of quite a different type; they take each the place
of a tetrasporangium, dividing to produce an indefinite number of
spores, “polyspores” of most authors. De Toni, 1903, p. 1317,
describes C. Hookeri with tetraspores and cystocarps, and vegetative
characters quite as above, and adds “Cautissime haec a Setrospora?
Gaillonti, quacum characteribus plurimis congruit, dignoscatur.”
The latter species is described by him, p. 1352, by vegetative char-
acters and tetraspores only. There is practically no distinction as
regards these characters between the descriptions of the two species.
The final note under S. Gaillonii is “Seirosporae et cystocarpia (sec.
Crouan) presentia.” De Toni includes under Seirospora, with or
without a ?, a number of species which do not seem to us to belong to
that genus, and without any statement of his reasons for so assigning
them; among them Callithamnion byssoideum, with var. jamaicense
and three other varieties.

C. corpaTuM Borgesen, 1909, p. 10; figs. 5-6; P. B.-A., No.
2189. Washed ashore, Buildings Bay, Feb., Hervey. Abundant, but
entirely sterile, so that the determination must remain doubtful,
although the vegetative characters agree with Bérgesen’s description
and figures.

GYMNOTHAMNION J. G. Agardh.

Plumaria Schmitz, not Stackhouse. The genus Plumaria was
founded by Stackhouse, 1809, p. 58, P. pectinata type, with synonym
Fucus plumosus Linnaeus. C. A. Agardh, apparently not knowing of
this publication, proposed, 1817, p. XIX, the genus Ptilota, founded

138 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

on the same Fucus plumosus L.; Agardh’s genus has been generally
accepted, and many recent species have been included in it.
Ruprecht, however, 1856, p. 335, calls attention to the priority of
Stackhouse’s name, and makes the combination Plumaria aspleni-
oides, and also uses the P. pectinata of Stackhouse. Otto Kunze,
1891, p. 911, takes the same position, and makes new combinations
for 16 species of Ptilota, some of which, however, are unnecessary,
as the species had already been properly transferred to Euptilota
Kiitz. Schmitz, 1889, p. 450, retains Ptilota for most of the
species, including Stackhouse’s type for Plumaria, but revivies
Plumaria for Ptilota elegans, Bonnemaison, a species unknown to
Stackhouse; and in 1896, p. 7, transfers to Plumaria, Ptilota Schous-
boet Bornet in Bornet & Thuret, 1876, p. 34, Callithamnion elegans
Schousboei in Agardh, 1828, p. 162. Under the international rules of
nomenclature, and probably under any rule, the name Plumaria
must be retained for Stackhouse’s type, P. plumosa and its congeners;
Ptilota founded on the same species, has no standing, and the only
name we find available for the species placed under Plumaria by
Schmitz is Gymnothamnion J. G. Agardh, 1892, p. 27, type Callitham-
nion elegans Schousboe. Accepting this in place of Plumaria Schmitz,
not Stackhouse, it will include Gymnothamnion elegans (Schousboe)
J. G. Agardh, 1892, p. 27; Callithamnion elegans Schousboe in Agardh,
1828, p. 162; Bornet & Thuret, 1876, p. 32, Pl. X; Ptilota Schousboer
Bornet in Bornet & Thuret, 1876, p. 34; Plumaria Schousboer Schmitz,
1896, p. 7. G. sericeum (Harvey) comb. nov.; Prtilota sericea
Harvey,?® 1846-1851, Pl. CXCI; P. elegans Bonnemaison 1828, p. 70;
Plumaria elegans Schmitz, 1889, p. 450. G. Harveyi (Hooker)
comb. nov.; Pétilota Harveyt Hooker, 1845, p. 271; Plumaria Harveyr
Schmitz, 1896, p. 7. G. pellucidum (Harvey) comb. nov.; Ptilota
pellucida Harvey in Hooker & Harvey, 1853-1855, p. 257; Plumaria
pellucida Schmitz, 1896, p. 7; also a new species, described below.
The taxonomy is somewhat complicated; of the five species credited
to this genus, two were published in 1828, Ptilota elegans and Calli-
thamnion elegans; in 1876 Bornet transferred the latter to Ptilota,
but as the specific name elegans was preoccupied, changed it to P.
Schousboeit. In 1896 Schmitz transferred both to Plumaria with
specific names unchanged, but in 1892 J. G. Agardh had used Calli-
thamnion elegans as the type of his new genus Gymnothamnion, hence

18 Fucus sericeus Gmelin, 1768, p. 149, Pl. XV, fig. 3, from Kamtschatka,
can hardly be a Gymnothamnion. See Ruprecht, 1856, p. 337.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 139

in transferring to the latter the other species of Schmitz’s Plumaria,
a new specific name is needed for Ptilota elegans, and we have taken
Harvey’s name as the next in order.

G. bipinnatum sp. nov.; filamentis basalibus circa 20-25 pw diam.,
ramificatione opposita, cellulis diam. 4-5, raro 6-7 longis, membrana
crassa, nodis subconstrictis; ‘axibus erectis basi 20-25 w diam. superne
attenuatis, ad apicem circa 12 yu, cellulis cylindricis vel subclavatis,
inferioribus circa 3 diam. longis, apicem prope 1-1} diam.; ramis
oppositis apice cellulae singulae exeuntibus, parallelis, angula 50°-60°,
rectis vel leviter recurvatis, axi referentibus sed minoribus, raro 15 wu
diam. superantibus; ramorum aliis simplicibus, aliis et pluribus ramu-
los secundatos latere superiore ferentibus; ramulis 1—2-cellularibus,
perraro magis; circumscriptione frondis ovata vel lanceolata; cellulis
terminalibus rotundatis. Filamentis prostratis ramulos rhizoideos
descendentes ferentibus, axibus erectis oppositis, cellula terminali ad
substratum disco affixa. Tetrasporangiis in ramis et ramulis termi-
nalibus, sphaericis vel subovoideis, 30-35 w diam., tripartitis. Plate
IV, fig. 26.

Basal filaments about 20-25 diam., with opposite branching,
cells 4-5 diam. long, rarely 6-7, wall thick, nodes somewhat con-
stricted; erect axes of about the same size near the base as the pros-
trate filaments, diminishing to 12 yw at apex; cells about 3 diam. long
at base, near apex 1-1} diam., cylindrical or slightly clavate, each
bearing at the upper end a pair of opposite branches, forming an
angle of 50-60° with the axis, straight or slightly recurved, similar
to the axis, but averaging smaller, seldom over 15 y diam.; these
branches either simple or more commonly bearing on the upper side,
on part or all of the cells, a second series of branches, 1-2 cells long,
rarely more, 8-10 yu diam.; outline of frond ovate or lanceolate;
terminal cells all rounded. Basal filaments producing, opposite to
the erect axes, rhizoids of one or many cells, the end cell forming a
disk of attachment when it reaches the substratum. The end of a
basal filament sometimes becoming erect and developing into a frond
similar to the erect axes; the erect axis sometimes extending beyond
the pinnation, and after an indefinite number of unbranched cells,
developing a second series of branches; or the prolonged naked axis
descending and forming a prostrate filament bearing erect axes and
rhizoids. Tetrasporangia terminal on the branches of the first and
second orders, spherical or slightly ovoid, 30-35 » diam., tripartite.
Cystocarps? Antheridia? On wall of cave, Gravelly Bay, April,
Hervey, type in Collins herbarium; on Waurdemannia, Harrington

140 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

Sound, Jan., cave, Agar’s Island, July, Aug., shore of Gibbet Island,
Aug., cave, Ducking Stool, Dec., Collins. Tetraspores in April, Aug.
and Dee.

Growing on walls and roofs of caves, or in smaller cavities in rocks,
usually among other algae with a creeping base, such as Rhodochorton
and Spermothamnion. We have found this quite a puzzling form, as
there are three European species, in different genera, of similar size
and habit, and with tetraspores similarly placed. Two of these,
Ptilothamnion pluma Bornet in LeJolis, 1863, p. 118 and Plumaria
Schousboet (Bornet) Schmitz, 1896, p. 7, while differing in cystocarps
and antheridia, are almost identical otherwise, but a comparison of
the plates, Bornet & Thuret, 1876, p. 32, Pl. X, and Bornet & Thuret,
1880, p. 179, Pl. XLVI, shows that the Plumaria has- shorter cells
throughout, and that the branches arise at the upper edge of the cells
of the axis, while in the Ptilothamnion they are distinctly lower.
The Bermuda plant agrees exactly with Plumaria Schousboei in form
and proportions of cells, and place of insertion of branches; on that
account we have placed it in the genus Gymnothamnion, recognizing,
however, that when the sexual fruit is discovered, a different disposi-
tion may be necessary. The uniformly opposite character of the
branching is quite noticeable; even in the prostrate filaments any
other branching is rare and evidently abnormal, though in most
species with opposite branching in the erect parts, the basal part is
apt to vary from this. Moreover, every rhizoid that we have observed
is opposite to an erect axis. Bornet and Thuret, describing P. Schous-
boei, say “ils adherent par des crampons semblables a ceux des Spermo-
thamnion et des Polysiphonia”; but an examination of Pl. X, fig. 1,
shows all the rhizoids opposite to erect axes, while this is not the case
in Spermothamnion flabellatum shown in Pl. VIII, fig. 1. We are led
to keep the Bermuda plant separate from P. Schousboei principally
from the fact that all well developed fronds bear erect branches of a
second order, in luxuriant individuals one such branch from every
cell of a branch of the first order, always on the upper side of the
latter. If these branches were in pairs, the distinction would be less
important, and might mean merely a repetition of the normal branch-
ing in luxuriant individuals, but we have never seen an outgrowth
from the under side of a branch of the first order. Curiously enough,
this mode of branching is identical with that of Antithamnion ptero-
ton (Schousb.) Bornet, 1892, p. 331, Pl. III, figs. 8-9, in regard to
which the author says, “Cette élégante petite Algue ressemble beau-
coup aux Callithamnion pluma et elegans mais elle est plus délicate,

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 141

d’une couleur plus rose. Elle s’en distingue surtout, parce que ses
pinnules, lorsqu’elles sont bien developpées, portent des pinnules de
second ordre sur leur bord superieur et que les tétraspores sont divisés
en croix.” The tetraspores in the Bermuda plant are distinctly
tripartite. As a secondary distinction we would note that a prostrate
axis can become erect and an erect axis prolong itself and either de-
velop a new branch system at some distance from the old, or be trans-
formed into a prostrate axis.

The type specimen of the species is No. 7521 in the Collins her-
barium; from the cave at Gravelly Bay, collected by Hervey in April,
1913.

ANTITHAMNION Nageli.

A. cructatum (Ag.) Nageli, 1847, p. 200; P.B.-A., No. 2191
Callithamnion cruciatum Agardh, 1827, p. 637; Harvey, 1846-51, PI.
CLXIV. Abundant and luxuriant on an old wreck, Castle Harbor,
St. George’s, April, on rock, Spanish Point, March, May, small form
in cave, Gravelly Bay, Dec., Hervey.

Var. radicans (J. Ag.) comb. nov.; 19 P. B.-A., No. 2047; A. crucia-
tum F. radicans Hauck, 1885, p. 71; Callithamnion cruciatum var.
radicans J. G. Agardh, 1841, p. 44. Creeping on perpendicular or
overhanging rocks between tides, North Shore opposite Gibbet
Island, Aug., Collins; Dec., Hervey. The main axis is prostrate,
about 40 uw diam., the cells cylindrical, 2-5 diam. long; near the upper
end of each cell is a pair of opposite branches; whorled branches were
not seen. Successive pairs of branches are not in the same plane,
but are more or less exactly decussate. The lower cell of each branch
is short, no longer than broad, more or less rounded; the following
cells are 24 diam. long, growing shorter upward; the diam. at the
base of the branch, 20-25 u. The short basal cell often bears a long,
simple, rhizoidal branch, the cells up to 10 diam. long, about 15 uw diam.,
of paler color than cells elsewhere in the plant; the terminal cell of
this rhizoid may form a discoid expansion, attaching itself to the
substratum. All normal branches, whether issuing from the upper
or the lower surface of the main filament, turn upwards; their branch-
ing is always alternate, a ramulus from each cell, all nearly or quite

19 This combination occurs in Collins, 1900, p. 48, attributed by error to
J. G. Agardh. No synonymy being given, it can hardly be considered a
publication. The difference from the typical A. cruciatum seems too great
to consider it as a form, as was done by Hauck.

142 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

in the same plane; these branches are of 2 or 3 orders, the ultimate
about 12 diam., the cells about 2 diam. long, nodes more or less
constricted; the end cell is distinctly acuminate or subulate. “ Dru-
senzellen”’ are abundant, borne usually on the inner side of the lower
cell of an ultimate branch, in the same way as a tetrasporangium; they
are spherical, about 20 u diam., or slightly elongate, 18 & 24 u, with
rather thin wall, strongly refringent, yellowish or pale aeruginous
contents. Occasionally the cells of a branch or of a system of branches
assume a spherical form, as if becoming seirospores, but the contents
do not seem to become darker or denser; the end cell rounds the lower
end, but remains pointed above. No fructification was observed.
The plant is very small, the axis seldom over 1 em. long, the branches
hardly 1 mm.; it is possible that this is not the variety radicans of
J. G. Agardh, of which we have not seen type specimens. Descrip-
tions as far as we know have been short and imperfect, which has led
us to describe the Bermuda plant in rather full detail.

Crovania J. G. Agardh.

C. ATTENUATA (Bonnem.) J. G. Agardh, 1842, p. 83; Harvey, 1853,
p. 226, Pl. XX XI. D; P. B.-A., No. 2048; Batrachospermum attenua-
tum Bonnemaison in Agardh, 1824, p. 51, as synonym under Mesogloia
attenuata. Very young plants on Caulerpa, Harris Bay, Jan., Nov.,
plants up to 1 dm. high, washed ashore, Buildings Bay, Feb., March,
Hervey.

SpyrRip1A Harvey.

1. Branching mostly distichous. 3. §S. complanata.
1. Branching radial. 2.
2. Recurved prickles at ends of ramuli. 2. S. aculeata.
2. No recurved prickles. 1. S. filamentosa.

1. S. FruaMEntTosa (Wulf.) Harvey in Hooker, 1833, p. 337;
Harvey, 1846-51, Pl. XLVI; P. B.-A., No. 1897; Fucus filamentosus
Wulfen, 1803, p. 64. Kemp; Tucker’s Town, Feb., Harrington
Sound, Jan., Feb., Nov., Hervey. Abundant, probably everywhere
about the islands. Occasionally handsome plants can be found, but
they are mostly matted and unattractive. The three species of
Spyridia are much alike in habit; but generally easily distinguished
on microscopic examination.

2. §S. acuLEATA (Schimper) Kiitzing, 1843, p. 327; 1862, Pl. LI;

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 143

Ceramium aculeatum Schimper in Decaisne, 1841, p. 179. Kemp;
Merriman; Harris Bay, Nov., Harrington Sound, Aug., Hervey.
Tetraspores in Nov.

Var. BERKELEYANA (Mont.) J. G. Agardh, 1876, p. 272; S. Berke-
leyana Montagne, 1846, p. 141, Pl. XV, fig. 8. Dense tufts on ex-
posed flat rocks at low water, Gravelly Bay, April, Collins, with
tetraspores. In this variety the recurved prickles characteristic of
the species are usually present, but may sometimes be lacking, in
which case it approaches S. filamentosa.

Var. HYPNEOIDES J. G. Agardh, 1876, p. 272; P. B.-A., ‘No. 1946.
Castle Harbor, near Walsingham House, April, Harris Bay, March,
April, Hervey; tetraspores in collections of both months. The
hooked tips of some of the branches, similar to those of Hypnea
musciformis, characterize this form. The specimen marked C.
aculeata in the Kemp herbarium belongs to this variety.

3. S. compLanata J. G. Agardh, 1851, p. 343; 1876, p. 271; P. B.-
A., No. 1947. Harris Bay, Jan., Feb., April, Pink Bay, March,
Hervey; Hungry Bay, Nov., Elbow Bay, Dec., Collins. Growing in
dense tufts on flat rocks near low water. °

CrerRAMIUM Agardh.

1. Cortication continuous. 2.
1. Cortication at nodes only. 3.
2. Corticating cells in longitudinal series. 5. C. clavulatum.
2. Corticating cells not in series. 4. C. nitens.
3. Main axis creeping, attached by rhizoids. 4,
3. Main axis erect. 1. C. tenuissimum.
4. Tetraspores cruciate. 2. ‘C. cruciatum.
4. Tetraspores tripartite. 3. C. transversale.

1. C. TENUISSIMUM (Lyng.) J. G. Agardh, 1851, p. 120; 1876, p.
94; P.B.-A., No. 1898. C. diaphanum var. tenuissimum Lyngbye,
1819, p. 120, Pl. XX XVII. B, fig. 4; C. nodosum Harvey, 1846-51,
Pl. XC. Miss Peniston; Harrington Sound, March, Wadsworth;
Harris Bay, Jan., Heron Bay, March, Harrington Sound, April,
Hervey; Hungry Bay, May, Fairyland, Dec., floating, Collins. This
is the plant that passes by this name on the New England coast, and
also Miss Vickers Algues de la Barbade, No. 199; it does not have
the reniform cells considered characteristic of C. tenuisstmum by
Petersen, 1908, p. 54, Pl. III; but in the present uncertainty of specific
limitations in Ceramium, it had better retain the present name. No
fruit of any kind has been observed by us.

144 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

Var. PATENTISSIMUM (Harvy.) Farlow, 1881, p. 138; C. arachnoideum
var. patentissimum Harvey, 1853, p. 217, Pl. XX XIII. B. Heron
Bay, Jan., Hervey. The frequent wide forkings give a habit quite
different from the typical form, but there is agreement in essentials.

Var. ARACHNOIDEUM (Ag.) J. G. Agardh, 1851, p. 117; 1876, p. 94;
P. B.-A., No. 2098. C. arachnoideum Harvey, 1853, p. 217; C. dia-
phanum var. arachnoideum Agardh, 1824, p. 134. On Cymodocea
and various algae, Grasmere, Feb., Harvey. A very slender and
delicate form, but otherwise like the typical form.

Var. PYGMAEUM (Kiitz.) Hauck, 1888, p. 460; P. B.-A., No. 2193;
Hormoceras pygmaeum Kiitzing, 1862, p. 23, Pl. LXXV: On Codiuwm
decorticatum, Cooper’s Island, Aug., Collins. With tetraspores.

2. C. cruciatum sp. nov.; P.B.-A., No. 2192. Minuta, ad
algas alias repens; filamentis prostratis circa 200 u diam., cylindricis
vel ad nodos leviter constrictis, rhizoidis unicellularibus incoloratis
affixis; filamentis erectis passim ad nodos evolutis; apice filamenti
prostrati assurgente, in filamentum erectum transformato; cellulis
inferne circa 3 diam. longis, superne brevioribus, prope apicem diam-
etro brevioribus; ramulis penultimis 80-100 u diam.; ramis repetite
dichotomis, cellulis cylindricis vel plus minusve ad nodos constrictis;
apicibus forcipatis; corticatione cellulis sensu filamenti elongatis
constante, irregulariter positis, zonam arctam formante margine
inaequali. Protoplasma cellularum inferiorum subcylindricum,
superiorum subsphaericum, fasciis tenuissimis longitudinalibus notata,
raro anastomosantibus, nec longitudinem cellulae aequantibus,
plerumque spatio latitudinem fasciae aequali separatis. Tetra-
sporangiis ovoideis, circa 50 X 354, membrana 6 crassa non in-
clusa, 1-4 ad nodum, cruciatis, modo regulariter, modo decussate;
aut singulis ad nodum, seriem externalem longitudinalem formantibus,
aut pluribus nodum circumdantibus; dimidio sporangii extra corticem
emergente. Plate IV, figs. 27-28.

Minute, creeping on other algae; prostrate filaments of about
200 w diam., cylindrical or slightly constricted at nodes, attached by
unicellular, colorless rhizoids, issuing from the nodes; erect filaments
occasionally arising at nodes; apex of prostrate filament becoming
erect and assuming the character of an erect filament; cells about
3 diam. long below, diminishing towards the apex, to less than one
diam.; penultimate branches 80-100 4 diam.; branches repeatedly
forking, cells cylindrical or with nodes more or less constricted;
apices forcipate; cortication consisting of cells elongate in the direc-
tion of the filament, in no definite order, band narrow, edge uneven.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 145

Protoplast subcylindrical in the lower cells, subspherical in the upper,
marked with a pattern of delicate, longitudinal bands, seldom anasto-
mosing or extending the length of the cell, usually separated by spaces
of about their own width. Tetrasporangia ovoid, about 50 X 354,
excluding wall about 6 thick, 1-4 at a node, cruciate, sometimes
regularly, sometimes decussately; when singly at a node they form an
external longitudinal series; when more than one, they are irregularly
placed about the node; about half of the sporangium projecting
beyond the cortication. On Padina variegata, Gibbet Island, Jan.
16, 1913, Hervey, type in Collins herbarium, No. 7418a; also on
Galaxaura, Gravelly Bay, April, on various algae, Hamilton Harbor,
Dec., Collins.

In habit like the following species, C. transversale, but a larger plant,
and distinct by the division and position of the tetraspores, and the
character of the cortication. Only tripartite tetraspores have been
recorded for any of the numerous species of Ceramiwm, but as other
characters agree, it does not seem desirable to remove it from the
genus.

3. C. transversale sp. nov.; P. B.-A., No. 2049. Minuta, ad
alias algas saxaque repens; filamento prostrato 60-90 uw diam., cel-
lulis sesqui-8 diam. longis, cylindricis vel ad nodos leviter contractis,
rhizoidis unicellularibus, incoloratis affixis, ad nodos singulis pluri-
busve ortis; filamentis erectis passim ad nodos evolutis; filamenti
prostrati apice assurgente, in filamentum erectum transformato;
ramulis penultimis circa 60 diam.; filamentorum erectorum cel-
lulis ad 2 diam. longis, non amplius; prope apicem diametrum
non aequantibus; filamentis erectis repetite dichotomis; cellulis
inferioribus cylindricis, superioribus adparenter brevissime clavatis,
causa corticationis ad apicem; corticatione a parte corticata distinctis-
sima, super seriem cellularum transverse elongatarum series 2 vel
3 cellularum rotundo-angulatarum irregulariter positarum gerente.
Protoplasma uniformiter granulosum vel striis tenuibus, parallelis,
longitudinalibus notatum per totam longitudinem cellulae; in
cellulis inferioribus cylindrica, in superioribus subsphaerica. Cysto-
carpio evoluto ad apicem segmenti 2—5-cellularis, cellulis supra in-
crassatis, cellula summa cellulam imam duplo plusve majore, non-
nullos ramos paucicellulares involucrales, cystocarpios 1—2 includentes
gerente; cystocarpiis adparenter terminalibus, atque axi plerumque
ultra cystocarpios et involucrem protenso, ex cellulas paucas constante,
cellula basali 2-3 diam. longa, ceteris, ut cellulis involucri, vix 1 diam.
Tetrasporangiis tripartitis, ad 60 4 diam., membrana 8 uw crassa non

146 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

inclusa; uno, raro duobus ad nodum, corticatione fere liberis, secun-
dum ramum longitudinaliter seriatis. Plate V, figs. 29-31.

Minute, creeping over other algae or rocks; prostrate filaments
60-90 w diam., cells 13-8 diam. long, cylindrical or slightly con-
stricted at nodes, attached by colorless, unicellular rhizoids issuing
one or more at a node; an erect branch occasionally issuing at a node;
apex of prostrate filament becoming erect and similar to an erect
branch; penultimate branches about 60 y diam.; cells in erect part
not over 2 diam. long, near the apex less than one diam.; repeatedly
forking; lower cells cylindrical, upper apparently very shortly clavate
by the growth of cortication at the upper end; cortication sharply
marked off from uncorticated portion, the lower portion of each band
showing a series of transversely elongate cells passing around the
central cell; the upper part of 2-3 series of irregularly placed roundish-
angular cells. Protoplast uniformly granular, or with slender, paral-
lel, longitudinal striations the whole length of the cell; the protoplast
cylindrical in the lower cells, subspherical in the upper. Cystocarp
borne at the end of a segment of 2-5 cells, which increase in size up-
ward, the upper cell being twice the diam. of the lower or even more;
on this are borne several wide-spread, few-celled involucral branches
with one or two cystocarps between them, the cystocarps appearing
terminal, but with usually an axis extended beyond them and the
involucre, of few cells, the basal cell 2-3 diam. long, the others, as all
the cells in the involucre, hardly 1 diam. long. Tetrasporangia tri-
partite, up to 60» diam. not including the wall 8 uw thick; one, occa-
sionally two at a node, in longitudinal series, nearly free from the
cortication.

On Galaxaura, Spanish Rock, April 10, 1914, Hervey, type in
Collins herbarium, No. 8107. Also occurring on Zonaria variegata,
Harrington Sound, May, on Padina variegata, Agar’s Island, Nov.,
on Thalassia, Fairyland, Dec., Collins; on Ascothamnion, Tucker’s
Town, July, Howe.

The peculiar form of cortication, from which we have taken the
specific name, does not seem to occur in any other species. C. minia-
tum Suhr, resembling it in some respects, has distichous branching, and
small tetrasporangia sessile on both sides of the branches. Specially
characteristic of C. transversale are the serrate outlines near the apices,
due to the sharp limitation of the cortical growth there, and the tetra-
spores unusually large in proportion to the size of the frond. When two
tetrasporangia are formed at a node, they are set side by side, the line
made by the series of single sporangia passing between them. The

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 147

cystocarps appear as if terminal, as the short prolongation of the axis
is liable to be mistaken for an involucral branch. In younger parts
the cells of the basal layer are seldom over 2 diam. long; in older parts
these cells may be up to 8 diam.; the corticating band does not in-
crease in width, but is as narrow and sharply limited in the longest
cells as in the others.

4. C.niTens (Ag.) J. G. Agardh, 1851, p. 130; P. B.-A., No. 1949;
C. rubrum var. nitens Agardh, 1824, p. 136. Harrington Sound, Jan.,
Dec., Hervey; Inlet, Aug., Agar’s Island, Fairyland, Nov., Dec.,
and dredged down to 18 m., Dec., Collins.

5. C. cLavuLatum Agardh in Kunth, 1822, p. 2; P. B.-A., No.
1948; Centroceras clavulatum Harvey, 1853, p. 211, Pl. XX XIII. C.
Rein; Kemp; Wadsworth, Harrington Sound, No. 18. As this
plant is abundant practically everywhere, we give no detail of stations
of our own collecting. It is very variable, and many species have been
proposed in the past, only to be found unworkable; it may be that
some time a successful segregation will be made, but it can hardly
be done with habit characters, which are very inconstant. Tetra-
spores were found in Noy. & Dec., but no other fructification has been
observed by us. In the Kemp herbarium are specimens marked
respectively C. rubrum and C. fastigiatum, which belong to this species.
C. cryptacanthum reported by Moseley is a synonym.

RuopocHorton Nigeli.

1. Saxicolous; prostrate filaments bearing erect filaments.
1. R. speluncarum.
1. Endozoic; in tubes of bryozoans ete. 2. R.membranaceum.

1. R.speluncarum sp. nov. Filamentis prostratis 30-40 p diam.,
membrana 4-5 yp crassa, cellulis 2-3 diam. longis; rhizoideis brevibus
affixis, a parte media cellulae exeuntibus, in discum majorem min-
oremve desinentibus. Filamentis erectis cylindricis vel minime
diminutis apicem versus, e superficie superiore filamenti prostrati
exeuntibus, prope mediam partem cellulae, saepius rhizoideis oppositis,
24-30 » diam., membrana 2-3 yp crassa, cellula inferiore 2-23 diam.
longa, cellulis ceteris 3-4 diam. longis, cellula terminali rotundata;
filamentis erectis aut simplicibus aut ramis paucis alternatis vel
secundis prope apicem munitis. Fructificatio ignota.

Prostrate filaments 30-40 uw diam., wall 4-5 yw thick, cells 2-3 diam.
long, attached by short rhizoidal branches issuing from the middle part

148 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

of a cell, ending below in a larger or smaller disk. Erect filaments
cylindrical or very slightly tapering, issuing from the upper surface
of the prostrate filament, near the middle of a cell, usually opposite
a rhizoid, 24-30 4 diam., walls 2-3 w thick, lower cell 2-23 diam.
long, other cells 3-4 diam. long, terminal cell rounded; erect filaments
sometimes unbranched, sometimes with a few alternate or secund
branches near the apex. Fructification unknown. On rocks between
tides, cave, Agar’s Island, Aug., Nov., Collins.

This plant forms a plush on flat rocks a little above low water mark,
as does R. Rothii (Turton) Nag. in similar stations on the shores of the
North Atlantic, and its manner of branching resembles that of the
latter species but its dimensions are about double. We have ex-
amined many specimens of R. Rothii, from both coasts of North Amer-
ica as well as from Europe, and find very little variation in size among
them. In R. speluncarum the chromatophores are numerous small
granules, usually densely packed, occasionally looser and showing
something like a network. Type in Collins herbarium, No. 8401,
Nov. 23, 1915.

2. KR. MEMBRANACEUM (Magnus) Hauck, 1885, p. 69; Callitham-
nion membranaceum Magnus, 1874, p. 67, Pl. II, figs. 7-15. In bryo-
zoans, Bethel’s Island, Dec., Collins.

Famity GRATELOUPIACEAE.

HatyMEntrA Agardh.

1. Frond many times dichotomous, digitate, cylindrical. 4. H. Agardhii.

1. Frond plane, simple or proliferous. De
2. Thin, not gelatinous. 1. H. bermudensis.
2. Thicker, gelatinous. 3.

3. Large echinate cells in subcortex. 2. H. echinophysa.

3. Few or no echinate cells in subcortex. 3. H. pseudofloresia.

1. H. BERMUDENSIS Collins & Howe, 1916, p. 169; P. B.-A., No.
2050; Plate V, fig. 34, plate VI, fig. 37. In shallow water in clefts of
rocks and among roots of mangroves, often in loose, unattached
masses. Kemp. Aug., as Rhodymenia palmata; Walsingham, Feb.,
Farlow; Oct., Miss Peniston; near Hamilton, June, Tucker’s Town,
July, Howe; Green Bay, March, Wadsworth; Harrington Sound,
Jan., Tucker’s Town, Feb., Dec., Dingle Bay, March, Grasmere,

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 149

March, Old Ferry, April, Hervey; Castle Harbor, April, Tucker’s
Town, May, Collins.

2. H. ecutnopHysa Collins & Howe, 1916, p. 180. Dredged in
31 fathoms off Bermuda by members of the Challenger Expedition,
1873, and reported, Moseley, 1884, p. 117, as Kallymenia reniformis
J. Ag. Type and only specimen in herbarium of Royal Botanic
Garden, Kew, England.

3. H. PSEUDOFLORESIA Collins & Howe, 1916, p. 177; P. B.-A.,
No. 2099; Plate V, fig. 35, plate VI, fig. 36. Faxon; Feb., Farlow;
Green Bay, Feb., Shark’s Hole, March, Wadsworth; Castle Harbor
near Tucker’s Town, April, Collins; Walsingham, Jan., Hervey;
Aug., H. A. Cross. At Castle Harbor in narrow shaded clefts of
rocks, well below low water mark; at Walsingham loose and unat-
tached, the older parts darker and coarser than the young growth.

The three preceding species show some superficial resemblance in
habit, but we consider them distinct. Full details will be found in
Collins & Howe, 1916.

4. H. Acarputt De Toni, 1905, p. 1543; H. decipiens of American
authors, not of J. Ag. Oct., Miss Peniston; W. Faxon; Castle Harbor,
in 2-3 meters water, July, Howe; at low water mark, under over-
hanging rocks, shore near Gibbet Island, Aug., Collins.

CryPTonEeMia J. G. Agardh.

1. Midrib distinct. 2. C. luxurians.
1. No midrib. 1. C. crenulata.

1. C. crEnuLaTa J. G. Agardh, 1847, p. 11; Kiitzing, 1869, PI.
XXXI; P.B.-A., No. 2100. Kemp; Gravelly Bay, April, Collins,
Dec., Hervey. Insomewhat matted masses in the cave at this station,
on a sand-covered rock; a smaller form than that commonly found in
Florida.

2. C. Luxurtans (Ag.) J. G. Agardh, 1851, p. 228; Sphaerococcus
Lactuca var. luxurians Agardh, 1822, p. 232; Euhymenia luxurians
Kiitzing, 1869, Pl. XXXII. Kemp, as Botryoglossum platycarpum;
Cooper’s Island, Miss Wilkinson; Buildings Bay, Jan., Hervey.
Apparently not common.

150 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

Famity DUMONTIACEAE.

DuprRESNAYA Bonnemaison.

1. Peripheral filaments cylindrical or nearly so. 1. D. crassa.
1. Peripheral filaments distinctly moniliform. 2:
2. Auxiliary cell terminating the auxiliary branch. 3. D. caribaea.
2. Auxiliary cell in middle of auxiliary branch. 2. D. bermudensis.

1. D. crassa Howe, 1905, p. 572, Pl. XXVIII, XXIX, figs. 12-26;
P. B.-A., Nos. 1900, 2196. Castle Harbor, Spanish Point, July,
Howe; Castle Harbor, A. E. Wight in Farlow herb.; Salt Kettle,
Feb., Buildings Bay, March, Spanish Point, March, Hervey; Shelly
Bay, April, Collins. The plants from Buildings Bay, Spanish Point
and Shelly Bay were washed ashore; at Salt Kettle, Paget, it grew just
below low water mark; at the type station in Castle Harbor it grew
at 3 m. depth at low water. It varies much in habit, from the form
with short, stout branches, figured by Howe, to forms with slender,
acute branches; from generally rounded outline to loosely pyramidal;
from forms so dense that when spread out on paper they cover it
continuously, without interstices between the branches, to quite
open specimens, all branches distinct. The largest plant noted was
about 25 em. high and 15 em. broad. Howe had only cystocarpic
plants when describing the species, but we have found antheridia
equally abundant, always on separate individuals. The antheridia
are formed near the ends of the periphera! filaments, which here bear
short, erect lateral branches, usually covered with minute densely
branched ramuli of a few cells each, the terminal cell becoming the
antheridium. According to the length of the axis and the amount of
branching in the ramulus, the antheridia may be cylindrical, conical
or ovoid. Sometimes the antheridia are so abundant on the peri-
pheral filaments as to form a dense continuous mass, through which it
is difficult to see the filaments, except the tips, which project beyond the
antheridia. Both antheridial and cystocarpic plants were distributed
as P. B.-A., No. 1900. Some forms are habitually not unlike D. caribaea
and D. bermudensis, but are easily distinguished microscopically by
the character of the peripheral filaments. It is often overgrown with
Acrochaetium corymbiferum, and when both have abundant antheridia,
it may be perplexing to one unfamiliar with the species.

2. D. BERMUDENSIS Setchell, 1912, p. 244, Pl. XXVII, fig. 8;
P. B.-A., No. 2195. Cooper’s Island, Feb., Farlow, washed ashore
in abundance; St. George’s, washed ashore, March, Hervey.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. yl

3. D. cartBaEa (J. Ag.) Setchell, 1912, p. 241, Pl. XXVI; Calo-
siphonia caribaea J. G. Agardh, 1899, p. 84. Cooper’s Island, Feb.,
Farlow; washed ashore in abundance. This species and the pre-
ceding are very much alike in habit, and can be distinguished with
certainty only by microscopic examination of plants in fruit.

These three species of Dudresnaya illustrate the possibilities of algae
collecting. D. bermudensis is known only from Bermuda, from the
material collected by Farlow on a single day in 1881 at Cooper’s
Island, and from a single collecting at St. George’s in 1916 by Hervey;
the Bermudian material of D. caribaea was all collected on the same
day in 1881, and only one other station, Tortugas, Florida, is known;
Calosiphonia verticillifera was collected at the same day and place,
and is known elsewhere from the Tortugas station only. Material
of all three species was abundant that day, but there is no record of
any one of the species since, except the single collecting of D. bermuden-
sis, though we have both been on the watch for them for the past five
years, and have made visits to Cooper’s Island at the same time of
year as Farlow’s collecting and at other times, to search for them.
On the other hand we have found D. crassa, not known until 1905, in
abundance at distant stations.

Famity NEMASTOMACEAE.

CALOSIPHONIA Crouan.

C. VERTICILLIFERA (J. Ag.) Setchell, 1912, p. 247, Pl. XXVIII;
Helminthiopsis verticillifera J. G. Agardh, 1899, p. 98. Cooper’s
Island, Feb., Farlow. As noted under Dudresnaya, this is one of the
three species of handsome red fleshy algae, found in abundance on the
same day in 1881, at Cooper’s Island, and not observed since. In
habit it is not unlike Dudresnaya, but is distinguished on microscopic
examination by the shorter and stouter peripheral branches, forming
a definite cortical layer.

PiatomMa Schmitz.
P. cyctocotpa (Mont.) Schmitz, 1889, p. 453; Halymenia cyclo-

colpa Montagne, 1840, p. 163; 1846, p. 116, Pl. XI, fig. b; Nema-
stoma cervicornis J. G. Agardh, 1879, Pl. IV, figs. 1-4. Cooper’s

pa COLLINS AND HERVEY.

Island, Feb., Farlow, washed ashore; Castle Harbor, Gravelly Bay,
April, Collins; Gravelly Bay, Dec., Hervey. Two large plants were
collected in a narrow “chasm”’ in the rocky shore between Tucker’s
Town and Walsingham House, growing in company with Halymenia
bermudensis, but while the latter grew plentifully at low water mark,
the Platoma began about 5 dm. below, and seemed to extend down.
Farlow’s plants and ours from the cave at Gravelly Bay are smaller
and of firmer substance; the Castle Harbor plants larger and looser,
probably on account of being more developed.

Genus incertae sedis.

PorPuyripium Niageli.

P. cruENTUM (Eng. Bot.) Nageli, 1849, pp. 71 & 139, Pl. IV. H;
Tremella cruenta Eng., Bot., 1807, Pl. 1800. Roadside, Jan., Farlow.
Forms a bright red film on the ground; is widely distributed and in
northern countries is common in hothouses. It has been placed by
different authors among green, blue-green and red algae respectively,
but the latest investigations incline to the last. See Brand, 1908,
p. 413.

SUMMARY.
Species, Species,
Class. Genera. marine. fresh water.
Myxophyceae 43 48 40
Chlorophyceae 56 95 28
Phaeophyceae 24 56
Rhodophyceae 62 143
Total 185 342 68

Total species 410

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 153

List oF WorkKS TO WHICH REFERENCE 18 MADE.

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THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 167

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THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 171

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

172

FIGURE
FIGURE
FIGURE
FIGURE

FIGURE
FIGURE
FIGURE

FIGURE

Le eat a

one.

COLLINS AND HERVEY.

PLATE I.

Oedogonium consociatum Collins & Hervey.
Large cluster of young filaments. 255 X 1.
Smaller cluster of same. 255 X 1.

Single filament with attached basal cell. 550 X 1.
Filament with oogonium (immature). 550 X 1.

Chaetomorpha minima Collins & Hervey.
Filament of two cells. 800 X 1.

Filament of five cells. 550 X 1.
Filament of five emptied cells. 550 X 1.

Nitophyllum Wilkinsoniae Collins & Hervey.

Whole plant. +4 nat. size.

PLATE I.

174

FIGURE 9.

Ficure 10.
Figure 11.

Figure 12.

Figure 13.
FIGURE 14.

COLLINS AND HERVEY.

PLATE II.

Nitophyllum Wilkinsoniae Collins & Hervey.
Margin of frond. 120 X 1.

Chondria curvilineata Collins & Hervey.

Portion of branch with ramulus and terminal leaves.

Optical section of branch. 255 X 1.

Chondria polyrhiza Collins & Hervey.
Branch with rhizoids and tetraspores. 240 X 1.

Lophosiphonia Saccorhiza Collins & Hervey.

Tip of erect axis. 600 X 1.
Ramulus with tetraspores. 600 X 1.

255 X 1.

)
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ase -
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s 9 aN cl
re 0

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Fuate II.

176

Figure 15.
FicureE 16.
Figure 17.

Fiaure 18.
FIGuRE 19.
FIGURE 20.
FIGURE 21.

FIGURE 22.

COLLINS AND HERVEY.

PLATE III.

Lophosiphonia Saccorhiza Collins & Hervey.

Tip of erect axis with antheridium and leaves. 330 X 1.
Cystocarp. 330 X< 1.
Prostrate filament with rhizoids. 120 X 1.

Lophosiphonia bermudensis Collins & Hervey.
Prostrate filament with rhizoids and erect branches. 160 X 1.
Antheridia. 160 X 1.

Cystocarp. 160 X 1.
Tetrasporangia. 160 X 1.

Ceramothamnion Codii H. M. Richards.

Lateral union of two rhizoids from same node. 310 X 1.

Prac lide

FIGURE 23.

FIGuRE 24.
Figure 25.

FIGURE 26.

FIGURE 27.

FIGuRE 28.

COLLINS AND HERVEY.

PLATE IV.

Ceramothamnion Codii H. M. Richards.
Union of three rhizoids from different nodes. 310 X 1.

Dasya spinuligera Collins & Hervey.

Branch with ramelli and young and mature stichidia. 120 X 1.
Cross section of branch. 160 X 1.

Gymnothamnion bipinnatum Collins & Hervey.

Prostrate filament with two erect and two descending axes.
300 X 1.

Ceramium cruciatum Collins & Hervey.

Prostrate filament with rhizoids and base of erect filament.
(ay S< Ike

Branch with tetraspores. 120 X 1.

8) (3) ee >

ge
S
C3)
1S

eI
eS) x
A

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o6
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Puate IV.

180

FIGURE 29.
FIGURE 30.
FIGuRE 31.

FIGURE 32.
FIGURE 33.

FIGURE 34.

FIGURE 35.

COLLINS AND HERVEY.

PLATE V.

Ceramium transversale Collins & Hervey.

Prostrate filament with erect filament and rhizoids.

Erect filament with branch. 255 X 1.
Branch with tetraspores. 160:.X 1.

Nitophyllum Wilkinsoniae Collins & Hervey.

Section of frond through a sorus. 160 X 1.
Superficial view of a sorus. 160 X 1.

Halymenia bermudensis Collins & Howe.
Cross section. 255 X 1.

Halymenia pseudofloresia Collins & Howe.
Cross section. 130 X 1.

120 X 1.

G

a BS
>

Ve_E_nKC

—)

PLATE V.

FIGURE 36.

FIGURE 37.

FIGURE 38.
FIGURE 39.

COLLINS AND HERVEY.

PLATE VI.

Halymenia pseudofloresia Collins & Howe.
Whole frond, 2 nat. size.
Halymenia bermudensis Collins & Howe.
Whole frond. 12 X 1.
Griffithsia tenuis Agardh.

Tip of tetrasporic branch. 160 X 1.
Node with antheridia. 300 X 1.

Habit figures were drawn from herbarium specimens, all others by camera
lucida. Figures 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 22, and 23 are by F. D.
Lambert; the others by A. C. Walton.

36

Puatse VI.

:

INDEX.

Synonyms are printed in italics, also names of species, etc., not found in
Bermuda, but which are incidentally mentioned. Full-face type indicates

the principal reference for a species.

Acanthophora, 122.
spicifera, 62, 122.
Thierii, 122.

Acetabularia, 53.
crenulata, 9, 53.
Schenckii, 53.

Achnanthes bijuga, 31.

Acicularia, 53.
Schenckii, 12, 53.

Acrochaetium, 96.
barbadense, 97.
corymbiferum, 97, 150.
crassipes, 96, 98.
Dufourii, 96.
Hypneae, 98.
leptonema, 97.
Nemalionis, 98.
Sagraenaum, 97.
Thureti, 98.

Acrocarpus spathulatus, 104.

Aegagropila repens, 48.

Alsidium Blodgettii, 125.

Anacystis marginata, 16.

Anabaena, 24.
flos-aquae, 24.
torulosa, 24.
variabilis, 24.

Anadyomene, 50.
flabellata, 50.
stellata, 50.

Antithamnion, 141.
cruciatum, 11, 141.

var. radicans, 9, 141.
pteroton, 140.

Aphanothece microscopica, 16.

Apjohnia tropica, 52.
Ascocyclus, 72.
orbicularis, 72.
Ascophyllum, 78.
nodosum, 78.
Asparagopsis, 117.
Delilei, 117.
taxiformis, 117.
Asperococcus intricatus, 74.
sinuosus, 73.
Avrainvillea, 57.

longicaulis, 57.
Mazei, 57.
nigricans, 57.
var. fulva, 57.
sordida, 57.

Bangia, 94.
elegans, 95.
fuscopurpurea, 94.
Bangiaceae, 94.
Bangiopsis subsimplex, 95.
Batophora, 54.
Oerstedi, 54.
var. occidentalis, 54.
Batrachospermum attenuatum, 142.
Blastophysa, 38.
rhizopus, 38.
Blodgettia Borneti, 48.
confervoides, 48.
Bonnemaisoniaceae, 117.
Bostrychia, 128.
calamistrata, 129.
Montagnei, 128, 129.
rivularis, 128.
scorpioides, 129.
sertularia, 129.
tenella, 129.
forma densa, 129.
forma tenuior, 129.
Tuomeyt, 125.
Botryoglossum platycarpum, 149.
Brachycladia marginata, 102.
Brachytrichia, 28.
maculans, 28.
Bryopsidaceae, 60.
Bryopsis, 60.
Balbisiana var. Lamourouxii, 62.
Duchassaingii, 60.
forma filicina, 61.
Harveyana, 61, 62.
hypnoides, 60.
forma prolongata, 60.
Leprieurii, 61, 62.
pachynema, 51.
pennata, 61, 95.
var. Leprieurii, 62.

186 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

var. secunda, 62.
plumosa, 61.
var. secunda, 62.
Byssus aureus, 41.

Callithamnion, 136.
byssoideum, 137.
var. jamaicense, 136.
cordatum, 137.
corymbosum, 136.
cruciatum, 141.
var. radicans, 141.
elegans, 138, 140.
gorgoneum, 132.
Halliae, 9, 10, 136.
Hookeri, 95, 136.
investiens, 132.
membranaceum, 148.
Nemalionis, 98.
pluma, 140.
roseum, 136.
spongiosum, 136.
tenue, 135.
thyrsigerum, 135.
Caloglossa, 116.
Leprieuril, 11, 106, 116.
mnioides, 116.
Calosiphonia, 151.
caribaea, 151.
verticillifera, Pa, allsnle
Calothrix, 27.
aeruginea, 27.
confervicola, 27.
crustacea, 27.
fusco-violacea, 27, 95.
parasitica, 27.
pilosa, 27.
scopulorum, 27.
Castagnea, 74.
mediterranea, 74, 75, 76.
virescens, 75, 76.
Zosterae, 71, 74, 75.
Catagnymene pelagica, 20.
Catenella, 105.
Opuntia, 106.
var. pinnata, 11, 18, 105.
pinnata, 105.
Caulerpa, 62.
Ashmeadit, 66.
chemnitzia var. occidentalis, 65.
clavifera, 65.
crassifolia, 64, 65, 95.
forma laxior, 64.
forma mexicana, 64.
cupressoides, 66.
var. ericifolia, 66.

var. mamillosa, 66.
erictfolia, 66.
fastigiata, 63.
var. confervoides, 63.
laetevirens, 66.
mamillosa, 66.
mexicana, 64.
peltata, 65.
pinnata forma laxior, 65.
plumaris forma longiseta, 65.
prolifera, 63.
forma obovata, 63.
forma zosterifolia, 64.
pusilla, 63.
racemosa, 64, 65.
var. clavifera, 65.
var. laetevirens, 66.
var. occidentalis, 65.
var. uvifera, 65.
sertularioides, 11, 64, 65.
forma brevipes, 65.
forma longiseta, 65.
taxifolia, 65.
verticillata, 11, 63.
Caulerpaceae, 62.
Centroceras clavulatum, 147.
Ceramiaceae, 32.
Ceramium, 143.
aculeatum, 143.
arachnoideum, 144.
var. patentissimum, 144.
clavulatum, 96, 98, 147.
confervoides, 69.
cruciatum, 144.
cryptacanthum, 147.

diaphanum var. arachnoideum, 144.

var. tenwissimum, 148.
fastigiatum, 147.
mintatum, 146.
nitens, 9, 147.
nodosum, 148.
ocellatum, 130.
roseum, 136.
rubrum, 147.

var. nitens, 147.
tenuissimum, 143.

var. arachnoideum, 144.

var. patentissimum, 144.

var. pygmaeum, 144.
transversale, 145.

Ceramothamnion, 134.
Codi, 18, 134.

Chaetomorpha, 41.
aerea forma Linum, 42.
brachygona, 42.
californica, 41.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 187

crassa, 42.

geniculata, 42.

gracilis, 42.

Linum, 42.

minima, 41.
Chaetophoraceae, 38.
Champia, 115.

parvula, 9, 115.
Chantransia barbadensis, 97.

collopoda, 37, 96.

corymbifera, 97.

crassipes, 96.

Dufourii, 96.

efilorescens forma Thuretti, 98.

Hypneae, 98.

leptonema, 97.

Nemalionis, 98.

Thuretiz, 98.
Chara, 67.

gymnopus var. Berteroi, 67.
Characeae, 67.
Chlamydomonas, 30.
Chlorochytrium Cohnti, 31.
Chlorocystis, 31.

Cohnu, 31.

Chlorodesmis vaucheriaeformis, 62.

Chlorogloea, 17.
tuberculosa, 17.
Chlorophyceae, 29.
Chondria, 120.
atropurpurea, 121.
curvilineata, 8, 13, 120.
dasyphylla, 121
obtusa var. paniculata, 120.
parvula, 115.
polyrhiza, 10, 113, 121.
succulenta, 121.
Chorda Lomentaria, 73.
Chroococcaceae, 14.
Chroococcus, 14.
membraninus, 14.
turgidus, 14.
Chroothece, 14.
eryptarum, 15.
Richteriana forma marina, 14.
Chrysymenia, 113.
Agardhii, 113.
dichotomo-flabellata, 110.
Enteromorpha, 114.
halymenioides, 110, 114.
Lomentaria, 114.
pyriformis, 114.
uvaria, 11, 114.
Chylocladia Albertisii, 114.
Baileyana var. filiformis, 115.
parvula, 115.

rigens, 113.
rosea, 113.
Cladophora, 43.
brachyclona, 45.
catenifera, 48, 95.
constricta, 44.
corallicola, 45.
erispula, 44.
ervstallina, 27, 46.
delicatula, 44.
expansa, 28, 45.
fascicularis, 46.
flavescens, 45.
flexuosa, 45.
fracta, 49.
var. marina, 45.
frascatil, 49.
fuliginosa, 48.
glaucescens, 46.
heteronema, 45.
Howel, 48.
luteola, 44.
Macallana, 46.
patens, 46.
piscinae, 46, 47.
repens, 48.
rigidula, 47.
Sagraeana, 97.
trichotoma, 48.
utriculosa, 47, 48.
Cladophoraceae, 41.
Cladophoropsis, 49.
membranacea, 49, 106.
Cladosiphon mediterraneus, 74, 76.
Cladostephus dubius, 101.
Closterium, 29.
Leibleini, 29.
moniliferum, 29.
Codiaceae, 54.
Codiolum polyrhizum, 50.
Codium, 54.
adhaerens, 55.
decorticatum, Uh sie, ae: 70, 98,
144.
var. clavatum, 56.
elongatum, 55.
difforme, 59.
isthmocladum, 57.
intertextum, 54.
repens, 59.
tomentosum, 20, 24, 41, 55, 134.
Coelarthrum, 114.
Albertisii, 9, 114.
Coelochondria, 121.
Colpomenia, 73.
sinuosa, 12, 73.

188 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

Compsopogon subsimplex, 95.

Conferva arbuscula, 131.
carnea, 94.
clavaeformis, 53.
corymbosa, 136.
crassa, 42.
crystallina, 46.
expansa, 45.
fascicularis, 46.
flexuosa, 33, 45.
fracta, 49.
fulvescens, 68.
fusca, 72.
fuscopurpurea, 94.
hieroglyphica, 43.
Hookeri, 136.
Linum, 42.
membranacea, 49.
mirabilis, 25.
repens, 48.
riparia, 43.
simplex, 124.
tomentosa, 55.
utricularis, 51.
Wittrockit, 32.

Corallina conglutinata, 58.
cylindrica, 132.
flabellum, 58.
marginata, 102.
monilis, 59.
obtusata, 102.
tridens, 59.

Tuna, 59.

Cordylecladia, 113.
trregularis, 113.
rigens, 113.

Corticularia arcta, 69.

Cosmarium, 29.
botrytis, 30.
Cucumis, 29.
granatum, 29.
pseudonitidulum, 29.
subcucumis, 29.

Crouania, 142.
attenuata, 11, 142.

Cryptoglaena, 28.
americana, 28.

Cryptoglenaceae, 28.

Cryptonemia, 149.
crenulata, 149.
luxurians, 149.

Cylindrocapsa, 35.
geminella, 35.

var. minor, 35.
involuta, 35.
Cylindrocapsaceae, 35.

Cystoclonium purpurascens, 71.

Cystoseira concatenata, 78.

Dasya, 130.

arbuscula, 131.

forma subarticulata, 131.

corymbifera, 131.

Delilet, 117.

elegans, 130.

mucronata, 125.

ocellata, 130.

pedicellata, 11, 130, 131.

punicea, 131.

ramosissima, 131.

spinuligera, 9, 130.

Tumanowicai, 125.

venusta, 131.

Wurdemanni, 131.
Dasycladaceae, 53.
Dasycladus, 53.

clavaeformis, 53.

occidentalis, 54.
Delesseria Hypoglossum, 116.

Leprieurti, 116.
Delesseriaceae, 115.
Derbesia, 62.

Lamourouxu, 62.

marina, 62.

tenuissima, 62.

vaucheriaeformis, 62.
Derbesiaceae, 62.
Dermocarpa, 17.

Farlowti, 18.

Leibleinii var. pelagica, 20.

prasina, 18.

solitaria, 17.
Desmidiaceae, 29.
Dichosporangium repens, 74.
Dichothrix, 28.

Baueriana, 28.

fucicola, 28.
Dichotomosiphon, 67.

pusillus, 67, 123.
Dictyopteris, 88.

delicatula, 88.

Justii, 12, 16, 62, 71, 88, 97.

plagiogramma, 88.
Dictyosphaeria, 50.

favulosa, 50.
Dictyota, 88.

acutiloba, 91.

Bartayresii, 90.

Bartayresiana, 90.

Brongniartii, 92.

cervicornis, 90.

ciliata, 91, 98, 96.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 189

crenulata, 91, 92.
dentata, 91, 92, 93.
dichotoma, 89, 92.
divaricata, 90, 91.
fasciola, 89, 90.
indica, 89.
linearis, 89, 91.
Mertensii, 92.
subdentata, 92.
variegata, 85, 87.
volubilis, 90.
Dictyotaceae, 84.
Digenea, 124.
simplex, 12, 124.
Dilophus, 93.
guineensis, 12, 93.
Diplochaete, 38.
solitaria, 38.
Dudresnaya, 150.
bermudensis, 12, 150, 151.
caribaea, 12, 150, 151.
crassa, 9, 11, 97, 150, 151.
Dumontia calvadosii, 98.
Dumontiaceae, 150.

Ectocarpaceae, 68.
Ectocarpus, 68.
acanthotdes, 69.
arctus, 69.
confervoides, 69.
coniferus, 69.
crinitus, 77.
Duchassaingianus, 70.
elachistaeformis, 70.
elegans, 70.
Hooperi, 68.
indicus, 70.
luteolus, 71.
Mitchellae, 69, 95.
parasiticus, 71.
Rallsiae, 71.
Sandrianus, 70.
stliculosus, 69.
forma arctus, 69.
Vidovichii, 77.
virescens, 69.
Encoeliaceae, 73.
Endoderma, 39.
filiforme, 39.
viride, 39.
Enteromorpha, 32.
compressa, 33.
flexuosa, 33.
forma submarina, 34.
Hopkirkit, 33.
intestinalis, 34.

var. tenuis, 34.
marginata, 33.
minima, 33.
percursa, 33.
plumosa, 33.
prolifera, 33.

Entocladia viridis, 39.
Entophysalis, 16.
granulosa, 16.
Ernodesmis, 52.
verticillata, 12, 52.
Erythrocladia, 95.
subintegra, 95.
Erythrotrichia, 94.
carnea, 94.
ceramicola, 94.
Eucheuma, 106.
denticulatum, 10, 11, 106.
Gelidium, 11, 106.
isiforme, 106.
spinosum, 106.
Euchondria, 122.
Eudesme virescens, 75.
Euhymenia luxurians, 149.
Euliagora, 99.
Euptilota, 138.

Falkenbergia, 122.
Hillebrandi, 122.
Fischerella, 26.
ambigua, 26.
Fucaceae, 78.
Fucus, 79.
acicularis, 105.
bacciferus, 81.
ceranoides, 88.
chemnitzia var. peltatus, 65.
clavifer, 65.
confervoides, 109.
corneus, 103.
crinalis, 104.
cupressoides, 66.
dasyphyllus, 121.
denticulatus, 106.
ericifolius, 66.
filamentosus, 142.
foliosissimus, 83.
gelatinosus, 119.
hypoglossoides, 116.
lendigerus, 82.
linifolius, 81.
multipartitus, 110.
musciformis, 112.
natans, 81.
nodosus, 78.
obtusus, 119.

190 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

papillosus, 118.
pavonius, 86.
plumosus, 137, 138.
Poitei, 110, 118.
proliferus, 63.
pseudociliatus, 91.
pusillus, 104.
racemosus, 65.
rigidus, 108.
sericeus, 138.
sertularioides, 65.
spiciferus, 122.
spinosus, 116.
taxifolius, 65.
taxiformis, 117.
tenellus, 129.
wvarius, 113.
uvifer, 65.
vesiculosus, 79.
Wrightti, 109.

Galaxaura, 101.
cylindrica, 102.
fasciculata, 102.
fastigiata, 102.
flagelliformis, 102.
fruticulosa, 102.
lapidescens, 102.
marginata, 102.
obtusata, 11, 102.
ramulosa, 102.
squalida, 70, 102, 132.
rugosa, 102.

Gelidiaceae, 103.

Gelidiopsis, 108.
gracilis, 105.
rigida, 108.

Gelidium, 103.
corneum, 103.
crinale, 103.

var. spathulatum, 104.
pulvinatum, 104.
pusillum, 11, 17, 104.

var. conchicola, 104.
repens, 104.
rigidum var. radicans, 108.
spathulatum, 104.

Geminella, 31.

scalariformis var. marina, 12, $1.

Gigartina, 105.
acicularis, 105.
Teedii, 105.
Gigartinaceae, 105.
Gloeocapsa, 15.
ambigua var. fusco-lutea, 15.
atrata, 15.

oa

fusco-lutea, 15.
montana, 15.
Gloeothece, 15.
confluens, 15.
membranacea, 15.
rupestris, 15.
Globulina atrata, 15.
Gloiococcus, 40.
mucosus, 40.
Gomontia, 50.
polyrhiza, 50.
Gomontiaceae, 50.
Goniotrichum, 95.
elegans, 95.
Humphreyi, 95.
Gonium glaucum, 16.
Goralia, 99.
Gracilaria, 108.
armata, 109.
compressa, 109.
cornea, 109.
confervoides, 109.
damaecornis, 109.

dichotomo-flabellata, 11, 110, 111.

divaricata, 109.
ferox, 109.
horizontalis, 12, 111.
multipartita, 110.
Poitei, 109.
Textortvi, 110.
Wrightii, 109.
Grateloupiaceae, 148.
Griffithsia, 134.
monilis, 135.
Schousboei, 135.
tenuis, 9, 135.
thyrsigera, 135.
Gymnothamnion, 137.
bipinnatum, 139.
elegans, 138.
Harveyt, 138.
pellucidum, 138.
sericeum, 138.

Haematococcus insignis, 40.
Haliseris plagiogramma, 88.
polypodioides, 88.
Halimeda, 59.
incrassata, 59.
forma monilis, 60.
forma typica, 59.
forma tripartita, 59.
Monile, 60.
forma cylindrica, 60.
forma robusta, 60.
simulans, 59.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 191

tridens, 59. ]
forma gracilis, 60.
forma tripartita, 59.
Tuna, 59.
Halymenia, 148.
Agardhii, 9, 149.

bermudensis, 8, 11, 39, 148, 152.

cyclocolpa, 151.

decipiens, 148.

echinophysa, 149.

pseudofloresia, 11, 71, 149.
Hapalosiphon, 26.

intricatus, 26.
Haplospora Vidovichti, 77.
Hassallia, 26.

byssoidea, 26.

Helminthiopsis verticillifera, 151.

Helminthocladia, 98.
calvadosii, 10, 70, 71, 97, 98.
divaricata, 98.
purpurea, 98.

Helminthocladiaceae, 96.

Helminthora divaricata, 98.

Herpochondria, 122.

Herposiphonia, 125.
pecten-veneris, 126.
secunda, 126.
tenella, 126.

Heterospora, 77.
Vidovichii, 9, 77.

Heterosiphonia, 131.
Wurdemanni, 131.

Himanthalia, 78.

Hormoceras pygmaeum, 144.

Hormospora geminella, 35.
scalariformis, 32.

Hormothamnion, 24.
convolutum, 24.

Hormotrichum bermudianum, 32.

Hutchinsia obscura, 128.
opaca, 124.
periclados, 125.
secunda, 126.
tenella, 126.

Hydrococcus marinus, 16.

Hyella, 17.
caespitosa, 17.

Hydroclathrus, 73.
cancellatus, 12, 73.

Hydrocoleum, 23.
comoides, 23.
glutinosum, 23.
lyngbyaceum, 23.

var. rupestre, 23.

Hypnea, 111.

cervicornis, 112.

cornuta, 113.

musciformis, 9, 112, 148.

spinella, 112.
Hypoglossum, 116.

hypoglossoides, 116.

W oodwardi, 116.

Kallymenia, 105.
perforata, 12, 105.
reniformis, 149.

Laurencia, 117.
cervicornis, 118, 134.
dasyphylla, 119, 121.
gemmifera, 118.
implicata, 118, 120.
antricata, 119.
obtusa, 119.

var. gelatinosa, 119.

var. gracilis, 119.
paniculata, 120.
papillosa, 118.
perforata, 118.
Poitei, 118.
setacea, 119.
tuberculosa, 118.

Leibleinia, 21.

Liagora, 99.
corymbosa, 99.
dubia, 101.
elongata, 97, 99.
pectinata, 100.
pulverulenta, 100.
valida, 99.

Lomentaria, 115.
uncinata, 115.

var. filiformis, 115.

Lophosiphonia, 126.
bermudensis, 126.
obscura, 128.
Saccorhiza, 9, 127.
subadunca, 127.

Lyngbya, 21.
confervoides, 18, 21, 39.
Lagerheimu, 22.
lutea, 22.
majuscula, 21.
Meneghiniana, 18, 21.
semiplena, 22.

Mastigocoleus, 26.
testarum, 26.

Merismopedium, 16.
convolutum, 16.
glaucum, 16.

Meristotheca, 106.

192 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

Duchassaingil, 106.
Mesogloia attenuata, 142.
Chordariae, 74.
Griffithsiana, 74.
vermicularis, 74.
virescens, 75.
var. zostericola, 75.
Zosterae, 75.
Mesogloiaceae, 74.
Mesotaenium, 30.
Endlicherianum, 30.
Microchaete, 25.
vitiensis, 25.
Microcoleus, 23.
chthonoplastes, 23.
corymbosus, 28.
tenerrimus, 23.

vaginatus var. monticola, 23.

Microcystis, 16.
marginata, 16.
microspora, 16.

Microspora, 32.
Willeana, 32.
Wittrockui, 32.

Microthamnion, 40.
Kuetzingianum, 40.

Monostroma, 34.
latissimum, 34, 94.
orbiculatum, 34.

Murrayella, 125.
periclados, 125.

Myriocladia Zosterae, 75.

Myrionema orbiculare, 72.

Myriotrichia, 74.
repens, 74.

Myriotrichiaceae, 74.

Myxophyceae, 14.

Naccaria, 103.
corymbosa, 10, 11, 103.
Wigghii, 103.

Nemacystus, 76.

Nemalion purpureum, 98.

Nemastoma cervicornis, 151.

Nemastomaceae, 151.

Neomeris, 53.
annulata, 9, 53.

Kelleri, 53.

Nitophyllum, 115.
marginatum, 116.
venulosum, 116. 4
Wilkinsoniae, 9, 115.

Nostoe, 25.
ciniflonum, 25.
commune, 25.

Nostochaceae, 24.

Ochtodes filiformis, 109.
Oedogoniaceae, 36.
Oedogonium, 36.
consociatum, 36.
Itzigsohnil, 29, 31, 38.
inversum, 38.
pachyandrium, 37.
Pringsheimii, 36.
Oncobyrsa, 16.
marina, 16.
Oocystis, 31.
Borgei, 31.
Oscillatoria, 19.
amoena, 20.
amphibia, 20.
Bonnemaisoni, 19.
Corallinae, 20.
formosa, 20.
laetevirens, 20.
longearticulata, 20.
margaritifera, 19.
miniata, 19.
nigro-viridis, 19.
tenuis var. tergestina, 20.
Oscillatoriaceae, 18.

Padina, 86.
Durvillaei, 87.
gymnospora, 87.
Pavonia, 86, 87.
sanctae-crucis, 86.
variegata, 87, 145, 146.

Palmella conferta, 17.
rupestris, 15.
tuberculosa, 17.

Penicillus, 57.
capitatus, 58.

forma elongatus, 58.

forma laxus, 58.
elongatus, 58.
pyriformis, 58.

Petrosiphon, 52.
adhaerens, 52.

Phaeophila, 38.
floridearum, 38.

Phaeophyceae, 68.

Phormidium, 20.
fragile, 20.
luridum, 20.
Retzii, 21.
valderianum, 21.

Pithophora, 49.
kewensis, 37, 49.

Platoma, 151.
cyclocolpa, 151.

Plectonema, 22.

nostocorum, 22.
Pleurocapsa, 17.
conferta, 17.

Plewrococcus membraninus, 14.

vulgaris, 31.

Plumaria asplenioides, 138.

elegans, 138.
Harveyi, 138.
pellucida, 138.
pectinata, 138.
plumosa, 138.
Schousboei, 138, 140.
Polysiphonia, 123.
breviarticulata, 124.
exilis, 128.
fastigiata, 47.
ferulacea, 96, 124.
jibrillosa, 124.
foetidissima, 13, 123.
fracta, 124.
havanensis, 123.

forma mucosa, 123.

Hillebrandi, 122.

macrocarpa, 115, 123.

nigrescens, 124.
obscura, 128.
opaca, 124.
pecten-veneris, 126.
per pusilla, 117.
pulvinata, 123.
simulans, 124.

subtilissima, 123, 124.

violacea, 47.
Polythrix, 28.
corymbosa, 28.
Porphyra, 94.
atropurpurea, 13, 94.
laciniata, 94.
leucosticta, 94.
vulgaris, 94.
Porphyridium, 152.
cruentum, 152.
Porphyrosiphon, 22.
Notaristi, 22.
Pringsheimia, 40.
scutata, 40.
Protococeaceae, 31.
Protococcus, 31.
turgidus, 14.
viridis, 31.
Protoderma, 35.
marinum, 35.
Ptilota elegans, 138.
Harvey, 138.
pellucida, 138.
plumosa, 138.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA.

Schousboei, 138.

sericea, 138.
Ptilothamnion pluma, 140.
Pylaiella, 68.

fulvescens, 68.

Hooperi, 68.

Rhipilia longicaulis, 57.
nigricans, 57.

Rhizoclonium, 42.
crassipellitum, 43.

hieroglyphicum, 31, 35, 38, 48.

Hooker, 43.
Kerneri, 43.
riparium, 43.

var. implexum, 43.

Rhodochorton, 147.

membranaceum, 148.
Rothii, 148.
speluncarum, 17, 147.

Rhodomela calamistrata, 129.

Rhodomelaceae, 117.
Rhodophyceae, 94.
Rhodophyllidaceae, 105.

Rhodymenia palmata, 110, 148.

Rhodymeniaceae, 113.
Rivularia, 28.
hospita, 28.
polyotis, 28.
Zosterae, 75.
Rivulariaceae, 27.
Rosenvingia, 74.
intricata, 12, 74.

Sargassum, 80.
bacciferum, 80.
Filipendula, 84.

var. Montagnei, 83.

forma subedentatum, 83.

fluitans, 81.
Hystrix, 81, 84.
var. fluitans, 81.
lendigerum, 82.
linifolium, 81.
Montagnei, 83.
natans, 8, 80.
platycarpum, 84.
var. bermudense, 84.
vulgare, 78, 83.
var. foliosissimum, 83.
var. Montagne, 83.
Scenedesmaceae, 31.
Scenedesmus, 31.
bijuga, 31.
Schizosiphon fucicola, 28.
Schizothrix, 23.

194 COLLINS AND HERVEY.

calcicola, 24.
vaginata, 23.

Scinaia, 101.
complanata, 101.
furcellata, 101.

var. complanata, 101.

Seytonema, 25.
crustaceum, 26.
figuratum, 25.
m:rabile, 25.
myochrous, 26.
ocellatum, 25.
thermale, 25.
varium, 25.

Seytonemaceae, 25.

Scytosiphon, 73.
Lomentaria, 73.

Seirospora Gaillonii, 137.
Griffithsiana, 137.

Siphonocladus, 52.
rigidus, 52.
tropicus, 52.

Spatoglossum, 84.
Areschougit, 84.
guineensis, 93.
Schroederi, 84.

Spermothamnion, 132.
flabellatum, 140.
gorgoneum, 18, 132.
investiens, 132.

var. cidaricola, 132.
macromeres, 132.

Sphacelaria, 72.
furcigera, 72.
fusea, 72.
novae-hollandiae, 72.
tribuloides, 38, 72.

Sphacelariaceae, 72.

Sphaenosiphon prasinus, 18.

Sphaerococeaceae, 108.

Sphaerococcus Gelidium, 106.
isiformis, 107.
Lactuca var. luxurians, 149.
rigens, 113.
spinellus, 112.
Textorti, 110.

/Sphaerozyga Thwaitesii, 24.

Spirogyra, 30.
decimina, 30.

var. submarina, 30.
submarina, 30.

Spirulina, 18.
rosea, 18.
subsalsa var. oceanica, 19.
tenerrima, 18.

Sporochnaceae, 77.

Sporochnus, 77.
adriaticus, 77.
Bolleanus, 77.
pedunculatus, 77.
Spyridia, 142.
aculeata, 142.
var. Berkeleyana, 143.
var. hypneoides, 11, 143.
Berkeleyana, 143.
complanata, 143.
filamentosa, 142.

Stephanocoelium pusillum, 63.

Stichococcus, 32.
subtilis, 32.
Stigonema, 26.
informe, 26.
Stigonemaceae, 26.
Stilophora, 77.
rhizodes var. adriatica, 77.
Stilophoraceae, 77.
Streblonema, 71.
parasiticum, 71.
sphaericum, 71, 74.
Striaria intricata, 74.
Struvea, 52.
ramosa, 52.
Symploea, 22.
muscorum, 22.
violacea, 22.
Synechococcus, 14.
aeruginosus, 14.
Synechocystis, 14.
aquatilis, 14, 15.

Taenioma, 117.
macrourum, 117.
perpusillum, 117.

Taonia atomaria, 91.
Schroederi, 84.

Tetraspora, 30.
lubrica, 30, 40.

Tetrasporaceae, 30.

Tilopteridaceae, 77.

Tolypothrix, 26.
tenuis, 26.

Tremella cruenta, 152.

Trentepohlia, 41.
aurea, 41.

Trentepohliaceae, 41.

Trichodesmium, 20.
Thiebaultii, 20.

Trichogloea, 98.
Herveyi, 11, 12, 27, 98.

Trichosolen antillarum, 61.

Turbinaria, 79.
trialata, 79.

THE ALGAE OF BERMUDA. 195

tricostata, 12, 79. macrophysa, 8, 51, 114.
pachynema, 61.

Udotea, 58. utriculosa, 51.
conglutinata, 12, 58. forma crustacea, 51.
flabellum, 10, 11, 58. ventricosa, 51.

Ulothrichaceae, 31. verticillata, 52.

Ulothrix subtilis, 32. Valoniaceae, 50.

Ulva, 34. Vaucheria, 66.
atropurpurea, 94. marina, 62.
decorticata, 55. sphaerospora, 66.
dichotoma, 89. Vaucheriaceae, 66.
fasciata, 35. Volvocaceae, 30.
Lactuca, 31, 34, 35, 38.

var. latissima, 34. Wrangelia, 103.

var. rigida, 35. penicillata, 9, 25, 103.
latissima, 34. Wrightiella, 125.
linza, 34. Blodgettii, 10, 12, 125, 136.
lubrica, 30. Tumanowiczi, 125.
Mertensii, 92. Wurdemannia, 104.
prolifera, 33. setacea, 104.
rigida, 35.
Schroeder, 84. Xenococcus, 18.
sinuosa, 73. Schousboei, 18.
stellata, 50. var. pallida, 18.

Ulvaceae, 32.

Urococcus, 40. Zonaria, 85.
insignis, 40. gymnospora, 87.

linearis, 89.

Valonia, 50. lobata, 12, 85, 97.

confervoides, 51. variegata, 85, 87, 146.

favulosa, 50. Zygnemaceae, 30.

Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

VoL. 538. No. 2.— OctTosmr, 1917.

THE GENUS FRAXINUS IN NEW MEXICO AND ARIZONA.

By ALFRED REHDER.

J + i AM :
¢. Ets ' sastee
eo

THE GENUS FRAXINUS IN NEW MEXICO AND ARIZONA.

By ALFRED REHDER.

Received April 15, 1917.

Wuite collecting in Arizona and New Mexico for the Arnold
Arboretum in the summer of 1914 and 1916 I paid special attention
to the various species and forms of Fraxinus. There are at present
six species of Fraxinus known from that region. One of them, F.
Lowellii Sargent, is endemic to central Arizona; three, F. velutina
Torrey, F. Standleyi Rehder and F. cuspidata Torrey, are found
through a considerable part of the territory under consideration,
while F. anomala Torrey occurs only in northern Arizona where it
reaches the southeastern limit of its range, and the Mexican F. pa-
pillosa Lingelsheim just crosses the extreme southern border of New
Mexico. Though these six species are easily distinguished from
each other, as shown in the following key, they all exhibit a greater
or lesser degree of variability like most other American Ashes; particu-
larly F. velutina is extremely variable in its tomentum, in the size,
shape and texture of its leaflets, in the length of the petiolules and in
the shape and size of its fruits. The extreme forms might easily be
taken for distinct species, if it were not for the fact that they are closely
connected by intermediate forms and do not occupy separate geo-
graphical areas. This is particularly true of the glabrous and pubes-
cent forms which I found in almost every instance growing side by
side in the same locality.

This study is based on material in the herbarium of the Arnold
Arboretum supplemented by a considerable number of specimens for
the loan of which I am indebted to those in charge of the National
Herbarium and of the Gray Herbarium; I also am under obligation
to Dr. N. L. Britton for the permission to examine and photograph
some of the types in the herbarium of the New York Botanic Garden.
All the species except F. papillosa known so far within our area only
from a single locality I have had the opportunity to observe and study

in the field.

200 REHDER.

Key of the species.

Flowers with petals: branchlets slender, terete: leaves 3-9-foliolate.
1. F. cuspidata.
Flowers without petals.
Body of the fruit nearly terete with the wing almost terminal extending
scarcely below the middle: branches terete.

Leaflets 3-7: body of the fruit narrowly cylindrical, gradually narrowed
toward the base, 1.5-2 mm. thick, about 5-8 times as long as thick,
wing shorter than the body, linear or spatulate, 3-5 mm. broad.

2. F. velutina.

Leaflets 7-9, rarely 5: body of the fruit ellipsoid to oblong, rather

abruptly contracted at the base, 2.5-3.5 mm. thick, about 2-4 times
as long as thick, wing usually longer then the body, linear-oblong,
5-7 mm. broad.
Under side of the leaflets green or glaucescent, not papillose.
3. F. Standleyi.
Under side of the leaflets glaucous, papillose...... 4. F. papillosa.
Body of fruit much compressed, with the wing extending to the base of the
body: branchlets more or less quadrangular.
Leaves pinnate, 3-7-foliolate.............5..---=:- 5. F. Lowellii.
Leaves simple, only occasionally 3-foliolate.......... 6. F. anomala.

1. Fraxinus cuspidata Torrey in Rep. U. S. & Mex. Bound.
Surv. II. pt. 1 (Bot.) 166 (1859).— Gray, Syn. Fl. N. Am. II. pt. 1,
74 (1878).— Hemsley, Bot. Biol. Am. Cent. Il. 304 (1881-82).—
Wenzig in Bot. Jahrb. IV. 171 (1883).— Havard in Proc. U. S.
Nat. Mus. VIII. 510 (1885).— Pringle in Gard. & Forest, I. 142
(1888).— Sargent in Gard. & Forest, II. 447 (1889); Silva N. Am. VI.
29 (excl. tab.) 1894); Man. Trees N. Am. 759 (excl. fig.) (1905).—
Coulter in Contrib. U. S. Nat. Herb. II. 259 (1892).— Wesmael in
Bull. Soc. Bot. Belg. XX XI. 80 (1892).— Britton, Trees N. Am. 810,
fig. 142 (1908).— Schneider, I7/. Handb. Laubholzk. I1. 820, fig. 514
k-m, 516 d (1912).— Wooton & Standley in Contrib. U. S. Nat.
Herb. XIX. 496 (Fl. N. Mex.) (1915).

Ornus cuspidata Nieuwland in Am. Midland Nat. II. 187 (1914).

New Mexico. Otero Co.: Sacramento Mts., Fresnal Canyon,
alt. 1800 m., August 18, 1914 and August 24, 1916, A. Rehder (Nos.
333, 422, 425, 425b (pubescent form). Dona Ana Co.: San Andreas
Mts., Ash Spring Canyon, May 24, 1913, E. O. Wooton (U. S. Nat.
Herb. No. 661852). Grant Co.: Big Hatchet Mts., May 18, 1892,
E. A. Mearns (No. 127), alt. 2200 m., July 23, 1908, FE. A. Goldman
(No. 1337). Valencia Co.: McCarthy’s Station, July 25, 1889,

THE GENUS FRAXINUS. 201

Munson & Hopkins; near Grant, June 6, 1904, A. Chaves (U. S. Nat.
Herb. Nos. 560670, 738264). Me Kinley Co.: Fort Wingate,
1881, W. Mathews (No. 19); Gallup, June 14, 1916, Alice Eastwood
(Nos. 5637, 5638). Without precise locality, 1851-52, C. Wright (No.
1698, in part); 1869, FE. Palmer (No. 71).

WesTERN Texas. Eagle Springs, June 21, 1855, and mouth of
the Great Canyon of the Rio Grande, C. C. Parry & J. M. Bigelow
(type specimen); Chisos Mts., August 1883, V. Havard (No. 69).

Mexico. Chihuahua: Santa Eulalia Mts., April 6 and June
6, 1885, C. G. Pringle (No. 137).

This species I have seen only as a tall shrub from 3-5 m. high
branching from the base into slender upright stems; it is usually
found on rocky slopes at an elevation of from 1600-2200 m. It is
distributed from the provinces of Coahuila and Chihuahua of Mexico
through western Texas and the southwestern half of New Mexico
to northern Arizona; it does not seem to occur in northeastern New
Mexico or in southwestern Arizona. It shows some variation in
the serration and in the number of leaflets and the following varieties
may be distinguished from the typical form which has 5-7, rarely 3,
lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate leaflets occasionally sparingly serrate.
Shrubs with rather densely pubescent and at the same time smaller
and broader leaflets apparently represent merely a juvenile form, as
I found such foliage only on stunted shrubs without fruit; only once
I found a slightly pubescent shrub with a few fruits. Pringle has
also distributed sterile branches with pubescent leaves under his
number 137 from the Santa Eulalia Mountains in Chihuahua.

Fraxinus cuspidata var. macropetala, n. var.
Fraxinus macropetala Eastwood ini Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, XXX.
494 (1903.)— Lingelsheim in Bot. Jahrb. XL. 216 (Vorarb.
Monog. Fraxinus, 36) (1907).

Arizona. Coconino Co.: Grand Canyon, July 9, 1892,
E. O. Wooton (U. S. Nat. Herb. No. 738265), July 13, 1892, J. W.
Toumey (No. 273), June 1905, C. A. Purpus, June 13, 1913, A. E.
Hitchcock (Nos. 76, 78); Red Canyon Trail, June 10, 1901, L. #. Ward
(U. S. Nat. Herb. No. 410119); Bright Angel Trail, alt. 1400-2200 m.,
1909, E. W. Nelson (No. 108), May 31 and August 19, 1913, E. A.
Goldman (Nos. 2067, 2223), alt. 1400-2000 m., July 19, 1914, A.
Rehder (No. 106); Hermit Trail, June 18, 1916, Alice Eastwood (No.
5822); Grand View Trail, June 16, 1916, Alice Eastwood (No. 5693).
Sycamore Canyon, southwest of Flagstaff, Oct. 4, 1915, Percival Lowell,
alt. 1350 m., Sept. 14, 1916, A. Rehder (No, 578).

202 REHDER.

This variety differs from the type chiefly in its 3-5-, rarely 7-
foliolate leaves with broader, often ovate, entire leaflets; occa-
sionally with simple leaves at the base of the branchlets. All the
other distinguishing characters given in the original description of
F. macropetala can be found in the typical form. In the type the
divisions of the calyx are also attenuate and very unequal and the
longer divisions equal or exceed the tube in length; the length of the
corolla varies between 10 and 16 mm.; the shape of the fruit is very
variable even in the same locality, and I have before me specimens from
the Grand Canyon with fruits having a narrow wing, about 5 mm.
wide, 2.8 mm. long and rounded at the se and others with the
wing of the fruit 7 mm. broad and only 2—2.5 mm. long and truncate
and emarginate at the apex. On many dose branchlets all the
leaves are simple, as in Ward’s specimen from the Red Canyon Trail;
a sterile specimen collected by Percival Lowell in the Sycamore
Canyon has most of the leaves simple and the others with only one
pair of small leaflets at the base.

Fraxinus cuspidata, var. serrata, n. var.

Fraxinus cuspidata Sargent, Silva N. Am. VI. t. 260 (pro parte)
(1894); Man. Trees N. Am. fig. 605 (pro parte) (1905) tantum
quoad plantam depictam.

A typo recedit foliolis manifeste serratis ovatis v. ovato-lanceolatis,
plerumque 7, rarius 9 v. 5, paribus inferioribus interdum 3-foliolatis.

Mexico. Coahuila: mountains east of Saltillo, April 15-20,
1880, FE. Palmer (No. 796, type); San Lorenzo Canyon, 6 miles
southeast of Saltillo, April 16, 1905, E. Palmer (No. 536); Sierra
Madre, south of Saltillo, April 12, 1906, C. G. Pringle (No. 13742);
Saltillo, cult. at Cotton mill, April 5, 1887, C. S. Sargent.

This variety seems to be restricted to Mexico and is connected with
the typical F. cuspidata by intermediate forms; such are A. Chaves’
specimen from Valencia Co., New Mexico, V. Havard’s No. 69 from
western Texas and Pringle’s No. 137 from Mexico, all enumerated
above under the typical F. cuspidata.

2. Fraxinus velutina Torrey in Emory, Not. Reconnoiss. Leaven-
worth to San Diego, 149 (1848).1— Sudworth, Rep. Sec. Agric. 1892,

1 Not F. iain Lingelsheim in Bot. ane. eb, 216 Gos Monog. foe
nus, 36) (1907) from Yunnan which belongs to the section Ornus and is related
to F. chinensis Roxburgh; it is based on Henry’s No. 11893. I propose for
ne eT ‘ies the name F. Lingelsheimii, n. nom. (F. velutina Lingelsheim, non

orrey

THE GENUS FRAXINUS. 203

326.— Sargent, Silva N. Am. VI. 41, (excl. tab.) (1894); Man. Trees
N. Am. 774, (excel. fig.) (1905).— Britton, Trees N. Am. 799 (excl. fig.)
(1908). — Elwes & Henry, T7'rees Gr. Brit. & Irel. IV. 912, t. 265,
fig. 20 (1909).— Wooton & Standley in Contrib. U. 8. Nat. Herb.
XIX. 496 (Fl. N. Mex.) (1915).
Fraxinus pistaciaefolia Torrey in Pacific R. R. Rep. TV. 128
(1856); in Rep. U. S. & Mex. Bound. Surv. II. pt. 1 (Bot.),
166 (1859).— Hemsley, Bot. Biol. Am. Centr. II. 305 (1881-
82).— Rusby in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 1X. 54 (1882).—Gray,
Syn. Fl. N. Am. II. pt. 1, 74 (1878).— Rothrock in Rep. U.S.
Geog. Surv. west 100th Merid. VI. 186 (1878).— Watson in
Proc. Am. Acad. XVIII. 113 (1883).— Sargent, Forest Trees
N. Am. 10th Census U. S. TX. 106 (1884).— Lingelsheim in
Bot. Jahrb. XL. 221 (Vorarb. Monog. Fraxinus, 41) (1907).
Fraxinus viridis S. Watson in U. S. Geol. Explor. 40th Parall.
284 (non Michaux) (1871).
Fraxinus americana var. pistaciaefolia Wenzig in Bot. Jahrb. IV.
182 (1883).— Wesmael in Bull. Soc. Bot. Belg. XXXI. 108
(1892).

New Mexico: Lincoln Co: White Mts., alt. 2500 m., August
25, 1907, Wooton & Standley (No. 3623). Otero Co.: Sacra-
mento Mts., Fresnal Canyon, alt. 2000 m., August 24, 1916, A. Rehder
(Nos. 409c, 418); Three Rivers, alt. 1600 m., F. G. Plummer (U. S.
Nat. Herb. Nos. 564674, 564675). Dona Ana Co.: Organ Mts.,
alt. 2300 m., Sept. 20, 1900, Wooton & Standley (U.S. Nat. Herb.
No. 499883), alt. 1300 m., September 1, 1897, HE. O. Wooton (No. 432).
Sierra Co.: between the waters of the Del Norte and the Gila,
Oct. 15, 1847, W. E. Emory (type, in herb. N. Y. Bot. Gard.); Head
& Wilson Ranch, July 13, 1900, E. O. Wooton (U.S. Nat. Herb. Nos.
738260, 738266); Black Range, Berendo Creek, alt. 1850 m., 0. B.
Metcalfe (No. 927); Tierra Blanca, 1904, Mrs. I. N. Beals. Socor-
ro Co.: near Glenwood, August 14, 1914, A. Rehder, (No. 290).
GrantCo.: Emory Spring, June 4, 1892, EL. A. Mearns (No. 284);
Dog Mts. June 4, 1892, E. A. Mearns (No. 285); Animas Mts.,
Indian Canyon, alt. 2000 m., August 7, 1908, E. A. Goldman (No.
1396); San Luis Mts., July 26, 1892, E. A. Mearns (No. 570).

Arwzona. Navajo Co.: Tusayan, National Forest, June 12,
1912, A. D. Read (U. S. Nat. Herb. No. 583287). Graham C08
San Carlos Indian Reserv., June 25, 1904, F. V. Coville (No. 1944).
Cochise Co,; Huachuca Mts., Sept., 1882, J, G. Lemmon (Now

204 REHDER.

256); Bowie, September 16, 1884, M. E. Jones (No. 4235). Pima
Co.: near Tucson, April 1908, J. N. Rose (No. 12131), March and
October, 1895, J. W. Touwmey (U.S. Nat. Herb. No. 619020). Yava-
pai Co.: Sierra Prieta, near Prescott, alt. 1850 m., Sept. 4, 1916,
A. Rehder (No. 512°).

This Ash is widely distributed through New Mexico and Arizona
except in the northeastern part of the former of these states, and is
rather common along water courses at elevations of between 1000 to
2400 m. It is extremely variable and the most extreme forms have
the appearance of distinct species, but they are all closely connected
by intermediate forms so that it seems impossible to divide this group
of forms satisfactorily into several species, but by selecting the most
distinct forms as types the forms may be grouped under the following
varieties.

To typical F. velutina I refer the specimens enumerated above;
they resemble the type specimen in having few, usually 3-5, generally
elliptic, short-stalked or nearly sessile leaflets and densely pubescent
branchlets and leaves. In the type specimen most of the leaves are
3-foliolate; the leaflets of the 3-foliolate leaves are elliptic, acute at
the ends, distinctly serrate, the larger terminal leaflets measure 5-5.5
em. by 3-3.5 em., while the lateral leaflets are similar, but smaller;
the lateral leaflets of the 5-foliolate leaves are narrower and measure
about 4 cm. by 1.5 cm. The fruits are about 2.3 em. long, with a
slender terete body slightly longer than the linear-oblong wing which
is 3-4 mm. broad. Typical F. velutina is the most common form of
this group in southern and western New Mexico and is also found in
eastern and central Arizona.

Fraxinus velutina var. Toumeyi, n. var.

Fraxinus velutina Sargent, Silva N. Am. VI. t. 267 (pro parte
(1894), tantum quoad plantam depictam.

Fraxinus attenuata Jones, Contrib. West. Bot. XII. 59 (pro parte)
(1908, March 26), quoad specimen ex Arizona.— Wooton &
Standley in Contrib. U. S. Nat. Herb. XTX. 496 (Fl. N. Mew.)
(1915).

Fraxinus Toumeyi Britton, Trees N. Am. 803, fig. 732 (1908).

New Mexico. Guadalupe Co.: Guadalupe Canyon, July
28, 1892, E. A. Mearns (No. 582). Dona Ana Co.: Organ
Mts., 1881, G. R. Vasey (U. S. Nat. Herb. No. 49369); Filmore Can-
yon, August 4, 1895, and April 15, 1899, E. O. Wooton (U. S. Nat.
Herb. Nos. 735196, 738263). Sierra Co.: Lake Valley, 1916,

THE GENUS FRAXINUS. 205

Mrs. W. G. Beals (U. S. Nat. Herb. No. 424691). SocorroCo::
Dry Creek, alt. 1600 m., October 13, 1908, EF. A. Goldman (No. 1571);
Glenwood, August 14, A. Rehder (No. 292). Grant Co.: Pine
Cienaga, July 17, 1900, FE. O. Wooton (U.S. Nat. Herb. No. 738262);
Redrock, September 28, 1908, FE. A. Goldman (No. 1545); Crawford’s
Ranch, June 21, 1906, #. O. Wooton (U. S. Nat. Herb. No. 738261);
Santa Rita, 1877, E. L. Greene (No. 36); Bear Mts., April, 1880,
H. H. Rusby (No. 254); Animas Valley, July 17 and 27, 1892, HF. A.
Mearns (Nos. 500, 576); Alamo Veijo, May 27, 1892, H. A. Mearns
(No. 176).

Arizona. Graham Co.: Fort Grant, June 17, 1912, L. N.
Godding (No. 1063); Graham Mts., July 26, 1914, Hh. A. Goldman
(No. 2337); Black River Lower Crossing, July 27, 1910, L. NV. Godding
(No. 686). Cochise Co.: Chiricahua Mts., Whitetail Canyon,
alt.'1650 m., August 17, 1906, J. C. Blumer (No. 1250); Five Mile
Creek, alt. 1650 m., August 12, 1906, J. C. Blumer (No. 1238); Fort
Huachuca, 1894, 7. FE. Wilcox (Nos. 46, 202); Barbacomari Creek,
alt. 1800 m., October 19, 1893, FE. A. Mearns (No. 2617). Pima
C o.: Tucson, March and October, 1895, J. W. Toumey (type of F.
Toumeyi), July 2, 1891 and August 3, 1892 (No. 274), J. W. Toumey,
1891, G. C. Neally (No. 62), April 14, 1908, J. N. Rose (No. 11758);
banks of Rillita Creek, June 17, 1881, C. G. Pringle, August 7, 1914,
A. Rehder (No. 239); Santa Catalina Mts., Sabino Canyon, alt.
950 m., June 15, 1883, J. J. Thornber (No. 343), alt. 1800 m., Sep-
tember 1, 1916, A. Rehder (No. 499); mouth of Bear Canyon, alt.
1000 m., August 31, 1916, A. Rehder (No. 454); Santa Rita Mts.,
alt. 1400-2000 m., September 1880, Engelmann & Sargent. Gila
Co.: Tonto Basin, July 19, 1892, J. W. Towmey (No. 274).
Yavapai Co.: Sierra Prieta, near Prescott, alt. 1800 m., Sept.
4, 1916, A. Rehder (No. 512, 512c). “Ash Creek,” July 1874, J. T.
Rothrock. (No. 302).

Mexico. Sonora: Guadalupe Canyon, August 28, 1893, E. C.
Merton (No. 2072), Los Pintos, 2000 m., October 11, 1890, C. V.
Hartmann (No. 127); without precise locality, June 1851, G. Thurber
(No. 322).

This variety differs from the type chiefly in its 5-7, narrower,
slender-stalked leaflets and in the less dense pubescence of its leaves
and its branchlets. In the type specimens most of the leaves of the
fruiting branch have 7 leaflets which are ovate-lanceolate or elliptic-
lanceolate to lanceolate in shape and measure 3.5-5.5 in length and
1.2-1.6 in width, the leaflets of the middle pair being the largest, while

206 REHDER.

the terminal leaflet equals those of the upper pair. The pubescence
of the branches and the leaves is very short and rather thin; the fruits
are 2—2.2 cm. long with a linear-oblong wing 3-4 mm. broad. The
specimens I have referred to this variety show great variation in
pubescence, in the shape and size of the leaflets, in the length of the
petiolule and also in the fruits; many specimens are intermediate
between the type and this variety and sometimes the leaves of weaker
branchlets and those at the base of the vigorous shoots resemble
those of typical F. velutina, while the upper leaves of vigorous shoots
are those of var. Toumeyt. The fruits vary from 1.5-3.5 em. in length
with the wing usually narrowly oblong and from 3 to 4 mm. broad,
sometimes the wing is spatulate and up to 5 mm. broad, of this the
most extreme form is my No. 512 which has the spatulate wing 5 mm.
broad and the whole fruit only 1.5-2 em. long with the body of the
fruit 0.8-1.2 em. long.

This variety is the most common form in Arizona, while in New
Mexico the type seems to be more widely distributed.

I have not taken up the name attenuata for this variety, though it
is the oldest, because the two specimens cited by Jones under his F.
attenuata, belong to different species or at least different forms, and
none of them being designated as the type and the description ap-
parently based on both, it’remains uncertain which ought to be con-
sidered the type.

Fraxinus velutina var. coriacea, n. comb.

Fraxinus coriacea S. Watson in Am. Nat. VII. 302 (in part)
(1873), exclud. planta coll. a Bigelow.2— Rothrock in Rep. U.S.
Geog. Surv. west 100th merid. VI. 185, t. 22 (1878).— Coville
in Contrib. U. S. Nat. Herb IV. 148 (Bot. Death Valley Exped.)
(1892).

Fraxinus pistaciaefolia var. coriacea Gray, Syn. Fl. N. Am. IL.
pt. 1, 74 (1878).

Fraxinus americana var. coriacea Wenzig in Bot. Jahrb. IV. 182

(1883).— Wesmael in Bull. Soc. Bot. Belg. XX XI. 108 (1892).

Nevapa. “Ash Meadows,” 1871, G. M. Wheeler (type).

Utan. St. George, 1875, H. Palmer, 1898, J. W. Carpenter.

CALIFORNIA. Inyo Co.: Owens Lake near Olancha, June 5,
1906, Hall & Chandler (No. 7328, and probably No. 7322).

2 Bigelow’s specimen from Devil’s Run Canyon, western Texas, is F.
lexensis Sargent.

THE GENUS FRAXINUS. 207

This variety differs from the type in the more coriaceous, slender-
stalked and often more coarsely serrate leaflets and in the less densely
pubescent or glabrescent branchlets and leaves. In the type speci-
men the leaflets are generally elliptic, 4.5-5.5 em. long and 2.5-3 em.
broad, broadly cuneate at the base and abruptly and obtusely pointed,
indistinctly serrulate, slightly and sparingly villose on both surfaces,
pale yellowish green above and paler and reticulate beneath; a few
leaves have obovate leaflets, truncate at the apex and rather coarsely
dentate; the fruits are spatulate, 1.8-2.5 em. long and 5-6 mm.
broad below the emarginate apex. Hall & Chandler’s No. 7328 is
nearest to the type in shape and size of the leaflets, but it is nearly
glabrous.$

This variety does not seem to occur in Arizona, but some specimens
referred to var. Towmey?, as Jones’s No. 4235 and Toumey’s No. 274,
have rather coriaceous leaflets and may be considered transitions to
var. coriacea.

Fraxinus velutina var. glabra, n. var.
Fraxinus glabra Thornber in U. S. Herb.
A typo et a varietatibus praecedentibus differt foliis ramulisque
glabris et a var. coriacea foliolis tenuioribus subtus vix reticulatis.

New Mexico. Chaves Co.: near Roswell, alt. 1100 m., August
11, 1916, A. Rehder (No. 348). Dona Ana Co.: Ash Spring,
San Andreas Mts., May 24, 1913, FE. O. Wooton (U.S. Nat. Herb. No.
661851). Otero Co.: Sacramento, Cloudcroft, alt. 2800 m.,
August 20, and alt. 2500 m., August 25, 1916, A. Rehder (Nos. 384,
441); Fresnal Canyon, alt. 2000 m., August 24, 1916, A. Rehder
(Nos. 409, 409b).

Arizona. Graham Co.: San Carlos Indian Reserv., June 25,
1904, F. V. Coville (No. 1945). Cochise Co.: Huachuca Mts.,
Tanner Canyon, August 24, 1910, L. N. Godding (No. 817); Miller’s

3 Some Californian specimens distributed as F’. coriacea do not belong here;
they represent a glabrous or glabrescent variety of F. oregona Nuttall which
is apparently identical with F’. oregona var. glabra Lingelsheim in Bot. Jahrb.
XL. 220 (Vorarb. Monog. Fraxinus, 40) (nomen nudum) (1907). To this vari-
ety I refer the following numbers which differ from the type in the glabrous or
nearly glabrous branchlets and leaves. Kern Co.: Greenhorn Mts., alt.
1000-1200 m., 1897, C. A. Purpus (No. 5555). San Bernardino Co.:
Lyth Creek Canyon, July 15, 1902, Le Roy Abrams (No. 2741); Cleghorn
Canyon, July 6, 1908, Le Roy Abrams & E. A. McGregor (No. 703). Los
Angeles Co.: Liebre Mts., June 20-23, 1908, Le Roy Abrams & E. A.
McGregor (No. 400). ' :

208 REHDER.

Canyon, June 19, 1909, LZ. N. Godding (No. 105). Pima Co.:
Range Reserve, July 21, 1911, EF. H. Wooton (U. S. Nat. Herb. No.
690667, type); banks of Rillita, 1881, C. G. Pringle. Yavapai
Co.: Beaver Canyon, near Camp Verde, alt. 1500 m., Sept. 7, 1916,
A. Rehder (No. 541); Sierra Prieta near Prescott, 1800 m., September
4, 1916, A. Rehder (No. 513).

This variety differs in the quite glabrous branchlets and leaves from
the type and from var. Toumeyi to which it is nearest in the shape of
its leaflets; from specimens of var. coriacea with narrower glabrescent
leaflets it can be distinguished only by the thinner leaflets not strongly
reticulate beneath. It seems to be not uncommon throughout New
Mexico and Arizona and in the localities where I collected it I nearly
always found it associated with pubescent forms.

3. Fraxinus Standleyi, n. sp.

Arbor, ramulis hornotinis teretibus glabris v. fere glabris, anno-
tinis cinerascentibus, interdum atropurpureis, vetustioribus cinereis;
gemmae ferrugineo-tomentulosae. Folia longe petiolata, 13-18 em.
longa, 7-9-foliolata; foliola sessilia v. brevissime petiolulata, ovata v.
ovato-oblonga, rarius elliptica, acuta v. breviter acuminata, basi late
cuneata, terminale sensim in petiolulum cire. 0.5 em. longum attenua-
tum, omnia irregulariter et leviter serrulata, supra luteo-viridia,
glabra, subtus glaucescentia, leviter reticulata, secus costam basin
versus plus minusve villosa, cetera glabra v. fere glabra, rarius tota
facie sparse minute villosula, minute punctulata, 4-6 cm. longa et
1.5-3 cm. lata in specimine typico, nervis utrinsecus 5—7 ante marginem
dissolutis; petioli satis graciles, 2.5-5 em. longi, interdum purpur-
ascentes, supra applanati v. leviter concavi, basi leviter tantum
dilatati, glabri; rhachis glabra, supra leviter canaliculata, leviter
marginata. Flores non visi. Paniculae fructiferae 8-12 cm. longae,
glabrae; pedicelli graciles; calyx persistens minutus, irregulariter
inciso-dentatus et denticulatus; samara 2.5-3 em. longa, capsula
subteres v. leviter compressa, ellipsoidea v. oblonga, basi subito
contracta, 1-1.3 em. longa et 2.5-3.5 mm. diam., leviter striata; ala
oblongo-spatulata, ad medium capsulae decurrens, 6-7 mm. lata,
apice obtusiuscula v. leviter emarginata in specimine typica, interdum
anguste oblonga. -

New Mexico. Dona Ana Co.: Organ Mts., Van Pattens
Camp, June 9, 1906, P. C. Standley (U. S. Nat. Herb. No. 560835,
type). Lincoln Co. White Mts., Gilmore’s Ranch, alt. 2500 m.,
August 17, 1908, E. O. Wooton (No. 3943). Luna Co.: Florida Mts.,

THE GENUS FRAXINUS. 209

alt. 1900 m., September 8, 1908, E. A. Goldman (No. 1482). Grant
Co.: San Luis Mts., June 25 and October 2, 1892, HK. A. Mearns
(No. 382); Santa Rita, “Copper Mines, N. E. of El Paso”, 1851,
J.M. Bigelow. Without precise locality, 1851, C. Wright (No. 1697).

Arizona. Graham Co.: White Mts., August 6-15, 1903, D.
Griffith (No. 5390). Cochise Co.: Huachuca Mts., Ash Can-
yon August 6, 1909, L. N. Godding (No. 342); April, 1897, J. W.
Toumey. Pima Co.: Santa Rita Mts., September 20—October 4,
1902, D. Griffith & J. J. Thornber (No. 176). Coconino Co::
Oak Creek Canyon, alt. 2000 m. and 1800 m., September 15, 1916,
A, Rehder (Nos. 581, 586); shaded ravine near head of Oak Creek,
June 21, 1916, F. Shreve (No. 24); San Francisco Mts., Elden Mt.,
July 17, 1891, D. T. McDougal (No. 396).

Mexico. Sonora: San José Mts., alt. 2400 m., August 7,
1903, E. A. Mearns (Nos. 1668, 1671).

This species seems most closely related to F. velutina Torrey, but
differs chiefly in the usually 7—-9-foliolate leaves and in the fruit which
has a thick, terete, ellipsoid or oblong body, similar to that of F.
americana Linnaeus and a wing longer than the body; the body is
about 2 to 4 times longer than thick and finely striate, while in typical
F. velutina the fruit has a thin slender body gradually narrowed
toward the base, 5-7 times longer than broad and more or less irregu-
larly grooved. The fruit of the latter resembles that of F. pennsyl-
vanica Marshall except that it is smaller and has a relatively much
shorter wing. From F. americana which it resembles in the fruit F’.
Standley? is distinguished by the sessile smaller leaflets with the epi-
dermis of the under side not papillose and by the smaller fruit.

This new species seems to be as variable as F. velutina and of the
specimens quoted above no two are exactly alike. Wright’s No.
1697 differs in the quite glabrous leaflets more glaucescent beneath
and in the narrower, deeply emarginate wing of the fruit. Gold-
man’s No. 1482 has also quite glabrous leaflets, but much smaller
and never as many as nine. Griffith’s & Thornber’s No. 176 has
narrower, more glaucescent leaflets and fruits with narrower pointed
wings. Mearn’s No. 382 has smaller leaflets sparingly short-pubes-
cent on the whole under surface, a puberulous rhachis and fruits with
narrower wings. McDougal’s No. 396 has leaves with always 7,
elliptic, distinctly petioluled leaflets and fruits with narrower wings.
Godding’s No. 343 has also elliptic leaflets always 7 in number and
narrower fruits only 1.5-2 cm. long. Shreve’s No. 24 and my own
No. 581 have 7, rather large, short-stalked, elliptic or oval obtusish

210 REHDER.

leaflets and quite glabrous and somewhat narrower fruits. My No.
586 has 7 quite glabrous oblong-lanceolate leaflets to 7 cm. long and
pointed fruits to 3.5 em. in length. Wooton’s No. 3943 is similar
but smaller and Mearn’s No. 1671 has also 7 oblong-lanceolate leaflets
and somewhat narrower emarginate fruits.

This species is distributed from southwestern New Mexico to
southern and central Arizona and extends into northern Mexico.

Fraxinus Standleyi, var. lasia, n. var.

A typo recedit foliolis fere semper 7 subtus, ut petioli ramulique,
dense velutinis. Foliola in specimine typico ovato-lanceolata, 4.5—
8 cm. longa et 1.5-2.8 cm. lata; samara 3-3.5 cm. longa; capsula
1.2-1.5 em. longa; ala anguste oblonga, circiter 6 mm. lata, emargi-
nata.

ARIZONA. Coconino Co.: Oak Creek Canyon, alt. 1800 m.,
September 15, 1916, A. Rehder (No. 585, type), July 14, 1914, A.
Rehder (Nos. 41, 42, 43, 44); Sycamore Canyon, southwest of Flag-
staff, alt. 1700 m., September 14, 1916, A. Rehder (No. 576). Na v-
ajo Co.: Fort Apache, June 21-30, FH. Palmer (No. 592). Graham
Co.: White Mts., August 6-15, 1908, D. Griffith (No. 5390). C o-
echise Co.: Pine Canyon, Chiricahua Mts., Oct. 4, 1906, J. C.
Blumer (No. 1302); Chiricahua Mts., April, 1897, J. W. Toumey.
Pima Co.: Santa Rita Mts., alt. 2000 m., July 15, 1903,-J. J.
Thornber (No. 299).

New Mexico. GrantCo.: Santa Rita del Cobre, 1877, E. L.
Greene (No. 37).

This variety differs from the type chiefly in the tomentose branch-
lets and leaves; it shows considerable variation in size and shape of
its leaflets and fruits. Thornber’s No. 299 differs in its oblong-
elliptic, nearly sessile leaflets. Greene’s No. 37 has broader, elliptic
to ovate-oblong leaflets. Palmer’s No. 592 has similar leaflets, but
narrower fruits from 1.5-3 em. long. Blumer’s No. 1302 has 5-7,
rather broad, ovate to elliptic leaflets and is much less densely pubes-
cent than the type. Also Griffith’s No. 5390 is less pubescent and
has 5-7 narrower, rather sharply serrate leaves.

4. Fraxinus papillosa Lingelsheim in Bot. Jahrb. XL. 219 (Vorarb.
Monog. Fraxinus, 39) (1907).

New Mexico. Grant Co.: west side of San Luis Mts., alt.
1950 m., October 2, 1893, E. A. Mearns (No. 2533).
Mexico. Chihuahua: Sierra Madre, near Colonia Garcia,

THE GENUS FRAXINUS. 211

September 29, 1899, Townsend & Barber (No. 354, type); road from
San Mateo to Guasarachi, September 24, 1898, EF. A. Goldman
(No. 153).

This species differs from the preceding species chiefly in the glau-
cous papillose under surface of the leaflets and from F. americana in
its sessile smaller leaflets. Mearns’s No. 2533 differs from the type
in its larger, nearly entire leaflets 4-6 cm. long and 2-2.5 em. broad
and in the larger, many-fruited panicles.

5. Fraxinus Lowellii Sargent, n. sp.

Folia 9-15 em. longa, petiolis crassiusculis glabris v. leviter villosis;
foliola 5 v. rarius 3, ovata, acuminata, apice acuta v. rarius obtusa,
basi cuneata, grosse serrata saepe tantum supra medium, luteo-viridia,
supra glabra vy. in costa puberula, subtus glabra v. rarius ad basin
costae pallide luteae sparse villosula, 6-8 em. longa et 2.5-3.5 cm.
lata, nervis tenuibus arcuatis ante marginem leviter incrassatum et
revolutum anastomosantibus; petioluli 5-15 mm. longi. Flores non
visi. Fructus mense Julio maturantes, in paniculis longis glabris,
oblongi-elliptici v. oblongo-obovati, basi calyce minuto leviter den-
tato instructi, apice dilatati v. sensim attenuati et rotundati, saepe
emarginati, 2.5-3.5 longi et 7-9 mm. lati; ala ad basin capsulae
valde compressae striatae 1.8—2.5 em. longae decurrens.

Arbor 7-S8-metralis, cortice fusco profunde fisso, ramulis validis
quadrangulatis saepe alatis, interdum fere teretibus, hornotinis fusco-
aurantiacis, annotinis cinereo-brunneis.

Arizona. Coconino Co.: Oak Creek Canyon, about 20 miles
south of Flagstaff, Percival Lowell, June 1, 1911, A. Rehder, July 13,
1914 (No. 53, type). Yavapai Co.: Copper Canyon, near
Camp Verde, alt. 1500 m., A. Rehder, September 16, 1916 (Nos. 524,
526, and 529, a pubescent form). Mohave Co.: Peach Springs,
1884, J. G. Lemmon (No. 3242).

I take much pleasure in associating with this plant the name of
the late Percival Lowell, the distinguished astronomer who has greatly
added to our knowledge of the trees of northern Arizona.

C. S. SARGENT.

6. Fraxinus anomala Torrey in herb. apud S. Watson in Rep.
U.S. Geol. Explor. 40th Parall. V. 283 (1871).— Parry in Am. Nat. IX.
203 (1875).— Gray, Syn. Fl. N. Am. II. pt. 1, 74 (1878).— Sargent,
Forest Trees N. Am. 10th Census U. S. 1X. 106 (1884); Silva N. Am.

FAs REHDER.

VI. 39, t. 2664 (1894) Man. Trees N. Am. 765, fig. 6114 (1905).—
Wenzig in Bot. Jahrb. IV. 186 (1883).— Wesmael in Bull. Soc. Bot.
Belg. XX XI. 114 (1892).— Koehne, Deutsche Dendr. 511, fig. 90 p
(1893).— Coville in Contrib. U. S. Nat. Herb. IV. 148 (Bot. Death
Valley Exp.) (1892).— Britton, VN. Am. Trees, 796, fig. 797 (1908).—
Elwes & Henry, Trees Gt. Brit. Irel. IV. 900, t. 262, fig. 7 (1909).—
Schneider, J/l. Handb. Laubholzk. II. 822, fig. 516 a—b, 518 p (1912).—
Wooton & Standley in Contrib. U. S. Nat. Herb. XIX. 496 (FI. N.
Mex.) (1915).

Fraxinus anomala, var. triphylla Jones in Proc. Calif. Acad.

Sci. ser. 2, V. 707 (Contrib. W. Bot. VII) (1895).

New Mexico. San Juan Co.: Carriso Mts., July 28, 1911,
P. C. Standley (No. 7316).

Arizona. Coconino Co.: Grand Canyon, June 14, 1891,
D. T. McDougal (No. 205), September 8, 1894, C. S. Sargent, Sep-
tember 12, 1894, J. W. Toumey, 1909, E. W. Nelson (No. 107),
May 31, 1913, HE. A. Goldman (No. 2068), June 30, 1913, A. E.
Hitchcock (No. 79), July 19, 1914, A. Rehder (No. 105); two miles
below Pagumpa, alt. 1300 m., April 21, 1894, M. E. Jones (No. 5088);
Hermit Trail, June 18, 1916, Alice Eastwood (No. 5831).

SouTHERN Utau. Labyrinth, Colorado River, 1859, J. S. New-
berry; St. George, Virgin River, E. Palmer; Ranch, A. L. Siler;
Johnson, M. EF. Jones.

This very distinct species occurs within our area only in northern
Arizona and in the extreme northwestern corner of New Mexico and
extends into Utah and Nevada. It shows little variation; the variety
triphylla Jones can hardly be considered a distinct form or variety,
as trifoliolate leaves are likely to appear on any vigorous shoot of
normal simple-leaved plants.

ARNOLD ARBORETUM, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

4 Except the sterile branch with pinnate leaves which was drawn from a
cultivated plant supposed to be F’. anomala.

Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Vou. 538. No. 3.— January, 1918.

THE AUSTRALIAN ANTS OF THE PONERINE TRIBE
CERAPACHYINI.

By Wituram Morton WHEELER.

THE AUSTRALIAN ANTS OF THE PONERINE TRIBE
CERAPACHYINI.!

By Wivu1am Morton WHEELER.

Received, September 29, 1917.

Tue Cerapachyini are of unusual interest to the myrmecologist,
because they represent one of the most primitive sections of the most
primitive subfamily of ants, the Ponerinz, and because they are so
closely related to the subfamily Doryline as to suggest that the latter
must have arisen from Cerapachyine ancestors. Owing, however,
to the fact that all the species of the tribe are rare and sporadic and
confined to warm countries, our knowledge of the habits and sexual
forms of the species and of their distribution is still very inadequate.
In a country like Australia which preserves such a large portion of
the ancient Mesozoic ant-fauna, we should expect to find the tribe
well represented in genera and species, and this proves to be true.

The workers of the Cerapachyini are easily recognized by their
long, slender, jointed bodies; the petiole and postpetiole of the abdo-
men are distinct and in one of the genera (Husphinctus) even the gastric
segments are marked off from one another by pronounced constric-
tions. The eyes are often lacking, the antennz are robust and well
developed, the clypeus is very short and vertical, and the frontal
carine are erect and closely approximated, so that the insertions of
the antennz are exposed. The thoracic sutures are very feeble or
entirely absent. In the males the mandibles are well developed, the
genital appendages are retracted and there are no cerci. The females
are sometimes worker-like and apterous, though possessing eyes or
both eyes and ocelli (Nothosphinctus, Eusphinctus); in other species
the thorax has distinctly differentiated sclerites and bears wings,
though the mesonotum and scutellum are very small; in still others
the thorax has differentiated sclerites but bears no wings (Cerapachys,
Phyracaces). The larva of only one species has been described, that
of the Texan Cerapachys (Parasyscia) auguste Wheeler (Psyche
1903, pp. 205-209). In the present paper I have sketched the larva

1 Contributions from the Entomological Laboratory of the Bussey Institu-
tion, Harvard University, No. 129.

216 WHEELER.

of Eusphinctus steinheili Forel (Fig. 2). It is very long and slender,
non-tuberculate and covered with bifureate hairs. No pupz of Cera-
pachyini have been seen, so that we are unable to say whether they
are naked or enclosed in cocoons like the pupz of all other Ponerine,
except those of the genus Discothyrea.

Hmery in the “Genera Insectorum” recognizes four genera of
Cerapachyini, all of which are represented in Australia, namely,
Sphinctomyrmex, Cerapachys, Phyracaces and Lioponera, the first
comprising the subgenera Sphinctomyrmex s. str. and Eusphinctus,
the second four subgenera: Cerapachys s. str., Parasyscia, Oécere@a
and Syscia. Of the latter only Syscia is known to be represented in
Australia. The taxonomic status of some of these groups is still
doubtful, owing largely to incomplete information concerning their
sexual phases. Emery (Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Syst. 8, 1895, p. 693, PI.
14, Fig. 4) described and figured the genitalia of a male of an unde-
termined species of Husphinctus, presumably from the Indomalayan
region. He found that the inner paramera terminate as vertical
plates with dentate inferior borders, and that the vosellze are movably
articulated, well differentiated and bear a vestigial lacinia at their
bases. Of the males of the Australian species which have been in-
cluded in the genus Sphinctomyrmex, nothing is known. Santschi
has recently described a male ant from Africa as S. rufiventris, but
its generic status seems to me to be open to doubt. The peculiarities
of the females of the Australian forms have, in my opinion, an impor-
tant taxonomic bearing, as will be evident from the following considera-
tions.

The genus Sphinctomyrmex was erected by Mayr (Verh. zool. bot.
Ges. Wien 16, 1866, p. 895, Pl. 20, Fig. 8) for the accommodation of
a single deiilated female specimen described from Brazil as S. stalv.
During half a century no one has succeeded in again finding this
insect. Mayr’s figure shows that its thorax has well developed
sclerites essentially like those in ordinary female ants. The antenne
are 12-jointed, the pygidium emarginate. In 1895 Emery erected
a genus Lusphinctus for a worker ant (FE. furcatus) from Lower Bur-
mah, with 11—jointed antenne, but with the pygidium emarginate
and the gastric segments separated from one another by deep con-
strictions as in the Brazilian stdli. In 1897 a second species (LP.
cribratus) was described by Emery from New Guinea and Forel added
a third from Bengal (2. taylor’) in 1900. Only workers of these forms
have come to light. In the meantime Forel received several species
from Australia, some of which had 11-jointed, while others had 12-

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. PATA

jointed antenne. He therefore concluded that Husphinctus was
merely a subgenus of Sphinctomyrmex. An examination of the
Australian specimens convinced him that each colony of Kusphinctus
contained two kinds of workers, one small and eyeless, the other large
and possessing eyes and ocelli. As a somewhat similar dimorphism
of the worker caste had been found in the European Ponera eduardi,
he inclined to the view that the eyed individuals of Husphinctus were
gyneecoid workers, but he was baffled by these forms, which kept
turning up, often in considerable numbers in colonies received from
Australia. Later, in a species of what he regarded as Sphinctomyrmex
s. str. (S. imbecillis) from South West Australia, he found a single
large, eyeless individual, much like a worker, but more pilose, with
more convex sides to the head and much larger gaster, more feebly
constricted between the segments. This specimen he designated
as an “ergatomorphic female” and noted its resemblance to the
dichthadiigynes of the Dorylinz on the one hand and to the large-
eyed, shorter-headed and more pilose workers of Husphinctus on the
other, but confessed himself to be even more baffled in his attempts
to interpret the personnel of colonies of Australian Sphinctomyrmex.
In 1905 Ernest André (Rev. d’Ent. 24, 1905, p. 205) found the two
types of individuals in a new species of Husphinctus (E. duchaussoyt)
from Sydney, N. S. W., and expressed the following opinion in regard
to their meaning: “I consider the individuals with eyes and ocelli as
ergatoid females and not as gynecoid workers, although Forel in-
clines to the latter hypothesis so far as L’. steinheili is concerned. My
opinion is based on the fact that up to the present time no normal
females have been found in any of the known species of the genus
Eusphinctus and that probably such females do not exist but are
replaced by ergatoids, a condition not without precedent in the ant-
world. One may, of course, say by way of objection that the type of
the genus Sphinctomyrmex, of which Eusphinctus is regarded as a
subgenus, is based on a female with normal characters, but I would
reply that its worker is still unknown, so that it is not certain that the
described female, which is American, belongs to the same genus as the
Asiatic and Australian species. I believe rather, till proof to the con-
trary is forthcoming, that the genus Sphinctomyrmex should be re-
stricted to the single S. stdli of Brazil, which is the type, and that all
the Asiatic and Australian species should constitute the genus Hu-
sphinctus Emery, without distinction between those having 12 or 11
antennal joints. Besides such characters as may be exhibited by the
still unknown worker of Sphinctomyrmex, this genus is characterized

218 WHEELER.

by a normal female, whereas the female of Eusphinctus is ergato-
-morphie.”’

Emery in the “Genera Insectorum”’ (Fase. 118, 1911, p. 6) adopted
André’s interpretation of the eyed individuals but not his suggestion
to restrict Sphinctomyrmex to the Brazilian type and to place all the
Old World forms notwithstanding the differences in the number of
antennal joints in the genus Husphinctus. My study has led me not
only to adopt André’s suggestion but to go even further. There are
evidently not two, but three groups of subgeneric status among the
Australian forms. One of these comprises a single species, E. turneri
Forel, known only from the worker, which is large, black, with 12-
jointed antennze, well-developed eyes, but without ocelli and with an
emarginate pygidium. The two other groups have blind workers
with entire pygidium, but differ in the number of antennal joints,
Eusphinctus s. str. having 11, and the other group 12 (Sphinctomyrmex
s. str. of Emery and Forel). Now the following facts show that the
females of these two groups, though like the workers in form, differ
in size and in the visual organs and shape of the pygidium:

1. No workers or worker-like individuals with well-developed eyes
and ocelli are known in the group with 12-jointed antenne (with the
possible exception of S. myops Forel, which may be a female!).

2. An “ergatomorphic female” of S. zmbecillis was described by
Forel as being considerably larger than the worker, without eyes or
ocelli, with scarcely constricted gastric segments and with emarginate
pygidium.

3. Dr. W. M. Mann loaned me for study a fine colony of a new
species closely related to imbecillis, which he recently discovered in
New South Wales (manni sp. nov.). This colony comprises 227 blind
workers varying from 3 to 5 mm. in length, and a single much larger,
worker-like individual 7 mm. in length, with very minute eyes and the
anterior ocellus, but in all other respects, except the somewhat larger
size, like the ergatomorphice female of imbecillis described by Forel.
Even in the field Dr. Mann at once recognized this individual as the
queen of the colony.

4. In the known Australian species of Eusphinctus s. str. each
colony contains several large, eyed and ocellate worker-like individuals.
Since these individuals differ from the blind workers in many of the
characters exhibited by the ergatomorphic females of imbecillis and
manni (greater size and more voluminous gaster, shorter and laterally
more convex head, more abundant pilosity), André’s and Emery’s
view that they are the only true females among these ants, seems to

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. 219

me more acceptable than Forel’s supposition that we are here con-
cerned with a peculiar dimorphism of the worker caste comparable
with that observed in Ponera eduardi.2 The colonies referred to
Eusphinctus s. str. are polygynic whereas those referred to Sphincto-
myrmex s. str. by Emery and Forel are monogynic, a difference natur-
ally correlated with the size and development of the gaster in the
females of the two groups. Since the reproductive function is dis-
tributed over several queens in Eusphinctus, each is more nearly of
the normal stature of the largest workers than in the Sphinctomyrmex
colony.

I therefore agree with André in leaving only S. stéli of Brazil in the
genus Sphinctomyrmex and in regarding all the paleotropical species
as belonging to the genus Husphinctus, but believe that the latter
should be divided into at least three subgenera, as follows:

1. Eusphinctus s. str. Workers and females with 11-jointed
antenne, with entire or emarginate pygidium, the workers blind, the
females with eyes and ocelli. Habits hypogeic.

2. Nothosphinctus subgen. nov. Workers and females with 12-
jointed antenne; the former blind and with entire pygidium, the
latter with emarginate pygidium and either blind or with very minute
eyes and the anterior ocellus. Habits hypogzic.

3. Zasphinctus subgen. nov. Workers large, dark colored, with
12-jointed antenne and well developed eyes, but without ocelli.
Females unknown. Habits probably epigeic.

The worker of E. cribratus Emery of New Guinea has an entire
pygidium and belongs with the Australian species in Eusphinctus
s. str. but the workers of the Indian species FE. furcatus Emery and
taylori Forel have a notched pygidium. Should future investigation
show that the pygidial characters are correlated with other peculiari-
ties or with different types of female, it may be advisable to restrict
the subgenus Eusphinctus to the two Indian species and to suggest a

2 Cases of dimorphism of the worker among the Ponerine are extremely
rare. The most remarkable case is that of the African Megaponera faetens
Fabr., which has two types of workers differing not only in size, but also in
sculpture and the structure of the antenne. As no winged females were
known of this species Emery believed that their place in the colonies was
usurped by the large workers but Arnold has recently discovered and described
the true female (Ann. South Afr. Mus. 14, 1915, p. 48 nota, Fig. 6). It is
ergatoid and therefore resembles the females of H#. manni and imbecillis.
Among many specimens of M. fetens recently collected in the Congo by
Mr. H. O. Lang of the American Museum of Natural History I find both
forms of worker in each colony.

220 WHEELER.

new subgeneric name for the Australian and Papuan forms with
11-jomted antenne.

In this connection attention may be called to the fact that the
females of Nothosphinctus bear a surprising resemblance to those of
the related tropical genus Acanthostichus, as will be seen by consulting
Emery’s description and figures of the female of A. quadratus (Zool.
Jahrb. Abt. Syst. 8, 1895, p. 693, Pl. 14, Fig. 4 and Gen. Insect. Fasc.
118, 1911, Pl. 1, Figs.4 and4b). As Emery and Forel have remarked,
these females resemble the only known females of the Dorylinz
(Dorylus, Eciton, Aenictus, Leptanilla) and may therefore have con-
siderable phylogenetic significance. In previous publications I have
described similar females in several Ponerine genera (Onychomyrme,
Paranomopone, Leptogenys.3

Turning to the other genera of the Cerapachyini we find that our
knowledge of the females is even more incomplete than in Sphincto-
myrmex and Eusphinctus. The female Cerapachys imerinensis Forel
of Madagascar has well-developed wings and Phyracaces pubescens
Emery of Borneo and PA. turnert Forel of Queensland were described
from deilated females, and I have winged females of an undescribed
Phyracaces from the Congo, but the females of Parasyscia auguste
Wheeler and Phyracaces elegans sp. nov. show no traces of having
borne wings, though the thorax is of the same structure as in the
winged females. The same is true of the female of an undescribed
species of Syscia recently taken in Fiji by Dr. W. M. Mann. In the
Indian Lioponera longitarsis the female is ergatoid. These genera
therefore exhibit various stages in the reduction of the normal winged
female to the ergatoid ty Bes of Peepinnetn str. while Nothosphinctus

3 Conuneenen rn the views there advanced vould. require that Ctenopyga
Ashmead should be regarded as a distinct genus and not as a subgenus of
Acanthostichus, since the females of the two known species, C. teranus Forel
and C. townsendi Ashmead, are winged and quite different from that of A.
quadratus. A too consistent following of the example of André and myself
would, however, lead to difficulties in such cases as the European Harpago-
cenus sublevis, an ant which in Sweden has only apterous, ergatoid females,
but in Saxony has winged females of normal structure. I have perhaps over-
emphasized the differences between the paleotropical Husphinctus and the
neotropical Sphinctomyrmex, but my procedure may at least deter zodgeog-
raphers from citing Sphinctomyrmex as evidence of a former antarctic land
connection between South America and Australia. It is often just such
imperfectly known genera, which are confidently cited in support of ancient
land-bridges; e. g. ‘the genera Myrmecocystus and Melophorus. | When care-
fully studied the Old World forms referred to Myrmecocystus are seen to be
generically distinct and are now referred to Cataglyphis, while the South
American forms referred to Melophorus really belong to a distinct genus,
Lasiophanes.

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. 221

may be said to show an early stage in the development of the dich-
thadiigyne of the Doryline.

The distribution of the 75 known species of Cerapachyine is given
in the following table:

a

Ethiopian
Malagasy

5
Indomalayan
Australian
Hawaiian

Papuan

Sphinetomyrmex. -. -e|hs-
Eusphinctus
Nothosphinctus

AAS BhinCuusere ike uee srs |e Slokee uc
Cerapachy se... esc) arscgoe
RanaASVSClamee. ee rs cece al eee een
Odceraea

Total

It will be seen that Australia has many more species than any other
region, that the genus Phyracaces is especially well represented and
that only four of the ten genera and subgenera are absent. One of
these, however, Cerapachys s. str., occurs in New Guinea and will
therefore probably be found in Northern Queensland. The present
center of distribution of the whole group, with 50 species, representing
all the genera except Sphinctomyrmex, is seen to cover the Indo-
malayan, Papuan and Australian regions. ‘That the group was once
cosmopolitan in range is shown by the survival of Sphinctomyrmex
stali in Brazil, Parasyscia auguste Wheeler in Texas and P. tolteca
Forel in Guatemala and by the occurrence of two large primitive
Cerapachyine forms (Procerapachys annosus Wheeler and P. favosus
Wheeler) in the Baltic Amber.

A difference of opinion has arisen between Emery and Forel in
regard to the status of Phyracaces, the former now regarding it as a
distinct genus, the latter as a subgenus of Cerapachys. While the
distinctive characters of Phyracaces, namely the less pronounced

222, WHEELER.

development of the terminal antennal. joint, the large eyes and the
sharp lateral border of the petiole and often also of the postpetiole,
are minor characters, they seem to be sufficiently constant to enable
one to separate the species readily from those of Cerapachys and its
subgenera. Moreover, at least the great majority of species of Cera-
pachys sens. lat. are hypogzic, whereas those of the genus Phyracaces
forage on the surface of the ground.

Some meager notes on Parasyscia auguste which I published many
years ago, have remained up to the present time the only account of
the habits of a Cerapachyine ant. During my sojourn in Australia
I was able to gain a few additional glimpses of the behavior of one
species of Husphinctus and of several species of Phyracaces. My
brief field notes on these insects may be here transcribed:

Nov. 30, 1914, I found a fine colony of Husphinctus steinheili under
a large log which was rather deeply embedded in sand in the bottom
of a ravine at Hornsby, New South Wales. The colony, which com-
prised about 200 workers and females, was crowded into a few small
burrows in the sand, with a large number of nearly full-grown larvee.
Dr. Mann found three smaller colonies of this species during Decem-
ber, 1916, at Leura in the Blue Mts., Sydney and Wentworth Falls,
N.S. W. One of these also contained adult larvee but no pupee.

Sept. 16, at Southerland, New South Wales, I found a colony of
about 70 workers and one wingless female of Phyracaces elegans sp.
nov. huddled together in a mass under a block of sand-stone in a thin
layer of soil which in turn was lying on the hard sandstone wall of
one of the deep gorges so characteristic of the country about Sydney.
As there was no brood in the colony and as it had rained heavily the
preceding day, I inferred that the ants were merely bivouacking after
having been washed out of their nest.

Sept. 19, a fine colony of about 50 workers of Phyracaces larvatus
sp. nov. was found under a small stone in one of the deep sandstone
ravines near Katoomba in the Blue Mts. of New South Wales.

Oct. 18. Near Cairns, Queensland, I happened on about a dozen
workers of Ph. fervidus sp. noy. running rapidly over a patch of sand
in the open forest. They moved much like workers of Lobopelta.
Two of them entered a nest of Pheidole but soon returned to the sur-
face and continued foraging. ©

Oct. 19. A few workers of Ph. turneri Forel were seen running about
on dead leaves in the dark, tropical “scrub” at Kuranda, Queensland.
The nest was not discovered.

Oct. 25. In the same locality and also in the tropical “scrub” I

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. 223

found a colony of about 25 workers of Ph. binodis Forel in a small
cavity of a damp, red-rotten log.

Noy. 10. I found several workers of Ph. scrutator sp. nov. foraging
under a stone in a dry depression at the base of the mountain at
Toowong, near Brisbane, Queensland. The ants moved rapidly and
seemed to be searching for the nests of other ants.

Nov. 26. At Salisbury Court, near Uralla, New South Wales, I
saw a fine colony of Ph. senescens sp. nov. comprising about 150
workers running rapidly about on a hill-slope, very evidently on a
foraging expedition. They reminded me of the small forays of
Formica sanguinea in northern regions.

Dec. 3. In the Bulli Pass, New South Wales I came upon a dozen
workers of Ph. ficosus sp. nov. running over the sand in a very loose
file. Three or four of them were carrying the naked pupz of some
small Myrmicine ant in their jaws.

These observations show that, as I maintained in the case of Para-
syscia auguste, the Cerapachyini form small colonies, like most spe-
cies of Ponerine, that the species of Eusphinctus (with the probable
exception of S. turneri) are hypogzic in their habits, a peculiarity
also indicated by the absence of eyes in the workers of nearly all the
species and the small eyes of the females, and that the large-eyed
Phyracaces forage in troops (or as whole colonies?) on the surface of
the ground, their prey consisting of the brood of other ants. These
facts are very significant in connection with the affinities of the Cera-
pachyini to the Doryline, or driver ants, which in Africa and tropical
America, forage in a similar manner, though in much larger companies,
because their colonies are much more populous, and also feed on the
brood of other ants when other insect food is not available. Still,
what I have seen are only glimpses of the habits of the Cerapachyini.
Any of my fellow entomologists in Australia who will undertake an
intensive study of these ants will, I am sure, find many new and
interesting ethological traits and solve many problems relating to the
character of the sexual phases, in addition to finding many new forms,
since practically every colony of Phyracaces I saw, during the limited
time at my disposal, represented a different, undescribed species.
In addition to the material collected by myself I have been able,
through the kindness of Mr. A. M. Lea, to study the Cerapachyinee
of the Museum of South Australia, comprising specimens of Eusphinc-
tus steinheili and its var. hedwige, Zasphinctus turneri, Phyracaces
heros, lew, rugulinodis and mullewanus. Mr. Henry Hacker of the
Queensland Museum has presented me with specimens of Eusphinctus
hackeri and Syscia australis.

224 WHEELER.

The four genera of Cerapachyini occurring in Australia may be
readily distinguished as follows:
1. Gaster elongate, cylindrical, the segments separated from each

other by pronounced constrictions...... Eusphinctus Emery.
Segments of the gaster not thus separated.................... 2.

to

Last antennal joint much thicker and larger than the preceding

joint, forming a one-jointed club; petiole not marginate on sides

Cerapachys F. Sm.

Last antennal joint not enlarged, though longer than the preced-

ing jomt, and not forming a distinct club: ...:..........5:% 3.
3.. Funiculus of antenna terminating in a 4-jointed club

LTioponera Mayr.

Funiculus not terminating in a 4-jointed club; petiole marginate

ON SIMES Ho) kal Ph kegs ae nese eee Phyracaces Emery.

The subgenera of Cerapachys are easily distinguished by the number

of antennal joints, Cerapachys s. str. having 12, Parasyscia 11, Odcerea

10 and Syscia 9 joints.

Genus Eusphinctus Emery.

The workers and females of the subgenera, species and varieties of
Eusphinctus may be separated by the following dichotomy:

1. Antenne 11-jointed (Subgen. Eusphinctus)..................2.
Antenne 12 =-jombed 4.0%, 02 6 Gee Ae a oe Bee 6.

Be, Nsenethy: 32-4 MM, fee. ae oh cc coat S ange Si ae eee 3.
Leneth.notmorethan 3 mm..4.0) 55.2 0600 bee eee eee 4.

3. At least the head, thorax and petiole ferruginous brown; sides of
postpetiole straight. 4.cpees se ee cee steinheili Forel.

Color uniformly reddish; sides of postpetiole convex.
var. hedwigi Forel.

4. hength,onhy 25 mms cca ere cons tee hackert sp. nov.
Length:,2.5-3) as 45 lees eeae keel oy ageas: 6s oe oes ere eee 5.

i

Pale ferruginous, head, thorax and petiole infuscated above;
female with rather large, flat eyes.
steinheili. var. duchaussoyt Ern. André.
Pale yellowish red; female with minute eyes. .var. cedaris Forel.
6. Large black species, 7-8.5 mm. long; worker with well developed
eyes and emarginate pygidium (Subgen. Zasphinctus subgen.
DOV: ) > sn. ¥ hctandedte Sie SE aie. are ees turnert Forel.
Smaller, ferruginous or yellow species; worker eyeless or with

10.

11;

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. 220

240

very minute eyes, pygidium entire (Subgen. Nothospinctus

SHUOUSE'T SUL sg a ar i AGS dy ie
Workers with minnie eyes. 0). < cb. uc edad. myops Forel.
Ciera ThOe Cyesert tyes Clef ot BY es. OR Os Ce 8.
Postpetiole concave im tront..*....... 0.6.6 Oe. emeryt Forel.
Postpemolemotconcavein front)... 25. . 665.025 os on ee ER 9.
Head square, hardly longer than broad, thorax flattened above,

PMneMaCem NNOMLe enn. es ea el chit ele Dae Se 10.
Head distinctly longer than broad; thorax at most submarginate

AEie OME Re ee mee hee OR Sen tent 2 MS 1]

Mandibles punctate and coarsely striate; thorax only twice as
long as broad; epinotal declivity marginate above and on the
sides; petiole distinctly broader than long; head and thorax
CORESEIY PUMCTALE <4 sq 8 chess oe Meow bet 2 froggatti Forel.

Mandibles merely punctate; thorax 25 times as long as broad;
epinotal declivity marginate only on the sides; petiole scarcely
broader than long; head and thorax finely punctate.

imbecillis Forel.

Funicular joints 2-6 only slightly broader than long.

clarus Forel.

Funicular joints 2-6 much broader than long............... Ne

Last antennal joint scarcely longer than the two preceding joints
EORELN OIE terri ee 8 siete Ss sp coat k tan en, mjobergi Forel.

Last antennal joint fully as long as the three preceding joints
EOC ERHEIS een cee ie ate sh, ete, leech mannt sp. Nov.

1. Eusphinctus (Eusphinctus) steinheili Forel.

(Figs. 1 and 2.)

Sphinctomyrmex (Eusphinctus) steinheili Forel, Ann. Soc. Ent.
Belg. 44, 1900, p. 72, 2 (nec 8); Emery, Gen. Insect. Fase. 118, 1911,

Sphinctomyrmex steinheili Froggatt, Agric. Gaz. N.S. W., 1905, p. 15.

Sphinctomyrmex (Eusphinctus) fallax Forel, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg.
44, 1900, p. 73 8 ; Emery, Gen. Insect. Fasc. 118, 1911, p. 7.

Sphinctomyrmex fallax Froggatt, Agric. Gaz. N.S. W., 1905, p. 15.

Worker. Length 3.2-3.6 mm.

Head nearly 13 times as long as broad, as broad behind as in front,
with very feebly convex sides, broadly excavated posterior border
and short but rather pointed posterior corners. Occipital border

226 WHEELER.

strongly marginate, the margination running around the posterior
corners and along the ventral surface on each side about 4 the length
of the head. Eyes and_ ocelli absent. Mandibles small, abruptly
flexed at their bases, with deflected blades, the apical margins very
indistinctly denticulate. Clypeus very short. Frontal carinz closely
approximated, in front surrounding the antennal insertions, behind
fused and truncated in a depression which unites the antennal fovee.
Carine of cheeks sharp, abruptly and angularly turned inward behind
towards the antennal fovee. Antenne robust; scapes about half
as long as the head, thickened apically; first funicular joint as long as
broad; joints 2-9 broader than long, apical joint enlarged, glandiform,
as long as the four preceding joints together. Thorax about 24 times

b

Ficure 1. Eusphinctus steinheili Forel, a, worker in profile; 6, thorax
and abdomen of same, dorsal view; c, head of same, d, head of female.

as long as broad, its dorsal surface flattened, with a very feeble trans-
verse depression marking the obsolete mesoépinotal suture; epinotum
abruptly truncated behind, distinctly concave in profile; pronotum
marginate in front; epinotal declivity sharply marginate on the sides
and above, on each side above very feebly subdentate. Mesopleurze
rather concave. Petiole from above rectangular, distinctly longer
than broad, scarcely broader behind than in front, narrower than the
epinotum, with straight, subparallel sides, rather rounded, convex
dorsal surface and a sharp, angular tooth, directed forward and down-
ward on its anteroventral surface. Postpetiole broader than the
petiole, as long as broad and distinctly broader behind than in front,
with straight sides and anterior border, its ventral portion in front

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. ATE

very protuberant and rounded. First gastric segment 13, second and
third segments twice as broad as long. Pygidium subtruncate behind,
on each side and at the blunt tip minutely spinulate. Legs moderately
long.

Shining; mandibles coarsely punctate; head, thorax and petiole
covered with rather shallow, umbilicate, piligerous foveole, which
are dense on the head and distinctly sparser on the thorax and petiole.
Postpetiole and gaster evenly punctate.

Hairs pale yellow, slender, pointed, moderately long, suberect on
the body, partly appressed and like long pubescence on the gaster.

Figure 2. a, Larva of Eusphinctus steinheili Forel, lateral view. 6, head
of same, dorsal view; c, mandible; d, forked hair from body enlarged.

Antenne and legs with very few erect hairs, but covered with rather
abundant, appressed pubescence.

Ferruginous brown; mandibles, cheeks, antenne, legs, postpetiole
and gaster paler and more reddish.

Female. Length 3.5-4 mm.

Differing from the worker in its large side, in the proportionally
broader head, which is scarcely 1} times as long as broad, the less
distinct carinz on the cheeks and the presence of eyes and ocelli, the
eyes being moderately large, rather flat and placed a little in front of
the middle of the sides of the head. The petiole is not longer than
broad, the gaster more voluminous, with the constrictions between
the segments less pronounced than in the worker. The erect hairs

228 WHEELER.

on the body and appendages are longer, more abundant and more
bristly, even on the antennal funiculi. The appressed hairs on the
gaster are also longer and more numerous.

Larva. Long and slender, cylindrical and not enlarged at the
posterior end, with eleven distinct postcephalic segments, all uni-
formly clothed with short, erect, two-branched hairs. Head small,
as broad as long, with vestigial antenne and long faleate mandibles,
which have finely serrate internal borders. There are few hairs on
the head and these are simple, with the exception of a pair near the
occipital border, which are two-branches like those on the body. The
color of the larva is dull white.

Queensland: Mackay, type-locality (Turner).

New South Wales: Hornsby (Wheeler); Sydney, Wentworth Falls
and Leura, Blue Mts. (W. M. Mann).

South Australia: Lucindale (Feuerheerdt).

I have examined a cotype of steinheili given me by Prof. Forel.
It is indistinguishable from the females in the colonies I have seen
from New South Wales and South Australia, the workers of which
are evidently referable to Forel’s fallax. The nests are found in sand
under logs and stones.

2. Eusphinctus (Eusphinctus) steinheili var. hedwige Forel.

Sphinctomyrmex (Eusphinctus) fallax subsp. hedwige Forel, Rev.
Suisse Zool. 18,. 1910, p. 21 8 92; Emery, Gen. Insect. Fase. 118,
1911, p. 7; Boll. Lab. Zool. Gen. Agrar. 8, 1914, p. 179.

Sphinctomyrmex hednige (sic!) Froggatt, Agric. Gaz. N. S. W.,
1905, p. 15.

New South Wales: Walcha, type locality (W. W. Froggatt).

South Australia: Mt. Lofty (Silvestri; A. M. Lea); Adelaide (Mus.
5. Austr.).

I am convinced from examination of a cotype worker and female
and of many specimens of both phases from the two localities in South
Australia that this is merely a variety of steinheili. The postpetiole
has the sides more rounded in the worker than in the typical form of
the species, but both this character and the width of the gastric seg-
ments of the two forms are somewhat variable, so that often they can
be distinguished only by the coloration, hedwige having the body
more uniformly reddish.

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. 229

3. Eusphinctus (Eusphinctus) steinheili var. duchaussoyi
Ern. André.

Eusphinctus duchaussoyt Ern. André, Rev. d’Ent., 1909, p. 205, 8 9.

Sphinctomyrmex (Eusphinctus) duchaussoyi Emery, Gen. Insect.
Fase. 118, 1911, p. 7.

New South Wales: Sydney (A. Duchaussoy).

Judging from André’s description this form, too, is hardly more
than a variety of steinheili. It is distinctly smaller, the worker
measuring only 2.5-3 mm., the female 2.7-3 mm. The color is paler
as in hedwige and the punctures are different, being described as
sparse and a little larger and less abundant on the head and thorax
and finer and denser on the abdomen.

4. Eusphinctus (Eusphinctus) steinheili var. cedaris Forel.

Sphinctomyrmex (Eusphinctus) fallax var. cedaris Forel, Ark. f.
Zool. 9. I9Tb sp. 16, 8 9

Queensland: Cedar Creek (E. Mjéberg).

Of about the same size as duchaussoyi, the worker measuring 2.5—
2.6 mm., the female 2.9 to 3.1 mm. The petiole of the worker is
more steeply truncate in front below than in steinheili, the punctures
are sharper and denser on the abdomen, but feebler and sparser on
the head. In the female the eyes are smaller, consisting of only
about 8 or 9 indistinct facets.

~

5. Eusphinctus (Eusphinctus) hackeri sp. nov.
(Fig. 3.)

Worker. Length 1.5-1.7 mm.

Head rectangular, fully 13 times as long as broad, as broad behind
as in front, with straight, parallel sides, rather deeply excised posterior
border and short, blunt posterior corners. Occipital border margin-
ate. Eyes and ocelli absent. Mandibles not abruptly flexed at the
base, their apical and basal borders not distinctly separated, the former
minutely denticulate. Frontal carine approximated, surrounding
the antennal insertions in front, confluent behind and truncated in a
depression connecting the antennal fovee. Carine of cheeks short
and indistinct. Antenne robust; scapes about 3 as long as the head,

230 WHEELER.

much thickened apically, first funicular joint as long as broad, joints
2-9 very transverse, terminal joint large, glandiform, fully as long as
the five preceding joints together. Thorax about 23 times as long as
broad, with flattened dorsum, rounded humeri and epinotal angles,
as broad behind as in front, with very feebly indicated mesoépinotal
suture. Pronotum not marginate, epinotal declivity marginate
only on the sides, in profile truncated and decidedly concave. Petiole
narrower than the epinotum, rectangular, a little longer than broad
and a little broader behind than in front, its dorsal surface convex,
its anteroventral surface with a small, acute tooth. Postpetiole
rectangular, broader than the petiole, as broad as long, a little broader
behind than in front, with straight sides. Gastric segments 1-3

d

Figure 3. a, Female Eusphinctus hackeri sp. nov., lateral view; 6, head of
same, dorsal view; c, thorax and abdomen of worker, dorsal view; d, head of
same.

nearly twice as broad as long. Pygidium short, broadly rounded and
truncate behind, where it is bordered with minute spinules.

Shining; mandibles coarsely punctate; head, thorax, petiole and
postpetiole covered with umbilicate, piligerous foveole, which are
densest on the upper surface of the head, elongate on its front and
sides; gaster rather coarsely and evenly punctate. Antennal scapes
sparsely foveolate.

Hairs pale yellow, short, erect, moderately abundant, longer at the
tip of the gaster; pubescencevdilute. Legs with fine, dilute, appressed
pubescence and a very few, erect hairs.

Uniformly brownish yellow, not infuscated.

Female. Length 1.8 to 2 mm.

Differing from the worker in size and in having eyes and ocelli, the

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. 231

former distinctly in front of the middle of the head, the broader and
more rounded petiole and more voluminous gaster, with less pro-
nounced constrictions between the segments. The sides of the
postpetiole are straight as in the worker. The erect hairs on both the
body and appendages are distinctly more abundant and more bristly.

Described from six workers and two females taken by Mr. Henry
Hacker on Bribie Island, near Brisbane, Queensland.

This species is easily recognized by its very small size, rounded
humeri and epinotal corners and the absence of marginations on the
pronotum and upper portion of the epinotal declivity.

6. Eusphinctus .(Zasphinctus) turneri Forel.
(Fig. 4.)

Sphinctomyrmex turneri Forel, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. 44, 1900, p.
70, 8; Rev. Suisse Zool. 18, 1910, p. 21, 8; Froggatt, Agric. Gaz.
N.S. W., 1905, p. 15; Emery, Gen. Insect. Fasc. 118, 1911, p. 7, Pl. 1,
Hig, 1, 8:

Worker. Length 7-8.5 mm.

Head subrectangular, a little longer than broad, as broad in front as
behind, broadest through the eyes, which are moderately large and
convex and a little in front of the middle of the sides; occipital border
deeply and broadly excavated, marginate, the margin surrounding
the posterior corners and extending forward on the gular surface about
2 the length of the head. Ocelli absent. Carine of cheeks distinct
but not dentate, running backward and inward towards the antennal
fover. Mandibles rather small, subtriangular, deflected, their apical
margins indistinctly denticulate. Clypeus short, with straight an-
terior border. Frontal carinz short, erect, rounded, approximated
and strongly truncated behind, surrounding the antennal insertions
in front. Antenne rather long, 12-jointed; scapes about 3 as long
as the head; funicular joints 1 and 5-10 distinctly broader than long,
joints 2-4 as long as broad, terminal joint but slightly enlarged, as
long as the three preceding joints. Thorax less than twice as long
as broad, a little broader behind than in front, with rounded anterior
and posterior corners, marginate anterior and prosternal borders,
very feebly convex dorsal and slightly concave mesopleural surfaces,
without promesonotal or mesoépinotal sutures. The truncated sur-
face of the epinotum is surrounded above and on the sides by a sharp

Dae WHEELER.

margination. Petiole as long as broad, rounded-cuboidal, slightly
broader behind than in front, distinctly narrower than the epinotum,
in profile higher than long, rounded above, with vertical, truncated
anterior and posterior surfaces and a powerful triangular tooth at
the anteroventral end. Postpetiole broader than the petiole, a little
broader behind than in front, with rectangular anterior corners, con-
vex dorsal surface and its anterior ventral portion rounded and
strongly protuberant. Gastric segments 1-3 broader than long,
separated, by very deep and broad constrictions. Pygidium trape-

Fiacure 4. Zasphinctus turneri Forel. Worker.

zoidal, flattened or slightly concave above, submarginate on the sides
and rather deeply notched at the tip, the sides and notch fringed with
conspicuous spinules. Sting robust, curved. Legs rather long, pos-
terior coxze without lamellate appendages.

Opaque; mandibles shining, coarsely punctate; head and thorax
covered with round foveole, varying in size, their bottoms opaque
and finely rugulose. These foveole are so close together that the
spaces between them form coarse but not prominent reticulate rugz.
Remainder of body, including the legs and scapes coarsely and densely

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. Das

punctate. Epinotal declivity shining, very finely and transversely
shagreened.

Hairs grayish yellow, abundant and rather long, in part suberect,
both on the body and appendages, and in part appressed, the latter
appearing on the appendages as long pubescence.

Black; tarsi, articulations of legs, antennal funiculi, mandibles,
clypeus, frontal carinze, cheeks and pygidium reddish.

Queensland: Mackay, type-locality (Gilbert Turner); Kuranda
(Rowland Turner and F. P. Dodd).

I have redescribed this species from four specimens from Kuranda,
two received from Prof. Forel and taken by Rowland Turner and two
taken by F. P. Dodd and belonging to the Museum of South Australia.

E. turneri is readily recognized by its large size, black color, the
presence of eyes and the emarginate pygidium.

7. Eusphinctus (Nothosphinctus) froggatti Forel.
(Fig. 5.)

Sphinctomyrmex froggatti Forel, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. 44, 1900,
p. 71, 8; Froggatt, Agric. Gaz. N.S. W., 1905, p. 15; Emery, Gen.
Insect. Fasc. 118, 1911, p. 7.

Worker. Length 4.5-5.5 mm.

Head nearly square when seen from above, scarcely longer than
broad, as broad in front as behind, with feebly rounded sides, deeply
excavated posterior border and sharp posterior corners. Margina-
tion of posterior border and corners continued forward on each side
of the gula fully ? the length of the head. Mandibles strongly flexed
inward at the base, with distinctly concave external border, the
apical border denticulate and passing through a curve into the basal
border. Clypeus very short, its anterior border broadly rounded.
Frontal carine very short, erect, small, approximated, fused and
strongly truncated behind and curving around the antennal insertions
in front. Antennal foveze confluent behind the frontal carine.
Cheeks with small, indistinct carine, which border the antennal
insertions on the sides. Antenne short and stout; scapes about
half as long as the head, thickened towards their tips; funicular joints
1-9 short, very distinctly broader than long, tenth joint as broad as
long, terminal joint fully as long as the three preceding joints together.
Thorax subrectangular, fully twice as long as broad, as broad through

23 WHEELER.

the pronotum as through the epinotum, with blunt anterior and
posterior corners, flattened above and on the sides, which are scarcely
submarginate, with sloping, concave, epinotal declivity. Mesoépino-
tal suture very feebly indicated. Pronotum in front, prosterna, sides
and upper border of epinotal declivity marginate. Petiole rounded
cuboidal, as long as high, a little broader than long and a little broader
behind than in front, its anterior surface flat and marginate on the
sides; its ventral surface in front with a large, blunt, compressed
tooth. Postpetiole fully 13 times as broad as long, broader than the
petiole, broader behind than in front, with rounded anterior angles,
and its ventral portion in front swollen and strongly protuberant.
Pygidium flattened above, entire and blunt at the tip, with a row of

Ficure 5. a, Nothosphinctus froggatti Forel, thorax and abdomen of
worker, dorsal view; 6b, head of same.

spinules along each side. Legs moderately long; hind cox without
lamellate appendage at the tip.

Shining; mandibles coarsely punctate, striate at the base; head,
thorax, petiole and postpetiole covered with scattered foveole of
varying size, denser on the head, very sparse in the mid-dorsal line
of the thorax and on the petiole and postpetiole; gaster very finely
shagreened and sparsely punctate.

Hairs pale yellow, short, moderately abundant, oblique or sub-
appressed, shorter and more appressed on the appendages where they
may be described as long; pubescence rather abundant, especially on
the tibive. g

Brownish red; scapes and legs somewhat paler; mandibles, anterior
border of head and incisures of funicular joints blackish.

New South Wales: Minto, type locality (W. W. Froggatt); Sydney
(A. M. Lea).

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. Zap

Redescribed from four specimens from the latter locality (Museum
of South Australia).

8S. Eusphinctus (Nothosphinctus) emeryi Forel.

Cerapachys emeryi Forel, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. 37, 1893, p. 461, 8.

Sphinctomyrmex emeryt Froggatt, Agric. Gaz. N.S. W. 1905, p. 15;
Emery, Gen. Insect. Fase. 118, 1911, p. 7.

North West Australia: Baudin Island (J.J. Walker).

9. Eusphinctus (Nothosphinctus) myops Forel.

Sphinctomyrmex emeryt var. myops Forel, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. 39,
1895, p. 421 8; Emery, Gen. Insect. Fasc. 118, 1911, p. 7.

S. emeryi race clarus var. myops Froggatt, Agric. Gaz. N.S. W.,
1905, p. 15.

Queensland: Mackay (Gilbert Turner).

Forel does not state whether he regards the type as a normal or a
gyneecoid worker. It may be the female of emeryz, or of an allied form,
but if it is a normal worker, it should rank as a distinct species, since
emery? is eyeless. His brief description runs as follows: “Sculpture
that of the type [emery]. Form and pilosity those of the race clarus.
Color intermediate. Distinct from the two forms in possessing very
small but distinct, flattened eyes situated at the middle of the sides
of the head and comprising some thirty facets.”

10. Eusphinctus (Nothosphinctus) clarus Forel.

Cerapachys emeryi var. clarus Forel, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. 37, 1893,
p. 462, 8.

Cerapachys clarus Forel, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. 44, 1900, p. 72, 8.

Sphinctomyrmex emery? race clarus Forel, Rev. Suisse Zool. 10, 1902,
p. 537; Froggatt, Agric. Gaz. N.S. W., 1905, p. 15.

Sphinctomyrmex clarus Emery, Gen. Insect. Fase. 118, 1911, p. 7.

North West Australia: Adelaide River (J. J. Walker).

11. Eusphinctus (Nothosphinctus) imbecillis Forel.

Sphinctomyrmex froggatti subsp. imbecillis Forel, Fauna S. W.

Austr. 1, 1907, p. 272, 8, erg. 9; Emery, Gen. Insect. Fasc. 118,
OU ps 7:

236 WHEELER.

South West Australia: Lion Mill.

I believe this form must be regarded as a distinct species as the
characters in which it differs from clarus, are, according to Forel’s
statement, more than subspecific. The mandibles are not striated
as in froggattt and are less geniculate at their bases, the anterior
corners of the pronotum are more rounded, the thorax longer, the
epinotum not marginate above, the petiole hardly broader than long,
with shorter ventral tooth and the puncturation is feebler and sparser
than in froggatti.

The “ergatomorphic female,’ described by Forel, is eyeless, with
swollen epinotum, shorter and more rounded head, the petiole 14 times
as broad as long, more voluminous gaster, emarginate pygidium, and
the surface is more opaque, more punctate and more pubescent than
in the worker. This singular individual measured 6.5 mm. It was
found in the same vial with a number of workers and undoubtedly
belonged to the same species. Forel believes that such individuals
must represent the type from which the dichthadiiform females of the
Dorylinze have developed.

12. Eusphinctus (Nothosphinctus) manni sp. nov.
(Fig. 6.)

Worker. Length 3-5 mm.

Head distinctly longer than broad, a little broader in front than
behind, with evenly rounded sides, feebly and broadly concave occi-
pital border and short, blunt posterior corners. Eyes and _ ocelli
absent. Occipital border marginate, the margination surrounding
the posterior corners. Carine of cheeks very feebly developed.
Mandibles not geniculate nor abruptly curved at the base, their
apical borders finely denticulate. Frontal carine short, erect, sur-
rounding the antennal insertions in front, truncated and fused behind
in a depression uniting the antennal fovee. Antenne rather slender;
scapes less than half as long as the head, thick at the apex, rather
suddenly narrowed at the basal fourth; funicular joints 2-9 much
broader than long, tenth joint as long as broad, terminal joint rather
slender, fully as long as the three preceding joints together. Thorax
fully 23 times as long as broad, distinctly narrowed in the mesonotal
region, flattened above, submarginate on the sides; pronotum with
rectangular humeri, vertically truncated and submarginate in front,
the mesoépinotal suture indicated by a feeble impression; epinotal

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. 237

declivity steep, slightly concave, its sides sharply, its upper border
feebly but distinctly marginate. Petiole subcuboidal, narrower than
the epinotum, slightly broader than long, distinctly broader behind
than in front, its anterior surface truncated and flat, marginate on the
sides and submarginate above, its ventral surface in front with a large,
blunt, compressed, translucent tooth. Postpetiole broader than the
petiole, about $ broader than long and broader behind than in front,
its anterior and lateral borders straight, its anterior corners rounded,

d

Ficure 6. a, Nothosphinctus manni sp. nov. Worker, lateral view; 6,
thorax and abdomen of same, dorsal view; c, head of same; d, thorax and
abdomen of female; e, head of same.

its posterior border feebly concave in the middle. Gastric segments
1-8 twice as broad as long, separated by pronounced constrictions.
Pygidium truncated behind, with blunt, entire border, scarcely sub-
marginate on the sides, the posterior border densely spinulate. Legs
moderately long.

Shining; mandibles subopaque, coarsely punctate, body finely
and unevenly punctate, the punctures denser on the head and legs,
not larger on the thorax than on the gaster.

Hairs short, yellow, appressed or subappressed, longest on the gaster,

238 WHEELER.

especially at its tip. Tibize and gaster with a few suberect, delicate
hairs.

Uniformly brownish yellow; mandibles, frontal carinz and incisures
of antennal joints fuscous.

Female. Length 7 mm.

Very similar to the worker but besides its larger size differing in the
following characters: Head not longer than broad, with much more
convex sides. Posterior ocelli absent; eyes and the anterior ocellus
present but the former very small, reduced to three or four minute
ommatidia. ‘Thorax shorter and stouter, not more than twice as long
as broad, pronotum and lateral borders not submarginate and margin-
ation of epinotum indistinct. Petiole as broad as the epinotum,
broader in proportion to its length than in the worker, flattened
above, its posterior border broadly concave in the middle, its anterior
surface not submarginate. Postpetiole and gaster larger, the incisures
between the segments of the latter much less pronounced than in
the worker, the postpetiole flattened above, nearly twice as broad
as long, as are also the three basal gastric segments. Pygidium
broadly and rather deeply excised behind, its posterior surface trun-
cated, with almost submarginate sides, the posterior excision beset
with minute spinules. Sting short and stout.

Sculpture like that of the worker, the surface being quite as shining;
the thorax and abdomen with fine punctures and in addition with
large, scattered, shallow foveole.

Hairs much more abundant than in the worker, erect and bristly,
conspicuous also on the appendages. Pubescence abundant and
rather dense, especially on the head and gaster.

Color like that of the worker, but the mandibles are ferruginous red
with their apical and basal borders black. Sting black.

Described from numerous workers and a single female taken from
the same colony in December 1916 at Leura in the Blue Mts. of
New South Wales by Dr. W. M. Mann.

This form is very close to imbecillis Forel, but the female and largest
workers are larger and the former possesses small eyes and has a shining
body like the worker, the pronotum has more pronounced corners,
the epinotal declivity of the worker is distinctly marginate above, the
petiole is broader, and both the large and small workers have the
same pale coloration. Additional material may show that manni
is to be regarded as a subspecies of ¢mbecillis.

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. 239

13. Eusphinctus (Nothosphinctus) mjobergi Forel.

Sphinctomyrmex clarus subsp. mjébergi Forel, Ark. f. Zool. 9, 1915,
po L6;S:.

Queensland: Mt. Tambourine (E. Mjéberg).

This form, too, I believe, should be regarded as a distinct species,
as the differences which, according to Forel, separate it from clarus
and emeryi are considerable. It is much larger (5.2-5.3 mm.) than
clarus, much stouter and of a much darker color, and the antenne
are very different, the scapes being longer and more gradually thick-
ened towards their tips, funicular joints 2-6 are much more transverse
and the terminal joint is shorter. The thorax and petiole are more
convex than in emeryi and the petiole is not concave in front nor
marginate above, the postpetiole is longer, the first gastric segment
much broader, the gastric constrictions are less pronounced, the
puncturation of the body is sparser, the pubescence more dilute and
the color paler, brownish red.

Genus Phyracaces Emery.
Table for the Identification of the Workers.

iPpePooyentitelynOr patilyred ix ta): 4a ca ok gene. cons. SDs

Body black, at most with cheeks, front, pygidium and ap-
[DRM EA CES gS | an A ce ee Be

2. Large species, measuring 9 mm.; petiole narrowed and bilobed
elsmnrlin pepe reek et Ber att bat heros sp. nov.
Smaller species, not exceeding 7 mm.; petiole rectangular,
ig@athedea posperior cormers's: 42660. 6 dee) es ve O00 Ret a

See idee mitered easter’ cis... Pe ea es br ficosus sp. nov.
Pieierstenuesieneimrenian .g6./) tho Sk CASS Le ieee 4,

SP udomens pmackwordark brown. ...........2%.0o0e4 5.0 eee as 5
Desiwamed gunn choi be. oe eek oh a POP Oe toe tee 6.

5. Head and thorax red. Length 6-6.2 mm.
singularis Forel subsp. rotula Forel.
Thorax more or less blackened. Length 3-3.5 mm.
elegans sp. nov.
6. Head, thorax and pedicel subopaque. Length 3.6—4 mm.
scrutator sp. nov.
Body shining i.

240 WHEELER.

7.» Postorbitalvearinssipresent:<9e er eee oh eee 8.
Postorbital (carines absent: .29 eres Gorse as tea ree 10.

8. Epinotal declivity longitudinally rugose........... jovis Forel.
Epmotaldeclivityasmiaoting ser crests. 2 ao4,-02 6S wnelag nae 9:

9. Head feebly excised behind. Length 7 mm.. .singularis Forel.
Head deeply excised behind. Length 6 mm... . .mjébergi Forel.

10) enetlr 6-7 cmimaere apenas 5 is, 20521 Sep oe A ae ints
Lengthinotiexceedingroaminy «50.62. 0-Nn2 Ge ds ee alee 12.

11. Eyes at middle of head; antennal scapes separated only by their
own width from occipital border............ sjostedti Forel.

Eyes a little behind the middle of the head; scapes reaching
only tommiddile sof teyes's iy). .cvscieh:ci aa: emeryt Viehmeyer.

12. Thorax distinctly narrowed in middle; body very shining.
Tigernectla, Seaman) 20) Pees er Pee a aan Eee lee sp. nov.

Thorax scarcely narrowed in middle, body more sharply sha-
greened and less shining. Length 3.8-4.2 mm.

fervidus sp. nov.

13. Petiole, postpetiole and gaster with conspicuous appressed hairs

besides the suberect hairs................ senescens sp. NOV.

Petiole, postpetiole and gaster with suberect hairs only... ..14.

14. Postpetiole scarcely larger than the petiole, as long as broad.

binodis Forel.

Fostpetiole larger than’ the petiole: 2+. 228 » 2224s. een ee 1:

15. Eyes large, as long as distance between them and anterior
bpordervot head): 210: Hoke ee ee a aes adami Forel.

yes distinctly sinaller,:..+..t~ ic. Aiea ee ee 16.

16. Cheeks red; funicular joints 2-9 broader than long.
larvatus sp. nov.

Cheeks black; funicular joints 2-9 as broad as long.
turnert Forel.

14. Phyracaces heros sp. nov.
(Fig. 7.)

Worker. Length 9 mm.

Head distinctly longer than broad and distinctly narrower in front
than behind, with rather deeply and angularly excised posterior bor-
der, acute inferoposterior corners and rather large, convex eyes at
the middle of the sides. Ocelli present, but small. Mandibles
triangular, strongly deflected, with distinct apical and basal borders
meeting at a rounded angle, the former finely denticulate, the external

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. 241

borders nearly straight. Clypeus very short, vertical, fused with
the front. Frontal carine large, erect, rounded, truncated and
confluent behind. Frontal groove short but distinct. Carina of
cheeks bluntly dentate in front, curving inward behind and ending
half way between the eye and antennal insertion. Posterior border
of head marginate, the margination at the posteroinferior corner
sending a horizontal carina forward nearly to the eye and another
ridge downward and forward along the lateral surface of the gula
half way to the anterior border of the head. Antenne rather long
and slender; scapes more than half as long as the head, slender at the
base, gradually enlarging towards their tips; first funicular joint a
little longer than broad, second twice and third nearly twice as long
as broad; remaining joints 13 times as long as broad, except the last
which is slender and pointed, twice as long as broad and not longer

FicurEe 7. Phyracaces heros sp. nov. Worker; a, lateral view of body;
b, dorsal view.

than the two preceding joints together. Thorax through the pro-
notum narrower than the head and the epinotum, narrowed in the
mesonotal region, in profile evenly rounded and rather convex above
to the epinotal declivity which is straight and sloping. Pleure con-
cave. Anterior border, sides of thoracic dorsum and of epinotal
declivity strongly marginate. Boundary between base and declivity
of epinotum feebly marginate; corners of epinotum bluntly dentate.
Petiole a little broader than the epinotum, a little broader than long,
decidedly narrower behind than in front, with straight anterior and
convex lateral borders, its posterior border deeply excised in the
middle, with a flattened, rounded lobe at each corner. The whole
border is marginate except in the middle behind. In profile the upper
surface of the petiole is flattened, its anterior surface abrupt and
truncate, forming a right angle with the dorsal surface and longer

242 WHEELER.

than the similar posterior surface. The ventral surface bears in front
a thick, backwardly directed tooth. Postpetiole broader than the
petiole, convex above and on the sides, a little broader than long,
with marginate sides and a small, flattened tooth on the front of the
ventral surface. First gastric segment scarcely broader than the
postpetiole and of a similar shape. Pygidium with a narrow, median,
longitudinal impression in front, its sides indistinctly marginate and
spinulose. Legs rather long and slender; claws nearly straight;
hind coxee with a large rounded, translucent lamella at the tip on the
inner side.

Surface of body smooth and shining. Mandibles coarsely punctate.
Sides of front punctate-rugulose. Upper surface of body with very
sparse, coarse, piligerous punctures; legs with finer and more numer-
ous punctures. Sides of pygidium finely and densely punctate.

Hairs moderately abundant, coarse, bristly, erect, grayish or yellow-
ish in some lights, blackish in others, long on the gaster, especially at
its tip, shorter and sparser on other parts of the body, quite as long,
erect and abundant on the legs and antennz as on the head, thorax
and petiole. Pubescence absent.

Rich red throughout, appendages not paler.

Described from a single example taken in Queensland (Mus. South
Austr.).

This handsome species is readily distinguished by its large size, the
shape of the antenne and petiole, peculiar pilosity, ete.

15. Phyracaces singularis Forel.

Cerapachys singularis Forel, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. 44, 1900, p. 69.
8; Froggatt, Agric. Gaz. N. S. W., 1905, p. 14.

Phyracaces singularis Emery, Gen. Insect. Fase. 118, 1911, p. 11.

South Australia (Wroughton).

16. Phyracaces singularis Forel subsp. rotula Forel.

Cerapachys (Phyracaces) singularis Forel race rotula Forel, Rev.
Suisse Zool., 18, 1910, p. 21, 8.

Cerapachys singularis var. ratula (sic!) Froggatt, Agric. Gaz. N.S.
We3-1905). 5.305:

Phyracaces singularis var. rotula Emery, Gen. Insect. Fase. 118,
1911, p. 11.

New South Wales: Inverall (W. W. Froggatt).

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. 243

17. Phyracaces emeryi Viehmeyer.

Viehmeyer, Arch. f. Naturg. 79, 1913, p. 26, 8.
South Australia: Killalpaninna.

18. Phyracaces mjobergi Forel.

Cerapachys (Phyracaces) mjobergi Forel, Ark. f. Zool. 9, 1915, p. 18,
Pid Big. 9, 8.
North West Australia: Derby (E. Mjéberg).

19. Phyracaces sjostedti Forel.

Cerapachys (Phyracaces) sjéstedti Forel, Ark. f. Zool. 9, 1915, p. 19,
Piet ies 6,3.
North West Australia (E. Mjéberg).

20. Phyracaces jovis Forel.

Cerapachys (Phyracaces) jovis Forel, Ark. f. Zool. 9, 1915, p. 20,
Pie te Brg) 1,8.
Queensland: Alice River (E. Mjéberg).

21. Phyracaces lee sp. nov.

(Fig. 8.)

Worker. Length 5 mm.

Head longer than broad, slightly narrower in front than behind,
with truncated occipital surface, deeply and angularly excised posterior
border and acute inferoposterior angles. Eyes rather large, moder-
ately convex, just in front of the middle of the sides. Carine of
cheeks forming acute angles in front, extending back to the anterior
orbits and sending a branch inward to the antennal fossa. Post-
ocular carina absent. Occipital border of head marginate, the margin
surrounding the inferoposterior corners and extending forward as
a pair of gular carine to the level of the middle of the eyes. Mandi-
bles moderately large, triangular, deflected, their external borders
concave, their apical borders without denticles. Frontal carinie
approximated, rounded, erect, not truncated behind where they fuse

244 WHEELER.

and join the short frontal furrow. Clypeus very short, vertical, with
straight anterior border. Antennze moderately thick; scapes a little
more than half as long as the head, gradually incrassated towards
their tips; first funicular joint nearly as long as broad, joints 2-9
broader than long, tenth joint as long as broad, terminal joint not
longer than the two preceding joints together. Thorax rather robust,
twice as long as broad, a little broader through the epinotum than
through the pronotum, distinctly narrowed in the mesonotal region.
Anterior border of pronotum not marginate; sides of dorsum, bound-
ary between the epinotal base and declivity and the sides of the latter
strongly marginate. In profile the dorsum is feebly convex, the epi-
notal declivity straight, with a small tooth above on each side. Petiole
rectangular, a little broader than long, its sides straight, strongly
marginate, produced behind as a pair of flat, acute teeth, its anterior
border broadly concave, its anterior corners slightly rounded; in

Figure 8. Phyracaces lee sp. nov. Worker, a, dorsal view of body; },
antenna of same.

profile the dorsal surface is rather convex, its ventral surface without
a tooth. Postpetiole rectangular, slightly broader than the petiole
and slightly broader than long, its rounded anterior angles alone
marginate. First gastric segment distinctly broader than the post-
petiole, broader than long. Pygidium broadly concave above, its
sides marginate and finely spinulate. Legs rather long; hind cox
with a large, rounded, translucent lamella at the tip on the inner side.

Smooth and shining, the head and thorax very finely and super-
ficially shagreened; mandibles more coarsely shagreened and sparsely
punctate. Occipital region arid upper surface of thorax and abdomen
with scattered, shallow, piligerous foveole.

Hairs pale yellow, suberect, short, sparse and rather bristly, spars-
est on the head, scapes and legs. Pubescence pale, dilute, distinct
only on the legs.

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. 245

Rich red throughout, antennal scapes paler, apical margins of
mandibles and marginations of the head, thorax and petiole blackish.

Described from a single example taken by Mr. F. P. Dodd at
Townsville, Queensland (Museum of South Australia).

This beautiful species, which is dedicated to Mr. A. M. Lea, re-
sembles Ph. fervidus, but is distinctly larger, even more shining and
has a differently shaped thorax.

22. Phyracaces fervidus sp. nov.
(Fig. 9.)

Worker. Length 3.84.2 mm.

Head longer than broad, distinctly broader behind than in front,
with truncated occipital region and rather large, moderately convex
eyes, situated at the anterior 3 of the sides. Mandibles rather large,
triangular, deflected, with concave external and edentate apical
borders. Clypeus very short, vertical, broadly rounded in front;

Figure 9. Phyracaces fervidus sp. nov. Worker, a, dorsal view of body;
c, antenna of same.

frontal carinee approximated, not truncate behind where they unite
and join the short frontal furrow. Carina of cheeks very prominent,
forming a projecting tooth and dividing behind to form two ridges,
one of which runs to the anterior orbit, the other to the antennal
fovea. Postocular carina absent. Occipital border of head deeply
and subangularly excised and marginate, the margination surrounding
the rather acute inferoposterior corners and extending forward on
the sides of the gula to the level of the middle of the eyes. Antenne
rather slender; scapes about half as long as the head, gradually in-
crassated towards their tips, first and second funicular joints as long
as broad; joints 3-9 distinctly broader than long; tenth joint as long
as broad, terminal joint nearly as long as the three preceding joints
together. Thorax rather robust; twice as long as broad, as broad in

246 WHEELER.

front as behind, very feebly narrowed in the mesonotal region. An-
terior border, sides and boundary between base and declivity of
epinotum sharply marginate, as are also the prosterna and the sides
of the epinotal declivity. In profile the thoracic dorsum is feebly
and evenly convex, the declivity abrupt and nearly straight, the
mesopleurz slightly concave. Petiole a little narrower than the
epinotum, rectangular, broader than long, not broader behind than
in front, its anterior border broadly excised, submarginate, the sides
rather straight, strongly marginate and terminating behind in a pair
of flat, pointed teeth. In profile the dorsal surface is feebly convex,
as are also the truncated anterior and posterior surfaces; lower sur-
face in front with a small, acute backwardly directed tooth. Post-
petiole rectangular, a little broader than the petiole and _ slightly
broader than long, the anterior border and anterior corners scarcely
submarginate. First gastric segment decidedly broader than the
postpetiole, broader than long, with broadly concave anterior border
and convex sides. Pygidium broadly concave above, marginate and
very finely spinulate on the sides. Legs rather long, hind coxe with
a large, rounded, translucent lamella at the tip on the inner side.

Shining; finely but distinctly shagreened, the head, thorax, petiole
and postpetiole more sharply so that these parts are a little less shining
than the gaster. Mandibles sparsely punctate, the occiput, dorsum
of thorax and abdomen with sparse, shallow, piligerous foveole.

Hairs yellow, suberect, delicate, moderately long and abundant
on the upper surface of the thorax and abdomen, sparser on the head,
very sparse on the legs and scapes. Pubescence long and conspicu-
ous on the legs, especially on the tibiz and on the ventral surface of
the petiole.

Uniformly red, of the tint of Polyergus rufescens, apical borders of
mandibles and carine of head, thorax and petiole of a deeper color,
almost blackish.

Described from 19 specimens taken Oct. 18, 1914 at Cairns, Queens-
land, foraging on a sandy spot in the forest.

This species resembles Ph. scrutator but differs in being slightly
larger, with more robust thorax and in having the head, thorax,
petiole and postpetiole shining, the pilosity more delicate and the
pubescence much longer and more abundant on the legs.

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. 247

23. Phyracaces scrutator sp. nov.
(Fig. 10.)

Worker. Length 3.6-4 mm.

Head decidedly longer than broad, slightly narrower in front than
behind, with feebly rounded sides, deeply and angularly excised
occipital border and truncated occipital surface, with the infero-
posterior angles sharp when seen from behind. Eyes large and rather
convex, slightly in front of the middle. Ocelli absent. Mandibles
rather large and broad, triangular, deflected, their external borders
feebly concave, their apical borders straight, without denticles.
Clypeus short, vertical, its anterior border rounded and entire.
Frontal carinz erect, rounded, not truncated posteriorly but gradu-
ally continued back into the short frontal furrow. Carina of cheeks

Figure 10. Phyracaces scrutator sp.nov. Worker, a, dorsal view of body,
b, antenna of same.

short, prominent, but scarcely tooth-like, sending a branch backward
to the anterior orbit and one inward to the antennal fovea. Occipital
border of head sharply marginate, the margination surrounding the
inferoposterior corners of the head and running forward on each side
of the gula to a level with the posterior orbits. Postocular carina
absent. Antenne moderately long; scapes nearly 2 as long as the
head, incrassated at their tips; first funicular joint longer than broad;
joints 2-9 a little broader than long, tenth joint as long as broad,
terminal joint but slightly longer than the two preceding joints to-
gether. Thorax rather narrow, from above more than twice as long
as broad, as broad through the pronotum as through the epinotum,
feebly narrowed in the mesonotal region, sharply marginate in front,
on the sides, between the base and declivity of the epinotum, along
the lateral borders of the declivity and the prosterna. In profile the
dorsal surface is rather flat, the epinotal declivity abrupt and slightly

248 WHEELER.

concave, the posterior corners of the epinotum minutely and indis-
tinctly dentate and the mesopleure are concave. Petiole slightly
broader than the epinotum, rectangular, scarcely broader behind
than in front and somewhat broader than long, its anterior border
broadly concave, the lateral borders straight, the anterior corners
rectangular, .the posterior produced ds acute, flattened teeth. The
anterior and lateral borders are sharply marginate. In profile the
dorsal surface is feebly convex, the anterior surface truncate and con-
cave, the ventral surface in front with a swelling but without a tooth.
Postpetiole somewhat broader than the petiole, a little broader than
long and broader behind than in front, its sides feebly convex; these
and the anterior border not marginate. First gastric segment broader
than the petiole and broader than long. Pygidium very feebly con-
cave above, marginate and minutely spinulose on the sides. Legs
moderately long; hind coxe with a large, rounded, translucent
lamella at the tip on the inner side.

Subopaque, or lustrous; mandibles, clypeus and gaster more
shining. Mandibles shagreened and very sparsely and _ coarsely
punctate. Head, thorax, petiole and postpetiole very densely and
finely reticulate, posterior portion of head and dorsal surface of thorax,
petiole and postpetiole also with shallow, evenly but very sparsely
distributed, piligerous foveole. Gaster, scapes and legs more super-
ficially reticulate than the thorax, the gaster also with scattered,
coarse, piligerous punctures.

Hairs yellow, rather coarse and long, subappressed, very sparse
on the upper surface of the head, more abundant on the dorsum of
the rest of the body, absent on the scapes and legs which have only a
long, dilute, yellowish pubescence.

Rich red throughout, of the tint of Polyergus rufescens, with only
the apical border of the mandibles, the edges of the frontal carinz
and the marginations of the thorax and petiole of a deeper tint.

Described from several specimens taken Noy. 10, 1914 at Toowong,
near Brisbane, Queensland. They were running about rapidly under
a stone, evidently in search of the brood of other ants.

This species is easily distinguished from all the other red species of
Phyracaces by the subopaque, finely reticulate surface of the head,
thorax, petiole and postpetiole.

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. 249

24. Phyracaces rugulinodis sp. nov.

(Fig. 11.)

Male. Length 5 mm.

Head, including the eyes, broader than long, broadly convex and
rounded behind, cheeks very short, eyes and ocelli very large and
convex. Mandibles large, triangular, deflected, with concave ex-
ternal and very finely and indistinctly denticulate apical borders.
Occipital border strongly marginate, continued below into two gular
marginations which run forward to a level with the anterior orbits.
Clypeus very short, with straight anterior border; frontal area repre-

Fiaure 11. Phyracaces rugulinodis sp. nov. Male, lateral view.

sented by a deep pit; frontal carinz subparallel, straight, half as long
as the head. Antenne 13-jointed, scapes reaching to the posterior
orbit, cylindrical, not thickened at their tips; funiculus of uniform
diameter throughout, all the joints longer than broad, cylindrical.
Thorax narrower than the head through the eyes, pronotum swollen
in the middle and on the sides; mesonotum rather regularly hex-
agonal, feebly convex, without Mayrian furrows. Epinotum with
distinct base and declivity, the former feebly convex and sloping,
the latter nearly vertical and concave, strongly marginate above and

250 WHEELER.

on the sides. Petiole from above subrectangular, a little longer than
broad, as broad in front as behind, with straight anterior and posterior
borders and evenly rounded sides; in profile the dorsal surface is
strongly convex, the anterior and posterior surfaces short and slightly
concave, the former strongly marginate above and on the sides, the
ventral surface with a small, sharp tooth at the anterior end. Post-
petiole decidedly broader than the petiole, as long as broad, broader
behind than in front, with convex sides and dorsum, with a small
acute tooth at its anterior border on the ventral side. Gaster rather
slender. Pygidium evenly and broadly rounded at the tip. Cerci
absent. Genital appendages blunt, retracted. Hypopygium with
broad posterior border, feebly and narrowly emarginate in the middle.
Legs slender, hind cox without lamellate tips. Wings short, with
large, thick pterostigma. There is a well-developed discal cell
but the veins distal to it are so nearly obsolete that those outlining a
closed marginal and single cubital cell are scarcely visible as very
delicate folds in the wing membrane.

Mandibles and space between the frontal carine shining; mandibles
coarsely and sparsely punctate; remainder of head opaque, finely
and densely punctate, with very uneven surface. Sides of pronotum,
the mesonotum and mesopleure smooth and shining, the mesonotum
with scattered, piligerous foveole; middle of pronotum, the whole
epinotum, petiole and postpetiole subopaque, finely punctate and
rugulose, the rugze on the base and sides of the epinotum coarse,
somewhat longitudinal on the base near the margination separating
it from the declivity; the latter finely and densely punctate. Gaster
shagreened, coarsely on the base of the first segment, finely elsewhere
so that the surface is shining.

Hairs yellow, bristly, suberect, pointed, scattered, covering the body
and legs rather uniformly, present only on the anterior surfaces of
the scapes. Pubescence yellowish, distinct only on the scapes.

Red; ocellar region, middle portions of tibize and femora, middle of
pronotum and anterodorsal portions of petiole and first gastric seg-
ment brown. Wings whitish hyaline, with yellow veins and very
conspicuous dark brown pterostigma.

Described from a single specimen from Murat Bay, South Australia
(Museum of South Australia). There is another defective specimen
in the same collection from Ardrossan, South Australia (J. G. O.
Tepper).

This may be the male of one of the smaller red species of Phyracaces
described in the preceding pages.

bo
Or
—

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI.

25. Phyracaces mullewanus sp. nov.

Male. Length 5.4 mm.

Head, including the eyes, much broader than long, with broadly
rounded posterior portion and short cheeks, truncated behind the
ocelli, with strongly marginate occipital border, the margination
extending forward on each side of the gula to the level of the middle
of the eyes. Eyes and ocelli large and prominent. Mandibles
triangular, acutely pointed, rather narrow, with oblique, finely and
evenly denticulate apical and concave external borders. Clypeus
short, with straight, entire anterior border. Frontal carine rather
far apart, parallel in front, approximated behind, half as long as the
distance between the anterior clypeal border and the posterior ocelli.
Antennal scapes not reaching to the posterior orbits; all the funicular
joints, except the last, a little broader than long, last joint twice as
long as the preceding, pointed. Thorax robust, as broad through the
wing-insertions as the head through the eyes. Pronotum not very
convex; mesonotum convex above, hexagonal, narrower in front than
behind. Epinotum with distinct base and declivity, the former in
profile feebly convex, shorter than the vertical, concave declivity,
the latter strongly marginate above and on the sides. Petiole as
broad as long, cuboidal, its upper surface convex, the anterior margi-
nate above and on the sides. Postpetiole broader than the petiole,
broader than long, broader behind than in front, with convex dorsal
and lateral surfaces. First gastric segment of a similar shape but
broader. Pygidium and hypopygium with broadly rounded tips.
Cerci absent. Genital appendages retracted. Legs slender and
rather short; hind coxze without lamellate tips. Wings short, vena-
tion much as in rugulinodis, but veins of the distal portion of the
discal cell obsolete and the pterostigma smaller, though thick.

Shining; mandibles coarsely punctate, their bases, the epinotum
and petiole subopaque, finely and densely punctate; base and sides
of epinotum and upper surface of petiole also rugulose. Head and
scutellum shagreened; surface of occipital region very uneven;
mesonotum with large, coarse, deep, scattered, piligerous foveolz;
postpetiole and first gastric segment with smaller and more numerous
foveole; gaster shagreened.

Hairs yellowish, sparse, erect, pointed, and coarse, moderately
long, shorter on the legs. Pubescence absent, except on the antennal
funiculi.

Pa Vs WHEELER.

Rich red; mesonotum with three brown blotches. Wings whitish
hyaline, veins pale yellow, pterostigma dark brown, very conspicu-
ous.

Described from a single specimen taken by Miss F. May at Mullewa,
West Australia (Museum of South Australia).

This species is readily distinguished from rugulinodis by its larger
size, more robust stature, smaller eyes and ocelli, shorter funicular
joints, shorter petiole, more shining postpetiole, etc. It may be the
hitherto unknown male of Ph. singularis or of an allied species.

26. Phyracaces ficosus sp. nov.

(Fig. 12).

Worker. Length 5.5-6 mm.
Head slightly longer than broad, distinctly broader behind than in
front, convex above and on the sides, with excised posterior border

Ficure 12. Phyracaces ficosus sp. nov. Worker, a, dorsal view of body,
b, antenna of same.

and rather acute inferoposterior corners. Eyes rather large, feebly
convex, at the middle of the sides of the head; ocelli absent. Man-
dibles triangular, deflected, with finely denticulate apical border
passing through a rounded angle into the basal border; external
border rather straight. Clypeus very short, vertical. Frontal ca-
rine large, erect, rounded, not truncated at their confluence behind.
Carina of cheeks short, with a prominent blunt tooth. Postocular
carina absent. Occipital border of head strongly marginate, the
margination continued forward on each side of the gula to the level
of the middle of the eyes. Antennz stout; scapes a little less than
half as long as the head, gradually incrassated towards their tips;
none of the funicular joints, except the ultimate and penultimate,
longer than broad, the ultimate tapering and pointed, not longer

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. 25a

than the two preceding together. Thorax as broad through the
pronotum as through the epinotum, distinctly narrowed in the middle,
the dorsum feebly convex, the mesopleurz rather concave, the epino-
tal declivity nearly vertical, feebly concave. The anterior border
of the pronotum, the sides of the dorsum, the boundary between
the epinotal base and declivity, the sides of the latter and the pro-
sterna sharply marginate. Petiole as broad as the epinotum, nearly
12 times as broad as long, as broad behind as in front, with feebly and
evenly rounded sides, concave anterior border and the posterior
corners projecting as flattened, rather acute teeth. Only the anterior
and lateral borders are marginate. In profile the dorsal surface is
feebly convex, the anterior surface vertical and joining it at a right
angle, the ventral surface with a strong, pointed tooth at the anterior
end. Postpetiole broader than long, broader than the petiole and
distinctly broader in front than behind, with distinctly rounded
anterior, lateral and posterior borders, the lateral borders marginate.
First gastric segment a little broader than long and a little broader
than the postpetiole, distinctly broader behind than in front.
Pygidium with a large concave depression on its dorsal side, marginate
and minutely spinulose on the sides. Legs moderately stout; coxe
of hind pair with a small, translucent lamella at the tip on the inner
side.

Smooth and shining; mandibles coarsely and sparsely punctate.
Dorsal surface of body with small, scattered, piligerous punctures.

Hairs grayish yellow, erect, rather long, slender, pointed and sparse,
not appreciably longer and denser on the gaster than on the remainder
of the body, shorter and somewhat more oblique on the scapes and legs.
Legs, coxee and scapes with rather long, appressed, grayish pubescence.

Black; gaster, except the extreme base of the first segment rich,
cherry red. Mandibles, except their bases and borders, insertions
and terminal joints of antenne, tarsi and articulations of legs and the
space between the frontal carine, reddish brown.

Described from a dozen specimens taken Dec. 4, 1914 in the Bulli
Pass, New South Wales. They were running over the sand in a loose
file, carrying the nude pupe of a Myrmicine ant whose nest they had
just plundered.

This beautiful species is easily distinguished by its peculiar color
and the shape of its petiole.

254 WHEELER.

27. Phyracaces elegans sp. nov.
(Fig. 13.)

Worker. Length 3-3.5 mm.

Head longer than broad, broader behind than in front, convex above,
with truncated occipital region and gula, blunt posterior corners and
excised posterior border. Eyes rather large, flat, distinctly in front
of the middle of the sides; ocelli absent. Carina of cheeks forming
a blunt, rectangular tooth. Postocular carina absent. Posterior
border of head marginate, the margination surrounding the infero-
posterior corners and extending forward on each side of the gula
about 4 the length of the head. Mandibles triangular, deflected,
with finely denticulate apical and rather convex external borders.
Frontal carinse moderately large, erect, rounded, confluent but not
truncated behind. Antenne rather robust; scapes half as long as

Ficure 13. Phyracaces elegans sp. nov. Worker, a, dorsal view of body,
b, antenna of same.

the head, gradually thickened towards their tips; funicular joints
1-9 distinctly broader than long, tenth joint longer than broad,
terminal joint tapering and pointed, a little longer than the two pre-
ceding joints together. Thorax narrower than the head, as broad
through the pronotum as through the epinotum, narrowed in the
mesonotal region; in profile rather flat above, with straight, abrupt
epinotal declivity. All four sides of the dorsum, the prosterna and
sides of the epinotal declivity are distinctly marginate, and the
epinotum bears a pair of small acute teeth. Petiole rectangular,
somewhat broader than long, as broad as the epinotum, its anterior
border slightly concave, the lateral borders marginate, with small
acute, dentiform posterior corners. In profile the petiole is flat
above and concave on the sides, the anterior surface is abrupt and
forms somewhat less than a right angle with the dorsal surface, the

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. 255

ventral surface with a blunt, compressed tooth in front. Postpetiole
a little broader than the petiole, subrectangular, scarcely broader
behind than in front, convex above and on the sides, the latter sharply
marginate. First gastric segment broader than long and_ broader
than the postpetiole, a little broader behind than in front. Pygi-
dium feebly concave above, marginate and minutely spinulose on the
sides. Legs moderately stout; coxe of the hind pair with a large,
rounded, translucent lamella at the tip on the inner side.

Smooth and shining; mandibles coarsely and sparsely punctate.
Upper surface of body with very sparse piligerous punctures, which
are large on the vertex of the head and the middle of the postpetiole.

Hairs yellowish, sparse, rather long, slender, erect, shorter and more
oblique on the appendages. Sides of petiole, coxee, legs and antennal
scapes with conspicuous grayish pubescence.

Reddish yellow; postpetiole and gaster, except the tip, black or
very dark brown; pronotum and often also the sides of the mesono-
tum and sides and posterior portions of the base of the epinotum
castaneous or reddish brown; mandibles, antenne, legs and tip of
gaster reddish brown, varying in depth of hue in different specimens.

Female. Length 4.5 mm.

Resembling the worker, but with larger eyes, ocelli and a different
thorax. The latter is narrower than the head and like the thorax
of the worker in shape, but with distinct pronotal, mesonotal, scutellar,
metanotal, parapteral, sternal and mesepimeral sclerites, though
there are no traces of wing stumps. The mesonotum is very small
and flat, suborbicular, scarcely longer than broad. The gaster is
much larger than in the worker, fully twice as long as broad.

Sculpture, pilosity and color much as in the worker, ocellar region
with a brown cloud.

Described from forty workers and a single female, forming the
greater portion of a single colony taken Sept. 16, 1914 near Souther-
land, a short distance from Sydney, New South Wales. The ants
were bunched together under a large piece of sandstone in a thin layer
of earth which in turn was lying on the sandstone wall of a deep ravine.
There were no larve, and as the preceding night had been very rainy,
I infer that the colony had been washed out of its nest and had taken
refuge in the place in which it was found. Two workers taken by
Mr. E. H. Zeck at Berowra, N. S. W., and belonging to Dr. W. M.
Mann, are also referable to this species, which differs from all the pre-
ceding members of the genus in its peculiar color and small size.

256 WHEELER.

28. Phyracaces turneri Forel.
(Fig. 14.)

Cerapachys (Phyracaces) turneri Forel, Rev. Suisse Zool. 10, 1902,
p. 405, 8 9; Ark. f. Zool. 9, 1915, p. 18, 8.

Cerapachys turnert Froggatt, Agric. Gaz. N. S. W., 1905, p. 15.

Phyracaces turnert Emery, Gen. Insect. Fase. 118, 1911, p. 11.

Worker. Length 3.54 mm.

Head longer than broad, a little narrower in front than behind,
truncated and slightly constricted in the occipital region, convex
above, with acute inferoposterior corners, rather deeply excised
occipital border and moderately large, convex eyes, placed near the
middle of the sides. Ocelli absent. Carina of the cheeks with a
prominent tooth or angle. Postocular carina absent; occipital bor-

Ficure 14. Phyracaces turneri Forel. Worker, a, dorsal view of body,
b, antenna of same.

der of head strongly marginate, the margination surrounding the
posterior angles and running forward on each side of the gula to a
level with the posterior orbits. Clypeus short and vertical. Frontal
carinze erect, rounded, abruptly truncated behind where they are very
close together. Antenne rather robust; scapes longer than half the
head, rapidly enlarging towards their tips; funicular joints 1-9 as
long as broad, tenth joint longer than broad, terminal joint tapering,
pointed, a little longer than the two preceding joints together. Thorax
rectangular, scarcely more than 14 times as long as broad, robust,
scarcely narrowed in the middle, evenly convex above in profile, with
straight, vertical epinotal declivity; anterior and lateral borders,
boundary between the epinotal base and declivity and sides of the
latter sharply marginate, anterior pronotal angles and corners of
epinotum acutely dentate. Petiole a little broader than the epinotum,
rectangular, broader than long, a little broader behind than in front,

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. 257

its posterior angles produced as small, flattened teeth, its sides,
anterior and posterior borders marginate. In profile it is feebly
convex above, concave on the sides, with abrupt, vertical anterior
surface, joining the dorsal surface at a right angle, and the ventral
surface with a blunt tooth at the anterior end. Postpetiole rectangu-
lar, a little broader than long, and a little broader than the petiole,
slightly broader in front than behind, with straight sides, anterior
and posterior borders and rounded, flattened anterior angles. The
anterior and lateral borders are strongly marginate. First gastric
segment a little broader than the postpetiole, with convex dorsum and
sides. Pygidium bluntly pointed at the tip, concave above, marginate
and minutely spinulose on the sides. Legs rather long; hind coxze
with a large, rounded, translucent lamella at the tip on the inner side.

Smooth and shining; mandibles coarsely punctate; head and body
above with sparse, piligerous punctures, which are large and con-
spicuous on the vertex. Sides of pygidium and posterior borders of
gastric segments densely and finely punctate. Scapes and legs with
numerous, minute, piligerous punctures.

Hairs grayish yellow, erect, pointed, sparse, long and rather uni-
formly distributed on the body, shorter and more oblique on the
appendages. Legs and scapes with distinct grayish pubescence.

Black; mandibles, pygidium, sting, antenne and legs brownish red.

Female (deilated). Length 4.1 mm.

Like the worker except for the ocelli and thoracic sclerites. _Mesono-
tum and scutellum very small and flat. Stumps of wings distinct.

Queensland: Mackay, type locality (Gilbert Turner); Cedar Creek
(E. Mjéberg); Kuranda (Wheeler).

I have redescribed the worker from nine specimens which I found
running over dead leaves in the dark tropical “scrub” near Kuranda.
The description of the female is taken from Forel. The worker of this
species is readily distinguished from that of the other black species of
Phyracaces by the longer funicular joints and the shape of the petiole
and postpetiole and from all but Ph. senescens by its short, thickset
thorax.

29. Phyracaces larvatus sp. nov.
(Fig. 15.)

Worker. Length 3-3.6 mm.

Head longer than broad, a little narrower in front than behind,
with feebly convex sides, concave posterior border and short, rather
blunt inferoposterior corners. Eyes large and moderately convex,

258 WHEELER.

nearly as long as their distance from the anterior border, a little in
front of the middle of the head. Carina of cheeks very prominent,
forming a strong, rectangular tooth. Postocular carina absent. Occi-
pital border of head marginate, the margination surrounding the
inferoposterior corners and running forward on each side of the gula
to the level of the posterior orbits. Mandibles triangular, deflected,
with concave external and finely denticulate apical borders. Frontal
carine rather far apart, suberect, feebly emarginate but not truncate
behind before they meet. Antenne rather stout; scapes a little
longer than half the head, gradually incrassated towards the tip;
funicular joints 1-9 distinctly broader than long, tenth joint not longer
than broad, terminal joint pointed, nearly as long as the three pre-
ceding joints together. Thorax subrectangular, nearly twice as long
as broad, as broad through the pronotum as through the epinotum,
very feebly narrowed in the middle, in profile evenly convex above,
epinotal_declivity flat, very abrupt. There are marginations on the

Figure 15. Phyracaces larvatus sp. nov. Worker, a, dorsal view of body,
6, antenna of same.

anterior and lateral borders, between the epinotal base and declivity,
along the sides of the latter and extending down the prosterna. Above
the epinotum bears a pair of minute teeth. Petiole slightly nar-
rower than the epinotum, broader than long, as broad behind as in
front, with rounded sides, rather sharp, flattened, posterior teeth and
concave anterior border. The anterior and lateral borders are
marginate. In profile the dorsal surface is feebly convex, the anterior
surface vertical and truncated, and there is a small, translucent,
backwardly directed tooth on the anteroventral surface. Postpetiole
decidedly broader than the petiole, a little broader than long, broader
in front than behind, separated by a strong constriction from the
gaster; its anterior corners are rounded and flattened, its sides straight,
its anterior and posterior borders are concave, its anterior and lateral
borders sharply marginate. First gastric segment broader than the

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. 259

postpetiole, a little broader than long and a little broader behind
than in front. Pygidium concave above, with marginate, minutely
spinulose sides. Legs moderately long; hind cox with a large,
angular, translucent lamella at the tip on the inner side.

Smooth and shining; mandibles coarsely punctate; head and
thorax above with numerous piligerous foveole, gaster with piliger-
ous punctures.

Hairs covering the body and appendages sparse, white, rather long,
suberect and delicate. Pubescence pale, dilute, distinct only on the
appendages.

Black; mandibles, cheeks, front, clypeus, legs, sting, pygidium and
incisures of abdomen, dark red.

Described from numerous specimens from a single colony taken
Sept. 19, 1914 from under a small stone in the bottom of one of the
deep gorges at Katoomba in the Blue Mts. of New South Wales.

This species seems to be very close to Ph. adamus Forel, but differs
in its smaller size, less rectangular petiole, somewhat smaller eyes,
broader eighth and ninth funicular joints and the red front of the
head.

30. Phyracaces adamus Forel.

Cerapachys (Phyracaces) adamus Forel, Rev. Suisse Zool. 18, 1910,
p: 15,3.

Phyracaces adamus Emery, Gen. Insect. Fase. 118, 1911, p. 11, 8.

Queensland: Kuranda (Rowland Turner).

The worker of this species, which I have not seen, is, according to
Forel, close to turner?, but larger (4.2-4.8 mm.), with the eyes much
more developed and the head of a different conformation.

31. Phyracaces senescens sp. nov.
(Fig. 16.)

Worker. Length 3.6-4 mm.

Head longer than broad, as broad in front as behind, with moder-
ately large, flattened eyes, placed at the middle of its sides. Ocelli
absent. Upper surface of head convex, occipital surface truncated,
sides scarcely convex, occipital border broadly excised, marginate,
the margination surrounding the rather acute inferoposterior corners
and running forward on each side of the gular surface to the middle
of the head. Postocular carina absent. Carina of cheeks well

260 WHEELER.

developed, produced as a prominent angle. Mandibles triangular,
deflected, with nearly straight external and finely denticulate apical
borders. Clypeus short, vertical. Frontal carine erect, not very
prominent, rather small, not truncated before their confluence behind.
Antennal scapes not more than half as long as the head, gradually
incrassated toward their tips, funicular joints 1 and 10 slightly longer
than broad, joints 2-9 distinctly broader than long, terminal joint
rather swollen and scarcely tapering, a little longer than the two pre-
ceding joints together. Thorax a little more than twice as long as
broad, as broad through the pronotum as through the epinotum,
slightly narrowed in the mesonotal region and with concave meso-
pleuree. Marginations developed on the anterior and lateral borders,
on the boundary between the epinotal base and declivity, along the
sides of the latter and the prosterna. Upper corners of epinotum not

Ficure 16. Phyracaces senescens sp. nov. Worker, a, dorsal view of body,
b, antenna of same.

dentate. In profile the thoracic dorsum is very feebly and evenly
convex, the declivity of the epinotum steep and straight. Petiole
as broad as the epinotum, rectangular, broader than long, broader
behind than in front, with concave anterior, straight lateral and
nearly straight posterior border and its posterior angles produced
as acute, slightly incurved teeth. The lateral borders are marginate,
the anterior border submarginate. In profile the dorsal surface is
flat and forms a right angle with the truncated, vertical anterior
surface, the posterior surface is concave and slightly sloping, the
ventral surface bears a pointed, triangular tooth at its anterior end.
Postpetiole broader than the petiole, nearly as long as broad, not very
sharply separated from the gaster, with rounded dorsal and lateral
surfaces and anterior angles. First gastric segment broader than
long and decidedly broader than the postpetiole. Pygidium with a
shallow elliptical impression on its dorsal surface, its sides beset with

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. 261

a row of minute spinules. Legs rather stout; tip of hind coxe on the
inner side produced as a rounded, translucent lamella.

Mandibles shining, coarsely punctate; head and thorax smooth and
shining, above with coarse, sparse, piligerous punctures; petiole, post-
petiole and gaster, except the intersegmental regions, more opaque,
finely and densely punctate.

Hairs white, rather long and delicate, suberect and pointed; on
the petiole, postpetiole and gaster in part appressed and more abun-
dant, but not concealing the sculpture. Pubescence abundant and
rather long, whitish, confined to the coxze, legs and venter.

Black; mandibles, pygidium, sting, funiculi, tips of scapes, tarsi,
coxee and bases and tips of femora and tibiz castaneous.

Described from numerous workers taken at Salisbury Court, near
Uralla, New South Wales, from a single colony which was running
about on a foraging expedition.

This species is easily distinguished from the other black species of
Phyracaces by its subopaque abdomen and its long, appressed, pale
hairs, which give it a grayish appearance.

32. Phyracaces binodis Forel.
(Fig. 17.)

Cerapachys (Phyracaces) binodis Forel, Rev. Suisse Zool. 18, 1910,
P6205) Se

Phyracaces binodis Emery, Gen. Insect. Fase. 118, 1911, p. 11.

Worker. Length 3.8-4 mm.

Head longer than broad, nearly as broad in front as behind, moder-
ately convex above and truncated in the occipital region. Eyes
rather large and flat, situated a little in front of the middle of the
sides. Ocelli absent. Carina of cheeks forming a prominent angle.
Postocular carina absent. Occipital border of head broadly excised,
strongly marginate, the margination surrounding the acute infero-
posterior corners and running forward on each side of the gular sur-
face about 4 the length of the head. Mandibles triangular, convex,
deflected, their apical borders minutely denticulate, their external
borders slightly concave. Clypeus short and vertical. Frontal
carine erect, rounded, truncated behind where they meet. Antenne
rather long; scapes about 2 as long as the head, all the funicular
joints, except the last, distinctly broader than long, last joint rather

262 WHEELER.

large and swollen, longer than the two preceding joints together.
Thorax subrectangular, about twice as long as broad, as broad through
the pronotum as through the epinotum, distinctly narrowed in the
middle, with concave mesopleure; anterior border straight and
transverse, submarginate; prosterna, lateral borders and boundary
between the epinotal base and declivity marginate, sides of the latter
searcely submarginate. Epinotum above with a pair of distinct
teeth. Petiole nearly as long as broad, rectangular, marginate only
on the sides, its anterior corners sharp, its posterior corners forming
short, acute, flattened teeth, its anterior border feebly concave. In
profile the dorsal surface is rather flat, the anterior surface very abrupt,
forming less than a right angle with the dorsal surface, the posterior
surface sloping, the ventral surface with an acute, translucent, back-
wardly directed tooth. Postpetiole of much the same shape as the

Fiaure 17. Phyracaces binodis Forel. Worker, a, dorsal view of body,
b, antenna of same.

petiole but somewhat longer, though not broader and with the an-
terior corners less acute; it is very strongly constricted off from the
first gastric segment and has the anterior and lateral borders margi-
nate. First gastric segment broader than the postpetiole, longer than
broad, broader behind than in front. Pygidium feebly impressed on
the dorsal side, bordered with minute spinules. Legs rather slender,
coxze of hind pairs with an erect, translucent lamella at the tip on the
inner side. .

Smooth and shining; mandibles coarsely punctate; upper surface
of body with rather evenly distributed, coarse, piligerous punctures.

Hairs delicate, whitish, rather long, pointed, erect, covering the
body and appendages, somewhat shorter and more oblique on the
latter. Pubescence very feebly developed, distinct only on the cox
and antennal scapes.

Black; mandibles, antennee, front, cheeks, legs including coxe,
pygidium and incisures of the abdomen on the ventral side reddish
brown.

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. 263

Queensland: Kuranda (Rowland Turner).

Redescribed from a cotype received from Prof. Forel and numerous
specimens taken Oct. 3, 1914 at Kuranda from a single colony, which
was nesting in a small cavity in a red-rotten log in the dark “scrub.”

This form is readily distinguished by the shape of the petiole and
postpetiole and the pronounced constriction between the latter and
first gastric segment.

Genus Cerapachys F. Smith.

33. Cerapachys (Syscia) australis Forel.

Syscia australis Forel, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. 44, 1900, p. 68, 8 ;
Froggatt, Agric. Gaz. N. S. W., 1905, p. 14.

Cerapachys (Syscia) australis Emery, Gen. Insect. Fase. 118, 1911,
p. 10, 8; Crawley, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) 15, 1915, p. 188, 8.

Worker. Length 3-3.5 mm.

Head about i longer than broad, subrectangular, as broad in front
as behind, with evenly convex sides, broadly excised posterior border
and short, rather pointed posterior corners. Eyes absent. Mandi-
bles subtriangular, deflected, with distinctly dentate apical and basal
borders. Clypeus extremely short. Frontal carine approximated,
erect, surrounding the antennal insertions in front, converging and
truncated behind where they fuse in a depression uniting the anten-
nal fovez. Carine of cheeks indistinct. Antennal scapes robust,
slender at their insertions, less than half as long as the head; first
funicular joint as long as broad, joints 2-7 broader than long, terminal
joint large, glandiform, as long as the four preceding joints together.
Thorax decidedly narrower than the head, a little more than twice as
long as broad, as broad behind as in front, slightly narrowed in the
mesonotal region, without transverse sutures; humeri and corners
of epinotum rounded; in profile the dorsal surface is straight, the
epinotal declivity abrupt, marginate on the sides and submarginate
above; the pronotum submarginate in front. Petiole narrower than
the epinotum, rounded cuboidal, scarcely broader than long and
scarcely broader behind than in front, with convex sides and a blunt,
compressed tooth on its anteroventral surface. Postpetiole rese ing
the petiole but broader, distinctly broader than long and a little
broader behind than in front, with rounded anterior corners, feebly
convex sides and a very protuberant anteroventral surface. First
gastric segment very large, about 3 longer than broad, much longer

264 WHEELER.

than the remaining segments together, distinctly flattened dorso-
ventrally and with feebly convex sides. Pygidium small, truncated,
entire, its border spinulose. Legs rather long.

Shining; mandibles coarsely punctate; head, thorax, petiole and
postpetiole covered with large, sparse, piligerous punctures; gaster
somewhat more finely and densely punctate.

Erect hairs yellow, rather abundant, moderately long, and of
uneven length, covering the body and appendages, longest on the tip
of the gaster. Pubescence dilute, conspicuous only on the gaster,
legs and scapes.

Yellowish red; legs, scapes and terminal antennal joint paler;
mandibles, frontal carinee and anterior border of cheeks brownish.

Queensland: Mackay, type-locality (Turner); Bribie Island, near
Brisbane (H. Hacker).

Northern Territory: Darwin (G. F. Hill).

Redescribed from a couple of cotypes received from Prof. Forel. Mr.
Henry Tryon informs me that this ant is not uncommon in some parts
of Queensland but is easily overlooked because it leads a hypogzeic life.

34. Cerapachys (Syscia) australis var. edentata Forel.

Syscia australis var. edentata Forel, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. 44, 1900,
pc693.28%

Syscia australis var. endentata (sic!) Froggatt, Agric. Gaz. N.S. W.,
1905, p. 14, 8.

Cerapachys (Syscia) australis var. edentula (sic!) Emery, Gen.
Insect. Fasc. 118, 1911, p. 10, 8.

Queensland: Mackay, type-locality (Turner); Brisbane (H.
Tryon).

This form differs from the typical australis in its deeper, more
reddish coloration, somewhat feebler and sparser puncturation, some-
what more transverse first to seventh funicular joints and especially
in lacking teeth on the apical and basal borders of the mandibles.

Genus Lioponera Mayr.

-

35. Lioponera australis Forel.

Tioponera longitarsis Mayr var. australis Forel, Ann. Soc. Ent.
Belg. 39, 1895, p. 422, 8; Froggatt, Agric. Gaz. N. S. W., 1905, p. 8;
Emery, Gen. Insect. Fase. 118, 1911, p. 12.

Queensland: Mackay (Turner).

AUSTRALIAN CERAPACHYINI. 265

Owing to the profound differences between the Australian ant
fauna and that of India it is improbable that this from is merely a
variety of L. longitarsis Mayr of the latter country. Forel, in his
brief description calls attention to the following peculiarities of aus-
tralis, but the study of more material will in all probability reveal
others: Length 3.4 mm. It is smaller than longitarsis and has some-
what smaller and more convex eyes. The petiole is transversely
rectangular, whereas in longitarsis its anterior corners are more pro-
jecting and its anterior border is distinctly concave. ‘The sculpture
of australis is more regularly punctate and the postpetiole is blackish
brown, with two large, reddish spots.

Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Vou. 53. No. 4.— Marcu, 1918.

THERMO-ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE, PELTIER HEAT, AND
THOMSON HEAT UNDER PRESSURE.

By P. W. BripeGMan.

INVESTIGATIONS ON LicHT AND HEAT MADE AND PUBLISHED WITH AID FROM THE
Rumrorp Funp.

THERMO-ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE, PELTIER HEAT, AND

THOMSON HEAT UNDER PRESSURE.

By P. W. BRIDGMAN.

Received October 5, 1917.

CONTENTS.

Introduction .

Apparatus and Experimental Methods

Methods of pomputalion : ‘

Detailed Data : POUL ROR ta aout AA
iiice oes) ee ede Nickel

halite 5 OS he 2 289) 5 Cobalt
Wadininy oo eee ae. 20S ron.”
feu es 5. So Se 297. Palladiuns
MRC ie. BOL Latin 4
Magnesium .. . . .. 305 Molybdenum
Aluminum Wen eae OS enn gsten
Bilveteu. ass, - =. 'ol6 Bismuth :
Goldgye 00 a. +. <4)... “ol9” (Constantant ;
Copper. 2.74% 323 Manganin
Effect of Tension on ighcemp Hectic Quality
Nickel anes an ee Ose Aluminum
Chyna ayer 29 a fo cae (Se Oo ES
iron, =3 2-2 off | Manganin

Dependence of hoeean Heat on Temperature Soren
General Survey of Results heim ce cet wees te
The Entropy of Electricity

Conclusion and Summary

INTRODUCTION.

PAGE

269

282
284
327

The effect of pressure on the electrical resistance of a large number
of metals over a considerable range of pressure and temperature
(0° to 100° C, and 0 to 12000 kg/cm?) has formed the subject of two
recent papers.1 The facts there presented suggested new points of
view concerning the mechanism of electrical conduction in metals.
Since, however, conductivity is only one of the electrical properties
of metals, we would expect that information regarding all electrical

1P. W. Bridgman, Proc. Amer. Acad. 52, 571-646, 1917.
Phys. Rev. 9, 269-289, 1917.

270 BRIDGMAN.

properties would be desirable in attempting to picture the complete
electrical mechanism. I stated in the previous papers that I hoped
to obtain additional measurements on thermo-electrical properties.

In this paper these thermo-electric measurements are carried out.
The change in the thermo-electric properties of nearly all the metals
whose electrical resistance was there measured is here given over the
same range of pressure and temperature; a few only of the metals
were not adapted to these measurements and could not be used. In
addition, new data are given for the effect of pressure on both electrical
resistance and thermo-electric properties of the alloys manganin and
constantan. In most cases measurements of the thermo-electro-
motive force were made either on identical pieces of wire, or on pieces
from the same specimen as were the resistance measurements. In the
few cases where new specimens of metal had to be used, the tempera-
ture coefficient of resistance at atmospheric pressure has also been
measured, in order to define the electrical character of the metal as
completely as possible.

The results of this paper, unlike those of the previous paper on
resistance, are almost entirely novel; the nature of the results to be
expected was not known, and accordingly these effects, so far as affected
by pressure, were not available for any theoretical considerations.
Previous measurements on the effect of pressure on thermal e.mf.
are very few in number, and cover a very restricted range. The maxi-
mum pressure reached has been by Wagner,? 300 kg., over the same
temperature range as that used here, 0° to 100°. Over a pressure range
so small, the effect is in most cases so minute as to be on the limits of
the readily measurable. Previous measurements have been almost
entirely confined, of necessity, to determining the total effect of the
maximum pressure and temperature. It was not possible to find at
all accurately whether the effect was linear with pressure and tempera-
ture within the range employed. On a few metals Wagner made
measurements of the effect of varying temperature, and found that
within his limits of error the effect was linear. The effects are so
much larger over the much greater pressure range of this paper that
I have been able to make accurate measurements of the variation of
the effect with pressure and temperature within the range. This is
important, especially the variation with temperature. For it is well
known that the Peltier heat is determined by the first derivative of
the thermal e.m.f., and the Thomson heat by the second. Previously

2 E. Wagner, Ann. d. Phys. 27, 955-1001, 1908.

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 271

we had only rough indications of the initial direction of variation of
Peltier heat with pressure and no indication whatever as to even the
sign of the change of Thomson heat. The present measurements
afford fairly accurate data about the Peltier heat over the entire range
of temperature and pressure, and somewhat less accurate information,
but still accurate enough to give the essential features of the situation,
with regard to the Thomson heat.

In one other particular these measurements have an advantage
over previous ones in this field. Recent improvements in moving
coil galvanometers, as well as the greater size of the effect, have made
it possible for me to use this type of galvanometer, instead of some
form of Thomson galvanometer. Every one knows how enormously
more convenient the moving coil galvanometer is than the Thomson.
It was possible to make these measurements like any others of physical
routine, at all times of the day, with no disturbance from outside
changes, instead of waiting for the exceptionally favorable conditions
of the early morning hours, as previous observers have been forced
to do.

In addition to the effect of hydrostatic pressure on thermo-electric
quality, this paper contains measurements on the effect of tension.
In my previous work on resistance effects, it appeared that there is a
simple relation between the effects of hydrostatic pressure and tension
on resistance, which had theoretical significance. I hoped for a similar
state of affairs with respect to thermo-electric properties, but on
looking up previous data found such discrepancies between different
observers on the effect of tension, as to cast doubt on even the sign of
the effect in some cases. I therefore made a fresh experimental
examination with some of the metals of the pressure measurements.
It appears that the discrepancies between different observers is due to
the inherent nature of the effect. Results are not at all reproducible,
sometimes different lengths from the same spool give effects of differ-
ent sign. The situation with respect to tension is therefore quite
different from that with regard to hydrostatic pressure. The effects
produced by hydrostatic pressure on thermo-electric quality have a
definite physical significance; reproducible results are obtainable,
and different observers may agree, at least for normal metals, as is
shown by the quite unexpectedly good agreement between the results
of Wagner and myself over the range common to our work. But the
tension effects show no such regularity, and apparently depend more
on accidental incidents, such as difference in mechanical handling. In
the following, little space is devoted to this aspect of the question,

212 BRIDGMAN.

therefore, but I have taken the opportunity to record at least the
general nature of the results.

The plan of presentation of the paper is this: first is given the
methods of measurement and computation, and then the detailed
account of the effect of hydrostatic pressure on thermal e.m.f., Peltier
heat, and Thomson heat; this is followed by a brief presentation of
the effect of tension on thermo-electric quality; finally the results are
collected for a general survey, and some theoretical deductions sug-
gested. This work was distinctly disappointing regarding theoretical
conclusions or suggestions as to mechanism. It appears from these
measurements that thermo-electric properties, as we measure them,
are probably a residual of different effects, sometimes working in
opposite directions, and that, for the present at least, these results
cannot be as suggestive as I had hoped for an electron theory of metals.

In trying to interpret these results I have been obliged to think
through the general subject of thermo-electric phenomena, and have
been much impressed by the confusion that reigns in this field, even
respecting fundamental matters. As a preliminary to further work
I have brought together a number of general considerations, which
I hope may form a basis for at least consistent thought. These
general considerations seem proper subject for a separate paper, and
I hope to publish them elsewhere; they may, however, be read in
connection with this paper if the reader should at any time find him-
self in doubt as to my precise position.

APPARATUS AND EXPERIMENTAL METHODS.

The general method is that which naturally suggests itself for meas-
uring an effect as small as this, and is the same as that used previously
by Wagner.? Instead of using an ordinary thermo-couple, say of
copper-constantan, subjecting the whole couple to hydrostatic pres-
sure, and measuring the change in thermal e.m-f. at different pressures
when the difference of temperature of the terminals is predetermined,
the two branches of the couple are made of the same metal, the metal
under examination, and one branch only is subjected to pressure.
The metal under pressure behaves effectively like a different metal
from that not under pressure, and. we measure the thermal e.m.f.
of the metal against itself in the uncompressed state. The advantage
of this, of course, is that except for inhomogeneities in the wire the
entire effect measured is the effect sought, instead of only a small
change in a relatively large effect.

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 21a

Such a couple involves both temperature and stress gradients.
The stress gradient is rendered ineffective by keeping the regions in
which there is such a gradient at constant temperature. Thermo-
dynamics shows that no closed circuit of the same or different metals
under different or varying stresses can possibly be the seat of an e.m.f.
if the whole is at one constant temperature. If, then, all regions of

Ficure 1. The electrical connections in place in the pressure cylinders.

varying temperature in a complete circuit are regions of no stress
gradient, we are sure that stress gradients in other parts of the circuit
can produce no resultant e.m.f. around the circuit.

The part of the apparatus concerned in the thermal e.m.f. measure-
ments consists of two heavy cylinders connected by a heavy tube.
The two cylinders are maintained at any required difference of tem-

274 BRIDGMAN.

perature by thermostats. Through the tube connecting the cylinders,
and insulated from it, runs the wire on which measurements are to be
made. ‘This is metallically connected to the inside of the upper cyl-
inder, but passes out through an insulating plug at the bottom of the
lower cylinder. The circuit is completed outside the cylinders by a
wire of the same metal, making connection through the insulating
plug at the lower end, and at the upper end making a screw contact
with the steel of the upper cylinder. The return wire is broken by
the insertion of copper leads connecting with the galvanometer and
the potentiometer for measuring the electro-motive force. The
terminals of the copper leads are connected to the return wire inside
a constant temperature bath so that no e.m.f. (or at least no variable
e.m.f.) is introduced here. The two cylinders and the connecting
pipe are filled with liquid to which pressure may be applied.

The circuit consists of the metal AB about 18” long under a constant
hydrostatic pressure, between the two ends of which there is a known
temperature difference equal to the difference of temperature of the
two thermostated baths; a length of nickel steel BC which forms the
stem of the insulating plug, in which there is a stress gradient from the
whole hydrostatic pressure-inside to zero at the outer end, but in which
there is no temperature gradient; a length CD about 4 ft. long of
the metal under examination, running at atmospheric pressure from
the temperature of the lower bath to that of the upper bath; the copper
part of the circuit from D to E, entering and leaving at the same
temperature; a short length, about 6 inches, of the metal under
examination running from the copper at E to mechanical contact
with the steel of the cylinder at F; and finally the circuit is completed
through the solid steel of the cylinder between F and A, in which there
is an intense stress gradient, but no temperature gradient. It is
evident that the e.m.f. of this circuit is merely that of the uncom-
pressed metal against the compressed metal between the temperatures
of the two baths.

The measurements consist in finding the e.m.f. in circuits of
different metals under different temperature differences and different
pressures. Of course, if the inside and outside wires are precisely
alike, there is no e.m.f. for any temperature difference unless there is
also a pressure difference. But this ideal condition was seldom
attained, as the wires were never precisely alike; the readings had to
be corrected by the zero reading, which of course varied with the
temperature difference.

The two cylinders were connected to the apparatus for producing
pressure through a tube screwed into the upper end of the top cylinder.

" THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 275

This was the same apparatus as that used in much previous work,’
and has been described so thoroughly that no further description is
needed here. The pressure was measured throughout with the same
coil of manganin wire as that used for the measurements of pressure
coefficient of resistance. It was calibrated from time to time. The
pressure part of all this work went more smoothly than ever before;
the complete set of measurements on 24 different specimens was made
without a single rupture, except one pinching off of the stem of an
insulating plug, and with only a few leaks due to defective washers.
Various details of manipulation had to be carefully observed in
order to get good results. It is well known that thermal e.m.f. is
exceedingly sensitive to slight mechanical changes. For instance,
the wire of an ordinary constantan thermo-couple cannot be bent
without changing its constants. I was prepared, therefore, to expect
very large irregularities at these high pressures, and was most pleas-
antly disappointed to find that, with some precautions, reliable
measurements could be obtained. It is above all else necessary to
avoid all permanent distortion. The viscosity of most liquids be-
comes so great under high pressure that permanent distortion may
easily result. The connecting tube is about 18 inches long, and the
hole § inch diameter. When pressure is increased or decreased the
entire liquid in the tube moves bodily one way or the other, because
of change of volume in the liquid in the lower cylinder, and if the liquid
is sufficiently viscous will carry the wire with it, and in some cases
may easily break it. The magnitude of this viscous drag depends
on the diameter of the wire; the smaller the diameter the larger
the ratio of surface to cross section, and the larger the effect. It
was desirable for this reason to use in many cases a wire larger than
that on which resistance measurements were made, and I therefore
prepared a number of new wires from the same samples as the old
wires. Viscous drag may result either in a permanent distortion of
the wire, showing itself as a permanent change of the zero reading,
or it may produce an effect within the elastic limit which disappears
with release of pressure. Such an elastic effect was shown by several
of the smaller wires; it may be eliminated by reversing the direction
of the change of pressure. The viscous effect can be reduced in most
all cases to negligible proportions by using a very thin liquid to trans-
mit pressure, changing pressure slowly, and by running pressure back
and forth several times over a small range before making a reading.
The liquid found suitable was petroleum ether, which had also been

3 P. W. Bridgman, Proc. Amer. Acad. 49, 627-643, 1914.

276 BRIDGMAN.

used before in the resistance measurements partly mixed with kero-
sene. This was always now poured pure into the lower part of the
apparatus without admixture of kerosene. The upper of the three
cylinders was initially filled with a mixture of equal parts kerosene
and ether. This liquid remains so thin under even the highest pres-
sures that somewhat more trouble was found from minute leaks than
ever with undiluted kerosene. The bearing surfaces of the washers
must be in very good condition, otherwise leak takes place along
scratches on the steel too minute to be sufficiently closed by the
plastic flow of the steel at high pressures. However, all these minute
leaks closed up automatically under sufficiently long duration of
pressure, and never could introduce any error in the readings, which
were made only after leak had disappeared. Leak merely made the
manipulation somewhat more inconvenient. The use of petroleum
ether made it impossible, because of its low boiling point, to make
measurements at atmospheric pressure at the higher temperatures.
Above 25°, therefore, the initial readings were made at pressures of
300 kg., and extrapolation made to atmospheric pressure.

The effect of viscous drag was further increased by the necessity
for insulating the wire AB from the steel tube. The wire was in most
cases bare, and insulation was. provided by slipping over the wire
short lengths (3 inch long) of thin glass tube. It was necessary to
choose these of the best diameter. If they were too large, the viscous
resistance between the glass and the wall of the steel tube was so great
that all the pieces moved together bodily, and might cut off the wire
at the upper end; whereas if the glass tube was too small the viscous
resistance between the glass and the wire was so great that the stress
on the wire was no longer truly hydrostatic. The best size for the
glass was found after several trials. That the effect of viscous drag
was finally successfully eliminated is shown by the fact that even for
metals as soft as lead and thallium the permanent change of zero
after a run to 12000 kg. was less than 1/10 % of the total effect.

The inner wire was attached to the lower insulating plug with soft
solder, except in a few cases such as magnesium or aluminum, when
connection was made by wrapping the joint with small copper wire
and smothering over the outside with soft solder. Slight variations
of resistance at the contacts evidently were of no importance, and it
therefore was not necessary to take the precautions used in the re-
sistance measurements. At the upper end, a flexible connection to
allow for inequalities of compression and relative motion between
the cylinder and the core of the insulating plug was made by soft

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. Par ire

soldering the wire to a helix of copper wire, which was in turn soldered
to the connecting tube. Connection between the tube and the cyl-
inder was amply provided by the mechanical contact through the
threads, which supported the entire thrust of the internal pressure.
The soldered connection at the top of the wire was not made until
after the bottom connection had been made and screwed into position,
so that all initial strains of tension or torsion were avoided. The
outer wire was protected over its entire length by a loosely fitting
rubber tube, which slipped over the outer end of the insulating plug
and prevented contact with the water of the bath. The connections
at E and D to the copper leads to the electrical part of the apparatus
were made with soft solder. The wire FE and part of the copper lead
in the upper bath were also protected with rubber tubing. The two
_ connections E and D were placed close together and tied to the out-
side of the upper cylinder. They were protected from direct contact
with the water of the bath with a covering of felt 1 inch thick. The
temperature of these junctions was therefore controlled by the large
mass of the cylinder and remained constant in spite of small fluctua-
tions in the bath liquid. The copper leads from E and D were taken
from the same spool and were so homogeneous that no undesirable
e.m.f. was ever introduced by this part of the circuit. The connec-
tion at F was a mechanical connection. A small hole was bored from
the outer surface of the cylinder to within 4 inch of the inner surface.
Against the flat bottom of this hole a steel tube which contained the
wire was forced by a nut. This wire was lead axially through the
tube, and insulated from it, except at the very end, where it was
soldered in place with enough soft solder to make a little mound at
the bottom of the tube. When forced into place by the screw, this
mound was flattened out, making at the same time good electrical
contact and preventing contact between the water of the bath and the
wire. This wire was brought as close as possible to the inside of the
cylinder in this way in order to reduce to a minimum any disturbance
arising from slow fluctuations in the temperature of the bath. Any
regularity introduced by flow of heat into the bath along the pressure
tubing, either above or below, may be shown by a simple computation
to be absolutely negligible; any such effect is certainly less than 10-®
degrees. The upper bath was the variable bath, and was controlled
by a thermostat within 2 or 3 thousandths of a degree. In virtue of
the precautions just described all appreciable errors due to tempera-
ture control were eliminated. In the lower bath, slow variations in
temperature would be of greater effect, because of the long stem of the

278 BRIDGMAN.

insulating plug, so that it was necessary that the two ends of this stem
be at exactly the same temperature. This source of error was re-
duced to a minimum by always using the lower bath as an ice bath.
The lower tank was kept full of ice and water, well packed down, and
a violent circulation of water through the ice was maintained with a
stirrer. The bath was also heavily lagged. The result was com-
pletely satisfactory, but I have been impressed during this work, as
well as in some other, by the absolute necessity of maintaining a vio-
lent circulation of water if complete uniformity of temperature is to
be secured. An ice bath, even when continuously repacked, develops
local inequalities of temperature, unless the water is stirred. Of
course the conditions here were somewhat severe, because there was
a constant rather large inflow of heat from the upper bath along the
pressure tubing.

The electrical-measurements part of the apparatus now requires
description. There were two entirely independent electrical systems
involved. One was for measuring the pressure by means of the
change of resistance of the manganin coil.* This has already been
fully described. The other was to measure the thermal e.m.f. The
range of e.m.f. to be measured was from a fraction of a micro volt to
0.0007 volts. The galvanometer used was of the Leeds and Northrup
high sensitivity D’Arsonval type. It was specially constructed to
my specifications; was critically damped on 5 ohms external resistance,
with a period of 7.8 seconds and a sensitivity of 1.5 cm. at 1 m. distance
for 10-® volts. Its internal resistance was 12 ohms, so that as long as
the resistance of the external circuit remained under 5 ohms its per-
formance was sufficiently constant. The wires used were almost
always large enough to meet this requirement. In use the galvanom-
eter was set up at 3 m. distance and gave 4.5 em. deflection for 10-6
volts. The method used was a double throw null method, and the
steadiness was great enough so that 0.1 mm. could be easily obtained.
Readings could therefore be made to 10-° volts. I have to express
special obligations to the Leeds and Northrup Co. for this instrument.
At the time, certain of the materials necessary for the construction
of a new instrument were not to be obtained in the market, and they
were so kind as to take from their own shops one of their experimental
instruments and rebuild it to specifications.

The method of measuring e.m.f. was a potentiometer method, in
which the unknown e.m.f. is tapped off around a fixed resistance, and

4 P. W. Bridgman, Proc. Amer. Acad. 47, 321-343, 1911.

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 279

the current in the potentiometer circuit varied by means of a suitable
resistance until balance is obtained. This has the advantage over the
ordinary slide wire form of avoiding all possible e.m.f’s. at the sliding
junctions. In order to provide the very small e.m.f’s. required, the
known source of e.m.f. was stepped down twice. The comparison
cell was a battery of ten acid Weston cells connected in parallel. The
advantage of the acid cell is that its e.m.f. does not fluctuate, even
when a comparatively large current is drawn. This was most kindly
loaned to me by Professor H. N. Davis, by whom it had been person-
ally constructed. Iam also indebted to him for a number of the other
pieces of standard apparatus used. The e.m-f. of the acid cell varies
somewhat with the external resistance; it was measured by standard
potentiometer methods against a standard Weston cell for external
resistances from 1000 to 10000 ohms. The e.m.f. at the terminals
varied under these conditions from 1.0410 to 1.0425 volts. This was
measured several times in the course of the work, and the voltage
under any given external resistance remained constant within 1/100%.
The temperature effect was negligible for temperature fluctuations
within the range of this work.

The working cell was connected through a reversing switch with a
10,000 and a 10 ohm. coil in series. The 10 ohm coil was tapped by
a second circuit containing a variable Leeds and Northrup decade
box reading to 10,000 ohms, and guaranteed to 1/10%, and three
other coils, of seasoned copper, of 10, 1 and 0.1 ohm. According to
its magnitude, the e.m.f. in the pressure circuit could be tapped across
either the 10, 1, or 0.1 ohm coil. Readings were made by a null
method by the method of reversals. Reversing switches in the pres-
sure circuit, but not in the galvanometer circuit, and in the second
stage of the potentiometer circuit allowed the reversal of both the
e.m.f. being measured and the balancing e.m.f. The decade box was
set until no throw was obtained on reversing both these circuits.
The range covered with the apparatus set up as above was from
approximately 10°° volts, with 1000 ohms in the decade box and 0.1
ohm tapped, to 10° volts with 1000 in the decade box and 10 ohms
tapped. For larger voltages the working cell could be directly con-
nected with the potentiometer circuit, increasing the range in this
way from 10° to 10 volts, still with never less than 1000 ohms in
series with the working cell. E.m.f’s. less than 10° volts were read
by the deflection of the galvanometer without attempting to balance.
Of course the e.m.f’s. corresponding to the stated resistances are not
exactly those given, but there are slight corrections. The corrections

280 BRIDGMAN.

as a function of the resistance may be readily calculated by Kirchhoft’s
laws, and such corrections were applied in all the computations.

It is not worth while to go into greater detail about this electrical
installation, except to say that in designing it and setting it up I
profited much by suggestions in various papers of White.® All leads
were of copper from the same spool. All connections were either
soldered (with pitch) or were the clothes pin type of spring clip, with
the in-leading wire thermally protected by wrapping with copper
strip, as advocated by White. All switches, both single throw and
reversing, were of the jack knife type, and of all-copper construction.
All the connections and switches, except the pressure connections
already described and the connections to the galvanometer binding
posts, were inclosed in a single covered box, to secure temperature
equality, and all switches were operated through the sides of the box
with rods. The reversing switches were so connected together with
a sliding rod as to be operated by a single push or pull, and were so
related in phase than an unbalanced e.m.f. was never thrown on the
galvanometer at any stage of the reversal. The copper resistance
coils of 10, 1, and 0.1 ohms were immersed in an oil bath of Bureau
of Standards resistance oil inside the same box as that housing the
switches, and the oil was stirred and the temperature read with a
thermometer reaching through the walls of the box after every read-
ing of e.m.f. The resistance of the copper coils was measured at 22°
on a Carey Foster bridge against coils calibrated at the Bureau of
Standards. The temperature coefficient was not measured, but was
assumed to be 0.00382 at 22°. This corresponds to copper of con-
ductivity 98%. If the copper were actually anywhere from 96% to
100% conductivity, which is greater than the variation met with in
commercial copper, the error so introduced would remain less than
0.1% over a temperature range of 10°, which was the maximum varia-
tion in room temperature during this work.

In addition to all these, several coils not already mentioned were
introduced either in parallel or in series with the galvanometer so
that its sensitiveness could be appropriately varied.

The galvanometer itself was protected with a shield of heavy sheet
iron heavily covered on the outside with cotton. Internal thermal
e.m.f. in the galvanometer was never entirely absent, rising sometimes
to as much as 4 X 10 volts, but the method of measurement, reversing

5 W. P. White, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc. 36, 1856-1868, 1868-1885, 2011-
2020, 2292-2313, 2313-2333, 1914.

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 281

the other circuits but not the galvanometer circuit, eliminated this
as a source of error. An eliminating switch about the 0.1, 1, and 10
ohm coils, as described by White, showed that there were no parasitic
e.m.{’s. in this part of the circuit. The construction of the rest of the
circuits assures that any other parasites, except in the pressure part,
are overwhelmed and masked by the applied e.m.f., and parasites in
the pressure part, provided they stay constant, are eliminated by the
zero correction. All switches and the galvanometer were further
protected by a leakage shield, as advocated by White. The whole
apparatus was surprisingly satisfactory in its performance, and
except with some of the more inhomogeneous metals the steadiness
was such that even over the maximum temperature range individual
readings could be made to the limit of sensitiveness, about 10-°
volts.

The accuracy of the readings was of course not usually as high as
10° volts, but varied greatly for the different metals; the details
will be given later. In general, the precautions necessary to ensure
reproducible results were to previously season the metal by several
preliminary applications of pressure and to change pressure slowly, in
order to avoid viscosity effects from the transmitting medium. Most
of the metals showed no hysteresis, and the pressure measurements
might have been made in any order, but they were, as a matter of
fact, nearly all made alternately with rising and falling pressure.

Measurements on a single metal consisted of readings at four
different temperatures of the variable bath (25°, 50°, 75°, and 95°)
and seven different pressures (0, 2000, 4000, 6000, 8000, 10000, and
12000 kg./em.?). The procedure was usually as follows. The
apparatus was set up and seasoned by several preliminary applications
of pressure to the maximum at room temperature. The lower bath
was then filled with ice and the upper bath adjusted at 25°. E.m.f.
measurements were then made at 0, 4000, 8000, 12000, 10000, 6000,
2000, and 0 kg. This might occupy two hours. The time required
for dissipation of heat of compression after every change of pressure
was cut down by secondary variations of pressure, as has already been
described in previous papers.® The upper bath was then changed to
50°, the lower one still being packed with ice, and e.m.f. measurements.
were made at the same pressures as before. This was repeated at
75° and 95°. The temperature of the bath was read on a Tonnelot
thermometer calibrated at the Paris Bureau of Weights and Measures.

6 P. W. Bridgman, Proc. Amer. Acad. 49, 14, 1913.

282 BRIDGMAN.

In addition to the pressure measurements, the thermal e.m-f. of
each of the specimens was found at atmospheric pressure against lead.
The same potentiometer was used as for the pressure measurements,
and no special comment is necessary. One terminal of the couple
was kept in an ice bath; the other was placed successively in baths at
25°, 50°, 75°, and 95°. Twelve couples were made up and measured
simultaneously. As a matter of fact, the readings were actually
made against copper; the e.m.f. against lead was obtained by a sub-
traction. The e.m.f. against temperature of each of these couples
could be represented within the limits of error by a power series in t
(three terms were always sufficient). These formulas are given in
the following as a further means of identifying the metal. By one
and two differentiations the Peltier heat against lead and the Thomson
heat at atmospheric pressure may be at once obtained. These are
also listed in the following. A positive e.m.f. means that the positive
current flows from lead to the metal at the hot junction.

MeEtHops OF COMPUTATION.

The thermal e.m.f. in the pressure circuit was first computed for
each reading, applying all corrections, including temperature correc-
tions. The points were then plotted on a large scale, thermal e.m-f.
against pressure, and smooth curves drawn through the points at
each temperature. In this way four smooth curves were obtained
for each substance, or really five curves, because the curve correspond-
ing to 0° coincides with the pressure axis. From this bundle of smooth
curves the thermal e.m.f. could be read as a function of temperature
at constant pressure. The curves were in this way replotted, giving
thermal e.m.f. against temperature at constant pressure. Six pressures
were chosen, 2000, 4000, 6000, 8000, 10000, and 12000, giving six
smooth curves of thermal e.m.f. as functions of temperature. The
smoothing so far was done graphically. A further smoothing was next
performed by calculation. The ordinates were read from the six
smooth curves at intervals of 10°, and the differences of successive
ordinates computed. The curves were now further adjusted so that
the successive differences skould lie on a smooth curve when plotted
on a scale 10 times as large as the original curve. This second ad-
justment was of course performed so as not to produce any changes
greater than the uncertainties in the original plot. The smoothed
first differences, obtained in this way, are equal, without appreciable

'THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 283

error, to ten times the slope of the curves at the mid-temperatures of
: her : : dE f
the 10° intervals. This gives immediately, therefore, dt Multi-

plying this by the absolute temperature gives, by a well known
formula, the Peltier heat at the hot junction. The Peltier heat was
so calculated and is tabulated in the following. From the tabulation
of first differences the second differences were next found by succes-
sive subtractions. These were plotted and smoothed graphically,
2

giving at once — This, multiplied by absolute temperature, gives
the difference of the Thomson heat in the compressed and the uncom-
pressed metal at the temperature in question. This is also tabulated
in the following. Perhaps to give the results as accurately as possible
an additional smoothing for pressure should have been introduced.
But this seemed to me an additional refinement not justified by the
reproducibility of the results.

The convention adopted for the sign of the effect requires explana-
tion. In the following, the thermal e.m.f. of the circuit is called
positive if at the hot junction the current flows from uncompressed
to compressed metal. The Peltier heat is considered positive if heat

is absorbed by the positive current from the surroundings on flowing

Re es oy
from uncompressed to compressed metal. A positive qe means a
larger Thomson heat in the compressed than the uncompressed metal,
and the Thomson heat is itself considered positive if heat is absorbed
by the positive current in flowing from cold to hot metal. In other
words, a positive Thomson heat corresponds to a positive specific
heat of the positive current, or a negative specific heat of the current
of electrons. The opposite convention is sometimes used for the
Thomson heat.

The detailed presentation of data follows. The order of arrange-
ment of the metals is the same as that in the previous paper on resist-
ance. Four metals used there could not be used in this investigation.
These were: Indium and Tantalum, of which I did not have a large
enough supply, and Antimony and Tellurium, which are so brittle as
to make hopeless any manipulation of continuous pieces four feet
long. In addition to the metals of the resistance paper, two alloys,
manganin and constantan, are included at the end of the list. The
pressure effect on the resistance as well as on the thermal e.m.f. has
been measured.

The data are chiefly given by tables and diagrams. There are in

284 BRIDGMAN.

general three tables for each metal. The first table shows the total
e.m.f. of a circuit composed of uncompressed and compressed metal.
The lower junction is always at 0°; the entries in the table show the
e.m.f. for different temperatures of the upper junction, and for differ-
ent pressures of the compressed branch. The temperature interval of
this table is 10°, and the pressure interval 2000 kg. The em.
corresponding to 0° is, of course, zero for all pressures. The second
table gives the Peltier heat absorbed by unit quantity of positive
electricity in passing from uncompressed metal to metal compressed
to the pressure in the table, both uncompressed and compressed metal
being at the temperature indicated in the table. The temperature
interval is 20°, and the pressure interval 2000 kg. in the second table.
- The third table shows how much greater the Thomson heat is in metal
compressed to the pressure of the table than in uncompressed metal,
both uncompressed and compressed metal being at the temperature
indicated in the table. The temperature interval of the third table
is also 20°, and the pressure interval 2000 kg. The diagrams give
graphically the results of the tables, plotted at constant pressures
against temperature. The scale of the diagrams of Peltier heat and
Thomson heat is half that of the e.m.f. diagrams. The smaller scale
for the two heats has been chosen because of their smaller accuracy.
The corresponding tables for all metals are given in the same sized
units, so as to facilitate direct comparison.

DETAILED DaTa.

Tin. This was Kahlbaum’s “K” tin, from the same small ingot
as that whose resistance under pressure was measured, but not the
identical piece of wire. It was made by extrusion at 100° into wire
0.02 inches in diameter, considerably larger than the resistance wire,
and was annealed in an electric furnace to 120° for several hours. It
was not subjected to a preliminary pressure seasoning for the runs;
this is unnecessary for soft metals.

Tin was one of the most unsatisfactory metals measured, because of
the minuteness and irregularity of the effect. Tin is known to form
other allotropic modifications below 20°, the reaction usually not run-
ning because of internal viscosity. During the experiment, therefore,
the lower end of the wire was probably always in the metastable
region, and the readings themselves gave evidence of internal insta-
bility. The readings were never steady, but continually flickered

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 285

by small amounts which might rise to as much as 0.04 X 10-® volts
at the highest temperature. Furthermore, all runs showed consider-
able hysteresis, which of course is characteristic of a substance not
in perfect equilibrium. The zero was usually recovered with fair
accuracy; at 98° the zero error was hardly 1% of the total effect, but
at 75° there was some sort of progressive change during the run,
which of course produced the largest effect at zero. The readings
at 75° failed by about 30% to fall on a smooth curve with those at
other temperatures, and the 75° points were accordingly disregarded
in drawing the curves. —

In spite of the irregularities, the uncertainties never became great

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Temperature
Tin

Figure 2. Tin. Thermal E. M. F. of a couple composed of one branch
of uncompressed metal, the other branch compressed to the pressure in
kg./em.? indicated on the curves, the junctions being at 0°C and the tempera-
ture plotted as abscissae.

enough to obscure the essential character of the results, which are most
curious. The results are shown in Figure 2, and Table I, in which
e.m.f. at constant pressure is plotted against temperature. The
effect is small, rising at the most to 0.4 X 10-° volts, and reverses in
sign with temperature. At 12000 kg. the e.m.f. passes through?a
negative maximum of 0.18 & 10-® at about 25°, and then reverses
sign, rising to 0.4 X 10-® volts at 100°. Or if the results are plotted
as a function of pressure at different constant temperatures (which

286 BRIDGMAN.

TAB IGE ale
TIN.

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts & 10°.

Pressure, kg./cm.2

6000 8000 10000 12000

O14 O41 .083 . 136
.O10 045 . 103 182
O11 .620 .075 154
.042 .021 O19 O81
.078 .070 048 .010
ze lelsl 122 ltl y 103
. 146 172 . 183 Ort
.176 .218 243 . 269
206) Zor 208 .296 330
.232 292 341 .390

is the way in which they were obtained experimentally) they are
equally curious. At 25°, the effect is initially positive, passing through
a very flat maximum of about 0.005 X 10-6 volts at 2500 kg., and from
here on becomes rapidly negative, reaching — 0.185 & 10-® at 12000
kg. This curve is concave downwards. The approximate effect of
higher temperatures is merely to rotate this curve bodily, without
distortion, anticlockwise about the origin. At 50° the effect is through-
out positive, the curvature displaying itself as a maximum near 7000
kg., and at 75° and 100° the rotation has become great enough to
obliterate the maximum.

The Peltier and Thomson heats deduced from these measurements
are shown in Figure 3 and Table II. Of course when the fundamental
data are so irregular there must be much uncertainty in the deriva-
tives, but I believe that the essential features of the situation, with
respect to changes of sign etc., are correctly given, and that the nu-
merical values of the Thomson heat are correct to within perhaps 50%.
Both Peltier and Thomson heats change sign in the range. At low
temperatures the effect of all pressures is to give a negative Peltier
heat; that is, heat is absorbed by the positive current in flowing
across the junction from compressed to uncompressed metal, but at

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 287

higher temperatures, at all pressures, the Peltier heat becomes posi-
tive, passes through a maximum, and decreases again. The Thom-
son heat, on the other hand, is initially positive for low temperatures,
but becomes negative at higher temperatures.

Tin was one of the metals measured by Wagner.? He made only
one measurement, at 300 kg. and 100°, and found for the effect
—0.95 X 10°” volts per degree per kg. The measurements above

2

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Volts, x10°

HH

Volts per degree C, x10°

Peltier Heat

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Temperature .Temperature
Tin
Figure 3. Tin. On the left, the heat absorbed by unit quantity of electri-
city on flowing from uncompressed metal to metal compressed to the pressure
indicated on the curves, as a function of temperature. On the right, the
excess of Thomson heat in metal compressed to the pressure indicated on the
curves over uncompressed metal, as a function of temperature.

Ht
r

Thomson Heat

make the effect positive at all pressures for a temperature range of
100°, and would indicate, if interpolation is justifiable, + 0.43 X 10°?
volts per degree per kg. Wagner’s one reading allowed him to form
no idea of the complicated state of affairs for this metal. There can
be no comparison between his results and mine, because it will be
shown later in the case of Al and Fe, which also show reversals in
sign like Sn, that small variations in the purity of the metal, or the

288 BRIDGMAN.

TABLE II.
TIN.

Peltier heat, between uncompressed and compressed metal, Joules per conlomb
X 10°.

Temp. Pressure, kg. / cm.2

Cdegrees| a9 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
—1.64 —3.28 —4.92
+ .32 “pekd
+1.44 +1.94

PVA

2.01

1.49

Thomson heat, excess in compressed over uncompressed metal, Joules per conlomb
per nO 103

Temp. Pressure, kg./cm.2
——— 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
+5.9 +11.7 +21.0 +28.9

+4.4 sie tin +13.2 +20.3

ar ao) + 4.4 aT NOLO

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 289

mechanical treatment, although they leave the general character of
the results unaltered, may nevertheless produce large changes in the
numerical values. For instance, a slight shift in the position of the
flat maximum would produce changes even of sign in the neighbor-
hood of 500 kg.

The thermal e.m.f. of tin was measured at atmospheric pressure
against lead between 0° and 100°. Over this range its thermal e.m.f.
is given approximately by the formula:

E = (0.230 t—0.00067 #7) X 10° volts.

The Peltier heat against lead is
P = (0.230—0.00134 t) (¢ + 273) X10 volts,

and the Thomson heat is
= —0,00134 (t + 273) X 10-6 volts/°C.

This assumes the Thomson heat of lead to be zero. A positive e.m.f.
means that the current flows from lead to tin at the hot junction.
Thallium. A different specimen from that of the resistance meas-
urements had to be used, the former piece having become very badly
oxidized. A fresh lot was obtained from the United States Smelting
Company. As provided by them it contained considerable impurity
of lead and cadmium. I purified it by electrolysis, by well known
methods. It was dissolved in excess c.p. HeSO, and electrolyzed
from dilute aqueous solution onto a copper cathode with platinum
anode. The deposit is in the form of trees. These were repeatedly
washed in pure water, dried in a paraffine bath at 200° in a stream of
He, and finally melted in a glass tube in a stream of He. The He,
however, was not perfectly pure, and a thin film of the yellow oxide
formed on the surface of the metal during melting. This was scraped
off, and the ingot formed into a wire by cold extrusion to 0.028 inch
diameter. The wire was kept under pure water while waiting for use,
which effectively prevented tarnishing. The outer wire was shellaced
immediately before assembling. There was no such trouble from
oxidation as that experienced during the resistance measurements.
The purity of this sample was not so high as that of the previous
one, as shown by its temperature coefficient of resistance. The
average coefficient between 0° and 100° was 0.00475, which is con-
siderably less than that of the former sample, 0.00518. The several
crystallizations in the form of various salts of the previous sample
doubtless accounts for its higher purity. The relation between

290 BRIDGMAN.

temperature and resistance of this new sample was sensibly linear

within the range 0° to 100°.
The thermo-electric behavior of a thallium-lead couple at atmos-

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0° OS 02 OSE 0 02 C0 870 S02 ONTO 02
Temperature
Thallium

Figure 4. Thallium. Thermal E.M.F. of a couple composed of one branch
of uncompressed metal, the other compressed to the pressure in kg./cm.?
indicated on the curves, the junctions being at O°C and the temperature
plotted as abscissae.

pheric pressure is represented within the limits of measurement by
the formulas :

E = (1.659 t—0.00134 #—0.0000056 #3) & 10° volts,

P = (1.659—0.00268 t—0.0000168 #?) (f + 273) X 10% volts,

a = (—0.00268 —-0.0000336 #) (£ + 273) X 10° volts/°C.

The pressure measurements were very satisfactory. The effect
is large and positive, equilibrium was quickly reached, the readings

bo
©
re

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE.
} :

it ine He A160 i Hiiees: Se
se ae Le oo re i os eae

H HH i HH HEH
oS ae a 7 in ve ae i ae Le

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Thomson Heat Volts per degree C, X10°

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50 iil Ht es 6 ae 4000: i 20
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i Paras C60" =. (60° ut 20s 60? 280° - 100°
Temperature Temperature
Thallium

Ficure 5. Thallium. On the left, the heat absorbed by unit quantity of
electricity in flowing from uncompressed metal to metal compressed to the
pressure indicated on the curves, as a function of temperature. On the right,
the excess of Thomson heat in metal compressed to the pressure indicated on
the curves over uncompressed metal, as a function of temperature.

TABLE III.
THALLIUM.

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts X 10°.

Pressure, kg./cm.2

4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

74 +2 .47 +3.14 +3.78 +4.26
3.50 5.07 : 7.72 8.78
43 78 : 11.84 13.53
of 09 3. 16.13 18.53
.38 3.49 : 20.58 23.75
45 48 g 25.19 29.15
3.57 59 : 29 .96 34.73
5.75 22.70 : 34.89 40.49
25.92 : 39.97 46.40
45.20 52.46

BRIDGMAN.

292
TABLE IV.
‘THALLIUM.

Peltier heat, between uncompressed and compressed metal, Joules per conlomb
Ge:

Pressure, kg./cm.2

6000 8000
+66. +83.
78. 99.

89.

Thomson heat, excess in compressed over uncompressed metal, Joules per conlomb
per °C X 108.

Temp. Pressure, kg./cm.2

a 6000 8000

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 293

were perfectly steady, and the permanent change of zero was almost
imperceptible. The maximum departure of any point from a smooth
curve was 0.4% of the total effect. It was very gratifying that this
soft substance showed no permanent zero change, since permanent
distortions must very easily be introduced into it.

The numerical results are shown in Tables III and IV, and Figures
4 and 5. The e.m.f. is positive and increases regularly with pressure
and temperature; the Peltier heat between compressed and uncom-
pressed metal is also positive and increases with pressure and temper-
ature, and the Thomson heat increases with pressure, except at the
maximum temperature and pressure, but decreases regularly with
rising temperature.

There are no previous measurements whatever on this substance
for comparison.

Cadmium. This was a piece of new wire 0.02 inch diameter, from
the same original piece as the resistance wire. It was extruded at a
temperature of 180°, and seasoned after extrusion by several hours
at 120° in an electric oven.

The thermo-electric behavior at atmospheric pressure against
lead may be represented by the formulas:

E = (12.002¢ + 0.1619 t?) X 10° volts,
P = (12.002 + 0.3238 t) (¢ + 273) X 10° volts,
o = 0.3238(¢ + 273) X 10° volts/°C.

The pressure effect is not regular, and the readings were never
steady, indicating an incomplete state of internal equilibrium. The
material was seasoned by two preliminary applications of 12000 at
room temperature, and five runs were made, at 25°, 50°, 75°, 95° and
25° again. There was much hysteresis; this was larger at the higher
temperatures, and amounted at the maximum to 5% of the total
effect. The run at 25° was repeated in order to find whether the
hysteresis would disappear by accommodation after several runs at
different temperatures, but it did not change. The first run at 25°
almost exactly repeated itself, hysteresis and all. Wagner found
similar effects over so low a range as 300 kg.; he found an abnor-
mally long time required to reach equilibrium and a hysteresis which
never disappeared, no matter how long he waited.

It will be recalled that Cd is one of the metals for which Cohen 7
claims different allotropic forms. The evidence of this paper corro-

7 E. Cohen and W. D. Helderman, Proc. Amster. Acad. 17, 1050-1054, 1915.

294 BRIDGMAN.

borates the theory that Cd may be in a state of unstable internal
equilibrium, or at any rate of internal equilibrium which is very slowly
readjusted after any change of external conditions. The measure-
ments of the previous paper did not suggest any such state of affairs,
but this need not be surprising, because it is known that thermo-

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0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90° 100°
Temperature
Cadmium

Ficure 6. Cadmium. Thermal E.M.F. of a couple composed of one
branch of uncompressed metal, the other compressed to the pressure in kg. /em.”
indicated on the curves, the junctions being at 0°C and the temperature
plotted as abscissae.

electric quality is much more sensitive to slight changes than resist-
ance. At the same time, it does not seem to me that unstable internal
equilibrium necessarily points to polymorphism as an explanation.
I have already discussed this matter in some detail in another paper.®
With regard to the bearing of these particular measurements on the

8 P. W. Bridgman, Proc. Amer. Acad. 52, 636, 1917.

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 295

+ 5
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o 20° 40° 60° 80° 100° 20 40° 60° 80° 100
Temperature Temperature
Cadmium

Ficure 7. Cadmium. On the left, the heat absorbed by unit quantity of
electricity in flowing from uncompressed metal to metal compressed to the
pressure indicated on the curves, as a function of temperature. On the right,
the excess of Thomson heat in metal compressed to the pressure indicated on
the curves over uncompressed metal, as a function of temperature.

TABLE V.
CADMIUM.

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts x 10°.

Pressure, kg. is em.2

6000 8000 10000 12000

+0.88 4 | \-F2.36 +3.16
.10 : 6.68
64 : 04 10.54
48 : 34 14.72
56 .82 19.18
.88 3. 5 23 .92
42 : ‘22. 28.92
5.14 27. 34.20

i 39.74

1.16 36.5: 45.56

“Io ® W bo

296 BRIDGMAN.

TABLE VI.
CADMIUM.

Peltier heat, between uncompressed and compressed metal, Joules per conlomb
<i

Temp. Pressure, kg./cm.2

C degrees 6000 gs000 10000 12000

sells). +38 .3 +60.1 +81.3

41. ; 83.1 108.

61. 2. 107.

80. 5. 132.

$8).

Thomson heat, excess in compressed over uncompressed metal, Joules per conlomb
jae > >< ils

Pressure, kg./cm.2
6000 8000 10000 12000
+109. : =F elle +105.

89. DUE

87. 94.

90.

90.

93.

EE

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 297

question, it is to be noticed that the effects were found at all tempera-
tures of the range, increasing at the higher temperature. If the
effect were due to a polymorphic transition, we would expect to find
it above a definite temperature only. Cohen located the transition
temperature at about 67°.

The mean curves of thermal e.m.f., that is the curves through the
mean of the points with ascending and descending pressure, disre-
garding hysteresis, when plotted against pressure at constant tempera-
ture, are somewhat unusual in that they are concave upward, the
proportional effect of a given increment of pressure thus becoming —
greater at higher pressures. This is not what one would expect, and
is the reverse of the behavior of most metals.

The uncertainty introduced by hysteresis was so large that rather
large readjustments were necessary in order to obtain smooth curves
when the curves of thermal e.m.f. at constant pressure, plotted against
temperature, were read from those at constant temperature against
pressure. The greatest readjustment necessary was at 8000 kg.
and 75°, where it was 4% of the total effect. The probable error of
these readjusted curves, computing by the mean square formula
from the departure of the individual points, was 0.34% of the maxi-
mum effect.

The numerical results are shown in Figures 6 and 7 and Tables V
and VI. The thermal e.m.f. is large and positive, rising with
pressure and temperature somewhat more steeply than normal; the
Peltier heat is positive and rises with temperature and pressure, the
Thomson heat is positive, and rises with temperature at the low pres-
sures, but falls at the high pressures.

The value found by Wagner for 0° to 100° to 300 kg. was + 36.3 X
10°? volts per degree per kg., against 35.6 X 10°? above. The
agreement is much better than could be expected in view of the large
hysteresis.

Lead. This was Kahlbaum’s “K” lead, freshly extruded into wire
0.0288 inch diameter. It would have been desirable if I could have
used the same excessively pure lead from Professor Richard’s labora-
tory that was used for the resistance measurements, but no more was
available, and the wire of the resistance measurements was too fine
for this. However, this “ K”’ lead is exceedingly pure, its temperature
coefficient having been found to be only 0.2% lower than that of the
purest, and it is doubtless as good as the inherently less accuracy of
this work justifies.

This lead is used as the standard in this paper against which the

298 BRIDGMAN.

thermal e.m.f. of the other metals is given. Experimentally, the
comparisons were all made against pieces of copper, cut from the
same spool, and the figures given were obtained by subtraction. It
is assumed here, from the work of previous observers, that the Thom-
son heat of this lead was zero; no direct examination of this question
was made for these experiments, as it would have required extensive
measurements with special apparatus.

As a preliminary to the pressure measurements, one previous

application of 12000 kg. was made at room temperature to season.

© SRE Head Ht
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ai te | ato
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= | a
ee oh

ob see padessdatestised isstccestvestatetepeietatess :

O20. 205 30" 407 W504" 60" 702 = S809 one aie:

Temperature
Lead

Ficure 8. Lead. Thermal E.M.F. of a couple composed of one branch
of uncompressed metal, the other compressed to the pressure in kg./em.?
indicated on the curves, the junctions being at 0°C and the temperature
plotted as abscissae.

The pressure measurements were very satisfactory, being much lke
those on Thallium, although not quite so regular. The maximum
effect, which is positive, is 6 X 10°° volts against 50 X 10° volts for
Tl. This doubtless accounts for the somewhat greater proportional
irregularity. The observed e.m.f’s. are sensibly linear against pres-
sure at constant temperature. Such linearity is surprising in so soft
a metal as lead. The resistance curves against pressure were dis-
tinctly not linear. There was no appreciable change of zero at
any temperature, which again is most gratifying for so soft a metal.

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 299

HH Hee
4 + () 4 HH 4
EESEESEREGESSE guiiusaseetasies Upeerae eae ean sven Hasniaial
ire | 40? 760° 80 (00? S20" -40°—, GO" 60" F 10
Temperature Temperature

Lead

Ficture 9. Lead. On the left, the heat absorbed by unit quantity of
electricity on flowing from uncompressed metal to metal compressed to the
pressure indicated on the curves, as a function of temperature. On the right,
the excess of Thomson heat in metal compressed to the pressure indicated on
the curves over uncompressed metal, as a function of temperature.

(<>)

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i 4] i
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TABLE VII.
LEAD.

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts 10°.

Pressure, kg./cm.2

6000 8000 10000

aoe 34 + .43
69 .88
06 30
45 84
86 2.39
29 .88

2.74 44

3.21 4.02

3.70 4.64
21

Onrkrhwonneet

1.
ee
Thal
De
ye
D
3}.

300 BRIDGMAN.

TABLE VIII.
LEAD.

Peltier heat, between uncompressed and compressed metal, Joules per conlomb
< oe

Temp. Pressure, kg./em.2

degrees 4000 6000 8000 12000

+4.0 +6.6 ar). —+-13°.8

5.0 § 10. Bs 16.

12.

14.

Thomson heat, excess in compressed over uncompressed metal, Joules per conlomb

per °C X 16

! ]
Temp. Pressure, kg./cm.?

ee 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

+3.0 2.2 +4.6 : +6.0

6.7

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 301

According to Cohen,? lead also is in unstable internal equilibrium, and
has allotropic modifications. No evidence whatever of anything of
this kind was found above. If there had been, it should certainly
have manifested itself as a change of zero. The maximum departure
of any single observed point from linearity was 1.7% of the maximum
effect, and the average numerical departure of all the observed points
was 0.25%. Since no readjustment whatever was necessary in passing
from the curves at constant temperature to those at constant pressure,
the results may be accepted with considerable confidence.

The numerical results are shown in Tables VII and VIII and Figures
Sand9. The thermal e.m-f. rises regularly with pressure and tempera-
ture, as do also the Peltier heat and the Thomson heat. All three of
these are positive. The fact that there is an appreciable Thomson
heat between the compressed and the uncompressed metal has an
interesting bearing on the question whether there is a Thomson heat
at atmospheric pressure. It is a matter of rather general experience
that zero, or atmospheric, pressure, is no preferred pressure, but the
properties of a substance change without discontinuity on going from
negative to positive pressure. This is in accord with a point of view,
fruitful in many situations, that a substance at atmospheric pressure
is actually under a high internal pressure, and that changes in external
pressure produce the same effect as proportionally small changes in
total pressure (internal plus external). The fact, therefore, that
compressed lead has a Thomson heat against uncompressed lead
makes it probable that the Thomson heat of uncompressed lead is
not rigorously and exactly zero but is merely too small to be measured
conveniently.

Wagner is the only previous observer on lead; he gives + 5.6 X
10°" volts per degree per kg. for 0° to 100° and to 300 kg. The
results above for the same range would be interpolated as + 5.2 X
10°”; the agreement is satisfactory.

Zinc. This was Kahlbaum’s “K”’ grade, from the same rod as
the resistance specimen, but it was not the identical piece of wire.
It was extruded to 0.020 inch diameter at a temperature of 330°, and
was annealed in an electric oven for several hours at 120°.

At atmospheric pressure its thermo-electric behavior against lead
is given by the formulas:

E = (3.047 t—0.00495 #2) & 10° volts,
P = (3.047 —0.0099 t) (ft + 273) & 10° volts,
a = —0.0099(¢ + 273) X 10°° volts/°C.

I

9 E. Cohen and W. D. Helderman, Proc. Amst. Acad 17, 822-828, 1914.

302 BRIDGMAN.

The behavior under pressure is in many respects like that of cad-
mium. Zinc evidently is in a state of unstable internal equilibrium
as shown by unsteadiness and irregularity of reading, and hysteresis.
The hysteresis was not as marked as that of cadmium, however, and
the permanent changes of zero were comparatively small, rising at
the maximum to 1.2% of the total effect. Five runs were made,

Thermal E.M.F. Volts, X10°

aes ttl —F Tritt se rryy
ea aan Hn TH He
0° 0°20 oes O40? 70° PNSO0° 5 90o TOO?
Temperature
Zinc

Fieure 10. Zine. Thermal E.M.F. of a couple composed of one branch
of uncompressed metal, the other compressed to the pressure in kg./em.?
indicated on the curves, the junctions being at 0°C and the temperature
plotted as abscissae.

at 25°, 50°, 75°, 95°, and 25° again. The last run at 25° was made
to find whether any permanent change had been produced by the many
changes of pressure and temperature, but there was none, the last run
at 25° giving the same average deflection and also the same hysteresis
as the first run. In order to reduce to a minimum uncertainties from
changing internal equilibrium, two applications of the maximum

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 303

ss, sosusc tase tssss

Volts, x10°

;
7 fi

Peltier Heat

Temperature Temperature

Zinc

Thomson Heat Volts per degree C, X10°

Ficure 11. Zine. On the left, the heat absorbed by unit quantity of
electricity in flowing from uncompressed metal to metal compressed to the
pressure indicated on the curves, as a function of temperature. On the right,
the excess of Thomson heat in metal compressed to the pressure indicated on
the curves over uncompressed metal, as a function of temperature.

TABLE IX.
ZINC. -

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts > 10°.

;
Temp. Pressure, kg./cm.?

Sees 6000 8000

+4.7
OF
14.
20.¢
26.
32.
38.6
44.
51.:
58.

+ ‘

“Te bo

10°
20
30

=

40
50
60
70
80
90

NO PWN eH
5G

HB POW ONWOMwWeH
—_
Oy NS) (00) (Ox eu eS

oo

—
ore

bo

—
bo

( bo
POR NS ORF CO he

MNOCHDONMNOD
AIM WANH ROL

—
es
bo
(0)

304 BRIDGMAN.

TABLE X.
ZINC.

Peltier heat, between uncompressed and compressed metal, Joules per conlomb
s< iO?

Pressure, kg. if cm.?

6000 8000

aR us) tealtaedye

110. 149.

131.

Thomson heat, excess in compressed over uncompressed metal, Joules per conlomb

pern@ >lO%
Temp. Pressure, kg./cem.2
Sees 6000 8000 10000 12000
+41. +75. +63.

44.

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 305

pressure were made before the runs at 25°, 50°, and 75°, instead of at
25° only, as usual, but this seemed to make no difference. Within
the limits of error, the relation between thermal e.m.f. and pressure
at any constant temperature is linear. This is surprising for so large
an effect, which rises to + 80 X 10° volts, larger than for any metal
except bismuth. The maximum departure from linearity of any
single point observed was 6% of the maximum effect. This point
was situated at 8000 kg. and 75°; the discrepancy is almost entirely
due to the width of the i steresis loop. On changing from the curves
at constant temperature to those at constant pressure, readjustments
of as much as 4% were necessary. By a curious accident, the points
as first plotted at each pressure lay accurately on two ee lines,
intersecting at a negative temperature, the points at Oz; 257, and 50°
forming one group, ond those at 75° and 100° another. I thought at
first that this was due to a Seen transition, but a moment’s
consideration shows that a transition cannot produce a discontinuity
in the actual ordinates of a thermal e.m.f. curve, but only an abrupt
change in the direction. Such was not the case here. Zinc is also
one of the substances for which Cohen !° supposes polymorphic
transitions. His transition point is at 25°, whereas here evidence of
internal instability was found at every temperature above 0°.

Wagner found + 40 X 10°” volts per degree per kg. between 0°
and 100° at 300 kg. This is to be compared with 70 X 107” deduced
from the measurements above. The lack of agreement is not surpris-
ing in view of the hysteresis and its dependence on pressure. Wagner
found the same hysteresis effects as were noted above, and says that
the results are doubtful for this reason. With respect to this be-
havior he puts Zn and Cd in a class by themselves.

Magnesium. This was from the same piece of commercial magne-
sium as the resistance specimen, but was extruded at a different time
into wire 0.020 inch diameter. The specimen whose pressure coeffi-
cient of resistance had been measured was too small and too much
oxidized to use again. It was not annealed in the electric oven, as
were the other newly extruded wires, for fear of too great oxidation.

The thermal e.m.f. against lead at atmospheric pressure is very
small, and is given by the formulas:

E = (—0.095 t + 0.00004 t?) X 10° volts,

P = (—0.095 + 0.00008 t) (¢ + 273) X 10° volts,
o = 0.00008(¢ + 273) X 10° volts/°C.

10 EK, Cohen and W. D. Helderman, ZS. phys. Chem. 89, 742-747, 1915.

BRIDGMAN.

306

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Temperature

Magnesium

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Temperature
Magnesium

Temperature

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THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 307

TABLE XI.
MAGNESIUM.

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts X 10°.

Pressure, kg./cm.2

6000 8000 10000 12000
.30

2.59
3.89

|

mm OC Os]
“I @

IL
ie
2.1i

Je)
or Or

Prien et ss eo ey hey = |

or ot e Be W bO

TABLE XII.
MAGNESIUM.

Peltier heat, between uncompressed and compressed metal, Joules per conlomb
Sc 1Oe:

Pressure, kg./cm.2

6000 8000 10000 12000

—28.2 — 35.

38.

The effect of pressure on the Thomson heat is everywhere zero.

308 BRIDGMAN.

The pressure effect on thermal e.m.f. could be measured without
the sources of error which made the resistance measurements inaccu-
rate. It is very difficult to make good electrical connections to mag-
nesium, since it cannot be soldered, and any mechanical connection
encounters the resistance of the rapidly formed layer of oxide. Any
change of resistance introduces, however, no error in any potentio-
meter method of measuring e.m.f. like the present, so that it was
possible to make e.m.f. measurements over the entire range, as for any
other metal, whereas the resistance measurements could be made
only at 25°. More readings were made on magnesium than on other
metals because of irregularities in the earlier runs due to insufficient
stirring of the ice bath. The final runs were satisfactory. The maxi-
mum zero correction was 0.75% of the maximum effect and the
maximum divergence of any single observation from a smooth curve
was 3.1% of the maximum, but the average numerical departure was
only 0.22%. In passing from the curves at constant temperature to
those at constant pressure an adjustment of the 75° curve of 3% of
the maximum effect had to be made; elsewhere the readjustment was
very slight.

The numerical values are shown in Tables XI and XII and Figures
12 and 13. The e.m.f. is negative and comparatively large, rising to
nearly 13 X 10° volts at 100° and 12000 kg. The curves of e.mf.
at constant temperature against pressure are concave upwards, show-
ing an increasing proportional effect at higher pressures, contrary to
the normal behavior. At constant pressure, e.m.f. against tempera-
ture islinear. The Peltier heat is also negative, increasing numerically
with both temperature and pressure. The Thomson heat is unaffected
by pressure; this of course follows directly from the linearity of the
effect with temperature at constant pressure.

There are no other measurements for comparison.

Aluminum. The material was freshly extruded wire of 0.02 inch
diameter from the same rod as the wire on which the resistance meas-
urements were made. The original resistance wire was too small for
this purpose. The wire was annealed after extrusion by several
hours at 120° in an electric oven. The effects with aluminum were
so unusual that the measurements were repeated on a second speci-
men, this time of commercial wire. As purchased, this wire was
about js inch diameter; it was drawn down for this experiment through
steel dies to 0.0265 ice and annealed by HEE in boiling water
for about an hour.

The average temperature coefficient of resistance at atmospheric

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 309

pressure between 0° and 100° of the commercial aluminum was
0.004307. According to this test it would seem, therefore, only slightly
less pure than the pure aluminum from the American Aluminum Co. ;
its coefficient as found in the resistance paper was 0.00434. The
relation between resistance and temperature of commercial alumi-
num was sensibly linear.

At atmospheric pressure the thermo-electric behavior of pure
aluminum against lead is given by the formulas;

E = (—0.416t + 0.00008 #2—0.00001 #) X 10-6 volts,
P = (—0.416 + 0.00016 t—0.00003 #2) (t + 273) X 10° volts,
« = (0.00016 —0.00006 t) (¢ + 273) X 10° volts/°C.

For commercial aluminum the corresponding formulas are:
cod

E = (—0.378 t—0.00005 #? + 0.0000094 #3) & 10°° volts,
P = (—0.378—0.0001 ¢ + 0.0000282 ¢?) (t +- 273) & 10° volts,
og = (—0.0001 + 0.0000564 t) (f + 273) & 10° volts/°C.

The numerical values of the differences between the constants for these
two different specimens are small, thus bearing out the observation
on temperature coefficient.

Under pressure, the effects are more complicated, and for the most
part very small. It would not have been possible to carry through
these readings except for the perfect steadiness of the galvanometer,
allowing readings to be made to the limit of sensitiveness. This was
true both for the commercial and the purer samples. Wagner re-
marked also on the same behavior of his specimen. This is somewhat
surprising, because one would be inclined at first to explain the com-
plicated nature of the effects, which involves reversals of sign, by
assuming two modifications in varying proportions. But there was
no evidence whatever for any incompleteness of internal equilibrium;
if there is such an effect, the change of equilibrium must occur
immediately.

Measurements on the purer sample were made first. This was
exposed twice to 9000 kg. at room temperature, then the apparatus
taken apart to remedy a leak, and pressure then applied again twice
to 12000 at 25° before beginning readings. Regular runs were made
at 25°, 50°, and 75°, but at 95° the wire broke with increasing pressure,
evidently because the transmitting medium was too stiff, being one
half kerosene and one half ether, instead of entirely ether as usual.
It was set up again with a new piece of wire, a contiguous piece from
the same length as the first piece, and this was seasoned by two appli-

310 BRIDGMAN.

cations of 12000 kg. at room temperature. The point at 4000 with
this agreed with the point found with the other wire before it broke.
After the run at 95° with the new piece, another run with the new
piece was made at 63°. This fitted smoothly between the two runs

{

tt t He
18 Hh:
500:
L6F HH
14
+ tHE
ee 19000
x FE
g 10
°
=
8 HE
ee 000.
= |e
ny ORE
ee 6000:
E 4
ef +
2 : HE
et 2 : i 2 H- td ug ra ac ae : 5 ch a
0° 10° 20° 30° 40° «350° «60° «70° «480° ~««90°~—=«*.00°

Temperature
Pure Aluminum

Ficure 14. “Pure” Aluminum. Thermal E.M.F. of a couple composed
of one branch of uncompressed metal, the other of metal compressed to the
pressure indicated on the curves, the junctions being at 0°C and the tempera-
ture plotted as abscissae.

-

with the first specimen, so that we may be confident that no error
was introduced by changing pieces.

The experimental points with the purer aluminum lie smoothly.
The maximum zero correction was 1.5% of the maximum effect, the
maximum departure of any point from a smooth curve was 2% of

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. Sli

insee

Peltier Heat Volts, x10°

Sot
chet

rl
gaeu6 2 Sueesces
ry rrr at
= HEH etn eee Basnossces
4 0°

5

ae

5 mt
g° 20406 0eS OS aO0e 60° =80°—s «100° &
5

E

Temperature Temperature
Pure Aluminum

Figure 15. “Pure” Aluminum. On the left, the heat absorbed by unit
quantity of electricity in flowing from uncompressed metal to metal compressed
to the pressure indicated on the curves, as a function of temperature. On
the right, the excess of Thomson heat in metal compressed to the pressure
indicated on the curves over uncompressed metal, as a function of tempera-
ture.

TABLE XIII.
ALUMINUM (PURE).

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts & 10°.

Pressure, kg./cm.2

4000 6000 8000 10000

048 .068 .070 .076
.081 098 .098 .095
. 100 .114 .089 056
. 104 . 103 046 .030
.091 063 032 .158
.060 005 . 146 .328
.008 . 103 296 938
+ .066 231 .478 786
+ .166 .389 .689 .070
+ .294 O17 .929 384

a2 BRIDGMAN.

TABLE XIV.
ALUMINUM (PURE).

Peltier heat, between uncompressed and compressed metal, Joules per conlomb
y< Oe

Pressure, kg./cm.2

6000 8000 10000 12000

— 245 2. 86

Thomson heat, excess in compressed over uncompressed metal, Joules per conlomb
per -© >< 10%

Temp. Pressure, kg./cm.2

idee 2000 6000 8000 10000 12000

STaOr +10.8 selliice +20.9
15.3 18.8

16.9

16.1

17.0

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 313

the maximum effect, and the average departure from a smooth curve
was 1/2%. At the lower temperatures, 25° and 50°, where the effect
is very small and the curve passes through a flat minimum, the regu-
larity of the points is much greater. No adjustment whatever was
necessary in passing from the curves at constant temperature to those
at constant pressure. The numerical results are shown in Tables
XIII and XIV and Figures 14 and 15. The reversals in sign and the
maximum remind one of the behavior of tin, but a detailed examina-
tion shows many differences. The effect at 25° is small and negative
throughout the entire range, passing through a flat minimum of
about —0.1 X 10° volts at 6000 kg. At 50° the effect for the first
5000 kg. is much the same as at 25°, but above this it becomes rapidly
different, rising through zero and reaching + 0.3 X 10° volts at
12000 kg. At 75° the effect is positive for most of the range, and the
negative minimum has been pushed back to 1500 kg. At 100° the
curve probably starts out negative, but almost immediately reverses,
rising to 2 X 10° volts at 12000 kg. At all temperatures the curves
remain concave upwards. It is evident that no comparison between
these results and those of Wagner is possible, because he used only
one pressure, 300 kg., and one temperature interval. The effect he
found was very small and negative, —0.59 X 10°” volts per degree
per kg. Since the effect is changing so rapidly it is not safe to use
my results by interpolation in this region to find figures to compare
with his.

The behavior of the Peltier heat is on the whole simpler than that
of e.m.f. itself. The curves change sign and cross in a complicated
way, but there are no maxima or minima, and the curvature is slight.
The Thomson heat is still more simple; it is throughout positive.
At the lower temperatures it increases regularly with pressure, but
at the higher temperatures there is a rather complicated crossing of
the curves.

Measurements with commercial aluminum were made only at 25°,
50°, and 75°. I would have been glad to complete the series at 95°,
but after 75° the inside connection, which was merely wrapped,
pulled apart, and since the purpose of the readings with this specimen
was merely to see whether the effects were qualitatively the same, I
did not feel justified in taking the time to set up the apparatus again.
The wire was seasoned for the runs by a preliminary application of
12000 kg. at room temperature as usual. The results, as far as the
broad outlines go in which aluminum is so strikingly different from
other metals, were the same as for the purer specimen, but the numer-

314 BRIDGMAN.

ical details were very different. The values of e.m.f. are shown in
Table XV and Figure 16; the Peltier heat and the Thomson heat are
not given in detail. The effect is, as before, initially negative, the
curves of e.m.f. at constant temperature passing through a very flat

Volts. x10°

Thermal E. M. F.

=

td
ry Hi
i

Temperature
Commercial Aluminum

Ficure 16. Commercial Aluminum. Thermal E.M.F. of a couple com-
posed of one branch of uncompressed metal, the other compressed to the
pressure in kg./cm.? indicated on the curves, the junctions being at 0°C and
the temperature plotted as abscissae.

minimum and then rising. The pressure and the absolute value of
the minimum both decrease rapidly at higher temperatures. The
curves are throughout concave upwards. But at 25° the numerical
value at the minimum is only —0.03 X 10-6 against —0.1 X 10°¢ for

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 315

the purer material, and beyond the minimum the rise is much more
rapid, so that at 12000 kg. the e.m.f. has become -+-0.2 X 10%. This
change of sign was not found until 50° with the purer sample. In
general, the tendency towards positive values is much greater with
this specimen than with the purer material. At 75°, the e.m-f. is
1.7 X 10° at 12000 kg., against 1.0 X 10° of the purer. One is

tempted to generalize and say that the effect of increasing impurity

TABLE XV.
ALUMINUM (COMMERCIAL).

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts X 10°.

Temp. _ Pressure, kg./cm.2

Oilcerees 2000 6000 8000 10000

10° : : O17 .0: — .006

20 ; 0: : : + .050

30 : . 0: . 00: sR apo:

40

50

is to obliterate the peculiarities characteristic of aluminum itself and
make the behavior approach that of a normal metal.

The Peltier heat of the impurer metal is much like that of the purer,
but it passes through a greater range of values, from negative to
positive, and the curvature is not so uniform. The Thomson heat is
throughout positive, but much more.irregular. The range of values
is about the same as before, but there are maxima with respect to

316 BRIDGMAN.

temperature near 60° for all pressures above 2000 kg., and at 8000,
10000, and 12000 there are in addition minima near 30°.

Silver. The same wire was used as that on which the resistance
measurements were made. The silk insulation was removed to pre-
vent viscous drag by the transmitting fluid, and measurements were

SUSESSSE CEESEREESE ESERE SEES eee sees:

SE SSSCES CECT RE EEE PESSeeEees eeReeaES

SESROERS SESERERERS SERS E Sees eeeeEED’.
SRSEEES Peeees: Sone

ul

:
:

= ginsnsee ceettesinasss7caiit
= SH inaniercat nnn
is a HH iin

anti
= aN
=

a
ears
H

H
a |
Rt
IV +
AEE

seas
see

Titty
itr
titi

Thermal E. M. F
A

S2ESSREEER EES LEP
t8Beeeaees

ant freseseas! 58

Figure 17. Silver. Thermal E.M.F. of a couple composed of one branch of
uncompressed metal, the other compressed to the pressure indicated on the
curves, the junctions being at 0°C and the temperature plotted as abscissae.

made on five strands in parallel. The use of strands in parallel
has several advantages; it reduces viscous drag, reduces danger-of
breakage during handling (the wire was 0.003 inch in diameter), and
reduces the resistance of the circuit so that the galvanometer is more
sensitive.

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 317

10S
x
: Bag
= 2
x : Ey
> E g
44
Fj >
= i
3 az
a . = Q.€
0° 20° 40 rp 100 s
Temperature Temperature =

Silver

Ficure 18. Silver. On the left, the heat absorbed by unit quantity of
electricity in flowing from uncompressed metal to metal compressed to the
pressure indicated on the curves, as a function of temperature. On the right,
the excess of Thomson heat in metal compressed to the pressure indicated on
the curves over uncompressed metal, as a function of temperature.

TABLE XVI.
SILVER.

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts X 10°.

Pressure, kg. i cm.?
6000 8000

48
AF
48
OG
54
10
67
.26
87
49

63
28
95
64
35
OS
83
.60
38
Ske

-f-

1
2
2.

H= He Co W
Ay Ea ges PS Con ke) ee coIR

WwWwWNwN Nw = =
1c

on

318 BRIDGMAN.

TABLE XVII.
SILVER.

Peltier heat, between uncompressed and compressed metal, Joules per conlomb

X 10°.

Temp. Pressure, kg./com.2

C degrees 6000 8000 10000 12000

0° 3h ag +12.9 +16.9 2.6 +25.3

20 : : 14.6 3 24. 28.5

32.1

Thomson heat, excess in compressed over uncompressed metal, Joules per conlomb

per °C X 108.

Temp. Pressure, kg./om.2

C deg
Saree 6000 8000

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 319

The thermo-electric behavior at atmospheric pressure against lead
is given by the formulas:
E = (2.556¢ + 0.00432 #2) X 10° volts,
P = (2.556 + 0.00864 t) (t + 273) X 10° volts,
o = 0.00864(¢ + 273) 10° volts/°C.

For the pressure measurements it was seasoned in the regular way
by two applications of 12000 kg. at room temperature. The readings
under pressure went perfectly smoothly, without incident of any sort.
The maximum zero correction was at 98°, 0.7% of the maximum effect;
there was only one bad point, at 10000 kg. and 75°, where there was
a discrepancy of 2.5%. Except for this, the maximum departure of
any point was 1.2%, and the average arithmetical departure from a
smooth curve was only 0.11%. In changing from the curves at con-
stant temperature to those at constant pressure the maximum read-
justment necessary was 0.3%.

The numerical results are shown in Tables XVI and XVII and
Figures 17 and 18. At constant temperature the curves of e.m.f.
against pressure are concave toward the pressure axis, which is what
one would expect. At constant pressure, on the other hand, the curves
are convex toward the pressure axis. The e.m.f. is positive and in-
creases regularly with pressure and temperature. The Peltier heat
is positive and increases regularly with pressure and temperature.
The Thomson heat is also positive; it increases with rising pressure,
and at any constant pressure is proportional to the absolute tempera-
ture.

Wagner gives up to 300 kg. and between 0° and 100° + 8.7 X 10°”
volts per degree per kg., against 9.3 X 10°” interpolated from the
data above.

Gold. This was the same piece of wire whose resistance was meas-
ured under pressure. It was used bare, in parallel strands. ‘The runs
at 25°, 50°, and 75° were with four strands, but at 97° two only were
used because the other two had been accidentally broken during
manipulation.

The thermo-electric behavior at atmospheric pressure against
lead is given by the formulas:

E = (2.899 + 0.00467 2—0.00000166 1?) X 10° volts,
P = (2.899 + 0.00934 t—0.00000498 #2) (t + 273) X 10-® volts,
« = (0.00934 t—0.00000996 t) (t + 273) X 10° volts/°C.

The manipulation demanded by the pressure measurements was
difficult because of the great fragility of the wire, which was only

320 BRIDGMAN.

S
x
e]
<)
>
In
=
a
os
5
=
ols HA He SEEngge Ey SSscaseessseeseeze
02 V 10° 202" 307 40? 60° 70° 80° 90° 100
Temperature
Gold

Ficure 19. Gold. Thermal E.M.F. of a couple composed of one branch
of uncompressed metal, the other at the pressure in kg./cm.? indicated on
the curves, the junctions being at 0°C and the temperature plotted as abscissae.

S

x

S BU

i é

g 4 bo

a) 6-3

0000

= BE 3

3 H H H Le 4 oe

o Hitt ce)

ay Ar ara)

y oat 140 >
© H Sanusee

* era =

SU SECEERESES EES ers iciss g

0 40° 60° 0° Z

Temperature - Temperature 9

Gold =

Ficure 20. Gold. On the left, the heat absorbed by unit quantity of
electricity in flowing from uncompressed metal to metal compressed to the
pressure indicated on the curves, as a function of temperature. On the right,
the excess of Thomson heat in metal compressed to the pressure indicated on
the curves over uncompressed metal, as a function of temperature.

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. oot

0.004 inch in diameter. Before the runs the wire was seasoned by a
single application of 12000 kg. at room temperature. At the first
run at 25° all four strands broke at the lower end above 8000 kg.,
possibly due to cutting by the glass insulating covering during the
small motion necessarily incident to change of pressure. The appara-
tus was set up again, and three runs successfully made at 25°, 50°,
and 75°, but after 75° two of the strands broke, because of imperfect
functioning of the bye-pass on release of pressure, and the run at 97°
was made with the remaining two strands.

The measurements of e.m.f. were regular and satisfactory. Equili-

TABLE XVIII.
GoLp.

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts * 10°.

Temp. Pressure, kg./ cm.?2

ECs 500 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

10° + .080 + - 162 + .242 O27 411 485
20 ; 33d .498 .670 : .990
30 ; .o14 767 .028 .515
40 x .705 .402 061
50 A .905 noi 627
60 : 115 2.196 .213
70 - 304 617 .819
80 : 563 3.054 446
90 : .802 3.506 .093

2.051 3.974 .760

++

1
ae
2.

WNW nN KF KK Re
Or Or BR GW CO

brium was rapidly reached, and there was no unsteadiness or other
evidence of internal instability. The maximum departure of any
observed point from a smooth curve was 1.3% of the maximum effect,
and the average arithmetical departure was 0.2%. The maximum
readjustment necessary in passing from curves at constant tempera-
ture to those at constant pressure was 0.86%.

The numerical values are shown in Tables XVIII and XIX and
Figures 19 and 20. The e.m.f. is positive, increasing regularly with
pressure and temperature to 5.76 X 10° volts at 100° and 12000 kg.

322 BRIDGMAN.

TAB xa
GoLp.

Peltier heat, between uncompressed and compressed metal, Joules per conlomb
X< 10.

Temp. Pressure, kg./cm.?

C degrees 6000 8000

+6.4 +8.

10.:

Mi.

13.

15.

tie

Thomson heat, excess in compressed over uncompressed metal, Joules per conlomb
per. °C, x 10%

Temp. Pressure, kg./ cm.2

C degrees 4000 6000 8000 12000

FP els. 3.7 aC ‘ +-o.¢

323

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE.
This was electrolytic copper from the same length of

Wagner found between 0° and 100° and up to 300 kg. + 4.6 X 10°?
volts per degree per kg. The value indicated by interpolation of the

data above is 5.3 X 10°”.

Copper.
wire as that whose resistance was measured under pressure, but not

The pressure effects on Peltier heat and Thomson heat are both
positive, and both increase regularly with pressure and temperature.

At constant pressure the Thomson heat is proportional to absolute

temperature.

9

/em.22

the junctions being 0°C and the temperature plotted

°

SSF ise, eeeeeeseene.wenee:

ranch

oe a
en BES0R VeRnG
Coo

sure in kg.

Temperature

‘Copper

M.F. of a couple composed of one b

It was drawn down to 0.028 inch in

diameter through steel dies, annealed to redness, and the surface

the other compressed to the pres

777 + 0.009661) (t + 273) X 10° volts,

2.777 t + 0.00483 t?) X 10° volts,
.00966(t + 273) X 10° volts/°C.

At atmospheric pressure its thermo-electric behavior against lead

ea
3
q ; K
el o
o co Q,
po -_ = ee
a 2 a, 3
= “~ o> O'S
— ~ © ‘a
gf GREE
BEE Sa Hod
= 5 D @ oy em
oO ay ©
SHEEEITSTREnTeHToesrnteeetose! eo) Se Ss nc
ecsussees cesenacecs ceesssseneceacae Ay a
sensssesccsrsssssccscsrnsecs Dg 3) >, i
el auseegseaeeeneegueeonascne a a a N 5 fo} g ee] ee Q \| ll
9) Baue 8 SSS. RAS
on a AN = = . Bo 2's ae z 5
‘ . * oO Os] = -
01k SPA SSWCAar ert e 5.e's 7 ee ae
O-.n & ~ I =

324. BRIDGMAN.

This electrolytic copper did not differ greatly in thermo-electric
properties from commercial copper. The thermal e.m.f. of electro-
lytic against commercial copper was found to be given by the ex-
pression:

E = (0.034681 + 0.0000133 #2) X 107 volts. _

The measurements under pressure went satisfactorily, but the re-
sults were somewhat more irregular than usual because of the smallness

16
14 7
000 2,
12 i Gis
= : )
10 AEH S g
a GAA o
> za oT
a wpa 4 3
3 f 0
= 00 ENN 2
~ 6 : 3S
oO
B= eat 10000
+ NN04m ip t ~
a4 24000" 18000 28
H : a5
: S
2 Z 13
+ seugeas +40 008TH: i)
0? 20° 40?» “60? e802 OOS 20° 40° > S608 “eo 00
Temperature Temperature

Copper

Figure 22. Copper. On the left, the heat absorbed by unit quantity of
electricity in flowing from uncompressed metal to metal compressed to the
pressure indicated on the curves, as a function of temperature. On the right,
the excess of Thomson heat in metal compressed to the pressure indicated on
the curves over uncompressed metal, as a function of temperature.

of the effect. The maximum zero correction was 1.5% of the maxi-
mum effect; this was also the maximum departure of any point from
a smooth curve. The average arithmetical departure of all the ob-
served points from a smooth curve was 0.31%. The maximum read-
justment necessary in passing from the constant temperature to the
constant pressure curves was 0.8%.

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. — 320

The numerical results are shown in Tables XX and XXI and
Figures 21 and 22. At constant temperature the e.m.f. curves are
nearly linear, but are slightly concave toward the pressure axis, as
is natural. At constant pressure the e.m.f. curves are convex toward
the temperature axis. The thermal e.m.f. is positive, rises regularly
with pressure and temperature to 3.546 X 10° volts at 100° and 12000
kg. The Peltier heat is positive and rises with pressure and tempera-
ture. The Thomson heat is zero at the lower pressures, becomes

‘RAS EB eXexe
CoppPER.

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts X 10°.

Temp. Pressure, kg. / cm.2
C degrees

4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

+ .110 + .154 + .206 + .244 + .288
224 .318 .424 .506 .596
340 .490 .650 784 .918
.460 .668 884 .072
.980 852 124 302
.700 .038 370 .678
822 .226 .620 .994
.946 418 .876 318

1.076 .624 142 654
1.216 .828 .420 004

WN NWN — =
Boe

NNR Re eR
WwWnn Ree

oO

positive at the higher, and at each constant pressure passes through
a minimum with rising temperature.

The value found by Wagner between 0° and 100° at 300 kg. was
+ 3.2 X 10°” volts per degree per kg. against 2.9 X 10- indicated
by interpolation of the data above.

Copper is one of the metals for which Cohen! finds allotropic
forms. No evidence of this has been found by Burgess and Kell-
berg,/? however, from measurements of electrical resistance, and my
thermal e.m.f. measurements above also suggest nothing of the kind.

11 E. Cohen and W. D. Helderman, ZS. phys. Chem. 89, 638-639, 1915.
12 G. K. Burgess and I. N. Kellberg, Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 5, 657-662,
1915.

326 BRIDGMAN.

TABLE XXI.
COPPER.

Peltier heat, between uncompressed and compressed metal, Joules per conlomb
x< 0

Pressure, kg./em2

6000 8000 10000 12000

Thomson heat, excess in compressed over uncompressed metal, Joules per conlomb
per °C X 103:

Pressure, kg./cm.?

6000 8000

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 327

Nickel. This was the same piece of wire as that whose resistance
under pressure was measured. The insulation was stripped, and it
was used in five parallel strands of bare wire. The points obtained
are not as regular as could be desired because of failure of the tempera-

Volts, x10°

Thermal E. M. F

va

HH z fe
- pee siieeeead
speeatcepustes ceeaiae tact

a! y > |
HE itiat
sshitses

Figure 23. Nickel. Thermal E.M.F. of a couple composed of one branch
of uncompressed metal, the other compressed to the pressure in kg./cem.?
indicated on the curves, one junction being at 0°C and the other at the tempera-
ture plotted as abscissae.

ture regulator to work perfectly. The regulator was cleaned after
these runs, and was again perfectly satisfactory. It did not seem
worth while to repeat the runs on nickel for the sake of the slightly
greater obtainable accuracy.

328 BRIDGMAN.

At atmospheric pressure the thermal behavior against lead is
given by formulas:

E = (—17.61t—0.0178 #2) X 107 volts,

P = (—17.61 —0.0356 t) (t + 273) X 10° volts,
« = —0.0356(t + 273) X 10° volts/°C.

The measurements under pressure went without incident except
for somewhat greater irregularities than usual due to imperfection

16
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0° 20° 40° = 60” = 80" s« 100° = 20° 40° 60° BO" FOU
Temperature Temperature
Nickel

Ficure 24. Nickel. On the left, the heat absorbed by unit quantity of
electricity in flowing from uncompressed metal to metal compressed to the
pressure indicate on the curves, as a function of temperature. On the right,
the excess of Thomson heat in metal compressed to the pressure indicated on
the curves over uncompressed metal, as a function of temperature.

of temperature control already mentioned. The pressure manipula-
tion of this substance was a matter of some difficulty, because tempo-
rary effects due to elastic drag are easy to get. There was no evidence
of incomplete internal equilibrium. The maximum zero correction
was 1% of the total effect, and the maximum departure of any single

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 329

observed point from a smooth curve was 3.6%, and the average
arithmetical departure 0.72%. The maximum adjustment in passing
from constant temperature to constant pressure curves was 2.3%.
The numerical results are shown in Figures 23 and 24 and Tables
XXII and XXIII. At constant temperature the e.m.f. curves are
convex toward the pressure axis, which is unusual, but at constant
pressure the curvature is convex toward the temperature axis, as is
normal. The e.m.f. is positive, increasing regularly with pressure
and temperature to 11.4 X 10° volts at 100° and 12000 kg., but it is

TABLE XXI1.
NICKEL.

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts & 10°.

Temp. Pressure ,kg. if} cm.?
C degrees

4000 6000 8000

56

+

10° wy + .27
20 25
30
40
50
60
70
80
90

100

oP WW Re

NWN HH =
bos er)

1°)

aes Gn ks 6) OU LG (ae

oe WW WN eS

ww
le)

not as large as one would expect from the thermo-electric activity
of nickel against other metals at atmospheric pressure. The Peltier
heat is positive, increasing with pressure and temperature. The
Thomson heat is also positive, but at low pressures it passes through
a minimum with rising temperature and at high pressures it decreases
over the entire range with increasing temperature.

Wagner’s value up to 300 kg. between 0° and 100° is + 9.6 K 10°”
volts per degree per kg. against 8.4 interpolated from the data above.
The difference may well be due at least in part to insufficient purity
of my specimen.

330 BRIDGMAN.

TABLE XXIII.
NICKEL.

Peltier heat, from uncompressed to compressed metal, Joules per conlomb X 10°.

Pressure, kg./cm.2

4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
faite al sielOng
8.5

10.2

Thomson heat, excess in compressed over uncompressed metal, Joules per conlomb

per °C X 10%

Temp. Pressure, kg. / em.2

Oidesnees 5000 4000 6000 000 10000 12000

Oe +4.4 +4.6 Spisie a7 ils). +13.6 +16.

20 2. 5.0 ee ac 3. 16.

40 : : Ma 9. : 16.:

60

80

an in ete a ine hl

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 331

Cobalt. This was from the same length as the resistance specimen,
but was not the identical piece. Part of this wire had not been previ-
ously annealed, and it was therefore annealed before these runs
exactly as was the resistance piece. Five strands in parallel were

20
l
:
16
S 14 :
x anes,
5 10000
£12 ;
C) tH :
ce : Ht Z
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E 6 H PE sees He ait
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tet steaseacescastet os Beat in Ht
0 - — — espipeiee pasueses, aati aie 5
Deci0 20 one AD 50) G02" 70% 80° 90° FID:
Temperature
Cobalt

Ficure 25. Cobalt. Thermal E.M.F. of a couple composed of one branch
of uncompressed metal, the other compressed to the pressure in kg./em.?
indicated on the curves, the junctions being at 0°C and the temperature
plotted as abscissae.

used, insulated as usual with short pieces of glass. The wire is more
inhomogeneous than most of the other metals, as was shown by the
rather large permanent zero effect, which was two or three times
larger than the total pressure effect. However, the permanent zero
remained so constant that fairly good measurements could be obtained.

332 BRIDGMAN.

aaa esses jessgesssseenee
Hae H

at i i
1 Hees

tO}, 241

ageenseses

i
wn

Thomson Heat Volts per degre

Peltier Heat Volts, X10°

rasa

—- 20FR- ena Sceses
i ait FEE O( 0:
Hl a # a

Xe)

100” 20° 40° 60° 00

Temperature Temperature

Cobalt

Figure 26. Cobalt. On the left, the heat absorbed by unit quantity of
electricity in flowing from uncompressed metal to metal compressed to the
pressure indicate on the curves, as a function of temperature. On the right,
the excess of Thomson heat in metal compressed to the pressure indicated on
the curves over uncompressed metal, as a function of temperature.

TAB Re xexch Ve
CoBALT.

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts * 10°.

pee
Pressure, kg./cm.?

2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

SNUG =I,
2.37
3.63

bo
bo

Oo on

op)
Ore WW hd
Goren Go by

Ce Ot Tse

WwWNnN nN KEK KF
>_ Op ww

—
(0)

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. OOD

TABLE XXV.
COBALT.

Peltier heat, between uncompressed and compressed metal, Joules per conlomb

x 10°.

Temp. Pressure, kg./cm.2

—— 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

=i led 22. —30.8 —38.é — 45.9

36.

41.6

Thomson heat, excess in compressed over uncompressed metal, Joules per conlomb

aloe:

Temp. Pressure, kg./cm.2

C degrees 6990 8000 10000 12000

—13.9 58 —16.

18.:

334 BRIDGMAN.

At atmospheric pressure the thermal electric behavior against lead
is given by the formulas:

E = (—17.32 t—0.0390 #?) & 10° volts,
P = (—17.32 —0.078 t) (t + 273) X 10° volts,
o = —0.078(¢ + 273) X 10° volts/°C.

For the pressure measurements it was seasoned twice at room
temperature to 12000 kg. Successful runs were made at 25°, 50°, 75°,
and 97°. At 97° the zero was displaced by an unusually large amount
after the run. This displacement apparently had no connection with
the other readings, and was probably accidental; this point was
discarded. Except for this point, the maximum zero correction was
1.5%, of the total effect, the maximum departure of any point from a
smooth curve was 4.5%, and the average arithmetical departure
0.81%. The maximum readjustment in going from curves at con-
stant temperature to those at constant pressure was 1%.

The numerical results are shown in Tables XXIV and XXV and
Figures 25 and 26. The effect is negative and large, increasing regu-
larly with pressure and temperature to —20.61 X 10° at 12000 kg.
and 100°. The Peltier heat is negative, increasing in magnitude
with pressure and temperature. The Thomson heat is also negative,
in general increasing in magnitude with pressure and temperature,
but at the highest temperature it passes through a pressure minimum
near 8000 kg.

There are no previous results for comparison. Cobalt has the
largest negative effect of any metal measured. One would expect
anomalies because of the unusually large Thomson heat at atmos-
pheric pressure.

Iron. Three different samples of iron were used; the effects were
complicated as for tin and aluminum, and it therefore seemed desirable
to find how the effect varied with different material. The first sample
was of American Ingot Iron, from the same piece as that of the re-
sistance measurements under pressure. It was drawn down to
0.020 inch diameter, and annealed to redness in the air. Except for
the difference of diameter, this was the same treatment as the resist-
ance specimen received. Another specimen of the same wire was
used, but it was left unannealed after drawing from 0.017 to 0.0105
inches in diameter. Its average temperature coefficient between 0°
and 100° at atmospheric pressure was 0.006080, against 0.006206 for
the same material when annealed. The third specimen was a com-
mercial soft iron wire such as is used for binding hay bales ete. It

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. oon

was drawn from 0.06 to 0.03 inches diameter, and annealed to redness
after the final drawing. The commercial wire must have been of
unusual purity, because the average temperature coefficient of re-
sistance at atmospheric pressure between 0° and 100° had the high
value 0.00596, and its resistance shows the same striking departure
from linearity with temperature as does the pure iron.

At atmospheric pressure the thermal electric behavior of these
various specimens against lead is given by the following formulas.
Ingot iron, annealed,

E = (16.181—0.0089 #2—0.000086 #3) X 10° volts,
P = (16.18 —0.0178 ¢ —0.000258 #2) (t + 273) X 1076 volts,
« = (—0.0178—0.000516 t) (t + 273) X 10° volts/°C.

Ingot iron, hard drawn,

E = (15.92 t—0.0106 #—0.000056 #2) X 10° volts,
P = (15.92 —0.0212¢ —0.000168 #2) (¢ + 273) X 10° volts,
o = (—0.0212—0.000336 t) (t + 273) X 10° volts/°C.

Commercial iron, annealed,

E = (16.56 t—0.0033 #?— 0.000122 #8) X 10° volts,
P = (16.56 —0.0066 ¢ —0.000366 2?) (¢ + 273) X 10° volts,
o« = (—0.0066—0.000732 t) (f + 273) X 10° volts/°C.

The behavior of these different specimens is therefore not unlike.

Under pressure, each specimen was subjected to the same treat-
ment. They were seasoned twice by applications of 12000 kg. at
room temperature, and runs were then made as usual at 25°, 50°, 75°,
and 95°. The behavior of all was qualitatively the same, with numer-
ical differences. A longer time than normal was always required to
reach steady readings, and there were rather large irregularities,
suggesting that all three samples were in a state of incomplete internal
equilibrium. This is what would be expected from the behavior of
iron in other particulars.

Of course the greatest interest attaches to the annealed ingot iron,
this approaching most closely to pure iron in a state of complete ease.
Even this shows much hysteresis, which increases greatly at the higher
temperatures. At 25°, the e.m.f. is negative throughout, and is small.
For the first 4000 kg. the curve is exceedingly flat, and hugs the axis
closely. The curvature is downward, the negative effect increasing
numerically by larger fractions of itself for equal pressure increments
at the higher pressures. At 25° the hysteresis is one eighth of the

336 BRIDGMAN

total effect at 25°. At 50° the e.m.f. is throughout positive, but the
direction of curvature is the same as at 25°, which allows a maximum
at about 6000 kg. The effect at 50° does not at its maximum attain
one half the numerical value at 25°, and the hysteresis at 50° is one
third the total effect at 50°. At 75° the effect is much larger; the
curvature is the same, and the maximum has disappeared. The
indications are that there is a maximum at some much higher pressure

EEE SBBees!

H rr TTT HE
ereriasesese?
HH jai

Thermal E. M. F.
esas

Po A ‘

.
snyera nas
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4 aca

ae

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i
307) 40") 1 150°) WG0P
Temperature

Pure [ron Annealed

Oo
c

Figure 27. American Ingot Iron, Annealed. Thermal E.M.F. of a couple
composed of one branch of uncompressed metal, the other compressed to the
pressure in kg./em.” indicated on the curves, the junctions being at 0°C and
the temperature plotted as abscissae.

than 12000 kg. The hysteresis at 75° is 12% of the maximum at 75°.
At 75° and 50° the hysteresis is abnormal in direction, being a hasten-
ing forward instead of a lagging behind. It should properly not be
called a hysteresis at all; and must be due to a different kind of failure
of internal equilibrium from the ordinary effect. At 99° the character
of the curve is the same as at 75°; the greatest e.m.f. is twice that at

oT

5)

«
t

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE.

75°, and the hysteresis is about the same fraction of itself, but is in

the normal direction.

No readjustment was necessary in passing

from the constant temperature to the constant pressure curves.

OLX °D ee18ep sed syoA = Tea} {_- UOSUIOY |,

Pee Eee eet

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Beet

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gussstese esses 2 , SECS GGGReE Reeeees!

roo
SEGSG8 seeneceueeses — Sas
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SSS

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0
a
.
ie
is
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oo
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4
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ry
ry

Temperature

Temperature

Pure Iron Annealed

On the left, the heat ab-

from uncompressed metal to

antity of electricity in flowing
On the right, the excess of Thomson heat in metal compressed

to the pressure indicated on the curves over uncompressed metal, as a function

of temperature.

American Ingot Iron, Annealed.

38.
sorbed by unit qu

FIGURE 2
metal compressed to the pressure indicated on the curves, as a function of

temperature.

The numerical results are shown in Tables XXVI and XXVII and

Figures

and 28. The Peltier heat is at first negative at all pressures,

fi

2

becomes positive with increasing temperature, passes through a posi-
es

338 BRIDGMAN.

tive maximum and decreases. The behavior of the Thomson heat is
complicated. On the whole the course is, at every pressure, from
positive values at 0° to negative values at 100°, but near 40° the
normal course is arrested, the effect reversing in direction and passing
through a maximum between 50° and 60°, and then resuming its fall
to negative values.

It will not pay to go into the behavior of the other two specimens in
such detail. Tables and diagrams are given showing the e.m.f. but
not the Peltier and the Thomson heats. Both showed qualitatively
the same behavior as the pure specimen; the effect was negative at

TABLE XXVI.
Iron (Purr, ANNEALED).

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts * 10°.

Temp. Pressure, kg. /cm.2
C degrees

6000 8000 10000

10°
20
30
40
50
60
70

90

nawnwe tt |

low temperatures (plotted against pressure), rising to normally high
positive values at 100°. The direction of curvature is the same as
for the annealed iron, but the anomaly in direction of hysteresis was
not repeated. The hysteresis effects were of about the same magni-
tude as for the first specimen, except that at 95° the hard drawn
specimen showed large permanent changes. This is not surprising.
The numerical values of thermal e.m.f. against temperature at con-
stant pressure are plotted in Figures 29 and 30. At low temperature
all three sets of curves for the three specimens are alike, but between
75° and 100° the hard drawn and the commercial iron do not show the

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 339

TABLE XXVII.
Iron (PurRE, ANNEALED).

Peltier heat, between uncompressed and compressed metal, Joules per conlomb
ole

Pressure, kg./cm.2

6000 8000 10000

= 11(0)-8) = =—23.3

ar Pe ap du!

+13.8

34.0

44.5

23.1

Thomson heat, excess in compressed over uncompressed metal, Joules per conlomb
per 5 © 110

Pressure, kg./cem.2

6000 8000

ar 8). +120.

56. 2.

Sile

79.

340 BRIDGMAN.

reversal in direction of curvature that the annealed iron does. The
numerical values are also very different. At 100° and 12000 kg. the
thermal e.m.f. of soft ingot iron is 7.68 X 10°, of hard drawn ingot
iron 12.80, and of annealed commercial iron 9.56. The mechanical
treatment apparently makes more difference than slight differences
in chemical composition.

It is not worth while to give the Peltier and Thomson heats of these
two other specimens; if any one is especially interested they may be

Volts, X10°

Thermal E. M. F

ee |

ee
Pure lron Hard Drawn

Ficure 29. American Ingot Iron, Hard Drawn. Thermal E.M.F. of a
couple composed of one branch of uncompressed metal, the other compressed
to the pressure in kg./em.? indicated on the curves, the junctions being at
0°C and the temperature plotted as abscissae.

obtained by calculation from the curves, or I will be glad personally
to send him the figures. The general character of the effects is quite
different from that of the annealed pure iron, due to the reversal in
curvature of pure iron between 75° and 100° already mentioned.
The Peltier heat of both of these specimens rises from initial negative
values to high positive values. The general course of the Thomson
heat is from low to high positive values with rising pressure and
temperature, but both specimens show minima near 40°.

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 341

Previous measurements by Wagner were only to 300 kg. and from
0° to 100°. Of course he could not suspect the complicated actual
state of affairs, and comparison of our results is of little use. He

Volts, X10°

Thermal E. M. F.

40° 50° 60°
Temperature
Commercial Iron Annealed

Ficure 30. Commercial Iron, Annealed. Thermal E.M.F. of a couple
composed of one branch of uncompressed metal, the other compressed to the
pressure in kg./em.? indicated on the curves, the junctions being at 0°C and
the temperature plotted as abscissae.

found + 12.5 X 10°” volts per degree per kg. against + 8.3 & 107%
interpolated from the data above for annealed pure iron. His value
would correspond more with my value for the hard drawn specimen.

342 BRIDGMAN.

TABLE XXVIII.
Iron (Purge, Harp-pRAwn).

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts < 10°.

Pressure, kg./cm.2

6000 8000 10000

a4! 30
24 45
sees 36
21 .02
74

TABLE XXIX.
Iron (COMMERCIAL).

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts X 10°.

Temp. Pressure, kg./cem.2

SCE 6000 8000

43
54
30
10
86
.85
.20
5.11

a

wm Oo DD WwW bo

_

10° : : ey 130
20 0: . 26 .50
30 : : 2d 42
40 elt
50

bo
bo

on)

70

wmanwnonbs

CO Or or bo

wos
o<

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 343 —

Palladium. This was the same piece of wire whose pressure coeffi-
cient of resistance was measured. The silk insulation was removed,
and it was used in three parallel strands; there was not enough
material at hand to use more than three strands. More trouble
from breakage was found with this substance than with any other.
Twice during the runs it broke, and the apparatus had to be taken
apart and set up again. Fortunately the breaks occurred at the end
of the wire, so that it was sufficient merely to resolder them. The
breakage was probably intimately connected with the small size of
the wire and the small number of strands. Much care had to be

2
x
zt:
}°
>
Le
=
aa
so
E
=
os mt
60° 90° —:100°
Temperature
Palladium

Freure 31. Palladium. Thermal E.M.F. of a couple composed of one
branch of uncompressed metal, the other compressed to the pressure in
kg./em.2 indicated on the curves, the junctions being at 0°C and the tempera-
ture plotted as abscissae.

taken to so manipulate the pressure as to avoid tension effects from
viscous drag.

At atmospheric pressure its thermo-electric behavior against lead
is given by the formulas:

E = (—5.496 t—0.01760 t?) X 10° volts,
P = (—5.496 —0.0352 t) (t + 273) X 10° volts,
o = —0.0352(¢ + 273) X 10° volts/°C.

The readings under pressure went smoothly, except for the two
breaks mentioned. The irregularities were somewhat greater than
normal; probably the effect of viscous drag was not entirely elimi-

344 BRIDGMAN.

oO
(1
oO

@

a

>

i)
i=)

Peltier Heat Volts, x10°

H
apeee

Saiitreaiiits He

L p

sggesecseepe puaces suaeseeeescessbonei sss
SESgesgostsesess SSSSeeee eeeegeee eeeeeeaee tta¥da SESE! (9)
60° =80° =—100° «20° = 40° 60° B.—s«SL:002
Temperature Temperature

Palladium

Figure 32. Palladium. On the left, the heat absorbed by unit quantity
of electricity in flowing from uncompressed metal to metal compressed to the
pressure indicated on the curves, as a function of temperature. On the right,
the excess of Thomson heat in metal compressed to the pressure indicated on
the curves over uncompressed metal, as a function of temperature.

Thomson Heat Volts per degree C, X10°

TABLE XXX.

PALLADIUM.

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts * 10°.

Temp. | Pressure, kg./om.2

Cdegrees| sno 4990 6000 8000 10000 12000

10° 88 +1.28 1.66 +2.10 | +2.53
DO hw RES . 2.57 :
30 ee 2.64 3.87

40 te mae 5.18
: 40 )

-28

O4

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 345

TRA BIGB Sexo:
PALLADIUM.

Peltier heat, between uncompressed and compressed metal, Joules per conlomb

Sais:

Temp. Pressure, kg./cem.2
aa 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

04.9 +46 .0 ara. 7 +68 .:

Belo ll 50.5 62.

41. 04.8 68.8

44.6 59.4 74.6

64.2 80.:

69.0

Thomson heat, excess in compressed over uncompressed metal, Joules per conlomb
per °C X 108.

Temp. Pressure, kg./cm.2

SEs 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

0° 0 =o) +4.: Ee +9.3

9.4

9.1

346 BRIDGMAN.

nated. The zero corrections were negligible; the maximum devia-
tion of any single reading from a smooth curve was 3% of the total
effect, and the average numerical departure was 0.47%. The maxi-
mum readjustment in passing from constant temperature to constant
pressure curves was 0.27%.

The numerical results are shown in Tables XXX and XXXI and
Figures 31 and 32. Both at constant pressure and constant tempera-
ture the e.m.f. curves are nearly linear. The e.m.f. is positive and one
of the largest found, rising to 26.5 X 10° volts at 100° and 12000 kg.
The Peltier heat is positive, rising regularly with pressure and tempera-
ture. The Thomson heat above 5000 kg. is positive, falling with
rising temperature at the higher pressures and rising at the lower
pressures. Below 5000 kg. it is approximately zero.

The value given by Wagner at 300 kg. between 0° and 100° was
+23.7 X 10°” volts per degree per kg. against 21.9 X 10°” inter-
polated from the data above.

Platinum. Readings were made on the same piece of Heraeus
platinum, loaned by Professor H. N. Davis, as were the resistance
measurements under pressure. I wanted to procure especially good
data for platinum, because so much work has been done on its other
physical properties, but unfortunately the results are among the most
unsatisfactory. The piece was so short that only one strand could be
used, and even then an especial procedure had to be adopted to make
the outside connections. Furthermore, the wire had been previously
used for a resistance thermometer, wound on a small mica frame, and
it was consequently full of small tortuosities which could not be re-
moved without danger of altering the properties of the wire. The
roughness of the wire and its small size conspired to make the tension
effects of viscous drag particularly high. The same effect was re-
sponsible for the wire breaking during the application of seasoning
pressure at room temperature. It was fused together again by arcing.
The viscous drag might give rise to an error of as much as 20% in
the total effect, but this can be very greatly cut down by careful
manipulation.

In addition to the measurements on Heraeus platinum, a complete
series of readings was also made on an impurer sample from Baker.
The pressure effect on the-resistance of this has also been measured
previously. This wire was used bare, four strands in parallel. No
such trouble was found from viscous drag as with Heraeus platinum,
and the results were considerably more satisfactory.

At atmospheric pressure the thermo-electric behavior of the two
grades of platinum against lead is given by the following formulas.

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 347

Heraeus platinum:
) = (—3.092 t—0.01334 t?) X 10° volts,
P = (—3.092 —0.02668 t) (t + 273) X 10° volts,
o = —0.02668(4 + 273) X 10° volts/°C.
Baker’s platinum:
= (—1.788t—0.0173 # + 0.000042 #8) X 10° volts,

oe (—1.788 —0.0346t + 0.000126 #2) (t + 273) X 10° volts,
« = (—0.0346 — 0.000252 #) (t + 273) X 10° volts/°C.

Thermal E. M. F.

He ad
WZ SHE HELE HEHE EET! i HE
OP a 02 207 30° Age. ~ 50° 60° 70° 80° 30° 100°
Temperature

Pure Platinum

Figure 33. Heraeus Platinum. Thermal E.M.F. of a couple composed
of one branch of uncompressed metal, the other compressed to the pressure
in kg./cem 2 indicated on the curves, the junctions being at 0°C and the tempera-
ture plotted as abscissae.

348 BRIDGMAN.

There are, therefore, considerable differences in the thermo-electric
behavior. We would expect large differences in the behavior under
pressure. ;

The pressure measurements on Heraeus platinum were made in
an order the reverse of usual, beginning at 95° and ending at 25°.
On the first application of seasoning pressure at room temperature
the wire broke at 12000 kg. It was therefore evident that viscous

Volts, x10°

Peltier Heat

il cassensece

Thomson Heat Volts per degree C, X10°

Temperature Temperature
Pure Platinum

Ficure 34. Heraeus Platinum. On the left, the heat absorbed by unit
quantity of electricity in flowing from uncompressed metal to metal compressed
to the pressure indicated on the curves, as a function of temperature. On
the right, the excess of Thomson heat in metal compressed to the pressure
indicated on the curves over uncompressed metal, as a function of temperature.

drag was going to be troublesome, and the reverse procedure was
therefore adopted to insure getting as many readings as possible
before rupture occurred. The four regular runs were successfully
made, but at 75° the effect of drag was very large. After the four
runs an attempt was made to repeat the run at 75°. Only three points
were obtained, at 0, 4000, and 8000 kg., the wire breaking again at
12000. The points obtained lay about 3% lower than those of the

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 349

previous run at 75°, and in the direction necessary to make the points
at 75° lie a roubly with those of other temperatures. The pressure
runs on Baker’s platinum were accomplished without incident. Two
applications of 12000 were made at room temperature to season.

Volts, 10°

Thermal E. M. F

att:

+4 FH fee ae age
old Eocene segeeeaes FEE HEHE
Oo 102 208 30° ADS 0c 6 027 OCS OO OL nLOOS
Temperature

Commercial Platinum

Figure 35. Baker’s Platinum. Thermal E.M.F. of a couple composed
of one branch of uncompressed metal, the other compressed to the pressure
in kg./em.? indicated on the curves, the junctions being at 0°C and the temper-
ature plotted as abscissae.

Equilibrium was reached so rapidly as to suggest no shifting of internal
equilibrium.

For the Heraeus platinum, the maximum departure of any single
observed point from a smooth curve was 7.8% of the maximum

350 BRIDGMAN.

effect, except for the two bad points mentioned at 75°. The maxi-
mum zero correction was 2.5%, and the average numerical departure
of all points from smooth curves was 0.81%. At constant temperature
the relation between e.m.f. and pressure was linear. In passing to
the curves at constant pressure from those at constant temperature
it was necessary to disregard the 75° points, the discrepancy amount-
ing to 4.8%, but the other points required no readjustment. If the
second run at 75° could have been carried through, the adjustment

TABLE XXXII.
PLatinum (PuRE).

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts < 10°.

Temp. Pressure, kg./em.2

Cdcenees 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

a
i=)

10° .62 Ol . 44 sella)
20 29 .96 Dine 3.21 3.88

2.02 3.10 5.15 9.19

4.28 Fe 8.60
De : 03
).61 8.! 3.39
whee : 2.9: 5.64

- #0

WwWwwWwnnvno nd — &

at 75° would have been only about 1%, so that there is reason to trust
the results obtained.

For Baker’s platinum, the maximum zero correction was 1.5% of
the maximum effect, the maximum departure of any single observed
point from a smooth curve was 3.1%, and the average numerical
departure was 0.80%. At constant temperature the curves of e.m.f.
against pressure are convex toward the pressure axis, not what one
would expect, and the curves of e.m.f. at constant pressure against
temperature are also convex toward the temperature axis. In passing
from e.m.f. curves at constant temperature to those at constant
pressure the maximum readjustment necessary was 1.1%.

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 351

TABLE XXXIII.

PLATINUM (PURE).

Peltier heat, between uncompressed and compressed metal, Joules per conlomb

Temp.

C degrees 92000

SiOz

Pressure, kg./cm.2

4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

apie

10.:

12.8

ae 1G: +93. +29.

Thomson heat, excess in compressed over uncompressed metal, Joules per contiomb

Temp.
C degrees

per °C X 10%.

Pressure, kg./em.2

4000 6000 8000

arn +49 .: +65 .6

16.

BLY 4 BRIDGMAN.

The numerical results are shown in Tables XXXII, X XXIII and
XXXIV and Figures 33, 34 and 35; only the e.m.f. is given for Baker’s
platinum. For both grades of platinum the e.m-f. is positive and
rather large, increasing with pressure and temperature to 21.6 X 10°
volts for the Heraeus platinum, and to 22.2 for Baker’s at 12000 kg.
and 100°. The similarity of these figures is somewhat unexpected
in view of the difference in thermo-electric behavior at atmospheric
pressure. The Peltier and Thomson heats are quite different, how-
ever. The Peltier heat of Heraeus platinum is positive, increasing

TABLE XXXIV.
PLatinumM (IMPURE).

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts & 10°.

Pressure, kg./em.2

4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

64 ar
.28
93
.58
24
91
.59

.O1 “ty
.O1
00°
.99
.99
.00
.O1
04
10
.20

33 +1.70 +-2.12
67 3.41
.02 5.13
38 6.86
76 8.61
15 10.38
06 12.18
14.02
15.91
17.87

NSTIDPWwWWN

it
It.
it.
2.
2.

Ouanrwnwneet
WDNOKDMDOURNE

Ww bo
oo wo
aa

bo

with pressure at constant temperature, but at each constant pressure
passing through a maximum with rising temperature. The Peltier
heat of Baker’s platinum is also positive throughout, is somewhat
larger than that of Heraeus platinum, and rises throughout with both
temperature and pressure. ‘The Thomson heat of Heraeus platinum
changes sign, starting with positive values at low temperatures, and
at each constant pressure becoming negative at higher temperatures.
The Thomson heat of Baker’s platinum rises to its highest positive
values at the highest temperature, and for several pressures is negative
at the lower end of the temperature range.

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 308

The value given by Wagner up to 300 kg. between 0° and 100° is
+18.6 X 10°” volts per degree per kg. The values found above by
interpolation are 18.0 for the Heraeus, and 16.1 for Baker’s platinum.
The agreement with the purer specimen is as good as could be expected.
ia Wolybdenum. This was a fresh piece, obtained through the kind-
ness of Dr. W. D. Coolidge of the General Electric Company. The
piece whose resistance under pressure had been measured was not

S
x
3
°
S$
Ly
s
a
:
=
Z HH
a a ous 70° 80° 90° 100°
te
Molybdenum

FieurEe 36. Molybdenum. Thermal E.M.F. of a couple composed of
one branch of uncompressed metal, the other compressed to the pressure in
kg./em.? indicated on the curves, the junctions being at 0°C and the tempera-
ture plotted as abscissae.

large enough in diameter or long enough for use in this apparatus.
The new piece was 0.008 inch in diameter, with a resistance of 0.54
ohms per ft. when cold. A piece 18 inches long, the piece to be ex-
posed to pressure, was annealed by heating to a white heat with an
electric current in an atmosphere of hydrogen. The hydrogen was
not entirely free from oxygen, however, and there may have been
some chemical effect. The outer connecting piece of wire was left

304 BRIDGMAN.
| 12000 5 .
+ t +4 S
5 SEHTTETE ae 10.
ah OA} Oo
2, [HEHE A 2000H¢ HS EEE 9
cS | ts AES 8

x eeencei +
a 43 ‘Oooo : Sie 5 2
= Ht + Ht 4 be
3 : 2,
> 3 8000 — 2000 ON
= He NS <

2 GOP | —5
: Si 8000 7 i
= 9000 a bea =
Roam) ececdittetsafazaazaizsseern 10000 = pte
4 : He 2 a
‘ e000 Te = 12000 : ne
0° AYP AK CP OP OWE OP ZT GP a Te =
‘Temperature Temperature
Molybdenum

Figure 37. Molybdenum. On the left, the heat absorbed by unit
quantity of electricity in flowing from uncompressed metal to metal compressed
to the pressure indicated on the curves, as a function of temperature. On
the right, the excess of Thomson heat in metal compressed to the pressure
indicated on the curves over uncompressed metal, as a function of temperature.

TABLE XXXV.
MoLysBpENUM.

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts < 10°.

Temp. Pressure, kg./em.2

C degrees 6000 8000 10000

10° 037 047 057
20 ! : .078 moe!
30 : mse 17! 219
40 ; 209 276 857
282 87! 472
328 A: 543
359 477 594
883 508 634
401 53! 666
415 fy: 693

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. DOO

TABLE XXXVI.
Mo.LyBpENUM.

Peltier heat, between uncompressed and compressed metal, Joules per conlomb
x AO

Temp. Pressure, kg./em.2
aoe 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

+ .60 = .95 Srl A +1.4! + 1.69

:a0 Bh 2.28 2.93

Thomson heat, excess in compressed over uncompressed metal, Joules per conlomb

oar 4G S< OH

Pressure, kg./cm.2

6000 8000 10000 12000

=F se ilae se il.

356 BRIDGMAN.

unannealed. This produced a large permanent zero reading, but
should not introduce any error.

At atmospheric pressure the average temperature coefficient of
resistance between 0° and 100° was found to be 0.00461; the relation
between temperature and resistance was sensibly linear. This coeffi-
cient is considerably higher than that of the piece whose pressure
coefficient was previously measured, for which the mean temperature
coefficient was 0.00434. Both molybdenum and tungsten are known
to vary considerably in properties with the amount of mechanical
working, so that the difference between these two specimens may
have been accountable for by the difference of size, and not by a
difference of chemical constitution.

The thermo-electric behavior at atmospheric pressure against
lead is given by the formulas:

E = (5.892 t+ 0.02167 2—0.000025 #8) X 10-6 volts,
P = (5.892 + 0.04334 t —0.000075 #2) (t + 273) X 1078 volts,
o = (0.04334—0.000150#) (tf + 273) X 1078 volts/°C.

For the pressure measurements the wire was seasoned by two
applications of 12000 kg. at room temperature. The e.m.f. under
pressure is small, reaching at the most at 12000 kg. and 100° only
+ 0.8 X 10° volts. Individual readings showed large variations;
the zero readings did not vary so much as those at high pressures.
32 readings in all were made; of these 6 were bad, showing variations
from 7 to 50% of the total effect. The remaining 26 readings were
not so bad, the maximum departure from a smooth curve being 5%
of the total effect, and the average numerical departure 1.2%. It
was not necessary to make any readjustment in passing from the
e.m.f. curves at constant temperature to those at constant pressure.

The numerical results are shown in Tables XXXV and XXXVI
and Figures 36 and 37. At constant temperature the relation between
e.m.f. and pressure is linear; at constant pressure the curves against
temperature pass through a point of inflection. This means a com-
plicated behavior of both Peltier and Thomson heats. The Peltier
heat is throughout positive, but at constant pressure passes through
a pronounced maximum near 40°. The Thomson heat is both posi-
tive and negative, passing through pronounced positive maxima near
25°, and negative minima near 50°.

There are no previous results for comparison.

Tungsten. This, like molybdenum, was a fresh sample from Dr.
W. D. Coolidge of the General Electric Company, the specimen

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. oon

used previously for the resistance measurements not being large
enough. This also was 0.008 inch in diameter. A piece long enough
for both inside and outside pieces was annealed at one time by heating
white hot with an electric current in an atmosphere of hydrogen under
reduced pressure. The hydrogen was not pure, however, and there
was appreciable formation of oxide. This treatment was successful
in keeping the permanent zero reading down to a normal value.

m
eens
seeeesce

bo
2
EEE NS

CoN

Thermal E. M. F.

ol SSSESHSESEUISTEEsenesdesuetaesess i He Hite
Ol SSt0S 202583003 40° -750° 70° 80°) 90°. _ 1002
Temperature
Tungsten

Ficure 38. Tungsten. Thermal E.M.F. of a couple composed of one
branch of uncompressed metal, the other compressed to the pressure in kg./em.?
indicated on the curves, the junctions being at 0°C and the temperature
plotted as abscissae.

At atmospheric pressure the average temperature coefficient of
resistance between 0° and 100° was 0.04317, the resistance being
sensibly linear with temperature. The coefficient of the resistance
specimen, which was only 0.0004 inch in diameter, was 0.00322. The
considerable difference may again be due to the difference of mechani-
cal treatment.

358 BRIDGMAN.

EEEEERR aadddaazazszeeeee ETT?

60 H _ site Hy
geeceeeecgegegagee
BScieteesseeseed®><t8t
Ty YT + SF a

PEEEEEE
PEE
ee

i

—
Thomson. Heat Volts per degree C, X10°

cease: HA Fate
ce ae

at a i

Peltier Heat Volts, x10°
He

ul jee TT a

eeeues
a

i ;

Lo

He
papal

ale HE Hine He HHH 0
or 20° 40° 60° BO 100° oe “40° ae 50° 100°
Temperature Temperature
Tungsten

Ficure 39. Tungsten. On the left, the heat absorbed by unit quantity
of electricity in flowing from uncompressed metal to metal compressed to
the pressure indicated on the curves, as a function of temperature. On the
right, the excess of Thomson heat in metal compressed to the pressure indi-
cated on the curves over uncompressed metal, as a function of temperature.

4M NBIUID) ROO WATE
"TUNGSTEN.

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts * 10° -

Pressure, kg./om.2

4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

44

+
ot

65 89 =e
33 80
03 2.73

le +1.33
.26 2.70
42 men
61
.84
.10
40

38
Oni
36
87
39
.92 92 hd
45 Ne (Aas 8. boils
j 12.61

76

1
2
2
3)
4.:
De
5).

92

Nor Wb Re

oo

On OO
en bd ¢ : , 7 4
ee ww WD We eS

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 359

TABLE) X&CSvilt.
TUNGSTEN.

Peltier heat, between uncompressed and compressed metal, Joules per conlomb

x 10°.

Temp. Pressure, kg./cm.?

C degrees 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

selil 7 apy? +24. +30.4

13.6 20. Dili 33.é

Thomson heat, excess in compressed over uncompressed metal, Joules per conlomb
per °C X 10°.

Pressure, kg./cm.?

6000 8000

+8. +5.

8.2

360 BRIDGMAN.

The thermo-electric behavior at atmospheric pressure against
lead is given by the formulas:

E = (1.5941+ 0.01705 #?) X 10° volts,
P = (1.594 + 0.0341 #) (¢ + 273) & 10° volts,
a = 0.0341(¢ + 273) X 10° volts/°C.

For the pressure measurements it was annealed once to 12000 kg.
at room temperature. At 25°, 50°, and 75°, the readings under pres-
sure went as smoothly as could be desired, but at 98° there was greater
irregularity; here there was a permanent change of zero of 7% of
the total effect. This was also the maximum departure of any point
from a smooth curve. The average arithmetical departure of all
points from smooth curves was 0.72%. In passing from curves of
e.m.f. at constant temperature to those at constant pressure a maxi-
mum readjustment of 1% of the total effect was necessary.

The numerical results are shown in Tables XX XVII and XX XVIII
and Figures 38 and 39. The effect is positive, increasing regularly -
with pressure and temperature, and is rather large, being 20 times as
great as that of molybdenum. This was a surprise; the pressure
coefficients of resistance of these two metals are nearly equal. The
Peltier heat is positive, rising with pressure and temperature. The
Thomson heat is positive, at the two extremes of the pressure range
rising with temperature at constant pressure, but at intermediate
pressures it falls with rising temperature.

There are no previous measurements for comparison.

Bismuth. This was electrolytic bismuth, prepared at the same
time as the resistance specimen, but it was from the deposit on another
electrode, so that the two specimens are not of necessity exactly alike.
From the electrode deposit, the metal was made into wire by the
same steps as the previous wire; the die through which this was
extruded was 0.0285 inches in diameter, somewhat larger than the
previous specimen. After extrusion, it was annealed by slow heating
and cooling from room temperature to 100°, being maintained at 100°
for 30 minutes. Much care was necessary in getting it in place in the
pressure apparatus, but this was successfully accomplished without
a single mishap.

At atmospheric pressure ‘the average temperature coefficient of
resistance between 0° and 100° of this specimen was 0.004372, which
is somewhat lower than that of the previous specimen, 0.00441; the
difference is no greater than has been formerly found to be due to.
differences of handling. The curve of resistance against temperature °

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 361

at atmospheric pressure is strikingly convex toward the temperature
axis, as was that of the other specimen. The two specimens are
probably of equal purity.

The thermal electric behavior at atmospheric pressure against
lead is given by the formulas:

E = (—74.421+ 0.0160#) X 10° volts,

P = (—74.42 + 0.0320 #) (¢ + 273) X 10-6 volts,
a — 00320 4 273) << 10° volts/°C.

ee eeeeEEEe ee ue

. nae
| _

fietstees see Siar Hite ae

Volts. X10°

Thermal E. M. F.

50° 60°
Temperature
Bismuth

Figure 40. Bismuth. Thermal E.M.F. of a couple composed of one
branch of uncompressed metal, the other compressed to the pressure in kg. /em.?
indicated on the curves, the junctions being at 0°C and the temperature
plotted as abscissae.

The pressure measurements of e.m.f. were satisfactory. The run
at 25° was made without previous seasoning, in the desire to obtain
all possible information before the confidently expected rupture, but
this fear proved groundless, and the series of runs was completed
without incident. Furthermore, it proved that seasoning was not
necessary, the zero correction at 25° after the first application of 12000
kg. being only 0.16% of the maximum effect. Readings could be

362 BRIDGMAN.

easily made, there was no hysteresis or other evidence of incomplete
internal equilibrium. The effect was so large that it was necessary
to use the potentiometer direct connected. The maximum departure
of any point from a smooth curve was 2.1% of the total effect, and
the average numerical departure was 0.53%. As with the resistance
specimen, the run at 100° was made impossible by breaking of the
connection because of the low melting point of the alloy of bismuth
with solder. In passing from curves at constant temperature to those
at constant pressure no appreciable readjustment was necessary.

wn

Thomson Heat Volts per degree C, X10°

Coo
ae
Ht t itfeaenad

ze
| aoe

rT
eae
on

ee
80? 0G?) 20° io
Temperature Temperature
Bismuth

Figure 41. Bismuth. On the left, the heat absorbed by unit quantity of
electricity in flowing from uncompressed metal, to metal compressed to the
pressure indicated on the curves, as a function of temperature. On the right,
the excess of Thomson heat in metal compressed to the pressure indicated on
the curves over uncompressed metal, as a function of temperature.

The numerical results are shown in Tables XXXIX and XL and
Figures 40 and 41. The e.m.f. is positive and very large, increasing
regularly with pressure and temperature to 710 X 10° volts at 100°
and 12000 kg. The largest“effect found for any other metal was for
thallium, which gave only 52.5. Except for the largeness of the value,
the only unusual feature is the upward curvature of the e.m.f. curves
at constant temperature plotted against pressure; this denotes a
greater proportional effect for the same pressure increment at the

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 363

higher pressures. The Peltier heat is positive; in general it increases
with rising pressure and temperature, but at the middle of the range
it passes through a flat minimum with rising temperature. The
Thomson heat shows complicated behavior; at 2000 kg. it is through-
out zero, at 4000 it is negative, and at higher pressures it is initially
negative, rising to positive values.

Wagner found at 300 kg. between 0° and 100° the value 707 X 10°”

TABLE XXXIX.
BISMUTH.

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts X 10°.

Pressure, kg./cm.2

6000 8000 12000

+38. +54.

volts per degree per kg. The value indicated by interpolation and
extrapolation of the data above is 531 X 10". The agreement is
not good. In view of the great differences found in the previous
work in the electrical properties of bismuth of different origins, and
the large effect of minute impurities, it would have been most desirable
if Wagner had allowed some estimate of the purity of his sample by
stating its temperature coefficient at atmospheric pressure.

364 BRIDGMAN.

TABLE XL.

BISMUTH.

Peltier heat, between uncompressed and compressed metal, Joules per conlomb

< Ce
Temp. Pressure, kg./cm.2

G deere) 2000 4000 6000 000 10000 12000
0° +289. +574. +1070. +1530. +2080. +2580.

20 Sie 644. 1030. 1490. 2050. 2670.
40 > ae 720. 1090. 1530. 2070. . 2760.
60 353. 800. 1330. 1790. 2300. 2860.

80 374. 950. 1550. 2180. 2650. 2960.

Thomson heat, excess in compressed over uncompressed metal, Joules per conlomb
per “© x 108:

Temp. Pressure, kg./cem.2

EES 2000 6000 8000 10000 12000

+1150. ; — 1250. —520.

290. 500. 760. — 470.

500. -+ 250. 160. — 440.

800. +1000. + 530. — 370.

460. +1660. +1270. — 280.

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 365

Constantan. This was obtained from the Electrical Alloys Co. of
Morristown, N. J., and is sold by them under the trade name “ Ideal.”
The chemical analysis given by them is: Copper 55%, Nickel 44%,
Manganese 1%, and Iron 1.49%. The diameter of the wire was 0.010
inches. There is of course not a great deal of interest at the present
stage of affairs in the behavior of a substance so complicated; the
study of alloys as such would begin with simpler ones. This alloy
is used extensively in electrical measurements, however, and there is
some practical interest in its behavior. I have not previously given
data for any of the electrical properties of this substance; the list here
given is composed of (1) the temperature coefficient of resistance at
atmospheric pressure, (2) thermal e.m.f. at atmospheric pressure
against lead, (3) pressure coefficient of resistance, (4) pressure effect
on thermo-electric quality.

At atmospheric pressure the resistance passes through a maximum
with rising temperature near 12°. The values found for the resistance
were as follows: at 0°, 1.0000; at 25°, 1.0000; at 50°, 0.9998; at 76°
0.9994, and at 97°, 0.9989. The change is, therefore, as slight as that
of manganin for any small range, but the minimum of manganin is
more pronounced than the maximum of this, so that the total change
between 0° and 100° of “Ideal” is greater than of manganin.

The thermo-electric behavior at atmospheric pressure against
lead is given by the formulas:

E = (—34.76 t—0.0397 #2) X 10° volts,
P = (—34.76 —0.0794t) (t + 273) X 10° volts,
¢ = —0.0794(t + 273) X 10° volts/°C.

Its thermal e.m.f. against commercial copper is represented by
E = —(38.501 + 0.04451?) X 10° volts.

This may be compared with results of Johnston and Adams }8 for
wire from the same source. They give their results in the form of a
table; the maximum discrepancy between their results and that above
is at 100°, where they give 4227 X 10°° volts against 4295 above.
The difference is not greater than one would expect in different speci-
mens with different handling.

The pressure coefficient of resistance was measured by the method
described in the previous paper. The wire was wound bare on a

13 J. Johnston and L. H. Adams, Amer. Jour. Sci. 31, 510, 1911.

366 BRIDGMAN.

bone core. It had been previously seasoned by alternately heating
to 140° for 30 minutes, and slowly cooling to room temperature for
15 minutes, repeating three times. For the pressure measurements it
was seasoned by a single application of 12000 at room temperature.
After this first application of pressure there was a permanent decrease
of resistance amounting to 0.03% of the total resistance. The effect
of pressure is to increase the resistance very slightly, instead of to
decrease it, as for pure metals. Measurements were made at three
temperatures; 0°, 50°, and 97°. Within these limits the coefficient

4

coeas

|

rH

Ty
pa
A

Thermal E.M.F. Volts, x10°

Mo
iN

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Ee
: site cli! HEH EEE TT ae
= ec
OP! 740° C0 Teor Fer
Temperature
Constantan

Ficure 42. Constantan. Thermal E.M.F. of a couple composed of one
branch of uncompressed metal, the other being at the pressure in kg./cm.?
indicated on the curves, the junctions being at O°C and the temperature
plotted as abscissae.

is independent of temperature, and the relation between pressure
and resistance is linear up to 12000 kg. The pressure coefficient
between 0° and 100° up to 12000 kg. was found to be + 0.06409,
pressure measured in kg./em.?._ The smallest coefficient found in the
previous work for a pure metal was that of tungsten, which was
—0.05125.

In contrast to the very small effect of pressure on resistance is its
very large effect on thermo-electric quality. The effect is positive,

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 367

as it is for the majority of metals, and is exceeded in value only by
bismuth and thallium. The wire was seasoned for the pressure runs
on thermal e.m.f. by raising pressure to 11300 kg. at room tempera-
ture, then raising temperature to 100° for 23 hours, the pressure
rising to 11500. Large permanent zero readings might be expected
with this substance, because its thermal e.m.f. against iron is so high,
but its homogeneity was so great that the zero effect was only about
5% of the pressure effect at any temperature. <A curious effect was

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Constantan

Ficure 43. Constantan. On the left, the heat absorbed by unit quantity
of electricity in flowing from uncompressed metal to metal compressed to the
pressure indicated on the curves, as a function of temperature. On the right,
the excess of Thomson heat in metal compressed to the pressure indicated on

the curves over uncompressed metal, as a function of temperature.

observed immediately after changes of pressure, before temperature
equilibrium was reached; there were violent oscillations of e.m.f.,
changing sign with a period of a few seconds, which gradually dis-
appeared. This is possibly an effect of shifting internal equilibrium
connected with the complicated nature of the alloy, but is more prob-
ably a pure temperature effect, and is particularly prominent here
because of the unusually large e.m.f. between constantan and the
steel of the cylinders. The immediate effect after a change of pres-

368 BRIDGMAN.

sure is a difference of a difference, the residual effect being the differ-
ence between the e.m.f’s. at the hot and cold ends brought about by
the difference of temperature produced by compression between the
inside and the outside of the cylinder. When one considers that the
instantaneous rise of temperature by compression might be 10°, it
does not seem surprising that there should be such oscillations with a
galvanometer sensitive enough to be thrown off the scale by 6 X 10%
volts. The e.m.f. between iron and constantan is 50 X 10° volts
per degree.

Because of the complications involved in any interpretation of the

TABLE XLI.
CONSTANTAN.

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts X 10°.

Temp. Pressure, kg./cm.2

Pe ideerce: 6000 8000 10000 12000

22 0e +3.38

10° +1. 42.2:
Be 3.4: 4.5%
6

20
30
9:1
11.5%

Go co. B GO WN ee

instantaneous effects, I gave up the attempt to observe them after a
few metals had been measured. The effects may change sign with
the same metal with pressure and temperature. I did not happen to
make observations like those on constantan with any other substance
except manganin, also an alloy. This is probably only a coincidence.
The pressure measurements of e.m.f. went fairly smoothly. Except
for two points at 96° with discrepancies of 4.0 and 2.3%, the maxi-
mum departure of any point from a smooth curve was 1.3% and the
average numerical departure was 0.26% of the total effect. The

on

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 369

TABLE XLII.
CONSTANTAN.

Peltier heat, between uncompressed and compressed metal, Joules per conlomb
eos:

Temp. Pressure, kg./em.2

C degrees 6000 8000 10000 12000

446. 461. 5275: +90,

wy).

109.

Thomson heat, excess in compressed over uncompressed metal, Joules per conlomb

per 76x 10%
Temp. Pressure, kg. / cm.?
Carre 6000 8000 10000 12000
+4.€ +7.4 +11.7 +12.
9 12.6 13.
13.4

14..

115) 47

16.

370 BRIDGMAN.

maximum zero correction was 1.1%. In passing from the curves of
e.m.f. at constant temperature to those at constant pressure the maxi-
mum readjustment was 0.60%.

The numerical results are shown in Tables XLI and XLII and Fig-
ures 42 and 48. The effect is positive, rising regularly with pressure
and temperature to 35.5 X 10° volts at 100° and 12000 kg. At
constant temperature the relation between e.m.f. and pressure is
linear. The Peltier heat is positive, rising with pressure and tempera-
ture. The Thomson heat is also positive, and rises with pressure and
temperature; at every constant pressure it is directly proportional to
the absolute temperature.

Constantan, of unstated composition, was one of the substances
measured by Wagner. He gives to 300 kg. and between 0° and 100°
31.1 and 26.4 X 10°” volts per degree per kg. for two different speci-
mens. The value given by interpolation of the data above is 29.7,
falling within Wagner’s limits.

Manganin. This was from the same spools as the coils used in
measuring resistance, and is of German origin, probably nearly 20
years old. The resistance at atmospheric pressure shows a maximum
near 30°. The following values of resistance were found: at 0°,
1.0000; at 26°, 1.0007; at 50°, 1.0006; at 76°, 1.0002; and at 97°,
0.9995.

The thermo-electric behavior at atmospheric pressure against lead
is given by the formulas:

E = (1.366 t+0.000414 ¢?-++0.0000112 #3) X 10° volts,
P = (1.366 + 0.00828 t + 0.0000336 ¢?) (¢ + 273) X 10° volts,
a = (0.00828 + 0.0000672 t) @ + 273) X 10° volts/°C.

The resistance of this wire was also measured because I now had
apparatus for getting more accurately the variation with temperature
of the pressure coefficient than formerly. Previously I had measured
the same coil successively at different temperatures against an ab-
solute gauge, and found only a small variation in the pressure coeffi-
cient up to 80°. The change may be slightly different for different
specimens, even from the same spool. This procedure was now
improved upon by simultaneously measuring two coils, both exposed
to the same pressure, but placed in different pressure cylinders and
maintained at different temperatures with two different thermostats.
The one coil, that with which pressure was measured, was always
maintained at the same temperature, 40°, whereas the temperature
of the other coil was varied for different runs. The new coil was

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 371

seasoned by baking at 140° for several hours, and by several applica-
tions of 12000 at room temperature. After this seasoning there was
no appreciable change of resistance after a run under pressure. At
0° and 25° the pressure coefficient of resistance is practically the same;
as it is also at 50°, 75° and 100°, but between 25° and 50° there was
an increase of coefficient of 0.7%. However, the measurements
were not as good as they might be, and the isolated change between
25° and 50° is probably not real.

The e.m.f. measurements under pressure were made in the regular

H HH
aa 12 at { a seer a

conn ee

pauasegeuace!

Thermal E.M.F. Volts, x10°

iepreeellnperee LL
it a

50°
Ba
Manganin

Figure 44. Manganin. Thermal E.M.F. of a couple composed of one
branch of uncompressed metal, the other compressed to the pressure in kg./em.?
indicated on the curves, the junctions being at 0°C and the temperature
plotted as abscissae.

way. The effect is small and negative. The wire was seasoned for
the e.m.f. measurements by baking to 140° at atmospheric pressure,
and by one application of 12000 kg. at room temperature. The
measurements at the lower temperatures were regular, but at the
higher temperatures the irregularities increase very rapidly. This is
as one would expect in an alloy. The greatest discrepancy was shown
by the final zero point at 97° which lies off a smooth curve by 18% of
the maximum effect at 97°; at this temperature the average arith-
metic departure is 7.7%; at 75° the maximum departure is at 8000

372 BRIDGMAN.

2-4 ED
i HT q Hie Hf »
3 —3 = if ime)
° ray
> B
be
z: HH i iit iH cH PS HAN §

=i H H PA Acct oeriss Hy ¥
ee ot raat ates Hl sea r
hee om EL on FS §
0 ia a Too &
ae ee Temperature a

Manganin

Figure 45. Manganin. On the left, the heat absorbed by unit quantity
of electricity in flowing from uncompressed. metal to metal compressed to the
pressure indicated on the curves, as a function of temperature. On the right,
the excess of Thomson heat in metal compressed to the pressure indicated on
the curves over uncompressed metal, as a function of temperature.

TABLE! XE:
MANGANIN.

Thermo-electromotive Force, volts & 10°.

Temp. Pressure, kg./cm.2

Gideon 2000 4000 6000 $000 10000

10° + .026 — .053 =, (Ue! = AN — Sse
20 057 . 103 ei 21% .258
30 076 allay . 230 ae oT

40 . 100 -197 300 40: 490
50 123 . 242 867 48s 097
146 . 286 451 OTe 700
.168 -029 493 | . 65: 799
.190 oll .oo4 736 895
pela .412 .614 816 .985
. 232 492 673 8s 1.079

Ee —— eee

<4
WwW

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE.

TABLE XLIV.
MANGANIN.

Peltier heat, between uncompressed and compressed metal, Joules per conlomb
xX 105.

Temp. | Pressure, kg. /em.2
C degrees |

4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

0° : —1.50 Dae —3.

20 she 44

40

Thomson heat, excess in compressed over uncompressed metal, Joules per conlomb
jae “OG < Ue

: , ;
Temp. Pressure, kg./cm.?

C degrees { 6000 8000 10000 12000

+1.40 2.38 +2. 24. +2.46

2.01

374 BRIDGMAN.

kg. and is 3.8% of the maximum effect at 75°, while the average
departure is 2.4%; at 50° the maximum departure is 2.8% of the
maximum effect at 50° and the arithmetical average is 1.07%; and
at 25° the maximum departure is 3% of the maximum effect at 25°,
and the average departure 0.6%. Within these limits of error the
relation between e.m.f. and pressure at constant temperature is linear.
In passing from curves of e.m.f. at constant temperature to those at
constant pressure the maximum readjustment was at 97°, as was to
be expected; here it was 12% of the maximum effect. No apprecia-
ble readjustment was necessary at the lower temperatures. The
following data are to be expected, therefore, to have considerably
greater relative accuracy at the lower part of the temperature range.

The numerical results are shown in Tables XLIII and XLIV and
Figures 44 and 45. The effect is negative, increasing regularly with
pressure and temperature to —1.31 X 10° at 12000 kg. and 100°.
The effect is among the smallest found. It is interesting to compare
the small effect of pressure on the resistance of constantan and its
large effect on thermal e.m.f. with precisely the reverse behavior
here. The Peltier heat is negative, increasing with pressure, but at
each constant pressure it is nearly independent of temperature. The
Thomson heat, on the other hand is positive, at the lower pressures
changing but little, but at the higher pressures falling with rising
temperature.

Wagner gives between 0° and 100° and to 300 kg. —8.5 X 10”
volts per degree per kg. The value given by interpolation of the data
above is —11.6 X 10°". The agreement is perhaps as close as could
be expected in an alloy from presumably different sources.

EFFECT OF TENSION ON THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY.

The general method of measurement is the same as that employed
in measuring the effect of hydrostatic pressure on thermo-electric
quality, namely to measure the thermal e.m.f. of a couple composed
of two branches of the same metal, one of which is under tension, and
the other of which is free. The connections are shown schematically
in Figure 46. A length of the wire to be measured is doubled on itself,
running from A to E to C. At E it is fastened to a heavy block
capable of withstanding any load that is to be applied to the wire.
At A and C the ends of the wire are fastened to the under sides of the
left and right hand pans respectively of two equal arm balances,

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. o1D

indicated in the figure by the arrows AB and CD, by means of which
a load may be applied to either wire separately or together. The
upper and lower ends of the wires are surrounded by two thermo-
stated baths, indicated by the open rectangles in the figure, which
may be kept at any desired two different temperatures. In use the
lower bath was always packed with ice, and the upper bath was set
at any desired temperature between 0° and 100° C. The two wires

Figure 46. Scheme of connections used in finding effect of tension on
thermo-electric quality.

are tapped at the middle of the upper bath by two flexible leads of
copper connecting to the galvanometer G and the potentiometer P.
These instruments were the same as were used in the previous measure-
ments. The balances are insolated from each other, so that the
circuit runs from G to P toG to F to Eto G. If the two wires are
precisely alike, there is no thermal e.m.f. in this circuit for any differ-
ence of temperature between GF and E, but if one of the wires is

376 BRIDGMAN.

loaded, the material of the two branches of the couple now becomes
effectively different, and a thermal e.m.f. appears. This was meas-
ured as a function of tension and temperature difference.

Various precautions were taken in performing the experiment
which need not be gone into here at length. The two wires passed
through a heavy glass tube for their entire length, and in this way
were protected from contact with the water of the bath. To secure
temperature equality and diminish error from heat conduction along
the wires from one bath to the other, the glass tube was filled, up to
the level of the water in the upper bath, with Bureau of Standards
resistance oil. As a further precaution against slight variations in
temperature, the glass tube was covered for the entire length of
immersion in the upper bath with a compound tube of } inch thick
copper on the inside fitting closely into an outer iron tube also { inch
thick. Since the lower bath was always filled with ice and conse-
quently was not exposed to slight oscillations of temperature, such a
precaution was not necessary below. The approximate dimensions
were; depth of each bath 1 ft., free distance between baths 2 ft.,
diameter of glass tubing 1 inch.

It has been already stated that the results of these experiments
. were very irregular, the effect varying with the nature of the speci-
men. ,In the following the nature of the results will be briefly indi-
cated; each result given is the mean of determinations on the right
and the left hand wires.

Nickel. Wire from the same manufacturers but from a different
spool from the pressure sample was used. This was 0.005 inches in
diameter. A maximum tension of 2000 kg./em.? was applied. The
results were fairly good; the two samples agreed on the average
within about 5%. The thermal e.m.f. may be represented by the
following equations:

At 31° — e.m.f. = (.00335T—0.0,60T?) X 10° volts,
abil: (.00577T —0.0;132T?) & 10°,

a6) fdeD" (.0081 T—0.0;175T?) X 10°,

at 94.5° (0121 T—0.0;37T2) X 107°.

|

In these formulas T is the tension in kg./em.? The direction of
the e.m.f. is from unstretched to stretched at the hot junction. Paying
attention only to the change of volume, this would correspond to a
pressure effect of from compressed to uncompressed at the hot junction
This is of the opposite sign from the observed pure pressure effect.

Copper. This was commercial wire of 0.020 inches diameter.

Low d
THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. Olt

The maximum tension applied was 700 kg./em.2 Within this range
the e.m.f. was linear with tension. Trustworthy measurements
were obtained only at 95°. Here the two specimens differed from the
mean by 20%.

e.m.f. = 0.00056T 10° volts.

The direction of e.m.f. is from unstretched to stretched at the hot
junction. This corresponds to from compressed to uncompressed
at the hot junction, and is opposite in sign from the pure pressure
effect.

Iron. This was annealed “ingot” iron, from the same piece of
metal as that of the pressure measurements. Its diameter was 0.025
inches, and it was subjected to a maximum tension of 500 kg./cm.?
Satisfactory readings were obtained at two temperatures; the two
wires differed by less than 10%. The results are covered by the
formulas:

At 52°. e.m-f. = (0.0120T—0.0,235T?) X 10° volts,
at 95° = (0.0223T —0.0,42T?) X 10°.

The effect has a pronounced maximum near the middle of the ten-
sion range; this recalls the complicated behavior under hydrostatic
pressure, although the range of tension is comparatively much lower
than the range of pressure. The e.m.f. is from unstretched to stretched
at the hot junction, corresponding to from compressed to uncom-
pressed. This corresponds to the sign of the pure pressure effect over
the first portion of the pressure range.

Aluminum. Commercial stock of 0.0195 inches diameter was
used. Satisfactory results were obtained at two temperatures; the
two wires differing by about 10% from the mean. The results are
given by the formulas:

At 50:5° em.
at 76°

(0.0088T —0.0;67T?) X 10° volts,
(0.0088T —0.0;47T?) K 10°.

The departure from linearity, contrary to what one might expect,
is only slight. The abnormal behavior under pressure, however, is
reflected in the slight change of e.m.f. with temperature. The direc-
tion of e.m.f. is from unstretched to stretched at the hot junction,
corresponding to from compressed to uncompressed. ‘This corre-
sponds to the initial direction of the pressure effect.

Brass. This was commercial wire of 0.008 inches diameter. The

378 BRIDGMAN.

tension range was high, 2800 kg./em.? Under the most unfavorable
conditions the two wires differed 50% from the mean. The results
are given by the formulas:

At 52° e.m.f. = (0.00022T—0.0;8T?) X 10° volts,

ab td (0.00013T —0.0712T?) & 10°,
at 94° (0.00047T —0.0;5T?) 10°°.

At 52° the departure from linearity is so great that the e.m.f.
passes through a maximum. ‘This disappears at the higher tempera-
tures. E.m.f. is from stretched to unstretched at the hot junction,
corresponding to from uncompressed to compressed for the pure
pressure effect. This is the first example met of an effect of this sign.
The pure pressure effect was not measured.

Manganin. 'This was from the same stock as the pressure sample,
but not from the same piece. The range of tension was 1300 kg./em.?
The two samples, contiguous lengths, did not give the same sign for
the effect. The one showing the smaller effect reversed in sign with
changing temperature, at the lower temperatures being opposite in
sign from the more active piece, but at 98° becoming of the same sign,
although only 10% of it. The effect for the more active specimen was
not linear, but is less proportionally at the higher temperatures, and
at 32° actually passes through a flat maximum near # of the maximum
tension. The maximum values of e.m.f. for this piece were: 0.1,
0.25, 0.38, and 1.33 & 10° volts at 32°, 50°, 75°, and 95° respectively.
The direction is from unstretched to stretched at the hot junction,
corresponding to a pressure effect from compressed to uncompressed.
This agrees with the pure pressure effect.

DEPENDENCE OF THOMSON HEAT ON TEMPERATURE GRADIENT.

Although it is not directly connected with the immediate object
of this work, I nevertheless made experimental examination of one
other point, both because I was in a position to make the experiment
with comparatively little effort, and because this point is indirectly
involved as an assumption made in deriving the formulas used in
deducing the Peltier and the Thomson heats from the total e.m.f.
The assumption is always made that the Thomson heat depends only
on the temperature at a point, and not on the temperature gradient,
that is, on the rate of flow of heat. The existence of such a depend-
ence on gradients would mean the possibility of the existence of thermo-
electric currents in unequally heated circuits of a single homogeneous

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 379

metal. This effect was often looked for in the early days of the sub-
ject, and the concensus of opinion was that the effect does not exist;
whenever an effect like it was obtained, it was always explainable by
imperfect homogeneity in the metal. At the same time there seems
to be no reason why the effect might not exist, and it occurred to me
that with present apparatus we are in a position to push the limits
within which the effect must lie much further than before. The
circuit on which I experimented consisted of liquid mercury, and was
therefore completely homogeneous. The mercury was contained
in a quartz capillary; at the center of the circuit the capillary was
drawn. down with thin walls to perhaps 0.5 mm. diameter and 0.25
mm. thickness of wall. Over the neck in the capillary was slipped
a piece of tightly fitting mica. A simple arrangement allowed a jet
of water to be directed against the quartz on one side of the mica
and on the other side a small gas flame. In the mercury underneath
the mica there was, therefore, an intense temperature gradient. The
two ends of the quartz capillary were led to an ice bath, and from this
connection made through copper leads to a galvanometer. There
was therefore no chance for thermo-electric action unless there were
one due to the temperature gradient. The galvanometer was a very
sensitive Thomson galvanometer constructed by Coblentz; I owe the
opportunity to use it to the kindness of Dr. I. Gardner. With this
I could establish that there was no e.m.f. in the mercury of as much
as 3 X 10" volts, up to temperature gradients steep enough to vapo-
rize the mercury at one end of the constriction in the capillary. Care
had to be taken in establishing this result; for example, if the part
of the circuit containing the gradient is not horizontal, an effect will
be found due to the effect of pressure differences on thermo-electric
quality.

The effect, if it exists, is therefore exceedingly minute. The
equations above show that if the effect exists consequences with
regard to other effects are involved. We have the equation

d (Pap

a
Hence if o, for example, depends on the temperature gradient, then
Pap must also, or the Peltier heat would depend on the total quantity
of heat flowing into the junction. Such an effect has not been ob-
served, and therefore inferentially the Thomson heat is independent
of temperature gradient. However, the observations on Peltier heat
have presumably been no more accurate than those on the freedom of
total e.m.f. from effects of gradient.

) +4 (ca— ox) = 0

380 Seen

GENERAL SURVEY OF RESULTS. :

The first impression given by the measurements under pressure
is of bewildering and perhaps hopeless complexity, but there are
nevertheless certain uniformities and normal types of behavior. Let
us for the first discussion disregard detail and take as a measure of the
effects the maximum e.m.f., Peltier heat, and Thomson heat listed in
the tables above. The normal effect of pressure on e.m.f. is positive;
there are only three out of 20 cases, manganin, Mg, and Co, in which
the effect is persistently negative to the highest pressures and tem-
peratures; and for only three other metals, Fe, Al, and Sn is the effect
negative over any part of the range. The range of values of maximum
e.m.f. is from +710 X 10° volts for Bi to —20.6 * 10° for Co.
Similarly, the normal pressure effect on Peltier heat is positive, that
is, heat is absorbed by the positive current in flowing from uncom-
pressed to compressed metal. There are only four cases of negative
Peltier heat under pressure, manganin, Sn, Mg, and Co. The range
of values is from 2960 X 10° for Bi to —90.5 X 10° for Co. The
Thomson heat under pressure is also normally positive, Co, Fe, and
Bi being the only negative cases. The range of values is from
220 X 10° for Zn to —280 X 10-8 for Bi.

When, however, we try to correlate the thermo-electric behavior
with other electrical properties of the metals we find complete lack of
connection. In table XLV the metals are arranged in a number of
columns, in each column the order being the order of relative magni-
tude of the property standing at the head of the column. In the first
place, the pressure effect on e.m.f. is not greatest for the most com-
pressible metals, as we might expect, but the effect is apparently
quite independent of the compressibility. Compare, for example,
the positions of Pb and Mg in the compressibility column with their
positions in the pressure e.m.f. column. It was pointed out in a
previous paper that the effect of pressure on resistance is approxi-
mately proportional to its effect on volume; this is shown in the
table by the similarity of the columns of compressibility and pressure
effect on resistance. There is accordingly very little connection
between the pressure effect on resistance and that on emf. The
conclusion suggests itself that there is little connection between the
mechanism which determines the thermo-electric behavior of a metal
and its electrical conductivity. This is further borne out by the lack
of parallelism between the columns of pressure effect on resistance
with those of pressure effect on Thomson and Peltier heat.

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 381

There is almost exact parallelism between the columns of pressure
effect on e.m.f. and on Peltier heat; these two columns differ only by
two single inversions, Al with Cu, and manganin with Sn. This of
course means that nearly all the total e.m.f. in a pressure thermo-

TABLE XLV.

THe Merats IN ORDER OF DECREASING NUMERICAL MAGNITUDES OF VARIOUS
PROPERTIES.

The horizontal bars in some columns show where the effect changes sign.

Temp. Thomson |Peltier heat} Pressure | Pressure | Pressure | Pressure

Specific Coeff. of heat against Pb effect effect effect on | effect on

Resist- Resis. 0O°— | at O° and.}| at 0° and | on resist- on Peltier | Thomson
ance 100° at 0 kg. 0 kg. O kg. ance E.M.F. heat heat

Bi Fe Cd Fe Pb i Bi
Cons. ADI Mo Cd Tl Zn
Man. i Mo Sn AN
Pb 5 i Zn Cd ; Cd
BI i g Au Mg Se Cons:
Fe Cu Zn Pd
Ni Ag Al Ret
Sn Ag
PEs > Au

Fe
Co Pd
Cd ; Pt
Zn . Cu
W Ni

Co

electric couple (that is, a couple of two branches of the same metal,
one compressed and the other not) is provided by the difference of
Peltier heat at the hot and cold junctions, and comparatively little
by the pressure effect on the Thomson heat. This has been otherwise

382 BRIDGMAN.

obvious from the fact that the relation between e.m.f. and. tempera-
ture at constant pressure has been in most cases approximately linear.

The columns of pressure effect on Peltier heat and Thomson heat
are not obviously related. Most striking is the transposition of Bi
from the head of one column to the bottom of the other; the pressure
effect on Peltier heat of Bi is the maximum positive, and on the Thom-
son heat the maximum negative. One draws the conclusion that the

TABLE XLVI.

Ration oF Maximum CHANGE oF THoMSON HEAT WITHIN THE RANGE 0°-100°
C anv 0 To 12000 xc./cm.2 to THomson Heat at 0°C anp 0 ke.

Sn — .81
a — .108
Cd + .0105
Pb oe)

Zn — .§1
Mg 0

Al +4.5
Ag + .041
Au + .0295
Cu + .0285
Ni — .017
Co + .013
Fe + .40
Pd — .0098
IRE —0.131
Mo + .013
W + .021
Bi — 32
Cons. — .0079
Man. + .O11

Thomson heat mechanism and the Peltier heat mechanism are not
intimately related. The pressure effect on Thomson heat inclines
to show parallelism to the pressure effect on resistance.

The thermo-electric behavior at atmospheric pressure (Peltier
heat against lead and Thomson heat) also shows little direct con-
nection with the pressure effects. There is no obvious connection
between other pairs of columns; the thermo-electric mechanism
seems to stand in a class by itself.

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 383

The magnitude of the change in the Thomson heat produced by
pressure compared with the total Thomson heat under atmospheric
conditions is of interest. The relative effect of pressure on the proper-
ties of most solids is comparatively small; for example, the maximum
effect found before on resistance was 14% for lead, and the effect on
volume is only a few per cent. We should expect a similar state of
affairs with the Thomson heat. This is true, except for the anomalous
metals. The total pressure effects with Al, Bi, Fe, Sn, and Zn, are
all of the order of magnitude of the whole effect at atmospheric condi-
tions, but the other metals show the smallness of the effect to be
expected. The results are shown in Table XLVI.

So far, we have considered the effects only in broad outline, but
when we come to consider the detailed variations with pressure and
temperature we find great complexity. The normal behavior of
e.m.f. is a regular rise with pressure and temperature; the slope of
the e.m.f. curves at constant pressure increasing with rising tempera-
ture, but the slope at constant temperature decreasing with rising
pressure. Fe, Al, and Sn are examples of complicated variations of
e.m.f. with pressure and temperature, and we have also met other
examples where the slope at constant pressure may decrease with
rising temperature, or the slope at constant temperature may increase
with rising pressure. As for the detail of variation of Peltier heat
or Thomson heat with pressure and temperature, so many different
types are presented that it is useless to try to enumerate them.

THe Entropy oF ELECTRICITY.

By an extension of a remark made by Professor E. H. Hall with
regard to the ordinary thermo-electric diagram, we may find a func-
tion giving the entropy of the electricity in the metal as a function of
pressure and temperature.

A couple composed of two branches of the same metal, one at 0
pressure, the other at pressure p, running between 0° and t° has a
definite e.m.f., E. E is a function of p and t. If we add to E (p,t)
E,p(t), that is, the e.m.f. against lead at atmospheric pressure, we

2

fe)
shall obtain a function & (p,t) such that i( =) is the Thomson heat
p
2

Oren y
sa) is the Peltier heat.

at any pressure and temperature and (

384 BRIDGMAN.

That is (4) - ie a
and (=) ay Ley
Op /t Opot
: ; GENT:
It is obvious that at), equal to the entropy of one coulomb of
D
electricity, because dQ = tds,
and

2) (8), La). } 2.) DL

If we had some means of determining the work done on electricity as
well as the entropy we would be in a position to completely determine
its behavior.

This function & gives at once the means of finding on the p, t plane
the slope of the lines of constant entropy. I have made this computa-
tion for all the metals listed above. As is to be expected, the line
assumes every possible slope. It thus appears that there is no simple
relation between the ordinary thermodynamic properties of a metal
and the thermodynamic properties of the electricity in the metal.

CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY.

In this paper measurements are given of the thermal e.m.f. of
couples composed of two branches of the same metal, one of the
branches being under uniform hydrostatic pressure and the other
branch at atmospheric pressure, the junctions between the branches
being at 0°C and some other variable temperature. The range of
the work covers 20 pure metals and 2 alloys, and all pressures up to
12000 kg./em.2 and all temperatures between 0° and 100°. From
these measurements of e.m.f. the Peltier heats and the Thomson heats
may be deduced by the ordinary thermodynamic reasoning as a func-
tion of pressure and temperature. By the Peltier heat of the couples
measured in this work is meant the heat absorbed by unit quantity
of electricity in flowing across the junction from uncompressed to
compressed metal, and by the Thomson heat of the couple is meant
the excess of heat absorbed by unit quantity of electricity in flowing
through one degree temperature difference in the compressed metal
over the uncompressed metal. With regard to these heats, my position

THERMO-ELECTRIC QUALITY UNDER PRESSURE. 385

in this paper has been that the ordinary thermodynamic argument,
by which the formulas have been deduced, allows conclusions only as
to the quantities of heat, and that no conclusion is justified as to the
local e.m.f’s. corresponding to these heats. Complete diagrams and
tables are given for the e.m-f., Peltier, and Thomson heats of these
couples.

The nature of the results was unexpectedly complicated. The
normal state of affairs is apparently a positive effect of pressure on
both Peltier and Thomson heats, but there are numerous examples
of negative effects, and almost none of the metals show regular varia-
tion of these quantities with pressure and temperature within the
range. Three metals, tin, iron, and aluminum, show complicated
variations of the e.m.f. of the couple, there being maxima and minima
with both pressure and temperature within the range.

The effect of tension on thermo-electric quality of a few of the 20
metals was measured, and the results again were complicated. In
general the pure volume effect on thermo-electric quality is different,
according as the change of volume is brought about by a hydrostatic
pressure or a tension. This is the reverse of the behavior of electrical
resistance, which is determined primarily by the change of volume,
regardless of whether it is produced by tension or hydrostatic pressure.

As a bye-product, the dependence of Thomson heat on temperature
gradient has been measured for mercury, and the possibility of such
an effect of gradient has been made more remote than before.

The unexpected complications found makes these results disap-
pointingly meagre in their suggestions as to the nature of the thermo-
electric mechanism. The conclusions are mostly negative in char-
acter. The most unmistakable inferences may be drawn as to the
untenability of the old gas-free-electron theory of metals, but this is
not now new enough to be worth the experimental trouble. This
conclusion was drawn 10 years ago by Wagner from his data up to
300 kg., and the results of this paper can add nothing to the conclu-
sions of Wagner in this regard, since our results are in essential agree-
ment over our common range. Further than this, the results suggest
most strongly that the thermo-electric mechanism must be compara-
tively complicated, that it cannot be at all of the simplicity imagined
by the free electron theory and that most likely the effects which we
measure are the resultant of different effects, which some times, at
least, work in opposite directions. What these effects may be, we
are not in a position at present to speculate.

In the projected paper mentioned in the introduction on general

386 BRIDGMAN.

considerations on thermo-electric action, it will be pointed out that
the data of this paper allow certain information to be gathered about
the behavior of various constants of thermionic emission under
pressure. The latent heat of vaporization of electrons, the density of
the electron atmosphere, and the Volta contact force between an
uncompressed and a compressed metal may be determined as a func-
tion of both pressure and temperature, except for an undetermined
function of pressure alone.

Finally, it may not be too daring to say that it seems to me that
much of my previous work on high pressure effects at least suggests
a direction in which we may look for the explanation of these compli-
cated effects. The thermodynamic properties of liquids under high
pressures and all the mutual relations of the polymorphic forms of
solids have been found to be quite as complicated under pressure as-
the thermo-electric properties above. I have shown in detail that
probably the properties of both liquids and solids are to be explained
in terms of the same agency, the effect of the characteristic shape of
the atoms, or, if one prefers to express it so, the nature of the field of
force surrounding the atom. It seems most probable that the elec-
trons in passing from atom to atom, or in playing about between the
atoms, may be subjected to forces changing in a complicated way as
the atoms are forced by pressure into positions of varying degrees of
adaptation to each others irregularities.

THe JEFFERSON PuHysicAL LABORATORY,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Vou. 53. No. 5.— Marcu, 1918.

THE DYADICS WHICH OCCUR IN A POINT SPACE OF
THREE DIMENSIONS.

By C. L. E: Moore anp H. B. PHIturprs.

rr

ey

THE DYADICS WHICH OCCUR IN A POINT SPACE OF
THREE DIMENSIONS.

By C. L. E. Moore anp H. B. Paituies.

Received, November 2, 1917.

In his Ausdehnungslehre, Grassmann gave a discussion of linear
transformations of space in which he considered each transformation
as determined by a Brucke,! or fraction. By using products which
he called indeterminate,? Gibbs showed that the transformations
could be determined by means of bilinear forms called dyadics.
These were applied to the study of linear vector functions in three
dimensions in the Gibbs-Wilson Vector Analysis. Extensions of this
to higher dimensions were given by Gibbs in his lectures on Multiple
Algebra an outline of which is contained in an article by E. B. Wilson.’
H. B. Phillips* applied the dyadic to the study of projective transfor-
mations ina plane. The fraction of Grassmann does not lend itself
readily to algebraical manipulation. This is remedied by the dyadic
of Gibbs. The symbol ¢ used by Gibbs does not, however, suggest
the nature of the particular dyadic or the invariants and covariants
determined from it. In the paper of Phillips a symbolic notation
was introduced by which the dyadic appears as the product of a single
pair of letters from which invariants and covariants and combinations
with other dyadics are obtained by processes of multiplication analo-
gous to the Grassmann products of space elements.

In this paper we have given an exposition of the symbolic notation
and have used it to discuss with some completeness the various dyadics
occurring in a point space of three dimensions. To aid in the under-
standing of this we first develop the elements of Grassmann’s analysis

1 Ausdehnungslehre, 1862, page 240. A good exposition of this is found in
Whitehead’s Universal algebra, Chapter VI. Book IV.

2On Multiple Algebra, an address before the section of mathematics and
physics of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, by the
Vice-President. Proceedings of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of science, 35. This address is reprinted in the Scientific Papers, 2.

3 On the theory of double products and strains in hyperspace. Transac-
tions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, 14, 1908.

4 Some invariants and covariants of ternary collineations, American Journal
of Mathematics, 36, 1914.

390 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

in three dimensions and apply the theory to the study of the complex
line. The dyadics are of four main types: (a) Those which transform
points into points or planes into planes, (b) those which transform
points into planes or planes into points, (c) those which transform
lines or complexes into lines or complexes, (d) those which transform
points or planes into lines or complexes and those which transform
lines or complexes into points or planes. The first class represent
the collineations and to this type belong most of the dyadics hitherto
discussed. The second class represent the correlations. The last
two types so far as we know have not been discussed before. These
are not in general contact transformations.

By means of double multiplication of two dyadics (one of which
may represent an identical transformation) we determine many
invariants and covariants. From the geometrical interpretation of
this double product we obtain a series of descriptive theorems analo-
gous to the Pappus theorem for the hexagon inscribed in a plane two-
line.

INTRODUCTION.
I. Matrices anp OuTER PRODUCTS.

1. Progressive Matrices. In a former paper® we gave an inter-
pretation of the products of Grassmann ® in which we represented
points, lines, ete. as rectangular matrices and expressed the products
as operations performed on those matrices. As those products form
a fundamental part of the present paper, we shall here briefly outline
the method there used.

Our space is a projective point space of three dimensions and so we
represent a point A by the matrix

A= || a a as a|| = || as | (1)

where dj, d2, 43,4 are the homogeneous coordinates of the point.
Two matrices of this kind will be called equal when their corresponding

=

5 A theory of linear distance and angle, These Proceedings, 48, 1912. _
6 Expositions of Grassmann’s product theory can be found in the following
places:
Ausdehnungslehre, 1862.
Whitehead’s Universal Algebra, Chapter I, Book IV.
Encyclopedia, French edition, Complex Number, tome 1, 1.
The treatment here given is somewhat different from any of the above.

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. 391

elements are equal. The matrix will be said to be zero only when all
its elements are zero. ‘

If two points A and B have coordinates a; and b; respectively
and a; = k b;, we shall write

A = kB.

Geometrically A and B are the same point. But in Grassmannian
analysis a point has magnitude as well as position. The magnitude
of A is k times that of B. In this paper we have no need to define
unit magnitudes and therefore have not done so.

A linear function of two or more points A, B, C etc. is defined by the
matrix

AA + pB+ 00 +...= || Xa; + wb; + ve; +...|| (2)

If the matrix does not vanish identically, it represents a point in the
space determined by A, B,C, ete. Conversely, any point in that
space can be represented in that way. For example any point on a
line can be represented as a linear function of two, any point in a plane
as a linear function of three not on a line, and any point in space as a
linear function of four not in a plane. If the matrix vanishes identi-
cally, and the multipliers X, u,v, etc. are not all zero, those points lie
in a space of lower dimensions than that determined by a like number
of independent points.

The Pliicker coordinates ” of a line are certain two rowed determi-
nants

Dikeos

a; a;
b; bi
in the matrix

1 Ay dz a |

| 4
|| bs be Ba ba |

(3)

where a; and b; are the coordinates of any two distinct points A and B
on the line. We shall represent the line AB by the one-rowed matrix

[AB] = || pe pis pis pos prs 33 ||. (4)

As above the matrix will be considered zero if all its elements are zero,

7 The facts concerning Pliicker coordinates and line geometry in general
which are here assumed are all to be found in Jessop’s Line Complex, Cam-
bridge, 1902.

392 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

that is, if the points A and B coincide. One matrix is a multiple of
another if corresponding elements are proportional. If P,Q are any
two distinct points on the line AB, [PQ] is a multiple of [AB]. For
numbers \y, As, M1, M2 can then be found such that

P=}\A+ dB,
Q = mA + mB.
From these equations, by use of (2) it is easy to show that
(eq) = |™™ | (4B),
1 Me |

Thus a matrix in addition to representing a line has a definite magnitude.

The sum of two matrices [AB] and [CD] is the matrix each element
of which is the sum of corresponding elements of [AB] and [CD].
In general the elements of this sum are not the two-rowed determi-
nants of a matrix of the type (3), just as the sum of corresponding
Pliicker coordinates of two lines are not in general coordinates of a
line. A matrix

|| Ci2 C13 C14 C23 Coa C34 | = || Cix || (5)

whose elements c;, are the determinants of (8) will be called simple.
Such a matrix represents a line. If, however, the elements c,, cannot
be so represented, the matrix will be called complex, we shall say that
this represents a complex line. The relation of this to the linear com-
plex will be shown later ($5). In what follows the word line will
always mean simple line.

If the lines AB and CD intersect in a point P, we can find points
@ and R on those lines and assign to them such magnitudes that

[AB] = [PQ], [CD] = [PRI.
Then
[AB] + [CD] = [PQ] + [PR]
= || pi(qx + rx) — pe(gi + rs) || = [PQ + BI. (6)

Therefore the swim of two intersecting lines is a line.
If the points A, B, C are not collinear, the coordinates of the plane
ABC are the three-rowed determinants of the matrix.

a, do Ag a4
by by bs bs . (7)

Cy Co Cz C4

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. 393

We shall represent the plane by the matrix
[ABC] = || a1 a2 as on || (8)
where a; is the coefficient of 2; in the expansion of the determinant

ay dy a3 4
by be bs b
Ci Co Cz C4
ti Vo V3 Ly |.

Linear functions of planes are defined as in the case of points. If
P,Q, R are any three points in the plane ABC, it can be shown as
in the case of a line that a number X can be found such that

[PQR] = ABC.

Thus [ABC] in addition to representing a plane has a magnitude.

From four points A, B,C, D we can form a four-rowed matrix.
Since this matrix contains only one four-rowed determinant, we shall
consider it as a determinant

ay Ag Ag a4
by by bs bs
C1 Co C3 C4 i

d, dz d3 ds

(ABCD) =

Such a matrix of one element we shall consider as a number and indi-
cate this by the use of the parenthesis in the symbol (ABCD).

2. Progressive Products. The most fundamental law of multi-
plication is the distributive law which can be stated in the two forms

(A BC = AC + BC:
AG= 0) 48 PC

The matrix [AB] has this property. For as in equation (6) it is easy
to show that

[(A + B)C] = [AC] + [BC], (9)
[A(B + C)] = [AB] + [AC]. (10)

Hence we consider [AB] as a product of A and B. The process of
multiplication consists in placing the matrix A over the matrix B
to form the two-rowed matrix

|
|

a Mh ag a4

by be bs bs

394 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

and from this determining the elements of the matrix [AB]. From
the definition it is clear that

[AB] = — [BA], (11)
[AA] = 0. (12)

Similarly the matrix [ABC] can be regarded as a product of [AB]
and C, of A and [BC| or of A, B, and C, the process of multiplication
consisting always in forming the matrix

|| ay Ag Ag 4
| by be bg bg

|| Cy €o C3 C4

and determining the matrix [ABC] by using the determinants in this
as elements. From this definition it is evident that

[A-BC] = [AB-C] = [ABC,
[AB(C + D)| = [ABC] + [ABD],
[ABC] = — [ACB] = [CAB].

The dot is used throughout our work to show the order of operations.
Thus
[A- BC] = [A[BC]].

Products involving the complex line will be considered in §5.

Since the coordinates aj, a2, a3, a4 of a plane can have arbitrary
values, not all zero, a linear function of planes is a plane unless it
vanishes identically.

The quantity (ABCD) can be regarded as a product of A and [BCD],
of [AB] and [CD], of A, B, C and D etc. Hence by definition and the

properties of determinants.
(ABCD) = (A- BCD) = (AB-CD) = — (ABDC), etc.

It is to be noted that the sign of (ABCD) is changed when two of the
points A, B, C, D are interchanged.. These products are called pro-
gressive because every additional factor increases the dimension of the
product.

If any of these products vanish it shows that the points lie in a
space of lower dimension than is determined by a like number of inde-
pendent points. For example if

[ABC] = 0

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. 395

then A, B, C lie on a line as can easily be verified by expressing the
matrix in terms of coordinates.

3. Regressive Matrices and products. We can consider space
as generated by planes as well as by points. If its coordinates are
a;, a plane a is represented by the matrix

a= || Q1 a2 a3 as ||.

The same plane may be represented by the matrix [A BC] of any three
noncollinear points lying in it. If a; is equal to the coefficient of 2;
in the expansion of the determinant (A BCX), we shall write

a = [ABC].

The line of intersection of two planes a and 8 can be represented by
the matrix

[aB] = Ilqsa qa2 G23 G14 a1 Qe |, (13)
where
_ _ | ae oe
eam ergs a

If the same line is the join of two points A and B, we know from line
geometry that the coordinates qi, are proportional to the coefficients

of the minors | . ie in the determinant (ABzy). If qix is equal to
the coefficient of | a; y; | in that determinant we shall write
[a8] = [AB].

Three planes a, 8, y intersect in a point A. The coordinates a; of
this point are proportional to the coefficients of £; in the determinant ®
(EaBy). In particular, if a; is equal to the coefficient of &; in that
determinant, we write

A = [ay].

There is a determinant (a$y6) of four planes just as of four points.
The matrices [a8], [ay], [a8y6] can be regarded as products. They

8 It is to be observed that the variable £ is put in the first row of this determi-
nant while in §1 we wrote for points (ABCX). This change is made in order
to make the reduction formulas agree in sign with the ones Grassmann gave.

396 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

obey the same laws as the corresponding products of points. These
products of matrices expressed in plane coordinates we shall call
regressive because each additional factor decreases the dimension of
the product.

If a regressive product vanishes it shows that the planes determine
a space of higher dimension than a like number of independent planes
determine. For example if

(aBy6) = 0

the four planes a, 6, y,6 intersect in a point as is easily shown by
writing the matrix in terms of coordinates.

4. Mixed products and reduction formulas. If the total
number of points in a set of progressive matrices is equal to or less
than four, the matrices are multiplied together as already explained.
If the total number of planes in a set of regressive matrices is equal
to or less than four, they are multiplied together in a similar manner.
In both cases the product is associative. If the total number of points
or planes in two matrices is greater than four, we have not defined
the product. In that case we replace each of the matrices by its
equivalent in complementary elements. We shall say that points
and planes are complementary elements and that lines are comple-
mentary to lines. For example, we could replace [AB] by [a8] where

[AB] = [af],
[ABC] by a where
[ABC a

etc. The total number of elements (points or planes) in the new
matrices will then be less than four and the product can be formed as
before. If the total number of elements is equal to four, the product
will be the same whether the matrices are expressed in points or planes.
If the matrices are of different kinds (one progressive, the other
regressive) we express one of them by its complementary form. Thus
in every case of the product of two factors there is a definite result
that has a meaning. We call this the outer product of the two factors.

The product of a line [AB] and a plane y is the point of intersection
of the line and plane considered as having a certain magnitude. For,

9 It is assumed here that the number of elements (points or planes) in either
factor is not greater than four.

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. 397

to obtain this product we replace [AB] by its complementary form [a].
Then

[AB]-y = [apy].

The result is the point in which a, 8, y intersect. Since a and £8 are
planes passing through [4 B], this is the point in which [A B] intersects y.

This method of obtaining the product is simple in conception but
not analytically convenient. We shall therefore give a set of reduc-
tion formulas by which the same results can be obtained in more
useful form. The proof of these formulas is not essential for our
purposes. Hence we give them without proof.1° The roman letters
represent points, the greek letters planes.

[ABC- DEF] = (ABCF)[DE] — (ABCE)[DF] + (ABCD)|EF]
= (ADEF)|BC] — (BDEF)[AC]+ (CDEF)[AB]. (14)
[ABC-DE] = (ABCE)D — (ABCD)E

= (ABDE)C — (ACDE)B + (BCDE)A. (15)
[a- ABC] = (aC)[|AB] — (aB)[AC] + (aA)[BC]. (16)
[a- AB] = (aB)A — (aA)B. (17)

Similar formulas can be obtained by replacing points by planes and
planes by points. The following formula

(ABCD)E = (ABCE)D — (ABDE)C + (ACDE)B —(BCDE)A (18)

and the one that results by replacing points by planes are also some-
times found useful.

5. The complex. Let A, B,C, D be four points not in a plane.
Any two points P;, P. of space can be expressed as linear functions
of A, B, C, D.

ag = MA == ba B == aC == pW,
P» = oA -- poB + oC + p2D.
Hence
[P:P2] = [(A.A + 11 4 61, -- piD) (2A + peB + oC + p2D)|
= (Aime — Ag) [AB] + (Aso2 — doo1)[AC] + [Aip2 — Api) [AD]
+ (uio2 — b201)[BC] + (up, — popr)[BD] + (o1p2, — o2p1)[CD].

This shows that any line is a linear function of the six edges of a tetra-
hedron. The sum of any number of lines is then obviously a linear

10 See Linear distance and angle or any of the works mentioned in note 6.

398 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

function of the six edges. These edges can be divided into two sets,
those through the point A and those in the plane [BCD]. The lines
through a point all intersect and so their sum is a line. For the same
reason the sum of any number of lines in a plane is a line. Therefore
the sum of any number of lines can be expressed as a sum of two lines,
one through an arbitrary point A, the other in an arbitrary plane [BCD
not passing through A.
We have said that a matrix

/ ger || Cio Cig C14 C23 Co4 C34 |

represents a complex line if the elements c,, are not the Pliicker
coordinates of a line. It can be expressed as the sum of six matrices

ken, O 0" 0 “0-0

, || 0 a30 0 0 0 ||, ete.

Each of these represents a line. Hence any complex line can be repre-
sented as the sum of six lines and consequently as the sum of two lines.
Any complex p can then be expressed in the form

p = [AB] + [CD].

By the product of p and any element I (point, line, plane or complex)
we mean the sum

[pl] = [ABI] + [CDT].
If p is expressed in a different form
p= [A’B’] a= [C’D’]

it is clear that [pI’] will have the same value as before. For example,
if [is a point the coordinates of the plane [ABT] + [CDT] are definite
linear functions of the sums

Ci d; |
Ck di. |

G's
ai; bi

and the coordinates of [A’B’T'] + [C’D’T] are the same functions of
the sums =

Since [AB] + [CD] = [A’B’] + [C’D’] those sums are by definition
equal.

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. : 399

If the sum of [AB] and [CD] is a line, AB and CD intersect. For, if

[AB] + [CD] = [PQ],
then
[ABP] + [CDP] = [PQP] = 0.

This shows that [ABP] and [CDP] are the same plane and hence AB
and CD lie in a plane and so intersect.
The product of p by itself is

[pp] = [(AB + CD)(AB + CD)| = 2(AB CD).

If p is a complex line [AB] and [CD] do not intersect and so (ABCD)
is not zero. If, however, p is a line [AB]

(pp) = (AB- AB) = 0. (19)
Hence the necessary and sufficient condition that a matrix

ya | Cik |
represent a simple line is

(pp) = 0.

p = [AB] + [CD]

Let

be a complex line and
R=") DO
be a line. The equation
(pl) = (ABXY) + (CDXY) = 0
is a linear equation in the coordinates

Li Xk
Yi Yk

of the line /. Hence the lines satisfying this equation constitute a
linear complex. This complex is the totality of lines / satisfying the
equation

(pl) = 0. (20) —
This is a different thing from p which in a sense is the envelope of the

lines just as a point in a plane is different from the set of lines passing
through it. For this reason we call p a complex line to distinguish it

400 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

from a linear complex. Where no ambiguity results we shall use the

word complex for either the complex line or the linear complex.
A complex p can be represented as a linear function of two lines of

which one, /, can be any line not belonging to the linear complex,

(pl) = 0.
For a number ) can be found satisfying the equation.
[(p — N)(p — N)] = (pp) — 2d(pl) + 2(U1) = 0. (21)

Since / is a line, by (19), (//) = 0. Also by assumption (pl) is not zero.
Hence if

_ (ep)
(pl)’
p=N+.

The two lines / and I’ are said to be polar with respect to the complex.
Any line of the complex that intersects one of them will intersect the
other also. For, if qis a line of the complex cutting /,

(pq) = 0, = (Ig) = 0.
Hence from the equation
(pq) = Ag) + Ug)

it is seen that (l’¢) = 0 and so q intersects /.
Let P be any point and

p = [AB] + [CD]

p — Nis aline l’ and so

a complex. Then

[Pp] = [PAB] + [PCD] (22)
isa plane. If Q is any point in this plane
(PpQ) = (p- PQ) = 0.

Hence [PQ] is a line of the complex. All lines passing through P
and lying in the plane [Pp] therefore belong to the complex. Hence
[Pp] is what is known as the polar plane of P with respect to the complex.
Similarly, if a is any plane

[ap]

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. 401

is what is called the pole of a with respect to the complex. All the
lines of the complex, lying in the plane a, pass through the point [ap].
If / andl’ are polar lines with respect to p,

p=rAN+al.
If then X is a point on /, [X/] = 0 and so
[Xp] = wl XV]

which shows that the polar plane of X with respect to p contains the
line U’.

If the product (pq) of two complexes p and q is zero, the complexes
are said to be in involution. In this case we shall say that the two
complexes intersect from analogy with the case of two lines which
intersect if their product is zero.

If two lines h;, /2 satisfy a linear relation

+r b = 0, Mu, 2 AO
they coincide in position. If three lines satisfy a linear relation
Aili + Yolo + Asls = O Aide, or As # O

any line cutting two of them cuts the third and so they belong to a
plane pencil. If four lines satisfy a linear relation

Aly + rele + Asls +-Aals = O Aidg,Ag, or Ay ~ O

any line cutting three cuts the fourth also. Hence they belong to the
same system of generators on a quadric. If five lines satisfy a linear
relation, the two lines cutting four of them will cut the fifth also and’
so they belong to a linear congruence. If six lines satisfy a linear
relation they belong to a linear complex.

Similarly if two’ complex lines satisfy a linear relation the linear
complexes represented by them are identical.

If three complex lines satisfy a linear relation, the linear complexes
have a common congruence. If four complex lines satisfy a linear
relation, the complexes have one system of generators on a quadric
surface in common. If five satisfy a linear relation, the complexes
have two lines in common. If six complex lines satisfy a linear rela-
tion the complexes are in involution with a fixed complex.

402 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

II. Dyanics.

6. The indeterminate product. Grassmann! showed that
there are four kinds of products characterized by laws which are the
same for units and for any linear functions of the units. These are
the algebraic, AB = BA, combinatory AB = — BA, that in which all
products are zero, and that in which there is no relation between the
products of independent units. Grassmann discussed the first two
in detail, but it was left to the genius of Willard Gibbs to recognize
the importance of the last. Because of the indefinite character of the
result he called it the indeterminate product.

We represent the indeterminate product of A and B by the notation
AB. By definition this product obeys the following laws.

AB + CD = CD + AB,
(AB+ CD) + EF = AB+ (CD + EF),
NAB + pAB = (A+ w)AB,
A(B+ C) = AB+ AC,
(A+ B)C = AC + BC,
\AB = (AA)B = A(AB),
0-AB = 0,

where A and B are extensive quantities (points, lines, planes or com-
plexes) and \, » numbers. If the factors A and B of AB are replaced
by equivalent expressions, and the product expanded by the above
laws the sum of terms obtained is said to be equal to AB.

Gibbs called the product AB a dyad. If Aj, Ao, A3,....An are
extensive quantities of the same kind (points, lines, complexes, or
planes) and B,, Bo, B;,...B, extensive quantities of the same kind,
the sum

® = A,B, -+ Ay By + ate te SAAS

is called a dyadic. The A’s are called the antecedents and the B’s
the consequents of the dyadic.
There are two products of a dyad AB and an extensive quantity C.
These are
AB-C = A[BC),
C-AB = [CA]B.

11 Ausdehnungslehre, chapter 2, page 33.

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. - 403

Similarly there are two products C® and ®C of C and a dyadic ®.
These are obtained by multiplying C and each dyad of ® as above and
adding the results.

If X is complementary to the consequents

exe (A(t) 2 Oat) hE AR)

is an extensive quantity of the same kind (dimensions) as the ante-
cedents. Hence
y= Os

is a linear transformation in which to each element X corresponds an
element Y of the same kind as the antecedents. It can be shown that the
most general linear transformation of these elements can be expressed
in this way. Similarly if Y is complementary to the antecedents

. Y=X@

is a transformation of elements X into elements Y of the same kind
as the consequents.

In this paper we shall consider the following types of dyadics.

(a) The one-one dyadic, in which the antecedents and conse-
quents are both points.

(b) The three-three dyadic, in which the antecedents and conse-
quents are both planes.

(c) The one-three dyadics, in which the antecedents are points and
the consequents are planes.

(d) The two-two dyadics, in which the antecedents and conse-
quents are both lines or complexes.

(e) The one-two and two-one dyadics.

(f) The two-three and three-two dyadics.

7. Idemfactors. A dyadic I such that
XG" PX) (24)

for all elements X of a given kind, is called an zdemfactor. In this
case the antecedents and consequents must be complementary in
kind. Therefore there are three idemfactors, a one-three, a three-one
and a two-two.

There is only one idemfactor of each of these types, For, if I, and Ip
are dyadics such that

X= 1X, AX = 1X,
then
Ce 1 yea [,)X = 0.

404. MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

Since this is true for all elements X of the same kind, that is, of the
same dimension it is easy to show that

I, — I, = 0,

which shows that J; and J» are identical.
If £ is complementary to X, the idemfactor J in (24) satifies the
equation
£= <1.
For, if we multiply each side of (24) by & we get

(EX) = -IX) = (I-X).
Hence
[(é — &1)X] = 0
for all elements XY and so
é—i7=0.

8. Conjugate, self-conjugate and anti-self-conjugate dy-
adics. The dyadic ®, obtained by interchanging the antecedents and
consequents of ® is called the conjugate of ®. Thus if

® A,B, + AcBo +....+ AnBz,
Uma ee ee loyally a gee dls

If X is complementary to the consequents, it is clear that

@X = + X®G,.

The sign is plus or minus according as [X B,] is equal to [B;X] or to its
negative. Similarly if y is complementary to the antecedents

. yh = = @-y.
A dyadic ® is called self-conjugate if
= ®,

and anti-self-conjugate if
@= — ,.

In each case the antecedents and consequents must be quantities of
the same kind. Any dyadic whose antecedents and consequents are
quantities of the same kind can be expressed as the sum of a self-conjugate
and of an anti-self-conjugate dyadic. For.

b=} @+8)+}@-4,)

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. 405

and it is clear that >( + ®,) is self-conjugate and 4 (6 — ®,) anti-self-
conjugate.

The one-three idemfactor is minus the conjugate of the three-one
and vice versa, because if ® is the three-one idemfactor a® = a, or
a= —®,a, since [aAd;] = — [Aja]. The two-two idemfactor is
self-conjugate.

9. Products of two dyadics. By the product AB-CD of two
dyads AB and CD is meant the indeterminate product A[BC]|D
obtained by taking the outer product (see £4) of the adjacent factors
B,C. In case [BC] is not a number, the result is an indeterminate
product of three factors or a triad. If [BC] is a number, it is commuta-
tive with A and the result is the dvad (BC) AD. Similarly the product
of three dyads AB, CD, EF is defined as

AB-CD-EF = A[BC|[DE|F
and the product of two dyads and an extensive quantity FE is
AB-CD-E = A|BC||DE]

etc. In each case it is clear that the product is associative so far as
dyads or dyads and extensive quantities are concerned.

The product @Y of two dyadics is defined as the result of multi-
plying each dyad of ® by each dyad of W and adding the results.
Similarly the product of three or more dyadics is obtained by multi-
plying them distributively. Since the product of dyads is associ-
ative, the product of dyadics is associative.

We have seen that the dyadic W as an operator transforms extengive
quantities XY complementary to the consequents into extensive quan-
tities WX of the same dimension as the antecedents. Jf the conse-
quents of ® are complementary to the antecedents of V, PW is a dyadic
which as an operator is equivalent to the operator WV followed by the
operator ®. For if

by the associative law
Z=@-WX = OV-X.

In the same way, if X is complementary to the antecedents of 6, XY
is equivalent to the transformation X® followed by W as postfactor.

406 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

Tf the consequents of ® are complementary to the antecedents of
an idemfactor J,

pl = ®,
For, if
p = A,B, + AoB, +....+ AUB.

by the definition of an idemfactor

BI = B;,
and so

= A,B, a AoBy +. Sad ARB. = ®,

Similarly if the consequents of J are complementary to the antecedents
of ®,

Id = ©.
If there exists a dyadic Y such that

oy = [
or
Vi = [

® and W are said to be inverse dyadics. In many cases these two
relations of Y and ® will be equivalent, but there are some cases in
which they are not.

10. Symbolic Notation. If we write a dyadic as
(A) A,B, + ApoB, + boo + ALB, = LA;B;,
the products of the dyadic with an extensive quantity X are

(Bi 0 AG BEX = ASB ee ata =o Aa
(C) [XA] By = [X Ay] By aight [XA,]Bn ae =[XA,JB;.

Similarly if x
(D) CD, + C.D. +....+ CrzDa = 2C,D;
is a second dyadic, the products of the two dyadiecs are

(E) 2A [BCr|D:, Zin |D :Ar|Br.

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. 407

With a dyadic is associated a number or extensive quantity
(F) [A,By] + [42B.] +....+ [A4nBr] = 2[A:Bi]
and the product of this with an extensive quantity a is
(G) [4:Bi-a] + [42Bo-a] +....+ [4,B,-a] = Z[A:B;-al.

Now if we observe the above relations (A) to (@) we will see that a
similarity runs throughout which can be made the basis of a symbolic
notation. This consists in replacing 2A;B; by a symbolic dyad AB
and =C;D; by a symbolic dyad CD. We then have

AB = TA;B,,
A[BX] = 2A{B;X],
[XA]B = 3[X4 JB,

CD = ZC D;,

AB-CD = ZA{B:Ci|D;,
CD-AB = XC {D;Ax|B:,
[AB] = =[A,B)],
[AB-a] = >[A;B;-al.

The symbolism consists in each case in omitting the summation sign
and the subscripts. Conversely each symbolic expression is equiva-
lent to the non-symbolic form obtained by introducing summation
signs and attaching subscripts to the proper letters.

By this notation operations on dyadics appear like operations with
simple dyads and the results can be expanded and handled much the
same as ordinary extensive quantities. Thus if A; and B; are points
and aa plane, the last expression can be expanded in the form

[AB-a] = >[A;B;-a] => D(A ja) B; = >(B ja) Ai,
and if we put 2(A,a)B; = (Aa)B, 2(Bia)A, = (Ba)A, we have
[AB-a] = (Aa)B — (Ba)A,

which follows the ordinary Grassmann formula for expansion of a

product.
Two dyadics AB and CD have a double product defined by

AB:CD = [AC] [BD].

The significance and properties of these double products will be dis-
cussed later.

408 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

It is clear that these symbolic forms will not be ambiguous if each
of the letters A, B, C, D does not occur more than once in a product.
If the same dyadic occurs more than once in a product, we represent
it in each of its positions by a different pair of letters. Thus to obtain
the product of AB with itself, we let AB = A’B’ and so write the
result in the form

A[BA’|B’ = DA {B;Ax|By
If we write it in the form A[BA]B it is not clear whether this means
A[BA’|B’ or A[B’A’|B. It is evident also that a product containing
one of the letters A or B without the other, such as
[AC]D

has no significance.

11. The one-three ond three-one dyadics. These dyadics
have been investigated quite extensively by Gibbs,? Wilson? and
Phillips.* We shall therefore state only a few facts about them.

A one-three dyadic has the form

BB = BiB, + BoB, +....+ BnBn

where the B’s are points and the f’s planes. Since the planes can be
expressed as linear functions of any four not passing through a point,
the dyadic can be expressed in the simpler form,

BB = BiB: + BoP, + BsB3 + BBs,

where (1, 62, 63, 64 are any four planes not passing through a point.
In the same way instead of the four planes, the four points Bi, By
B3, Bs could be assigned arbitrarily.

As an operator on points X, this dyadic gives a collineation

Y = BBX) = BBX) + Bo(QoX) + Bs(B3X) + Bs(B.X).
If X is the intersection of the planes f2, 63, 64
X = [68384], (2X) = (83X) = (81X) = 0,

and

Y = B,(B:628364).

Hence the vertices of the tetrahedron 1, Be, 83, 84 pass by the collinea-
tion into the points By, Bo, Bs, B,.

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. . 409

Let Ai, Ao, As, As, be four points, not in a plane, with magnitudes
so chosen that

(A, A424 3A 4) = ill.

Let [A,A2A3] = as, [4,A2A4] = —as,
[A,43A4] = Q2, [42A3A 4] = Chil

It is then easily seen that

la; A=, 1 lee, tek (25)
la; AJ=0, 1%}. (26)

Four points A; and four planes a; satisfying these equations are said
to form a reciprocal system.’
If the points A; and the planes a; form a reciprocal system, the
dyadic
I = Aja; + Asag + Azaz3 + Asag (27)

is an idemfactor. For equations (25), (26) show that
TA; = A;
Since any point X can be expressed in the form
X = mA, + mAo + 7343+ 24As,
it follows that
TX = 2A, + mA + 2343+ 24d, = X.

If the antecedents are points lying in a plane or the consequents
are planes passing through a point, the dyadic is called singular.
Suppose Bi, Bo, Bs, Bs lie in a plane. Then Ps can be expressed as a
linear function of P;, Po, P3. Hence the dyadic

BB = ByB, + Bobs + B383 + BBs
can be written in the form
By, = By + Beyo + Bsy3. (28)
12 The reciprocal system was fundamental in Gibbs’ work on dyadics. See

Gibbs-Wilson Vector Analysis. Also the paper by Wilson mentioned in
note 3.

410 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

A similar result will be obtained if the planes 8; pass through a point.
Hence any singular dyadic can always be expressed as the sum of
three dyads. Conversely if the dyadic can be expressed in this form,
it is evidently singular.

If X is the point of intersection of the planes 1, ye, y3 in (28)

BBX) = 0.

If a one-three dyadic is singular there is then a point X such that B (BX)
is zero. Conversely, if there is such a point the dyadic is singular.
For, if

B(BX) a By (6X) ae Bo(B.X) = B3(B3X) se B,(84X) =0

either (6X) = (6X) = (83X) = (64X) =O and the four planes
pass through the point X, or the four points B; satisfy a linear relation
and so lie in a plane.

If a one-three dyadic ® is not singular it has an inverse ®-! such that

66-1 = [J = op (29)
is the one-three idemfactor. To show this, let
® = BiB; + BoP. + B383 + BBs.

Since B,, Bs, B3, By do not lie in a plane, we can associate with them
four planes 1, Y2,Y3, Ys such that the points and planes form a
reciprocal system. Similarly let Ci, C2, C3, C4 form with 1, Bo, Bs, Ba
a reciprocal system. Then

(yi:Bi) = (6.Ci) = 1 (30)
(y:B;) = (B:C;) = 0, LA j.
Using these equations it is easy to show that
@-1 = Cry + Coy2 + Coys + Cavs
has the required property. Also
bh = [ = bh". (31)

The quantity
(BB) = (Bibi) + (BeBe) + (BsBs) + (BBs)

is called the scalar of the dyadic. It is evidently independent of the
form in which the dyadic is written. For, if the B’s and #’s are

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. - 411

expressed as linear functions of new elements B’; and 6’; and so the
dyadic is expressed in a new form, by the distributive law of outer
multiplication, the scalar of the dyadic will at the same time be
transformed into the scalar of the dyadic in the new form. The same
conclusion follows also from the fact that the laws of the indetermi-
nate multiplication are included among those of any distributive
multiplication whose operations are commutative with multiplication
by a scalar. Hence if an equation is satisfied by dyads, the equation
will still be satisfied, if the indeterminate products are replaced by
any such distributive products.

A function of a dyadic independent of the form in which the dyadic
is written will be called an invariant if it is a scalar, a covariant if it is
an extensive quantity or dyadic. In a similar way we define invari-
ants and covariants of two or more dyadics.

If the scalar of the dyadic is zero it was shown by Pasch }° that there
exist certain tetrahedra such that each vertex passes, by the colline-
ation, set up by the dyadic, into a point of the opposite plane and,
conversely, if any such tetrahedron exists the scalar of the dyadic is
zero.

The discussion of the three-one dyadic runs exactly similar to the
one-three of which it is the conjugate. As an operator it gives also a
collineation but in this case it is a collineation in planes instead of in
points. If the antecedents a; and the consequents A; form a recipro-
cal system, the dyadic

aA = [ayAy ob ar As -+- a3A3 + asAg| (32)

is the three-one idemfactor.

The scalar of a three-one dyadic is the negative of the scalar of its
conjugate (which is one-three) and consequently the vanishing of
this scalar has the same signification.

12. One-one and three-three dyadics. A one-one dyadic has
the form

BC = B,C, + BoC. +....+ Baln.

Since the points B,, B,,....B, can be expressed as linear functions
of four, the dyadic can always be reduced to the form

BC = B,C, ob BoC + B3C3 LE BC. (33)

13 Vollkommene Invariante, Math. Ann. Vol. 52, page 128.

412 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

Any four points not lying in a plane can be taken as antecedents or as

consequents.

As an operator on planes the dyadic gives a correlation which trans-

forms each plane £ into a point
X = B(CE) = By(Cié) + Bo(C2£) + Bs(C3é) + Ba(Caé).
If £ is the plane [C.C3C4],
(B.£) = (B3é) = (Baé) = 0,

and

xX = B, (C1C2C'3C 4) .

If then the consequents do not lie in a plane, the correlation transforms
the planes of the tetrahedron C; C2 Cz C4 into the points By, Bo, B3, Bs.

Since the antecedents and consequents of the one-one dyadic are
extensive quantities of the same dimension it can be expressed as the

sum of a self-conjugate and an anti-self-conjugate dyadic.
& = 3(@ + &.) + 3(@ — &,).

We therefore consider these two types of dyadics first.
A self-conjugate one-one dyadic can be expressed in the form

BB = BiB, ar B.B, tr B3B3 35 ByB,.

(34)

(35)

To show this, express the antecedents and consequents in terms of
four points, Ay, As, A3, A4, not lying ina plane. The dyadic will then

take the form
DA ixAiAr, 1, k — ik 2s 3; 4,

Since the dyadic is self conjugate

DrAxcA:Ax = DritAzrA;.-
Hence
Nik = Ani
Consider the quadratic form
DA :RUiLE

where the x’s are numbers. . Four linear functions

Yn = 2ilnmtmn

can be found such that

LA gkUiLE = Uae

(A)

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. 413

Let
By = Zing (E)
Using these values, let
EB. B, = DvirAd jAp. (F)
Since (F) is obtained from (EF) in the same way that (D) is from (C)
except that A;A; is not equal to A;A; we must have

Vik + vei = Aik + Ani = Zick. (G)
Also, since the left side of (F’) is symmetric
Vik = Vie | (H)
From (G) and (#) we get
Vik = NE

Therefore (F) is equivalent to
BB = DB.B, = Dri~A Ar.

A self-conjugate dyadic represents a polarity. For the transform of a
plane é is the point
X = B(BéE) = Bi(Bié) + Bo(Boé) + Bs(Bs&) + Ba(Bué). (36)
This point is the pole of & with respect to the quadric surface
(Bi é)? + (Boé)? + (Bsé)? + (Baé)? = 0.
The points B,, Bo, B;, Bs form a self-polar tetrahedron with respect
to the quadric. For, the pole of the plane [B,; By B3], from (86), is

B,(B,B,B2B3) + Bo(B2B,B2B3) + B3(B3BiB.B3) + By(BsB,B2B3) =
— Bs(BiB2B3B,).

Thus the pole of [B,B.B3] is the point B, and similarly with the other
faces of the tetrahedron.

An anti-self-conjugate dyadic represents a null-system. For if,
BC = BiC, + B.C, + B3C3+ Bil,
is anti-self-conjugate,
DBC; = —=C.B; = $2(BC; — C;B,).
Hence

(EB) (CE) = 32{ (EBs) (C€) — (ECi)(Bé)} = O.

414 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

For (£B;) = —(Bié), (EC) = —(C.é) and since these products are
numbers they are commutative. Since (&B)(C£) = [&-B(C)], this
shows that B(Cé) is a point in the plane &. Every plane £ therefore -
passes by the correlation

X = BC)

into a point lying on &. The correlation is therefore a null-system.
As an operator on planes the anti-self-conjugate dyadic gives the same
result as finding the poles of the planes with respect to the complex

3 p = 5[BiC\] + [B2C2] + [BsCs] + [B.C4]}
or
[pt] = 32[B.C €] = 32{ (EBC; — (EC)B,} =

31(EB)C — (EC)B}
52(BC; — CiBi)E = 3(BC — CBE.

This transformation therefore transforms each plane into its pole with
respect to the complex p.

We have seen that any dyadic is the sum of two, one of which is
self-conjugate representing a polarity, the other anti-self-conjugate
representing a null system. The dyadic transforms any plane & into
a point

B(Cé) = 3{B(Cé) + C(BE)} + 31 B(Cé) — C(BE)}

on the line joining the points into which it is transformed by the
polarity (BC + CB) and by the null-system 3(BC — CB).
With a one-one dyadic is associated a complex (or line)

p = [BC] = [B,Ci) + [B.C2] + [BsC3] + [B1C4].

This is a covariant of BC as can be shown by the same argument
used to show that the scalar of the one-three dyadic is an invariant.
We shall call this the complex of the dyadic.

If BC transforms é into a point of 7 and 7 into a point on &, the
intersection of £ and 7 is a line of the complex p. For, if

(B(Cé)n) = 2(Bin)(Cé) = 0, (A)
(B(C-n)é) = =(BE)(Cin) = 9, (B)

then

(p-&) = D(BC;-&) = D{(Bé)(Cn) — (CE)\(Bien)} = 0. (C)

Conversely, through each line of the complex pass pairs of planes
that are transformed in this way. For, if [&y] is a line of the complex

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. 415

and the transform of £ is on 7, (A) and (C) are satisfied and so (B)
must be satisfied.

the transform of 7 will always lie on é if that of & lies on 7». This
indicates a polarity. In fact, if p = 0, (pé) = 0 and so

3(BC — CB)E = 0

where — is any plane, since the dyadic $ (BC — CB) gives the same
transformation as the null system set up by p. Then it is easy to see

that BC —CB=0 or
Os 6 Be

The dyadic being self conjugate represents a polarity. In this case
equation (D) shows that the four lines [B;C;] belong to the same
system of generators on a quadric. For it is a linear relation between
four lines. A polarity thus transforms the planes of any tetrahedron
into the vertices of a second tetrahedron such that the lines joining corre-
sponding vertices of the two tetrahedrons belong to the same set of genera-
tors on a quadric.

In general two sets of four points B;, and C; can be found such that -
two one-one dyadics ® and WV can be written in the form

G = BC, + BC, == BC; a B.C4,

WV = NBC, +- NBC, + A3B3C3 + NBC, ay)

where the \’s are numbers. For, in general, there exists a set of four
independent planes a; which transform by both dyadics into the same
set of four independent points B;. If we take the C’s as the vertices
of the tetrahedron formed by the a’s and properly choose the magni-
tudes of the B’s, the dyadics will take the above forms.

If the planes of a tetrahedron C1, Cx, Cs, Cs transform into points
B,, Bo, B3, Bs such that the lines [BC ;| belong to one system of generators
of a quadric, the other system of generators of that quadric belong to p.
For, if / is a generator of that second system, (1 B,C;) = 0. Hence

(lp) = =(IB,C;) = 0,

and consequently / belongs to the complex p. We shall now show
that such points B;,,C; exist. We have just seen that two dyadics
®,W can be reduced to the form (36). This form shows that ®

416 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

transforms the planes of the tetrahedron C,C,C3C, into the points
Bi, Bs, B3, Bs. Now let Y represent a polarity. Then the lines
[B,C] belong to a quadric. This shows that B,C; have the required
property.

The three-three dyadic is the dual of the one-one. It transforms
points into planes and can be expressed as a sum of four terms exactly
dual to the one-one. Associated with each three-three dyadic

a8 = aiBi + a282 + a383 + asa
is a covariant complex
P = [a181] + [a26o] + [a383) + [asB,).

As in case of the one-one dyadic it can be shown that if a8 transforms
a point A into a plane passing through B and the point B into a plane
passing through A, then the line joining A and B is a line of the
complex p.

13. Two-three and two-one dyadics. A two-three dyadic
has the form

gB = =q:8:,

where the §’s are planes and the q’s are either lines or complexes.
Since the planes can be expressed as linear functions of four not
through a point, the dyadic can be written

gB = Gi + @B2 + g383 + gab.

The consequents can be any four planes not passing through a point.
The antecedents cannot, however, be assigned arbitrarily. For, the
four complexes qg; in general have two lines /; and 2 in common. We
call these the singular lines of the dyadic. It is clear that (l.q)8 =
(hq)B = 0.

As an operator on points the dyadic determines a transformation of
points YX into lines or complexes

p = q(BX) = Bq.(6:X).

If the transform of X is a line,

(pp) = 2(qiqu)(BiX)(BxX) = O.

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. 417

The points that are transformed into lines therefore lie on the quadric Q,
whose equation is

=(qign)(BsX)(B.X) = O.

Points on a generator of the quadric transform into lines any one
of which is a linear function of any two others. Such a system of
lines is a flat pencil. Hence the points of a generator transform into
the lines of a flat pencil. If the quadric is not singular, take a skew
quadrilateral on it and let 81, B2, 83, Bs be the planes determined by
consecutive sides. Then ™, q, q3, q4 will be lines for they correspond
to the vertices of the quadrilateral (which are points of Q). Further-
more, gq; and q belong to a pencil and so intersect. Similarly q@
intersects q3 etc. The four lines therefore form a quadrilateral.
If J is a diagonal of the quadrilateral it cuts all the lines g;.__ Hence

(Iq)8 = 0.

The diagonals are therefore the same (being the singular lines of the
dyadic) whatever quadrilateral 6, 82, B3, 84 is taken on the quadric Q.
The flat pencils corresponding to points on a generator have their
vertices on one of those diagonals and their planes pass through the
other. All the generators of one system of Q give pencils with vertices
on one diagonal, all those of the other system give pencils with vertices
on the other diagonal.

Points of a plane transform into complexes with one system of
generators on a quadric Rk in common. Points on the intersection of
the plane with Q transform into the other system of generators of R.
If the plane is tangent to Q, points on the intersection transform into
lines of two plane pencils.

If Q degenerates into a cone, points on a generator still transform
into the lines of a pencil. In case of the general quadric, the pencils
corresponding to one system of generators have vertices on one line,
those corresponding to the other system have vertices on another.
In case of the cone, the two systems of generators coincide. Hence,
the two lines on which the vertices lie, coincide. This line belongs to
all the pencils and so is the transform of the vertex of the cone. In
this case the four complexes qi, q@, qs, g4 have only one line in common.

Two points X, Y are harmonic with respect to Q if

=(qiqz)[(BiX)(B.Y) + (BiY)(BcX)] = O.

2qi8i= ZqiB. = & = GB

Since

418 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

this is equivalent to
[bX -bY] + [SY -PX] = 2[bX-SY] = 0.

This expresses that the complexes ®X and ®Y that correspond to
points harmonic with respect to the quadric Q are in involution. And
conversely, if the complexes are in involution, the points are harmonic
with respect to Q.
With a two-three dyadic
gB = 2q:8;

P = [9:6 il.

This is a covariant of the dyadic. In order to obtain a geometrical
interpretation for it suppose (1, 62, 83,84 so chosen that the four
points [q,8;] lie in a plane. Then P (being a linear function of the
points [q¢;8;]) lies in the same plane. That is, if the vertices of a tetra-
hedron transform into four complexes such that the polar points of the
opposite planes are four points in a plane, that plane passes through the
point P. That such tetrahedra i, B2, Bs, 84 exist can be shown as
follows. Let

is associated a point

gb = mBi + gqoBo + g3Bs + qsGu.

If the points [q,8;] satisfy a linear relation, the planes 6; have the
required property. If not, at least one of the products [q:8x], 1 ¥ &,
must be different from zero. Let [q483] be different from zero. The
dyadic can be written

gB = “Bi + g@2B2 + (qs = dqa)B3 ar qa(Ba + X83).

Let a be the plane passing through [qS1], [qS2] and P. Since [q33]
and [qu84] are not equal [q.83] cannot equal both of them. Suppose
[q384] and [qu83| are different points. Then d can be chosen such that
[qiB1], [q28e], [(g3 — qs) Bs] and P lie in a plane. Since.

P = [81] + [q2B2] + [gs — @4)B3] + [qa(Bs + ABs)]

this plane must pass through: [q4(@1 + B3)]. Hence 1, Bo, Bs, Bs +
AB; have the required property.

The discussion of the two-one dyadic can be taken by duality from
the discussion of the two-three. The dyadic can be written in the
form

qB = GB. + @B2 + 93Bs + qaBu.

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. . 419

where the B’s are any four independent points. The q’s are not any
four complexes but four that have two given lines in common. This
dyadic transforms planes into lines or complexes. The planes which
are transformed into lines envelope a quadric whose equation is

(qiqx) (Bia) (Bra) = 0.

Associated with the two-one dyadic is a covariant plane whose property
is the dual of the covariant point of the two-three.

14. Two-two dyadics. A two-two dyadic has the form
TS = 1181 + Tesh. f+... -TnSny

the r’s and s’s being complexes (or lines). Since any complex can be
expressed as a linear function of six that are linearly independent,
the dyadic can be reduced to the form

TS = 1181 + TeS2 + 1383 + T484 + 585 + Tese,

in which any six linearly independent complexes (or lines) can be taken
as antecedents or consequents.

As an operator, the dyadic determines a transformation of complexes
p into complexes

p’ = r(sp) = =r;(s.p).

The lines that transform into lines belong to a quadratic complex g,
consisting of lines p satisfying the equation

[r(sp)-r(sp)] = 0.

Similarly, the complexes that transform into lines are the complexes
p satisfying this quadratic equation.

The lines of the quadratic complex g transform into the lines of
another quadratic complex g’. If two lines p and q of g intersect, the
pencil of lines p+ dg will, in general, transform into the pencil of
complexes p’ + dq’. If, however, p+ dq is the pencil of lines of g
which lie in a singular }* plane, p’ + Aq’ will, for all values of X,
represent a line. Hence the lines in the singular planes of g transform
into the lines in the singular planes of g’._ It is to be noticed that the

14 In general the lines of a quadratic line complex which lie in a given plane
envelope a conic. There are however # ? planes in which these conics degen-
erate. These planes are called singular planes. See Jessop, page 89.

420 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

dyadic does not, in general, set up a contact transformation, i. e.,
intersecting lines do not, in general, go into intersecting lines. What
we have shown is that the contact of pairs of lines in the singular
pencils of g is preserved.

The lines of a pencil p + dq, in general, transform into a pencil of
complexes p’ + dq’. In this pencil are two special complexes that
are lines. These correspond to the two lines of the pencil p + dq
that belong to g. The lines of a plane transform into.a two parameter
linear system of complexes. The special complexes of this system are
one system of generators on a quadric. These correspond to the
lines of g which lie in the plane (and so envelope a conic). Similarly,
the lines through a point go into a two parameter linear system of
complexes whose quadric of singular elements corresponds to the cone
of lines passing through the point and belonging to g.

Any two-two dyadic can be expressed as the sum of a self-conjugate
and an anti-self-conjugate dyadic. For

rs = Iris; = $2(ris; t+ sii) +3208; — sir, = 3(rs t+ sr)

+ 3(rs — sr).

The first term is seen to be self-conjugate and the second term anti-
self-conjugate.

A self-conjugate two-two dyadic is analogous to a polarity. For such
a dyadic rs we have the relation

r(sp) = (pr)s.
Hence, if

0,

(qr) (sp)
(pr) (sq) = 0,

that is, if p transforms into a complex (or line) in involution with q,
then qg transforms into a complex (or line) in involution with p.
Express rs in terms of six linearly independent complexes qi, g@,. - “6;

then

Ts — Laie iGk-

If the dyadic is self-conjugate

La ik iQe = VOindedi-
Hence
Qik = Aki.

Such a dyadic can always be reduced to the form

Aipipi + Axpop. +....+ AsPePe

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. - 421

the p’s being complexes or lines and the \’s numbers. This reduction
can be accomplished by the same transformation that reduces the
quadratic form

Da kik (A)
to asum of squares. Suppose, in fact, the transformation

Yi = Vwinre (B)
reduces (A) to the form

Ayr” + ayo” +... . + oye”. (C)

‘When we replace the y’s in (C) by the values from (B) and expand,
the coefficient of x;x;, will be

ck te ks
asin (A). Now let
Pi = Tpirde (D)
Then
Aipip1 + Aepope + ...-+ AsPeds (E)

will be equal to rs. For when we replace the p’s in (E) by their values
from (D) and expand, the sum of the coefficients of p;pz and pgp; in
the result (as in the case of the quadratic form) will be

Oni + Giz = 2aig.

Also from the symmetry of (E) it is clear that the coefficients of
pipz and pp; will be equal. Hence each is equal to ai, and so (E)
is equal to rs. In the manipulation of the dyadic and the quadratic
form the principal difference is that x;v;, = a,x; while pip, and pzp;
need not be equal. The above discussion shows that the reduction
to the sum of squares does not require that the individual products
be commutative but merely that the whole dyadic be self conjugate.
Any self-conjugate two-two dyadic can be expressed in the form

rs = (pips + papr) + u(prxps + psp2) + v(pspe + peps)

where pr, po... ps are complexes (or lines) and X, wu, »v numbers. To show
this, first reduce rs to the form

rs = MN + Aeqege +... -+ Aeqege-

493 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

Then let

p= Van + V = age

pa= Vadim — V — age

RP = Vdoge == V — daqs

Ps VAoge 7 V —Asqs

ps = VA3qa + V — Aedes

po= Vrd3qgs — V — dcGe
Using these values it is readily seen that

rs = 3(pipa + par) + 3(pops + psp) + 2(pspo + Peps).

If none of the quantities q1, gz, . . ., ge are zero this has the form required.
If p: is zero we can replace it by any complex and let \ be zero in the
expression

rs = (pips + papi) +...-.

Hence every self-conjugate two-two dyadic can be reduced to this
form, 71, P2,...p6 bemg complexes.

Every self-conjugate two-two dyadic can be expressed as the product
of a dyadic and its conjugate. That is, if W is any such dyadic, a dyadic
® = rs can be found such that

a
To show this reduce WV to the form

W = Xpipat paps) + (pops + psp) + v(pspe+ Peps). (A)

Let qm, @...Ge6 be the edges of a tetrahedron, qi and qs, gq: and qs,
gz and q¢ being the pairs of non-intersecting edges. Choose the mag-
nitudes of the q’s such that

[qq] = [qoq5) = [q3qel = |.
Now let

Dd = wiGipi + begepe +... .MeYePe-
Then

PO = pypya(prps + papr) + woms(pops + Psp2) + wsec(pspe + Peps).

Comparison of this with (A) shows that we can make ®,6 = WV by
choosing 1, we. . .ue Such that

Midas = X, Mois = My Mae = V.

By using the theorem just proved we can show that the complex g
of lines which are transformed into lines is a general quadratic complex,

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. ~ 423

i. e. any quadratic complex consists of the lines thus transformed by
some two-two dyadic. In fact g consists of all lines p satisfying the
equation

Beale |e. Plea eel 0

We have just shown that ® can be determined such that W is any self-
conjugate two-two dyadic. Now any homogeneous quadratic equa-
tion in the Pliicker coordinates of a line p can be written in the form

[pv p] = 0

where W is a self-conjugate two-two dyadic. Hence any quadratic com-
plex is the complex g of some two-two dyadic ®.

Suppose next, that ® is an anti-self-conjugate two-two dyadic.
Let m, q@....qe be six linearly independent complexes. Then ® can
be written

D = Laing ide.
Since
b= — 4,
Langiqe = — Vaingnqi
whence
Qik = — Aki.

The dyadic can therefore be written

= ay(Gige ora goqr) =e ai3(Qq3 r q3qi) =e ara(qigs ag qaqi) alee

Suppose one of the coefficients aj, say a4, is not zero. Let
Auapa = a1242 aia 01393 == 01444 = 01545 == 0164 65

Mii being an arbitrarily assigned number which is zero if the right side
of the equation is zero. By using this equation eliminate qs from ®
and so reduce it to the form

= Aua(qips =F pag) FRG ee

In this form q appears only in the term qps — qapi. The others con-
tain qe, Y3, 94, 75, qe. Similarly, if gq occurs in more than one of the
combinations q: qi — qzqi a new complex can be introduced such that
gq. will appear in only one combination. Finally q3 can be treated in
the same way. The dyadic will then have the form

B® = Ays(Qups — pagi) + ros(Qops — Psq2) + As6(G3pe — Pegs) +-

424 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

Each of the remaining terms contains p4, ps, or ps. A sum of terms
Ma(qips — Gapi) + res(qops — apo) +....

can be combined into a single term

Mia(pips = psp)
where
Nu4P1 = Aug — Aosge -{- bar 14 ot

Hence the dyadic can be reduced to the form
® = dua(pips — pspr) =e Nos (pops = Psp2) ar As6(p3pe 77 Peps).

The complexes pi, p2.. . ps can be taken linearly independent. If, for
example, ps were a linear function of the others it could be replaced by
this linear function and the dyadic would then be expressed in terms
of 5 complexes, pi, P2....ps5. The above process would then reduce ®
to two terms instead of three. This is a special case in which one of
the coefficients 14, Aes, A36 IS Zero.

An anti-self-conjugate dyadic ® transforms any complex p into a
complex in involution with p. For

bp = pe, = — p®.
Hence
[php] = — [php] = 0.

This expresses that ®p and p are in involution.

A very important type of two-two dyadic is that which gives the
same transformation of lines and complexes as a point collineation or a
point-plane correlation. The peculiarity of such a transformation is
that it preserves contact, that is, it transforms intersecting lines into
intersecting lines and complexes in involution into complexes in
involution. If ® is such a dyadic

Dp Pp, = pO Pp, = O
whenever
x Dip 0.
These are linear equations in the coordinates of p; and p2 such that the

first is always satisfied when the second is. Hence there must be a
constant \ such that

PP Pp. = Apipr.

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. ~ 425

If I is the two-two idemfactor this is equivalent to

plP& — XI |p = 0.
Hence
Did — Nie

Conversely, if this condition is satisfied the dyadic determines a collinea-
tion or correlation.

If a collineation or correlation is set wp by either a self-conjugate or an
anti-self-conjugate dyadic, the transformation is an involution. For
then

{D = Se aD.

Pp hi,
Hence

Cee Ul

which shows that two applications of the transformation ® gives
identity. Hence ® determines an involution.

II. Dous.e Propuwcts.

15. The double product 1° of two dyads AB and CD is defined as
[AC] [BD].

In general this is a new dyad. If one of the factors [AC], [BD] is a
scalar, it is however an extensive quantity. If both factors are scalars,
the double product is a scalar.

The double product of two dyadics

AB = ZA,B;
CD = XCD;

is the sum of terms
AB:CD = dIAC;| [BD;| = [AC] [BD]

obtained by multiplying the two dyadics distributively. Since the
products [4;C;] and [B; D;] are distributive, if the antecedents or
the consequents of either dyadic are replaced by their values as linear

15 Gibbs-Wilson, Vector Analysis, page 306. Wilson’s paper quoted above.

426 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

functions of other extensive quantities; the double product of the
dyadics in the new form will be equal to that in the old. The double
product is thus independent of the form in which the dyadics are
expressed. Hence it is a covariant of the two dyadics.

The geometrical interpretation of the double product [AC] [BD]
depends on whether [BD], that is [B;D;], is a progressive or a regressive
product. Suppose [BD] is progressive and X a space complementary
to [BD]. Express X as a product of planes &;,

a [E1é>. : Seale

Divide. the planes into two sets. Call the product of the planes in
one set a; and the product of the planes in the other set 6; and arrange
the planes in the sets so that

X = [a;8i).

If the sets are so chosen that 8; is complementary to D, the reduction
formulas (§4) give
[DX] = Zai(DBi),

the summation being for all combinations of the planes, Ob.. see
in sets a;,G8;. Therefore

[AC] [BDX] = [AC] [B- DX] = [AC]2(Ba;) (DB).
This result can be written
[AC] [BDX] = >[A(Ba;)C(DB;)].

This shows that if a; is transformed by AB and B; by CD and tf the trans-

forms are then joined, [AC] |BDX] will be a linear function of the joins.
This is true in whatever way X is expressed as a product of planes.

If [BD] is regressive we proceed as before except that X is expressed
as a product of points instead of planes. If B and D are of comple-
mentary dimensions, either points or planes may be used.

Suppose, for example,

AB = ZA.B,, CD = 2C 7D;

A;, B,, C;, D; being points. Let ZL be any line and &, &, two planes
through it. Transform &, by AB and & by CD. The result is two
points whose joinisaline p. Transform & by AB and & by CD. Let
the join of the corresponding points be g. Then [AC] [BD] transforms

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. - 427

L into a line or complex r such that r is a linear function of p and q.
Hence p and q are polar with respect to r (see $5). This is true for
every pair of planes & and & passing through Z. To find the complex
or line into which [AC] [BD] transforms L, we therefore find the complex
or line with respect to which p and q are polar whatever pair of planes
are taken through L.

As a second case consider a correlation AB and collineation Cy,A;,
B,, C; being points and y a plane. The double product

[AC] (By)

is a complex or line.’ In this case (By) is a number and so X must be a
number. If P;, Ps, P3, Ps are the four vertices of a tetrahedron we
may take

xX = (PiP2P3P:).

Transform P, by the collineation Cy and the opposite plane [P2P3P4]
by AB. Let the join of the resulting points be p;. Proceed in the
same way with the other vertices of the tetrahedron and the planes
opposite them. The above general discussion shows that [AC|(By)X,
and so, [AC|(By) is a complex or line belonging to the congruence deter-
mined by the four lines thus obtained. This is true for every tetrahedron
Py, Po; P35 Ps

As a final illustration consider the case of a one-one dyadic AB and a
two-two dyadic pg, The double product

[Ap] [Bq]

is a three-three dyadic. Let X be any point and &, &, &; three planes
through it. Let

Ri = A(Bé), mn = p(quéeés).

The join of R; and 7, is a plane [Rir|.. Permuting &, &, &; we get three
such planes. The three planes intersect in a point. By the above
general discussion that point is on the plane into which [Ap] [Bq] trans-
forms X. This is true for every set of three planes through X.

16. Double products with idemfactors. In particular the
double product of a dyadic ® and an idemfactor is an invariant or
covariant of ®. This is a special case of the preceding general dis-
cussion. For example let Aa be the dyadic determining the identical
point collineation and let

® = BB

428 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

represent any other point collineation. Then the double product

[AB] [af]

transforms any line L into a line or complex
= [AB](aB-L) = — [BA](a-BL).

Since (aL) is a pure regressive product. Furthermore, this is equiva-
lent to

— B- Aa-([BL] = — [B-BL] = [BL-8]

since Aa is the idemfactor. This complex is determined as follows.
Let XY, Y be two points on L and X’, Y’ their transforms by ®. Join
X to Y’and Y to X’.. Then by the general theorem of the preceding
section L’ is a linear function of the two lines thus obtained. That
is, these lines are polar lines with respect to L’. This is true whatever
pair of points X, Y are taken on L. This proves the following geo-
metrical theorem. Let X, Y,Z be any three distinct points on L
and X’, Y’ Z’, three distinct points on any other line. A dyadic
BB can be found which will transform X, Y, Z into X’, Y’, Z’. There-
fore the three pairs of lines XY’, YX’; XZ', ZX’; YZ', ZY’ are
pairs of polar lines with respect to a complex, namely, the complex
into which [AB] [a6] transforms [XY]. This is the generalization of
the theorem of Pappus for the hexagon inscribed in two lines in a plane.

The dyadic [AB] [a8] will represent a collineation if and only if
every line X Y transforms into a line X’Y’ cutting it. The collineation
BB then gives a transformation of lines which is a null system. By
§14 BB then determines an involution.

We can write BB in the form

BB = BICDE} = B [CDi Ej] + By[C2D2.E5} + B[C3D3E3|
+ BalCD4Ey).
Then
[AB] [a8] = [AB] [a- CDE].
[AB]{ (aE)[CD] — (aD)[CE] + (aC)[DE]}}
— B- Aa: {E[CD] — D[CE] + CIDE}}
— [BE] [CD] + [BD] [CE] — [BC] [DE].

This gives the dyadic in a form that does not involve the idemfactor.
The result can be obtained from

B(CDE|

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. . 429

by a symbolic multiplication of B and CDE analogous to the outer
product.
Again, let pq be the two-two idemfactor. Then

[Bp] [aq]
is a three-three dyadic which transforms any plane € into a plane
E = [Bp] (6q-&) = B-pq- BE = [B- BE]

To interpret this let XY, Y, Z be any three non-collinear points on &
and X’, Y’, Z’ their transforms by BS. Join X’ to YZ, Y’ to XZ,
Z' to XY. By the general theorem of the preceding section these
planes intersect ina point on’. This is true, whatever points X, Y, Z
are taken on & This involves the following geometrical theorem.
Take four points X, Y, Z, W in a plane, no three of which are col-
linear, and four points X’, Y’, Z’, W’ in a second plane. A dyadic BB
can be found which will transform X, Y, Z, W, into X’, Y’, Z’, W’.
Joining the points X, Y, Z and X’, Y’, Z’, W’ as above we get a point.
Similarly, Y,Z,W and Y’, Z’,W’ determine a second point ete.
In this way we get four points which lie in a plane, namely, in the
plane into which [Bp] [8q] transforms LX YZ].
If we write BG in the form

BB = BICDE|,

[Bp] [-Bg] = [Bp]{(qCD)E — (qCE)D + (qDE)C}
= B-pq: {[CD]E — [CE|D + [DE|C}
= [BCDIE — [BCE|D + (BDE)C.

This can be regarded as a symbolic product of B and [CDE] analogous
to the outer product.

Finally let aA be the three-one idemfactor. The double product
of this and the dyadic Bf is

(ba) (BA) = — b-aA-B = — (08).

When this is zero the scalar, or linear invariant, of the dyadic vanishes.
When the double product of two dyadics vanishes, we shall call them
apolar. 'To interpret this let Ai, As, Az, A4 be the vertices of a tetra-
hedron and ay, a2, a3,a4 the opposite planes. Let BS transform
Aj, Ao, A3, Ag into the points Aj’. A’, Az’, Ay’. The general theorem
states that (A;’a1), (Ae’a2), (A3’a3), (Aa’a4) will satisfy a linear relation.

430 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

If then three of these numbers are zero the fourth will be zero also.
This is Pasch’s theorem ?° that if a collineation represented by BB,
with sealar invariant zero, transforms each of three vertices of a tetra-
hedron into a point of the opposite plane, it will transform the fourth
vertex into a point of its opposite plane.

Let Aa and Bf both be idemfactors and let L = (XY) be any line.
Then

[AB](aB8-L) = [AB](ap-XY)

[AB]{ (aX) (BY) — (aY)(6X)}
A(aX)-BB- Y + B(BX)- Aa: Y
[XY] + [XY] = 2L.

Hence

[AB](aB-L) = 2L
and so

[AB] [a6] = 2pq

where pq is the two-two idemfactor. The double product of the one-
three idemfactor with itself is thus twice the two-two idemfactor.

The double product of the idemfactor Aa and a one-one dyadic CD
is the line or complex

[CA] [Da] = — C-Aa-D = — [CD].

We have called this the complex of the dyadic. The general theorem
states that if CD transforms the planes of the tetrahedron X1, Xo,
X3, X4 into the points Yi, Yo, Y3, Ys, the complex [CD] is a linear
function of the four lines [X,¥,], [Xe Yo], [X3¥3], [X4Ya4], that is, the
two lines cutting these four lines belong to the complex [CD].

The double product of the three-one idemfactor aA and a dyadic
CD is

(Ca)[DA] = DC-aA = [DC] = — [CD].

The interpretation of this coincides with that given in §12.

If [CD] is zero, the one-one dyadic CD represents a polarity. Thus
the condition that a one-one dyadic represent a polarity zs that it be
apolar with the one-three or three-one idemfactor.

The double product of CD and the two-two idemfactor pq is the
three-three dyadic

& = [Cp] [Dql.

16 Loc. cit.

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. — . 431

As an operator this determines a point plane correlation,
t = @X = [Cp] [DqX] = C-pq-DX = [CDX].

This is the correlation which transforms each point X into its polar
plane with respect to the complex [CD]. If CD represents a polarity
[CD] is zero and so the double product of CD and pq is zero. Hence
the condition that a correlation represent .a polarity is that i be apolar
with the two-two idemfactor.

Let rs be any two-two dyadic. Symbolically we may write this

rs = [CD] [EF].
The double product of rs and the idemfactor Aa is

(rA] [sa] = [CDA] [EF-a]
= [CDA] {(Ea)F — (Fa)E]
= OD: Aa-{FE — EF}
= (0D: FE — ar
= [CDF|E — [CDEIF.

This result has the same form as the product [CD- EF] where C, D, E,
F, are points ina plane. The dyadic determines a collineation which
transforms a plane é into the plane

= [rA](saé) = — [r-sé].

To interpret this collineation geometrically let rs transform the sides
[AsA3], [43Ai], [Ai Ae] of a triangle in € into the complexes py, po, p3
respectively. Let

a = [Aipi]
be the polar plane of A, with respect to p: and similarly let
a2 = [Apo], a3 = [Asps].

The general theorem states that ai, a2, a3, will intersect on 7. The
fact that this is true whatever points Ai, As, A3, As are taken on &
proves a geometrical theorem. Suppose for example rs represents
a collineation. By such a collineation four non collinear points A;
of one plane could be transformed into any four non-collinear points
B; of another plane. Join A; to By B3, Ao to Bz By, and A; to B, Bo.
The three planes intersect in a point. Similarly A», A3, Ay and

432 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

B:, B3, By determine a second point, ete. The four points thus
obtained lie in a plane.

The double product of the one-two dyadic B[CD] and the three-one
idemfactor Aa is the two-one dyadic

® = [BA|(CD-a]
= [BA]{(Ca)D — (Da)C}
= B-Aa-{DC — CD}
=O ROD:

To interpret this let B[CD] transform the lines YZ, ZX, XY of a
plane é into the points X’, Y’, Z’ respectively. Then ® will transform
the plane ~ into a complex

[BD](Cé) — [BC](Dé)

which is a linear function of the three lines YX’, YY’, ZZ’. Hence
the complex contains the quadric of these lines. If we take four
points X, Y, Z, W of & four quadrics will thus be determined which
all belong to the same complex. In this case the lines of the four
point will transform into points of a four line in another plane. Since
the dyadic can be so determined that this four line is arbitrary, this
shows that if the corresponding triangles of a four point in one plane
and a four line in another plane are joined as above the four quadrics
determined will belong to a complex.
If
[BCD] = 0,
[CD](Bé) + [DB\(Cé) + [BC](Dé) = 0

for every plane & Hence
[CD|B = [BD|C — [BC|D

which shows that in that case the dyadic ® is the conjugate of B[CD].
The double product of B[CD] and aA is the plane of the dyadic

(Ba)[CDA] = [BCD].

Let p1, p2, ps be three lines intersecting in a point of this plane. If
ps3 transforms into a point of the plane p; p2 and p». into a point of
Ps Pi. the general theorem shows that p; will transform into a point
of the plane ops. If [BCD] = 0 this will be true of any three lines
intersecting in a point.

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. — - 433

The double product of B[CD] and the two-two idemfactor pq is
[Bp\[CDql = [BCD].

17. Dyadics apolar to all the idemfactors. If the double
product of rs and Aa is zero, we may consider rs as analogous to a
polarity. In that case, if

rs = [CD]|EF|
[rA][as] = [CDF|E — [CDE|F = 0
and hence

. (CDF\|E = [DCE]F, (A)
Let X,Y be any two points. Then by direct expansion we get

(XYEF)[CD] = (XYCD)[EF] + (CDEF)[XY]
— (XCDE)[YF] — (YCDF)[XE)
+ (XCDF)[YE] + (YCDE)[XF].

But from (A) we have

CDEE) = (CDEP =;
Also
(XCDF)[YE| = (XCDE)|YF\,
(YCDF)[|XE]| = (¥YCDE)[XF\.
Hence
(X YEF)[CD] = (XYCD)[EF\.

Since this is true for all value ag X and Y
[EF|[CD] = [CD]|EF].

The dyadic is therefore self conjugate and its scalar vanishes. Con-
versely, if these conditions are satisfied it is easy to show that rs is
apolar to the one-three, the three-one and the two-two idemfactors.
It is thus apolar to all the idemfactors.

The double product of two polarities is apolar to all the idemfactors.
For let CD and C’D’ be two polarities. Then

(CD —-(E/ Das 0:
Hence, if Aa is the one-three idemfactor

[CC’- A][DD’-a] = [CC’A]{(Da)D’ — (D’a)D}

= — [CC’D|D' + [CC’D'|D = 0,

434 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

which shows that [CC’] [DD’] is apolar to Aa. It follows that it is
also apolar to aA and pq.

We have already noted that a one-one dyadic which represents a
polarity is apolar to all the idemfactors. The same is true of a
three-three dyadic.

If rs is apolar to the idemfactors, the double product of rs and a
one-one polarity CD is apolar to the idemfactors. For

[Cr- Ds] = [(Cr-s)D] — (Cr-D)S = 0

Similarly we can show that the double product of rs and a three-three
polarity is apolar to the idemfactors.
If rs is apolar to the two-two idemfactor py, its scalar

(rp) (sq) = (rs) = 0.

In this case the general theorem states that if rs transforms each of
five edges of a tetrahedron into a complex to which the opposite edge
belongs, the same will be true of the sixth.

We have thus shown that 7f any dyadic is apolar to the one-three or
three-one idemfactor, it is apolar to all the idemfactors and, excepting
the case of the two-two apolar to the two-two idemtactor, if a dyadic 1s
apolar to any idemfactor it is apolar to all. Furthermore, of two dyadics
are apolar to all the idemfactors their double product (if it is a dyadic)
as also.

18. Dyadics symbolically derived from a given dyadic. If
we write a one-three dyadic symbolically in the form

B(CDE]

we have seen that its double product with the one-three and the two-
two idemfactors are

— [BC[DE] + [BD][CE] — [BE}[CD]

and

[BCD]E — [BCE]D + [BDE|C

respectively. These can be considered as obtained by a sort of
symbolic multiplication of B and CDE analogous (except for a pos-
sible change of sign) to the outer multiplication.

Similarly, from any dyadic a series of dyadics are obtained. These
are all double products of the original dyadic with the various idem-
factors.

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. - 435

In a somewhat similar way from a line [BC] we get a dyadic

CB — BC.
This is the product

Ala: BC] = A{(aC)B — (aB)C}
= Aa:C-B — Aa-B-C = CB — BC.
This shows that if
[BC] = [DE]
then
BC — CB = DE — ED.

In this discussion [BC] and [DE] may be complex lines or simple lines.
If [BC] is a complex, the dyadic BC — CB gives the plane-point polar
transformation with respect to the complex.

Similarly, from a plane [BCD] we get two dyadics

* Ala: BCD] = B[CD] — C[BD| + D[BC]
and

[BCD-a]A = [CD|B — [BDC + [BOID.

The first of these as an operator on lines gives the point in which the
line cuts the plane. The second as an operator on planes gives the
line in which [BCD] cuts the plane.

Those same dyadics are also obtained by multiplying the plane
[BCD] with the idemfactor pq.

In the same way by considering a point as the product of three
planes, two dyadics can be determined.

19. Double products of dyadic with themselves. The
double product of a one-three dyadic

BB — B’p’
with itself is a two-two dyadic
[BB’| [66]

which gives the transformation of lines determined by the trans-
formation X’ = b(GX) of points. For, if 68 transforms X, Y into
X’, Y’, then [BB’] [86’] transforms the line LX Y] into a linear function
of [X’Y’] and [Y’X’], that is, into the line LX’ Y’].

Similarly, the triple product

*[BB'B") [66'8")

436 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

of BB with itself represents the same transformation as an operator
on planes. For, if BB transforms three points X, Y, Z into X’, Y’, Z’,
then

[BB’B”) [66'8"] = BB : [B’B”) [p’B"]

transforms the plane [XYZ] into a linear function of the planes
[X’Y’Z"], [Y’Z’X’], etc., that is into the plane LX’ Y’Z’].

In the same way it is easily shown that the double and the triple
product of a one-one dyadic with itself determine the same trans-
formation in lines and in points.

The double product of a one-two dyadic with itself is zero. For,
ii Ap = A’y’,

[AA’|(pp’) = [A’A](p’p) = — [AA] (pp’).

Since the double product is equal to its negative, it is zero. The same
is true of the double product of a two-three dyadic with itself.

20. Hamilton-Cayley equations. It has been shown by vari-
ous writers that a one-three or a three-one dyadic in three dimen-
sions satisfies an algebraic equation of the fourth degree called the
Hamilton-Cayley equation 1” of the dyadic.

That the two-two dyadic satisfies an equation of the sixth degree
might be inferred from the fact that the transformation set up by a
two-two dyadic in three dimensions can be interpreted as a transforma-
tion of points in a space of five dimensions. In general, there will
then be six linearly independent complexes left invariant by the
dyadic. Taking these as prefactors, the dyadic can be written

P= rs = pir + Aprge +...+ AcVege-
Since
r(spi) = MP1,

where py is constant, it follows that

(pig) = (pigs) =... = (pigs) = O.

Thus each p is in involution with all the q’s except the one associated
with it. If the p’s and q’s are lines, this is the configuration called a
double six. In general we may call it a double six of complexes.

17 Whitehead’s Universal Algebra, page 261. Bdcher’s Introduction to
Higher Algebra, Chapter XXII.

THE DYADICS IN THREE DIMENSIONS. : 437

If J is the two-two idemfactor, it is easily seen that

{6 — M(pig)L} + pi = 0.
Similarly,
{b — do(poq)I} + po = 0,

ete. Consider the product
W = {h — A(pign I} {® — Ao(pom) I}... {®@ — Ae(poqe) I}.

It is clear that
Vps = 0.

Since VY and J are commutative, any factor could be put last. Hence
Vp, = Vp,=... = Vp, = 0.

Since pi. ..p¢ on assumed linearly indepedent,
10!
When expanded this has the form
ApP® + A,h? +...+ Az — P+ Agl = 0.

This is the Hamilton-Cayley equation satisfied by the dyadic.

That a polynomial equation is satisfied by any dyadic whose pre-
factors and postfactors on dual may be shown in the following way.
Let R; and S,; be dual. Let R;...R, be linearly independent and let
S,...S, be linearly independent. Suppose

® = YAR S;,
WV — Lb RiSk

are commutative. Then
OY — Ub = Yh,i,(@R)S, — Au (VWR,)S; = O.

Since the S” are linearly independent, the coefficient of S; in this
equation is zero. That is,

by. (PR) — ay;.(@R;) +. 5 +t bnx(PRn) = Antz (VRn)
= (by. — Ayw)-R, +. ‘ + (bngP = AnwW)-Ry = 0.

438 MOORE AND PHILLIPS.

There on n such equations. Eliminating R:...R, as in solving
algebraic equations, we get

byP = anv, boyP = dV, 5555 bak — An
by = aw, DooP _ Ao, . sets b oP = Ano

= A-k; =

Similarly,
A-R, => A-R3 =o = (aNd Re = ()).

Since R,,...R, on linearly independent,
A= 0.
when expanded this has the form
AOE Ae eo l= A te ee

The coefficient Ao is the discriminant of V, and A, that of ¥. Hence,
if either of the dyadics is non-singular, the coefficients do not all
vanish. In particular, if V is an idemfactor, the equation becomes

Ab” + A,®&""! +. . -+A,1P — Aa —e

This is the Hamilton-Cayley equation satisfied by ®.

Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Vou. 53. No. 6.— May, 1918.

POST-GLACIAL HISTORY OF BOSTON.

By Hervey W. SHIMER.

POST-GLACIAL HISTORY OF BOSTON

By Hervey W. SHIMER.

Received December 13, 1917.

CONTENTS.
PAGE.
Introduction 5 bn) ey Sch ec MSE Bo lok bc ee, eee ZIZ EI
Dieseraaneor SeCHONS sw: ss. Shes cf Ok as pee
SRS DUlArRUSTROLSDeCCICS teen. <))..° . 0) Seen) 2 VO PAS
Notes on species 2 et =.) 2) ees Ss Pa Jel 2 OA ()
Conclusions bodies canara 5, 6 ii We Ree ad AG
Bibliography a rae Ue eo. | re Se otc ee GAGS
INTRODUCTION.

Tue time from the close of the Glacial Period, from the melting
back of the glaciers which lately covered this region, to the present,
is full of interest. For it is this post-glacial time which tells us of
our own immediate past; it tells us of the recovery by organisms of the
uninhabited glacier-covered lands. It gives us the history of these
organisms and through them of the topography and climate of the
region. Therecords of these organisms, in the Boston area, are mainly
preserved in the mud deposited here during this time. . This mud
was partly laid down in shallow fresh-water swamps but mostly in
sea-water, in inlets from the ocean. Naturally the majority of these
records consist of the remnants of plants, and especially of shells,
though there are also one or two records of early man.

One of the earliest persons to make a broad study of the post-glacial
fossil shells of Boston was Miss D. L. Bryant (1). This subject formed
the theme of her graduating thesis in geology in 1891 at the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology; it was pursued under the efficient
help of Professor W. O. Crosby. Unfortunately it was never published.
Later on during the same year, however, Mr. Warren Upham (3) used
Miss Bryant’s principal facts and conclusions (for which he gave
full credit) in the preparation of a paper on the “ Recent fossils of the
Harbor and Back Bay, Boston.” This is an excellent little pamphlet
full of information concerning these Post-Pleistocene fossils. In
1903 Protessor W. O. Crosby (2) discussed the bed rock of this area
with reference to the pre-glacial drainage, the deposition and subse-
quent erosion of the blue glacial clay and the deposition of the silt.

In the preparation of the present paper we have drawn freely from
these three pamphlets. The notes and the additions here made to

442 SHIMER.

the lists of species from Muddy River, Charles River and City Point,
as published by Warren Upham, are based on specimens in the Boston
Society of Natural History and the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, unless otherwise stated; these were largely collected by the
late Professor Henry W. Haynes. The principal original contribution
in this paper, however, regards the Back Bay region of Boston. The
recent excavation of the Boylston Street Subway* of the Boston
Elevated Railway Company gave many sections down through the
Post-Glacial mud to the Glacial clay. These sections and their in-
cluded organic remains proved so interesting that this record of them
was kept.

I wish to express my indebtedness to the following,— to the various
officers in charge of the Boylston Street Subway excavations, who were
always most courteous and helpful, especially to Messrs. L. 5. Stone,
J: Ho O’Connor; J! Ti-Erame; and FEF) o...Erchorn: to. Mr7G. WwW.
Johnson, Curator of the Boston Society of Natural History, for giving
me opportunity to study the Muddy River, Charles River and City
Point fossils in the Society’s collection, as well as for identification
of some species and aid in the revision of the nomenclature; to Mr.
F. N. Balch for permission to make use of his notes upon early colonial
records of shell-fish; to Rev. H. W. Winkley for his kindness in com-
paring our specimens of the Pyramidellidae with those in his large
private collection; to Mr. Wm. F. Clapp of the Museum of Compara-
tive Zoélogy for his helpful criticism, and especially for his discovery
and description of the minute new species of Vitrinella; to Mr. G. B.
Reed of Harvard University for examination of the peat; to Dr.
Willoughby, Curator of Peabody Museum, Harvard University,
for information concerning the fishweir found in the Boylston Street
Subway and for suggestions on the comparison of this wood with that
used by early man elsewhere; and to the Bostonian Society for
permission to make a copy of the DeCosta map (1775) of Boston and
vicinity, now in the Old State House.

The sections are arranged in order from that of Muddy River
(section 1) at the west to that of City Point (section 7) at the east
(see map).

DESCRIPTION OF SECTIONS.

1. Muddy River, from Brookline northeastward. The collee-
tions here were made mostly from a trench, averaging 16 feet in depth,
extending along Muddy River from Brookline to Longwood and then

* Completed in 1914.

POST-GLACIAL HISTORY OF BOSTON. 443

northeast to Charles River. The generalized section in this region
from above downwards is as follows *:—

1. Alluvium,— 5 feet at the Longwood Bridge to 12 feet elsewhere.
2. Peat,— averaging one-foot in thickness, containing stalks

Chelsea
Winisunit
Nahant Pt.

Charles Town
Noddles |.

Governors I.

Castle I.

7

Gy hy

Spectacte |

Boston and vicinity in colonial time. The De Costa map, 1775, (reproduced
by permission of the Bostonian Society) forms the basis of the above sketch
map. The dotted parallel lines, exclusive of those showing Harvard (Tech-
nology) Bridge, indicate the dams built by the Boston and Roxbury mill
corporation. The numbers 1 to 7 refer to the sections described in this paper.

of swamp plants, leaves of deciduous trees, and some shells,—
mostly Modiolus demissus var. plicatulus, embedded in some
sand and much mud.

3. Silt,— (no thickness given). Most of the shells noted in the
table below occur in this stratum immediately beneath the

* Arranged from Miss Bryant’s thesis.

444 SHIMER.

peat bed, crowded thickly together. The shells range almost
to the Boston and Albany Railroad station in Brookline;
there are none to the southwest of this.
4. Eroded sand plain (a glacial deposit). At the Longwood
Bridge the sand plain had been eroded to a depth of 37 feet
before the deposition of the five feet of alluvium.

2. Charles River, directly east of the Harvard (Technology)
Bridge extending between Back Bay and Cambridge. During the
dredging here to fill in the shallows on the Cambridge side between
the newly constructed wall along the river and the railroad tracks,
many shells were found. These shells occurred mostly in the sands
and not in the superficial muds. These sands were some ten feet
below mean low tide. The height of the tide here, before its oblitera-
tion by the dam, was ten feet.

The most conspicuous species are the large and abundant forms
of oyster (Ostrea virginica), short-neck clam (Venus mercenaria),
long-neck clam (Mya arenaria) and scallop (Pecten gibbus borealis).
A small oyster shell is unusual, the average size being 8 by 2.5 inches;
one figured by Miss Bryant had a length of 10.5 inches.

During early colonial days (middle of the seventeenth century)
an extensive oyster-bank existed here, preventing large boats from
going farther up the Charles. (See p. 451).

3. New Tech Site. The new site for the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology occupies the northeastern angle between Charles
River and Massachusetts Avenue. The many bore-holes put down
here while the foundations of the new buildings were being planned
showed that the solid rock bottom varied much in depth. The follow-
ing is one of the deeper sections,—

1. Fineand coarse sand, much of it colored green; 35feet. Uniden-
tifiable fragments of fossils were present in the material brought
up by the wash-drill.

Soft to stiff blue clay (a glacial deposit); 83 feet.

3. Decomposed bed-rock of slate; 14 feet. The boring stopped

in the slate at a depth of 132 feet.

ol Ww)

4. Boylston Street Subway localities. The sections were made
at or very near the junction with the following streets:

a. Fairfield Street. The top of the peat is 18 feet below mean
low tide; the peat is 5 feet thick.

POST-GLACIAL HISTORY OF BOSTON. 445

b. Exeter Street.— The surface of the street here is 16.5 feet above
mean low tide, while the bottom of the peat bed is 15.5 feet below
mean low tide.

f Feet

Esl an, blotiingout the,BadkBayiri9. 242eac. en. 16
This fill has taken place mostly since 1868.

Sy Gravelly black silt. “Few fossils. vo4.ty suas le hes ee 6

phere lack sit.) (Many fossils? «0% Sa e os ok Oe 5

The middle portion is very full of fossils; the uppermost two
feet and the lowest foot contain but few. This silt is a dark-
grey (when dry) argillaceous sand with a considerable number
of mica scales. The compound microscope shows that very
minute sand particles made up fully nine-tenths of the mass;
there is merely sufficient clay and carbon particles to give
consistency and a dark-grey color to the sediment.

4) Sandy: areshi=water “peat jo.) si. *:... go, aie ne alee nia oe cae 5

5. Bluersandy. clay -with. some*peakixt 3.22 ee ee 22 le oe 1
This is the upper edge of the glacial deposit.

ce. Copley Plaza Hotel, on Copley Square at corner of Dartmouth
Street and Huntington Avenue. During the excavations for the
foundations Mr. C. W. Johnson obtained, at a depth of 25 to 30 feet
below the street surface, Mya arenaria and Macoma balthica, both
similar to the Exeter Street forms. The silt in which they occurred
was similar in color and composition to that of Exeter Street,— 4b3.

At Dartmouth Street in the Subway the upper ten feet of blue clay
(beneath the black silt) was so hard that a pickax could penetrate it
only with difficulty; below that it gradually became quite soft. This
hardening was probably due to the oxidation of the surface and the
deposition of iron as cement upon exposure to air. The presence of
ancient gullies in the surface of the clay encountered at various places
in the subway also points to this subaerial exposure.

d. Clarendon Street. At a depth of 25 feet below the surface
of the street were found,—

Mulinia lateralis ¢
Macoma balthica ¢
Gemma gemma ec
Ilyanassa obsoleta ec

These forms are all like those from the Exeter Street locality and
occur in a similar silt.

e. Berkeley Street. Surface of street is about 16 feet above low
tide.

446 SHIMER.

Feet
1. Fall, sblottme: out the (Backs Baya ace nen «ko su ee
2. Dark grey loamy silt, prominently stratified . . . . 12

a. Upper 8 feet contained

Mya arenaria c. Large.

Ensis directus C.

Mulinia lateralis

Gemma gemma

Modiolus demissus, var. plicatulus r.

Ostrea virginica c, but comparatively small, including
both current and quiet water forms. These were noted
directly beneath the fill. On account of the absence
of oysters between this and the stratum of large current
oysters below, it is believed that these smaller oysters did
not grow here but are due to man’s agency.

Mytilis edulis r

Ilyanassa obsoleta r

Balanus ef. balanoides r

b. Lower 4 feet contained

Ostrea virginica C; similar to the very large current forms
so common at the Charles River locality.

Venus mercenaria ¢

Mulinia lateralis C

Gemma gemma C

Littorina palliata c

Ilyanassa obsoleta C

Nassa trivittata r

Polinices heros r

Crepidula plana r

C. fornicata r

Cliona sulphurea r. Noted on oyster shells.

Crab claws r

Fish vertebra R

Besides these, Macoma balthica was abundant, but its exact
position in 2 was not noted.
3. Blue glacial clay, at a depth of 31 feet. No unconformity was
observed in the ten foot wide section studied.

To the west of Berkeley Street, nearly in front of the Rogers Building
(M. I. T.) oceurred sticks in both vertical and horizontal positions,
apparently a portion of an old fish-weir. The length of the vertical
ones varied according to different observers from four to seven feet.
They usually penetrated the blue clay, one to a depth of eighteen

?
POST-GLACIAL HISTORY OF BOSTON. 447

inches. Taking Mr. L. S. Stone’s estimate of the greater length
of seven feet, there would be from six to seven feet of silt above the
sticks. For a consideration of their age there must be added to
this the thickness deposited between the driving of the sticks and the
deposition of sediment over their decaying ends. The wood testifies
to its great age in being exceedingly brittle and very heavy, showing
that a certain amount of petrifaction had occurred. Its very dark,
almost black, color indicates, likewise, considerable carbonization.

f. Arlington Street.

Feet
ieee en ey. AE ee aA talon Bip
2. Black silt elise’: «yoo een Bermmmeab es 9 {1 5

A few shells are reported from near the top of this.
3. Boulder clay a bole or, eee Lh

The boulders are well rounded, and are more numerous at
the bottom of the section, where they make up fully one-half
of the sediment. The boulders are usually two to three
inches in diameter; the largest noted had a diameter of three
feet, with corners all well rounded. This clay was not pene-
trated farther up Boylston Street.

g. Church Street. At some thirty feet below the surface of the
street (which is here fifteen feet above low tide) a tree stump was
excavated from near the top of a peat bed. The peat continued
eighteen feet below the stump. The stump was reported as uncar-
bonized. Apparently another tree was encountered in a wash-boring
near here.

h. Charles Street. At the Public Garden side of Charles and
Boylston streets a boring penetrated a peat bed 27.5 feet thick.
The bottom of the peat is 42 feet below the surface of the street,
which is here 15 feet above low tide.

5. Site of Old Providence Depot. The following were found
while excavating Providence Street »*

Mya arenaria r. Small
Ilyanassa obsoleta C.
Littorina rudis r.

6. Commonwealth Flats, South Boston. Peat was en-
countered here 20 feet below low tide.

* Collected by Mr. E. L. Green.
+ Communicated by Mr. R. W. Sayles.

448 SHIMER.

7. City Point, South Boston. ‘To form the Marine Park here
mud was dredged from midway between Castle Island and the old
City Point shore, being dumped at the edge of the latter. In this
mud occurred the shells noted in the table below. The dead appear-
ance of most shells leaves no doubt as to their fossil condition,
though the excavation went to a depth of only a few feet.

List OF SPECIES.

The following list includes all post-glacial fossils noted, or listed
by previous observers, from Brookline through Back Bay, Boston, to

City Point.

SPECIES 4 3
i r=) o
x — Present = : 2 5
C — Very common fc foo <5 ie :=
¢ — Common say 3 5 < <
r — Rare = S 3 a 2
R— Very rare = 5 a a é)
1. Plants (unrecognizable fragments) x | | x
FORAMINIFERA * |
2. Polystomella striatopunctata | | eee
Onn basp: | | xe
4. Trochammina inflata | x
SPONGIA
5. Cliona sulphurea | | r r R
Bryozoa | | | :
6. Membranipora pilosa r
PELECYPODA
7. Yoldia limatula | x
8. Ostrea virginica x C R c G
9. Pecten gibbus borealis R (G GC
10. P. magellanicus x
11. Anomia simplex c
12. Mytilus edulis | x
13. Modiolus modiolus | R x
14. M. demissus var. plicatulus x xe Tr x
15. Clidophora trilineata | x
16. Arctica islandica | x
17. Cyclocardia borealis | | x
18. Astarte undata | | x
19. A. elliptica x
20. Lucina filosa x
21. Kellia planulata 5 x
22. Laevicardium mortoni | x
23. Venus mercenaria sy |p enlG c G
24. Gemma gemma C x
25. Petricola pholadiformis x
26. Macoma balthica Jc x C c x

* Identified by J. A. Cushman.

POST-GLACIAL. HISTORY OF BOSTON. 449

SPECIES » . ! 3
x — Present 2 $ 2 E
C — Very common a a 2 me 3
ce — Common pay g be a) a
= o o
r — Rare z =| 5 ra 2
R — Very rare = 5 FSI Ea ro)
27. Tagelus gibbus x
28. Ensis directus r c x
29. Angulus tener x
30. Mactra solidissima x
31. Mulinia lateralis Cc x (¢: x c
32. Mya arenaria x (Ce "Nk AG: c &
GASTROPODA
33. Acmaea testudinalis x
34. A. testudinalis var. alveus x
35. Vitrinella shimeri Clapp i
36. Turbonilla winkleyi c R x
37. Odostomia trifida R
38. O. fusca e x
39. O. bisuturalis ec r
40. Littorina rudis x r x
41. L. rudis tenebrosa R r
42. L. palliata Tr x
43. L. littorea * c
44. Lacuna vincta x
45. Crepidula fornicata r r c
46. C. plana R Tr x
47. C. convexa R x
48. Polinices heros e xe r x
49. P. triseriata X x ec
50. Neverita duplicata x
51. Paludestrina minuta &
52. Bittium alternatum R x
53. Triforis nigrocinctus R x
54. Columbella lunata R x
55. Cingula carinata R
56. Buecinum undatum x
57. Nassa trivittata x x ec r x
58. Ilyanassa obsoleta C x C Cc c
59. Urosalpinx cinereus r x R x
66. Thais lapillus c
61. Anachis avara x
62. Tornatina canaliculata x G r x
63. Melampus lineatus ce x
CRUSTACEA
64. A copepod x
65. Balanus balanoides x r
66. B. crenatus R
67. B. porcatus x
68. Crab claws r r
VERTEBRATA
69. Fish R

*'This species was doubtless introduced into the fossil shells by the dredge,
since nowhere else upon the American coast is this shell reported earlier than 1855
(Gulf of St. Lawrence). It is apparently a late migrant from Europe.

450 SHIMER.

NOTES ON SPECIES.

Plants.

The peat encountered in the various sections is probably entirely
of fresh water origin. After an examination of the peat from the
subway at Exeter Street, Mr. G. B. Reed of Harvard University
writes:

“T find no plants or remains of plants such as now grow on salt
marshes or anywhere below high tide level. But what species have
entered into the formation of the peat I can not determine beyond
the presence of grasses and sedges, probably both tops and recots,
woody roots probably of some Ericaceous plants, and fragments of
wood. A large part, however, is made up of much decomposed
material now unrecognizable. It has apparently, too, undergone con-
siderable compression as all the stems are flattened.”

The peat at Church Street, the deepest encountered, was also of
fresh water origin, and occurred similarly beneath the black silt.

Spongia.

Cliona sulphurea.— The specimens noted at the Berkeley Street
locality were almost entirely in oyster shells.

Bryozoa.

Membranipora pilosa.— This form is comparatively abundant at
Exeter Street upon the larger shells of Mya arenaria, less so upon
Modiolus demissus, var. plicatulus.

Pelecypoda.

Ostrea virginica.— This, our only species of oyster, is very rare at
Exeter Street, being represented by but three specimens, the largest
of which is only 85 mm. long by 70 mm. broad. At Charles River
this shell is exceedingly abundant including both the long, narrow
or so-called “current” form and the short, broad “quiet-water”’
form. The most usual size of the former is 230 mm. in length and
55 mm. in breadth; of the latter the length is 130 mm. and the breadth
70 mm. At Berkeley Street the very large current form is common
at a depth of 27 to 31 feet. A valve of one of these, an old individual,

POST-GLACIAL HISTORY OF BOSTON. . 451

with a length of 140 mm. has a maximum thickness of 50 mm. At
City Point the specimens are similar in size and abundance to those
from Charles River. Miss Bryant figures one from here 265 mm. by
SO mm.

This oyster, as native, is now absent from Massachusetts Bay;
during early colonial days it occurred only locally and then, on account
of the cold air at such depths as to be exposed only at the low spring
tides. A large oyster-bank was situated at the mouth of the Charles
River, another at the mouth of the Mystic and probably one on the
Noddles Island, now East Boston, flats.

That the large current forms flourished in Back Bay as late as the
middle of the seventeenth century is shown by the following quota-
tions (5):

“The Oisters be great ones in forme of a shoo horne, some be a
foote long, these breed on certain bankes that are bare every spring
tide. This fish without the shell is so big that it must admit of a

division before you can well get it into your mouth.’’... .“ Towards
the southwest in the middle of this Bay”’ (i. e., Back Bay, at mouth
of Charles River) “is a great Oyster-banke”’. .. .“‘ The Oyster-bankes”’

(referring to the same) “doe barre out the bigger ships.”

In the first edition (1841) of the “Invertebrata of Massachusetts,”
Dr. Gould says (p. 357) “old men relate that they were accustomed
to go up Mystic River and Charles River, and gather oysters of great
size, before it was the custom to bring them from New York. And
even now individuals of enormous size are occasionally brought from
both these places, and probably might be found by special search, at
any time.”

The cause of this great numerical reduction since colonial days
is said to be a-very severe cold spell about 1780 in which the sea
bottom was covered with ice, thus preventing the oysters from getting
air. Another factor which aided in the destruction of some of these
species, especially the oyster, from the Back Bay region was the
gradual obliteration of Boston as an island by the formation of a neck
uniting it with the mainland to the south. Even during late colonial
days heavy seas washed over this neck into the Back Bay. Oysters
need a clean substratum, such as gravel, or other shells, to which
the young, the spat, may attach themselves, otherwise they will
perish; and the opening across Boston neck would give the tidal
currents extra strength with which to cleanse this partially enclosed
region from the river muds; but that this was never so exposed to the
action of waves as at City Point is shown by the occurrence of the
surf-clam (Mactra solidissima) at the latter place only.

452 SHIMER.

Many plantings of the oyster spat in its old home in the Charles
River during recent years have resulted merely in the death of the
spat.

Pecten gibbus borealis.— (This is our common scallop, the Pecten
irradians of authors.) The single specimen seen from Muddy River
is 26 mm. long by 25 mm. high. It is one of the common forms at the
Charles River locality.

Mytilus edulis— The edible mussel is present though apparently
rare at Berkeley Street and City Point.

This species, occurring from about half tide down into comparatively
deep water, was very abundant during early colonial times and was
largely eaten by the colonists. Since it is a rather open coast form
its rarity at the Back Bay localities is not surprising.

Modiolus modiolus.— This deep water inhabitant is represented in
our Exeter Street collections by but one valve, 3 mm. long.

Modiolus demissus, var. plicatulus.— This is the coarse horse-mussel.
It is very abundant in the superficial sediment at Muddy River.
This mud was formed after the typical marine shells had been deposited
and is hence comparatively recent. This species of Modiolus continued
to thrive here until the completion of the dam across the tidal portion
of the Charles River in 1911. Only a few, but characteristic, pieces
of this shell were noted at Exeter Street.

Venus mercenaria.— The Muddy River forms are normal in size and
weight; the concentric growth lines are quite strong. The Charles
River and Berkeley Street specimens are similar to these and are
very abundant.

The quahog, little-neck, round or hard clam, is now rare north of
Cape Cod, as it apparently was during the early colonial days.

Gemma gemma.— This is the most abundant form found at Exeter
Street; a specimen of average size measures 3+ mm. in length by
3+ mm. in height. It is likewise very abundant and of a similar
size at Clarendon and Berkeley Streets.

The average of 10 specimens from Exeter Street gives a proportion of
height to length of 1 to 1.06. The average of a similar number from
Provincetown, Massachusetts is 1 to 1.15.

This greater height of the supway forms may be interpreted either
as an evolution toward greater length since that time or as evidence
of a slightly more unfavorable environment in the Back Bay area.
This latter hypothesis is partly corroborated by the specimens of the
same species from Buttonwoods, Rhode Island. Here, far up the
Narragansett Bay, the average of height to length is 1 to 1.

POST-GLACIAL HISTORY OF BOSTON. 453

Macoma balthica.*— The Exeter Street shells are very abundant;
they are normal in size and shape, an average sized specimen measuring
25 mm. long by 20 mm. high. Those specimens preserving the epider-
mis are usually bluish-black in color.

The Muddy River forms are very similar to the Exeter Street
specimens, as are also the ones from beneath the Copley Plaza Hotel,
and from Berkeley Street.

The average of ten specimens from Exeter Street gave 1 to 1.20
as the proportion of height to length, as against a proportion of 1 to
1.23 in specimens from Eastham, Massachusetts, the recent shell
thus showing a similar lengthening to that noted in Gemma gemma.

Ensis directus— The razor-clam, though now but little used as food,
was highly esteemed by the early settlers. It is much more abundant
at the Berkeley Street than at the Exeter Street locality.

Mulinia lateralis.— In the specimens from Exeter Street the average
proportion of height to length was 1 to 1.17, while the larger recent
shells from Woods Hole are in the proportion of | to 1.22.

Mya arenaria.— The common sand clam, soft clam or long-neck
clam. Among specimens of this very abundant species at Exeter
Street are some large ones with a length of 100 mm. and height of 55
mm. The Muddy River forms are normal in shape and size. The
Charles River specimens seen average 110 mm. long by 65 mm. high;
there are some 128 mm. by 80 mm. Those seen from the Copley
Plaza and the numerous forms from Berkeley Street are similar to
those from Exeter Street. The City Point forms are in size and
abundance similar to those from Charles River.

That the long-neck clam was very abundant here during the early
colonial days is shown by the following quotation (6) :—

“Clames is a shell fish, which I have seene sold in Westminster
for 12 pe. the skore. These our swine feeds upon, and of them there
is no want; every shore is full; it makes the swine proove exceedingly,
they will not faile at low water to be with them. The Salvages are
much taken with the delight of this fishe, and are not cloyed, not-with-
standing the plenty: for our swine we find it a good commodity.”

Odostomia trifida.— A single, small (3 mm. long), well preserved
specimen was noted at Exeter Street.

Odostomia bisuturalis-—'The specimens from Exeter Street are
small, averaging 3+ mm. in length and with a proportion of width
to length of 1 to 2.

* Dall, after a careful comparison, considers the American specimens referable
to the European species M. balthica.

454 SHIMER.

Odostomia fusca.—'The specimens from Exeter Street are small,
averaging 3 mm. in length.

Turbonilla winkleyi— An average specimen from Exeter Street
measured 5 mm. long by 1.5 mm. wide at the large whorl. Its propor-
tionate length and breadth are the same as those of some recent forms
from Buzzards Bay.

Littorina rudis.— The Exeter Street forms are small; the largest is
9 mm. long. A normal young individual 10 mm. long was noted
from Muddy River.

Iittorina rudis tenebrosa.—The Exeter Street forms are small;
the largest is 5 mm. long; two specimens retain the peculiar mottled
checking so characteristic of this variety.

Littorina palliata— Two specimens were noted from Exeter Street,
the larger of which has a length of 9 mm. and a width of 8 mm.

Crepidula fornicata.— The Exeter Street specimens of this, the com-
mon Decker, vary from thin to heavy; are whitish without and within
and moderately convex, with white platform. The shells noted are
small; one has alength of 14 mm., a breadth of 11 mm., a height of 4
mm. with a depth of platform of 2mm. Those from Berkeley Street
and City Point are normal both in size and shape.

Crepidula plana.— Very probably this Flat Decker form is C.
fornicata modified by its position. The Exeter Street shells are thin,
white without and within, and flat, with white platform. The shells
noted are small; one has length 10 mm., breadth 8 mm., height 1.5
mm., with depth of platform .2 mm. The Berkeley Street specimens
are of normal size. Only two specimens were noted from City Point,
the larger one of which had a length of 25 mm.

Crepidula conveca.— The Exeter Street specimens of the Convex
Decker are small and very convex. The color outside is ashen brown,
within reddish brown; the deeply seated platform is similar in color
to the inside of the shell in very young (4 mm. long) specimens, lighter
brown in older (11 mm. long) ones. One specimen has length 11 mm.,
breadth 8 mm., height 5 mm., depth of platform 2.5 mm. Another
has length, 4 mm., breadth, 3 mm., height, 2 mm., depth of platform,
1 mm.

Polinices heros.— (Polinices is Montfort’s original (1810) spelling
of the genus.) The Muddy River specimens average 19 mm. in
length by 17 mm. in width. From City Point two specimens were
noted, considerably larger than those from Muddy River.

Polinices triseriataa— The single specimen noted from Muddy
River was small but well preserved. Those from City Point had an
average length of 23 mm.

POST-GLACIAL HISTORY OF BOSTON. 455

Paludestrina minuta.—The Exeter Street specimens are small;
a common form has a length of about 2.5 mm. and a width of 1.5 mm.
The average of five specimens from here gives a proportion of greatest
breadth to Jength of 1 to 1.78; of five from Danvers, Massachusetts,
1 to 1.68, an increase in breadth of the living individuals.

Bittium alternatum.— One individual was noted at Exeter Street;
this is 6 mm. long and retains a few patches of its original slate color.

Triforis nigrocinctus.— Only one example, 3 mm. long, of this
sinistral, granulated shell was noted at Exeter Street; it has become
an ashy gray except where between the ridges it still retains some of
the original dark red color.

Nassa_ trivittata— The specimens from Exeter Street average
8.3 mm. in length by 4.8 mm. in width. Recent specimens from
Ipswich Beach, Massachusetts, average 25 mm. by 9 mm. Living
forms have thus attained a larger size and a greater proportionate
width, averaging 1 to 2.8 as against 1 to 1.73 in the Exeter Street
forms.

Ilyanassa obsoleta——The forms from Exeter Street are about
half the size of the normal species of this coast, averaging 12 mm. in
length. The costae are likewise stronger than on the normal shell,
approaching Urosalpinx cinereus in this respect; there are 10 to 17
costae present. They are most similar in every respect to the ones
living at Buttonwoods, west of Warwick Lighthouse, far up the
western side of Narragansett Bay, both probably owing their small
size to the freshened condition of the water. The Muddy River
forms are much larger, averaging in length 22 mm.

The following list of average measurements compares in size and
proportion specimens of this species from several fossil and recent
localities :—

Length Width Proportion of
Locality mm. mm. width to length
Subway, Exeter Street 12.4 7.9 IES Y/
Post Pleistocene (brackish) *
Marblehead shell heap 18 12 1:1.5
Post Pleistocene
Sankaty Head, Pleistocene 24.5 14 aE eres:
Buttonwoods, recent (brackish) 12 8 Tees
Dorchester Bay 17 10 lei

Recent (salt)
Marblehead 18.5 10.5 LG
Recent (salt)

* Collected by Professor E. 8. Morse.

456 SHIMER.

It is seen from the above tabulation that it is the brackish water
environment which produces the narrow species. ‘This is true, at
least, for Buttonwoods and Exeter Street; we have no data for the
Marblehead shell heap. The recent specimens from Marblehead and
Dorchester Bay are from normal sea water, as was probably, judging
from the associated fauna, also true of the Pleistocene of Sankaty
Head, Nantucket. The difference is thus apparently due to environ-
ment and is not a permanent change of form due to evolution in time.

Urosalpinz cinereus.— This species is represented by one individual
from Exeter Street, 6 mm. long. The average length of the Muddy
River forms is 20 mm., which is likewise the length of those noted from
City Point. It was not noted at Berkeley Street.

Thais lapillus— The specimens noted from City Point have an
average length of 30 mm. The revolving ridges are coarse.

Tornatina canaliculata.— An average sized specimen from Exeter
Street is 2.5 mm. long by 1.5 mm. wide.

CONCLUSIONS.

The history of Boston from the closing stages of the great continental
glaciers covering all of this region to the present day may be summed
up in the following five stages:

1. Deposition in fresh water of mud and sand from the melting
glacier; 2. Erosion by streams of some of this material after the
disappearance of the glacier; 3. Growth of peat in swampy areas
(2 and 3 were probably taking place at the same time as nowhere
was peat noted in an erosion channel); 4. Partial submergence of
the land beneath the ocean with the accumulation of mud and dead
shells upon the peat beds. This record of submergence contains two
distinct elements. (a) In the earlier or lower beds the marine shells
indicate a warm climate similar to that off the Virginia coast at present.
(b) The upper beds, and continuing to the present, where still beneath
the sea, contain a marine fauna indicative of a colder climate, that of
today. 5. In certain areas, as Back Bay, the raising of the land
again from its ocean bed by artificial filling.

The conclusions bearing upon these five stages are noted below.

1. The deposition of the blue glacial clay, forming the base of the
majority of the sections discussed above, took place probably in a body
or bodies, of fresh water, since no remains of animal life are apparent
in it. The clay itself, derived from a nearby melting glacier, is the

POST-GLACIAL HISTORY OF BOSTON. ; 457

so-called glacial flour,— the material ground from its rocky floor by
the stones held firmly in the base of the advancing ice. A few uni-
dentified pieces of wood were noted in this clay.

2. After the glacier had melted away from this region, the earth
was exposed to the air so that the upper layers of the clay were hardened
through oxidation. During this time the region was subjected to ero~
sion by running water as evidenced, in Back Bay, by the gullies in the
surface of the clay. At the Longwood Bridge, Brookline, a sand-plain
(a fossil delta deposited by glacial streams) was eroded to a depth of
37 feet.

3. During this erosive period, or at least during the latter part of
it, fresh-water peat was broadly developed. The majority of sections,
deep enough to penetrate the glacial clay or sands, encounter this
peat immediately above the glacial sediment.

4. Subsequent to the deposition of a variable thickness of peat
the land sank with reference to sea-level and a large portion of this
region was submerged beneath the ocean. This period of submergence
has extended to the present except where man has willed otherwise.
During this time occurred the deposition of the black mud, in which
were enclosed the shells and other records of the life then living in these
waters.

The evidence that the peat in Back Bay furnishes in regard to the
extent of this downward movement of the land is as follows: The
bottom of the peat at Fairfield Street is 23 feet below low tide, at
Exeter Street 15.5 feet, at Church Street 33 feet, and at Charles
Street it is 27 feet. With a height of tide of 10 feet, as it was in
Charles River before the construction of the tide-water dam, it would
mean a submergence of this region of at least 33 plus 10, or 43 feet;
and if the peat was formed far above sea-level it would mean a so
much greater submergence.

The shells enclosed in the mud deposited upon the peat since its
submergence beneath the sea give evidence of two climatic periods,—
an earlier period (4a) warmer than the present and a later colder
period (4b) extending to the present. In the Back Bay region, where
alone our sections were sufficiently detailed to give exact information
upon this point, the warmer period ends suddenly. In 4a the shells
are very abundant, making up, in places, one-half of the deposited
mass. In 4b the shells are comparatively rare. Yet there is little,
if any, gradation between the two.

4a. The majority of the fossils noted in the Tabular List of Species
are from this lower bed. A comparison of these, especially the shells,

458 SHIMER.

with those most abundant along the entire Massachusetts coast north
of Cape Cod today, shows that the climate of this region has become
somewhat colder since the time this earlier fauna flourished so abun-
dantly. This fauna, representatives of which are rare or altogether
wanting off our coast today, is now dominant off the coast of Virginia,
though it ranges from Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras. Of the sixty some
species noted in our list, about half no longer occur north of Cape Cod,
or only rarely in sheltered places, but find their perfect environment
farther south. Ganong (7) mentions nine such sheltered areas, includ-
ing the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Oak Bay, New Brunswick, Casco Bay,
Maine, and Massachusetts Bay. Between the retreat of the glaciers
from this coast and the present time a period must have occurred
during which these waters were as warm as those from Cape Cod to
Cape Hatteras today, and during which this Virginian fauna migrated
northward.

4b. This was followed by a refrigeration of these northern waters
sufficient to prevent the breeding of many of the species except within
a few areas protected enough to raise the temperature of the air and
water sufficiently during the summer, or breeding season, for the
development of the young. (The adult can stand a much greater
degree of cold than the young). Though Massachusetts Bay is one
of the places in which the Virginian fauna has persisted longer than
upon the less protected coast, yet even in Back Bay the shells living
after the beginning of this colder period (4b) show a most remarkable
decrease in both the number of individuals and the number of species
of this southern fauna. ‘Though such typical southern forms as the
oyster and Mulinia lateralis persisted into 4b yet the vast majority
of the Virginian fauna, including Venus mercenaria, Pecten gibbus
borealis, Laevicardium mortoni, Triforis nigrocinctus and Vitrinella,
had ceased to exist in the Back Bay region.

If we may judge from the Back Bay sections, this change from a
warm water fauna to one characteristic of colder waters, was abrupt
and was due toa corresponding alteration in climate. It is not probable
that a refrigeration of the ocean waters alone could have made its
influences felt so very decidedly as far inland as Back Bay. It is
not likely, either, that all the differences between the more fossiliferous
lower portion (4a) with its warm water fauna and the upper portion
(4b), with its few fossils indicative of colder water, are due to the
partial closure of Back Bay by the tidal building of Boston neck.
This partial closure, bringing about a reduction in tidal scour, would,
of course, cause a more rapid accumulation of sediment within the

POST-GLACIAL HISTORY OF BOSTON. 459

Bay and hence relatively fewer fossils. The very great change,
however, in the species represented, especially in the reduction both
in number of individuals and species, would seem to imply an
accompanying climatic change. That this refrigeration continued
during colonial days to the present is indicated by the disappearance
of oyster banks from the vicinity of Boston (Charles River, Mystic
River and East Boston flats) and by the inability of planted oysters
to grow here now.

5. A small thickness of sediment just beneath the “fill” may be
due to the presence of dam walls built in the early part of the 19th
century. In 1814 a corporation, “The Boston and Roxbury Mill
Corporation,” led by Uriah Coting, obtained a charter from the
General Court empowering them to build a dam from the end of
Beacon Street (at Charles Street) to Sewell’s Point in the uplands
of Brookline, with a cross dam to Gravelly Point in Roxbury (see
dotted lines on map); also to made a roadway of each dam and to
levy tolls for its use. It could confine tide water within this area and
run mills by the water power thus created. At this time there was
nothing but water and salt marsh from the foot of the Common to the
uplands of Brookline. The mill dam was finished in 1821. But the
tidal power, rather insufficient at the beginning for the running of the
mills, was soon encroached upon, first, by the owners of bordering
property filling in their land, thus restricting the area of the dam;
and, especially, secondly by the building of the Boston and Providence
and the Boston and Worcester Railroads across the water basin
(these were incorporated in 1831). With this restriction of the tide
and the increase in population this basin soon became a public nuisance
and in 1852 a commission of the state legislature recommended that
the property be abandoned for mill dam purposes and be filled in
for building purposes. This was finally done, giving as a result the
topmost 15 to 20 feet in the above Back Bay sections.

Man.— That man lived in this Boston region during the warmer
climatic period following the retreat of the glaciers is evidenced by the
excavation of the remnants of a fish-weir from these older sediments.
This was found in the subway excavation on Boylston Street between
Clarendon and Berkeley Streets, nearly opposite Rogers Building
of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. This weir consisted
of interlaced vertical and horizontal sticks. The former were much the
thicker; one, when wet, had a diameter of over two inches, while
the latter in the same condition measured about a half inch. Some,

460 SHIMER.

if not all, of the vertical rods penetrated the glacial clay, one to a depth
of eighteen inches. The lowest horizontal sticks preserved were about
a foot and a half above the glacial clay, and hence between two and
three feet below the top of the four-foot bed containing the warm-water
fauna. The vertical rods would naturally not have been driven
deeper than to allow the horizontal sticks to rest upon the surface
of the mud.

It is possible that there were horizontal sticks lower than this which
were destroyed before they were covered by the preserving mud or
had left their impress upon the vertical rods. Possibly, also, the
horizontal withes were not driven deep enough to rest upon the mud
surface. It would seem that one or both of these suppositions might
be true. The forcing of two inch rods, bluntly and roughly sharpened
by a stone ax, as the Harvard specimen shows, into the stiff glacial
clay to a depth of eighteen inches, would be a difficult thing to do.
Moreover a penetration of the clay to a depth of eighteen inches would
suffice to support the weir. These probabilities would add, however,
only about a foot and a half to the thickness of the sediment deposited
since the weir was erected.

If we consider the lowest preserved horizontal sticks as originally
the lowest and as resting upon the surface of the mud when erected,
then about thirteen feet of shells and mud had been deposited between
the time when man planted the fish-weir and when he blotted out the
Bay. If we consider the probability that there was practically no
silt present when the weir was erected it would mean the deposition
of fourteen feet, eight inches of sediment between that time and the
artificial filling of the Bay. The top of the vertical rods preserved
was ten to twelve feet below the junction of the silt and fill.

How long a time was consumed in the deposition of these thirteen
to fifteen feet of silt and shells is largely a matter of conjecture.
It has been estimated that the Mississippi River deposits a foot of
mud in two hundred years. A similar rate here would have required
2500 to 3000 years for the accumulation of this thickness. The
streams in the Boston area would have carried annually much less
sediment than the Mississippi. The amount retained in the Back Bay,
however, would be a balance between the amount of mud delivered
into this inland bay protected by many islands and the strength of the
tidal scour. That the tidal scour was stronger during the existence
of the warmer climatic fauna is shown by the presence in this Back
Bay area of an abundance of oysters. These need a bottom free from
mud or slime. A stronger tidal scour during the formation of this

POST-GLACIAL HISTORY OF BOSTON. 461

lower bed is also indicated by the fact that this sediment is half
composed of shells, while the upper, colder fauna bed contains much
more mud in proportion to the number of shells. On the whole it may
be considered as probable that the accumulation of silt here had been
at least no faster than that by the Mississippi at present. This
great age for the fish-weir finds corroboration in the preservation of
the wood itself. It is considerably carbonized; its surface is almost
black, and either wet or dry, is very brittle. Fragments of this
fish-weir are preserved in a wet condition in Peabody Museum of
Harvard University and in a dry state in the offices of the Boston
Transit Company. Its preservation seems poorer than that of wood,
1500 years old, from a sacrificial well in Yucatan, and every bit as
poor as that of wood from the ancient pile dwellings of Lake Neuchatel,
Switzerland. The Swiss dwellings had practically disappeared before
Roman times, 2000 years ago.

Yet other factors must enter into our consideration of the age of
this fish-weir. At present a wooden pile exposed above the mud or
sand is cut off within a few years, by the borings of mollusks. We
must suppose, however, that the accumulation of the lower three or
four feet of sediments, one-half of the mass of which consists of shells,
must have been a slow process requiring more than a few years.
Possibly such boring forms were absent from the Bay at that time, for
none have been noted in the collections. It is usually held, too,
that marine waters cause a more rapid decomposition of wood than
fresh waters, not only “by reason of the abundance and variety of the
attacking animal types, but also, it is said (Challenger reports: Deep-
sea deposits, p. 256) on account of the greater amounts of sulphates
and carbonates in sea-water, which by decomposition in the presence
of organic acids facilitate the oxidation (destruction) of the plant
tissue.” This is corroborated by the fact that the deep sea dredgings
yield vegetable remains in quantity only comparatively near lands;
also that limestones (usually deposited far from land) contain slight or
no records of land vegetation (8). These are, however, records of the
open ocean, not of a partially enclosed bay, where the water would
be brackish, the preservative powers of which would be still further
increased by the flow and ebb of the tides. The preservation of wood
in fossil deposits of a brackish water origin is exceedingly common;
but all such wood is supposed to have been buried within a com-
paratively few years. In the case of the fish-weir the fossil shells
indicate that parts of it extended above the encroaching sediment
during the time necessary to deposit three or four feet of shells and

462 SHIMER.

mud, next to suffer a striking climatic change and finally to deposit
another foot or two of sediment. We can not conceive of this as
taking place in a comparatively few years.

Still another factor has a bearing upon the age of the fish-weir.
The surface of the street where the fish-weir was found is sixteen feet
above mean low tide. Since the fill here is nineteen feet and the
lowest preserved horizontal portion of the weir thirteen feet below
this, the weir must have been driven into water sixteen feet deep at
low tide or twenty-six feet at high tide. That is, to reach the surface
of the water at high tide, at the present relation of land to ocean, and
penetrate the clay eighteen inches, would require sticks twenty-nine
feet long, at the least, and these sticks had a diameter of only two
inches at base. Since the construction of a fish-weir under such
conditions is practically impossible we must suppose that its erection
took place before the land had become submerged to its present
depth. If we may judge from the practice of today, the weir was
erected when the region was exposed at low tide, or almost so, and
covered at high tide. If so, the land has sunk sixteen to eighteen
feet since man placed here his fish-weir.

While none of the above considerations yield anything definite
as to years, yet they strongly indicate that the weir is old, very old.

To briefly summarize,— The remnants of the fish-weir, excavated
on Boylston Street, give evidence of man in the Back Bay region of
Boston, probably 2000 to 3000 years ago. He built this weir during
a climatic period as warm as off the Virginia Coast at present, and upon
a sinking coast. Since its erection the region has sunk sixteen to
eighteen feet and suffered a refrigeration to its present climate.

POST-GLACIAL HISTORY OF BOSTON. 463

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Bryant, D. L.
A Study of the Most Recent Geological History of the
Tide-Water Region of Charles River. An unpublished
thesis in the library of the Geological Department of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 1891.

Crosby, W. O.
A Study of the Geology of the Charles River Estuary and
Boston Harbor, with special Reference to the Building of
the proposed Dam Across the Tidal Portion of the River.
Technology Quarterly, Vol. XVI, pp. 64-92, 1903.

Upham, Warren.
Recent Fossils of the Harbor and Back Bay, Boston. Proc.
Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXV, pp. 305-316, 1891.

Windsor, Justin.
The Memorial History of Boston.

Wood, William.
New England’s Prospects, ete. London, 1634. Prince
Society ed., 1865, pp. 39-44.

Morton, Thomas.
The New English Canaan. 1637. Prince Society ed.,
1883, p. 227.

Ganong, W. F.
Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., Vol. VIII, Sec. 4, pp. 167-185.
1890.

White, David.
Value of Floral Evidence in Marine Strata as Indication of
Nearness of Shores. Bull. Geol. Soc. America, Vol. XXII,
pp. 221-227. 1911.

MAssAcHuUsETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,

October 8, 1917.

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Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Vou. 53. No. 7.—June, 1918.

ANCIENT CHINESE PAPER MONEY AS DESCRIBED IN
A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS.

By Anprew McF. Davis.

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ANCIENT CHINESE PAPER MONEY AS DESCRIBED IN A
CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS.

By Anprew McF. Davis.

Received, January 7, 1918.

CONTENTS.
PAGE
Horeword by Andrew. Mcks Davis. =. fo. «ee Beret 467
Introduction by the translator, Kojiro Tomita... .......2.. 477
iraostation of the Chsiian Pu Tsung'Chih 9s 5 Se 2 Se ee 479
Appendix: Translations from other sources ............. 632

On the 10th of February, 1915, I presented a paper to the Academy
entitled “Certain Old Chinese Notes.” The same was published
separately with the additional sub-title “Or Chinese Paper Money.”
The notes which furnished the title of my paper are now deposited in
the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, but were at that time in my
possession and were on that occasion submitted to the inspection of
the members present. The oldest of the notes was emitted under the
Emperor Wu-tsung, of the T'ang Dynasty, who reigned from 841-
847 A.D. or 840-846 according to another system of stating the
chronology. The Chinese Emperors were accustomed to break up
their reigns into periods and the particular period in which this note
was emitted was designated as Hwei-Chang or Hui-ch‘ang according
to the manner which the translator adopted for the phonetic trans-
literation of the Chinese characters.

In that paper the notes themselves were described and an attempt
was made to place on record not only what is now known concerning
them but also what knowledge was at command of European students
of economics and finance, at any given time, from the days of Marco
Polo to the present time. This examination disclosed the existence
of a Chinese numismatical work entitled Ch‘iian Pu T‘ung Chih, which
included in its study of coinage a description of this ancient paper
money, so far as it was known to the author, and also furnished illustra-
tions of the notes described, covering a period from about 650 A.D. to
1425, A.D., that is to say nearly eight centuries, all prior to the first
voyage of Columbus. The illustrations are evidently intended to be
of the same size as the original notes. The existence of a number of

468 DAVIS.

the notes themselves permits comparison and while there are slight
variations in the dimensions, the intention of the illustrator to repeat
in black and white outline drawing, the original in its general features,
including size, is evident.

The impressions of the notes given herewith are necessarily reduced
to meet the exigencies of the pages on which they appear. This
reduction is not made strictly on any given scale. The longest of the
notes measures upwards of twelve inches in length by six and three-
quarters in width. The smallest is five and one-eighth inches by two
and three-quarters. To reproduce the larger of these notes on these
pages it must be reduced about one-half in size. If the smaller were
reduced in the same proportion, the characters thereon, already quite
small, would become difficult to decipher. Nevertheless a reduction
in size of the smaller was made, enough in amount to call attention to
the fact that the note is a very small note. Furthermore, the dimen-
sions of all the notes are stated to the nearest eighth of an inch, the
measurements being taken from the photostats of the notes, which
were intended to be of full size. A comparison of those measurements
with those given in “Certain old Chinese notes” will show that the
photostats were as a rule slightly smaller than the actual notes. This
may be accounted for in several ways, but in the case of the one kwan
Ming note where the actual note measured was three-quarters of an
inch longer and one-quarter of an inch wider than the photostat of
the drawing in the Chinese book, it niust be remembered that we have
abundant evidence that various officials emitted these notes and con-
sequently there were undoubtedly many woodcuts from which they
were impressed. The mechanical demands of the time did not eall
for any great delicacy in the measurement of the impressions on the
notes. It would have been possible to have given the measurements
of between twenty and thirty actual notes, but it was thought better
to pursue a uniform policy, especially as the statement of the measure-
ments furnishes a means of estimating the actual size of the notes.

There are said to be in existence several old Chinese numismatical
works which are illustrated in a similar way to the one which we have
under consideration. Our author says, in speaking of certain notes
emitted during the Chin Dynasty, of which he had knowledge only
through some historical publication, “as I was not able to discover the
notes thus referred to in the history, I could not print them in this
book.” Without knowledge that the history in question was illus-
trated, this statement does not amount to proof that the illustrations
in Ch'iian Pu T‘ung Chih were all of them derived from existing
notes, but the probability is that such was the case.

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. _ 469

There are eighty-one of these designs of faces of notes. While
those of the different dynasties are not fashioned precisely alike it
may be asserted that they have a common model. We should expect.
to find at the top of the note a heading announcing in a horizontal
inscription, written in all probability in seal characters, that the note
belongs to an emission of a certain dynasty. Below, enclosed within
an ornamental border, there would probably be two panels, the upper
divided into two parts, and headed by a horizontal inscription denot-
ing the denominational value of the note, beneath which a pictorial
representation of this value would be found, either in silver ingots
or in strings of copper cash. This panel also frequently has at each
side a vertical inscription generally written in seal characters, which
sets forth the purpose of the note and the intent that it shall circulate
throughout the kingdom. .

The lower panel of the note will be found to contain in vertical
columns a statement setting forth the department of the government
which has been authorized to make the emission, an assertion of the
value at which the note was to be received in trade, a reference to the
law against counterfeiting and a declaration of the reward which will be
given to informers. The last column to the left is invariably headed
with the characters representing the dynastic era or period of the
emission, below which appear a year character, a month character
and a day character, so arranged as to leave space for inserting the
specific date of the note, the intention obviously being to fill in the
blanks with a brush so that each note should bear the date of the day
of its issue. If, however, such was the case, the existing specimens
no longer bear these brush inscriptions the marks having disappeared
under the wear of use.

Besides the eighty-one pictorial representations of faces of notes,
there are also represented the official seals which were stamped on the
face of the notes of the different dynasties, one on the upper panel
and one on the lower panel of each note. Some of the notes also bore
a seal stamped on the reverse and in a few instances representations
of animals were impressed on the backs of the notes. Of these seals
and animals we have reproductions. In a single instance a note,
the one kwan Ming, had a special design for the back. This also is
given.

The seals were stamped upon the face or back of the note as the
case might be and the color used was almost invariably red, the only
exception to this so far as appears, being those on the Posterior Chou
notes which are said to have been impressed in yellow. They appear

470 DAVIS.

herein as if printed in black, but it must be remembered that they were
superimposed in a different color after the note was printed. Marco
Polo described the process of stamping the seals on the notes, as
follows: “The principal officer, deputed by his majesty, having
dipped into vermilion the royal seal, committed to his custody, stamps
with it the piece of paper, so that the form of the seal tinged with
vermilion remains impressed upon it, by which it receives full authority
as current money....”

The author of Ch‘iian Pu T‘ung Chih apparently devoted about
sixteen years of his life, during the first half of the nineteenth century
to the preparation of his work for publication and to running it through
the press. In connection with his description of the T‘ang notes,
825-826 A.D., he states that paper money first appeared in China
in the period 806-820 A.D. It may be inferred that when he wrote
this he had not seen the Kao-tsung, Yung-hui notes, 650-655 A.D.
It is indeed probable that he met with these latter notes while running
his book through the press, and inserted designs of them without
disturbing the pagination of the portion of the book already prepared,
but actually disarranging the sequence of the page numbers by dupli-
cating those containing the descriptive text, the notes themselves
being put in without the numbers essential to designate their position.
At all events, he states that paper money first appeared in China
between 806 and 820 A.D. and in the same work describes in detail
notes issued 650-655 A.D.

The author, either on the authority of Chinese historical works, or
from knowledge derived from the notes themselves, gives the denomi-
nations of about two hundred and fifty-nine notes emitted during
twenty-six eras or periods in the reigns of different emperors of
ten dynasties, or if the Sung dynasty is divided into the Northern
Sung and Southern Sung, the number of dynasties should be eleven.
Of these notes it would seem from what he says that he himself had in
his collection about two hundred and twenty-five specimens of differ-
ent varieties. In the case of the total number of notes referred to as
well as in the statement as to the number of different varieties in his
possession, the precise numbers cannot be positively asserted owing
to the vagueness and incongruity of expression in the text. He gives
for instance under the period covering 860-873 A.D., two illustrations
and says in his text that in the year 1833, “some notes of this era were
acquired.” The only thing positively-to be ascertained from this is
that there were two varieties, those of which illustrations were given
in the book, and perhaps more. He states that during the reign of

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 471

Kao-Tsung 1127-1162 A.D., there were three varieties issued, of which
he gives the denominations. He publishes three illustrations pur-
porting to represent these notes, but as a matter of fact two of these
illustrations are of denominations not mentioned by him in his list of
three. There are numerous other incongruities of this sort and some
of a similar nature are to be found when one attempts to determine
whether the notes mentioned or depicted are from his collection or
from that of some other collector. The only thing that seems to be
fairly well established is that whether from his collection or from
elsewhere the designs of the notes were drawn from actual specimens.

It will be remembered that when the stock of Law’s Company of
the Indies was first increased, the right to subscribe to new stock was
made dependent on the ownership of four shares of the old. The
different shares were then christened méres and filles and at a later
date the next succeeding emission was called petites filles. It is cer-
tainly very remarkable that this humorous technology of the French
stock market at the beginning of the eighteenth century should have
been anticipated four hundred and fifty years in China, but it is
recorded that in the period 1264-1294 A.D. of the Yiian dynasty, notes
were emitted on the basis of five for one in specie and these notes
were called the Mother while the equivalent specie for any note was
called the Child.

It has already been stated that the various notes described in the
Chinese work which we are considering were practically framed after
the same model. The Chinese dynastic historians allude to emissions
which were evidently intended to be retired within a given time, to
others whose circulation was intended to be confined to a certain
district, and there are statements made which indicate that specific
preparation was made for the redemption of certain of the notes.
There is, however, no illustration furnished by the author of Ch‘iian
Pu T'ung Chih in which there is any indication through inscriptions
on the face of the note or elsewhere, that provision had been made
for its redemption, nor of any limitation of either time or space for
the circulation of the note. We are not however limited to this work
for knowledge of these old Chinese notes, and although the main
purpose of this translation is to furnish a key to the knowledge con-
tained in this particular book, it is desirable to add thereto something
about other sources of information.

There is, in the first place, in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, a
complete set of photographs of the twenty emissions, of Chao-tsung,
Lung-chi, 889-890 A.D., of the T'ang dynasty. The original notes

472 DAVIS.

from which the photographs were taken have disappeared, but the
inscriptions on the photographs are probably quite as legible as they
were on the notes themselves.

In addition to the illustrations reproduced from the pages of Ch‘iian
Pu T‘ung Chih there are also included herewith five reproductions
from the pages of a work recently published in Japan entitled Sst Chao
Ch‘ao Pi T‘u Lu, a title which is rendered into English as follows:
“Tllustrated Record of the Paper-money of the Four Dynasties”’;
and two illustrations taken from the third volume of the Journal of
the Peking Oriental Society. Some of these illustrations were taken
from the notes themselves and are lacking in the precision of the
Chinese characters shown in the reproductions in black and white
of the drawings of the notes made for Ch‘iian Pu T'ung Chih. They
illustrate certain features of these emissions which are not covered
by the notes included in that work, and have especial value in their
bearing upon the point heretofore referred to that the notes in that
work contained in their inscriptions no limitations of time or place
for their circulation and no indication that they were subject to re-
demption. In the examples taken from Sst Chao Ch‘ao Pi T'u Lu
we can see the method by which provision was made for designating
on the face of the note that it was intended for local circulation. We
find also provisions for redemptions and for the reception of the notes
in payment for taxes. The depreciation of some of these notes is
recognized in the inscriptions on their face.

The description of one of them seems to be based upon an impres-
sion taken from a fragment of a wood-block of the note, which was in
possession of a Chinese collector. Dr. S. W. Bushell gives the follow-
ing description of it, in the Journal of the Peking Oriental Society,
Volume III, Number 4, pp. 309-310:

The border is filled with a floral design of lotus flowers and leaves. Above
the border are three large characters yi shih kuan, ten strings, equal to 10,000
cash, the nominal value. Within the border, the vertical column in the middle
reads yi shih kuan pa shih, below which we may supply tsw pai, indicating the
real value to be 8000 cash, eighty being reckoned as a full hundred. On the
left are two characters tzu hao, a space being left above for the insertion of
the number of each note in mahuscript. On the right and left sides close to
the border are two columns of antique (seal) characters, worn and indistinct,
but decipherable with the aid of contemporary records, reading on the right,
wei tsao chiao ch’ao ché chan, ‘‘Whoever counterfeits this note shall be be-
headed”’; on the left shang ch’ien san pai kuan “ Reward 300 strings of copper
cash.”

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. — 473

The characters on the right are partly completed by conjecture.
Those on the left in large script indicate the three provinces in which the
notes were to circulate.

Dr. Bushell in the article already quoted from gives the text of a
note emitted A.D. 1214 as follows:

_...The full text of a note issued in the second year, (A. D. 1214) of the
reign of the Emperor Hsiian Tsung of the same Chin dynasty. It is taken
from the collection of antiquities of Chien Ta-hin, a famous scholar, published
early in this century. It is quoted from the same source by the author of the
Chin shih ts’ui pien, a well known work in 160 books on ancient inscriptions,
where it is described as 12 inches broad, 15 inches long. The accompanying
ficure is smaller than the original and the floral border surrounding it is omitted
from want of space. The value, five strings, half that of the preceding note,
is also written in large characters at the top outside the border. On the left,
also outside and encroaching on the floral border, are two panels indicating
that the note was current in Ching Chao Fu and P’ing Liang Fu which were
both in the province of Shensi. The heading written horizontally reads
Chén yu pao chiian, ‘Precious note of the Chén Yu period” (A. D. 1213-1216).
Below: “Five Strings, eighty cash equal to a full hundred” with columns on
either side for the class and number. Underneath in nine columns, “This
precious note issued by Imperial decree shall circulate together with ready
money and shall be redeemable at any time at the government treasuries of
Ching Chao and P’ing Liang.’ “Whoever counterfeits it shall be beheaded.
The reward shall be 300 strings of these notes, as well as the property of the
criminal.” The middle column is for the date, the other five are filled with
the titles of the officials of the Board of Revenue and Paper Money-Bureaux,
blanks being left for the insertion of their names and signs manual.

Several of these reproductions bear upon their face inscriptions to
the effect that their circulation is for an unlimited time. On some
of them offices were designated where they would be redeemed and on
one at least, the statement is made that the note will be received in
payment of certain taxes.

Marco Polo stated that new notes would be issued for old ones on
payment of a charge for printing. On one of these notes we find a
provision covering that point.

The last illustration of a note in our series is taken from the third
volume, Number 4, of the Journal of the Peking Oriental Society.
Whether the original is what Dr. S. W. Bushell, the author of the
following extract thinks, a copper note, or a plate from which notes
were to be printed, will depend upon the judgment of the reader.
Here is what Dr. Bushell says:

474 A DAVIS.

The third figure is the copy of a copper note of the last reign of the Ming
dynasty. It is a curious example of an attempt to stem the rapid deprecia-
tion of the notes by making these of real intrinsic value. I was inclined, at
first view, to think it was a copper plate for printing paper notes but the
inscription shews this idea to be untenable. The figure is the same size as
the original and must have weighed nearly, if not quite, as much as the 200
cash it represented. I have extracted it from Chi chin eo chien lu, a numis-
matic work, the learned author of which describing it says: At the beginning
of the Ming dynasty, they issued notes after the fashion of the Yuan and Chin
dynasties, these notes being all made of paper. Near the end of the twelfth
year of the reign Ts’ung Chén, (A. D. 1239), Chang Chii of the Hamlin College
presented a memorial recommending notes to be cast from copper. This is
one of these copper notes. It is of the value of 200 cash, and in the centre
there is a picture of two strings of cash, just as in the large paper notes of ‘the
period, of which the value was 1000 cash, there are figured ten such strings.
The remainder of the inscription is the same as that of the said paper money,
with the addition in the middle of the lower part, of seven characters meaning
‘Moulded in changed form in the cyclical year chi mao (A. D. 1239); of the
period Ts’ung Chén.’ On the reverse three square seals are moulded in relief,
each smaller than the one above: Ta Ming Pao chih chih yin, ‘Seal of the
Money note Department of the great Ming’; Pao ch’ao Ti chu ssu yin, ‘Seal
of the Inspectorate of Money Notes’; Chu tsao pao ch’ao chii yin, ‘Seal of the
Bureau for casting money notes’. Near the upper border of the plate, there
is a small round hole. The original date of Hung Wu, the founder of the
dynasty, was retained all through on the notes and we find it here at the end
of the inscription. This is the only specimen of a copper note that has been,
as far as I know, preserved. At the time it was cast, the Ming dynasty was
near its fall and probably very few of these metallic notes were circulated.

A typographical error in the article from which we have quoted
has converted the “cyclical year chi mao” from A.D. 1639 into 1239.
The date 1639 is indeed used in connection with this note or plate by
Dr. Bushell himself in opening this very article. This correction
probably carries with it the correction of the date of the twelfth year
of the reign of Ts'ung Chén, (A.D. 1239) a few lines above, to 1639.

It is not within the purview of this communication to discuss
seriously the question whether Dr. Bushell was right when he aban-
doned the idea that this copper plate was for printing notes and con-
cluded that the language of the inscription made clear that it was
cast in that form for use as money, this particular example being the
only known specimen preserved. It is clear however that if the casting
is unmistakably a coin, it has no right to be considered in a paper that
deals exclusively with paper money. The plate or note is a reproduc-
tion in its general appearance of a note of the emission of the Hung-

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. | 475

wu period, 1368-1398 A.D., the characters used being identical with
the exception that seven new characters are inserted in the inscription
which are translated by Dr. Bushell, “Moulded in changed form in
the cyclical year chi mao” (A.D. 1639), and which Mr. Tomita, the
translator of Ch’iian Pu T‘ung Chih, interprets as reading, “ Cast anew
in the year of chi mao.’ Neither of these renderings is inconsistent
with the casting being a plate for printing notes. When we come to
the reading of the seals on the reverse of the casting, Dr. Bushell’s
reading of the lower seal would at first glance seem to cut us off from
any choice between note and plate. He interprets that seal as reading,
“Seal of the Bureau for casting money notes.” Mr. Tomita gives
the following reading for this seal: “Seal of the Bureau of the Cast
Treasure-Note”’; which is nearly equivalent. Refuge from the
apparent inference that the casting was a “money note” and not a
plate from which currency could be printed may perhaps be found
in different interpretations of these characters by students who shall
devote attention to their study. Meantime it would seem incredible
that any ruler should have attempted to supersede the convenient
and easily portable Chinese string of copper coins by an equivalent
weight, rectangular in form, with sharp corners and with delicate
inscriptions thereon in raised characters. Until this interpretation
shall be proved to be correct, believers in Chinese intelligence will,
harbor doubt of its possibility.

Dr. Bushell was obviously impressed by the fact that the inscrip-
tions on the casting, while they indicated that they were made in
1639 still bore the characters which showed that the note or plate
was a reproduction of the design for a note in the days of Hung-wu,
(1368-1398). There were, however, precedents for double dates of
this sort. In the period Hsien-ching (1136-1141) of the Western
Liao, an emission called Great Liao Treasure notes was put forth with
an inscription stating that the Great Hsia Treasure note was issued
under imperial authority for the use of the people. In the days of the
Hsia dynasty, notes were emitted which were called Ta-Té Treasure
notes, and which bore the characters denoting that they were emitted
during the Yiian-té period (1119-1126). The name Ta-Té was
not adopted till nine years after the end of the Yiian-Té period.
It seems reasonable to suppose that in each of these instances, the
official having charge of the emission, in his effort to make use of a
note of previous issue as a model, neglected to correct his copy so as
to eliminate all the previous dates. A similar confusion in the case
of the casting may perhaps be explained the same way. The diffi-

476 DAVIS.

culties encountered in translating the new characters inserted in the
inscription and in the seal for the reverse may have their foundation
in a similar cause.

In an article in the’same number of the Journal of the Peking
Oriental Society as that from which we have already quoted so freely,*
a writer makes the statement that in 1651 A.D., notes were issued and
that annually for eighteen years a fixed amount was emitted. Then
the attempt to make use of paper money was abandoned. If this be
so, it would not be surprising if the “money note” might be found to
be connected with this emission. The difference in time Is not great.

The translation which follows is the work of Mr. Kojiro Tomita,
anative of Japan, and Assistant Curator of Chinese and Japanese
Art at the Museum of Fine Arts of Boston. He has by preference
adhered to a nearly literal method, rather than attempt to express
the meaning in well phrased English periods. He has given the un-
derlying meaning of the Chinese characters. The reader can shape
this meaning into more readable phrases at will. His scholarly philo-
logical attainments and his complete mastery of English furnish a
guarantee of the accuracy of his work.

ANDREW McF. Davis.

* The Origin of the Paper Currency of China by Shioda Saburo. Journal
of the Peking Oriental Society. Volume III, Number 4, page 278.

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 477

INTRODUCTION BY THE TRANSLATOR.

The reign of a Chinese emperor is designated as such and such an
era, and all notes bear the name of the era in which they were issued.
In some cases, during one reign, the name of the era is changed many
times. To give corresponding dates in the Christian era is sometimes
a difficult task, as books on the subject often disagree. However, in
each case the best authorities have been followed.

The dates that appear after the names of emperors in parentheses
denote the periods of their reigns.

In the transliteration of Chinese proper names, Giles’ system has
been followed.

In translating the inscriptions on the various notes, the original
wording has been followed as closely as possible, with the purpose of
bringing out such distinctions as, for example, the following:

“Shall be rewarded”. “Shall be given”’.
“The informant”. “To him who informs’.

Much difficulty has been experienced in rendering the Chinese
into English because of the absolute lack of kinship between the two
languages. ‘To give the general meaning or to translate the Chinese
freely, as many writers have done, would have been simpler, but by
this method the slight, yet important, distinctions in the text of each
issue could not be brought out.

No doubt many of the English words chosen might be replaced by
more appropriate ones; for instance, the word “informer” might be
preferred by some to the word “informant”’, etc., ete.

It will be noted that the text accompanying the different issues
varies in length. In some cases the inscriptions on the notes have
been incorporated in the text, and the designs are described, while in
others they have been ignored. Inconsistencies are noticeable fea-
tures of this book, and of typographical errors there are not a few.
Wherever an inconsistency or an error has been discovered, an en-
deavor has been made to mention it in a footnote.

In the phrase “....note to be used as cash (or as silver), the
word “as” is the equivalent of “together with’’, “on the same footing’’,
or “jointly”.

“To be used side by side’. In the original, four characters which
literally mean “ parallel-going-use-employ” are frequently used, as

478 DAVIS.

well as two characters literally meaning “ parallel use” (an abridged
form of the four characters previously mentioned). In translating,
the phrase “to be used side by side” has been adopted, and no distine-
tion has been made between the two forms.

The phrases at the end of the inscriptions indicating the punish-
ment for concealing, in spite of being aware of the guilt of another,
differ. In many cases the translations are awkward, but an attempt
has been made to retain the original meaning.

“Public Convenience”. Though the literal translation is “con-
venient (use) of people”, the phrase “ Public Convenience” has been
adopted as a better form for a title.

“Tssuance”’. Though the literal translation is “sswe-circulaiing”’
or “ distribute-circulating,”’ the word “‘ Issuance” has been adopted.

“Imperial authorization decree’’. Whether or not such an expres-
sion is allowable is doubtful; however, it has been used to distinguish
it from others which simply mean “decree” or “sanction”’.

Chinese vs. English. The absence of even fairly exhaustive Chinese-
English dictionaries has made the rendering of the Chinese into
English doubly difficult, as each character has many different
meanings and, further, when used in combination with one or more
characters, takes on a new meaning. No dictionary, even in the
original language, gives enough examples of these combinations,
which amount to thousands and thousands. Since generally all
Chinese-English dictionaries deal with the modern Chinese language,
and the authors themselves intended to make the dictionaries of gen-
eral, not technical, use, many words that were found on the notes had
to be rendered according to my best judgment. Of course the titles
of officials, etc., may or may not have English equivalents; but since
there is no standard to follow, the most appropriate renderings that
could be thought of have been supplied. In order to make correct
renderings of the titles of officials, one must be a deep professional
student of the political economy or governmental organization of
Chinese of the various dynasties and the various provinces. In the
present case, as many reference books in Chinese as were at command
have been consulted.

In translating the text, points not essential, as for instance, repeti-
tions of chronology or the author’s poetic eulogies concerning great
discoveries, have been omitted.

‘

Kovrro Tomita.

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. ; 479

TRANSLATION OF THE CH'UAN PU T'UNG CHIH.

EXTRACTS FROM THE INTRODUCTION TO THE “CH'‘UjAN Pu T‘unG
Guin.

The compilation of the “Ch'iian Pu T‘ung Chih” was begun in
1816; in the winter of 1832 it had been printed; and in the spring of
1833 * the binding was completed.

As there are many hundreds of varieties of paper money, they could
not be enumerated even on a hundred pages.

The following are some of the notes which I acquired:

From Mr. T'‘ao’s collection, in the autumn of 1832, notes of the
Sung Dynasty (Chien-lung Era, 960-962); of the Yiian Dynasty
(Chih-yiian Era, 1264-1294); and of the Ming Dynasty (Hung-wu
Era, 1368-1398) — twenty-three in all.

In the summer of the following year, from Mr. Chu, notes of the
Sung Dynasty (Ching-k‘ang Era, 1126, and the Chien-yen Era, 1127-
1130); of the Western Hsia Dynasty (Yiian-té Era, 1119-1126); of the
Chin Dynasty (Tien-hui Era, 1123-1137); of the Liao Dynasty (K‘ang-
kuo Era, 1127-1135, and the Hsien-ch‘ing Era, 1136-1141) — thirty-
one in all.

And in the spring of 1834, f from the Tung Collection, notes of the
T'ang Dynasty (Hui-ch‘ang Era, 841-846, the Ta-chung Era, 847-859,
the Hsien-t‘ung Era, 860-873, the Lung-chi Era, 889, and the T‘ien-
yu Era, 904-922); of the Sung Dynasty (Shao-hsing Era, 1131-1162),
the Ch‘ien-tao Era, 1165-1173); of the Yiian Dynasty (T‘ien-li Era,
1328-1329, and the Chih-chéng Era, 1341-1367); of the Ming Dynasty
(Yung-lé Era, 1403-1424, and the Hung-hsi Era, 1425 ) — one hun-
dred and sixty-seven in all.

Notes oF Emperor Kao-tsune (650-683 A.D.) oF THE T‘ANG
Dynasty.

In 650 A.D. Kao-tsung ascended the throne, establishing the era
called Yung-hui (650-655 A. D.); and during his rule, which extended
in all over a period of thirty-three years, the name of the era under-
went fourteen changes.

* This must be the date of the first edition. K. T.
+ This date falls one year after the completion of the book. K. T,
t These dates are all ADD—K. T.

480 DAVIS.

Notes of ten different denominations were issued in the Yung-hui
Era of Kao-tsung, all of them yellow in color. At the top of each is
inscribed “Great T'ang Treasure-Note”’; in the middle, the denomi-
nation of the note, e. g., 1 kwan, 5 kwan, 10 kwan, etc.; and directly
below appears a picture representing (a string of) ch‘ien (cash)
proportionate in value to the denomination of the note, e. g., 1 kwan,
1000 ch‘ien; 5 kwan, 5000 ch‘ien, ete., ete. At the bottom is in-
scribed: “The Board of Revenue,* having received the Imperial
Decree, prints the Treasure-Note to be used as cash, ete......... , on
Chem geeks DEA orn G9 21S, TON Gh pec yee year of Yung-hui.” On
the surrounding border is a design of dragons and clouds. Each of
the ten notes is stamped similarly above with a square seal with the
characters “Printed Treasure Note’’, and below with another square
seal which reads: “The Seal of Yung-hui of the Great T'ang”. On
the back of these notes there is neither pattern nor seal.

These Kao-tsung notes came, with the subsequent issues of differ-
ent eras — seven in all—from the collection of the Tung Family.
How fortunate it was to have acquired them! The excellence of
their workmanship, so distinguishable from the rest, surpasses that
of all other paper money. Whether or not there were any notes
emitted in the time previous to the Kao-tsung is not known.

Puate 1. Yune-HuI (650-655 A.D.) Note.
Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great T'ang Treasure-Note.”

Second line: “One Kwan.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of 1000 ch‘ien in one string).

The vertical columns in the lower panel:

“The Civil Board, having received the Imperial Decree, prints and
issues under the heavens ¢ the Great T'ang Treasure-Note to be used as
cash. The counterfeiter shall be decapitated summarily in punishment
for the crime; the first informant shall be given 12 taels in silver.

Yung-hwi,....year,....month,....day, emitted.” t

* On the actual note it says ‘‘Civil Board” instead of ‘‘ Board of Revenue,”’
hence the latter must be a misprint. The Chinese characters for ‘civil’ and
for ‘‘revenue”’ are somewhat alike. K. T.

+ In the actual inscription this phrase ‘‘issues under the heavens’ comes
after the word ‘‘silver”’ at the very end of the sentence. K. T.

t The word here used literally means “act”. Ix. T.

PLATE 1.

: ‘ So Cee

Kiso arene

= #

eas Soper ain le oo ae |
eee Y Kray Weve yee

ca] ‘i

481

PLATE 2.

me eee
By
78 27
Lee
a ip
Ay PA
sy
2S

MA
“p>

4d
g

Se

Yune-Hu! 650-655 A.D.
10 Kwan

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 483

PiateE 2. Yune-Hur (650-655 A.D.) Norte.

The inscription is the same as that on Plate 1, with the exception
of the denomination which is 10 kwan, and the reward to the in-
formant, which is 30 taels. The illustration represents 10 strings
of 1000 ch‘ien each.

PuatE 3. Upper SEAL ON THE YUNG-HUI NOTES.

Four characters, arranged as follows:

Treasure Print
Note Made

Translation: “ Printed Treasure-Note.”’

PLATE ‘3. PLATE 4.

DIMENSIONS DIMENSIONS
23 X 25 INCHES 3 X 35 INCHES

PuatE 4. Lower SEAL oN THE YuUNG-HUI NOTES.

Six characters arranged as follows:
of Yung- Great
Seal hui T'ang

Translation: “The Seal of the Yung-hui Era of the Great Tang
Dynasty.”

484 DAVIS.

Notes oF EMPEROR CHING-TSUNG (825-826 A.D.) oF THE T‘ANG ’
DyYNasTY.

Paper money first appeared in the time of the Emperor Hsien-
tsung * (806-820 A.D.) and was called “fei-ch‘iian” f or “flying
certificate”.

There are ten varieties of the Pao-li notes of the Emperor Ching-
tsung.{ Their color is yellow, and each bears at the top the inscrip-
tion “Great T'ang Treasure-Note”; directly below is written the
denomination of the note, e. g., 10 kwan in writing with an illustration
of one ingot of yiian-pao, (a standard silver bar); 20 kwan, with 2
ingots of yiian-pao, etc., the number of the bars varying according to
the value of the note. In the lower part is inscribed: “The Board
of Rites, having received the Imperial Decree, prints the Great T‘ang
Treasure-Note which is to circulate as money, ete.”’ On the two sides
respectively is written in the chuan (seal) style of writing: “To be
current under the Heavens” and “To circulate as cash”. The sur-
rounding border shows a design of dragons and clouds. Each of the
ten notes is similarly stamped; in the upper part is a square seal
which reads: “Print-made Treasure-Note”’, and in the lower part
another square seal which reads: ‘The Seal of Pao-li of the Great
T'ang’. On the reverse of each there is neither pattern nor seal.
Some of the notes are illustrated herewith in order to record their
existence.

PuatE 5. Pao-ii (825-826 A.D.) Nore.
Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great T‘ang Treasure-Note.”

Second line: “ Ten Kwan.” §

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of one yiian-pao).

At the right of the illustration, written vertically in the chuan (seal)
style:

* Compare this statement with the text concerning the Kao-tsung Notes.
KT.

+ The book “T‘ang-shu’”’, from which presumably this information is drawn,
mentions the “ho-ch‘iian” or “identification certificate (coupon, check, billet
or note)” which was also called “fei-ch'ien”’ or ‘flying money”. Fei-ch‘iian
may therefore be the abridged combination of these two terms. K. T.

{This must mean notes proceeding by tens from 10 kwan to 100 kwan.
ee.

§ Literally, one ten Kwan. K. T.

486 DAVIS.

“ To be current under the heavens.”

At the left of the illustration, written vertically in the chuan (seal)
style:

“ To circulate as cash.”

The vertical columns in the lower panel:

The Board of Rites, having received the Imperial Decree, prints and
issues under the heavens * the Great T‘ang Treasure-Note to be used
as cash. The counterfeiter shall be decapitated summarily in punishment
or the crime; the first informant shall be given 10 taels in silver.

Pao-li,....year,....month,....day,. .emitted.” T

PiLaTE 6. Pao-11 (825-826 A.D.) Notes.

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 kwan note with the ex-
ception of the denomination, which is 100 kwan, and the reward to
the informant which is 100 taels. The illustration represents 10 yiian-
pao.

PuatE 7. Upper SEAL ON THE Pao-.I NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:
Treasure Print
Note Made

Translation: “ Printed Treasure-Note.”’

PuatTe 8. Lower SEAL ON THE Pao-tI NOTES.

Six characters arranged as follows:
of Pao- Great
Seal li T'ang
Translation: “ The Seal of the Pao-li Era of the Great T'ang Dynasty.

Notes oF Emprror Wv-tsune (841-846 A.D.) oF THE T‘ANG
DyNaSsTY.

There are ten varieties of notes that were issued during the era of
Hui-ch‘ang (841-846 A.D.), in the reign of Wu-tsung. The note of

¢

*In the actual inscription this phrase “issues under the heavens” comes
after the word “silver” at the very end of the sentence. K. T.
7 The word here used literally means ‘‘act”. K. T.

PLATE 6.

| SD MMR RK :
eee zh

825-826 A.D
825-826 A.D.

100 Kwan

48S DAVIS.

the value of one kwan bears a picture of one yiian-pao; that of 2 kwan,
2 yiian-pao; 3 kwan, 3 yiian-pao, and so on up to 10 kwan, each
bearing a corresponding number of yiian-pao. On the border of these
notes there appear two dragons tossing a jewel. ‘The color of the paper
is yellow, and all the inscriptions except the uppermost are written
in the style of the great calligraphers Han Yui and Liu Tsung-yiian
of the T'ang Period. Herewith two notes, one of maximum, and the
other of minimum value are illustrated.

PLATE 7. PLATE 8.

DimeENSIONS DimeENSIONS
1 :
25 X 22 INCHES 33 X 33 INCHES

PuaTE 9. Hut-cH‘ane (841-846 A.D.) Norte.
Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great T‘ang Isswance Treasure-Note.” (Written in seal
characters. )

Second line: “One Kwan.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of one yiian-pao).

In the right hand border, written vertically:

“Tssued to the world.” Literally “ Distributed under the heavens.”

In the left-hand border written vertically:

“To be universally accepted.”

PLATE 9.

AAR

6, [ponbaaagae REMY

BAM RCS OA at ro
THN op
mi

490 DAVIS.

Lower panel:

“The Cabinet, having received the Imperial decree, prints and dis-
tributes the Great T‘ang General Circulation Treasure-Note to be used
side by side with silver, which is emitted under the heavens for the con-
venient use of the people. The counterfeiter shall be decagitated; for
informing and arresting the reward shall be 260 taels in silver; and
for concealing and not reporting (such guilt) the punishment shall be the
same.*

Hui-ch‘ang,....year,....month,....day.”

PLATE “10:

The inscription is the same as that on the one kwan note with the
exception of the denomination, which is 10 kwan, and the reward to
the informant and captor which is 820 taels. The illustration repre-
sents 10 yiian-pao.

PLATE 11. Upper SEAL ON THE Hut-cH‘ane NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:
of Hui-
Imperial Seal ch‘ang
Translation: “Imperial Seal of the Hui-ch‘ang Era.”

PuaTte 12. Lower SEAL oN THE Hur-cH‘ane NOTES.

Six characters arranged as follows:

Treasure Print Great
Note Made T‘ang

Translation: “ Printed Treasure-Note of the Great T‘ang Dynasty.”

Notes oF Emperor Hsiian-tsune (847-859 A.D.) oF THE T‘ANG
Dynasty.

The Emperor Hsiian-tsung came to the throne in 847, and the era
of his rule became known as Ta-chung. There are twenty varieties
of the 'Ta-chung notes, of which those ranging in denomination from
10 to 100 wén bear on the border a dragon design; while those rang-

* As in the case of counterfeiting. K. T.

PLATE 10.

492 DAVIS.

ing from 100 to 1000 wén have a border design consisting of four
ch‘ih.* All are small military notes and their color is yellow.

PuatEe 13. Ta-cHune (847-859 A.D.) Norte.
Translation of the Inscriptions.

First line: “Great T'ang Military Administration Treasure-Note.”’}
Second line: “ Ten Weén.”
Illustration: (Pictorial representation of 10 wén in one string).

PEATE: 11: PEATE AZ:

DIMENSIONS DIMENSIONS
25 X 25 INCHES 31 X 3 INCHES

Lower panel: “The Board of War, having received the Imperial
Decree, prints and issues to the Military barracks t in every province, for
the convenient use of the people, the Great T‘ang Circulating Treasure-
Note, to be employed as silver coin. (He who) prints a facsimile § shall

x

Dragons without horns. Kk. T.

+ By some this is translated as ‘‘ War Period Treasure-Note”’; but it seems
to be a misinterpretation. K. T.

t Though literally ‘‘ Military Barracks or Camps,” the word “ Army” would
be a correct rendering. K. T.

§ Meaning ‘‘counterfeit”. IK. T.

PLATE 13.

#
at
pi-
2
Sax
a

Se

SOS

S

sy \ “
Bers

Peal Natal
ae =

De De) a

ala]
ral

> )
- ——
SD ee

Sa ae eS

en ae
mR tka seatatthn Fao) oy LY Ge
RRL PRB Rt aX ree WO BRT GS
ABE EK Mim alnda anvil Oe HR
po Me ATE ia Oat,
a ox mee

SSI

TECH

oO
é
O

493

10 WEN

847-859 A.D
G 847-859 A.D.

494 DAVIS.

be executed summarily. - The first informant shall be rewarded with ten
taels in silver. The government soldier who conceals such guilt shall be
punished accordingly.

“ Ta-chung,....year,....month,....day, sanctioned.” *

PuatTe 14,

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 wén note with the
exception of the denomination, which is 100 wén, and the reward to
the informant which is 100 taels. The illustration represents 100 cash
in one string.

PuatTE 15.

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 wén note with the
exception of the denomination, which is one kwan, and the reward to
the informant which is 100 taels. The illustration represents 10
strings of 100 cash each.

PLATE 16. Upper SEAL ON THE Ta-cHuNG NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:

of Ta-
Imperial Seal chung

Translation: “Imperial Seal of the Ta-chung Era.”

PuaTE 17. Lower SEAL ON THE Ta-cHuNG NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:

Treasure Military
Note Barracks
Translation: “ Treasure-Note of the Army.”

<

* The sense of the character employed is not clear, as it has the meaning
“bound, tied, wound, ome continued”’, ete. There is no authority for trans-
lating it ‘‘s sanctioned”. K, [be

PLATE 14.

etesin ray Meee fT
Se irc SA a ine > BBL EAM

DLE Me

NASTY
847-859 A.D.

847-859 A.D.

100 WEN

PLATE 165.

TR Cra sertal en Fla) ots

var rod ate { 9g 7 i
RoR TK aS Re ie Rain

ADB SSS HL fos dats aod tar
foot HO eg se

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 497

Nores oF Emperor I-tsune (860-873 A.D.) or THE T‘ANG
DyNasTY.

During his reign of fifteen years (806-820 A.D.) the Emperor Hsien-
tsung caused to be enacted a merchants’ monetary deposit law by
which “identification certificates” were issued for the convenience
of travelling traders, the same being convertible into cash on presenta-
tion. These “identification certificates” were known as “flying
money”’ (fei-ch‘ien) or “flying certificates” (fei-ch‘iian).

In 860 A.D., I-tsung ascended the throne, and his era came to be
known as “ Hsien-t‘ung”. Though there was a financial readjustment
under his rule on account of the scarcity of cash, there is no known
record of the issuance of paper money at this period. Nevertheless,
some notes of this era were acquired in the year 1833 from Tung Yung-
jui, which once formed a part of the valuable collection of his ances-

PLATE 16. PEATE: 17.

DimeNsIONS DiMENSIONS
3 3
42 * 12 IncHEs 1z X1z INCHES

tor, Tung Fiao Kung. Of the sixty odd varieties of notes of the
successive dynasties published in the present work, these T'ang notes
were discovered last. Their color is golden yellow, and they have
a distinctive beauty. The arrangement of the various parts is as
follows: at the top is written horizontally in the lesser chuan style,
“Great T'ang General Circulation Treasure-Note”’; directly below is
inscribed, for example, “100 kwan”, with a picture of 10 ingots of
yiian-pao; in the lower panel appears the inscription: “The Cabinet,
having petitioned the Imperial Decree, prints and issues the Great
T‘ang Circulating Treasure-Note to be used side by side with silver
coin. He who privately makes a facsimile shall be decapitated sum-
marily; he who first informs in the matter shall be rewarded with

PLATE 18.

A“

2

Receacilar
A

JES

Li

[aol PK Rancho ae pea)

IMENSIONS
3 1
5s X10¢ INCHES

vi

NASTY
860-873 A.D.
ce 860-873 A.D.

10 Kwan

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 499

4000 taels in silver. To official and civilian alike the punishment for
conniving at (such an offence) shall also be the same. On the sur-
rounding border two dragons appear on either side, with a jewel on
the upper border and water on the lower. A square seal which reads
“Great T'ang Issuance” appears above, and below is another square
seal reading “ Hsien-t‘ung Circulating Treasure-Note”. The latter
seal is repeated on the back of each note.

PuaTe 18. Hsrten-t'une (860-873 A.D.) Norte.
Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great T'ang General Circulation Treasure-Note.”

Second line: “ Ten Kwan.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of one yiian-pao).

Lower panel: “The Cabinet, having petitioned the Imperial decree,
prints and issues the Great T‘ang Circulating Treasure-Note to be used
side by side with silver coin. (He who) first privately makes a facsimile
shall be decapitated summarily upon learning of (such guilt); (he who)
first informs in the matter shall be rewarded with 1000 taels in silver.
To official and civilian alike the punishment for conniving at (such an
offence) shall also be the same.

Hsien-t'ung,....year,....month,... .day.”

PLATE 19:

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 kwan note with the
exception of the denomination, which is 100 kwan, and the reward to
the informant which is 4000 taels. The illustration represents 10
yuan pao.

PuaTE 20. Upper SEAL ON THE HsIEN-T'uNG NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:
Distributing Great
Issuing T'ang
Translation: “Isswance of the Great T'ang Dynasty.”

PLATE 19.

’4
foe

= ae
, “~ \

YG

IMENSIONS
5s X10 INCHES

860-873 A.D.
100 Kwan

“unc 860-873 A.D.

Dynasty

: te ros f Leste 3

TANG

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 501

PuatTeE 21. Lower SEAL ON THE HstIen-tT‘unG NOTEs.

Six characters arranged as follows:
Treasure Through Hsien-
Note Current t‘ung
Translation: “Circulating Treasure-Note of the Hsien-t‘ung Era.”

SraL APPEARING ON THE Back OF THE HSIEN-T‘UNG NOTES.

The inscription is the same as that on the lower seal of which it is
a replica.“g See Plate 21.

PLATE. 20. PEATIE: 212

DIMENSIONS DIMENSIONS
1 7!
25 X 25 INCHES 23 < 22 INCHES

Notes oF Emperor CHao-tsunNG (889-903 A.D.) oF THE T‘ANG
Dynasty.

Chao-tsung became Emperor in 889 A.D. and established the era
called Lung-chi, which lasted only a year; and during this short
period he issued twenty varieties of notes. © The designs on the bor-
ders of the respective notes are: for the one kwan note, clouds and
flowers; for the 10 kwan, clouds and chrysanthemums; for the 15
kwan, the Hsi-fan lotus (Passiflora coerulea); for the 20 kwan, the
Wan-shou * vine; and for the 25 kwan....T

* “ Wan-shou”’ means ‘‘ten thousand years”. K. T.
7 The design for the 25 kwan note is not mentioned. K. T.

PLATE 22.

ON Nae
Per CREE) Go} CAE r
om Dol
pigs Ge (3
KagoKe = Ne) ASK rate sal 0! grate :

so) emp ree a :
tah nical He ih e ai

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 503

PuLaTE 22. Lune-cut (889 A.D.) Nore.
Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great T‘ang General Circulation Treasure-Note.”

Second line: “ Five Kwan.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of one cash).

Lower panel “ The Cabinet, having received the Imperial decree, prints
and issues the Great T‘ang Circulating Treasure-Note to be used side by
side with silver coin. (He who) prints a facsimile shall be decapitated
summarily. The first informant shall be rewarded with 650 taels in
silver. To the concealer— military man and civilian alike — the same
punishment * shall apply.

Lung-chi,....year,....month,... .day.

39

PiatE 23.

The inscription on the 50 kwan note is the same as that on the 5
kwan note with the exception of the denomination, and the reward to
the informant which is 1500 taels. The illustration represents ten
cash.

PuatTe 24.

The inscription on the 55 kwan note is the same as that on the 5
kwan note with the exception of the denomination, and the reward to
the informant which is 850 taels. The illustration represents eleven
cash.

Prat, 25.

The inscription on the 100 kwan note is the same as that on the
5 kwan note with the exception of the denomination, and the reward
to the informant which is 940 taels. The illustration represents
twenty cash.

* Asin the case of counterfeiting. K.T.

PLATE 23.

aye eal nerve:
, Saree EO a

PLATE 24,

DER

(eR

Z

iS
|

wae

a nee, IEP

gare alee
ae Ae

Kael sp) aRabiehaeRaMae Ke 4

Lo. ms

BIT Dy Si oe

sia} ae ot Ba Sa ieiactny De

“\g

ee rare AER |/\ 7 i

NG gore A.D.

889 A.D.

55 Kwan

PLATE 25.

|
~o) ahaa

SA ER ES i

MO EK

Tea a

iis

\

‘
(
O

YNASTY
UNG 889-903 A.D

889 A.D.

100 Kwan

A CHINESE. WORK ON NUMISMATICS. : 507

PuatTeE 26. Upper SEAL ON THE LunG-cu1 NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:
of Lung-
Imperial Seal chi

Translation: “ The Imperial Seal of the Lung-chi Era.”

PuatTE 27. Lower SEAL ON THE LuNG-cHI NOTES.

Six characters arranged as follows:

Treasure Print Great
Note Made T'ang

Translation: “ Printed Treasure-Note of the Great T‘ang Dynasty.”

PLATE 26, PLATE 27.

DIMENSIONS DIMENSIONS
2 X 1% INCHES 22 x 23 INCHES

THe T‘ren-yu (904-922 A.D.) Notes or THE T‘ana Dynasty.

In 904 A.D., the first year of the T‘ien-yu Era, the reigning emperor,
Chao-tsung, was assassinated by Chu Ch'‘iian-chung, and a young
boy twelve years of age was placed on the throne as his successor.
He became known as Chao-hsiian-ti, and remained the nominal head
of the empire until 907 A.D., when he transferred his imperial power

508 DAVIS.

to Chu Ch‘iian-chung, marking the end of the T‘ang Dynasty * and
the establishment of the Hou Liang or the Posterior Liang Dynasty.

During this T‘ien-yu Era, ten varieties of notes were issued.
Their color is yellow, and in denomination they range from one to
ten kwan. At the top is written horizontally “Great T‘ang Public
Convenience Treasure-Note”. Directly below is written the value
with a pictorial representation of a proportionate number of strings
of cash, i. e., for 1 kwan, 1 string of cash. Beneath appears an in-
scription which reads: “The Cabinet, having petitioned the Throne,
prints and issues the Great T'ang Treasure-Note to be current under
the heavens and to be used as cash. The counterfeiter of the same
shall be decapitated; the informant and captor will be rewarded with
120 taelsin silver (this amount in the case of the one kwan note). To
the conniver (at such an offence) the punishment shall be the same.
Paen-yus =)... Vedat ie eer MOEN ee ee day.” On the border
appear two dragons tossing a jewel, and below them, waves. The
upper portion bears a square seal with the characters “Imperial Seal
of the Great T'ang Dynasty.” The lower seal which is also square
reads: “Printed Treasure-Note of the T‘ien-yu Era”. The latter
seal is stamped on the back of the note, which is otherwise undecorated.

PiatE 28. T'tenN-yu (904-922 A.D.) Norte.
Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great T'ang Public Convenience Treasure-Note.”

Second line: “One Kwan.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of one string of cash).

Lower panel: “ The Cabinet, having petitioned the Throne, prints and
issues the Great T'ang Treasure-Note to be current under the heavens and
to be used as cash. The counterfeiter of the same form shall be decapitated;

* According to history the name T‘ien-yu was retained until 922, as the boy
emperor, after abdicating the Imperial throne, was made king of a certain
territory. K. T.

{ By “Ten-yu Era”’ in this particular case, it seems that the author means
the period of about four years commencing with the last year of the Emperor
Chao-tsung’s reign and ending with the year of the transfer of the Imperial
power by Chao-hsiian-ti to Chu Ch'iian-chung. The author says that after
the accession of Chu Ch'iian-chung, which marked the end of the T'ang
Dynasty, for three years the country was in a chaotic state, with constant
fighting, and that as a temporary expedient, notes modelled after those of the
Emperor I-tsung were issued to meet the financial situation. K. T.

510 DAVIS.

he who daringly informs (about) and captures (such a criminal) shall be
rewarded with 120 taels in silver. To the conniver (at such an offence)
the punishment shall be the same.*

“ Tien-yu,....year,....month,....day.”

PLATE 29.

The inscription is the same as that on the one kwan note with the ex-
ception of the denomination, which is 10 kwan, and the reward to the
informant and captor which is 710 taels. The illustration represents
10 strings of cash.

PLATE 30.

The inscription is the same as that on the one kwan note with the
exception of the denomination, which is 100 kwan, and the reward
to the informant and captor which is 5000 taels. The illustration
represents 10 groups of cash of 10 strings each.

PuatTE 31. Upper SEAL ON THE T‘IEN-yu NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:

of Great
Imperial Seal T'ang

Translation: “Imperial Seal of the Great T'ang Dynasty.

Puate 32. Lower SEAL ON THE T‘rEN-yu NOTES.

Six characters arranged as follows:

Treasure Print Tien
Note - Made yu

Translation: “ Printed Treasure-Note of the T‘ien-yu Era.”

* As in the case of counterfeiting. K. T.

PLATE 29.

CBS |
asa
— gz
s 9 f 6 S os
DY == ae oot as
Yor DY

AN
an—ti 904-907 A.D.
904-922 A.D

10 Kwan

PLATE 30.

5 ie =: ,

AL Beet
$e
= 20728 <
Sses 0532 SS:
33 ORF
siis(ssecteae?
is25,
Sh Et
Veee
‘oss
‘3s
iss
aE e
J i]

eu 3 ee
F }
Wee
Pod ay = ee

4
1%

si ane a.

| dBRS
Sx
epee

3
ic
ce) P

ADF (i
¥

_ ORE Rh

D
CHAO-HSUAN-LI 904-907 A.D. 42 X 82 INCHES
TiEN-YU 905-922 A.D.

100

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. lis

SEAL APPEARING ON THE REVERSE OF THE T'‘IEN-yU NOTES.

The inscription is the same as that on the Lower Seal, of which it
is areplica. See Plate 32.

PLATE 31. PLATE 32.

DimENSIONS DimENSIONS
1g 1% INCHES 23 X 23 INCHES

Nores oF Emperor T‘ar-rsu (951-953 A.D.) oF THE Hou
(PostERIOR) CHou Dynasty.

In January of the first year of the Kuang-shun Era (951-953 A.D.),
T‘ai-tsu came to the throne. This era covered three years during
which time notes were issued. The remaining specimens of these
notes are very scarce, but ten varieties of the following denominations
have been acquired: 1 [10?] * 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 and 100
taels. The color of the paper is “lake” (the blue of the waters of a
lake). The figures which denote the value of the notes are unde-
cipherable, while the designs on the borders and the signs indicating
the value have been defaced.

* In the text of the book this figure is distinctly 1, but it may possibly be a
typographical error and have been intended for 10. K. T.

514 DAVIS.

Puate 33. Kuanea-saun (951-953 A.D.) Norte.*
Translation of the inscriptions.

Above: “Great Chou General Circulation Treasure-Note.”

At the right, in the seal style:

“ To be current under the Heavens.”

At the left, in the seal style:

“For the convenient use of the people.”

In the lower panel: “ The Great Chou General Circulation Treasure-
Note is purposed for the convenient use of all the people.

The Civil Board, having received the Imperial authorization decree,
designs this note to represent 30 taels in official silver, which value cannot
be altered. The counterfeiter of this model — principal or conspirator
irres pectively — shall be executed summarily and exposed to public view.
He who discovers a counterfeiter and reports his name to the District
authorities shall receive immediately a reward of 8 taels in silver from
the District authorities. This shall be current in all provinces.

Great Chou, Kuang-shun,....year,....month,....day, issued.”

Puate 34.

The inscription is the same as that on the 30 tael note with the
exception of the denomination, which is 40 taels, and the reward to
the informant which is 10 taels.

PuatE 35. Upper SEAL ON THE KUANG-SHUN NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:

Private Kuang
Seal shun

Translation: “ Private ¢ Seal of the Kuang-shun Era.”

* The panel in which the representation of the value of the note should
appear and the border of the note are in black, since they were unrecognizable
in the original. K. T.

+ The word “‘private’
Seal. K. T.

,

is used presumably to distinguish it from the Imperial

PLATE 33.

UR
DW
R

oe
ef

‘uy HOS eS a a a}
Sra
Naki

re

ND at
ivan a
aaah)
aN

Posterior CHou Dynasty DIMENSIONS

T‘al—tsu 951-953 A.D. 4t X 82 INcHEs
KUANG—SHUN 951-953 A.D.
30 TAELs

PLATE 34.

x
Wo
& fact

FR
RS Hw
BB

ony

44

a

l

ex

<
Gs
4
i
T
é i>
Q
1]

t

a Nek
a af

ss

“4
d<
¢
¢

st

eles

A
y
oy

@
¢

Sakh
ap

;

yumpdy
Bea

<hy |
a
:
EN
dau

at
Nas
tyes Df

.
¢ Be \ .
Sit cs ehrte

Posterior CuHou Dynasty DIMENSIONS
T ‘al—Tsu 951-953 A.D. 4: x 82 INCHES
KUANG-SHUN 951-953 A.D.
516 40 TaeEts

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. : aie

Puate 36. Lower SEAL ON THE Kvuanc-sHun NOTES.

Six characters arranged as follows:
Treasure Through Great
Note Circulating Chou
Translation: “General Circulation Treasure-Note of the Great Chou
Dynasty.”

PLATE 35. PLATE 36.

DIMENSIONS DimeENSIONS
23 X 22 INCHES 23 x 22 INCHES

Notes oF Emperor SHIH-TSUNG (954-959 A.D.) oF THE Hou
(PosTERIOR) CHou Dynasty.

In 954 A.D. Shih-tsung came to the throne and established the era
called Hsien-té (954-959 A.D.). During his reign he caused notes to
be emitted. Ten varieties of these have been acquired. At the top
of each is written horizontally “Great Chou General Circulation
Treasure-Note”. In the right and left-hand borders respectively
appear the inscriptions “To circulate as cash”’ and “Not to be used
without authority’’, in the lesser seal style; and a floral design fills
the remaining space in the border. On the back of the note appear
a picture of a horse and a man, and two characters which read
“P‘ing-an” (Peace). The same mark appears on the Western Liao

518 DAVIS.

notes which are modelled after those of the Hou Chou Dynasty.
On the face of the notes there are two seals whose impressions are
not made in red mixed with oil, but in yellow pigment mixed with
sizing. The color of the paper is blue-black,* the forerunner of the
dark notes of the Sung and Yiian and Ming Dynasties, a fact which
proves that it was in this period (the Posterior Chou) that blue-black *
paper was substituted in the notes for the yellow used in the Tang
Dynasty.

Puate 37. Hsren-Tk (954-959 A.D.) Norte.
Translation of the inscriptions:

Above: “Great Chou General Circulation Treasure-Note.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of one ingot).

At the right, in the lesser seal style:

“To circulate as cash.”

At the left, in the lesser seal style:

“Not to be used without authority.”

In the lower panel: “ The Great Chou General Circulation Treasure-
Note is purposed for the convenient use of all the people. The Board of
Rites, having received the Imperial authorization decree, designs this note
to represent 1 tael in official silver, which value cannot be altered. The
counterfeiter of this model — principal or conspirator — shall be immedi-
ately executed by the authorities of the district concerned. (He who)
reports to the District authorities the name of an offender by counter-
feiting shall be rewarded with 14 taels in silver. This shall be current in
all provinces.

Great Chou, Hsien-té,....year,....month,....day, issued.”

PLATE 38.

The inscription is the same as that on the one tael note with the
exception of the denomination, which is 10 taels, and the reward to the
informant which is 60 taels. The illustration represents 10 ingots.

* Dark gray (): Kee:

PEATE 37.

a

UV
NN

OL

2100 Tr

WN-NGR = -—~

PLATE 38.

2aktom O Peker)
Wee a) Ae Kae tee

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. GPAs

PLATE 39. PLATE 40.

DIMENSIONS DIMENSIONS
5 il 1
22 X 23 INCHES 3a X33 INCHES

PLATE 41.

522 DAVIS.

PLATE 39. Upper SEAL ON THE HSIEN-TE NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:

of Hsien-
Seal té

Translation: “Seal of the Hsien-té Era.”

Puate 40. Lower SEAL ON THE HsIEnN-TE NOTE.

Six characters arranged as follows:
Treasure Through Great
Note Circulating Chou
Translation: General Circulation Treasure-Note of the Great Chou
Dynasty.”

PLATE 41. ILLUSTRATION ON THE REVERSE OF THE HSIEN-TE NOTE.

Man with a horse and two characters “P‘ing-an” (Peace).

Notes or Emperor T'ar-rsu (960-975 A.D.) oF THE NORTHERN
Sune Dynasty.

The first emperor of the Sung, T'ai-tsu, ascended the throne in
960 A.D., establishing the era called Chien-lung (960-962 A.D.). In
its fourth year the name of the era was changed to Ch‘ien-té. Two
kinds of notes — large and small — bearing the name of the former era
have been found, though history itself does not record their emission.
At the top of each, written horizontally, appears the inscription
“Great Sung General Circulation Treasure Note’; on the right and
left-hand borders respectively, in an ancient style of writing, is in-
scribed “To be current under the heavens” and “ For the convenient
use of the people”. In the center is given the value of the note,
for instance, 100 kwan, and directly below a pictorial representation
of a number of yiian-pao (14 in five horizontal rows in the case of a
100 kwan note). Within the panel containing the pictorial represen-
tation appears, at the right, “ As cash”’, and at the left, “To circulate”.
In the lower part is inscribed: “The Board of Revenue, having
received the Imperial Decree, prints and issues under the heavens the

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. aoa

Great Sung Treasure-Note, to be used as cash. The counterfeiter
shall be decapitated summarily; the first informant shall be given
400 taels in silver. Chien-lung,...... Veale MOND, <2 5-1-1 day,
emitted.”’ There is a design of dragons on the border. The upper
seal, which is square, reads: “The Seal of the Chien-lung Era”’,
while the lower, which is also square, reads: “Great Sung Chien-lung
Treasure-Note.” This latter seal appears again on the back of the
note with an ornamental figure which consists of a brush, an ingot
of money and a jui (scepter symbolizing good luck) and a flower.
The color of the paper is gray, and in quality it is the same as that
used for the Yiian and Ming notes.

PuaTE 42. CHIEN-LUNG (960-962 A.D.) Nore.
Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great Sung General Circulation Treasure-Note.”

Second line: “ Fifty Kwan.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of seven ingots of yiian-pao).

At the left and right of the picture, within the upper panel:

“To circulate as cash.”

In the right-hand border, in an ancient style of writing:

“To be current under the heavens.”

In the left-hand border, in an ancient style of writing:

“ For the convenient use of the people.”

In the lower panel: “The Board of Revenue, having received the
Imperial Decree, prints and issues under the heavens* the Great Sung
Treasure-Note, to be used as cash. The counterfeiter shall be decapitated
summarily; the first informant shall be given 400 taels in silver.

Chien-lung,....year,....month,....day, emitted.” T

PuateE 43.

The inscription is the same as that on the 50 kwan note with the
exception of the denomination which is 100 kwan. The reward to the
informant is the same as in the case of the 50 kwan note, 1. e., 400 taels.
The illustration represents 14 ingots of yiian-pao.

*In the actual inscription this phrase “‘issues under the heavens” comes
after the word “‘taels”’ at the very end of the sentence. K. T.
+ The word here used literally means “act”. K. T.

PLATE 42.

aaa aa
Ry a RIK y
a: are Ae ey
: Boe HY
: eS 4 hn
. G — + Mik ya i Sige
SAC rs Sea on te Si Bae t wa |
rs ie oe | :
/ eo ; : |
St ; rT
: ke = Ue) gy eer ome rut

a Lees Beat NPs Senha

se)ex(detordode 08
59 | #eemewe

A Sent Soin
; f cee men

Sie ies

Ur ener : :

DIMENSIONS

Sune Dynasty

63 X 125 INCHES

A.D
A.D.

won
~o
shee
=)
oo
loop)
o
z
=
2 4
eT
a
tow
Pe ae
=o

50 Kwan

PLATE 43.

i)
4 ¥ Ree
Yi = ' t is F ( H
AML
‘ = a les I
\ i * w WN
=| ~ x
hs Y : o- Y om QO bie
* fy r? Y, , HS
POS i ALVA)
ave Belge ZB
/ \ : | FU LGA
A Py ie ‘
} ets re
+ its Og z
)

DDD | det nah eatin

100 Kwan

29D 9) whedsiobaetme ©)
DOD | MwEEKE

ae ee

960-975 A.D
UNG 960-962 A.D.

526 DAVIS.

Piatse 44. Upper SEAL ON THE CHIEN-LUNG NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:
of Chien-
Seal lung

Translation: “Seal of the Chien-lung Era.”

PLATE 44. PLATE 465.

, DIMENSIONS DIMENSIONS
2¢ X 2f INCHES 3 X 3 INCHES

PLATE 46.

Puate 45. Lower SEAL ON THE CHIEN-LUNG NOTES.

Six characters arranged as follows:

a ;
Treasure Chien- Great
Note lung Sung

: Translation: “ Treasure-Note of the Chien-lung Era of the Great Sung
ynasty.””

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. Bad:

PuaTe 46. SEAL AND FLORAL PATTERN ON THE REVERSE OF THE
CHIEN-LUNG NOTES.

Picture:

An ornamental figure consisting of a brush, an ingot of money, a
jui (scepter) and a flower.

Seal:

The inscription on this seal is the same as that on the lower seal
of which it is a replica. See Plate 45.

Notes oF EMPEROR SHEN-TSUNG (1067-1085 A.D.) oF THE
NoRTHERN SuNG Dynasty.

There are in all more than two hundred varieties of notes which
were issued during the period beginning with the T'ang and ending
with the Ming Dynasty. Among them, the notes emitted during
the reign of the Emperor T‘ai-tsu of the Sung alone bear the character
“act” * (meaning “emitted’’) after the date of emission. The same
character is also found on the Hsi-ning (1068-1077 A.D.) notes of Shén-
tsung,t which were modelled after those above-mentioned. No
design and no seal appear on the back of these notes, unlike those of
T‘ai-tsu.

Puate 47. Hst-ntne (1068-1077 A.D.) Nore.
Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “ Hsi-ning Treasure-Note.”’

Second line: “ Fifty Kwan.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of five ingots).

In the lower panel: “ The Boards of Rites and Revenue, having re-
ceived the Imperial Decree, print this paper-note to be used parallel with
silver coin. The counterfeiter shall be decapitated. The captor of the
criminal shall be rewarded with 400 taels in silver. The conniver —
district official and civilian alike — shall be decapitated summarily.

Hsi-ning,....year,....month,....day emitted.”

* It will be noted that this character appeared on the notes of Kao-tsung and
Ching-tsung, of the T'ang Dynasty. K. T
+ Compare the preceding statement. K. T.

@
Egy)
nee A ox

DimeENSIONS
5

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 529

PuatEe 48. Upper SEAL ON THE Hsi-ninc Norte.

Four characters arranged as follows:

of Hsi-

Treasure ning
Translation: “ The Treasure of the Hsi-ning Era.”

Puate 49. Lower SEAL on THE Hsi-ninc Notr.

Six characters arranged as follows:

Treasure Print Great
Note Made Sung

Translation: “ Printed Treasure-Note of the Great Sung Dynasty.”

PLATE 48. PLATE 49.

DIMENSIONS DiMENSIONS
23 X 22 INCHES 3i X 3h INCHES

Notes oF Cu'tn-tsune (1126 A.D.) or THE NorTHERN SuNG
Dynasty.

Ten varieties of notes were issued in the Ching-k‘ang Era (1126
A.D.) during the reign of the Emperor Ch‘in-tsung.

The first is the 5 kwan note with a pictorial representation of one
silver ingot, having as a border design the eight treasure-emblems;
on the right and left-hand borders respectively appear the inscrip-
tions “Great Sung Treasure-Note” and “For the convenient use of

530 DAVIS.

the people’’, both in seal characters. On the reverse of the note
there is a mark consisting of a scroll, bearing the four characters which
mean “To open the scroll is to benefit”. A like mark is found on
each note of the ten varieties. The second is the 10 kwan note
with an illustration of two ingots and a border design consisting of
four dragons with a jewel. Then comes the 15 kwan note with
three ingots and a border design of the lotus plant; * the 25 kwan
note has a pictorial representation of five ingots and a border design
consisting of four dragons and a jewel; on the 30 kwan note appear
six ingots and a border design of the An-pa-hsien; f on the 35
kwan note, seven ingots and a border design of the Hsi-fan plant
(Passiflora coerulea); on the 40 kwan note, eight ingots and a border
design consisting of two dragons, clouds and a jewel; on the 45 kwan
note, nine ingots and a border design consisting of five dragons and
a jewel; and finally, the 50 kwan note with ten ingots and a border
design of the eight treasure emblems.

PiatE 50.. Cuine-K‘ane (1126 A.D.) Nore.

Translation of the inscriptions.

Heading: “Great Sung Public Convenience Treasure-Note.”

Top of panel: “Five Kwan.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of one ingot of silver).

Right-hand border, in seal style:

“Great Sung Treasure-Note.”

Left-hand border, in seal style:

“For the Convenient Use of the People.”

In the lower panel: “The Board of Rites, having petitioned the
Imperial sanction, prints for the convenient use of the people the Great
Sung Treasure-Note, to be used side by side with silver coin. The
counterfeiter shall be decapitated summarily; the informant or captor
shall be rewarded with GOO taels in silver. If any official connives at
(such guilt) the punishment shall be the same as this (the case of the
counterfeiter). ‘

Ching-k‘ang,....year,....month,....day.”

* Directly after the 15 kwan note in the text comes the 25 kwan note. The
writer no doubt omitted the 20 kwan note. K. T.
{ Probably a kind of hydrangea. K. T.

532 DAVIS.

PLatTe 51.

The inscription is the same as that on the 5 kwan note with the
exception of the denomination, which is 30 kwan and the reward to the
informant and captor which is 1000 taels. The illustration represents

six ingots.
PLaTE 52.

The inscription is the same as that on the 5 kwan note with the
exception of the denomination, which is 50 kwan, and the reward to
the informant and captor which is 1000 taels. The illustration
represents ten ingots.

Puate 53. Upper SEAL ON THE CHING-K‘ANG NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:
of Ching-
Seal k‘ang
Translation: “ The Seal of the Ching-k‘ang Era.”

PLATE 54. ILLUSTRATION AND UPPER SEAL ON THE REVERSE OF THE
CHING-K‘ANG NOTES.

Four characters written vertically on the scroll:

Open

Scroll

is

Benefit
Translation: “ To open the scroll is to benefit.”
Four characters on the-seal:

of Ching-
Seal k‘ang
Translation: “ The Seal of the Ching-k‘ang Era,” the seal being a
replica of the upper seal.— See Plate 53.

BE RRA

woriagis Kay

—

on SWE. =p

fel ap acy Aig
se" cacimnieah eG eae) ‘
oe = feta coat HE |
[aemeenteny fl sy

eS wale ar
=e] T ys Cay |

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 535

PLATE 53. PLATE 54.

DIMENSIONS
a
1g X 2k INCHES

PLATE 55.

DIMENSIONS
23 X 25 INCHES

536 DAVIS.

Puate 55. Lower SEAL ON THE CHING-K‘ANG NOTEs.

Six characters arranged as follows:

Treasure Convenience Great
Note Public (People) Sung

Translation: “ Public Convenience Treasure-Note of the Great Sung
Dynasty.”

Notes oF EmprEror Kao-tsune (1127-1162 A.D.) oF THE
SOUTHERN SunG Dynasty.

In 1127 A.D. Kao-tsung ascended the throne and established the era
called Chien-yen, which lasted through 1130 A.D., when its name was
changed to Shao-hsing (1131-1162 A.D.). Five varieties of notes
bearing the former name are in the possession of the Chu Family.
They are somewhat similar to the notes of the Hsia and Chin
Dynasties. Each has ornamental borders with the dragon-and-cloud
design; at the top are six characters which read: “Great Sung Gen-
eral Circulation Treasure-Note”’; below is the denomination,— 10, 20,
30, 40 and 50 kwan respectively, and a pictorial representation of
cash (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 respectively). On either side the pictorial
representation are four characters in an ancient style of writing,
which read: “Great Sung Metal Cash”’ (the first two words at the
right and the last two at the left). Below is the inscription: “The
Board of Revenue, having petitioned”’, ete., ending with “Chien-yen,
rea a yeéar,.......-month,........day”, On'the reverse of each
note appears a figure: for ten kwan, a tiger; for 20 kwan a Sst; for
30 kwan, an elephant; for 40 kwan, a rabbit; and for fifty kwan, a .
lion.*

*In the beginning of this text, the author discusses the issuance of hui-tztt
which may be translated as ‘‘honds”’ or ‘agreements’. He quotes from two
books, in one of which the hui-tzti is referred to as ‘‘paper-money”’, while
in the other it is not considered paper-money, and is classed as chiao-tzu, or
“bills of exchange”. After thus presenting the two opposite views, it is to be
inferred that the author is inclined to agree with the first and that he considers
the notes published in Kao-tsung’s time hui-tziti. However, in the following
chapter of his book the author makes it clear that hui-tzti are bronze tablets
which were issued as certificates representing money. K. T.

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. bad

PuaTE 56. CHIEN-YEN (1127-1130 A.D.) Nore.
Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great Sung General Circulation Treasure-Note.”

Second line: “ Ten Kwan.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of one cash with ribbon).

At the right of the picture in an ancient style of writing:

“Great Sung.”

At the left of the picture in an ancient style of writing:

“ Metal Cash.”

In the panel: “The Board of Revenue, having petitioned the Imperial
Sanction, prints the currency paper-money, the Great Sung Treasure-
Note, to be current and to be used as copper cash. The counterfeiter shall
be arrested and decapitated summarily. The informant and the captor
shall be rewarded with 1150 taels in silver, and in addition shall be given
the property of the criminal.

Chien-yen,....year,....month,... .day.

3’)

PuaTE 57.

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 kwan note with the
exception of the denomination, which is 20 kwan, and the reward to
the informant and captor which is 750 taels, in addition to the property
of the criminal. The illustration represents two cash joined.

Puate 58.

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 kwan note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 30 kwan, and the reward to
the informant and captor which is 850 taels, in addition to the property

of the criminal. The illustration represents three cash joined with a
ribbon.

PuaTeE 59.

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 kwan note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 40 kwan, and the reward to
the informant and captor which is 950 taels, in addition to the property
of the criminal. The illustration represents four cash in a string.

PLATE 56.

RIC
ae

EK PERE 8 TTP TT

ae AAD.
Qa Soe?
1 pects

eal

aa)sher Redo ar Hp Meo
[rid ok BSP AEH] o

Y eS 10? |,

ae

———

PLATE 57.

is

ee ee a8

\ Se

Bo) her Qos se HOARE Aol |
| ROSSER Ra ad | iG

CARTERS VD PTSD HIS

iva | a ) D :
Oi | WR etcema I
faoranreamiatee| 0

YNASTY
1127-1162 A.D.
YEN 1127-1130 A.D.

20 Kwan

PLATE 6&8.

NVA,
.

Gn

ia

of

i

pa
Jacl Ergo ee ee

<i]
er 4 ee SEO LI oo /)
TO

BEGRE CLR

Wye eh

(| ste seen esp rico

1127-1162 A.D
1127-1130 A.D.

30 Kwan

Cte
AOAC

KONE Mie) CME e| (:

KES HT LS ae]

542 DAVIS.

PuaTE 60.

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 kwan note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 50 kwan, and the reward to
the informant and captor which is 450 taels, in addition to the property
of the criminal. The illustration represents five cash grouped two
and two with one above, all joined with a ribbon.

Puate 61. Upper SEAL ON THE CHIEN-YEN NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:
of Chien-
Seal yen
Translation: “ The Seal of the Chien-yen Era.”

PuatTe 62. Lower SEAL ON THE CHIEN-YEN NOTES.

Six characters arranged as follows:
Treasure Through Great
Note Circulating Sung
Translation: “General Circulation Treasure-Note of the Great Sung
Dynasty.”

SEAL ON THE REVERSE OF THE CHIEN-YEN NOTE.

The inscription is the same as that on the upper seal, of which it
is a replica.— See Plate 61.

PICTURES ON THE REVERSE OF THE CHIEN-YEN NOTES.
Plate 63. A tiger, which appears on the 10 kwan note.
Plate 64. A ssi, which appears on the 20 kwan note.
Plate 65. An elephant, which appears on the 30 kwan note.
Plate 66. A rabbit, which appears on the 40 kwan note.
Plate 67. A lion, which appears on the 50 kwan note.

PLATE 60.

543

{ae |S eels E

2 | | RATNER S| |:
‘y | ae! md ee aca | ee
uy sa a Paap eh: 4 | ing
‘ iis 22%
i TO Bho t= a

PLATE 62.

PLATE 61.

2
Zr
los)
an Zz
zs
=o
6 *
o
wn
wo wW
ra oe
0°
az
z
Wn
=p
On

PLATE 64.

PLATE 63.

i
{|

))

a

((/
LW Bern,

pe iES
4)
a

546 DAVIS.

Nores oF Kao-rsunG (1127-1162 A.D.) oF THE SOUTHERN SUNG
Dynasty.

The five varieties of notes which were emitted during the Chien-yen
Era have already been printed. As has been said, in 1131 A.D. the
name of the reign was changed to Shao-hsing, during which period
three varieties * of notes were issued. The form of these notes differs
little from those of the preceding era. On the one kwan note appears
a pictorial representation of one cash, and on the 5 kwan note, 5 cash,
and on the 10 kwan note, 10 cash, all decorated with figured borders.
On either side of the pictorial representation on each note are the
inscriptions, in the seal style of writing, “To circulate under the
heavens” (at the right) and “To be current and to be used”’ (at the
left). Below is the inscription: “The Board of Revenue, having peti-
tioned’’, ete., ending with “Shao-hsing,....year,....month,....day”’.
Two square seals appear on the notes. The upper reads: “Seal of
the Shao-hsing Era’”’, and the lower, “Printed Treasure-Note of the
Great Sung Dynasty”. On the back of these notes no figure or seal
appears.

Puate 68. SHAo-HsING (1131-1162 A.D.) Nore.
Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great Sung Current Use Treasure-Note.”

Second line: “ Two Kwan.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of two cash).

At the right of the picture in the seal style:

“To circulate under the heavens.”

At the left of the picture in the seal style:

“To be current and to be used.”

In the lower panel: “ The Board of Revenue, having petitioned the Im-
perial Sanction, prints for the general public use the Great Sung Treasure-
Note, to be used side by side with cash. (He who) counterfeits shall be
decajntated summarily; (he who) first informs shall be rewarded with 300

* After referring thus to the three varieties, the text mentions a little later,
as will be noted, the three notes, namely, the one, five and ten kwan notes.

Nevertheless, the illustrations that follow the text are two, five and eight
kwan notes. K. T.

PLATE 68.

: zak

AK

i

iN

NZ
) QA
7 IEP

SYS By :

@ RETERE

ee oH i DT
DAR

Wor O—~

KER ee
SEKI CE RBG

DBO

rare aa e)

548 DAVIS.

taels in silver. To the official who conceals (such guilt) the punishment
shall be the same (as the counterfeiter).
Shao-hsing,....year,....month,....day.

3)

PLATE 69.

The inscription is the same as that on the 2 kwan note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 5 kwan, and the reward to
‘the informant which is 600 taels. The illustration represents five
cash.

Puate 70.

The inscription is the same as that on the two kwan note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 8 kwan, and the reward to
the informant which is 900 taels. The illustration represents eight
cash.

PLATE 71. Upper SEAL ON THE SHAO-HSING NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:

of Shao-
Seal hsing

Translation: “Seal of the Shao-hsing Era.”

PuatE 72. LowER SEAL ON THE SHAO-HSING NOTES.

Six characters arranged as follows:
Treasure Print Great
Note Made Sung
Translation: “ Printed Treasure-Note of the Great Sung Dynasty.”

Nores or Hstao-tsune (1163-1189 A.D.) oF THE SOUTHERN SUNG
“Dynasty.

In the third year of the Lung-hsing Era of the reign of the Emperor
Hsiao-tsung, the name of the era was changed to Ch‘ien-tao (1165-
1173 A.D). During this latter era paper money was emitted to meet
the national need. The form of the notes is somewhat like that of the

PLATE 69.

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PLATE 70.

DyNasty

53 X 82 INCHES

G 1127-1162 A.D.
G 1131-1162 A.D.

8 Kwan

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 5ol

Shao-hsing notes. The denominations are as follow: the 10 kwan note
with one ingot of silver; the 20 kwan note, with two ingots; the 30
kwan with three ingots; and the 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 and 100 kwan
notes with a corresponding number of ingots. The borders are
decorated with figures of dragons and clouds, and the color of the
paper is gray.

PLATE 71. PLATE 72.

DiMeENSIONS DimeENSIONS
2 X 2 INCHES 27 X 22 INCHES

PLATE 73. TRANSLATION OF THE INSCRIPTIONS ON THE CH'‘IEN-TAO
(1165-1173 A.D.) Nore.

Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great Sung General Circulation Treasure-Note.”

Second line: “ Ten Kwan.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of one yiian-pao).

In the lower panel: “ The Civil Board, having petitioned the Imperial
sanction, prints, to be current and to be employed, the Great Sung Treasure-
Note, to be used as cash. The counterfeiter shall be decapitated sum-
marily; (he who) informs and arrests shall be rewarded with 550 taels in
silver. If a District official be the conniver (at such guilt) he shall be
punished.

Ch‘ten-tao,....year,....month,....day.”

PLATE 73.

oe
cute ele

Deusen a et | Dy
SHR y af

PLATE 74.

BP RTRK §
— ENE RE:

‘3
ae

é

UP

Hah

SSS oan \aon

=

= S627 Wa

Sune Dyna DIMENSIONS
Hstao-uns 1163 “1189 A.D. 5s X 82 INCHE S
CuH'ien-TaAo 1165-1173 A.D.

100 Kwan 553

554 DAVIS.

Prarta4s

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 kwan note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 100 kwan, and the reward to
the informant and captor which is 1,400 taels. The illustration
represents 10 yuan-po.

PLATE 75. Upper SEAL ON THE CH'‘IEN-TAO NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:
of Ch‘ien-
Seal tao

Translation: “Seal of the Ch‘ien-tao Era.”

PLATE 75. PLATE 76.

DIMENSIONS DimENSIONS
2 X 2 INCHES 27 X 27 INCHES

PLATE 76. LOWER SEAL ON THE CH‘IEN-TAO NOTES.

Six characters arranged as follows:

‘Treasure Print Great
Note made Sung

“e

Printed Treasure-Note of the Great Sung Dynasty.”

Translation:

~

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 555

Nores oF Kune-tsune (1275 A.D.) oF THE SuNG Dynasty.

In the fifth month of the year 1275, during the reign of Kung-tsung
of the Southern Sung Dynasty, notes were used in place of silver
money. Though they were in circulation not quite a year, the Tung
Piao Family owned the complete ten varieties in spite of their rarity.
Herewith the notes of minimum and maximum denominations are
illustrated.

PuatEe 77. Té-yu (1275 A.D) Noress.
Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great Sung General Circulation Treasure-Note.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of one yiian-pao).

In the right hand border written vertically:

“Tssued under the heavens.

In the left-hand border written vertically:

“To enrich the State and satisfy the people.”

In the lower panel: “ The Great Sung General Circulation Treasure-
Note is purposed for the convenient use of all the people.

The Board of Revenue, having received the Imperial sanction, designs
this note to represent 10 taels in official silver, which value cannot be
altered. The counterfeiter of this model — principal or conspirator —
shall be executed summarily and exposed to public wew. He who dis-
covers a counterfeiter and reports his name to the District authorities shall
receive immediately a reward of 25 taels in silver from the District authori-
ties. This shall be current in all provinces.

Great Sung, Té-yu,....year,....month,....day, issued.”

PLatTeE 78.

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 tael note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 100 taels, and the reward to
the informant which is 115 taels. The illustration represents ten
yuian-pao.

PLATE 77.

AQAA NE) AAS) RR 4 ABE NE

(ao eK ae SF mae

ae fe ae
alm Ht x Bec bees
% ‘pi BAR BAR AL ap)aaie {Ekese2| 5)
as BRAC Ne FERRE] ABB
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: peatigwiredan 33
KL BO AS IRIE HA :

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(a die

al

PLATE 78.

AREA MIC ANKE) DARKANE NY BRE
mF

oo NCEA NS Sh fae oe abl (ore RE Cm

557

100 TAELs

558 DAVIS.

PLatTe 79. Upper SEAL ON THE TE-yu NOTES.

Four characters as follows:
Private Té-
Seal yu
Translation: “Private Seal of the Té-yu Era.”

PLATE 79. PLATE 80.

DIMENSIONS DIMENSIONS
2¢ X 2g INCHES 27 x 2% INCHES

PuaTe 80. Lowrer SEAL oN THE Tk-yu NOTES.

Six characters arranged as follows:

Treasure Through Great
Note Circulating Sung

Translation: “General Circulation Treasure-Note of the Great Sung
Dynasty.” -

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 559

Notes oF Emperor T'al-rsunG (1123-1134 A.D.) or THE CHIN
Dynasty.

In 1123 A.D. T‘ai-tsung of the Chin Dynasty ascended the throne
and established the era known as T‘ien-hui (1123-1137 A.D.). Ae-
cording to the annals of the Sung Dynasty, the Nii-chen, or Nii-chih,*
in the twenty-fourth year of Shao-hsing (1154 A.D.) instituted the bill
of exchange system modelled after that of the Sung and emitted notes
of two sizes, large and small, which were used side by side with the
old coins. This year corresponds to the second year of the Ch'‘en-
yiian Era in the reign of Liang (Hai-ling Wang) of the Chin Dynasty.
As I was not able to discover the notes thus referred to in the history,
I could not print them in this book. However, I acquired the 10
kwan note of T‘ai-tsung of the Chin Dynasty. The quality of the
paper resembles the Kao-li variety, but is thicker as the sheets are
doubled. The form follows that of the T‘ai-tsu notes of the Sung
Dynasty.{ The color is gray; the borders are decorated with clouds
and bats. At the top appears the inscription: “Great Chin Issuance
Treasure-Note”. In the middle is written: “Ten Kwan” and a
pictorial representation of five ingots. At the two sides are characters
in the “dropping dew” seal style which read respectively: “Great
Chin Treasure-Note” and “To be issued to the world’.{ Below
appears the inscription beginning with the words “The Civil Board
having’’, etc., and ending with “Tien-hui, ...... icine Sema month,
Boe ge day”. The emission of the notes took place in 1124 A.D.

There is another note of which I am the possessor. It is a 5
kwan note with a border decoration of the Hsi-fan lotus (Passiflora
coerulea). At the top is inscribed “Great Chin Army Treasure-
Note”; in the middle is written “Five Kwan” with a picture
of one yiian-pao. Below appears the inscription: “Great Chin
Treasure-Note to be used as the yellow flag. If District officials... ..
the same punishment shall apply to all.” It would appear that the
two characters which together mean “conceal”’ are left out. Next

ifs

baths eect. Weare. day” without the character “month”.

4

* The name of a tribe which later established the Chin State. K. T.

+ Does this refer to the regulations concerning the notes? The form of the
notes of T‘ai-tsu’s reign is quite different from that of the note herein referred
toe eke en.

t Literally “distributed under the heavens.” K. T.

560 DAVIS.

PuatTe 81. T‘ren-Hur (1123-1137 A.D.) Nore.

Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great Chin Army Treasure-Note.”

Second line: “ Five Kwan.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of one yiian-pao).

In the lower panel: “ The Civil Board, having petitioned and received
the Imperial sanction, prints for the convenient use of the people the Great
Chin Treasure-Note to be used as the yellow flag.* The counterfeiter —
if (discovered)t — shall be decapitated summarily. The informant and
the captor shall be rewarded with 600 taels in silver. If District offi-
cials....{ the same punishment shall apply to all.

T‘ien-hui,....year,....day.”’ §

Puate 82. T'ren-nur (1123-1137 A.D) Nore.

Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great Chin Issuance Treasure-Note.”

Second line: “ Ten Kwan.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of 5 ingots).

At the right of the picture in the “dropping dew” seal style:

“Great Chin Treasure-Note.”

At the left of the picture in the “dropping dew” seal style:

“To be issued to the world.” Literally “distributed under the
heavens.”

In the lower panel: “ The Civil Board, having petitioned and received
the Imperial sanction, prints for the convenient use of the people the Great
Chin Treasure-Note to be distributed and used as cash. The counter-

*T have failed to discover in any authoritative books a reference to the
“vellow flag’ as having anything to do with currency or the monetary system.
Some authorities define the term as the “Imperial flag”, and others more
commonly speak of it as the “‘standard” of a particular army division. There
is a very remote possibility, however, that it was the name given to a particular
kind of certificate or bond issued in place of money. Again, it is possible that
it refers to a military body for whose convenience the note was emitted, as
the note is known as the ‘‘Army Treasure-Note”. K. T.

+ As the word which corresponds to ‘“‘if’’ appears in this sentence, it was
penn necessary to insert a word like “discovered” to make the meaning clear.

pie
{ As already noted in the text, the two characters which together mean
‘conceal” have been omitted. K. T.

§ As indicated in the text, the word ‘‘month” does not appear. K. T.

PLATE 81,

Pe AG (Caney

— PY SD” D7 :
KREG AH RY Ra 2)
bien See Ahea i] V || <8
a pre
a* a
ce

5 Kwan

561

PLATE 82.

3b
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B
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BR

ZH

AZURE | BH
ean

Cuin Dynasty DIMENSIONS
T‘Al-TSUNG 1123-1134 A.D. 6 X 95 INCHE s
T‘tEN-HU! 1123-1137 A.D.

10 Kwan

562

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. ; 563

feiter shall be decapitated summarily; the informant and captor shall be

rewarded with 800 taels in silver. If District officials conceal (such

guilt), the same as this shall apply to all.*
Tien-hui,....year,....month,....day.”

Piate 83. Upper SEAL ON THE T'IEN-HUI NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:
of T‘ien-
Seal hui

Translation: “Seal of the T‘ien-hui Era.”

PLATE 83. PLATE 84,

DIMENSIONS DIMENSIONS
7
1% X 2 INcHES 23 X 23 INCHES

PuateE 84. Lower SEAL ON THE T'IEN-HUI NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:

Treasure Great
Note Chin
Translation: “ Treasure-Note of the Great Chin Dynasty.”

SEAL ON THE REVERSE OF THE TIEN-HUI NOTES.

The inscription is the same as that on the lower seal, of which it is
a replica. See Plate 84.

* A very incomplete expression! It obviously means that the punishment
shall be the same as in the case of the counterfeiter. K. T.

564 DAVIS.

Norrs oF YEH-LU (1125-1135 A.D.) oF THE WESTERN Liao
DYNASTY.

In 1125 A.D., Yeh-lii* established the Western Liao Dynasty. The
era of his reign was first known as Yen-ch‘ing, but two years later the
name was changed to K‘ang-kuo (1127-1135 A.D.). In 1127 A.D.,
notes were emitted. Today, in the collection of the Chu Family, there
are ten notes of that issue. Each bears the denomination. On the
one kwan note a string of cash is illustrated, and on the border is a pair
of dragons tossing a jewel. On the 2 kwan note are two strings of
cash and a border design of two dragons. On the 3 kwan note appear
three strings of cash and a border design of two dragons. On the 4
kwan are four strings of cash and a border design of two cash and
dragons; on the 5 kwan note, five strings of cash and a border design
of a phoenix carrying [?] a peony blossom; on the 6 kwan note, six
strings of cash and a border design of a floral motive; on the 7 kwan
note, seven strings of cash and a border design of floating clouds; on
the 8 kwan note, eight strings of cash and a border design of clouds and
bats; on the 9 kwan note, nine strings of cash and a border design of
flames; and on the 10 kwan note, ten strings of cash and a border
design of narcissus and swastika. The inscription on the lower part
of each note reads: “The Board of War, having petitioned the Im-

penal ‘sanction; .3 2 oro eet one Oe ae eee to be used
as silver for military supplies f .......... KSangakuo;ame year,
Lis ope ae month,........day.” A square seal with the characters

“K'ang-kuo Army” is stamped on the upper portion of the note,
and another square seal with the characters “Great Liao Printed
Treasure-Note” appears in the lower portion. On the reverse appears
a picture of a horse and four characters which read: “Peace be unto
men and horses”’.

* Yeh-lit was Emperor Té-tsung, later known as T‘ien-yu Huang-ti. K. T.

+ “Military supplies” is not a satisfactory translation. Broadly, the two
Chinese characters employed in the inscription mean ‘“ Military” or “Com-
missary”’. The term should be accepted as meaning ‘“‘silver coin intended for
the use of the army.” K. T.

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 565

PuatEe 85. K‘ana-Kvo (1127-1135 A.D.) Note.
Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great Liao Army Treasure-Note.”

Second line: “ Three Kwan.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of three strings of cash).

In the lower panel: “ The Board of War, having petitioned and re-
ceived the Imperial sanction, prints for the convenient use of the Army
the Great Liao Treasure-Note to be used as silver for military supplies.
The counterfeiter shall be decapitated summarily; the informant and
captor shall be rewarded with 400 taels in silver.

K‘ang-kuo,....year,....month,....day.”

PLATE 86.

The inscription is the same as that on the 3 kwan note, with the
exception of the denomination which is 6 kwan, and the reward to
the informant and captor which is 200 taels. The illustration repre-
sents six strings of cash.

PuLateE 87.

The inscription is the same as that on the 3 kwan note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 9 kwan, and the reward to the
informant and captor which is 1000 taels. The illustration represents
nine strings of cash.

PuaTE 88. Upper SEAL ON THE K‘anc-Kuo NOorEs.

Four characters arranged as follows:
Military K‘ang-
Barracks kuo
Translation: “ Army of the K‘ang-kuo Era.”

PuatE 89. Lower SEAL ON THE K‘anc-Kuo NOTES.

Six characters arranged as follows:

Treasure Print Great
Note Made Liao

Translation: “ Printed Treasure-Note of the Great Liao Dynasty.”

PLATE 86.

Sees

DyYNastTy
G 1125-1135 A.D.

Liao

01127-1135 A.D.

3 Kwan

PLATE 86.

se SSS | alnwatinae |S |
he ERK oe ni &

eae “

BCE
D

A

A

O)
——7
2
Li

A N
UNG 1125-1135
“ANG-KUO 1127-1135

Qe

é

mY |
6 |
2) |
il
Rn TE
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14
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S

ld

567

PLATE 87.

; ; ves reir
~ aS nde alo hana) ie

= SS xeenal Seietetael <

\ ial ES os

PLATE 88. PLATE 89.

DIMENSIONS DIMENSIONS
2h X 25 INCHES 22 X 23 INCHES

PLATE 90.

De

569

570 DAVIS.

Piave 90. PicruRE AND SEAL ON THE REVERSE OF THE
K‘anc-Kuo NOTES.

Picture of a horse and four characters which read:

“ Peace be unto men and horses.” *

Seal.

The inscription is the same as that on the lower seal of which it is
a replica. See Plate 89.

Nores or (tHE Empress) Kan-t'reN-HoU (1136-1141 A.D.) oF THE
Western Liao DyNaAsTY.

In 1136 A.D., the Empress Kan-t'‘ien-hou ascended the throne and
named her reign Hsien-ch‘ing (1136-1141 A.D.). Though the books
of history do not record the emission of notes during this reign, I
acquired two notes of this era from the collection of the Chu
Family. They are illustrated herewith. The smaller note is of 3
kwan. The border-decoration is a floral motive. At the top is
horizontally inscribed: “Great Liao Army Treasure-Note”. Below
the inscription reads: “........ to be used by the Army........ If
District officials...... the same punishment shall apply to all.” It
appears that the two characters which together mean “conceal”
have been omitted. The inscription ends “ Hsien-ch‘ing,...... year,
es bere: day’, without the word “month”. The larger note has a
border decoration of ch'ih dragons.t At the top is horizontally in-
scribed: “Great Liao Issuance Treasure-Note’’, and in the middle
appears the denomination, “10 Kwan”, anda pictorial representation
of five ingots. At the right and left respectively is written: “Great
Liao Treasure-Note” and “To be current in the world”. Below
appears the inscription: “The Board of Revenue, having petitioned
and received the Imperial sanction, prints for the convenient use
of the people the Great Hsia Treasure-Note, to be distributed and
used as cash”, ete., ending with “Hsien-ch‘ing,...... Wears oe
month; 2 o<: day.” Why the character “Hsia” (of “the Great
Hsia’’) appears in this inscription is puzzling.t

* “Men and horses” probably means ‘‘army”’. T. K.

+ Dragons whose horns have not grown. K. T.

{The author thus confesses his bewilderment and elsewhere in the book
expresses his hope that the mystery may later be solved. K. T.

A CHINESE’ WORK ON NUMISMATICS. Sil

PuatTE 91. Hsren-cu'‘ine (1136-1141 A.D.) Nore.
Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great Liao Army Treasure-Note.”

Second line: “ Three Kwan.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of thirty strings of cash).

In the lower panel: “ The Board of Revenue, having petitioned and
received the Imperial sanction, prints for the convenient use of the people
the Great Liao Treasure-Note to be used with the Army.* The counter-
feiter —if (discovered +) — shall be decapitated summarily. The inform-
ant and captor shall be rewarded with 500 taels in silver. If District
officials t ...., the same punishment shall apply to all.

Hsien-ch‘ing,....year,....day.” §

PuatE 92. HsteEn-cwH‘tne (1136-1141 A.D.) Note.
Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great Liao Issuance Treasure-Note.”’

Second line: “ Ten Kwan.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of five ingots).

At the right of the illustration in the “sharp forked style”’:

“Great Liao Treasure-Note.”

At the left of the illustration in the “sharp forked style”’:

“To be current in the world.”

In the lower panel: “ The Board of Revenue, having petitioned and
received the Imperial sanction, prints for the convenient use of the people
the Great Hsia** Treasure-Note to be distributed and used as cash. The
counterfeiter shall be decapitated summarily; the informant and captor
shall be rewarded with 800 taels in silver. If a District official conceals
(such guilt), the same punishment shall apply to all.

Hsien-ch‘ing,....year,....month,....day.”

* This probably n.eans ‘‘to be used by the army. K. T.

j As the word which corresponds to ‘‘if’’ appears in this sentence, it was
found necessary to insert a word like ‘‘discovered” to make the meaning
clear, K.-T:

t As already noted in the text, the two characters which together mean
“conceal”’ have been omitted. K. T.

§ As noted in the text, the word ‘‘month”’ does not appear. K. T.

** See the text that accompanies this issue. K. T.

PLATE 91.

rk

SoS seals

Western Liao Dynasty

Kan-T1EN-Hou 1136-1141 A.D.
Hsien-cH' inG 1136-1141 A.D.

3 KWAN

= I
EI SL

)

DIMENSIONS
43 X 7k INCHES

on
~I
TS

DAVIS.

PLatTE 93. Upper SEAL ON THE HsIEN-cH'‘InNG NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:
of Hsien-
Seal ch‘ing

Translation: “Seal of the Hsien-ch‘ing Era.”

PLATE 93. PLATE 94.

DIMENSIONS DIMENSIONS
12 X 2 INCHES 23 x 22 INCHES

PLatTeE 94. Lower SEAL ON THE ‘HsIEeEn-cH'‘ING NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:

Treasure Great
Note Liao

Translation: “ 7'reasure-Note of the Great Liao Dynasty.”

SEAL ON THE REVERSE OF THE Hsten-cH‘ING NOTES.

The inscription is the same as that on the upper seal, of which it is
areplica. See Plate 93.

4

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. ovo

Notes oF CH‘UNG-TSUNG (1087-1138 A.D.) oF THE WesTERN Hsra
Dynasty.

Ch‘ung-tsung of the Western Hsia Dynasty came to the throne in
1087 A.D. During his reign of fifty-three years, he changed the name
of the era nine times, of which Yiian-té (1119-1126 A.D.) and Ta-té
(1135-1139 A.D.) are those with which we are concerned. Though
the books of history do not record the issuance of notes in his reign,
such notes have been in the possession of the Chu Family. They are
one kwan and five kwan in denomination. Their color is gray, and
the border-decoration consists of clouds and bats. On one of them at
the top appears horizontally: “Great Hsia Issuance Treasure-Note’’,
and in the middle is the denomination, “5 Kwan”’, and the pictorial
representation of five ingots. On the two sides of the picture, written
in the “jade chopstick” [?] seal style, inscriptions are inserted which
read respectively: “'Ta-té Treasure-Note”’ and “To be current in
the world”. It is strange that a note issued in the Yiian-té Era
should bear the name “'Ta-té”’ which was not adopted until nine years
after the end of the Yiian-té Era, i. e., in the forty-ninth year of
Ch‘ung-tsung’s reign. The writing below reads: “The Board of Rites
having petitioned”’, ete., ending with “ Yiian-té,...... Veuty. 2a te ¢
MIME, <3 A day.”

The other, which is the one kwan note, has a border decorated with
chth* dragons. The title on the top reads: “Great Hsia Army
Treasure-Note”’. In the middle appears the denomination, “One
Kwan’’, and the pictorial representation of 1000 cash. Below is an
inscription which reads: “........ to be used by the Army...... ss
(Though the text of this note is like that of the Military provision
note of the Yiian Dynasty, their application differs). The inscrip-
tion ends: “If District officials. ..., the same punishment shall apply
to all. Yiian-té,....year,....day.” It seems that the two char-
acters which together mean “conceal”? and another character for
“month” have been omitted.

* Dragons whose horns have not grown. K. T.

576 DAVIS.

PuatEe 95. Ywtan-r& (1119-1126 A.D.) Nore.
Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great Hsia Army Treasure-Note.”

Second line: “One Kwan.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of 1000 cash).

In the lower panel: “The Board of Rites, having petitioned and
received the Imperial sanction, prints for the convenient use of the people
the Great Hsia Treasure-Note to be used with the Army.* The counter-
feiter — if (discovered +) — shall be decapitated summarily. The tn-
formant and captor shall be rewarded with 200 taels in silver. If District
officials ...., the same punishment shall apply to all.

Yiian-té,....year,....day.” §

PuaTE 96. Yian-Té (1119-1126 A.D.) Norte.
Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great Hsia Issuance Treasure-Note.”

Second line: “‘ Five Kwan.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of five ingots).

At the right of the illustration in the “jade chopstick” seal style:

“Ta-té ** Treasure-Note.

At the left of the illustration in the “jade chopstick” seal style:

“To be current in the world,” or literally “wnder the heavens.”

In the lower panel: “ The Board of Rites, having petitioned and re-
ceived the Imperial sanction, prints for the convenient use of the people
the Great Hsia Treasure-Note to be distributed and used as cash. The
counterfeiter shall be decapitated summarily; the informant and captor
shall be rewarded with 800 taels in silver. If District officials conceal
(such guilt), the same punishment shall apply to all.

Yiian-té,....year,....month,....day.”

* This probably means ‘‘to be used by the army. K. T.

j As the word which corresponds to ‘‘if’’ appears in this sentence, it was
qoute necessary to insert a word like ‘“‘discovered”’ to make the meaning clear.
iS

{ As already noted in the text, the two characters which together mean
“‘conceal”’ have been omitted. K. T.

§ As noted in the text, the word “month” does not appear. K. T.

** See the text that accompanies this issue. K. T.

PLATE 95.

Hsia Dynasty DIMENSIONS
C‘yune-tsune 1087-1138 A.D. 43 X 7E INCHES
Yotan-té 1119-1126 A.D.

One Kwan

577

PLATE 96.

i 3 <a ) TAY. ; COMMELS 99/23 SCE)

45 pA

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aroaw lace |r

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Se

SE

9 A.D
1126 A.D.
5K

TSUNG 1087-113 af DY
1119-112

Soe
[O) P=

or
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co

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS.

PuaTE 97. Upper SEAL ON THE YUAN-TE NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:
of Yiian-
Seal té
Translation: “ Seal of the Yiian-té Era.”

PLATE 97. PLATE 98.

DIMENSIONS DIMENSIONS
7 th
1g X1§ INCHES 27 X 23 INCHES

PuaTE 98. Lower SEAL ON THE YUAN-TE NOTES.
Four characters arranged as follows:

Treasure Great
Note Hsia

Translation: “Treasure-Note of the Great Hsia Dynasty.”

SEAL ON THE REVERSE OF THE YUAN-TE NOTES.

The inscription is the same as that on the upper seal of which it is
a replica. See Plate 97.

580 DAVIS.

Notes oF Suig-tsu* (1260-1294 A.D.) or THE YUan Dynasty.

In the twenty-fourth year of the Chih-yiian Era (1287 A.D.), the
Chih-yiian Treasure-Notes were emitted. The same were distributed
to the world and used side by side with the Ch‘iian-ch‘ao-ch‘ien f of
the Chung-tung Era (1260-1263 A.D.). The Chih-yiian Treasure-
Note of the denomination one kwan was considered the equivalent
of five kwan-worth of Ch‘iian-ch‘ao-ch‘ien, the standard and the sub-
sidiary being interchangeable.{ Generally, 1000 wén in cash were
equal to one kwan, and naturally a note whose face value was one
kwan was equivalent to 1000 wén in cash.

There are two sizes of the Chih-yiian note,— the lesser and the
greater. Among the former are the denominations 10, 20, 30, 40 and
50 cash, and among the latter 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500. There is
beside these a one kwan note, making a total of eleven varieties.
The border designs and the size of each sheet vary according to the
denomination. The color of the notes is gray.

PuaTeE 99. CuHrH-ytian (1264-1294 A.D.) Norte.

Translation of the inscriptions.

Lesser Note.

First line: “Great Yiian General Circulation Treasure-Note.”
Second line: “ Zen Copper ** Cash.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of one string of cash).
At the right of the illustration in the seal style:

“Chih-yiian Treasure-Note.”

* Kublai Khan, who ascended the throne in 1260 and established the Ching-
tsung Era, which lasted three years, when the name was changed to Chih-
yitan (1264-1294). K. T. ;

} A substitute money: a medal with a square hole in the center, resembling
the regular Chinese coin, and representing various denominations. K. T.

{ In the original text, this last phrase reads, literally, ‘‘equivalence of child
and mother”. ‘‘Mother” (the standard or principal) refers to the notes,
while ‘‘child” (subsidiary or substitute) refers to specie, as the author explains
elsewhere in the original text. At different periods the cases were reversed,
i. e., the “Mother” meant specie and the “Child” paper. Whenever one,
whether specie or notes, was considered the standard and more valuable than
the other, it was referred to as the “Mother”. K. T.

** Or “Bronze”: a minor coin. K. T.

PLATE 99.

me

U 2 mr
aI se

ee) | wae 2a ik Sse ied y

|
i SS Srianenaceey | | ag
SB Ve erie inaraeSeTRAT = BOS Ber : at
| ton PRAREE | ae
= — a WS oe see
SN i

=
CHIH-YUAN

10 WéeN

582 DAVIS.

At the left of the illustration in the seal style:

“ To be current in the world.” Literally, “ wnder the heavens.”

In the lower panel: “ The Boards of Revenue and Rites, having peti-
tioned and received the Imperial sanction, print for the convenient use of
the people the Great Yiian Treasure-Note, to be current and used as cop-
per cash. (He who) counterfeits shall be decapitated summarily; the
informant and captor shall be rewarded with 200 taels* in silver. If
District officials conceal (such guilt) the punishment shall be the same as
this (the case of the counterfeiter).

Chih-yiian,....year,....month,....day.

39

PuatTeE 100.

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 wén note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 20 copper coin.

PuatTeE 101.

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 wén note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 30 copper coin.

PLATE 102.

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 wén note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 40. copper coin.

Piare 103:

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 wén note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 50 copper coin.

PuateE 104. Upper SEAL on THE LESSER CuHIH-YtiAN NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:
of A-
Seal lo

Translation: “Seal of A-lo.” +

(inclusive). K.

* This ariquny soul to all notes of the value of 10 to 500 copper coin
t Is this the personal name of the ruler, or an official? K. T.

PLATE 100

2 ei
‘Seo aa ee

e&

ete oi ;

1 SQ J

\ su 1260-1294 A.D.

1264-1294 A.D.

20 WEN

PLATE 101.

S
\
d

>I
(N22 4
EA |
|
B= |
f
h
|
RD
iH
4
f
AY

Yuan Dynasty = = = ~—~——— COD MENSIONS
HIH-TSU = 1260-1294 A.D. 23 X 62 INCHES
HIH-YUAN 1264-1294 A.D.

30

PLATE 102.

ew

a =e % Nee
t | 3 Naa SN iis |
Pigs “it Bian gb te Be
. oe ee se SER REE
Jeune KH e ind .

4

\e

Sa

Ss

PLATE 103.

EE)

em

aieuenn
ee

“~

WS a AY a A |
an HERD, x Een CMe

Ro ay)

pea ee

SAR

ap 42 ra 4c MKS
BAR fon ih BREA

DIMENSIONS
3 7

2g X 6g INCHES

DyYNasty
!1H-TSU.—- 1260-1294 A.D.

H-YUAN 1264-1294 A.D.

a
no

50 WEN

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 587

Puate 105. Lower SEAL ON THE LESSER CHIH-YU;AN NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:
Treasure Chih-
Note yuan
Translation: “ Treaswre-Note of the Chih-yiian Era.”

PLATE 104. PLATE 105.

DIMENSIONS DIMENSIONS
1 1
ig X1§ INCHES 15 X11 INCHES

PiaTEe 106. Curn-yiian (1264-1294 A.D.) Nore.
Translation of the inscriptions.
Greater Note.

The inscription is the same as that on the 10° wén note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 100 copper coin. The
illustration represents one string of cash.

PuatTeE 107.

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 wén note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 200 copper coin. The
illustration represents two strings of cash.

PuaTE 108.

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 wén note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 300 copper coin. The illus-
tration represents three strings of cash.

PLATE 106.

q Bh if TITAS
pene
ga yt] 23

seal

é

Sl

5 SN SBR Be aa
SS en

|
| (DSR ES BB
YR Waly St oS tr AEB

YUAN Dynasty DIMENSIONS
HIH-TsuU.- 1260-1294 A.D. 3 X 7% INCHES
HIH-YUAN 1264-1294 A.D.

PLATE 107.

WL oy
7
B a
12. 48
Ea
#'G
Dh Fe
ra aN
Zh
ep)

RS we

Yuan Dynasty
HIH-TSU 1260-1294 A.D.
HIH-YUAN 1264-1294 A.D.

200

Pea el

IMENSIONS

PLATE 108.

PU MSR TSS

Seip

c Sea bol
jot Sey

e

beuetin iodo
ae Ea

BY Yo tne AO Ha) BULL AY
Peal

ee

ie aa Spe e

A.D
A.D.
300 Coprer

I SU 1260-1294 A.D.
1264-1294

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 591

PLATE 109.

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 wén note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 400 copper coin. The illustra-
tion represents four strings of cash.*

PLate 110.

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 wén note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 500 copper coin. The
illustration represents five strings of cash.

PuaTE 111. Upper SEAL ON THE GREATER CHIH-YUAN NOTES.

Six characters arranged as follows:
Treasure Chih- Great
Note yiian Yiian
Translation: “ Treaswre-Note of the Chih-yiian Era of the Great Yiian
Dynasty.”

PuaTE 112. Lower SEAL ON THE GREATER CHIH-YtiAN NOTES.

Six characters arranged as follows:

of Note (money) Chih-

Seal Paper yiian
Translation: “Seal of the Paper Money of the Chih-yiian Era.”

PuaTe 113. Cuta-yiian (1264-1294 A.D.) Miuirary Note oF THE
Ytan Dynasty.

Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great Yiian Military Supplies Treasure-Note.”

In the panel: “ The Boards of Revenue and Rites, having received the
Imperial decree, print for the use of the soldiers the 100 copper cash note
to be current as cash.

* This note is smaller in dimensions than the 300 kwan note, and the upper
and lower seals have been interchanged. K. T.

PLATE 109.

ic eee 7 oe

We — aS

aw

NSM aS ES
ee sa At 7A

Bi Seok it fk
x

SBR) He

D D s
H U 1260-1294 A.D. 32 X 72 INCHES
HIH-YUAN 1264-1294 A.D.
400 Copper Coin

COG

ae

SIO

oe Inc

yok WR Aa a SE cere
ARE ats Ait

(| awtq li sae
| RAS RARE

PLATE 112.

DIMENSIONS
1
2) X 2h INCHES

ROWS NGF

Ble
ah Sash PAR Eo SS RS

SB

\

PN ta em renee n \ wi — oe
ce LQ ARGS ACRE to ao RAY SH hunt sha NESTA SAE |
[ter SES) Sie ean teioiat a a ae int nas aoe

4p) Salar HoT ASIEL OK SE KE BN eg |
He) Ba ay |
ASHI ko

| ise
CT PTL RTD DP ZI

|
Me -sce Coy SE Et

PLATE 113.

DiMENSIONS
27 X 6s INCHES

100 Copper CasH

1260-1294 A.D.
1264-1294 A.D.

PLATE 111.

7.
8

Di MENSIONS
x2

INCHES
=

Yian Dynasty

SHIH-TSU
CHIH

—YOAN

594

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 595

The Great Yiian Treasure-Note, the Army Mandatory Paper-Money
of the Commissariat* of the Paymaster’s Bureau of the White Banner
Division. If a counterfeiter is discovered, (he) shall be decapitated sum-
marily by the Army (authorities). The Army shall have the surveillance
of the making (of the notes). To the first informant (of such guilt) shall
be given 90 taels in silver at the army camp. The punishment for con-
cealing in the said Army shall be the same as this (the case of the
counterfetter).

Chih-yiian,....year,....month,....day.”

PuatTeE 114.

The inscription is the same as that on the 100 cash note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 200 cash. The reward to the
informant is 120 taels in cash.

Puate 115.

The inscription is the same as that on the 100 cash note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 300 cash. The reward to
the informant is 140 taels in cash.

PEATE 116.

The inscription is the same as that on the 100 cash note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 400 cash. The reward to
the informant is 170 taels in silver.

Praret7;

The inscription is the same as that on the 100 cash note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 500 cash. The reward to
the informant is 200 taels in silver.

* The original means “Money-Provision Officer.” The combination of
“Money” and “Provision”’ is usually rendered as “Taxes in kind and money.”
In this case it seems more fitting to translate the combination ‘“‘Commissariat.
ie TE:

PLATE 114.

=| ae
Sahih PME AR hae) b>
“Rama A Wl ER un fh Ho ASS Fe
re anh AT Rt assis arate Bs
aah fe heen CM hg 42 va BS hes ye

a FS (PAV LOD} GBS)

XH rel
Se E7 wR Boe m
NY SEP OS IH

DIMENSIONS
1
3i X73 INCHES

200 Copper Caso

YUAN Dynasty
SHin-tsu =—-: 1260-1294 A.D.

CHIH-YUAN 1264-1294 A.D.

PLATE 115.

SRD LL ONES “Oe

arr

aa ApS ah Wi Rr eM A ANC

ASK RARGG RR WE e tara mHs SH LE

=H

| (at ee Ie) edntintiid Hite sot)

S| doralpaheats Sefer shushax 2 OE Hl log BK

. eu Ey
iil ® ©) mR & Ww fi

+

Sage

597

DIMENSIONS
4 X 7s INCHES

Yuan Dynasty
1260-1294 A.D.
300 CasH

SHIH-TSU
CuHiH-YUAN 1264-1294 A.D.

PLATE 116.

tae

BSG

TESORO HOON

Bei Bei Ap AR
je tel Ak elm ae af Hn Sah RIE
har DAE wad Rae AES

Bets tat He Bi OB Ay

EAE Meteo anak Ae it ol asp YF aba
ie) ya ae os Ble ade dr

DIMENSIONS
42 X Qt INCHES

400 Copper CasH

Ytan Dynasty
SHiH-Tsu 1260-1294 A.D.

CHiH-YUAN 1264-1294 A.D.

598

PLATE 117.

ay 4
sy x

SING
ZX

ane Ne

Bs pprn Nite

sa a a
ps ao bo ABLR EARS fh BN ns) A
ahs Sy SHB {9 oie oh ge Anh abo nme) 2 aK
Ee nib te taht a soe ty 1 Bata 99 b
sol Hoople inde A AR
Rate we Ha) UL Ae GE AY

UAN
1 SU Ghee
HIH-YUAN 1264-1294
5

D
D.
Co

4 A.D.
A.
00

600 DAVIS.

Piate 118. Upper SEAL ON THE CuHIn-yYtAN Minirary Nore.

Six characters arranged as follows:

of A- Chih-

Seal lo yuan
Translation: “Seal of A-lo* of the Chih-yiian Era.”

PLATE 118.

DimENSIONS DIMENSIONS
3 7
2t X 22 INCHES 25 X 2g INCHES

PuaTE 119. Lower SEAL ON THE CHIH-YUAN Miuitary Norte.

Six characters arranged as follows:
Treasure Chih- Great
Note yuan Yiian
Translation: “ Treasure-Note of the Chih-yiian Era of the Great Yiian
Dynasty.”

Notes oF WEN-TSUNG (1328-1332 A.D.) oF THE YUAN DyYNasTy.

In July of the year 1328 A.D., Wén-tsung ascended the throne, and
the era became known as T‘ien-li, lasting until 1330 A.D. Ten varie-
ties of notes from 1 to 10 kwan, issued during these three years, have
come down to us. The border decoration consists of clouds only.

* Is this the personal name of a ruler or an official? K. T.

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 601

Herewith two notes, of minimum and maximum denominations, are
reproduced.

PuaTE 120. T'IEN-LI (1328-1330 A.D.) Nore.
Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great Yiian General Circulation Treasure-Note.”

Second line: “One Kwan.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of one ingot).

In the lower panel: “ The Board of Rites, having petitioned the throne,
prints and issues the Great Yiian Treasure-Note, to be current under the
heavens and to be used side by side with cash. The counterfeiter shall be
decapitated. He who daringly informs (about) and captures (such a
criminal) shall be rewarded with 17 taels in silver. To the concealer (of
such guilt) the punishment shall be the same.*

f 2en-te,. . = syear,. ...month;... day.”

Pruate 121.

The inscription is the same as that on the one kwan note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 10 kwan. The reward to
the informant and captor is 35 taels in silver. The illustration
represents ten yuan-pao.

PuLaTE 122. Upper SEAL ON THE T'IEN-LI NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:
of T‘ien-
Seal li
Translation: Seal of the T‘ien-li Era.

PiatEe 123. Lower SEAL ON THE T'‘IEN-LI NOTES.

Six characters arranged as follows:

Treasure Print Great
Note Made Yiian

Translation: “Printed Treasure-Note of the Great Yiian Dynasty.”

* As in the case of counterfeiting. K.T.

PLATE 120.

wie os eS
DOSS EF SI

| " asfips : sR) 6} 20 xis |
: es KARA EL ale
32 OK AUC See ae |

E ( Wi ieee ce pe vinl dopant ae “{ a

YNAS
1328-1332

YUAN
WEN-TSUNG
T

A.D.
A.D.
O

} 1328-1330

PLATE 121.

Eaitcs

ete

: a ok

aeeleaniese nf XC
bvigathanegual & 5

v

2 A.D.
0 A.D.

1328-133
1 1328-133

603

10 Kwan

PLATE 122.

DiMENSIONS
2 X 2 INCHES

PLATE 123.

DIMENSIONS
3 7
25 X 2g INCHES

604

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 605

Nores oF SHUN-TI (1333-1367 A.D.) oF THE YUAN Dynasty.

In June of the year 1333 A.D. Shun-ti ascended the throne and
established the Yiian-t‘ung Era which was changed to Chih-yiian in
1335, and again in 1341 to Chih-chéng, which lasted until 1367. Dur-
ing the Chih-chéng Era the country was in an unsettled state, and
the nation was obliged to use “Army” notes. Twenty varieties of
these notes have been acquired, among them minor notes of 5, 10, 20,
30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 and 100 wén, proceeding thence by one
hundreds to one kwan (1000 wén). The color is gray. The borders
are variously decorated with clouds, bamboos, orchids, plum blossoms,
etc. Herewith the minimum, middle and maximum notes are pub-
lished, omitting the rest.

Puate 124. Curw-cHine (1341-1367 A.D.) Notes.

Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great Yiian Army Treasure-Note.”

Second line: “Five Wen.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of one string of cash).

In the lower panel: “ The Board of War, having received the Imperial
authorization decree, upon the petition of the members of the Military
Council assembled, prints for the use of the Army and civilians the
Great Yiian Military Use Treasure-Note, to circulate and to be used
as silver coin. The counterfeiter shall be decapitated summarily. He
who daringly informs (about) and captures (such a criminal) shall be
given a reward of 7 taels in silver. To official and civilian alike the
punishment for being aware of, yet concealing, (such guilt) shall be the
same as this (the case of counterfeiting).

Chih-chéng,....year,....month,....day.

”

Puate 125.

The inscription is the same as that on the 5 wén note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 90 wén, and the reward to the
informant and captor which is 52 taels. The illustration represents
nine groups of cash in a string.

PLATE 124.

Lise eaeerseialt

OS II een Bs .

YNASTY
\ 1333-136
H-CHENG 1341-136

Kh

SHu
Cui

PLATE 125.

ES aa

5 | BK

OK BB per Oe oK

e

Sore
a GS tk EK Sata don a ae

IRR ear et ana eip Heal toa

STRESS PBK Gy

BAY

ik!

PLATE 126.

EC.
rnb ers ile ele
Ki Ries hak eel ean

ee te

EAR SR CEE fon rs Het lt

EMEA

PLATE 127.

609

EQ , ke | 4 *
Fae ae rec a
ANSI Boe reread leat é
AVR Charen Phony Rakeatnlad| J] SS 3
ee ce
AY gee
a4 ee

610 DAVIS.

PLATE: 126:

The inscription is the same as that on the 5 wén note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 100 wén, and the reward to
the informant and captor which is 57 taels. The illustration repre-
sents one string of cash.

PLATE 127.

The inscription is the same as that on the 5 wén note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 1 kwan, and the reward to the
informant and captor which is 3600 taels. The illustration represents
two rows of cash.

PLATE 128. Upper SEAL ON THE CHIH CHENG NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:

Treasure Chih-
Note chéng
Translation: “ T'reasure-Note of the Chih-chéng Era.”

PLATE 128. PLATE 129.

[IEE
eee ale

DIMENSIONS DIMENSIONS
1
1% X14 incHes 14 X13 INCHES

PLATE 129. Lower SEAL ON THE CHIH-CHENG NOTES.

Six characters arranged as follows:

of Military Great

Seal Barracks Yiian
Translation: “Seal of the Army of the Great Yiian Dynasty.”

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 611

Notes oF T‘ar-tsu (1368-1398 A.D.) or THE Mina Dynasty.

In 1374 the office of the Superintendent (?) of Treasure-Notes was
created, and the following year the Executive Department * printed
the Great Ming Treasure-Notes, to be current among the people.
The material (of paper) was taken from the fibre of the mulberry.
The regulation size of the (major) notes was one ch‘ih ¢ high and 6
ts‘un wide, and the color was blue.{ They had decorated borders.
At the top is written horizontally “Great Ming General Circulation
Treasure-Note”’. At the left and right of the pictorial representation,
respectively, are written vertically in the seal style: “Great Ming
Treasure Note” and “To be current in the world”. Inthe middle is a
pictorial representation of ten string of cash (on the one kwan note) and
below is written: “The Executive Department, having petitioned
and received the Imperial sanction, prints the Great Ming Treasure-
Note to be current and to be used as copper cash. The counterfeiter
shall be decapitated.’”’ In the case of the 500 wén note, five strings
of cash appear, and in the 400, four strings, and the proportion is the
same in the case of the notes of 300, 200 and 100 wén.

PuaTE 130. Hune-wu (1368-1398 A.D.) Nore.

Translation of the inscriptions.

Major.

First line; “Great Ming General Circulation Treasure-Note.”
Second line: “One Kwan.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of ten strings of cash).
At the right of the illustration, in the seal style:

“Great Ming Treasure-Note.”’

* The actual inscription on the notes reads: ‘‘The Board of Revenue prints”,
ete. This board was in the Executive Department. K. T.

t The unit of measurement in China differs in length according to the differ-
ence of material, though the term employed is the same; e. g., a ch'‘ih of fabric
is longer than a ch‘ih of land. Again, though the same term is employed, the
unit differs in various localities. The only way to determine the correspond-
ing dimensions in meters or feet is to get an approximate idea from the illus-
tration, though the latter is somewhat smaller than the same note in the
“Shicho Shohei Zuroku’”’ (in Japanese), ‘‘Ssti Chao Ch'ao Tu Lu”, (in
Chinese). K. T.
pane original text uses the character for ‘‘blue” but it should be “gray.”

r

A

PLATE 130.

my ou]

iu

f
if
ig

pte & — AM
ax Co Se YS fXN

le AK E Maite

edge WE abate Sexes

iach e wl do we |

BO) SD) OE NOLES
SSO G ED Pee A

WOK Gla

es

DIMENSIONS

Mine Dynasty
T‘ai-tsu— 1368-1398 A.D.

Hunec-wu 1368-1398 A.D.

INCHES

3
4

8 X 11

One Kwan

612

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 613

At the left of the illustration, in the seal style:

“To be current under the heavens.”

In the lower panel: “ The Board of Revenue, having petitioned and
received the Imperial sanction, prints the Great Ming Treasure-Note
to be current and to be used as copper cash. The counterfeiter shall be
decapitated. The informant and captor shall be rewarded with 250 taels
in silver, and in addition shall be given the property of the criminal.

Hung-wu,....year,....month,....day.”

PLATE 131. Upper SEAL ON THE ONE Kwan NOTE OF THE
Hune-wu Era.

Six characters arranged as follows:

of Treasure Great
Seal Note Ming

Translation: “ Seal of the Treasure-Note of the Great Ming Dynasty.”

PLATE 132. LowErR SEAL ON THE ONE Kwan NOTE OF THE
Hunc-wvu ERA.

Six characters arranged as follows:

Office Ti- Treasure
Seal chu * Note

Translation: “Seal of the Office of Superintendent of Treasure-
Notes (?).

PuaTE 133. PicruRE ON THE REVERSE OF THE ONE Kwan NOTE
oF THE Hunc-wu ERA.

The two characters mean “One Kwan.”

*“T4-chu” has been translated by some “Inspector” and by Giles “An
Inspector of the Salt Department”; however, the duty of a T'1-chu is such
that “Superintendent” or ‘‘Supervisor”’ would be more nearly correct. K. T.

614

PLATE 131.

y

Oy EEN Bi
IG

3e8

REVERSE OF
1 Kwan Mine 1368-1398 A.D.

PLATE 132,

DIMENSIONS
3 X3 INCHES

DIMENSIONS
32 X 6 INCHES

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 615

PLATE 134. SEAL ON THE REVERSE OF THE ONE Kwan NOTE OF
THE Hunc-wu ERA.

Six characters arranged as follows:

Bureau Treasure Print
Seal Note Made

Translation: “Seal of the Bureau of the Printed Treasure-Note.”

PLATE 134.

DIMENSIONS
23 X 23 INCHES

Puate 135. Hune-wu (1368-1398 A.D.) Norte.

Translation of the inscriptions.

Minor.

First line: “Great Ming General Circulation Treasure-Note.”

Second line: “ Zen Copper Cash.’ Denomination, in panel above
picture.

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of one string of cash).

At the right of the illustration in the seal style:

“Great Ming Treasure-Note.”

At the left of the illustration in the seal style:

“ To be current under the heavens.”

In the lower panel: “ The Board of Revenue, having petitioned and
received the Imperial sanction, prints the Great Ming Treasure-Note to

PLATE 136.

cs

» y Ne
“Y
“yy

‘
'
'

a

ER
= at

oo i rae

ee

shape |

meso

diel

“Be 5 geeaue a

a

UNG-WU 1368-139) ‘1D:

eS
LQ Qoul

© oo

Ex

10 WEN

616

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. . 617

be current and to be used as copper cash. The counterfeiter shall be

decapitated. The informant and captor shall be rewarded with 250 taels

in silver, and in addition shall be given the property of the criminal.”
Hung-wu,....year,....month,....day.”

PLATE 136.

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 wén note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 20 wén. The illustration
represents two strings of cash.

PuaTE 137.

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 wén note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 30 wén. The illustration
represents one string of cash.

PLATE 138.

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 wén note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 40 wén. The illustration
represents one string of cash.

PratTe 139.

The inscription is the same as that on the 10 wén note, with the
exception of the denomination, which is 50 wén. The illustration
represents one string of cash.

Puate 140. Upper SEAL ON THE Minor Hune-wu NOotTEs.

Four characters arranged as follows:

Great Heaven
Peace under

Translation: “‘ Peace be unto the world.”

PLATE 136.

\ def
=
‘ Yi

~“

a

LEE IS: LID

en —. - - - + -- Ss

> 22

eae as
G-wu 1368-139

PLATE 137.

BARE ME S |
RHEE (SC)

2/4 Bc tedar

an. n
ow
f z
f oa
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| 3.
WwW
“A€(Q)' Hi =>
PAT Tt aX
oe)
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i
4
z

PLATE 138.

| aes ant axetier sx |

Ay) Ae EE AUS
SELL RXR

PLATE 139.

‘

ia

Be
Ae

ar SOY Ne ae
Seay

3

a
by
AY ENDS

al

Rese
3K 38 Ry

« m Wy id :
_, TREE RRS st
sy

622 DAVIS.

Puate 141. Lower SEAL ON THE Minor Hunc-wu NOores.

Four characters arranged as follows:

Treasure Hung-
note wu

Translation: “ Treasure-Note of the Hung-wu Era.”

PLATE 140. PLATE 141.

DIMENSIONS DIMENSIONS
1X1 INcHEs 14 X14 INCHES

Notes oF CH'‘inG-tsu (1403-1424 A.D.) oF THE Mine Dynasty.

Ch‘éng-tsu ascended the throne in 1403 and died in 1424. History
does not record the issuance of notes during his reign, which was
known as the Yung-lé Era. However, I possess twenty varieties of
notes bearing that name. Herewith are printed the minimum,
middle and maximum notes. This issue included notes of 1, 2, 3, 4,
6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18 and 19 kwan, each of which bears a
corresponding number of cash. In addition there were issued notes
of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45 and 50 kwan, each of which bears a
pictorial representation ofa certain number of cash, each cash repre-
senting 5 kwan. Each note has a border decoration of clouds and
dragons of varied kinds. The color of the paper is gray. All these
notes are major notes.

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 623

Puate 142. Yune-t& (1403-1424 A.D.) Nore.
Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great Ming General Circulation Treasure-Note.”

Second line: “One Kwan.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of one cash).

At the right of the illustration in the seal style:

“To be current as cash.”

At the left of the illustration in the seal style:

“For the convenient use of the people.”

In the lower panel: “ The Board of Revenue, having petitioned and
received the Imperial sanction, prints the Great Ming Treasure-Note
to be used as copper cash. The counterfeiter of the same form shall be
decapitated summarily. The punishment to concealers among District
officials also shall be the same as this (the case of counterfeiting). The
informant and captor shall be given by the authorities a reward of 770
taels in silver, and in addition shall be given the property of the criminal.

Yung-lé,....year,....month,....day.”’

PuaTE 143.

The inscription is the same as that on the one kwan note, with the
exception of the denomination which is 50 kwan, and the reward to
the informant and captor which is 890 taels. The illustration repre-
sents ten cash.

PuatTe 144. Upper SEAL ON THE YUNG-LE NOTES.

Four characters arranged as follows:
of Yung-
Seal lé
Translation: “Seal of the Yung-lé Era.”

PLATE 142.

Ai

———

wring
in oniagn
7

626 DAVIS.

PLATE 145. Lower SEAL ON THE YUNG-LE NOTES.

Six characters arranged as follows:

Treasure Print Great
Note made Ming

Translation: “Printed Treasure-Note of the Great Ming Dynasty.”

PLATE 144. PLATE 145.

DiMENS!IONS DIMENSIONS
7 7 ZS 1 5
1g X15 INCHES 23 X 2g INCHES

Notes or JEN-TsuNG (1425 A.D.) oF THE Mine Dynasty.

In August of the year 1424, the Emperor Ch‘éng-tsu died, where-
upon his son succeeded to the throne and became known as Jén-tsung.
In the following year he named his reign Hung-hsi. In May of that
year he died. During this short reign of about half a year, twenty”
varieties of notes were emitted. Each is entitled the “Great Ming
Military Administration Treasure-Note”. Their denominations begin
at 10 wén and proceed by tens to 100 and thence by hundreds to
1000 wén. Each note bears a certain number of strings of cash pro-
portionate to its denomination. The designs on the borders of these
notes are flowers, plum blossoms on cracked ice, and clouds-and-bats,

etc. Herewith are reproduced the minimum, middle and maximum
denominations.

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. — 627

PuatE 146. _Hune-ust (1425 A.D.) Norte.
Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great Ming Military Administration Treasure-Note.”

Second line: “ Ten Wen.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of one string of cash).

In the lower panel: “ The Board of War, having received the Imperial
authorization decree upon the petition of the Ministers of the Military
Council assembled, prints for the use of the Army and for the convenience
of the soldiers the Great Ming Military Use Treasure-Note to be used as
silver. The counterfecter of the same form shall be decapitated summarily.
He who daringly informs (about) and captures (such a criminal) shall be
given by the authorities a reward of 11 taels in silver. To official and
civilian alike the punishment for being aware of, yet concealing, (such
guilt) shall also be the same (as in the case of counterfeiting).

Hung-hsi,....year,....month,....day.”

Prare 147.

The inscription on the 100 wén note is the same as that on the LO
wén note, except the denomination, and the reward for the informant
which is 121 taels. The illustration represents one string of cash.

PLATE 148,

The inscription on the 1000 wén note is the same as that on the
10 wén note except the denomination, and the reward for the in-
formant which is 121 taels.* The illustration represents two long
strings of cash.

* The following notes agree with the 10 wén note in all respects except those
mentioned:
Denomination; 20 wén; reward, 13 taels.
< 30 wén; & 15 taels.

e 40 wén; 2 17 taels.
60 wén; i 21 taels.
é 70 wén; i 23 taels.
. 300 wén; f 51 taels.
¢ 400 wén; “ 61 taels.
: 500 wén; 7 71 taels.
:: 700 wén; é 91 taels.
¢ 800 wén; “101 taels.

900 wén; “111 taels. KL.

PLATE 146.

6,08

¢

Te .

$
4

joulaeexademgcoiorioeiee |Z

of iolmie aaa ehl ea aeant|

NS
ng
SW

sen us Ht SAE KR geo sybihy

Dynasty
&én-TSUNG 1425 A.D.

MING
Jé
Hun

ust 1425 A.D.

PLATE 147.

\ t
Gi Mt |

aria dated nol ee Konda

PLATE 148.

has ay He
& sate awn aceel

al tiaak ee Heese

Wy, CT

WA

—
S
§

S

NS
SS

Q

aS

SN

4 ce gf a

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 631

Puate 149. Upper SEAL ON THE Hunc-Hsi NOoTEs.

Four characters arranged as follows:
Treasure Hung-
Note hsi
Translation: ‘‘ Treasure-Note of the Hung-hst Era.”

PLATE 149. PLATE 150.

DIMENSIONS

DIMENSIONS
14 X13 INCHES

1% X15 INCHES

PuatTe 150. Lower SEAL oN THE HunG-Hst1 NOTES.

Six characters arranged as follows:
of Military Great
Seal Order Ming
Translation: “Seal of the Military Administration of the Great Ming

Dynasty.”

632 DAVIS.

APPENDIX: TRANSLATIONS FROM OTHER SOURCES.

(Srxx RepropuctTions FRoM Sst CHao Cu‘ao Pr T'u Lu anp TWO FROM
THE JOURNAL OF THE PEKING ORIENTAL SOCIETY.)

Puate 151. REMAINING PorTION OF THE TRI-CONJUNCTIVE Major
Note oF THE CHIN Dynasty.

IttustRATION No. 1 FRoM THE “Sst Cuao Cu‘ao Pr T'u Lu”:
(Illustrated Record of the Paper-Money of the Four Dynasties).*
The Tri-Conjunctive + Major Note of the Chin Dynasty.

Although more than half of the lower part of this note is missing,
it is clear that this is the Tri-Conjunctive Exchange-Note. In the
history of the Chin Dynasty, it is recorded that in 1154 A.D. exchange-
notes were issued, the denominations being 1, 2, 3, 5 and 10 kwan, of
the major class, and 100, 200, 300, 500 and 700 wén of the minor class.
History also refers to the fact that in 1202 A.D. the use of the Tri-Con-
junctive Exchange-Notes, which had been in circulation for some
years, ceased. This is the only mention of a “Tri-Conjunctive
Exchange-Note”’, but the date of its issuance is lacking.

The note illustrated bears, outside the border, the inscription
“Chung-tu (Peking) Conjoined”, “ Nanking Conjoined” and “ P‘ing-
liang Fu Conjoined”, and proves that the treasuries of these three
places were associated in its issuance; hence the name “ Tri-Con-
junctive Exchange-Note”. The note must have first been used some
time after 1180 A.D., as it was in this year that a regulation was
enacted to the effect that 80 wén of cash would be accepted for each 100
wén on a note; and this 10 kwan note bears under the figure “One Ten
Kwan” two characters meaning “Eighty”, below which there must
have been two characters meaning “Sufficient for One Hundred”’.
{t is now clear that this Tri-Conjunctive Ten Kwan Note was in
circulation between 1180 and 1202 A.D. (Extract from the original
text. )

* By Lo Chén-yi. K. T.

_ | The character used contains the idea of a contract, or association, or parti-
cipation. K. T.

PLATE 151.

10 Kwan Note of tHE CHIN Dynasty
IN CIRCULATION BETWEEN 1180-1202 A.D

633

634 DAVIS.

Translation of the inscriptions.

Outside the top border:
“One Ten Kwan.”
Inside the panel, center:
“One Ten Kwan, Eighty............
Within the panel, at the right:
”

““Countenitiio: ert ee.
Within the Panel at the left:
«oc .? Mark” or “ Number.”

Outside the left-hand decorated border:
“Chung-tu Conjoined.”

“ Nanking Conjoined.”

“ P*ing-liang Fu Conjoined.”

PuaTE 152. SHantune Tune-Lu Ten Kwan NOotTE.
ILLUSTRATION No. 2 FROM THE Sst CHao Cu‘ao Pi T‘v Lv.”

The Shantung Tung-lu Ten Kwan Note of the Chin Dynasty.

This note was in circulation in the Eastern District (Tung-lu) of
the Shantung Province. About 1216 A.D. the government established
in the various Districts treasuries which were allowed to issue notes in
place of specie. Up to this time there had been only two Government
Printed-Note Offices —one in Peking and the other in Nanking.
For the Eastern District of the Shantung Province the treasuries
were located in I-tu Fu and Chi-nan Fu. The note herewith illus-
trated is of this district. History does not mention the exact time
of the circulation of this note. However, it could be placed in the
period between 1183 and 1197 A.D. The following fact proves this
deduction. In 1197 A.D. an official remarked to the Throne that up to
1183 the charge for renewing a note (producing or printing a new note
to replace the old or cast. away one) was 15 wén for each kwan of the
face value of the note, but that since 1183 A.D. the charge for the same
had come to be 8 wén for each note, no matter what the face value
might be. Whereupon, it was ordered by the Emperor that the charge
be 12 wén for each one kwan of the face value of the note. The note
in question bears the inscription outside the border “The printing
charge for every sheet (is) eight wén.” (Extract from the original
><) Ie

PLATE 152.

ey

T UNG-LU

SHAN-TUNG
IN CIRCULATION BETWEEN 1183-1197 A.D.

Mme te emer GF

Vid ag aN OE ese EP

635

10 Kwan

636 DAVIS.

Translation of the inscriptions.

Outside the border:

“One Ten Kwan.”

Upper panel, center, written vertically:

“One Ten Kwan, Eighty is Sufficient for One Hundred.”
At the right of “Eighty is Sufficient,” ete.:

es” eS AI GPRICU CeOTa SS CTIES.
At the left of “Eighty is Sufficient,” ete.:
Sie Lee >“ Mark” or “ Number.”

At the right of the upper panel, in the seal style:

“(He who) counterfeits the Exchange-Note shall be decapitated.”

At the left of the upper panel, in the seal style:

“The reward shall be 300 kwan in cash.”

In the center of the lower panel:

“He who counterfeits the Exchange-Note shall be decapitated. The
reward shall be 300 kwan in cash.”

At the right of “The counterfeiter,” ete., in the lower panel:

“ Shantung Tung-lu. .. .(23 characters are undecipherable), Nanking
Exchange-Note Treasury, I-tu Fu, Chiman Fu... .(one character un-
decipherable) Treasuries... .(16 characters undecipherable).”

At the left of “He who counterfeits,”’ etc.,.in the lower panel:

“The Bureau of Printed-Notes.”

“The Commissioner of Printed-Notes.”

“The Board of Revenue in the Executive Department... .(two or
three characters undecipherable).”

Outside the right-hand decorated border:

“For the printing of every sheet the charge 1s 8 cash.”

PLATE 153. IJLLusTrRaTIon No. 3 FROM THE “Sst CHao CH‘ao PI
A Retoped Ca

PICTURE ON THE REVERSE OF THE Two Kwan NOTE OF THE CHIN
2 DYNASTY.

In the upper panel: Two characters meaning “ Two Kwan.”

This is the picture on the reverse of a “Two Kwan” note whose
face is entirely missing. The notes of the Chin Dynasty and also of
the Yiian Dynasty included the denomination “Two Kwan.” That
of the Yiian, however, bore no picture on its reverse. There is no note

PLATE 153.

REVERSE OF THE Two Kwan Note
PROBABLY OF THE CHIN DYNASTY

637

638 DAVIS.

of the denomination “Two Kwan” among the issues of the Ming
Dynasty. Hence, I deduce that this note is a two kwan note of the
Chin Dynasty. (Extract from the original text).

Puate 154. Cnénc-yu (1213-1216 A.D.) Nore.
InLusTRATION No. 4 FROM THE SsU CHao Cu‘ao Pi T'v Lv.
The Five Kwan Note of Chéng-yu (1213-1216 A.D.) of the Chin Dynasty.

This five kwan note was issued in 1215 A.D. and was issued conjointly
by Ching-chao Fu and P'ing-hang Fu. (Extract from the original
text.)

Translation of the inscriptions.

At the top, outside the border decoration:

“Five Kwan.”

Written horizontally at the top within the border decoration:

“Chéng-yu Treasure Bill.” i

In the center of the middle panel:

“Five Kwan, Eighty is Sufficient for One Hundred.”

At the right of the figure “Five Kwan,” ete.

““Yw Variety” or “ Series.”

At the left of the figure “Five Kwan,” ete.:

aie ae AS > Mark” or “ Number.”

At the right of the middle panel, in the seal style:

“The counterfeiter shall be decapitated; the reward”

At the left of the middle panel, in the seal style:

“shall be three hundred kwan in Treasure-Bills.”

In the center of the lower panel:

“ The counterfeiter shall be decapitated. The reward shall be 300 kwan
in Treasure-Bills; in addition, the property of the criminal shall be
given.”

At the right of “The counterfeiter,” ete., in the lower panel:

“The Imperial sanctior hgving been petitioned and received, the
Treasure-Bill is printed to be current and to be used equally with the
specie. This shall be redeemable for an unlimited period of time at
the government treasuries of Ching-chao and P‘ing-liang Fu.” *

_ Several characters in this sentence are undecipherable in the illustration.
The rendering, therefore, is the best under the cireumstances. K. T.

PLATE 154.

hice ee ee “e eS

julanegey Mes eee tgaeaee canal Carey
ne os oo cg

toes SRA TERT

OU, e

om a ashe.

Way Vee

Cuin Dynasty
CuHénc-yu 1213-1216 A.D

639

5 Kwan

640 » DAVIS.

“The Treasury Officer in Charge of Printing (and his sign-manual).
The Deputy of the Treasury. . The Associate Officer |and his sign-
manual).”’

At the left of ‘The counterfeiter,” etc., in the lower panel:

“Chéng-yu,....year,....month,....day.”

“The Officer of the Printing Bureau (and his sign-manual). The
Associate Officer (and his sign-manual).”

“ The Director of the Bureau of Treasure-Bills (dnd his sign-manual).
The Deputy...., Examiner.”

“The Director of the Bureau of Printing (and his sign-manual).
The Deputy (and his sign-manual), Examiner.”

“The Chief Auditor of the Board of Revenue in the Executive Depart-
ment (and his sign-manual).”
Outside the left-hand border:
“Ching-chao Fu conjoined.”

“ P*ing-liang Fu conjoined.”

Puate 155. Hsrine-tine (1217-1222 A.D.) Note.
ItLustRATION No. 5 FROM THE “Sst cHao CuH‘ao Pr T‘v Lu”.

The Two Kwan Note of the Hsing-ting (1217-1222 A.D.) Era of the
Chin Dynasty.

In 1221 A.D., in the reign of Hsiian-tsung (1213-1223 A.D.) this
note, called the “ Hsing-ting Pao-ch‘iian” was issued. The face value
of the note— one kwan—was accepted for 400 kwan of tung-pao
(Chéng-yu tung-pao, which is paper-money). (Extract from the
original text.)

Translation of the inscriptions.

Outside the border:

Pictorial representation of twenty strings of cash.
In the top row, written horizontally:
“Hesing-ting Treasure-Money.”

In the second row, written horizontally:

“Two kwan wén-shéng.”’ *

*x rT a - ke A ”
Che first character, ‘‘wén’’, means “‘to hear, to smell, or news”; the second
character, “‘shéng”’ means “‘to reduce, to reflect on one’s own conduct, prov-

ince, the governmental department”’, ete. The combination of the two char-
acters is unintelligible. K. T.

PLATE 155.

TY) ads
y= “a
A\ vats

»
t)
Pe Te
AND, oat
Lia

4
t
!
¢
|

eat

mR
ey

aes
AS
als,
L~.
SF
rie

%

i{

A

fe
i}
By)
En

SSS
ON
as |
eWay
Soa
sera
G
7

Pp Bm & jeoab
NES

fase . Da
ay
SA
a. a ae
ey} bye

a
“>
Be
~ f
Ws
, ssi
ws

>»
eS

Fangs.

ey
Lets

BU om Bihes

=
—s
tt

&>
x20

as
=
KF

\ Zaye

. ) 2 dn * , a f
ADS 4" REN
SER hee RAIN) a
hws WS om =e EN oe =
U Fe SK poe — Aina Bo 2 OL

Cuin DyNasty
Hsinc-tine 1217-1222 A.D.
2 KwAN

x FR

641

642 DAVIS.

In the middle panel, at the right, written vertically:

Set. oye > Variety” or “Series.”
In the middle panel, at the left, written vertically:
Se ee Ae eee > Mark” or “ Number.”

In the middle panel, below, written horizontally:

“Nanking District.”

At the right of the middle panel, written vertically in the seal style:

“The counterfeiter shall be decapitated.”

At the left of the middle panel, written vertically in the seal style:

“ The reward shall be GOO kwan.”

In the center of the circular panel, written vertically:

“The counterfeiter shall be decapitated; in addition, the property of
the criminal shall be given.” ‘

At the right of “The counterfeiter,” ete., in the circular panel:

“The Imperial sanction having been petitioned and received, the
Hsing-ting Treasure Money is printed to be current and to be used
equally with the specie. This shall circulate and be current for an
unlimited period of time.”

“ The Officer of the Bureau of Treasure-Money (and his sign-manual).
The Associate Officer (and his sign-manual).”

“The Officer of the Bureau of Printing” (and his sign-manual).
The Associate Officer (and his sign-manual).

At the left of “The Counterfeiter,” etc., in the circular panel:

“Hesing-ting, sixth year, second month,....day.”
“ The Director of the Bureau of Treasure-Money (and his sign-manual).
The Deputy... ., examiner (or examined).”

“The Director of the Bureau of Printing (and his sign-manual). The
Deputy examiner (or examined).”’

“The Accountant of the Board of Revenue (and his sign-manual).”

“The Chief Auditor of the Board of Revenue in the Executive Depart-
ment (and his sign-manual).”

PuaTE 156. CuHrm-ytian (1264-1294 A.D.) NoTE oF THE YUAN
Dynasty.

oe

ILLusTRATION No. 6 FROM THE “Sst- cHao Cu‘ao Pr T'v Lu”.
The Chih-yiian Note of the Yiian Dynasty.

At the beginning of the Yiian Dynasty, the Chung-tsung Yiian-
pao Note, which was emitted in October of the year 1260 A.D., was in
circulation. It remained in use until 1287 A.D. [the twenty-fourth

PLATE 156.

SSE ere -- _—

SEN GAS f EAR BS ry a LIS Se :
oN PANNE! eee Pee ay

: steers wee
Goan Oe oe on
Seo a3 - : Pa EE ERY Je

se
~ 2: SEY - ee ites IA SSn S- cae

a" er, .
b BTS LN NS. : we ob GE eee on FE SRE
PRA ceage Wake ES ee IESG RSE
Aa ae SA SS Sis es ot —_— = fy 2 oe :
lis geet Baie ie me ee
Pe pal cas

vs x gi fe ae ie Siu ; = 2 a 3 a = d = oo
ile < oll eee ete! Fe a Bee ;
| Qs ac rf ae " Steet sth ADI weaned
HEY ewe eee Wes ee ea re Babar aT

ae j Saba eae AiG dL
awk et TSE
Bele eh ainoten it! uf

ra

shen AL sa he]

7.

ee orm nny

<4

CESS haf
Trey ater

d =
SS — >
= . ater
SSSR

Sra re SSRs .

————
Ney OA, «
és
e
s

te

a

3s
ae
WE
Wg?
ES
YANG
We?

Ce ae

=

-
2
-i7.~ -
ANS
es
5
Ste

Ne Bary :
eit

A
VS
a\2
Ce
ti

w~

>

ran

‘
oe

\e
oo a)

53
-

fv

# (CZ4 oe

4%
B00
<A tig
4 2b ---

(oe _—
oie bh Shean aie F
Rng zx ee wos y
Sige “a:

tele i

fe

643

1260-1294 A.D
4 A.D.

CHIH-YUAN 1264-129
Two Kwan

Cuin Dynasty

SHIH-TSU

644 DAVIS.

year of the Chih-yiian Era], when the Chih-yiian Treasure-Notes
took its place.* The denominations of the Chih-yiian Treasure-
Notes were 2 kwan, 1 kwan, 500, 300, 200, 100, 50, 30, 10 and 5 wén,
eleven varieties in all. (Extract from the original text.)

Translation of the inscriptions.

At the top, outside the decorated border, written horizontally:

“Chih-yiian General Circulation Treasure-Note.”

In the upper panel:

“Two Kwan” {and its pictorial representation].

At the right and left of the upper middle panel respectively:

An inscription in Mongolian.

Below the Mongolian inscription at the right:

ce. Variety” or “Series.”

Below the Mongolian inscription at the left:

Ce. Mari. or iNaunbenes

In the center of the lower panel:

The counterfeiter shall be punished by decapitation. The first in-
formant shall be rewarded with five ingots in silver and in addition shall
be given the property of the criminal.” :

At the right of “The counterfeiter,” etc., in the lower panel:

“The Executive Department, having petitioned and recewed the Impe-
rial sanction, prints the Chih-yiian Treasure-Note to be acceptable for the
payment of taxes (in grain) within the jurisdiction of the Rural Tax
Office.t This shall be current in all Districts for an unlimited period of
time.”

“ The Officer of the Bureau of Treasure-Notes. The Associate Officer.”

“The Officer of the Bureau of Printing. The Associate Officer.”

At the left of “The counterfeiter,” etc., in the lower panel:

“Chih-yiian,....year,....month,....day.”

“The Director of the Bureau of Treasure-Notes. The Deputy.”

“The Director of the Bureau of Printing. The Deputy.”

“The T‘i-chu (Superintendent?) in the Executive Department.”

—

* The author of the ‘‘Ch‘iian Pu T‘ung Chih”’ refers to the issuance of the
Chih-yiian Treasure-Notes in 1287 and reproduces ten examples. However,
they differ completely from those which are illustrated in connection with
this text, though both kinds bear the words ‘‘Chih-yiian”’. Which is correct?
Because of the source from which the author of the ‘“Ssti Chao Ch‘ao Pi
Tu Lu” drew his information, his remarks are more likely to be correct.
ioe fe A of the text on “Notes of Shih-tsu of the Yiian Dynasty”
page 030).

| The meaning is obscure and the translation subject to correction. K. T.

A CHINESE WORK ON NUMISMATICS. 645

PuaTE 157. Hune-wu (1368-1398 A.D.) Nore.
FROM THE JOURNAL OF THE PEKING ORIENTAL SOCIETY.

Translation of the inscriptions.

First line: “Great Ming General Circulation Treasure-Note.”’

Second line: “ Two Hundred Wen.”

Illustration: (Pictorial representation of two strings of cash).

At the right of the illustration in the seal style:

“Great Ming Treasure-Note.”’

At the left of the illustration in the seal style:

“To be current under the heavens.”

In the lower panel: “The Board of Revenue, having petitioned and
received the Imperial sanction, prints the Great Ming Treasure-Note to
be current and to be used as copper cash. Cast anew in the year of chi*-
mao } of the Ch‘ung-chén Era.t The counterfeiter shall be decapitated.
The informant and captor shall be rewarded with 250 taels in silver, and
an addition shall be given the property of the criminal.”

Hung-wu,....year,....month,.... day.”

PuaTE 158. THREE SEALS ON THE HuNG-wu CoppER (?) NOTE.
/

FROM THE JOURNAL OF THE PEKING ORIENTAL SOCIETY.

Top. The inscription is the same as that on Plate 131.

Middle. The inscription is the same as that on Plate 132.

Bottom. Six characters arranged as follows:

Bureau Treasure Cast
Seal Note Made

Translation: “Seal of the Bureau of the Cast Treasure-Note.”

The inscription is the same as that on the one Kwan, Ming note,
Plate 136, with the exception of the denomination, which is 200
wén, with two strings of cash.

* The sixth of the ten cyclical stems. K. T.
{ The rabbit year, the fourth of the twelve zodiacal signs. K. T.

t The year of chi-mao in the Ch‘ung-chén Era corresponds to the year 1639
ms KT.

PLATE 157.

Oe ate
YC Aw

’
.
te
‘ie
S
x

4
(

fwaa eg
Sais

seat oe

ae 3 SHES

ee = weg oe es
ed
UU =nonn Esk ry ed ee

Hunc-wu 1368-1398 A.D.
Two Hunpreo WEN

Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Vou. 53. No. 8— Jury, 1918.

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE.

By C. L. E. Moore.

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ran aaa”,
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as ,
i =
= ieee
7)
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esi P
ae * a
i A
wie ;
i
s ‘s
. '

’

om Fai ‘ ivAt te.

P. int J2
~
ie ‘ *
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atl
s
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c
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\ > Se
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°

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE.

By C. L. E. Moore.

Received, January 2, 1918. Presented, April 8, 1918.

In this paper three problems are discussed. First, the resolution
of a complex 2-vector M, in space of 2 p dimensions into the sum of p
mutually completely perpendicular simple 2-vectors or planes. It is
shown that this can always be done and is in general unique. But
if MW satisfies certain product relations the resolution can be effected
in an infinite number of ways. In four dimensions this relation is
equivalent to saying that M is what Whitehead } calls self-supple-
mentary. In this case the resolution can be effected in ©? different
ways.

Second, the application of the preceding to show that a rotation in
a space of 2 p dimensions leaves p mutually completely perpendicular
planes invariant. In general these are the only invariant planes.
But in case the rates of rotation in the p invariant planes are the same
or differ only in sign there are an infinite number of invariant planes
which can be arranged in sets of p which are mutually completely
perpendicular. In 4-space in case the rates of rotation in two com-
pletely perpendicular invariant planes have the same magnitude
there are ©? invariant planes which are completely perpendicular in
pairs.

Third, the consideration of the variety V’, left invariant by all the
transformations leaving the same set of p planes invariant. It is
found that this variety is of order 2”.. The path curves are curves of
constant curvature and first torsion and are geodesics on Vp. The
centers of curvature of all the path curves that pass through a given
point lie on a sphere of p-dimensions having the given point P and
the point of intersection O of the p invariant planes as ends of a diame-
ter. Through each point pass 2” path curves which are circles having
O for center and OP for radius. The variety V, can be developed on
a plane space of p dimensions.

1 A treatise on Universal Algebra, page 292.

652 MOORE.

The only papers that I know of bearing on rotations in hyperspace

are given below: ?

1. Introduction. In terms of the Gibbs Vector analysis an
infinitesimal rotation in three dimensions can be expressed by the
formula °

r =r+axrdt,

where a is a vector along the axis of the rotation and r is any vector
through the fixed origin. If the rotation is considered as parallel to
a fixed plane determined by the vectors b, c then it can be represented
by the formula

r = r+ (bxc)xr dt.

By the Gibbs definition of the cross product (a vector perpendicular
to the plane of the two vectors and of magnitude equal to the product
of the lengths of the two vectors into the sine of the angle between
them, so arranged that the three vectors b, c, b x c for a right handed
system) this last expression is equivalent to the first. If we wish to
extend this to higher dimensions we cannot have a form equivalent
to the first since the cross product of two 1-vectors cannot be con-
sidered as a 1-vector as, in that case, two l-vectors do not uniquely
determine a l-vector. We will then have to start with a new set of
definitions of the products. It must be kept in mind that we may have
vectors of different dimensions as 1-vectors, 2-vectors, 3-vectors, etc.,
of one, two, three, etc., dimensions. I shall here use the vector
analysis already set up by Wilson and Lewis.*

The cross product of two-vectors extending from the same origin is
defined as the parallelogram defined by the two vectors. The product
is then a 2-vector. The magnitude of the product is equal to the area
of the parallelogram. Similar definitions are given for the cross

2F. N. Cole: On rotations in space of four dimensions. American Journal,
12, 1889, page 191.

P. H. Schoute: Le déplacement le plus général dans l’espace 4 n dimensions.
Annales de |’Ecole Polytechnique de Delft, 7, 1891.

Bemporad: sui gruppi dei movimenti. Annali della r. scuola normale sup.
di Pisa, 8, 1904.
an BE. Levi: Sui gruppi di movimenti. Atti dei Lincei Series 5, 14, part 1,

5.

8 Gibbs-Wilson Vector Analysis, page 99.

4Space-time manifold of relativity. The non-euclidean geometry of
mechanics and electromagnetics. These Proceedings, 48, number 11, 1912.

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE. 653

product of more than two l-vectors. The dot product of two 1-
vectors is defined as the projection of one on the other multiplied by
the length of the one on which the projection is made. This agrees
with the Gibbs definition of the dot product of two 1-vectors. This
product is a scalar. The dot product of two vectors of higher dimen-
sion is defined as the vector in the larger space perpendicular to the
smaller. The magnitude is equal to the magnitude of the projection
of the smaller into the magnitude of the larger. If the two vectors are
of equal magnitude this product is again a scalar otherwise it is a vector.
This definition differs widely from the usual definition of inner product.
This product is commutative while the ordinary inner product is not.

We shall choose unit vectors along mutually perpendicular axes
for our reference system. Let these reference vectors be ky, ky,... Rn.
Then the coordinate planes, 3-spaces, 4-spaces, etc. are

kw = kyxke, hig = hixks,... .krs = b-xks
kio3= hyxkoxks, aad Midete = k)xkqxk,;

The dot product of these unit vectors are as follows:

eee — eek, — 00, (1.24),

hip his=l, hig ka = 0, (7 AD), kis kmn = 0 (4,7 Fm, n)
ky ‘kit = 1h kj: ki; = =k,

kikin= kp, kis kin = kr ete.

The dot product of two of these unit vectors vanishes if the smaller
is not entirely contained in the larger, that is if a subscript appears
in the smaller which does not also appear in the larger. If the dot
product vanishes the two vectors are perpendicular. This however
does not require complete perpendicularity, that is it requires that
one vector in one is perpendicular to the other while complete per-
pendicularity requires that every vector in one is perpendicular to
every vector in the other. To obtain a vector completely perpendicu-
lar to a given vector we must resort to the complement, which for
unit vectors is defined as the vector obtained by taking the dot product
of the given vector with the pseudo scalar.? Throughout this paper

5 The pseudo scalar is defined as the cross product of all the 1-vectors
arranged so that the value is unity. Thus in 4-space the pseudo scalar is
ky Xkoxksxks = kizas.

654 MOORE.

the word perpendicular shall be used to mean complete perpendicu-
larity.
The formular for the reduction of the various products of 1- and 2-
vectors are, ;

(1). a:(bxc) = (a-c)b — (a-b)e

(2). (axb)-C = a-(b-C) = — b-(a-C)
(3). ax(b-C) =(axC)-b — (a-b)C

(4). (b-C)- A= — b(C- A) + C- (bxA)

where a, b, c are 1-vectors and A, C are 2-vectors.

Now having these definitions an infinitesimal rotation ® parallel to
a fixed plane M, is defined by the equation

r =r+ M,-rdt.
The length of 7’ is equal to the length of r._ For
rer = rer + 2r-(Mi-r)dt = r-r

The product r-(M,-r) vanishes since M,-r is defined as a vector in
M, perpendicular to r._ A general rotation can be considered as made
up of rotations parallel to a number of independent planes. The
equation for such a rotation is

= rt (My + Met....+My)-1 dt.

The sum of k, simple plane vectors is a complex’ plane vector or
2-vector. Therefore we may write the rotation in the form

(5) r=r+M-rdt

where M is a complex 2-vector, that is, is not equivalent to a simple
2-vector. The canonical form then which (5) may take depends on
the form in which MW may be written. Then we shall first show that
M can always be resolved into the sum of p mutually perpendicular
planes if we are working in a space of 2 p dimensions. We first
consider the cases of four dimensions and five dimensions and then
generalize to space of any number of dimensions.

6 A rotation is defined as a rigid motion leaving one point fixed.

_7 Plane vectors in 4-space, for example, are analogous to lines in 3-space.
We know that the sum of two lines is not a line unless the lines intersect.
rhe same is true of plane vectors, their sum is a complex or complex vector
unless the two simple plane vectors have a line in common. We shall use
complex as equivalent to complex vector.

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE. 655

ET.

2. Complex 2-vectors in 4-space. Let ki, ko, ks, ky be four mutu-
ally perpendicular unit vectors. Then any 1l-vector can be expressed
as a linear function of these four and any 2-vector (simple or complex)

can be represented as a linear function of the six coordinate planes
k = kxk;. Thus

(6) M = avky + ashis + aiskis + Gosh23 + azahoa + azakss.

From this equation we have at once, A complex 2-vector can be resolved
into the sum of two simple planes M, and Mb, one passing through an
arbitrary 1-vector and the other lying in a 3-space perpendicular to it.
For let

M, = apvky + aishkis + arahia

This is a simple plane since it is the sum of three simple 2-vectors
having the vector /; in common. As we could choose for ky a unit
vector in any direction, this plane can be made to pass through an
arbitrary 1l-vector. Then let

Mz = apsh23 + dzgaho4 + zak.

This is a plane since it is the sum of three simple plane vectors which
lie in the 3-space determined by kp, ks, ky. This 3-space is evidently
perpendicular to ky since ky: (koxk3xks) = 0. (If we did not confine
ourselves to a rectangular set of axes this 3-space would not necessarily
be perpendicular to /;). We can then write

M = M, — Mo.
The condition that W be a simple plane vector is

MxM =0
For,
MxM = (M, + M2)x(M, + Me) = 2M\xMo.

In 4-space the cross product of two 2-vectors is a scalar and if this
product vanishes it signifies that M, and M, lie in a 3-space and con-
sequently MZ, + M2 can be expressed as a simple plane vector.

A complex 2-vector can always be resolved into the sum of two simple

656 MOORE.

2-rectors, one of which is arbitrary. For, let A be any plane vector,
then M— WA will be a simple plane if

(M—)A)x(M—)A) = MxM—2 MxA = 0

ie xM
a ~ 9MxA
and we can write
MxM MxM
M = : M— A
2MxA sac IMxA )

We shall now show that the complex 2-vector can always be re-
solved in at least one way into the sum of two perpendicular planes.

Let
(8) M = mM, + mM,

where M, and M, are completely perpendicular unit planes and my
and m2 numbers. Then indicating (MxM)-M by A we can write

(9) A= (MxM)-M = 2mym(M\xMe)-M = 2myme(mM,+mM2).
Solving (8) and (9) for M1, and M2 we have
2merM — A

uh =
(10) 2me(mz2 — my")
Dy,2 =
= 2m?M — A

2m,(m;? — mez”)
The values of m; and m: can be computed from the relations

M-M = m? + m2
A-M = 4mm
From which we get

m=2VM-M+/M-At+2VM-M —/M-A
m= 3VM-M+ /M-A-2VM-M—/M-A

If m # +m, the solution (10) is unique.® If m; = me the solutions
become infinite. From (9) we see at once that this relation means

8 For the non-euclidean geometry considered by Wilson and Lewis this
resolution was unique since in that case the denominators contained the
factor m2 + ms? instead of m2 — mv?.

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE. 657

that 4 = + JM or the complement of WM is + WM. (From the defini-
tion of complement, the complement of M is mM, + m M2). If we
indicate complement by * we have the relations for 4-space.

k* = hss, k* 13 = keys, k* 4 = hog, ho = keys, k* 54 = ksi, k* 54 = ky.
Then if a complex is such that /*= + M it can be written in the form
M= (aiekre == ay3hi3 == ay4hy4) = (aisha + aysho3 + ayok34).

The expressions in brackets are completely perpendicular planes and
in this case we have a resolution into completely perpendicular planes.
Hence: A complex 2-vector can always be resolved into the sum of two
completely perpendicular planes.

By a proper choice of axes M can be written in the form

M = miko + mek

and if W/* = +M the above resolution is not unique. We shall now
proceed to investigate this case. We saw that a complex could always
be resolved into the sum of two planes one of which was arbitrary.
Let the arbitrary plane be X and write

M=X-+K.
If ris any vector in X, consider the transformation
rp=rM=r-X+4+r-K.

r-X is a vector in X and if 7’ also lies in XY, r-K must vanish since Y
and K have no vector in common. But since r was any vector in Y
the vanishing of r-K for all values of r means that K must be com-
pletely perpendicular to XY. Hence the resolution of M into the sum
of two perpendicular planes resolves itself into finding the planes left
invariant by the transformation r’ = r-M. We shall therefore find
the planes left invariant by this transformation.

The invariants of this transformation are more easily found by
expressing it in the form of a dyadic. From formula (1) we have

re (kis) = (r-kj)ki — (r-kidh;
which can be written as the dot product of r into the dyadic kjk; —
kk; The transformation
r =r-M

then takes the form

658 MOORE.

(12) r= r-([my(koky — hike) + ma(kaks — kek) = r-®
my(Kkoky — hike) + me(kaks — ksks).

where ®
If m1: # +m, the only 1-vectors left invariant 9 are
ky = the, kz = tha.
For if =r = Aki + Aoke + Asks + Aska,
r= r-® = — marjko + mddky — Medgks + modaks
and if this is to be equal to ur
(13) mid. = pA1,— Mid, = prs, Mo, = MA3,— Med3 = M4
which can be satisfied only for the values
ho = =id, As = 0, Ag = 0; Ar = Ae = O, Ag = +23
If m; = mp we see that (13) is satisfied by any vector of the pencils
key + ike + (kz + tha), by — tke + ACks — tha),

that is these vectors are left invariant for all values of \. If mi= —m,
the pencils

key a tke a 3(kg — iks), ky = tke — A(ks — ik4)

are left invariant for all values of X.
If we apply the transformation twice, that is

r =r, r’ =7'-b = (r-)-@
assuming the above form for r we have
re! => —m?(Mky a Noke) — m2? (Agks a Naka).

If m = =m r” is a multiple of r and if m, = =m, = 1, the trans-
formation repeated twice is a reflection through the origin and of
course repeated four times is the identical transformation. These
are the only conditions under which the transformation will close.
Hence the necessary and sufficient condition that (12) be of finite order
is M, = =m. or M* = =M. In this case there are two pencils of
invariant vectors while in the general case only four vectors are left
Invariant.

In order to find the 2-vectors left invariant by the transformation

9 Invariant here means that 7’ = ur.

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE. 659

we will express ® in terms of planes (2-vectors). This is done by
means of the double product of Gibbs.!° If 6 = > f,/; is a dyadic
which transforms l-vectors into 1-vectors then 3 2 = 3 J (k,xk;)
(/;x/;) represents the same transformation expressed in plane coordi-
nates, that is a transformation which transforms planes into planes.
To show this let r and s be two l-vectors. Then the plane rxs is
transformed by © into (r-®)x(s-®) which can be written

rixs! = (r-@)x(9-&) = H(r-®)x(9-) — (¢-&)x(r-8)]
= FEC kl KE: kl] — (2k dx (r- k,l}
= Z12[(r-k.)(s-k;) — (sk) (rk) Ul)

>| (rxs) - (kexl;)](1xl;)

rxs) + [Pr].

Nie nl bl
zy Ik

If ® is the dyadic used in (12)
(14) o= my(koky — hy ke) — ma(kaks = Isles).
Then

(15) Y= Z0,P = mPkpky + meekzak34 ++ mym2(kisko4 + keoakis
— kyshog — Keogky4).
If
JE = Das; ki;

be any complex 2-vector

P-YV = mapky + mymoarahy3 — mymodos3ki4 — Mymedy4ko3 + mymeaygke4
+ m?agak34

and if P-W = XP we see that this is satisfied by the planes ky and ks,
and by the complexes

ai3(kis == ko4) + aya(hi4 = keg) ; a3 (Kis a ko4) == aya(his == kos).

These complexes satisfy the condition for all values of a3 and aya.
The invariant planes will then be fy, and /3; and the planes belonging
to either of these pencils of complexes. These last named planes are
obtained from the values of a3 : a4 satisfying either of the relations

[ais (his == kos) == aya(kia = kos) |x[a13 (kes == ko4) Bs ars(ki4 =z kos) = 0
[ais (hig = kos) == aya(ki4 == hog) |x(a13 (Kis a kas) == aya(hu =5 keo3)] = 0

10 See Phillips and Moore, Dyadies occurring in point space of three dimen-
sions. These Proceedings, vol. 53.

660 MOORE.

These give the values a1; = + 7a13. Hence the invariant planes are
(16) (kus + heos) = i(k — hos), (hers — Ieog) i(ler4 + hos).

Now if m1 = =m

(17) Wi = m2[ (wk + kssksa) = (hiskae + kagkis + Prakos + hashes) ]-
Hence the complex

(18) P = apky + a3(hi3 + haz) + dia(his = fog) + azahsa.

(Both positive or both negative signs are to be taken together), is left
invariant for all values. of ap, a3, dia, d34. The planes which belong
to this system of complexes are determined by the relation

PxP = ay034 — 37 — a = 0.
Substituting in (18) we have for the invariant planes
Ky = (as? + we)hig + aisdsa(his = heaz) + diadza(hia = fog) ++ a3a?hga
The plane
Ke = ageky, — ai3d34(h13 = kz) — aadis(hiy = kos) ++ (ai3” + ais )ke34

also belongs to (18) and is completely perpendicular to Ky. Hence
the planes left invariant by the transformation P’ = P-W, form a two
parameter family and are completely perpendicular in pairs. The
planes belong to a three parameter linear system of complexes and
so must cut two fixed planes. It is not difficult to see that these are
the planes (16). The first pair when m; = m: and the second pair
when m, = —m. We can now write

My

ass” + ays” + ase

M = my (Irs =e k3q) = (ky SF Ky).

Hence the theorem may be stated: Any complex 2-vector can be
resolved into the sum of two completely perpendicular planes. If
M* A +M the resolution is unique. If M* = =M the resolution
can be made in ~? ways.

3. Complex 2-vectors in 5-space. In 5-spacea complex 2-vector
M can be resolved into the sum of two simple plane vectors. For,

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE. 661

if we express the complex in terms of the unit coordinate planes we have

5 4
M= = : con — = Asjks; ++ as Asi ij.
The sum 2a;;k5; represents a simple plane vector since each term
in it contains the vector k;.. The sum 2 a;;k;; represents a complex
2-vector lying in the 4-space determined by hy, ke, kz, k4 and hence
can be expressed as the sum of two plane vectors in this 4-space, one
of which is arbitrary. The plane A = Ya;k5; will cut the 4-space
ky*koXk3*k4 in a l-vector. Now resolve > a;;k;; into the sum of two
simple plane, B + C and choose B so that it will contain the vector in
which A cuts the 4-space. Since A and B have a vector in common,
A+B will be a simple plane vector D and we have M = C+ D
where C and D are simple planes. Neither of these planes can be
chosen arbitrarily as was the case in 4-space. It follows from the
fact that a complex vector is always expressible as the sum of two
plane vectors that it must necessarily lie in a 4-space. This 4-space
is the same no matter how the complex M is expressed as the sum of
two simple planes. For, if

M = M,+ M,
where JJ; and M, are simple planes, then

MxM = 2M,xM,

But MxM is the same however M is expressed hence the 4-space
M,xMz must be the same however M is expressed as the sum of two
plane vectors. Since a plane vector in 4-space can be resolved into
the sum of two completely perpendicular 2-vectors the same holds
true for complex 2-vectors in 5-space. Just as in 4-space if

M = (M,+ M,) or M = 1M, — M2)

where M, and M, are completely perpendicular unit planes, the
resolution into the sum of perpendicular planes can be effected in
oo” ways.

Besides leaving the four imaginary vectors found in 4-space invari-
ant, the transformation r-M in 5-space annihilates the real vector
perpendicular to MxM. The products of this transformation then
with itself can never be equal to the identical transformation. If

662 MOORE.

M = M, = My where M,; and Mp, are unit planes, then the trans-
formation repeated four times will be the identical transformation
for vectors in MxM.

4. Complex 2-vectors in space of 2p dimensions. We shall
first show that if a complex 2-vector in a space of 2p dimensions can
be resolved into the sum of p independent simple plane vectors one of
which passes through an arbitrary l-vector then a complex 2-vector
in a space of 2p + 1 dimensions can also be resolved into the sum of p
independent simple plane vectors but in this case no one of the simple
2-vectors can be made to pass through an arbitrary l-vector. To show
this it is only necessary to write the complex in 2p + 1 dimensions
in terms of unit coordinate planes

2p-+1 2p-+1
MS = ay jh; ge Ai jk s;.
The first sum represents a simple plane vector since each term contains
the vector /;. The second sum represents a complex 2-vector lying
in the space of 2p dimensions determined by the vectors hv, ks, . . . kop
and therefore by the above assumption can be expressed as the sum
of p simple plane vectors one of which, A say, passes through the
2p+1
vector in which the plane B= = aj;k,; cuts the space in which
2p+1 ;
the complex 2 a;;k;; lies. Then since A and B have a vector in
common, their sum can be expressed as a simple plane vector. The
complex VW is then expressed as the sum of p independent planes.
But p independent simple plane vectors determine a space of 2p
dimensions and this space of 2p dimensions is the same no matter
how VW is expressed. For if

M=M,+ M,+...+ M,.
Then

MxMxM...pfactors = p! M\xM2x...xM),;

and since the first member is independent of how the complex is
expressed as the sum of p independent planes, the second must be.
Again, if a complex 2-vector in a space of 2p dimensions can be
resolved into the sum of p independent simple plane vectors one of
which passes through an arbitrary 1-vector, then a complex 2-vector

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE. 663.

in a space of 2p + 2 dimensions can be resolved into the sum of p + 1
independent simple plane vectors one of which passes through an
arbitrary l-vector. For let the complex be expressed in terms of the
unit coordinate planes

2 2p+2

aijkiz + = Ai jki;.

The first sum is a simple 2-vector passing through k; which can be
chosen arbitrarily. The second sum is a complex 2-vector in a space
of 2p + 1 dimensions and consequently can be expressed as the sum
of p independent simple plane vectors. Hence the whole complex
can be expressed as the sum of p + 1 independent planes. We have
seen that a complex 2-vector in 4-space can be resolved into the sum
of two independent simple plane vectors one of which can be chosen
arbitrarily and therefore by induction we have: a complex 2-vector
in 2p or 2p +1 dimensions can always be resolved into the sum of p
independent simple plane vectors.

The condition that a 2-vector in a space of 2p dimensions be simple,
is

MxM = 0.

For if this condition is satisfied then the following relations are satis-
fied owing to the associative character of the multiplication when the
order of the whole product is equal to or less than 2p

MxMxM =0
MxMxMxM = 0

MxMxMx...xp factors = 0.

The last one shows that the complex must lie in a space of lower
dimensions and therefore can be expressed as the sum of p — 1 simple
plane vectors. By the same argument it can be expressed as the sum
of p — 2 simple plane vectors and so on until finally it can be expressed
as a single simple plane vector. If M is a simple plane, MxM = 0.
Hence this is both a necessary and a sufficient condition that a 2-
vector be simple.

We shall next show that a complex 2-vector in a space of 2p dimen-
sions can be resolved into the sum of p mutually perpendicular simple:
planes. Let

D
M=2m,;,VY;
1

664 MOORE.

when /; are mutually perpendicular unit simple planes and m; num-
bers. We can then derive p — 1 complex 2-vectors as follows

Pp
A = (MxM)-M = 22mm7M; LAG
1

Pp
B= (MxMxM)-(MxM) = 62mm/7m?7M; Tig Ue
1

(203, dec ick Se Sh ee eee
P = (MxMxM.. .p factors): (MxMxM. . . (p-1) factors)

= plmym2...Mp2LMiMg. . .MiAMix1...M_pM;.

We have then all together p equations to solve for the p plane M,,
M2,...M,- and the solution will be unique unless these equations
prove not to be linearly independent, that is unless the determinant A
of the system vanishes. If we observe how the columns of this
determinant are made up we see that it contains each of the m’s as a
factor. Also if m;= +m;,4=0. Therefore we can write A in the
factored form

A =-:p!(mym...mp)r(m? — m7).

Now if m, = my, say, and the other m’s are all different then a value
of \ can be found so that

A+)M

will lie in a space of 2p — 4 dimensions and by the above argument
this new complex can be resolved into the sum of p — 2 mutually per-
pendicular plane vectors. The remaining 4-space will be completely
perpendicular to the space in which A + AM lies and that part of M
lying in it can be resolved into the sum of two perpendicular planes
in ©* ways. Hence the whole complex can be resolved into the sum
of p mutually perpendicular planes in ©? ways. The same argument
of course applies to any pair of equal roots. If m = =m = =m;
the other m’s being all different and different from mm; a value of
can be found so that A + AM will lie in a space of 2p — 6 dimensions
and the part of M lying in this space can be resolved into p — 3 mutu-
ally perpendicular planes. “The whole complex can then be resolved
into the sum of p mutually perpendicular planes provided the complex
2-vector in space of six dimensions such that (MxM)-M = XM can be
resolved into the sum of three mutually perpendicular planes. Con-
tinuing the argument we see that the resolution is always possible
provided that in a space of 2m dimensions in which

(MxM)-M = \M

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE. 665

can be resolved into the sum of mutually perpendicular planes. We
will now show that this resolution is always possible.
If the transformation

r =r-M=r-(X +-K)

where X is a simple plane and r any vector in X, always gives a vector
r in X then r-K = 0 for every r in X. That is X is completely
perpendicular to K. Then the above resolution depends upon
whether we can find a plane left invariant by the transformation
r’ = r-M where M is any complex 2-vector. Let

2m

(19) MS Yank.
1

anil ESB r ee
1

Then if 7 is an invariant vector we have
moe — nF

which is equivalent to the set of equations

i= > a;b;
K 17]

el a eS eee a eae rrr

where the b’s are to be determined. The coefficients a;; are seen to
satisfy the relations

ay = OF aij= —aji, 4 F j:

Equations (20) being homogeneous will have a solution provided the
determinant of the system vanishes. This determinant is seen to be a
skew determinant with each term in the principal diagonal equal to u.
From the theory of such determinants?! it is known that it can be
expanded in powers of the diagonal terms. The coefficients of the

11 Hanus, Elements of determinants. Ginn & Co., page 152.

666 MOORE.

various powers of uw are sums of principal minors of the determinant
in which the u’s are replaced by zeros. That is the determinant can
be expandedlin the form

(22) pe = Aye Ag eee ee

where A; is the sum of the first minors in which yp has been replaced by
zero. These minors are then skew symmetric determinants of odd
order and therefore vanish. For the same reason all the A’s with
odd subscripts vanish. The coefficient A» is the sum of all the second
principal minors with yp replaced by zero. This is a skew symmetric
determinant of even order and therefore can be expressed as 2 sum
of squares, consequently it is positive. The same is true of all A’s
with even subscripts. Then (22) has only even powers of yp and all
the coefficients are positive. Therefore the roots appear in conjugate
imaginary pairs. This means for WV real the invariant vectors appear
in conjugate imaginary pairs. But two conjugate imaginary vectors
determine a real plane. Hence we have shown that there are always
m invariant real planes. If equations (21) are not all independent
there will be an infinite number of values of u and consequently
an infinite number of invariant planes. This corresponds to the case
(MxM)-M = dM.

Now having determined that in every case there is at least one
invariant simple plane, A say, we can determine \ so that M — XA
will be a complex vector lying in a space of 2m — 2 dimensions which
must be completely perpendicular to A. To determine \ we have
the relation

(M — \A)x(M — )\A)x...m factors = 0
= MxMx...m factors — m\(AxMxM...(m — 1) factors).

From which
M™

N= Ax

when the exponents indicate cross multiplication. The same reason-
ing as used before will show that the space in which M — }4A lies
is completely perpendicular to A. Thus we have established the
theorem: A complex 2-vector in a space of 2p dimensions can always be
resolved into the sum of p mutually perpendicular planes. If the set of
<-vectors A, B,— P of (20) are not independent this resolution is not
unique.

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSAPCE. 667

If the 2-vectors A, B, C...P are all multiples of MW, by a proper
choice of axes the complex can be written in the simple form

M = milkig = heya + hsp =... = kop-1 2p).
We will confine our attention to the single case
23) i my (hyp + he3q + a Kep-ay 2p)

and the other combinations of sign can be disposed of in a similar
manner. The dyadic which represents the transformation r’ = r-M
is

(24) p= my(koky — key ho — keakg = kegkeg +. 5 a+ ko pho p—1 = ke p-skep)
and the same transformation expressed in plane coordinates is
V = 16%,

which can be proved by the same method used for the case of 4-space.
Similarly it can be shown that the complex

(25) C = aki + aszakss + asehss + . . 2 p-1,2ph2p-1,2p
a= a13(he3 7s kag) a= aya(hu aa hog) ar ais(kis —"heo) Siete
= a35(k35 = kag) +H as6(kes6 = kas) Pinas

is left invariant by the transformation C-W where the coefficients in C
are entirely arbitrary. The complex will be a simple plane if CxC = 0.
This gives for the invariant planes, putting a = 1, for convenience.

(26) A=ky+ (a3 a5 a4" )k34 ae (a5 = aye”) hese ieee
== (a1,2p-1 == 1,27") kop-1y2p
== a3 (ky ae kag) =F ara(his = ko5) =e ais(kis hog) Tee
ar (ayats a 13016) (hess = keg) “j= (3015 = (4016) (kee — kas)+. +e
+ (aistiz + ay4018)(k3g — haz) +...

Hence ©*?-? simple planes are left invariant. Then in resolving
this complex into the sum of p similarly perpendicular simple planes
the first plane can be chosen in ~7?-? different ways, the second in
co2P-4 ways and so on. Hence the resolution can be effected in
oo *(P-1)! different ways.

By proper choice of axes the general complex can be put in the
form

(27) M = Mak an Msaks4 +. Se a= M2 p—152ph2p—152p-

668 MOORE.

Then the dyadic which represents the transformation 7’ = r-M is

(28) ® = mi(hkek: — hike) + msa(kaks — eka) +...
+ Mop-1,2p(kopk2p-1 — kep-skep)

If the transformation is applied twice to the vector r= = Dk;
we have

r’ = r-@ = (r-@)-h! = r-(@-G)
ey [m2 (kiki == koko) == m3" (ksks == kaka) =e de
= Map-1,2p(kop-1h2p—1 = kypkp)]

I

Then if ® and r are real andmy = +=m34 =... = ~=mMepi1pp = 1
we return to r after repeating the transformation four times. Hence
if the complex consists of the sum of p mutually perpendicular unit
planes, the transformation r’ = r- M will be of order 4.

5. The Hamilton-Cayley equation. From equation (12) wesaw
that the transformation r’ = r-M in 4-space depends on two para-
meters 7m, and m, and to show the relation of these to the Hamilton-
Cayley identical equation which ® must satisfy we will change the
reference system to that of the invariant elements. We saw that the
invariant vectors were

ky = tke, ks = tk.

Now put
= Einar seal ges
i — /2 1 tke), [= /2 1 2
1 : 1 ;
= . (ks + tks), 14 = V5 (kes — tka),
Then
1 7
ky = V5 (n+), hk=— Toe

d a
ks = ao) (3+74), ky= — 9, (rac—tr4).

The dyadic then becomes

(29) o@ = i[mi(rery — rm) + mo(rars — rgr4) |.

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE. 669

The multiplication table for the r’s is as follows

hist ofa ty eta — Tae re —= 0;
refs = 1°14 = 12°73 = Te-7, = O,
Tieton aa—— 1
The idemfactor I; becomes
(30) Ty = ryre + rory + ars + ars.
The Hamilton-Cayley equation then becomes

(31) (© — tml) (® + tm) (® — timely) (® + tml) =
(2 + meh) (& + m2?) = 0.

lf m = =m
(29’) @ = im(reri — rire) + (rars — r3ra)]
from which we see at once that the vectors
ar, = br3, -aro = br

are left invariant (or multiplied by constants only) for all values of
aand 6b. The Hamilton-Cayley equation in this case becomes

(2+ mh) = 0

In terms of this new reference system the dyadic ® expressed in
plane coordinates becomes

(32) W = 4OX@ = — [mPryrwe + me?r34r34 + mime(rgres
+ reriz — resis — T14723)}

The multiplication table for the coordinate planes is

rele = 134°h34 = — 1,

113°T24 = T14°T23 = 1,
and all the other products are zero. The idemfactor is
I, = shxh = — rere — r3arza + risros + reatiz + Mares + rosria
and the Hamilton-Cayley equation is
(Y — merle) (Y — m2Ir)(Y? — mrm7l2) = 0,
and if m; = + mz the equation is

(WY — mPl2)(Y + ml) = 0.

670 MOORE.

From (32) we see that the complex 2-vectors
aris _ brea, ari4 + bros

are left invariant for all values of aand b. The only planes belonging
to this system are rs, 724, M14, 7%23- If m; = +m we see at once that
the complex

ary + brsa + erg + dros,
or ary + brag + ers + drog

is left invariant and the planes belonging to this system are the
invariant planes discussed before.

Choosing the invariant vectors for the coordinate system in space
of 2p dimensions and proceed as above we at once arrive at the Hamil-
ton-Cayley equation

(B2 + mt) (& + m?h)...(& + m,?h) = 0
and if m, = =m = =m3...= =m, this equation becomes
@ + ml, = 0.

The equation which VY = 3: satisfies follows in a similar manner.

1001

6. Rotations in 4-space. We saw that an infinitesimal rotation
could be represented by

(5) r =r+ M-r dt.

If M is a simple plane vector M, say, and if r is perpendicular to MW,
then since M/,-r = 0, the vector r is left absolutely fixed, and therefore
the plane completely perpendicular to JJ, is left absolutely fixed.
Also if r lies in M, it is evident that r’ will likewise lie in J; and there-
fore M, is left invariant but not point for point. If in this rotation
we take J/; as a unit plane and write (5) in the form

r =r+mM,-r dt
the constant m, measures the rate of rotation in the plane M;. For
if r lies in M,
r—?T ar

—— = — = mMy-r
di!) dt Free

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE. 671

Since r does not change in magnitude as it rotates, the magnitude of
Wi divided by Vr-r will be the rate at which r is turning in the plane

M,;. That is
/dr\2 eee, ues Sl
ney = Vmi(Myr)? = mV rer

M, being a unit-plane 17,-r has the same magnitude as r if r lies in Mj.

Therefore
Gi
dt
Vea

which shows that m; measures the rate of rotation in M,.
If in (5) M is a complex 2-vector it can be resolved into the sum of
two perpendicular planes and can then be written in the form

(33) r= rt (mM, + mM2)-r dt

mm =

7

where M, and Mz are unit planes. In this case the motion consists
of a double rotation, one parallel to the simple plane M, and the other
parallel to the simple plane M2. The same argument as used above
will show that m; measures the rate of rotation in M, and mz; the rate
of rotation in Ms. If r lies in M,, then

r=r+M,-rdt

and the same argument used above shows that M, is left invariant.
The same reasoning also shows that Mz is left invariant.

In order to exhibit the whole list of invariants we will represent
the transformation (33) as a dyadic, choosing the reference system so
that .

WS mykyp + moka.

The same argument as used in §2 shows that the dyadic sought is
(34) YW = JL, + [mi(koky — hike) + me(kak3 — h3ka)dt = I, + ® dt
and (33) then becomes
(35) r= 7-W,

If the vector

(p= Lak;
1

672 MOORE.

is left invariant it is evident that r-® must vanish. That is
asmyky — aymyks + asmek3 — agmoks = 0

which requires that all the a’s vanish. However if we require that
r’ = \r then we have r-® = Xr which leads to the solutions

a(ky+ tk), b(k3 + tka).
Using these values for r we have
ry! = (ky + the) -W = ky + the + imi(tky + tke) dt
we imy(ky + the).

dt
rol = (hy — thy) -W = ky + the + mi(ky — they) dt

or

d 2 ° ,

a = — im(hi — the).
Likewise for the other two we have

= imo(ks + rks),

os = — imo(k3 — ik).

Thus the points on /; + ik, and ks + tks progress by the factors im
and im while the point on k; — tke and k3 — iks progress by the factors
— im, and — imp.

If m; = mz it is easily seen that any vector of the pencils

(ky =: ike) + (hg + ths), (hy = ike) _ A(kg = iks)

is left invariant. These vectors lie in a plane in which every vector
is a minimal vector. That is they lie in a plane which contains a
generator of the imaginary sphere at infinity. Any plane cutting
these two planes in a 1-vector will be left invariant since it will contain
two invariant vectors. If m, = —mo, the invariant pencils are

(key + the) + A(k3 — tha), (hi — the) + wlks + ues).

Each of these pencils lies in a plane cutting the imaginary sphere at
infinity in a generator and any plane cutting each of these planes in a
vector will be left invariant. We will however discuss these planes
from a different point of view.

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE. 673

The dyadic Y can be expressed in terms of plane coordinates by
means of the double product.

(36) Wo = FWY = 40, + bd), + bdt) = 40, + Kebdt

and the rotation is then expressed by the formula
C’ = C- (Ih + [ibdt).
If we write WM = mk + moka

ab = mxy(kehy = hyke) — mo(haks — k3ke4)
I = my (hro3ky3 a ky3kos — hea ghey4 = hy shea) “= mo(kyaki3 ame kiskis
+ keakos; — Koghos)

If the complex 2-vector
C => Leijki;
is left invariant, that is if C-V = C

C: (I i) = my (Ci3ho3 — ea3hi3 + crake, — Co4hy4) == me(Ci3kr4
— crakiz + Co3h24 — C2iho3) = 0.

From which we get
(37) myey3 = —MoCo4, MyCo3 = MaCy4, M1C14 = M23, — ‘MyCo4 = MoCy3-
If m; # =m, these equations are satisfied only when
C13 = C4 = C4 = C3 = 0.
Thus any complex of the linear pencil
Cykis + czaksa

is left invariant. The only simple planes belonging to this pencil are
ky» and kz. Hence these are the only planes whose magnitude and
position are left invariant by the rotation.

If m, = =m, equations (37) can evidently be satisfied if e413 = +24,
C14 = C3. In this case the complex

C = eplhig + c13(hig = haz) + era(heis + hos) ++ esahsa

is left invariant for all values of the coefficients. The planes of this
system of complexes are determined by the relation

CxC = cioe34 = (C13? + c12°)

674 MOORE.

which, if we put cy = 1, gives for the invariant planes
(38) P = ky + ei3(his = Fay) + cra(hia + ho) = (ers” ++ 1a?) e34

Therefore, If the rates of rotation in the planes M, and Mg are different
the only planes left invariant by (33) are My and Mg but if the rates of
rotation in the two planes are the same or differ only in sign then a two
parameter family of planes which belongs to a three parameter linear
system of complexes is left invariant.

The planes of the system (38) all cut the planes

(Aig kay) + i(hia hos), (hers hag) — t(hi4a= ho).

These are the planes mentioned above.

We saw that in case m;= +m the complex M can be resolved in
co different ways into the sum of two completely perpendicular planes.
The pairs of planes belong to the set (38). The transformation (34)
can then be represented in ©? different ways as the sum of rotations
parallel to pairs of completely perpendicular planes. The rates of
rotation parallel to both planes of a pair are the same but different
for different pairs.

The above set of invariant planes were found under the condition
that their magnitude be left unchanged. We might however have

12 In the article referred to in note 2 Cole states the theorem ‘Every rota-
tion in a four dimensional space for which 8 #0. (The condition here would be:
that neither m; nor m: is zero) can be reduced to a succession of two simple
rotations whose fixed planes are absolutely perpendicular to each other.
This decomposition can be effected in only one way.”’ From the above
theorem it is evident that this statement is inaccurate. He discussed finite
rotations and writes the equations of the rotation

, y

x’ =xcos?é—ysind, y’ = xsiné + ycosé

2 =zco0os¢g—wsing, w = 2z'sing + a’cos¢.

He states that the invariant planes of this rotation are the xy- and zw-planes.
This is true of 6 # y. But if 6 = ¢ any line passing through 0 and lying in
the planes x + iy = 0, 2 +i = 0 is left invariant also any line passing
through 0 and lying in the plane x —- iy = 0, 2 — iw = 0 is left invariant.
Hence any plane containing two of these invariant lines will be kept invariant.
There is a two parameter family of these planes which are real and therefore
co* real planes are left invariant. If 6 = —g then every line passing through
0 and lying in one of the planes x + iy = 0, 2 —iw =0 or x —iy = 0,
z+ iw = 0 is left invariant and all the planes passing through.0 and cutting
each of these planes in a line is left invariant. In the first case it is easy to
see that the plane x = z, y = w is left invariant and in the second case x = a,
y = zis left invariant. The error in Cole’s work arose from the fact that in
determining the coordinates of the invariant planes he failed to take into
account that it was possible for all the denominators of his expressions to
vanish simultaneously.

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE. 675

planes changed by the rotation into multiples of themselves. In
this case

CaP) — Xe
which leads to the relations

™4€13 — Molo, = ACo3,
— M1023 — MeCi4 = ACB,
M1C14 — MoCo3 = NCo4,
—MyCo4 + MeoC13 = ACha4.

Four values of \ render this system consistent and the corresponding
invariant planes are

(kis + ka) i(his + hos), kis — brag i(kis — hes).
No real plane satisfies this condition.
7. Rotations in any even space. Equation (5) is a rotation in
a space of 2p dimensions if we consider M as a complex lying in that
space. As before the dyadic representing the rotation, if we write

in terms of p mutually completely perpendicular unit planes which
for convenience we will take as coordinate planes, is

W = Tht [milkoki — hike) + mo(kaks — keska) +... + mp(kephopa —
kop—-kep) |dt.
=> i+ Pdt.

The same transformation expressed in plane coordinates is

W=3he ht Txebdt.
Io+ 1, xbdt
where = kk;

I, = Zk ijk ;.

The same argument used in the preceding section will show that the
p mutually perpendicular planes into which J is resolved are all left
invariant. If the m’s are all distinct these are all the invariant planes,
but if » of them are equal there are ©*”-” invariant planes and
the rotation can be resolved in an infinite number of ways into rota-
tions parallel to p mutually perpendicular planes.

676 MOORE.

IV.

8S. Surfaces in 4-space left invariant by all the rotations
having the same two fixed planes. All the rotations represented
by the equation

(39) f=r+ Merdt=r+ (mM, + mM2)-r dt

where J, and My, are unit planes and m, and m, are allowed to vary
form a group since each transformation of the set leaves MW, and M2
invariant and consequently the product of two of them will leave these
planes invariant also. The direction which a point will move by
(39) with fixed values for m and mz is

r

(40) Ti (mM, + m.Ms)-r = M-r.
¢

If m; and m are allowed to vary it is seen at once that all the directions

which a given point can take lie in a plane since they are linear func-

tions of the two vectors W,-r and Ms-r. It is seen also from this

equation that the ratio m;: mz, is all that need be considered since their

dr
actual values are necessary for determining the magnitude of — and

dt
not its direction. If we give m, and me: definite values (40) will be
the differential equation of the path curve described by the end of the
vector r by this particular rotation. The unit tangent to this curve is

dr dt
i_— A M-r Te
Since the magnitude of r is unity we have
Vertis. e
ards: aoe CoP ds
dt \2
= eects r)? + me?(Mo-r)?] (=) .
Hence
ds \?
(41) (2) = mP(My-r)? + m?(Me-r)*.

As the transformation is a rotation r is a vector of constant length
and also the projections on the fixed planes M, and Mz are also the

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE. 677

same for all positions which r can take by the rotation. Then (J/;-r)-

(M,-r) is constant and equal to the square of the projection of r on

the fixed plane M,. Likewise (Mo-r)-(Mo-r) is equal to the square

of the projection of r on the plane M». It follows at once then that

ds is a constant since the expression in the bracket in (41) is constant.
The curvature of the path curve is

dr @r ( = Cia ek Bee? )
C= 5 = 3, - (i) = Mtr)

(42) HY?
= [m2M,-(M,-r) + m?2Mo- (Me-71)] (*)
s

The vectors M,-(M,-r) and M2: (M2-r) are the projections of 7 on the
fixed planes M, and Mz respectively and therefore constant in length.
Hence: The path curves are curves of constant scalar curvature.

The unit vector in the direction of the curvature C is

eg at: (Mens Fe aE: (M-r)
—ViM-(Mene VC-C

The vectors 7 and ¢ are unit vectors and perpendicular to each other
Hence7z X c will be the unit osculating plane to the path curye. The
first torsion of the path curve is the rate of change of this plane with
respect to the arc.

dc de

d dr
T= a (xc) — oe aT ome ace

Since . = cV([M-(M-r)P the product exe = (0. Substituting the
s fs

values above we have
1
VC-C

T =(M-r)x{M-[M-(M-r)]} oi

= (mM, + mM.2)x{mPM,-[M,-[M,-r)]

+ m2?M2: (M2: (M2-r)| (Sy Ae
ive ; ds/ VC-C

But since M,-(M,-r) is the projection of r on My, M,-[M-(Mh-1)]
is a vector in M, perpendicular to this projection and consequently is
equal to M,-r. Similarly for the second term. Then

T = mymo(me? — m7) (My-r)x(Mo-r)

678 MOORE.

But since .W,-r and Mo:r are vectors of constant length and lie in
perpendicular planes their cross product has constant magnitude.
Therefore the scalar first torsion of the path curves is constant.

From the above expression for 7 we see that if m, = 0 or m, = 0
or 7, = mz, the torsion vanishes, that is the plane 7xc is independent
of the point on the curve. Therefore in the group of infinitesimal
transformations which leave the same pair of perpendicular planes My
and Mz invariant there are four transformations whose path curves are
plane curves. If m, = 0 the motion reduces to a rotation parallel to
the plane M, and the path curve is the circle whose plane is parallel
to M, and whose center is on My. Likewise if m: = 0 the path curve
is a circle in a plane parallel to MM. and whose center lies in My. If
m, = = m, equation (42) becomes

C= m2[M,-(My-r) + Me: (Me-r)| (*Y
8

But since M,-(M,-r) and Ms: (M2-r) are the projections of the vector
ron the planes W, and M2 respectively and these planes are perpendicu-
lar the expression in the brackets is evidently equal to r._ Hence in

this case
dt \?
C = mr (4) F

From (41) we see that in this case

ds\2
2 = mye(r-7)-

Then

and hence

That is the sealar of the curvature of the path curve is the reciprocal
of the length of r. Then in this case the path curves are circles with
center at the origin. The plane of the circle is rx(My-r + Mo-r).
This plane changes only in magnitude if we change the length of r.
Hence the plane is left invariant by the transformation dr = m4(M, +
M»)-r dt. That is through each point in space passes one plane left
invariant by this transformation. From (39) the directions of the

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE. 6079

path curves through a point, given by the transformations for which
m, = 0, m2 = 0, my, = me, my = —m. form a harmonic pencil.

From (42) we see that if ris held fixed and m, and m are allowed to
vary the end of the curvature vector traces out the line joining the
M, 9 (M, C r) Mz: (Mo: r)

=— and =

(M,-r)? (M.-r)?
real values of m; and m2 the only points obtained are those on the

aes . | mt
segment joining the ends of these two vectors and that the ratios —
Mes

ends of the vectors and it is seen that for

Mei 2 : : '
and — — give the same point. Hence each point of the segment is
iD)
counted twice. We will call this the curvature segment. Two direc-
: d dr’
tions Fs = (mM, + mM2)-r and a = (my My, + me’ Mp2)-r are per-
a

pendicular if they satisfy the relation.

ae = 0 = (m Myer + mM ;-1r)- (my Myr + me! Mo-r)
= mm (M,-r)? + meme’ (Mo-r)?.
Hence
me (M,-r)? m
my ee (M,-r)? ms

Two perpendicular directions are then mMy-r + mM.-r and
me(M>-r)?(My-r) + m(M,-r)?(Me-r). The curvature for these two
directions is

dt \ 2
y= [mM ;- (M,-r) + mM: (M2: o(S),
Co = [m?[(Me-r)-(Me-r)PM,- (M,-7r)

it
+ mehr): (Sher) PMy (MIS),

ds/>

ne ;
ds/1 —-m?(M,-r)? + m?(M2-r)?

=) 1
= ie ms[(Mo-1)+(Ms:r) (Mir)? + me2[(M- 7): (Mr) P(e: 7)?
1
[Ober Mer] (m2 Mr)? + me? Me: r)?

dt dix? :
Substituting these values of (=) and (5) in the expressions for ¢
LS) 1 o/2

\

680 MOORE.

and c we have
M,-(M,-r) My: (Mz-r) ah 2h
(M,-r)? (M2-r)? ;

(+e =

That is the sum of the curvature vectors for two perpendicular direc-
tions through the point is independent of the pair of directions taken
and is equal to the sum of the curvatures of the path curves of the
M,-(M,-r) ar M2: (M2-r)

(M,-r)? (M,-r)?
the curvatures in these two directions. It is also to be noted that
the directions for which the curvatures are the same are harmonically
separated by the directions m = 0, mz = 0. The directions which
have curvature equal to h are perpendicular to each other and hence
bisect the angle between mm; = 0 and m: = 0.

Since the length of the radius of curvature is the reciprocal of the
scalar curvature and its direction coincides with C the locus of the
centers of curvature is the inverse of the curvature segment with
respect to the unit circle with center at the extremity of r. Hence;
The locus of the centers of curvature of all the path curves of this group
which pass through a given point vs a circle of which the diameter is the
line joining the origin to the point in question. For real directions
through the point the centers of curvature lie on a quadrant of this circle.
From this it is evident that the curves with minimum curvature are
in the directions m, = m. and m, = —m, and hence for these direc-
tions the curvature is perpendicular to the curvature segment. This
can be seen also directly from (42). For the curvature of these
curves being in the direction of r and the curvature segment being

M;: (M,-r) aly M,: (M.-r)

rotations m, = 0 and m2 = O since

(My-r)? (My-r)? we have
hy-r? (Mz-r)?

Since M/,-(M;,-r) is the projection of r on M, and has the same length
as M,-r the product r-[M,:(M,-r)] is then the length of the projec-
tion of r on M; multiplied by the length of r. Hence the first term of
the product reduces to unity and likewise for the second term and
hence the whole product vanishes. |

The curvature vectors of the path curves lie in a plane determined
by Mi-(My-r) and Mz:(Mp-r). But M,-r is a vector in M, perpen-
dicular to r and M,-(M,-r) is the projection of r on M, hence these

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE. 681

two vectors are perpendicular to each other. The vector M,-r is
perpendicular to Mp»: (J/2-r) since they lie in completely perpendicular
planes. Therefore 1/;-r is perpendicular to the plane of the curvature
vector. Similarly J/:-r is also perpendicular to this plane. Hence,
The path curves of a given point by the transformations of the group of
rotations which leave the same two completely perpendicular planes
fixed are all tangent to a plane A, and have constant curvature and torsion.
The ends of the curvature vectors lie on a line cutting the two fixed planes.
The plane in which these curvature vectors lie is perpendicular to the
plane A. There are four of the path curves which are circles. The
tangents to two of these are perpendicular to each other and the tangents
to the four form a harmonic pencil. The centers of curvature lie on a
circle whose diameter is the line joining 0 to the given point. The centers
of curvature of the real curves lie on one quadrant of this circle.

As the vector r is rotated by (39) the plane A will envelope a surface
which will be left invariant by every transformation of the group.
To obtain the equations of this surface we will integrate the vector
differential equation (39). Let

r= ayky + aeke + asks + aake4)
M, = ky, Mz = keg

Then (39) becomes

kydky + kodka + kesdks + kesdag = (mikiy + mokgzs)+ (ark + woke
+ asks + asks)dt

= (myxtoky — mark, + moask3 — moxsk4)dt

which is equivalent to the set of differential equations

ee mat, —2 = —mt

dt 2 1%,

5 Mort ots) — Mow:

aie aad +“
Dividing and integrating we obtain for the first integrals
(43) xy + Xe" = a, x3" + re aes

The constants a and 6 are so determined that the curve will pass
through the initial point. These then are the equations of the surface
left invariant by each transformation of the group. The planes A are
the tangent planes to the surface and the normal planes are those in
which the curvature vectors lie. These normal planes all pass through

682 MOORE.

the origin, that is through the point of intersection of the fixed planes.
The curvature of a geodesic always lies in the normal plane to the
surface from which we can conclude that the path curves are geodesics
of the surface (43). We will however show this directly. The para-
metric equations of the surface are

t= @ COS U, 2 — asinen,
(44) Neer, Ss
x3 = bcos?, w= bsin».
Then
ds? = adu? + bdr

This shows that the surface is developable.1? The geodesics are then the
lines given by the relation

v= Aut+B

which substituted in the differential equations of the path curves we ©

find they are satisfied provided A = "Hence the path curves
my

are the geodesics. Through each point of the surface passes four
geodesics which are circles. The planes of two of them are completely
perpendicular being parallel respectively to the two fixed planes.
The other two circular geodesics make equal angles with the two
preceding, and have their centers at the origin. Their planes con-
sequently intersect in a line, that is, lie in a 3-space. The surface
can be generated by rotating any one of the path curves by any
transformation of the group. Therefore it can be generated by moving
a circle of fixed radius and plane parallel to the a374-plane with center
in the x1%-plane so that it always cuts a fixed circle lying in a plane
parallel to the x;2:-plane. It can also be generated by a circle of
radius Vg? + 42 with center at 0 which always cuts a fixed circle of
radius Vg? + 42 and center at 0. The plane of the’ variable circle
is inclined at a fixed angle to the plane of the fixed circle.

Equations (43) show that the surface is of order four. Therefore a
3-space which cuts it in a circle must cut it again in a curve of order
two. Consider first a 3-space which contains one of the circles with
center at 0. This will also contain a second one of these circles since
they lie by twos in all the 3-spaces containing one of them. If then
we pass a sphere through one of these circles for which it is a great
circle, it will contain a second one of them which will also be a great
circle. Hence such a sphere is tangent to the surface at two diametri-
cally opposite points. '

13 See Levi, loc. cit.

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE. 683

The plane of one of these circles is obtained by letting v = u + 0
in equations (44). The equation of this path curve then becomes

x1 = acos u, %=asinu

(45) v3 = beos (w+ 6), a= bsin (w+ 8)

and the plane of the curve becomes

b be -;
v3 = — cos @ 2, — — sin 82,
a a

(46)

b be

x4 = — cOS 6X + — sin 024.

a a
Varying @ we obtain all circles which form one generation of the sur-
face. These circles have no pointincommon. The second generation
can be obtained by putting v= —u-+06. The equations of these
circles then is

(47) X11 = a COS U, Y= asin u

: x3 = beos(— u + @), a1 = bsin (—u+ 8).

The circles of (47) do not intersect each other but each one of (47)

intersects each one of (45) in two diametrically opposite points.
= 9

= a ee If these

~ ~_

The points of intersection are u =

circles are used as parameter curves the equation of the surface
becomes

2% =acos(u+v), x2 =asin(u+v),
x3 = bcos (u—v), w= bsin (wu — 2).

From (46) we see that the locus of the planes of these circles is

ap a? _ x tae

a oa :
In fact this quadric cone contains both sets of planes.
The planes of the other two generations of circles lie on the cylinders

xy + x = a’, re + xe = 6.

The planes on one of these cylinders are parallel to each other and
consequently two of them determine a 3-space, that is, the 3-space
which passes through one of these planes will contain another of the
same cylinder. Then in this second double generation of circles,

684 MOORE.

circles of the same generation intersect in two points while those of
opposite generations intersect in one point. Equations (47) show
that the surface is also a translation surface.

Wilson and Moore * discussed the locus of the end of the normal
curvature vector (the indicatrix) of curves passing through a given
point of a surface and found that in general it is a conic. But when
this indicatrix becomes a linear segment the surface has some proper-
ties of surface in 3-space. On such a surface lines of curvature can
be defined as in 3-space and will be orthogonal. If we define lines of
curvature as lines of maximum or minimum normal curvature we find
in general there are four directions through each point but in 3-space
these four directions divide into two sets of two, one the asymptotic
lines and the other the lines of curvature. For surfaces whose indi-
catrix reduces to a linear segment not passing through the surface
point in question these four directions of maximum and minimum
radii of curvature again factor into two sets; one giving the curves
called by Segre characteristics and the other giving lines analogous
to lines of curvature in 3-dimensions. For the surface here consid-
ered all four sets of these curves are circles.

We saw that the curvature segment or indicatrix cut the planes
M, and Mz in the ends of the projection of r on these planes. Then
as r is rotated the curvature segment will cut the circles generated by
these projections. Hence the locus of the curvature segment will be
the congruence of lines cutting two given circle. Also the mean
curvature defined by the curvatures of two orthogonal directions.

2h =C\ + C2

is the vector from the surface point to the middle of the curvature
segment. Then the locus of the end of the mean curvature vector

will be the surface
2 aN
ae + a2 = € ')

a

- b2 = ]] 2
v3 + ca, = ( )

h2

which is a surface like (43).
We have here considered general positions of the vector r but an
interesting case arises when r is so located that its projection on M,

52 in red alr geometry of two-surfaces in hyperspace. These Proceedings,
916.
’

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE. 685

is equal in length to its projection on M2. On the surface generated
by the path curves of the group the circles for which m, = m: and
m; = — m, are orthogonal. Hence the directions of the circular
sections form two orthogonal pairs. The center of mean curvature
bisects the curvature segment.

Rotations in 5-space give nothing new since the path curves will lie
in the 4-space perpendicular to the fixed axis of the rotation and pass-
ing through the given point.

9. Rotations in 6-space leaving the same three mutually
perpendicular planes, invariant. We will next consider the case
of 6-space in detail before generalizing. Evidently these transfor-
mations form a group. The directions which a point can move by
the various transformations of the group form a 3-space. These
directions are defined by
(48) — 8 = (mM, + mM. + eh eed

ds ds
7 is then a unit vector tangent to the curve given by a particular set of
values of 77, m2, m3. Squaring (48) we get

2
a (=) = m°(Mi-r)? + m2(My-r)? + m3?(Ms3-r)?

which is constant for given values of 77, 7m, m3 since (M,-r), (M2-r),

(M3-r) are of constant length. The curvature of the path curves is

aa m?2M,- (M,-r) + msMo- (M2-r) + m3-M3- (M3-r)
my>(My-r)? + me?(Mo-r)? + m2(M3-7r)?

(50) C

This shows that the end of the curvature vectors lie in a plane deter-
mined by the projections of r on the three planes ,, Mo, M3. We
see that for real values of 7m, mz, ms that is for real directions through
the given point, the points lie inside this triangle, which we will call
the curvature triangle. To each point in the curvature triangle
corresponds four sets of values of 7m, m2, m3, that is, four curves
through the point. Each of these curves have the same curvature.

Ann ig dei ete
The angle between two directions Fi and 7; 38 Siven by the formula

dr dr’ _ mymy'(My-r)? +- mem2'(Ms-r)? + mgm3'(Mg-r)?

ds ds V m2(My- r)? + m?(Me-r)? + ms3?(Mg-r)?
V mi(My-r)? + me!2(Me-r)? + ms3!*(M3-r)?

(51)

686 MOORE.

The condition that the two directions be orthogonal is
(52) myn (My: 1)? + mzms!(Mo-r)? + mgmz3!(M3-r)? + 0.

This defines a plane of directions perpendicular to mz!, me!, ms'.
From (48) we see that a linear relation among the m’s gives a plane

of directions through the point and from (50) we see that the end of

the curvature vector will describe a conic in the curvature triangle

; ; M,-(My-r) Me-(Mo-r) M3-(M3-r) .
determined by the points, era ce 7 (My-r)? Tere since
the substitution of (52) in (50) gives a quadratic relation in my, mz, m3.
To simplify the work let

My-(Mi-r) _ Ma:(Me:r)_ Ms: (Ma-r) _

(Mer! en ae

my?(My-r)? = 2, me2(Me-r)? = pw, m3?(M3-r)?= v?
Then (50) takes the form
(53) c= See

; Mort fe) stew

Then a linear relation
(54) arx+tb+oa=0
is equivalent to saying that the direction \, uw, v is perpendicular to
the direction defined by

a b c

55 _E_E_————— ——=$—$$$$———— ——————
9) V (Myr)? V (Mer)? V(Mg-7r)?

From (53) and (54) the curvature of the directions perpendicular to
(55) is
(56) = OR en EO

CON? pu?) = GN en)

This is a conic and as seen before it must lie inside the triangle de-
termined by 2, y, 2 and must therefore be an ellipse. The sides of
the triangle are

2 2. 2a 2, 2
(57) eo ae nf NESE eee

SS ) SSS (3) = .
M2 +b 2’ N+ yp?’ w+

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE. 687

The intersection of the conic (56) with 7 is given by aA + bu = 0
and hence the conic is tangent to ;.. The same argument shows that
it is also tangent to mr and r3. Hence: The locus of the ends of the
curvature vectors of curves perpendicular to a given direction is a conic
tangent to the three sides of the triangle determined by the vectors x, y, 2.

The center of the conic (56) can be determined from the middle of
the segment into which the conic projects on the z-, y- and z-axes.
One end of each segment is at the origin. The projection on OX is

OS ee
CON? ++ 7) + (ad + by)?
The value of : which makes the denominator a minimum will make r

a maximum. Similarly we can determine the projection of the
ellipse on OY and OZ. Hence the center of the ellipse is the end of
the vector

A! P+e)jea+(e+e)jy+ (e+ Bz
os (e+ b+ 2)

The point of the curvature triangle corresponding to the direction

af Vt, 6/V OF, 0/-V la? is

ax + by + cz

Ce PE Pee

From which we have

2p. pe _ ety tz
3 3

The right side of this last equation is the median center of the cur va-
ture triangle. Hence the center of the curvature triangle is a point
of trisection of the line joining the center of the conic to the point of
the triangle corresponding to the direction a/V (M,-r)?, b/V (Mp:r)?,
c/\/(M3-r)?. It can be shown that two perpendicular directions
among those satisfied by (54) correspond to points at opposite ends
of a diameter of the conic (56). Hence the points of the curvature
triangle which correspond to three mutually perpendicular directions
through the point form a triangle whose median center coincides with
the median center of the curvature triangle. The points of the conic

688 MOORE.

will correspond to four different planes of directions through the point.
These are given by the linear relations

av — bu +c =0,
an — bu — w=

By substituting these four relations in (53) it is seen that we obtain
the same conic. The same point in the curvature triangle correspond
to the perpendicular direction for each relation. If m, = 0 or m: = 0
or m3 = 0, the corresponding points in the triangle are on the sides of
it. The rotations in this case are of the four dimensional type previ-
ously discussed.

The unit osculating plane is again the cross product of the unit
tangent and the unit curvature. The unit curvature is

ms ite (M, . r) ae mMs © (M, C r) + m3°Ms3 s (Mz; C r)

ae my2(My-7)? + me?(Me-r)? + m3?2(M3-r)

The rate of change of the osculating plane (rxc) with respect to the
are is again the first torsion.

d de dé\?, dl
= — =7x— = (i: M-([M-(M- —) ——
a ds Ux) CE Ce deel 2), (<) VC-C
= (mMyer + meMo-r + m3M3-r)x{DmFM;
1

(My (M-r)} (z) =

M ;:(M;-r) is the projection of ron M; and M;-[M;-(M;-7r)] is a vector
of equal length in W/; and perpendicular to M;-(M;-r) and is there-
fore equal to (M;-r)._ Hence we can write for the torsion

be |
I

ae |
=m;M;: =m?(M;: — | ——
(2m r)x{Im3( o(%) VEG

mayme(my? — me”) (My-r)x( Mer) ++ myms3(m2 — m3?) (Mi -r)x(M3-r)

ENE a
+ mom3(me2 — m3*) (Mo-r)x(M3-r) ( —) ~==
tis aCe.
For given values of 7m, m», m3 the magnitude of this vector is constant.
The path curves are then curves for which the rate of change of the
unit osculating plane with respect to the arc is a vector of constant

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE. 689

magnitude. The vector 7 will vanish if m;=m;=0, i#j or
m;=0; m; = m (t+ jk), or if m= =m = =m. The first
case gives the transformations which leave two of the planes absolutely
fixed and the path curves are circles whose center is the projection of
the end of r on the absolutely fixed 4-space determined by the two
absolutely fixed planes. The second correspond to the rotations
leaving one of the planes absolutely fixed and the path curves are
circles with center on the fixed plane and radius equal to the length
of the perpendicular dropped from the end of r to the fixed plane.
The curvature of the path curves for the last case is

C as M,:(M,-r) ok M,- (Mz-r) — M;-(M3-r) v3
(My-r)? + (Mo-r)? + (M3-r)?

r

since M;-(M;-r) is the projection of r on M; and the sum of the pro-
jections of r on three mutually perpendicular planes is equal to r.
Also from the definition of the dot product it is evident that the
magnitudes of M;-r and M;-(M;-r) are equal. Hence these curves
have curvature directed through the origin and are circles with center
at the origin. The point on the curvature triangle corresponding to
the direction of the tangents to these circles is the end of the vector

bs M,-(M,-r) aa M,-(M2-r) a M3: (M3-r)

C
(M,-r)? + (Me-r)? + (Ms-r)?

This vector is perpendicular to the plane of the curvature triangle.
For two sides of the triangle are

M,-(M,-r) _ My:(Mo-r) M,-(M,-r) has M;-(M3-r)
Qh? Or? hr? (Mr?

and it is seen at once that the dot product of C with either of these
vectors vanishes and hence C is perpendicular to the plane determined
by these two vectors. The four directions m, = =m = =i
correspond to the same point in the curvature triangle viz. the foot
of the perpendicular dropped from the end of r on the plane of this
triangle. These circles are then the path curves of minimum curva-
ture. The radius of curvature being the reciprocal of the curvature;
The locus of the centers of curvature of all path curves which pass through
a given point is the inverse of the curvature triangle with respect to a

690 MOORE.

unit sphere with center at the point in question and therefore is a sphere
with r for a diameter. The centers of curvature of the real curves le on
an octant of this sphere. In four dimensions we found that the path
curves corresponding to the center of the curvature segment were
orthogonal but here the path curves corresponding to the median
center of the curvature triangle do not have this property.

We saw that the locus of the end of the curvature vector for direc-
tions through a given point which satisfy a linear relation, that is
curves tangent to the same plane, was a conic. This conic may
degenerate into the sides of the curvature triangle counted twice.
The directions corresponding to the points of one of these segments
are all perpendicular to the direction corresponding to the opposite
vertex. To a general point in the curvature triangle correspond four
directions through the point but to a general point on one of the sides
correspond two directions through the point and to a vertex of the
triangle corresponds just one direction. A line in the plane of the
curvature triangle is defined by the linear relation Za,m,;? = 0, and
this substituted in (48) shows that the corresponding directions
through the point generate a quadric cone. In particular if one of the
coefficients, a; say, is zero and the other two have opposite signs then
the quadratic relation factors into two linear relations, each of which
corresponds to a plane of directions through the point. From which
we see that a linear relation involving only two of the m’s gives a
plane of directions whose curvature segment passes through a vertex
of the curvature triangle. Two perpendicular directions correspond
to the ends of the segment and from the fundamental configuration
for the curvature of three mutually perpendicular directions it is at
once seen that the curvature of the path curve perpendicular to this
plane of directions will cut a side of the curvature triangle. The
configuration can be shown by a simple figure. Let ABC be the
curvature triangle, AD is the curvature segment corresponding to a
plane of directions through the point depending on but two of the m’s.
Let H be the median center of the curvature triangle and G the middle
of the curvature segment. The point corresponding to the direction
perpendicular to the given, plane i.e. to the directions corresponding
to the segment AD must be such that the center of the triangle ADF
is H. Itis at once evident that F must be on BC and such that DE =
EF. ‘This together with a = 0 or a3 = 0 are the only cases in which
2am; = 0 can be factored into two linear relations. If D coincides
with E, G will coincide with H.

A line which does not pass through a vertex of ABC will contain an

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE. 69T

infinite number of point pairs corresponding to perpendicular direc-
tions. For, any point on the line can be taken as the center of a
curvature ellipse which touches the three sides of ABC. The two.
points in which these ellipses cut the line correspond to perpendicular
directions. The points corresponding to the directions perpendicular
to these pairs will all lie on a line parallel to the given line.

Proceeding as in 4-space the differential equations of the path
curves are found to be

= Uy AX, v6
(58) — = m2, =p =— mu, ....5 — = Meta, — = — Mats.
a

dt dt , dt

The path curves will then all lie in the variety V’3° of order 8
(59) x? + ay? = a’, 2° + 22 = 0, 23 + 2 = @,

where a, 6, c are determined so that the curves all pass through the
given point. If m; = +m; the resulting path curves will lie in a
4-space but if m; = km; (k ¥ +1) this is not the case. If m =
+m: = =mg3 the resulting path curves are plane curves. The
argument is the same as that given in 4-space.

The parametric equations of I’;° are

2 = @COSU, X = asin u,
x3 = beosv, 24 = bsin»,
Xs = CCOS UW, 2% = CSIN wW.

The element of arc is

(60) . de? = @du2 + Pde? + edu?

The variety can therefore be developed on a plane 3-space. The
path curves have curvature lying in the normal 3-space (the 3-space
determined by the surface point and the curvature triangle) and are
therefore geodesics. That they are geodesics can be shown directly
from the above equations as was done for rotations in 4-space. A
linear relation among the m’s will give a surface which is left invariant
by a one parameter family of rotations. This is then a geodesic
surface of the variety 738. Furthermore the normal 4-space to this
surface must contain the normal 3-space to V’;° and the ends of the
curvature vectors of the pencil of geodesics passing through a given
point will trace out a conic lying in the curvature triangle and since
this lies in the normal to the surface these path curves must be geodes-
ics on the surface K. A linear relation in the m’s means a linear

692 MOORE.

relation in u, v, w. This substituted in (60) shows that the surface K
is also developable. This surface differs from that studied in 4-space
since for this one the indicatrix is a true ellipse and not a linear seg-
ment counted twice. The plane of the indicatrix does not pass through
the surface point. In particular the linear relation m; = 0 will lead
to a geodesic surface all of whose geodesics are curves lying in a 4-space.
This will cut K in a geodesic. Hence passing through each point of
K pass three geodesics which lie in a 4-space.

For each point on V’;° there is a curvature triangle. The locus of
these triangles consists of the planes cutting three fixed circles, one
lying in each of the planes 1), M2, Ms.

We have found plane curves (circle) and curves lying in a 4-space
which are left invariant, that is, path curves. It is evident that if a
space curve is left invariant the space in which it lies must be left
invariant. We saw that no 3-spaces were left invariant hence there
are no 3-space path curves. Also we saw that the only 4-spaces left
invariant were M/\xM»., M\xM3, Mox M3 hence the 4-space path curves
mentioned above are the only ones that exist.

10. Rotations in space of 2p dimensions which leave the
same set of p mutually perpendicular planes invariant. Hay-
ing considered the case of four and six dimensions we can now easily
generalize the results for space of 2p dimensions. Let the rotation
be expressed in terms of the unit invariant planes

p
(61) r=r+>m,M;-rdt
1
p
or 7 = flr = 2m;M;-r =
ds 1 ds

The ©” transformations obtained if m; vary, form a group and the
different directions which a point can take by the various transforma-
tions of the group lie in a linear p-space. The curvature of the path
curves at the point P is given by the formula

. dal mM ;-(M;-r)

=Im2(M;-r)? *

(62)

For given values of m; the length of this vector curvature is seen to be
independent of the position which r can take by the given rotation.
That is the path curves are curves of constant curvature. These
curvature vectors generate a p-space which is completely perpendicular

ROTATIONS IN HYPERSPACE. 693

to the p-space generated by the tangents to the curves at the point
in question. If any of the m’s vanish the resulting rotation is equiva-
lent to a rotation in a space of lower dimensions and therefore we shall
assume that none of the m’s vanish.

Equation (62) shows that, for real values of m;, the end of the curva-
ture vector will lie inside a p-point A, called the curvature p-point
determined by the p points in which the extremity of the vector r
projects on the p planes M;. Each point of A will correspond to
2”! directions through P. The points in A which correspond to p
mutually perpendicular directions through P for a p-point whose
center of gravity coincides with the center of gravity of A. If a
linear relation Ya;m; = 0 exists among the m’s (62) shows that the
end of the corresponding curvature vectors will lie on a closed quadric
in p-l dimensions which touches the faces of A. The foot of the
perpendicular dropped from the point P on the space in which A
lies corresponds to the directions on the surface satisfying the rela-
tions

(63) m = =m = =m =....= =M,

These curves then, 2?! in number, are curves of minimum curvature.
The first torsion of the path curves is given by the formula

dt \3

T = Imim,(m? — m;)(M;-r)x(M;-r) (4) :

VC-C

This formula shows that the curves of zero torsion, excluding those
corresponding to rotations in a space of less than 2 p dimensions, are
those which satisfy relations (63). Hence these curves are plane
curves, that is, circles. It is easy to show that the center of these
curves is at the origin or at the intersection of the p invariant planes
M;. Other path curves are circles but these belong to rotations which
leave one or more of the invariant planes absolutely fixed, that is, are

equivalent to rotations in a lower space.
The differential equations of the path curves are

ds

day ds dx3 dx.
— = Mx, —= — MX, — = M4, — = — Moe,....

dt Cat Sch dt dt

One set of integrals of these equations is

2

By? oe? = ay, 23" ee = Oy... Lapa + ay” = Oy"

694 MOORE.

and therefore the path curves all lie in a variety V, of order 2”. The
parameters equations of this variety are

ti = QCOs MH, Lo = asin U1,
3 = eCOS U2, V4 = ASIN Ub,

Xop-1 = ApCOS Up, Lop = ApSIN Uy.
The element of arc then is
ds? = aydu? + ardu? +....a,°du,?

which shows that V’, can be developed on a plane space of p dimen-
sions. A linear relation among the m’s gives a variety of p-1 dimen-
sions immersed in J’, and it is easily shown that this is also developable.
The path curves are geodesics on both varieties.

For each point of )’, there is a curvature p-point and these p-points
all cut p fixed circles, one lying in each of the invariant planes M;.

Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Vou. 53. No. 9.— Juny, 1918.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE CRYPTOGAMIC LABORATORY OF
HARVARD UNIVERSITY. No. LXXXI.

EXTRA-AMERICAN DIPTEROPHILOUS LABOUL-
BENIALES.

By Rouanp THAXTER.

CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE CRYPTOGAMIC LABORATORY OF
HARVARD UNIVERSITY. No. LXXXI.

EXTRA-AMERICAN DIPTEROPHILOUS LABOULBENIALES.

By Rotanp THAXTER.

Received, February 14, 1918. Presented April 8, 1918.

In a recent Contribution (These Proceedings, 52, No. 10) the
writer included such American Laboulbeniales as were then known
to be parasitic on dipterous insects. In the present paper all the
extra-American forms which have accumulated in recent years have
been included save only a few which, owing to their condition, or the
scantiness of the available material it has seemed best to omit. In
order to complete the enumeration of all the species of Stigmatomyces
which have thus far come under my notice one coleopterophilous
type has been added, a parasite on the coccinellid genus Chilomanes;
but with this exception only dipterous hosts have been included.
As in previous instances I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Schwab
and Mr. Moulton for the hosts from Kamerun and from Borneo, and
several very interesting forms were found among a small number of
flies which I owe to the courtesy of Dr. S. B. Wolbach, who brought
them from the Gambia River. I am indebted to Dr. P. Speiser for
certain interesting specimens and determinations. It has proved
impossible to obtain specific and in some cases even generic determina-
tions, especially of the peculiar African hosts. For assistance in this
connection I am indebted to Prof. Aldrich and to Mr. Banks. The
terminology used in the present paper is that of my previous Contribu-
tion above cited.

INDEX OF GENERA AND SPECIES.

Pace. PAGE.

Ceraiomyces . . 702-703, 707-709 pedalis: =< < \. yd apeeo On

Ceraiomyces Dahli. . . . . 706 Thizophorus) i) ewe OL
Dimeromyces Ilytheomyces

coarctatus . . . . . 699, 700 ANOMAIUSH. 4) eee seen LS

Kamerunensis. . . . . . 700 eleransy..0 aa) cawaaee. 2 Woctls

Oscinosomalis . . . . 699, 701 fAlCatuse.a sate! Coe ee Le

698

Ilytheomyces
Kamerunensis .

major 2
Sarawakensis
simplex .

Laboulbenia

clavulifera .
cristata
Dahli
Lagarocerina
Muiriana
Pachylophi .
Pectinulifera
porrigens
Psilina
Steleoceri

Rhizomyces

circinalis
confusus .
cornutus
crispatus
ctenophoras
gibbosus .
gracilis
Kamerunus .
Stigmatomyces
affinis
arcuatus

asymmetricus .

Borboridinus
Borbori
Chilomenis .

Coccinelloides

constrictus .
contortus

DIPTERA

Agromyzidae .

Anatrichus erinaceus

Anthomyidae .

Borboridae
Borborus
Dacus

Diopsidae

Diopsis . 710, 71

Discocerina

Drosophila
Drosophilidae .
Ephydridae
llythea .
Lagaroceras

THAXTER.
PaGE.
Stigmatomyces
5 (als Dacinus .
5 (Als Discocerinae
LG distortus
. 718 divaricatus .
divergens
702, 707 Drapetis .
ig OE: Drosophilae
. 706 dubius
. 703 excavatus
. 703 hexandrus
See Oe Italicus
702, 706, 708 laticollis .
eer. tO Limnophorae
. 708 Limosinae
. 108 Limosinoides .
longirostratus .
Oo a2 macrandrus .
710, 713, 714 Ortalidanus .
ae eae bar (ib! Papuanus
CAM, val, 7s} Platensis
aerial platystoma .
5 porrectus
al proliferans
. 113 Scaptomyzae
Schwabianus
723, 730 separatus
2 Uels Sigaloessae .
. 718 subinflatus
Me Me OAS tortimasculus
724, 726, 728 tortilis
: 724, 725 varians :
. . 49 Venezuelae .
. T45 ventriosus
. 726 virescens

INDEX OF Hosts.

718, 719

, S745
TPR PA Fee.
eS

4, 726, 727, 728

ee aaa
. 135

, 112, 713, 714.
736, 737, 738, 739

743
ce nAG
739, 741

. 742

Caos LAr faite:

. 703

Limosina
Limosina punctipennis

Lucilia dux.
Notiphila
Ortalidae
Oscinidae
Oscinosoma inaequalis .
Pachylophus frontalis
Physogenia :
Psilidae .
Psila so ret t
Steleocerus lepidopus
Trypetidae ,
CoLEOPTERA
Chilomenes lunata

PAGE.

738,

. 745

. 720
5 eel
- al
. 742

_ 732

722

747
741

. 035

. 749

723, 726, 730, 734, 735
729, 731,
733,

734
721

. (42
. 744

700, 704,
699,

745
701
705

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. 699

Dimeromyces pedalis noy. sp.

Male individual. WHyaline, the axis consisting of three cells; the
basal much larger, with a well developed black foot; the two others
rather narrow, subequal, of nearly uniform width, externally convex:
the terminal appendage separated by a slightly blackened septum,
its basal cell clearly defined, twice as long as broad; the rest of the
appendage slender, slightly tapering, with an indistinct septum.
Antheridium erect, the neck and venter rather clearly distinguished
and of about equal length, the latter externally convex, and extending
to the basal cell, its inner margin in continuous contact with those of
the subbasal and terminal cells. Total length to tip of antheridium
28 X Su. Antheridium 18 X 5y. Appendage 18 X 3 yu.

Female individual. More or less tinged with brownish yellow,
especially the appendages; axis of the receptacle consisting of usually
about eight cells, tapering somewhat above and below; the primary
appendage erect, terminal, separated by a dark septum; its basal cell
somewhat inflated, the distal portion tapering, and with an indistinct
septum: secondary appendages usually four, sometimes three, rela-
tively short, the perithecia protruding beyond their abruptly curved
or recurved tips, the terminal cells inflated and often splitting in two
lip-like halves which may become somewhat curled; the axis of five
or usually six cells, tapering toward the base. Perithecium single in
the types, usually arising from the third cell below the primary ap-
pendage, its very short stalk bent abruptly, so that it diverges some-
what irregularly sidewise; tapering slightly to a broad blunt apex
which may be almost symmetrically three-papillate, the papillae large
and broadly rounded, the middle one higher and broader; or more
irregular according to the point of view. Spores 18 X 2.5. Peri-
thecia 42-52 X 14. Receptacle 35-40 X 8. Appendages, primary,
30 uw, secondary 40-50 yp.

On the legs of Oscinosoma inaequalis T. Beck. No. 2139, Sarawak,
Borneo.

This species is intermediate between D. Oscinosomalis and D.
coarctatus. Apart from other differences, it may be separated from
the former by its short appendages and normal foot, and from the
latter by its shorter perithecia, and less numerous appendages, which
lack the peculiar right and left divergence so characteristic in the
papuan type. The host has been kindly determined by Dr. Speiser.

700 THAXTER.

Dimeromyces Kamerunensis nov. sp.

Male individual. Very small, hyaline or becoming faintly tinged
with brown, the axis consisting of three successively smaller cells
somewhat longer than broad, the terminal appendage subtended by a
black septum, its basal cell faintly colored, with convex margins; the
subbasal similar in size; the rest of the appendage hyaline, slender,
somewhat tapering, with two indistinct septa. Antheridium single,
or rarely two, the venter somewhat bulging, tapering to the slightly
outcurved, blunt, pointed distal portion. To tip of antheridium 30
8 u, including relatively large black foot. Appendage 20-40 X 4 u.

Female individual. Axis of receptacle brown above, hyaline below;
consisting of from six to twelve, or sometimes more, superposed cells;
the basal several times as long as broad, but slightly narrower toward
the base; the remaining cells broader than long, the lower more
flattened, the terminal one small and rounded, bearing distally a
short tapering appendage similar to that of the male; usually six to
eight of the cells below it bearing single simple appendages or peri-
thecia: the appendages erect or but slightly divergent, the cells above
the basal separated by slight indentations: consisting, usually, of
seven cells; the basal separated by a narrower purplish black region
from the subbasal, which is about as long; the third to fifth succes-
sively smaller; the fifth somewhat broader than long; the sixth
minute, distally rounded into the base of the terminal cell; which is
large, greatly inflated, distally abruptly narrowing to a_ broadly
rounded extremity, disorganized at maturity, the spreading or revo-
lute remains of its wall persistent, and adhering around the minute
subterminal cell; the appendages becoming dark brown, diverging
in two more or less definite ranks, the extremities slightly incurved,
one or two of the uppermost much shorter. Perithecia uniformly
pale dirty brownish yellow, the apex hyaline; one or two in number,
relatively small, hardly longer than the appendages, or even shorter,
becoming gradually broader from the insertion upward; the lower half
somewhat inflated, tapering thence to the broad termination, the
compressed inner lip-edges forming a short, slightly oblique, short-
conical projection, subtended by three well marked papillae. Peri-
thecia 88-105 X 14-21 yp. Appendages, longest 105 X 12 u; primary
appendage about 25 X 3 u.

On the head and legs of a pale yellow oscinid with slightly smoky
wings. No. 2367, Kamerun, West Africa.

This striking species is most nearly related to D. coarctatus, but

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. - 701

differs widely in the structure and position of its appendages and peri-
thecia. The measurements are taken from larger specimens.

Dimeromyces Oscinosomalis nov. sp.

Male individual perfectly hyaline and very thin-walled; consisting
of three superposed cells, the basal much larger and somewhat in-
flated below; the two others longer than broad, somewhat irregular,
of nearly equal length, the terminal appendage distinguished by a
slightly darkened septum and constriction, slightly inflated below and
tapering distally. Antheridia one, or often two superposed in oblique
contact, slightly divergent, the venter and neck not abruptly distin-
guished, the latter stout and blunt; a short several-celled secondary
appendage rarely formed from the subbasal cell. Receptacle 25 u.
Antheridia 18 X 5 u.

Female individual. General habit usually subsigmoid. Axis of
the receptacle consisting of usually six cells; the base hardly longer
than broad, much larger, stout and penetrating the host by a variably
developed rhizoid which may be vesicular or taper into a short stout
filament, a small, dark primary foot usually distinguishable: the two
or three cells above broader than long, somewhat flattened, the two
distal ones successively smaller and somewhat rounded; the inflated
base of the short tapering primary appendage distinguished by a
constriction and dark septum. Secondary appendages usually three,
rarely four, long, slender, becoming blackish brown, the distal half
curved usually inward away from the perithecium; the distal cell
enlarged and abruptly curved, or even uncinulate, becoming irregularly
split into an upper and lower half; the basal cell small and short,
distinguished from the much larger, often somewhat inflated subbasal
cell by a dark septum, the total length nearly twice that of the peri-
thecia. Perithecia normally single, arising from the fourth cell of
the receptacle, rather stout, slightly bent inward, the stalk obsolete,
outer margin strongly convex, tapering slightly to the broad very
irregular termination from which the lip-cells, which are all unlike
and asymmetrical, project variously according to the point of view.
Perithecia 50-65 X 16-20. Receptacle, exclusive of rhizoid, 35-50 X
12-16. Appendages, primary 18 yu; secondary, longest, 125 & 8 u.
Total length to tip of perithecium 75-95 yu.

On the inferior surface of the abdomen of Oscinosoma inaequalis
T. Beck. No. 2139, Sarawak, Borneo.

This species is most nearly related to D. pedalis and D. rhizophorus,

702 THAXTER.

but is distinguished from the former by the presence of a well developed
stout rhizoid, and by the conformation of its perithecial termination;
while from the latter it differs in its greatly elongated appendages and
simple rhizoid, as well as in other details. A minute primary foot,
which forms during the early germination of the spore, usually persists
beside the entering rhizoid. The male is very thin-walled and difficult
to see from the fact that it is perfectly hyaline. It does not appear to
enter the host, but the basal cell spreads to form a small sucker like
attachment.

Laboulbenia clavulifera nov. sp.

Erect, straight or slightly bent between the basal and subbasal
cells. Foot normal, well developed; basal cell somewhat longer than
the subbasal, and separated as a rule by a slightly oblique septum;
the subbasal slightly broader distally, pale dirty brownish; the basal
nearly hyaline; cells II] and VI subequal and opposite, cells TV and V
nearly equal, or cell five narrower and slightly longer. Insertion-
cell normal, well developed, nearly black. Base of outer appendage
slightly oblique, the axis deep brown with the septa darker, erect
beside the perithecium; consisting of three cells increasing in diameter
distally, and bearing a terminal tuft of short irregularly developed
branches. Basal cell of the inner appendage small, pale, bearing a
short one-celled branch on either side, usually terminated by two large
brown antheridia. Receptacle above cell II concolorous with it,
the cells above cell VI not clearly distinguished. Perithecium wholly
olivaceous, somewhat paler toward the base, the venter slightly
inflated, its base about opposite the insertion-cell; tapering to the
blunt apex, the wall-cells describing a half turn, so that the view of the
apex is either anterior or posterior, and appears symmetrical, with
the lateral lips forming prominent rounded projections on either side
of a somewhat higher median elevation. Spores about 34 X 2.5 pu.
Perithecia 70-88 X 18. Appendage to tips of branchlets 70 y;
the axis 42 X 12 y, distally. Total length 150-225 p.

Cn the legs of a species of Physogenia?. No. 2748. Kamerun, W.
Africa. a

Although this species has the typical structure of Laboulbenia, it
appears to be most nearly related to L. pectinulifera, which occurs on
the same host, but has the structure of Ceraiomyces. The stout,
clavate, deeply colored axis of the outer appendage, which is erect and
bears a terminal tuft of short ill developed branchlets, gives it a
characteristic appearance.

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. . 703

Laboulbenia Lagarocerinus nov. sp.

Basal cell bent at right angles, swollen, distinguished by a constric-
tion, twice as long as broad, or more, lying flat on the substratum,
pale brown, modified to form a concave attachment below the middle,
which is somewhat darker, and serves as a foot; the axis above it
straight, long and stout, erect; cell II pale dirty olivaceous, indis-
tinctly punctate, nearly uniform, obliquely rounded distally and
broader than the portion of the receptacle above it; cells III—-V replaced
by a single cell, two to three times as long as broad, its upper half
quite free, and bearing distally a well developed unmodified insertion-
cell. Appendages olivaceous, erect or bent sidewise, lying close
against the lower half of the perithecium, small and poorly developed;
the outer straight, simple, of two or three cells; the inner bearing two
or three branchlets with short irregular terminations, and one or two
stout relatively large antheridia, with rather abruptly distinguished
necks; cell VI pale, somewhat broader than long; the cells above con-
colorous, not clearly defined, the region continuous with the base of
the venter; perithecium straight, of somewhat irregular outline;
the wall-cells clearly indicated by dark lines which are slightly spiral,
describing somewhat less than half a turn; the venter darker, clearer
olivaceous, slightly inflated below, tapering distally to the tip and
apex; the latter rather narrow, the lip-cells prominently rounded;
the outer larger, and lying wholly above the smaller inner ones.
Perithecium 75-85 X 20-22. Appendages about 35y. Cell I
38 X 20u. Cell II, 62-70 K 14. Total length above cell I, 140-
165 yu.

On the wing of a new species of Lagaroceras. Gambia River, West
Africa, No. 2326.

This species, which was found on one of the flies collected by Dr.
Wolbach, develops on the veins of the wings, those on the intervening
membrane producing only antheridia. It is most clearly distin-
guished by its aberrant basal cell, which lies flat on the vein, and is
attached to it by a sucker-like depression just below the middle.
Its structure is that of the Ceraiomyces-type.

Laboulbenia Muiriana nov. sp.

Foot well developed, basal cell short, hyaline, abruptly broader
below the septum; subbasal cell somewhat broader, hyaline, punctate,
straight, two to three times as long; cell III somewhat rounded and

‘704 THAXTER.

externally convex, but slightly larger than cell VI; cell IV externally
convex, slightly broader than long; cell V as long, but narrow; cells
II-VI and the small basal cell region yellow and obscurely punctate.
Insertion-cell translucent reddish, thick, higher than the base of the
venter; basal cell of the outer appendage narrower and about half as
long as the subbasal, both hyaline; the latter bearing distally two
greatly elongated, stout, nearly uniform, simple branches: an outer
pale brown, the lower half of its basal cell narrow and_ blackened,
the inner hyaline or paler, both with a tendency to enlargement at the
septa. Basal cell of the inner appendage very small, hyaline, bearing
several long slender olivaceous antheridia directly, and a short one-
celled branch which also bears one or two. Axis of the perithecium,
including the stalk- and basal cell region, diverging at an angle of
about 45° from that of the receptacle; the perithecium yellow, slightly
inflated at the base, especially on the inner side, tapering very slightly
and then rather distinctly broader at the point where the tip is rather
well distinguished, tapering to the characteristically formed apex;
the inner lip-cells deeply colored, and ending in a hyaline, blunt api-
culus, higher than the outer; which slope obliquely, are distally quite
hyaline and distinctly prominent externally, with a similar dark
colored obliquely separated suffusion of their lower half, which extends
down along the margin of the tip. Perithecia 66-70 X 18 u. Recep-
tacle, to insertion-cell, 88 u. Subbasal cell 50 X 16. Appendage
368 uw. Total length 115 u.

Growing at the base of the posterior legs of a small fly belonging to
the Oscinidae. No. 2181. Laloki River, British New Guinea.

I have dedicated this very beautiful species to Mr. F. Muir, who
very kindly collected for me a small lot of flies in New Guinea, among
which two perfect specimens were found. It is not unlike simple
forms of L. cristata, except for its punctation, extraordinarily elon-
gated appendage, and peculiarly modified apex.

Laboulbenia Pachylophi nov. sp.

Straight, or but slightly curved; the perithecium and basal cell of
the outer appendage deep translucent olive brown. Structure normal.
Basal cell hyaline, enlarged in relation to the foot to form a bulbous
base; cell II slightly longer, hardly broader, becoming somewhat
suffused with brown, and indistinctly transversely punctate, as are
the cells above it: cells II] and IV subequal, somewhat obliquely

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. 705

separated, hardly longer than broad; cell V long and narrow, reaching
a little lower than the inner margin of cell IV. Outer appendage
rather stout, the three lower cells somewhat similar, longer than broad,
slightly constricted at the septa; the basal shorter, deep olive brown,
concolorous with the clearly defined insertion-cell; the distal part of
the appendage slightly soiled with brown, bearing a few irregular
hyaline branches: basal cell of the inner appendage very small,
hyaline above, and producing right and left branches, the basal cells
of which are rather long, bearing one or two long slightly brownish
antheridia and a few hyaline branchlets; both appendages and their
branches appressed and curved against the perithecium, the branch-
lets reaching above its tip. Perithecium straight, its axis sometimes
slightly divergent, the two lower tiers of wall-cells deeper olive brown,
faintly granular-punctate; the divisions marked by rather clearly
distinguished lines; the venter but slightly inflated, tapering to the
blunt apex; the coarse lips nearly hyaline, the inner more prominent
and subtended by a darker blackish area. Perithecium 60-65 X 22 pn.
Appendages 70 yu. Total length 120-140 u, the bulbous foot 16 p.

On the legs of a specimen of Pachylophus frontalis Lev., kindly
communicated by Dr. P. Speiser. From Killimandjaro, East Africa.

Laboulbenia porrigens nov. sp.

Basal cell relatively short, bent to one side, more or less swollen or
distorted, bearing the foot on its under side, somewhat paler than the
subbasal cell which is stained with pale dirty brownish, and punctate-
roughened, almost its whole distal margin obliquely separated from
cell VI. Cells III—-V replaced by a single cell somewhat more deeply
suffused, and more closely punctate than the subbasal, of nearly uni-
form diameter, and two to three times as long as broad, and pro-
jecting outward, almost at right angles, free from the receptacle; this
finger-like projection bearing the appendage and insertion-cell at its
extremity. Insertion-cell well developed, deep olive brown, concolor-
ous with the basal cells of the appendages. Axis of the outer append-
age consisting of two cells; the upper longer and much paler, bearing
distally usually two stout branches, which branch successively about
five times; the divisions above the second perfectly hyaline, slender;
the ultimate branchlets tending to bend downward, and to produce
rounded tooth-like projections from their lower surfaces, which are
more or less irregular: basal cell of the inner appendage less than half

706 THAXTER.

as large as that of the outer, somewhat prominent, bearing two
appressed branches, the basal cells of which bear one or two dark
brown antheridia and several short dark sterile branchlets one of
which may be hyaline and similar to those of the outer appendage.
Basal cells of the perithecium concolorous with cell VI and indis-
tinctly punctate; the region very broad, surrounding the base of the
ascigerous cavity, and forming a very broad insertion for the base of
the dark olive brown perithecium; which tapers irregularly, the two
lower tiers of wall-cells distinguished by dark lines, the second rather
abruptly narrower and tapering, forming a more or less distinct neck-
portion; the tip and apex slightly bent outward, abruptly paler, some-
what broader, tapering to the well defined, but not very prominent,
lips; the inner subtended by a darker suffusion, and not more promi-
nent than the outer. Spores 35 X 3y. Perithecia 95 X 28 u at the
base. Appendage, longest, 140-157 u. Cell III-V, longest 40 X 15 yn,
shortest 25 uw. Total length 175-210 yp.

On the superior surface of the abdomen near the tip, of a small fly of
unknown family. No. 2651, Kamerun, W. Africa.

The host of the very peculiar species was unfortunately lost in the
mails, but the characters of the parasite are so distinct that its identi-
fication is of less importance. The species is most nearly related to
Laboulbenia (Ceraiomyces) Dahli, although it does not penetrate the
host by haustoria, and has a quite different appendage. The form of
its perithecium, tapering from a very broad base, is very similar, as
well as the elongation of cell III-V, which, however, is much more
extreme. The branchlets of the appendage which projects far out-
ward at nearly a right angle to the axis of the receptacle, recall those
of L. pectinulifera, showing the same tendency to produce rounded,
short, tooth-like projections from their under sides. This character
is not so well marked, however, and more irregular.

Laboulbenia pectinulifera nov. sp.

Quite hyaline below the venter and insertion-cell or becoming faintly
brownish, usually slightly curved, especially at the base. Foot normal,
large, associated with a slight swelling of the basal cell above it, or,
when on the wing, small, associated with a narrow black contact-
induration of the abruptly curved base of cell I; cell II of about the
same length and often separated by a slight indentation; cells III-V
replaced by a single cell, the extremity of which is free on the inner side

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES, 707

and externally slightly prominent below the well defined olivaceous
insertion-cell; outer appendage strongly divergent, slightly curved
outward, consisting of three cells; the basal somewhat narrower;
the middle somewhat longer, deeply tinged with olivaceous brown, or
slightly reddish; the terminal cell bearing from its broader distal
surface a series of branches curved outward in a fan-like tuft, and
once or even twice branched; the lower, outer, branches suffused at
the base, the rest quite hyaline; all tending to produce unilateral
series of from two to five short branchlets, which may be more or less
regular and comb-like, or more confused and occasionally developed
on both sides; inner appendage consisting of a small hyaline basal
cell which may bear two or three short branches, each consisting of a
single hyaline cell terminated by a pair of relatively large long brown
antheridia. Perithecium slightly inflated above the base, which
extends below the insertion-cell, tapering to the rather coarse-lipped
apex, the inner lips more prominent and rounded; the upper and lower
limits of the two lower and more deeply suffused wall-cells clearly
indicated. Spores 35-40 X 3y. Perithecia 70-75 XK 18-24. Ap-
pendage to tips of branches 50-64 uw; the three basal cells 35 u. Total
length to tip of perithecium 100-150 u.

On the thorax and wing of a sapromyzid fly, Physogenia ? Nos. 2662
(Type) and 2748. Kamerun, West Africa.

This species is chiefly remarkable for the spreading tuft of peculiar
branches which terminate the deeply suffused, three celled axis of the
outer appendage; many of the branchlets bearing on the lower side a
more or less well marked series of closely set, blunt outgrowths which
give them a comb-like appearance. One or more of these outgrowths
may arise also from the upper side, or they may be less regularly de-
veloped. The specimens on the thorax of the host are for the most
part more slender, with normally developed foot, and somewhat
stouter and more uniform basal and subbasal cells, which are dis-
tinguished by a slight enlargement, rather than an indentation, at the
septum. A few individuals growing at the base of the wing are also
somewhat peculiar in that the axis of the appendage is distinctly
reddish, and the apex of the perithecium is turned so that it is viewed
at right angles to the normal position, the anterior lips projecting
conspicuously and almost symmetrically on either side of the posterior,
which lie between and project above them. The species is most
nearly allied to L. clavulifera, but belongs to the Ceraiomyces-type,
while the last mentioned species has the structure of a typical Laboul-
benia.

708 THAXTER.

Laboulbenia Psilina nov. sp.

Slightly sigmoid, the venter yellowish brown, rather coarsely
punctate, the basal cell paler and punctate, the basal cell of the outer
appendage dark olivaceous, the antheridia paler; otherwise nearly
hyaline. Basal cell relatively short, abruptly bent above the well
developed foot, subbasal cell more than twice as long, slightly broader
than both the basal cell below and the receptacle above it, nearly uni-
form throughout; cells III-V replaced by a single cell, the distal third
or less of which is free and slightly divergent, externally nearly straight,
and hardly at all prominent below the thick normally blackened inser-
tion-cell. Axis of the outer appendage consisting of three cells; the
basal deeply suffused, oblique below; the second larger and faintly suf-
fused, slightly inflated; the upper shorter and bearing distally a crest-
like series of branches, from the short basal cells of which two or three
somewhat irregular branchlets arise which are about as long as the
rest of the appendage. Basal cell of the inner appendage small
bearing an inner antheridium directly and a short one-celled branch
which is terminated by a second. Cell VI oblique above and below,
slightly longer than broad, the cells above it hardly distinguishable.
Perithecium divergent, the translucent venter slightly inflated below,
and abruptly and clearly distinguished from the hyaline tip and the
basal cell region; tapering to the obliquely rounded slightly geniculate
apex, which is broader, the inner lips more prominent than the broader.
obliquely rounded outer ones, and externally suffused; the suffusiom
extending down to the persistent base of the trichogyne, which re-.
mains as a slight prominence. Spores about 28 X 3u. Perithecia
50-55 X 18. Appendage to tips of branchlets 55-70 y. Total
length 120-140 uw. Subbasal cell 50-62 X 18 pu.

On the superior surface of the abdomen of a small fly belonging ta
the Psilidae, probably belonging to the genus Psila. No. 2647,
Kamerun, W. Africa.

This species, which is of the Ceratomyces-type, is most nearly allied
to L. pectinulifera. Its general form and coloration, and the character:
of the branchlets of the appendage are, however, quite different.

Laboulbenia Steleoceri nov. sp..

Pale dirty brownish, perithecium blackish olive brown, its, axis:
and that of the basal cell bent slightly inward. Basal cell somewhat
curved, or geniculate, hyaline below and broadly rounded; the small.

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. 709

partly black foot lateral and anterior; subbasal cell distinguished by
a slight constriction, slightly broader, more than twice as long, dis-
tally but slightly broadened, the suffused portions of both cells finely
punctate; distinguished by a very broad oblique septum from cell’
VI: cells III-V replaced by a single, dark olivaceous, outwardly
prominent cell. Insertion-cell free on both sides, somewhat broader
than long, translucent olivaceous, bearing distally the outer append-
age: which is apparently short and simple, its basal cell suffused,
hardly larger than the insertion-cell; basal cell of the inner appendage
slightly larger, bearing two short branches once or twice branched
which bear a small number of large stout antheridia near the base.
Cell VI broad, flat, subtriangular, externally prominent; cell VII
small triangular, concolorous, externally prominent, both faintly
punctate: basal cells broad, flattish concolorous with the cells below.
Perithecium nearly opaque, subconical, convergent, externally slightly
convex; its base very broad, its apex blunt, abruptly broader; the lips
rounded, the outer hyaline and more prominent, the inner suffused, and
subtended by a small darker area lying above a rounded paler spot;
below which, externally, the tooth-like, opaque, persistent base of the
trichogyne projects conspicuously. Perithecium about 50 X 22 yu
at base X 7.5 distally, the apex X94. Cell I, 30 X 154, cell II
70 X 16 yu; cell III-V, 14 X 8yu. Total length about 150 py.

On the left wing of Steleocerus lemdopus Beck. No. 2328, Gambia
River, West Africa.

This peculiar species was found among a small number of flies very
‘kindly collected for me by Dr. Wolbach. Three specimens have
been examined, two of which are fully matured. The appendages in
all are partly broken and do not reach to the apex of the perithecium.
The species belongs to the Ceraiomyces-type, with which it corresponds
in all respects.

Rhizomyces circinalis nov. sp.

Basal cell constricted below and entering the host by a rhizoidal
apparatus; subbasal cell somewhat larger, hardly longer than broad,
the two tinged with brownish yellow. Axis of the appendage con-
sisting of about thirty cells, or less, curved inward, distally circinate or
helicoid; the basal cell deep reddish brown, sometimes with an abor-
tive branch; the rest pale yellowish, with a tinge of brown; the sub-
basal smaller and darker than the cells above; which are somewhat
longer than broad, except at the circinate extremity, thick walled,

710 THAXTER,

each bearing a branch distally and externally which, in the cells above
the seventh or eighth, is replaced by a single cell bearing one or more
antheridia; the branches, of which there are about seven, all fertile,
except that from the subbasal cell which is sometimes sterile, consist-
ing of from one to three cells forming a short divergent axis, and bearing
each from one to several straight concolorous antheridia distally and
inwardly; the terminal and sometimes the subterminal cells pro-
ducing externally a vertical series of from two or three to five out-
curved, closely set, short, rather stout, brownish, simple branchlets,
which are usually slightly geniculate near the middle: the branches
replaced in the cells of the main axis above the eighth by a single small
cell, from which one or more antheridia arise directly. Stalk-cell of
the perithecium terminal, long and stout, nearly uniform, except that
the diameter is somewhat less at the base, and distally, where the basal
cell region is rather abruptly distinguished; the latter rich dark red
amber-brown, the basal cells surrounding the lower third of the asci-
gerous cavity, their external margins prominent and very thick-
walled; the rest of the perithecium concolorous or somewhat darker;
the two lower tiers of wall-cells marked by more or less distinct
transverse lines; the whole slightly curved, somewhat inflated below,
tapering distally to its more or less clearly indicated junction with the
paler tip and apex, which taper to a bluntly rounded termination,
with hardly distinguished lips; the tip giving rise, from almost its
whole inner surface, to a slightly divergent and curved, rather slender,
concolorous appendage, which subtends the apex. Spores small and
numerous, perhaps about 15 X 2. Perithecia, including basal cell
region, 150 X 58 yu; stalk-cell 508 X 28 u. Receptacle 35 X 28 yp.
Appendage about 275-350 yp, the axis X 12 y, the branches, larger,
about 40. Total length to tip of perithecium 690 uz.

On the inferior surface of the abdomen of a species of Diopsis, near
the tip. No. 2330, Gambia River, West Africa, Dr. Wolbach.

A very distinct species allied to R. ctenophorus, at once distinguished
by its spinose perithecium and circinate or helicoid appendage.

-

Rhizomyces confusus nov. sp.

Rhizomyces crispatus Thaxter, pro parte. Mem. Am. Acad. Arts
and Sci. Vol. XIII, No. 6, p. 323, Plate LII, figs. 19 and 21.

When this species was first described, the material of R. crispatus
was somewhat scanty, but the examination of a large series has shown

EEE

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. rgb

that the differences which separate the two, and are indicated in the
published figures, are constant and more than sufficient to distinguish
them specifically. The present species is differentiated by the char-
acters of its receptacle, appendage and perithecium, which appear to
be quite constant, and may be summarized as follows.

Subbasal cell of the receptacle prolonged to form a more or less
clearly distinguished, blunt, tooth-like protrusion which projects
beyond the base of the stalk-cell of the perithecium, the axis of which
makes a considerable angle with that of the receptacle. Appendage
more divergent and much longer than that of R. crispatus, the branches
distinctly shorter and more numerous. Stalk-cell of the perithecium
much shorter, stouter; the perithecium uniformly dirty yellowish
brown, rather strongly curved outward, the apex blunt, broad, without
suffusions or other modification.

This form has been obtained from species of Diopsis; No. 859,
Berlin Museum, from northern Kamerun, and No. 739, British Mu-
seum, from Port Natal.

Abundant material of the typical R. crispatus has been examined as
follows: Nos. 2302, 2715, 2720, from Kamerun, and also from Port
Natal, Usambara and Killimadjaro, East Africa, the last kindly com-
municated by Dr. Speiser. The species is most readily recognized by
its erect stalk-cell and very different perithecium, the tip of which is
characteristically modified and colored, as is represented in the origi-
nal figure; |.c. plate LII, fig. 20.

Rhizomyces cornutus nov. sp.

Receptacle yellowish; the basal cell subhemispherical, penetrating
the host by a rhizoidal apparatus; the subbasal cell slightly broader
than long, bearing the stalk-cell of the perithecium distally and the
appendage distally and laterally. Appendage erect, or slightly di-
vergent; its axis consisting of about twelve cells; the basal small and
nearly opaque, the rest becoming yellowish with a brownish tinge, the
distal one paler and smaller, all bearing single external branches super-
posed in a single series, that from the basal cell lacking or abortive;
the rest, except at the very tip, fertile, consisting of two cells; a basal
bearing above, next the axis, usually two antheridia, and externally a
somewhat elongate subbasal cell in which the lumen is nearly obliter-
ated, usually slightly curved inward and bearing externally a series
of four or five slightly curved, simple, closely set, rather short and

T12 THAXTER.

stout yellowish brown branchlets. Stalk-cell elongate, stout, nearly
uniform; basal cell region abruptly distinguished, rich amber-brown,
concolorous with the perithecium, its cells thick-walled, somewhat
prominent, and surrounding the base of the ascigerous cavity; the
two lower tiers of wall-cells distinguished by a slight indentation, the
corresponding regions slightly inflated and marked by fine transverse
lines; the second tier narrower below the well distinguished tip which
is more or less symmetrically inflated, forming a rounded collar sub-
tending the clearly distinguished paler apex; which is somewhat
longer, very slightly bent outward, bearing a short, stout, bluntly
pointed, two-celled, tooth-like outgrowth from the lower half of its
inner margin. The whole perithecium, including the basal cell region,
slightly curved outward. Perithecia, including basal cell region,
135-140 X 35-40 yu. Stalk-cell 280-350 X 22. Appendage 185-
195 u; the branch-axis 18 uw, the branchlets 18 yu. Receptacle 28 X
20 yu. Total length to tip of perithecium 400-525 yp.

On the inferior tip of the abdomen of Diopsis sp. No. 2301, Kamerun,
W. Africa.

Allied to R. circinalis and R. gibbosus, but differing from both in
the characters of its perithecium and appendage.

Rhizomyces gracilis nov. sp.

Erect, very long and slender; foot normal. Basal cell of the recep-
tacle broader than long, somewhat smaller and broader than the
subbasal, obliquely prominent below the base of the appendage; sub-
basal cell longer than broad, its axis divergent, distinguished externally
by a slight constriction above and below. Appendage consisting of
about seventeen hyaline cells, erect, slightly exceeding the tip of the
perithecium, its basal cell small and subtriangular, obliquely adjusted
to the receptacle, the two cells above it hardly larger, the rest for the
most part large, slightly more than twice as long as broad, except one
or two of the distal ones; the branches of the appendage similar to
those of R. confusus, consisting of five or six dark hyaline-tipped,
outcurved, closely set branchlets, which arise in a vertical series from
a short dark unicellular inwardly hyaline axis, in most cases subtended
by a small hyaline cell bearing two or three slender antheridia; the
small terminal cell of the axis bearing distally two or three similar
erect branchlets. Stalk-cell of the perithecium stout, hyaline, erect,
gradually broader distally; the secondary stalk-cell and the basal

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. ike

cells relatively large and well defined, one of the latter (?) extending
from the stalk-cell to the base of the perithecium and slightly spiral;
perithecium concolorous with the secondary stalk- and basal cells,
yellow with a tinge of brown, the wall-cells of the venter- and neck-
regions slightly spiral, and transversely punctate, the whole tapering
with a slight bend to the bluntly rounded apex. Perithecium 60 X
22 u; including basal cell region 88 wu. Stalk-cell 284 & 15 pw distally.
Receptacle about 25 X 14u. Appendage to tip of terminal branch-
lets 350 4; its lateral branches about 504. Total length to tip of
perithecium 355 yu.

On a species of Diopsis, Killimandjaro, East Africa.

This very graceful and distinct species was found in company with
R. crispatus on a host kindly communicated by Dr. Speiser. It is
most nearly allied to R. confusus. The branches of the appendage
are shorter and less curled, and are more remote, tending to diverge
in such a way as to appear grouped in threes. The perithecium of the
unique type is not fully mature, and may perhaps become slightly
modified with age, although asci are already formed.

Rhizomyces Kamerunus nov. sp.

Cells of the receptacle nearly equal, hardly longer than broad, the
subbasal more deeply tinged with brown. Appendage suberect, or
usually curved toward the perithecium, its axis indeterminate, con-
sisting of from ten to twenty cells tinged with brown, except the
terminal ones; the lower darker, especially the smaller basal and
subbasal cells which may be nearly opaque; the cells above them
slightly longer than broad and bearing each a branch distally and
externally, the upper sterile, the rest bearing from their basal cells a
hyaline triangular cell from which two or three long-necked brown
antheridia arise; the rest of the branch clavate, blackened, except the
inner side of its subhyaline somewhat swollen termination, bearing
externally and distally two to five slightly curved branchlets, blackish
with hyaline slightly enlarged tips; the successive branches diverging
slightly, so that the series as a whole is more or less distinetly two-
ranked. Stalk-cell of the perithecium arising terminally from the
subbasal cell, usually curved near its base, so that the perithecium
diverges more or less strongly, although it is sometimes erect; its
base narrower, gradually enlarging to the distal end, subhyaline or
becoming tinged above with yellowish brown; the basal cell region

(14. THAXTER.

well defined, yellowish brown, concolorous with the rather stout
perithecium, which is subsymmetrical, somewhat straighter on the
outer side, rather evenly inflated throughout, and tapering to the
hardly distinguished, blunt or almost truncate tip and apex, a small
outer lip often forming a rather abrupt hyaline prominence. Spores
about 22 X 2.5. Perithecia 75-80 X 25 uy; stalk-cell 35-50 X 11 un.
Appendage, longest axis, 1754; branches 70-100yu. Receptacle
about 22 X Su. Total length to tip of perithecium 140-160 u.

On the anterior legs of a large black Diopsis. No. 2302, Kamerun,
W. Africa.

This species is most nearly related to R. confusus and is of the same
general type, but has little of its graceful appearance owing to the
fact that its peculiar branchlets are coarse and more scanty and
hardly more than curved at the tips. Owing to a slight divergence in
their origin from successive cells they tend to be two-ranked. The
perithecium also differs in being straight, or nearly so; and its stalk-
cell is not subtended by the prominence characteristic of R. confusus.
The axis of the appendage resembles that of an undeveloped
Rhachomyces.

Ilytheomyces falcatus nov. sp.

More or less conspicuously curved throughout. Basal cell abruptly
prominent below the insertion of the appendage, almost wholly in-
volved by the suffusion of the foot; subbasal cell larger, lying ob-
liquely beside and above it, hyaline. Axis of appendage divergent,
consisting of four or five hardly distinguishable cells, blackened
externally; the subbasal cell abruptly broader than the basal, and
bearing on its inner side the relatively large partly free androphorous
cell from which arises a single antheridium and a well developed
branch, usually bearing several stout curved hyaline-tipped branchlets;
the remaining cells of the axis bearing externally blackish brown, out-
curved, hyaline-tipped branches, and on the upper side a few stout
curved hyaline branches, tinged with brown and more slender below.
Stalk-cell of the perithecium hyaline, rather short, distally obliquely
separated from the much longer secondary stalk-cell, which lies paral-
lel to the narrower inner basal cell: the latter of about the same length,
but reaching higher, its narrow base in contact with the stalk-cell. The
stalk- and basal cell regions about as long as the rest of the perithe-
cium, the two lower tiers of wall-cells and the third (tip) distinguished
by very slight elevations, purplish brown, the surface mottled-granular,

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. 115

the tip slightly darker; the apex slightly narrower, paler, tapering
very slightly; the outer lip-cell darker purplish brown, spreading
slightly distally to form an. oblique snout-like termination. Spores
about 25 X 2.5 uy. Perithecium 55-68 X 15-18 uw; stalk- and basal
cell region 35-50 X 15. Appendage about 50 u, its longest branch-
lets 40 X 6.5. Total length to tip of perithecium 100-120 u.

On the superior surface of the abdomen, near the tip, of Ilythea sp.
No. 2643, Kamerun, West Africa.

This form is not nearly allied to any of the described species.
Among those which, as in this instance, lack a trigger organ, [lythe-
omyces major perhaps approaches it most nearly; but it is very clearly
distinguished by the peculiar form of its punctate perithecium and its
snout like termination formed by the protrusion of the wholly suffused
outer lip-cell. The specimens examined are mostly paired so that the
details of the appendages, two of which are thus juxtaposed, is diffi-
cult to make out in detail. The upper branchlets are peculiar for
their narrower deeply suffused bases, and curved or winding hyaline
terminations. The androphorous cell is unusually large and prominent,
as is the sterile branch developed from it.

Ilytheomyces Kamerunensis nov. sp.

Basal cell relatively large, wholly hyaline, four sided, bulging
strongly externally; subbasal cell subtriangular, much smaller, bulg-
ing somewhat externally and becoming edged with black below and
externally, the blackening continuous with the foot. Appendage
much as in J. Sarawakensis, the branchlets slightly stouter, the basal
and subbasal cells much smaller and indistinguishable, the antheridia
paired, stout, straight and brown; several well developed secondary
branches arising from the upper side of the successive cells of the
main axis, which is somewhat more divergent. Stalk-cell of the
perithecium small and narrow, wholly opaque; the basal cell region
above it hyaline, abruptly much broader, monstrously developed,
becoming much longer than the perithecium proper; slightly curved
outward, of nearly uniform width, or slightly broader distally; the
secondary stalk-cell black-edged just above the much narrower stalk-
cell, occupying approximately the lower two thirds of the region, and
distinguished from the outer basal cell above by a well defined in-
dentation; the inner basal cell extending to its base, its upper half
concealed by a slight general twist of the region which is continued by

716 THAXTER.

the body of the perithecium; the latter purplish brown deeper above,
with darker longitudinal lines which indicate corresponding elevations
of the wall-cells of the lower tier, the lumina of which, when they appear
at the margins, are distinct; the tip darker, not distinguished; the
apex abruptly narrower; the lips hyaline and somewhat irregular;
the trigger-appendage relatively stout, narrow and geniculate opposite
the lips, then erect and curved outward distally, reddish brown, with
a blunt hyaline tip; the whole perithecium proper rather abruptly
bent in the middle. Spores about 20 X 2.5. Perithecia 63-70
17; trigger-appendage 100-110 X 8y; basal cell region 90-100 X
18-20 »; stalk-cell of perithectum 8 X 8yu. Receptacle 15y. Ap-
pendage 56-68 u. Total length to tip of perithecium 140-175 u.

On the inferior surface of the abdomen of Jlythea sp. No. 2643,
Kamerun.

This species is remarkable for the monstrous development of the
basal cell region and is quite distinct from J. Sarawakensis, its nearest
ally, in several other respects. The wall-cells of the lower tier of the
perithecium are each slightly folded outward, forming a rather narrow
elevation indicated at the sides by a clearly defined lumen and between
the margins by two parallel lines, the included area faintly punctate,
but not conspicuously distinguished.

Ilytheomyces Sarawakensis nov. sp.

Similar to J. elegans. Lower portion of the basal cell combined
with the foot and indistinguishable from it, opaque black-brown,
except its perfectly hyaline upper anterior angle, which bulges out
abruptly below the insertion of the appendage: subbasal cell wholly
opaque, not prominent externally, the upper half of its inner margin
in contact with the base of the appendage, its base horizontal. Axis
of appendage strongly divergent and slightly curved outward; the
basal and subbasal cells opaque and indistinguishable; the andro-
phorous cell bearing two straight, paired, brown antheridia, one of
which may be replaced by one or more erect sterile branches; the
third cell usually producing a well developed branch on the upper side,
the base of which lies close against the base of the antheridia, its axis
consisting of four or five cells each of which bears from two to three
branchlets which, together with those arising from both sides of the
main axis above it, form a rather dense tuft; the outer branches of the
main axis deeply blackened, the blackening extending to a distal point

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. 717

where it is obliquely separated from the subvesicular hyaline tip.
Stalk-cell of the perithecium opaque like the subbasal cell below it,
short, distally broader; secondary stalk-cell hyaline above and within,
its basal half or third distinguished by an obliquely separated, sub-
triangular opaque area; basal cells quite hyaline, or the strongly
convex wall of the smaller outer one slightly brownish; the inner very
large and bulging toward the appendage, that on the left even intruded
between the adjacent antheridia and branchlets of the appendage,
that on the right less prominent. Perithecium slightly curved out-
ward, the lower part of the ascigerous cavity surrounded by the basal
cells, the outer lower wall-cell prominent, with more or less distinct
lumen; the outer smaller half of the region of the two first tiers hyaline
and obliquely separated, owing to a slight twist, from the larger inner
half, which is increasingly suffused with slightly reddish brown from
below up; the tip somewhat broader than long, distinguished by its
uniformly somewhat darker color, especially its outer margin, which
forms the base of the well developed trigger-organ, developed from
the outer lip-cell, which is stout, its base erect, geniculate opposite
the lips, thence erect, but soon curved rather abruptly outward and
somewhat stouter, wholly brown, deeper below; the hyaline tip taper-
ing slightly: the apex longer and paler than the tip, blunt with per-
fectly hyaline rather prominent vesicular lips. Spores about 22 X
2.5. Perithecia to base of ascigerous cavity 50-75 X 14-20 un;
trigger-appendage 50-75 X 6; basal and stalk-cell region 20-35 X
18-22 4. Receptacle 10 X 124. Appendage 50-60. Total length

to tip of perithecium 100-120 u.

On the inferior surface of the abdomen of Ilythea sp. No. 2132,
Sarawak, Borneo.

This species is very closely allied to J. elegans of which it may prove
to be only a variety. The subbasal cell is wholly opaque from the
first, and uniform with the stalk-cell, which does not show the same
abrupt differentiation; the stalk and basal cell region is greatly
developed and very broad, the perithecium is shorter and broader.
A large branch arises from the axis of the appendage on the upper side
just beside the large straight antheridium, which is usually almost as
highly developed as the axis itself; the external branches being longer
and less deeply blackened. The branchlets as a whole are very copi-
ous and not closely appressed. A dozen or more specimens have been
examined which show no essential variations.

718 THAXTER.

Ilytheomyces simplex nov. sp.

Perithecium and appendage dark brown. Basal cell of the recep-
tacle united to the foot, minute, hardly distinguishable, except its
hyaline upper edge: subbasal cell small, hyaline. Appendage stout,
subclavate, with a short terminal abortive branch; its axis consisting
of five cells of somewhat unequal size; a small androphorous cell
obliquely separated from the second on the inner side; in the types
bearing only a single short branch bent downward, a similar sterile
branch, arising from the cell above, runs parallel to it. Stalk-cell of
the perithecium short and stout, hyaline, the basal cell region hyaline,
or tinged with brownish above; the secondary stalk-cell somewhat
prominent externally. Perithectum dark brown, asymmetrical, dis-
tally bent, somewhat inflated below in the region of the two lower
tiers of wall-cells; the third tier (tip) short, somewhat darker; the
apex abruptly very slightly narrower, slightly paler; the termination
broad and somewhat flattened, the lips appressed, not prominent.
Spores 15 X 2yu. Perithecia, including basal cell region, 60 X 18 p.
Appendage 35 X Sy. Total length 90-97 uy.

Cn the legs of a species of Ilythea. No. 2131, Sarawak, Borneo.

This species is smaller than J. anomalus to which it is very nearly
allied, and differs in the character of its appendage which is more
clavate, and produces no external abortive branch; while on its inner
side a short relatively slender simple branch arises from the third cell,
only, bending somewhat downward beside a similar branch which
arises from the androphorous cell. No antheridium appears to be
developed from the latter in the two mature individuals examined.
The perithecium is somewhat different in shape and structure, the stalk
cell and basal cells much less well developed than in J. anomalus. An
abortive male (?) individual is united to the foot of one specimen.

On Agromyzidae.
Stigmatomyces asymmetricus nov. sp.

Receptacle stout, thick-walled, tapering continuously to the apex
of the pointed foot; the basal cell half or two thirds as long as the
subbasal, rather strongly curved and paler, or hyaline; the subbasal
cell becoming reddish yellow with rough granulation, especially
distally, both septa horizontal. Stalk-cell of the appendage reddish
amber-colored, not overlapping the receptacle, about twice as long
as broad, somewhat prominently rounded below the deeply colored

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. 719

basal cell of the appendage; which is hardly longer than broad, its
axis consisting of four successively smaller cells; those above the basal
paler, bearing each two antheridia, except the fourth, which bears but
one, and is succeeded by a second which is terminal; the antheridia
relatively short and stout, the necks turned usually sideways. Stalk-
cell of the perithecium concolorous with that of the appendage, as
are the cells above it, broader than long, distally in contact with the
broad base of the inner basal cell; secondary stalk-cell wholly external
to it, somewhat prominent, half as large, subtriangular, obliquely
separated from it, as well as from the outer basal cell above; the latter
more deeply colored, and prominent below the large deeply colored
venter; which is asymmetrical, about twice as long as broad, distally
broader, externally less convex, and distally conspicuously prominent,
finely rough-granular, the wall-cells separated by slight furrows; the
inner margin more or less evenly convex, the remainder of the peri-
thecium almost exactly as long as the venter; the paler, abruptly
distinguished neck tapering very slightly from its spreading base;
the tip clearly distinguished, abruptly slightly narrower, tapering
very slightly, the apex not distinguished, short, subhyaline, with
slightly oblique inconspicuous nearly symmetrical papillate lips.
Spores about 25 X 2.5y. Perithecia 150-180 X 40-45 yp. Recep-
‘tacle 85-100 X 25-28. Appendage 46 X 10y; its stalk-cell
25 X 10u. Total length 250-280 yp.

On the abdomen of a small fly belonging to the Agromyzidae.
Kamerun, No. 2283.

A species apparently allied to S. Scaptomyzae, distinguished by the
peculiar modification of the subbasal cell of the receptacle, and the
granular roughening of the venter of the perithecium, both of which
characters become more prominent in older specimens.

Stigmatomyces divergens nov. sp.

Subsigmoid, rather stout, rather dark red amber-brown, except the
hyaline receptacle; which is shorter than the perithecium, the cells
of about equal length, slightly curved. Basal cell of the appendage
short and stout, strongly convex externally, deeply suffused with
reddish brown, separated by a deep external constriction from the
narrow base of the basal cell of the appendage, the axis of which
consists of four cells; the basal about as broad as long, deeply suffused,
bearing no antheridia; the three others bearing each two; the series

720 THAXTER.

surmounted by two additional ones, the upper with a stout spine;
the whole appendage relatively short and stout, diverging from the
perithecium and free to its base; the antheridia turned sidewise, and
distinctly tinged with brownish yellow, like the cells which bear them.
Stalk-cell of the perithecium broader than long, the secondary stalk-
cell much smaller, as are the basal cells; venter of the perithecium
longer than the distal portion, its base hardly lower than the insertion
of the appendage, evenly inflated, or more convex externally, merging
distally with the neck; which is not abruptly distinguished, its outline
more or less concave on both sides; the tip rather abruptly distin-
guished, tapering to the undifferentiated apex, which is five-lobed,
the lobes rather prominent and somewhat irregular. Spores about
25 X 3u. Perithecia 155-170 X 42-50 uw. Appendage 42-48 X 4 yu.
Receptacle 80-100 X 28 yu. Total length 250-280 wu.

On the head and at the base of the wing of a small dull fly belonging
to the Agromyzidae. No. 2730, Kamerun, West Africa.

Although this species is not otherwise peculiar, it seems well dis-
tinguished by its somewhat divergent, short, stout appendage, the
base of which is so narrow as to appear constricted, the basal cell dark
colored and narrow, the cells above it much broader. It is perhaps
more nearly related to S. Drapetis than to any other described form.

On Anthomyidae.

Stigmatomyces macrandrus nov. sp.

Long and slender, straw-colored above the hyaline receptacle, with
faint brownish shades near the base of the venter. Receptacle
usually curved, of nearly uniform diameter throughout, the basal cell
sometimes slightly broader, less than half as long as the subbasal, its
base broad and rounded beside the small sublateral foot. Stalk-cell
of the appendage slightly misplaced laterally on the right side, nearly
twice as long as broad, externally rounded, distally, below the rather
broad insertion. Appendage very slightly divergent, very long,
reaching some distance beyond the venter, slender, tapering, slightly
curved outward at the extremity; its axis consisting of seven or eight
successively smaller cells; the basal cell slightly tinged with brown,
somewhat longer than broad, the terminal cell minute, bearing a
single antheridium, which is surmounted by a second terminating the
appendage; all the remaining cells bearing two, obliquely superposed;

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. Al

the necks somewhat curved, mostly free, relatively long and forming
two incomplete rows. Primary and secondary stalk-cells of the
perithecium subequal, so placed that they appear to overlap on the
right and left sides, respectively; the basal cells relatively small, the
outer slightly prominent. Venter straight, its axis coincident with
that of the stalk-cell region and receptacle, slightly broader near the
base; the neck concolorous, rather stout, slightly curved, nearly ’
uniform throughout, very slightly enlarged at its junction with the
abruptly slightly narrower tip; the apex somewhat shorter, hardly
tapering, distinctly bent outward, the flat blunt termination with
hardly prominent lips. Spores (in perithecia) about 30-35 X 3.5 yu.
Perithecia 190 y, the venter 70-75 X 30-35 uw. Appendage 100-110 X
16 yu. Receptacle 210-245 X 21u. Total length to tip of perithe-
clum 385-450 uw.

On a dark fly belonging to an undetermined genus of the Anthomyi-
dae. No. 2638, Kamerun.

This species is closely allied to S. dubius. None of the specimens,
‘which include a number of very young individuals, show any signs of
the conspicuous and permanent spine found in the last mentioned
species. The snout-like, curved apex of the perithecium and the very
slight enlargement below the tip, together with the minute, hardly
indicated lips, seem further to distinguish it.

STIGMATOMYCES LIMNOPHORAE Thaxter.

The typical form of this species has been found on several flies from
Kamerun belonging to the Anthomyidae, Nos. 2640 and 2646 as well
as others, while a large form that appears also to be identical with
this species and may measure nearly 800 p» in length has been received
from Mr. Jacobson and was collected by him in Sumatra on Lucilia (?)
and a similar form from the Philippines on Lucilia dux has been re-
ceived from Mr. Banks. A closely allied form, which does not seem
referable to any of the variations of S. Limnophorae, has been met with
on an anthomyid fly from Kamerun and may be distinguished as
follows.

Stigmatomyces tortilis nov. sp.
Form comparatively short and stout, slightly curved throughout,

especially the neck, uniformly dirty yellowish brown above the hya-
line receptacle; the subbasal cell slightly longer than the basal which

122, THAXTER.

is but slightly narrower at its base and distally often slightly broader
than the base of the subbasal cell. Stalk-cell of the appendage over-
lapping the subbasal cell slightly if at all, externally convex, more so
distally, but not abruptly distinguished from the basal cell of the
appendage; which is hardly more than twice as long as broad, the
axis curved inward, with the antheridia external, and consisting of
five subhyaline cells hardly longer than broad, except the basal, and
bearing each two closely associated antheridia, the fifth bearing but
one, a terminal single antheridium ending the series. Stalk-cell of
the perithecium broader than long, more than half enclosed by the
overlapping of the secondary stalk-cell on the left side and of the basal
cell which lies above it on the right side; the basal cells subequal,
somewhat prominent, as is the secondary stalk-cell; venter broader
and slightly inflated below, tapering slightly; the wall-cells becoming
finely granular; distally slightly prominent, the curved broad neck
of about the same length, the wall-cells of both distinguished by a
rather broad deep spiral furrow, continuous in the two, describing a
complete turn ending at the abruptly narrower tip, which is subtended ~
by a slight enlargement; apex not distinguished from the tip, the two
slightly inflated, distally subtruncate, with somewhat irregular lips,
the inner more prominent. Spores about 25 X 3.5u. Perithecia
140 X 32-35 u. Appendage 60 yu, its basal cell 14 X 6 yu. Receptacle
80-90 X 18-21 y. Total length 225-250 p.

On the abdomen of a fly belonging to the Anthomyidae. Kamerun,
No. 2639.

Ten individuals of this form have been examined, which were found
growing on the superior surface of the abdomen, where S. Limno-
phorae usually occurs, and where it reaches its most typical develop-
ment. The differences which distinguish the present species are thus.
evidently not due to position of growth. |The deep spreading furrows.
which traverse the venter and neck, and the strong curvature of the
latter give it a very different appearance. Unlike S. Limnophorae,
the appendage curves inward, and the antheridia are directed out-
ward. The appendage is also more compact than is usually the case
in S. Limnophora, although it is of the same general type.

~J
bo
Ww

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES.

On Borboridae

Stigmatomyces affinis nov. sp.

Hyaline below, pale yellowish above the stalk-cells; of rigid habit,
straight or but slightly curved. Receptacle tapering from apex to
base, the basal cell mostly somewhat longer, a smoky brown suffusion
just above the small foot. Stalk-cells of the appendage and perithe-
cium lying side by side in a horizontal series, not differing greatly in
size, the secondary stalk-cell slightly smaller and higher; that of the
appendage strongly rounded outward below the insertion, otherwise
nearly straight externally; the axis of the appendage externally
convex, consisting of usually eight cells; which are externally convex,
somewhat obliquely superposed, and similar, except the small distal
and the broader flattened amber-brown basal cell: the antheridia
appressed, turned inward or sidewise, one from each cell (or two from
the lower?); the upper three or four usually proliferating into short,
stout, septate, simple filaments. Basal cells of the perithecium
similar, extending above the base of the ascigerous cavity, the inner
not extending lower than the outer: venter rather short and stout,
more or less abruptly inflated just below the middle, above which it
is concave below four variously conspicuous protrusions corresponding
to the extremities of its four wall-cells; the neck thus abruptly differ-
entiated, stout, tapering throughout to the short, abruptly slightly
narrower tip and apex; the latter externally concave below a slight
externally divergent, rounded termination, formed by two lip-cells,
and subtended on the inner side by two papillae. Spores about 25 X
3.5 (in perithecium). Perithecia 95-105 X 28-32 yu. Appendage
about 50 yu. Receptacle 35-50 K 16. Total length 150-175 yp.

On a minute species of Limosina. No. 2290, Kamerun, West Africa.

This species is most nearly allied to S. Papuanus, but seems clearly
distinguished by the character of its perithecium and the position of
its stalk-cells. The apex of the perithecium is similar to that of S.
papuanus, but its terminal projection is relatively smaller, shorter and
more rounded, and the subtending inner papillae are less prominent.
Stigmatomyces Platensis Speg. (Revision de las Laboulbeniales
Argentines, p. 677, fig. 208) approaches this species very closely but
the figure and description are hardly sufficiently detailed to make
an exact comparison. The two may prove variations of a single
species.

724 THAXTER.

Stigmatomyces Borbori nov. sp.

Basal cell of the receptacle tapering below or constricted in the
mid-region, the subbasal cell broad and distinctly longer, of nearly
uniform diameter, the margins somewhat convex. Stalk-cell of the
appendage small, broader than long, slightly convex externally, the
insertion relatively broad, lying opposite the middle of the primary
stalk-cell. Axis of the appendage usually consisting of six cells; the
basal contrasting yellowish brown, broader than long, nearly sym-
metrical; the rest hyaline, successively slightly smaller, externally
abruptly convex, irregularly and broadly elliptical in outline, their
axes horizontal, or but slightly oblique; the basal and subbasal cell
bearing each four superposed antheridia, the third and fourth each
three, all borne on the inner side of the appendage, obliquely super-
posed, and directed to the right; the fifth cell small, and associated
with two abortive antheridia, one of them terminal, the tips of which
are imperforate and vesicular. Stalk-cell of the perithecium free
on both sides, longer than broad, distally separated obliquely from
the secondary stalk-cell, which is about as long; the outer basal
cell overlapping the ascigerous cavity throughout its length, and
ending in an abrupt elevation a short distance below the middle of
the body of the venter; the inner large and extending somewhat above
the base of the ascigerous cavity, ending in a prominence similar to
that of the outer, but much lower: the whole basal and _ stalk-cell
region forming a well developed stalk of nearly uniform diameter, or
with somewhat convex margins, the axis of which diverges from that
of the receptacle and appendage, and coincides with that of the peri-
thecium: venter yellowish, straight, slightly inflated; the wall-cells
with a slight twist which involves the neck, ending in distinct eleva-
tions below which the margins are slightly concave, and clearly dis-
tinguishing the slightly spreading base of the hyaline, slightly curved
neck; which tapers slightly, and is distinctly bent at its junction with
the tip; the latter yellowish brown; the apex rather abruptly dis-
tinguished externally, distally relatively broad, oblique, and externally
prominent; the lip-cells not individually distinguished. Spores
30 * 4.5. Perithecia 110-120 X 35. Appendage, including an-
theridia 56 X 25. Receptacle 65-68 XK 24. Total length to tip
of perithecium 200-240 yu.

On Borborus sp. No. 2732, Kamerun, West Africa.

A species most nearly related to S. Borboridinus from which it

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. Se (oh)

differs in its more highly developed appendage, differently arranged
stalk-cells, and by the oblique termination of its perithecium. The
basal cells of the perithecium are also peculiar, ending in a small abrupt
protrusion, the inner cell lying almost wholly against the ascigerous
cavity.

Stigmatomyces Borboridinus nov. sp.

Receptacle hyaline, the basal cell tapering to a narrow base, broader
distally than the base of the subbasal cell; which is slightly more than
half as long, short and broad, its margins somewhat convex. Stalk-
cell of the appendage relatively short, its broad base somewhat oblique;
externally oblique below the broad insertion, which lies opposite the
upper end of the primary stalk-cell. Appendage consisting of three
clearly defined yellowish brown cells, the basal somewhat darker and
more reddish, slightly longer than broad, the subbasal smaller, more
strongly convex externally, somewhat broader than long; both bearing
three superposed relatively large antheridia on the inner side, their
stout relatively long curved necks turned to the right, except the upper-
most; the third cell smaller than the subbasal, somewhat oblique,
followed by three antheridia which terminate the appendage; the
distal, outer, one sometimes replaced by a small permanently sterile
cell. Stalk-cell of the perithecium smaller than the cells above it,
very obliquely separated from the secondary stalk-cell, which is about
as large and long as the inner basal cell; the outer basal cell large, over-
lapping the ascigerous cavity, and twice prominent externally below
the venter; the whole region forming a stout, well defined stalk.
Venter, which comprises about half the total length of the perithecium
and its stalk, pale brownish yellow, diverging at an angle of about 45°
from the common axis of the receptacle and appendage; the former
broader distally, hardly inflated; the wall-cells prominent and ending
in conspicuous rounded projections, which abruptly distinguish the
slightly spreading base of the relatively stout, nearly hyaline, short
neck; the tip distinctly tinged with brownish yellow, well distinguished
by a general inflation, its margins almost symmetrically convex,
tapering distally to the short broad apex, the broad termination of
which is almost symmetrically truncate, or slightly rounded, without
projecting lips. Spores 36 X 5.5y. Perithecia 100-120 XK 28-32 u;
the whole stalk-part, including the primary stalk-cell which is free
only externally at its base, 35 u by 20 yu above, by 14 below. Ap-
pendage 42 X 22 y including tips of antheridia. Receptacle 50-64 X
17-20 w distally. Total length to tip of perithecium 190-210 yz.

726 THAXTER.

On the legs of a fly belonging to the genus Borborus, or closely
allied. No. 2734, Kamerun, West Africa.

This species, although related to the group of forms which occur
on the borborid genus Limosina, differs in the characters of its appen-
dage which closely resembles that of S. Borbori, although somewhat
less highly developed. The nine large antheridia are closely grouped,
with prominent necks. The perithecium is straight, or very slightly
bent distally, its axis coincident with that of the basal and stalk-cell
portion which diverges at a characteristic angle from that of the
receptacle and appendage. Ten individuals have been examined.

Stigmatomyces contortus nov. sp.

Hyaline; the stalk-cells, and apparently the inner basal cell, forming
a rather slender perithecial stalk, against which the receptacle is
abruptly bent, so that the foot lies near the base of the venter, the
appendage projecting free from the point of abrupt curvature. Basal
cell of the receptacle abruptly curved and tapering somewhat below,
the subbasal somewhat longer and stouter. Stalk-cell of the appen-
dage viewed endwise, its axis tinged with brown, projecting upward
and backward away from the receptacle and perithecial stalk: (ap-
pendage in young individuals borne on a stalk-cell which is rounded
and nearly isodiametric, strongly convex below the insertion): con-
sisting of four axis-cells, the basal rounded, somewhat flattened,
brown, bearing a small somewhat flattened androphorous cell, which
occupies most of its distal surface and bears three antheridia, the rest
of the axis diverging from it at an angle of more than 45°, the three
successively smaller cells very obliquely superposed, strongly convex
externally, and separated by deep constrictions; the lowest (sub-
basal) but slightly united to the basal, bearing two antheridia, the
second two, and the third one; which is surmounted by a normal
antheridium, while a small terminal cell also functions as an antheri-
dium by developing a neck from the middle of its inner side at right
angles to its long axis. The stalk-cells, and apparently the inner of the
basal cells of the perithecium, forming a relatively slender perithecial
stalk, of nearly uniform diameter, but irregular outline, which is
separated by a well marked constriction from the base of the venter:
the latter broadly inflated below, owing largely to the overlapping
basal cells; which extend upward beside it for some distance, tapering
to the hardly distinguished, broad, irregular, slightly curved neck;

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. rere

the tip distinguished by a slight indentation, and subtended on the
concave side by a stout, blunt, irregular, tapering outgrowth from one
of the neck wall-cells; the apex hardly distinguished, short, blunt
bent slightly upward, one of the lip-cells prolonged to form a well
developed stout, terminal appendage of nearly uniform diameter,
slightly geniculate at its base, and distally roundish-truncate. Spores
32 X3.5mu. Perithecia 110 X 35y; its stalk-portion 38 X 174;
its terminal appendage 20 X 8 yu; the lateral one 18 X 14 uw at base.
Receptacle 45-50 X 15. Appendage in young individuals about
40 X Ou.

On the wings of Borborus sp., or a genus closely allied. No. 2732,
Kamerun, West Africa.

This species is quite unique, owing not only to the fact that it is
abruptly bent upon itself, but to the presence of two outgrowths
from the perithecium. Three fully mature individuals have been
examined and numerous younger specimens.

Stigmatomyces divaricatus nov. sp.

Rather long and slender with irregular outline, nearly hyaline, the
appendage and the perithecium, with its stalk, almost symmetrically
divergent at somewhat more than a right angle from the receptacle;
which is usually more or less uniform in diameter, broader at the
septum, the basal cell sometimes hardly half as long as the subbasal,
usually rather strongly curved below. Stalk-cell of the perithecium
relatively short, the base broad, somewhat oblique, the distal half
free, broader and usually symmetrically convex; the appendage
consisting of about six cells; the basal pale yellowish brown, some-
times twice or even three times as long as broad, and of uniform diam-
eter, or somewhat broader distally: the three following cells similar,
but successively considerably smaller, separated by constrictions:
the narrow subbasal cell twice as long as broad; usually slightly
concave externally; the one or two small distal cells somewhat irregu-
lar, the uppermost sterile: the basal and subbasal cells bearing each
three, the third and fourth each two, antheridia; those above the
basal cell subtended by a rounded cell which occupies almost the total
diameter of the axis; the fifth cell followed by two small abortive
antheridia which separate it from a small sterile terminal cell; the
antheridia relatively rather small, directed inward and to the right,
their necks somewhat irregularly divergent. Stalk-cell of the peri-

728 THAXTER.

thecium united to the lower half of that of the appendage, but other-
wise wholly free on both sides; sometimes nearly twice as long as
broad, externally slightly concave, prominent below the outer basal
cell, which is in contact throughout with the base of the ascigerous
cavity, its apex forming a distinct prominence; the inner long and
narrow, ending somewhat lower in a similar prominence and extend-
ing down to the stalk-cell. Venter irregular, slightly inflated, the
wall-cells ending distally in distinct prominences, and showing a
slight twist which involves the neck and tip: the neck relatively stout,
slightly curved, hardly distinguished, except by the subtending promi-
nences; the tip subtended by slight depressions on either side, its
margins convex, abruptly so on the inner side, so that the short apex
is subtended by a rather prominent hunch; distal margin of the apex
broad, outwardly oblique, and nearly straight, the lip-edges not at all
prominent. Spores 40 X 5y. Perithecia 120-135 X 28-32; the
stalk-portion about 68 X 18 yu. Appendage 75-86 y, the stalk-cell
18 X 14yu. Receptacle 112-130 XK 18-24. Total length 280-315 uz.

On Borborus sp. No. 2732, Kamerun, W. Africa.

This species is very closely allied to S. Borbori, although very unlike
it in general appearance, and may possibly prove to be an abnormal
development of the latter. Apart from its elongate form, the chief
difference is found in the appendage, the principal cells of which are
longer than broad, instead of the reverse, the basal separating a well
marked androphorous cell bearing three superposed antheridia. About
a dozen examples have been examined, none of which seem to vary
toward S. Borbori. The hosts appear to belong to the same unde-
termined species of Borborus.

Stigmatomyces distortus nov. sp.

Strongly curved throughout, hyaline becoming tinged with pale
yellowish, the venter darker brownish yellow, the appendage dull
brownish below. Receptacle very slightly broader at the horizontal
septum, the basal somewhat longer than the subbasal cell, slightly
narrower above the foot, the subbasal broader distally, slightly con-
cave on one or both sides. Stalk-cell of the appendage short, slightly
broader distally than the broad insertion, which lies hardly higher
than the distal margin of the perithecial stalk-cell. The appendage
turned obliquely across the basal cell region; consisting of four persis-
tent cells, the two lower relatively large, subequal, brownish, termi-

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. 729

nated by one or two small evanescent hyaline cells (or antheridia 7”);
the outer margin nearly straight, the antheridia single appressed.
Stalk-cell of the perithecium squarish, about as large as the stalk-cell
of the appendage which lies beside it, hardly overlapped by the exter-
ally convex and somewhat longer secondary stalk-cell, below which
it is somewhat prominent, in distal contact with the base of the verti-
cally elongate narrow inner basal cell; the three external cells of the
region separated by distinct indentations, the basal cell region abruptly
somewhat narrower; venter somewhat asymmetrical, broader distally
where it is usually more prominent, or bears an abrupt elevation on
the inner side, abruptly distinguishing the distal portion, which is
irregularly bent in a subsigmoid curve; the neck, tip and apex not
distinguished, tapering distally, and ending in a short, bluntly rounded,
finger-like projection formed on the inner side by one of the lip-cells,
the others forming slight prominences below it, irregularly placed.
Spores 34 X 3.5y. Perithecia 85-100 X 26-28 yu, its projection 10 X
5u. Receptacle 40-50 X 14u. Appendage about 50yu. Total length
about 150 u.

On the head of Limosina punctipennis Wied. No. 2653, Kamerun,
West Africa.

This species does not correspond closely to any of the other forms
which occur on Borboridae, and is well distinguished by its strongly
arcuate habit and terminal process. The cells of the appendage are
not externally convex, and in all but a few of the specimens examined
only the four lower cells remain. The distal portion of the appendage
appears to become rapidly disorganized, and where it still persists it
is not clear which of the cells present are axis-cells and which are
antheridia.

Stigmatamyces laticollis nov. sp.

Nearly hyaline, the perithecia slightly suffused. Receptacle rela-
tively short, the cells subequal, separated by a slightly oblique septum;
the basal somewhat narrower below, its anterior margin distally
rather strongly convex, its axis forming a slight angle with that of the
subbasal cell. Stalk-cell of the appendage somewhat larger than that
of the perithecium which lies beside it; externally slightly convex
throughout, more strongly so below the narrow insertion which lies
slightly higher than the end of the primary stalk-cell. Axis of the
appendage consisting of about seven to nine cells; the basal small,
brown, flattened, distally broader; the subbasal nearly as large or

730 THAXTER.

even larger, externally somewhat convex, the rest successively some-
what smaller and externally abruptly convex, somewhat obliquely
superposed; two or three of the terminal ones slightly proliferous, the
rest bearing appressed antheridia, usually turned inward. Primary
stalk-cell of the perithecium somewhat exceeded above and below by
that of the appendage; secondary stalk-cell subtriangular, placed
somewhat higher, and obliquely separated; the basal cells about as
large, the outer often abruptly convex externally: venter asymmetri-
cal, distally broader; the wall-cells with a distinct spiral twist, distally
cushion-like, and forming broad prominences, the outer lower: the
distal portion of the perithecium undifferentiated, stout, of nearly
uniform diameter throughout, the broad bluntly rounded apex bent
outward. Spores about 18 X 2.5yu. Perithecia 100-105 X 28-32 u
(venter) X 14 u (distal portion). Appendage about 40-50 up. Recep-
tacle 40-50 uy. Total length to tip of perithecium 150-175 yu.

On tip of abdomen of Limosina sp. No. 2739, Kamerun, W. Africa.

A species somewhat similar to S. affinis in the conformation of its
venter, but differing in its longer basal cell region, and stout uniform
distal portion, ending in a curved bluntly rounded broad apex.

Stigmatomyces Limosinoides nov. sp.

Nearly hyaline or yellowish, with a slight general sigmoid curvature,
the perithecium tinged with yellowish brown. Receptacle rather
long, curved below, the convexity anterior; the basal cell tapering
slightly to the faintly suffused yellowish base; the subbasal cell longer
stouter, distally more or less distinctly inflated below the two parallel
vertically elongated stalk-cells, the combined bases of which are some-
what narrower. Stalk-cell of the appendage more than twice as
long as broad, slightly longer than that of the perithecium, rather
prominently rounded below the insertion, which lies slightly higher
than the end of the perithecial stalk-cell: the axis of the appendage
tapering, consisting of six to eight cells, the basal small, short, clear
amber-brown, the rest rounded, somewhat flattened, strongly convex
externally, successively smaller, all but the two or three terminal ones
bearing appressed antheridia, the lower superposed in pairs; the upper-
most cells small and sterile. Secondary stalk-cell about twice as long
as broad, similar to the primary, but slightly shorter, lying wholly
above it, its base and that of the inner basal cell coincident and slightly
oblique: basal cells relatively large, surrounding the rather long nar-

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. Tou

row base of the ascigerous cavity; the inner somewhat larger than
the primary stalk-cell, to the upper half of which it is somewhat
obliquely united; the outer larger, lying wholly above the secondary
stalk-cell; which is somewhat smaller, externally convex; the stalk-
and basal cells forming an erect or slightly divergent stalk-region,
narrower below and distally broader than the venter of the peri-
thecium. Venter yellowish brown, nearly symmetrical, subellipti-
cal, thick-walled, erect, or slightly tilted inward; the neck broad, not
abruptly distinguished, longer than the venter, tapering but slightly;
the short tip sometimes slightly inflated, and distinguished by an
inconspicuous external depression; the apex subtruncate, abruptly
compressed below the hyaline, somewhat irregularly prominent, small,
papillate lips. Spores 25 X 3.5. Perithecia 110-125 X 35-42 yp.
Receptacle 100-130 X 18-224. Appendage 50-604. Total length
225-300 yu.

On the posterior legs of Limosina punctipennis Wied. No. 2133 and
2130, Sarawak, Borneo.

This species is more nearly related to S. Papuanus, from which it
is at once distinguished by its short stout neck and broad blunt
termination. What appears to be a variety of the same form was
also obtained from the same locality (No. 2185) on the abdomen of a
minute species of Limosina, several infested specimens of which have
been examined. This variety is much smaller, measuring from 150-
175; the spores about 18 X 2.5y. The stalk- and basal cells of
the perithecium are hardly longer than broad and the latter do not
appreciably overlap the ascigerous cavity. The lips of the peri-
thecium are not so clearly defined, but there seem to be no well defined
characters by which it could be specifically separated. In almost
every specimen of the type-form a spore is protruding from the pore,
and, diverging slightly, might well be taken for a spinous process.

STIGMATOMYCES PapuaNnus Thaxter.

This species has been found on numerous flies from Kamerun,
belonging to the Borboridae, under the following numbers: 2291,
2292, 2640, 2670, 2672, 2673, 2675, 2736, 2737, 2739, 2740 and 2741.
Its variability is considerable, but is usually associated with differ-
ences in the size of the perithecia, which may be due in part to varia-
tions in the hosts and in part to differences in the position of growth.
The total length of fully matured individuals may vary from 175 u

732 THAXTER.

to 600 yu, these differences being largely due to variations in the
length of the perithecial neck, which. may be very long and slender
or short and very stout. The prolongation of the outer lips to form
an obliquely pointed apex is always characteristic. The S. [talicus
of Spegazzini, which is also said to occur on Borboridae, does not
appear to differ in any respect from smaller forms of this species.
It does not appear to occur in the Western Hemisphere where it is
replaced by other allied forms which occur on members of the same
family. g

Stigmatomyces platystoma nov. sp.

More or less curved throughout, or the extremity, only, curved
outward. Receptacle hyaline; the basal cell narrower below, usu-
ally somewhat longer and distally broader than the subbasal cell,
the posterior walls much thicker, the margins individually somewhat
convex; the subbasal somewhat prominent below the stalk-cell of
the appendage; which is pale brownish yellow, small, externally
somewhat concave, abruptly broader and prominent below the
insertion; which is opposite the distal margin of the perithecial stalk-
cells. Axis of the appendage consisting normally of seven cells; the
basal and subbasal nearly equal and more deeply suffused with yellow-
ish brown, their margins but slightly convex; those above succes-
sively slightly smaller; all strongly convex, the septa but slightly
oblique; each of the four lower cells producing two superposed an-
theridia on the inner side; the upper seated on the under, and fur-
nished with a longer, more conspicuous, stout, appressed neck; the
filth cell bearing a single antheridium, the terminal cell distally inflated
and partly free; the subterminal bearing an abortive antheridium,
which may proliferate, producing a few clavate branchlets. Stalk-
cell and secondary stalk-cell of the perithecium hardly longer than
broad, the latter asymmetrically and obliquely overlapping two thirds
or more of the former, on its left side; the basal cells smaller, sub-
triangular: venter tapering to a narrow base, sometimes twice as
broad distally, slightly longer than the distal portion; the neck with
abruptly distinguished spreading base, its outline somewhat irregular,
hardly tapering, short; the tip and apex distinguished by an abrupt
constriction, somewhat inflated; the tips of the four coarse lip-cells
bluntly rounded and prominent about the pore: the wall-cells de-
veloping a slight spiral twist which is usually inconspicuous. Spores
30 X 3.5. Perithecia 85-1004; venter 45-55 X 30-32 distally

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. 733

and 16 at base; the apex about 20 X 124. Appendage 55-65 uy.
Receptacle 42-44 X 15 yu. Total length to tip of perithecium 155-
160 wu.

On the legs of Limosina punctipennis Wied. No. 2653, Kamerun,
W. Africa.

This species is most nearly allied to S. proliferans, the appendage
being similar and occasionally showing a similar proliferation distally.
In other respects, however, its appearance is very different, owing to
its short receptacle, distally expanded venter, and larger, abruptly
distinguished, somewhat inflated apex.

Stigmatomyces proliferans nov. sp.

Usually straight and rather slender, pale yellow, especially the
venter; the receptacle hyaline; the base of the appendage tinged
with amber-brown. Receptacle usually comprising nearly half the
total length, the basal and subbasal cells of nearly equal diameter,
the latter often slightly longer, and distally somewhat broader than
the region immediately above it. Stalk-cell of the appendage re-
latively small, but slightly longer than broad, externally straight, or
slightly concave, slightly and abruptly prominent below the rather
broad insertion, which lies somewhat lower than the base of the
ascigerous cavity; axis of the appendage consisting of usually seven
obliquely superposed, successively smaller cells; the uppermost
forming a minute erect, free, blunt projection; the basal cell hardly
longer than broad, tinged with amber brown, the outer margin nearly
straight, that of the three cells above it very strongly convex; all,
except the uppermost, bearing single antheridia on the inner side,
which are appressed and very obliquely superposed in a single row,
long and slender, the neck and venter hardly distinguished; the
upper two or three, including also the minute terminal cell, finally
proliferous, producing partly dichotomous slender rigid branches,
which form a variably developed coralloid group, their tips swollen
and eventually separated (as sperm cells?) in a gelatinous mass.
Stalk-cell and secondary stalk-cell of the perithecium longer than
broad, overlapping laterally, nearly equal, the latter higher; the basal
cells almost as large, and overlapping the ascigerous cavity above,
the outer externally concave, and distally slightly prominent. Peri-
thecium erect, rather slender, the distal portion somewhat longer
than the slightly inflated venter, which tapers rather abruptly above

734 THAXTER.

to the not abruptly differentiated neck; the latter of nearly uniform
diameter, and distinguished from the almost equally broad tip and
apex by a very slight elevation; the apex, seen sidewise, abruptly
truncate distally; broad, flat, more prominent externally; or, if
turned one quarter, tending to appear truncate-conical: the wall-cells
of the venter and neck becoming more or less clearly spirally twisted
from left to right. Spore 30 X 3.6. Perithecia 140 X 30 u (venter)
X 14 (neck). Appendage 50-55 4; to tip of proliferous branches
70-80 np. Receptacle 120-140 X 184. Total length to tip of peri-
thecium 280-315 yu.

On the thorax of Limosina punctipennis Wied. Nos. 2733 and 2287,
Kamerun, West Africa.

This species, which belongs to the group of S. Limosinae, is clearly
distinguished by its straight slender form, spiral wall-cells, and pro-
liferous appendage. The minute bodies which are separated from the
tips of the ultimate branches of these proliferations, and which finally
cohere in a viscous mass, appear to be abnormally developed sperm
cells, but their origin is quite unlike that of other known forms having
exogenous sperms.

Stigmatomyces tortimasculus nov. sp.

Short and rather stout, or more elongate and slender; nearly hyaline
except the faintly brownish yellow venter of the perithecium. Recep-
tacle variably elongate, tapering slightly to the usually curved base.
Stalk-cell of the appendage evenly and slightly convex throughout,
or somewhat concave below, distally abruptly broader than the narrow
insertion, which lies slightly higher than the base of the ascigerous
cavity. Axis of the appendage somewhat irregular, curved, and
lying sidewise against the venter; consisting of five cells, the terminal
one minute and forming a short blunt projection from the base of the
two distal antheridia; the basal cell relatively small, distinctly yel-
lowish brown, as broad as long; the second and third longer, nearly
equal; the fourth smaller; all bearing usually two antheridia, the
distal ones somewhat clustered, the long free necks variously curved
and irregularly divergent in different directions. Stalk-cell of the
perithecium five-sided, broader than long, the secondary stalk-cell
obliquely separated from it, externally strongly convex; the basal
cells small and triangular. Venter of the perithecium variable, often
relatively large, short and strongly inflated, much broader than the

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. 735

basal cell region; the neck stout and slightly tapering, its spreading
base rather clearly distinguished by a slight subtending elevation;
the apex not distinguished, strongly oblique distally, or, when viewed
radially, abruptly truncate, broad and bipapillate, the papillae closely
associated and median. Spores 20 X 3.5yu. Perithecia SS-100 X
32 yu, largest 120 X 35. Receptacle 42-75 X 12-14 y, largest 130 X
144. Appendage about 354. Total length 150-200 y, longest 275 u.

On a species of Limosina, the larger on the thorax, the smaller on
the legs. Nos. 2130, 2134, and 2135, Sarawak, Borneo.

This pale and otherwise nondescript form is most clearly distin-
guished by the irregular curvature and divergence of the long antheri-
dial necks, which sometimes recall the appearance of the projecting
fingers of the conventional scarecrow. It is evidently related to the
simpler forms which occur on other borborids.

STIMATOMYCES VENEZUELAE Thaxter.

A form corresponding in all respects to the type, has been obtained
from flies belonging to the genus Limosina, or to one very closely
allied, growing on the abdomen; No. 2674, Kamerun, West Africa,
and No. 2179, Sarawak, Borneo. As in the type material, the append-
age appears to be somewhat evanescent, consisting of three well
defined cells, the basal brownish vellow and somewhat broader than
long. The basal as well as the subbasal cell, which is strongly convex
externally, appear to bear two antheridia, as well as the third, but
since the antheridia are turned sidewise and none of the specimens
are young, it has been impossible to determine this point with cer-
tainty. The fourth cell appears to bear a single antheridium, and to
be followed by two others which are terminal and superposed. The
peculiar form of the venter and receptacle is exactly that of the
Venezuela specimens.

On Diopsidae.
Stigmatomyces arcuatus noy. sp.

Rather evenly arcuate, the general curvature sidewise to the right,
the curvature at the extremities usually somewhat more abrupt:
uniformly suffused with yellowish; the perithecium and appendage

736 THAXTER.

tinged with reddish. Basal cell of the receptacle usually shghtly
longer than the subbasal, and distally slightly broader. The stalk-
cell of the appendage somewhat broader than long, with distal second-
ary thickening. Axis of the appendage consisting of five cells, the two
lower more deeply colored; the basal broader than long, sterile; the
subbasal sometimes larger and, like the third and fourth, bearing two
antheridia, the fifth bearing but one, which is surmounted by two
superposed; the appendage rather stout, tapering to a point distally,
lying flat against the venter, which it crosses obliquely, extending
beyond it, the antheridia turned to the right. Stalk-cell of the
perithecium relatively large, the cells of this region indistinguishable
from the fact that the mature individual, owing to its curvature,
presents either an anterior or posterior view. Venter somewhat
asymmetrical, more or less inflated distally, not very abruptly dis-
tinguished from the stout neck, which merges into the curved blunt
tip and apex with slight differentiation; the lips hardly distinguished.
Spores about 28 X 3.5yu. Perithecia 100-112 X 28-35. Append-
age about 50 X 12u. Receptacle 45-50 X 16y. Total length 180-
200 wu.

On the legs and wings of a species of Diopsis. No. 2303, Kamerun,
W. Africa.

Distinguished from other known species on Diopsis by its appendage,
the axis of which includes but five cells. The wall-cells of the venter
and neck appear to have a slight continuous twist, the course of which
cannot be clearly made out. The material, though not abundant,
was obtained from three different individuals of the host.

Stigmatomyces longirostratus nov. sp.

Pale dirty brownish yellow throughout, greatly elongated. Basal
cell slightly curved and tapering below, distally broader than the
base of the somewhat paler and slightly longer subbasal cell, the
margins of which are somewhat convex. Stalk-cell of the appendage
about four times as long as broad and of nearly equal diameter through-
out, the distal end modiffed by a secondary thickening, which is
deeply colored and about as large as the basal cell of the appendage.
Appendage slightly divergent, elongate, tapering, slender; its axis
consisting of twelve cells; the basal sterile, somewhat longer than
broad, more deeply colored; the subbasal concolorous, half as long
as broad, bearing two antheridia, as do all the other cells of the axis

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. ; TOU

except the twelfth, which bears only one and is followed by two others
superposed; the antheridia directed outward, and superposed in a
single row, with little if any right and left divergence. Stalk-cell of
the perithecium concolorous with the subbasal cell, ending below the
insertion of the appendage, somewhat prominent externally, obliquely
separated from the secondary cell, which overlaps less than half its
length; distally and externally prominent, and modified by a more
deeply colored secondary thickening, as are the upper outer angles of
the basal cells above. Basal cell region somewhat broader than the
base of the venter, which is somewhat inflated below, and prolonged
distally into a neck-like portion, with somewhat irregular margins,
which is rather abruptly swollen below its junction with the neck
proper: the latter paler, of nearly uniform diameter, slightly curved
outward, its Junction with the tip broader and geniculate; the tip
bent outward, broad, slightly inflated, hardly distinguished from the
apex; which is bent upward slightly, short and truncate, the lips
hardly distinguished. Spores about 35 X 4u. Perithecium 320
40 yu. Appendage 140 X 14yu. Receptacle 115 X 25y. Total
length somewhat over 500 uz.

On the wings of a species of Diopsis. No. 2715, Kamerun, W.
Africa.

Allied to the other species on Diopsis and distinguished by its great
length, twelve-celled appendage, and peculiarly shaped perithecium.
Only one quite mature individual has been examined. The wall-cells
of the venter appear to be slightly twisted, but this cannot be clearly
made out in the type.

Stigmatomyces porrectus nov. sp.

Rather elongate, with somewhat irregular outline. Basal cell of
the receptacle obconical, slightly tinged with yellowish, a secondary
thickening involving the whole cell, its upper margin extending just
below and parallel to the horizontal septum which it may even touch;
the subbasal cell perfectly hyaline, abruptly narrower, usually dis-
tinctly shorter and subisodiametric. Stalk-cell of the appendage
relatively small, somewhat irregular, about twice as long as broad,
its lower half or more hyaline, the rest more or less tinged with yellow,
or brownish yellow, which is associated with secondary thickening;
the basal cell of the appendage as broad, or even slightly broader,
more deeply suffused, slightly broader than long, sterile; the subbasal

738 THAXTER.

cell concolorous, very small, flattened-triangular, bearing two antheri-
dia; the rest of the axis consisting of four, rarely three cells, all bearing
two antheridia, except the last, which bears one, and is followed by
two others which are superposed; the base of the appendage divergent
at an angle of 45°, the rest bent or curved upward, the stout antheridial
necks prominent and directed outward. Stalk-cell of the perithecium
large, quite hyaline, extending considerably above the insertion of
the appendage, the secondary cell subtriangular, extending half way
to the base of the primary cell, hyaline below, brownish yellow above,
and concolorous with the perithecium and basal cells; which are
somewhat larger, irregular in form, extending upward somewhat above
the base of the ascigerous cavity; the venter somewhat asymmetrically
inflated near the base, often with a slight external angle, tapering
distally, the wall-cells slightly spiral, describing about an eighth of a
turn, the distal end hardly if at all distinguished from the base of the
neck which simulates the usual venter termination, forming a slight
enlargement above which the rest of the neck, which tapers slightly
and is rather strongly curved outward, is rather clearly distinguished;
the tip relatively large, usually slightly inflated and broader than the
neck below, the apex short and blunt, the lips hardly distinguishable.
Spores about 24 X 2.5. Perithecia 125-155 & 35-42 u. Append-
age 52-60 K liu. Receptacle 85-140 X 20-24. Total length
250-350 wu.

On the wings and tip of abdomen of Diopsis sp. No. 2301, Kam-
erun, W. Africa.

Specimens of this peculiar form have been examined from several
individual hosts, and in all cases are somewhat irregularly developed,
the asci in many cases not maturing well. It is allied to the other
species on Diopsis, but is readily distinguished from S. Diopsis, the
only other form having a strongly divergent appendage in the char-
acters of the latter as well as in other respects.

Stigmatomyces Schwabianus nov. sp.

Color throughout nearly uniform dirty yellowish. Receptacle
relatively small, somewhat curved, the basal cell tapering below, the
subbasal cell somewhat shorter and broader. Stalk-cell of the
appendage somewhat prominent distally, a secondary thickening
involving its upper half or more; the appendage nearly erect, slightly
incurved; the antheridia external and superposed in an almost uni-

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. 739

form vertical series with little right and left divergence; the basal
cell large, darker, sterile, hardly as long as broad, the subbasal small,
subtriangular; the rest of the axis consisting of six cells all bearing,
like the subbasal, two antheridia; except the uppermost which bears
one, and is followed by two others which are terminal and superposed.
Primary stalk-cell larger than the subequal cells above it, distally
separated obliquely from the secondary cell, its extremity lying some
distance below the insertion of the appendage. Venter slightly or
distinetly inflated, the wall-cells describing one half to a whole turn,
the curved neck being turned inward in the former case and outward
in the latter; the base of the neck hardly distinguished from the venter,
and separated by a more or less sharp constriction from its distal
portion; which is usually narrower in the middle, swollen at either
end, abruptly narrowed or constricted below the tip; which is short,
inflated, tapering to the blunt, subtruncate apex; the lips closely
apposed, rather broad, not prominent. Spores about 40 X 5uy.
Perithecia 175-280 X 30-42 4. Appendage 65-80 X 12-14y. Re-
ceptacle 60-90 X 21-24yu. Total length 250-400 xu.

On the legs and at the base of the wings of Diopsis sp. Kamerun,
W. Africa. Nos. 2302, 2365, 2676, 2718 and 2719.

The peculiarities of this species especially of the perithecium are
more conspicuous in older individuals, the constrictions and curvature
of the neck as well as the spiral character of the wall-cells varying
considerably. The species is related to S. Diopsis and S. porrectens,
from which it is abundantly distinct.

On Drosophilidae.
Stigmatomyces subinflatus nov. sp.

Straight, or the axis of the receptacle bent at a slight angle, pale
yellow; the receptacle nearly hyaline, the basal and stalk-cells of the
appendage, and the inflation below the tip tinged with reddish. Basal
cell of the receptacle longer, even twice as long as the subbasal, the
septum slightly oblique, the subbasal cell but slightly broader dis-
tally. Stalk-cell of the appendage twice as long as broad, faintly
reddish, the outer margin straight or slightly convex, rounded ab-
ruptly inward to the basal cell of the appendage; which is relatively
large, somewhat longer than broad, distally slightly oblique, sterile,
more distinctly reddish, especially the septa; the rest of the axis,

740 THAXTER.

which is slightly and somewhat obliquely curved inward, consisting
of three cells, the lowest much smaller, triangular-flattened, each
bearing a single rather large antheridium, the series terminated by a
fourth. Stalk- and basal cells. all lying below the insertion of the
appendage, relatively small and subequal. Venter rather long and
narrow, and almost symmetrically inflated; the wall-cells separated
by a wing-like spiral ridge which makes nearly a half turn; neck
rather abruptly distinguished, the base hardly spreading, about half
as long as the venter, nearly isodiametric, and swelling abruptly to
form a clearly distinguished subsymmetrical enlargement at its
junction with the tip; which, with the apex, forms a short blunt
termination, the rounded lip-edges rather coarse, slightly prominent,
and asymmetrical. Spores about 18 X 2.5 uy. Perithecia 110-120 X
28-30 w: venter 68 yu. Appendage 35 X 9y. Receptacle 45-55 X
16 yu. Total length 150-175 pz.

On the anterior legs of a pale species of Drosophila. Kamerun, W.
Africa, No. 2180.

This species is distinguished from other forms on Drosophilidae by
its four-celled appendage, which bears but four antheridia, and the
subterminal enlargement of the perithecium. The spiral ridges of
the venter are similar to those of S. Sigalossae, which is otherwise
quite different.

Stigmatomyces varians nov. sp.

Symmetrically somewhat sigmoid, the perithecium proper about
twice as long as the rest of the individual. Receptacle hyaline, usu-
ally yellowish distally and above the foot; the basal cell tapering
below, curved, often twice as long as, or less frequently slightly
shorter than, the subbasal cell; which may be distinctly prominent
above the basal, its distal end much broader, its margins usually
slightly concave. Stalk-cell of the appendage slightly more than
twice as long as broad, its distal third or more involved by a yellow
secondary thickening, its outer margin very slightly prominent below
the basal cell of the appendage, which is flattened, usually becoming
reddish, broader than long, without antheridia, surmounted by a still
shorter cell bearing two antheridia, which is followed by two axis-cells
bearing two antheridia each, and a third which bears one; the axis
ending in two terminal ones which are superposed, the upper larger
and indistinctly spinose; the appendage erect or sometimes slightly

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. 741

divergent, the antheridia turned outward and a little sidewise. Stalk-
cell four sided, but subtriangular, the three longer sides subequal, the
secondary stalk-cell equal, or larger, with a yellow somewhat promi-
nent thickening at its upper outer angle which may resemble a sepa-
rated cell; the outer basal cell about as large, usually distinctly
prominent externally below the venter; which is variably, sometimes
considerably and evenly, inflated; or narrower and more or less promi-
nently concave below the variably prominent endings of the wall-cells,
which have a very slight spiral twist; the neck curved outward, stout,
typically with broadly spreading base, which may be narrower and
followed above by a slight general shallow constriction, or may enlarge
gradually to its junction with the tip; which is usually more or less
distinctly constricted, bent outward; the apex rather stout, short,
with somewhat irregularly compressed lips. Spores 35 X 44. Peri-
thecium 120-140 X 30-354. Appendage 42-45 X 8-10 yu. Recep-
tacle 45-55 X 20-26. Total length 190-225 u.

On the superior surface of the abdomen of a genus of flies belonging
to the Drosophilidae. Kamerun, W. Africa, Nos. 2753 (Type),
2668 and 2667 the latter a somewhat smaller species.

This species, which belongs to the group of forms occurring on
Drosophilidae and including S. Sigalloessae, S. Scaptomyzae, S. Droso-
philae, is a variable and rather puzzling form. The portions above
the receptacle are rather clear, pale, almost lemon yellow. The two
lower cells of the appendage appear to represent the normal basal cell,
which has divided in two, the lower remaining sterile; while the smaller,
upper, bears two antheridia. The habit may be evenly, but not
deeply, sigmoid, as in the type; or the axis of the receptacle and venter
may be coincident and straight. The perithecium varies greatly, the
termination of the wall-cells of the venter abruptly prominent in the
type, or the end of the venter narrower and rounded, and subtended
by a more or less evident general constriction. The neck may be
stout and slightly tapering from a broad base, or more slender, basally
constricted, and distally somewhat enlarged, and other variations
might be mentioned. The host is a reddish brown drosophilid, with
conspicuous longitudinal white lines on the thorax which contrast
with a dark edging. I have been unable to obtain a determination
of the genus of which more than one species is probably represented
in the host material.

742 THAXTER.

On Ephydridae.
Stigmatomyces excavatus nov. sp.

Straight, flexed, or slightly sigmoid; becoming pale yellowish above
the hyaline, thick-walled receptacle; which is short and stout, taper-
ing slightly from the distal end to the base, the subbasal cell usually
slightly less than twice as long as the basal, which is rounded above the
small foot, the septum slightly oblique. Stalk-cell of the appendage
relatively broad, overlapping the subbasal cell, and forming a rounded
prominence, distally and externally, extending above the small reddish
brown basal cell of the appendage, which thus lies at the bottom of a
socket. Appendage long, slender, attenuated; usually straight, with
the antheridia external, or sometimes lateral. Axis of the appendage
consisting of more often seven cells, those above the basal hyaline,
flattened-triangular; the seventh bearing a single antheridium, the
rest two, or the lower more than two; the rest of the appendage
slightly curved, attenuated, and consisting of two to three superposed
antheridia; antheridial necks short, stout and curved. Stalk-cell
subtriangular, rather abruptly slightly broader than the receptacle
externally, and separated by an oblique septum; the secondary
stalk-cell slightly smaller, separated by a curved oblique septum,
hardly larger than the basal cells above. The venter three to four
times as long as broad, its base slightly narrower than the basal cell
region, gradually broadening distally, usually abruptly broader below
the neck; which is nearly as long, tapering from its broad base to the
tip, which is hardly distinguished by a slight depression; the tip
slightly inflated and tapering, twice as long as the apex, which is sub-
truncate and bent inward, but not otherwise distinguished. Spores
about 25 X 3yu. Perithecia 140-200 X 20-28 y; stalk- and basal
cell region 35 X 22. Receptacle 80 X 25. Appendage 70-95 X
7; its stalk-cell 35-45 X 10-15. Total length 280-335 yp or less.

On superior surface of abdomen of an ephydrid allied to Notiphila.
No. 2637a. Kamerun, West Africa.

This species is clearly distinguished by its short stout receptacle,
long slender and tapering perithecium and appendage, and especially
by the protrusion of the stalk-cell of the appendage, which forms a
depression overtopping the basal cell of the appendage.

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. 743

Stigmatomyces ventriosus nov. sp.

Relatively short and stout. Receptacle hyaline, the basal cell usu-
ally somewhat curved below, tapering to the foot; the subbasal cell
much smaller, usually broader than long. Stalk-cell of the appendage
tinged with amber-brown, relatively narrow, more than twice as long
as broad, its bluntly pointed base overlapping the subbasal cell slightly,
if at all; its outer margin straight or slightly concave, and somewhat
prominent below the broad insertion. Axis of the appendage consist-
ing of four successively smaller cells, the fourth much smaller and
bearing one antheridium, followed by two which are superposed above
it, the upper spinose; all the others bearing two antheridia, which are
usually turned somewhat obliquely sidewise; the basal cell somewhat
longer than broad, amber-brown, the rest of the appendage slightly
suffused below; the antheridia appressed with hardly divergent necks.
Stalk-cell and secondary stalk-cell of the perithecium nearly equal,
broader than long, flattened-triangular, concolorous with the stalk-cell
of the appendage and the basal cells, which are small and subtriangu-
lar; the secondary stalk-cell slightly convex externally, its margin
often reaching to the subbasal cell of the receptacle: venter somewhat
darker amber-brown, short and stout, its axis diverging at a slight
angle to that of the appendage and receptacle; its outer margin
straight or becoming convex, its inner bulging very strongly; the
wall-cell on the left side forming a slightly elevated area ending in a
more or less distinct and abrupt broad ridge below the short, usually
abruptly curved, neck; the tip and apex as long as the subhyaline neck,
and turned abruptly inward by its curvature; the tip tinged with
brownish yellow: the apex short, not distinguished, hardly tapering;
the lips prominent, rather coarse, two of them lower and paired, the
other two forming a blunt point which projects beyond them; the
pore usually directed inward, but sometimes sidewise, owing to a slight
twist of the wall-cells. Spores 30 X 3yu. Perithecia 75-85. The
venter 42-48 X 30-36. Appendage 45-50 X 10. Receptacle

2X 18y. Total length to tip of perithecium 120-140 z.

On the inferior abdomen of a small fly resembling Dzscocerina.
No. 2743a, Kamerun, West Africa.

This small species appears to be more nearly related to S. Disco-
cerinae, but is very readily recognized by its “pot-bellied” venter
and short incurved neck. The thirty individuals examined show no
important variation.

744 THAXTER.

On Ortalidae.

Stigmatomyces Ortalidanus nov. sp.

Very long and slender, straight, or but slightly curved. Basal
cell of the receptacle tapering to the small foot, usually slightly bent
below, with secondary thickenings of the wall which usually become
blackish brown, the suffusion sometimes extending so as to stain the
yellowish primary wall; subbasal cell more than twice as long, slightly
narrower than the basal, just above the horizontal septum; hyaline,
or yellowish, usually straight, thick-walled and nearly isodiametric.
Stalk-cell of the appendage extending only to the subbasal cell,
relatively narrow, its outer margin nearly straight, except for a slight
elevation below the insertion, which occupies almost the whole of its
distal surface. Appendage long, slender and distally attenuated,
consisting of about eight to ten axis-cells; the basal amber-brown,
broader than long, its upper margin somewhat oblique below a small
subtriangular hyaline cell which is separated from it distally and bears
two superposed antheridia; the cells above the fifth usually somewhat
longer and flatter than those below; all the axis-cells hyaline, and
producing two antheridia each, arranged in a double series; the necks
of the lower in each turned slightly sidewise, and of the upper, outward;
the appendage ending in two superposed antheridia, below which the
last cell of the axis is often also transformed into two superposed
antheridia. Stalk-cell region of the perithecium much elongated;
the primary stalk-cell greatly enlarged, thick-walled, hyaline, extend-
ing far above the insertion of the appendage, its distal fifth to third,
or even more, overlapped by the bluntly pointed base of the much
smaller, long-triangular secondary stalk-cell, the upper margin of
which is horizontal, with an external brownish thickening; basal
cells relatively elongate, the inner sometimes extending down nearly
to the middle of the secondary stalk-cell; none of the basal cells over-
lapping the ascigerous cavity, but this region slightly broader than
the base of the venter, owing to the presence of distal brownish thick-
enings in each cell. Venter becoming tinged with brownish yellow,
more than three times as long as broad, straight, nearly symmetrical,
very slightly inflated, its extremity tapering slightly to the base of the
concolorous neck; which is not otherwise distinguished, straight,
slightly and evenly tapering throughout, the wall-cells slightly twisted,
as are those of the venter, and becoming more or less evidently corru-

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. 745

gated by about eight successive elevations, usually more conspicuous
in the distal half; the tip distinguished by an abrupt inflation, short,
slightly tapering; the apex much shorter, rather broad and blunt,
straight or slightly bent, usually turned so as to appear symmetrical,
with a median elevation, or oblique when seen sidewise. Spores,
about 45 X 4u. Perithecia, stalk- and basal cell portion 100-210 uw X
30-35 uw; venter 90-105 X 30-38 uw; neck 122 X 20-28 u or less; tip
and apex 25-30 X 12y distally. Appendage 100-125 15y at
base; stalk-cell 50-60 X 14-18 yu. Receptacle 250-280 X 32. Total
length 740 or less X 35-40 u.

On the upper surface of the abdomen of a large black fly belonging
to an undetermined genus of the Ortalidae. Kamerun, W. Africa,
No: 2721.

A large species well distinguished by its elongate slender form,
suffused basal cell, slender tapering appendage, corrugated neck etc.
The twist in the wall-cells of the venter and neck is often conspicuous,
though sometimes hardly apparent, and increases with age, as does.
the corrugation of the neck.

On Oscinidae.

STIGMATOMYCES CONSTRICTUS Thaxter.

Specimens of this variable species, with and without the charac-
teristic constriction of the receptacle, have been examined from
Kamerun on Anatrichus erinaceus, No. 2644, and on other genera of
the Oscinidae, Nos. 2650, 2652, 2726, 2727, 2728 and 2729.

On Trypetidae.

Stigmatomyces Dacinus nov. sp.

Habit rigid, erect, straight or somewhat curved throughout, the
walls relatively thick. Basal cell of the receptacle slightly tinged
with brownish yellow, tapering to the pointed foot; the subbasal cell
twice as long, or less, hyaline, of nearly uniform diameter. Stalk-cell
of the appendage narrow, somewhat curved inward, about as long as.
the subbasal cell, which it overlaps from one quarter to one half;
distally twice as broad as the insertion which lies distinctly above

746 THAXTER.

the primary stalk-cell of the perithecitum; the antheridia mostly
external; the axis of the appendage consisting of usually eight, some-
times of seven cells, the basal sterile, brownish yellow; the rest hyaline,
the upper separated by slightly oblique septa, all bearing two super-
posed antheridia, those borne by the distal cell surmounted by an
additional pair which terminate the appendage: antheridia straight,
pointed, obliquely superposed. Stalk-cell of the perithecium hyaline,
relatively Iarge, more than twice as long as broad, slightly if at all
broader at the base, the secondary stalk-cell yellowish brown, over-
lapping it about one half, hardly surpassing it distally, subtriangular,
externally prominent; the basal cells relatively small, subtriangular,
concolorous with the venter. Venter brownish yellow, straight,
nearly symmetrical, broadly elliptical, the wall-cell making a quarter
to a half turn, the spreading base of the short stout neck not abruptly
distinguished; the tip subtended by a nearly symmetrical depression
of the outline on both sides, abruptly and almost symmetrically
inflated; the apex thus clearly distinguished, the lip-cells symmetri-
cally paired, the inner pair turned outward, if the twist is one half,
and surmounted by the outer, which form a blunt terminal free pro-
jection beyond them, half as long as the whole apex. Spores 42 X
3.2. Perithecia 140-'60 X 42 u, the largest 180 XK 50 yu; the termi-
nal projection 10-15 yu. Appendage 70-85 y. Receptacle 86-105 u.
Length from foot to insertion 100-1554 by 42-50 at insertion.
Total length, average, 280 »; longest 350 u.

On Dacus sp. No. 2128, Sarawak, Borneo.

This species does not seem nearly related to any described form and
is quite unlike the others which are known to occur on Trypetidae.
It is very clearly distinguished by the characters above enumerated,
and the abundant material examined shows little variation except in
size.

Stigmatomyces hexandrus nov. sp.

Similar to S. separatus in general appearance, larger. Receptacle
hyaline, straight or slightly bent, the basal cell sometimes not more
than half as long as the subbasal, and usually somewhat prominent
below it on the posterior side. The subbasal cell tapering slightly
and evenly from apex to base, the former slightly prominent, espe-
cially on the anterior side. Stalk-cell of the appendage hardly over-
lapping the subbasal cell, rather narrow, more than twice as long as
broad, its margin straight or slightly concave, but slightly prominent

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. 747

distally below the basal cell of the appendage, which is nearly twice
as long as broad; the axis of the appendage consisting of three cells,
the two lower bearing each two, the third a single antheridium; a sixth
terminal antheridium bent outward, its inner margin strongly convex,
with a conspicuous subterminal spine; the series turned sidewise or out-
ward. Stalk-cell of the perithecium slightly larger than the secondary
cell and separated by an oblique septum; the outer basal cell smaller
than the somewhat rounded inner one, and distinctly prominent
externally below the venter, which broadens somewhat gradually from
base to apex; its surface very finely and inconspicuously granular, its
base somewhat higher than the insertion of the appendage, the margins
often slightly convex; the spreading base of the neck sometimes rather
abruptly distinguished; the neck for the most part somewhat longer
than the venter, often slightly narrower in the middle, broader distally
below the rather abruptly distinguished tip; tip and apex hardly
distinguished, slightly bent and tapering, the lip-cells five-papillate,
the two posterior lower, the middle of the three others highest. Spores
28-30 X 3.5u. Perithecium 150-180 X 32-38 uy. Appendage 55 X
104. Receptacle 120-190 X 24-28 y. Total length 280-300» or
less; maximum 370 X 42 yu.

On the superior abdomen and legs of a fly belonging to the Try-
petidae. No. 2296 and 2642, Kamerun, W. Africa.

Although less rigid and regular in outline, this species recalls S.
separatus in general appearance and coloration. It is at once dis-
tinguished by its appendage, which is three-celled, and bears but six
antheridia; the terminal one rather characteristically inflated on the
inner side, and spinose. Abundant material has been examined.

Stigmatomyces separatus nov. sp.

Habit rigid and straight, or the neck and tip bent at a slight angle
to,the venter. Receptacle hyaline, sub-isodiametric, or tapering very
slightly from apex to base; the basal cell about two thirds as long as
the subbasal; the septa horizontal, both cells hyaline and contrasting
with the dirty reddish brown suffusion of the part above, which
includes the venter of the perithecium. Stalk-cell of the appendage
overlapping the subbasal cell very slightly, about twice as broad as
long, its external margin straight or more often concave, distally
rather abruptly prominent below the concolorous basal cell of the
appendage; which is otherwise paler yellowish, its axis consisting of

748 THAXTER.

five cells, the two lower producing usually three, the third and fourth
two, and the fifth one antheridium; the appendage terminated by
two which are superposed, the necks rather short and stout, and
directed obliquely sidewise. Stalk-cell of the perithecium about as
broad as long, overlapped on the left side by the secondary stalk-cell,
which is slightly prominent externally; the basal cells subequal,
hardly prominent; venter straight, its base nearly opposite the in-
sertion of the appendage, slightly and symmetrically inflated below,
the margins of the upper third often slightly concave, the surface
faintly granular, distally somewhat prominent below the spreading
base of the rather stout neck; which is almost exactly as long, slightly
tapering, or more often nearly isodiametric, slightly but abruptly
enlarged at its junction with the tip; the latter slightly bent inward,
somewhat tapering, the apex hardly distinguished, the lips oblique,
the outer being bluntly pointed and more prominent. Spores 30 X
3.5 u. Perithecia 155-176 X 28-35 uw. Appendage 50-65 X 7 u. Re-
ceptacle 70-80 X 18-204. Total length 210-280 u.

On the anterior surface of the head of a rather large dark fly with
mottled brown wings belonging to the Trypetidae? No. 2735, Kamerun,
W. Africa.

Although this large rigid form does not seem referable to any of the
described species, it has no striking characters which would at once
distinguish it. The appendage normally bears thirteen antheridia,
but in some cases there appear to be only two on the two lower cells.
The appendage is so turned that it is difficult to determine the antheri-
dial characters without a very high magnification. A large number
of individuals has been examined.

Stigmatomyces Chilomenis nov. sp.

Nearly hyaline, faintly tinged with greenish yellow. Receptacle
small, the basal cell much narrower and subgeniculate above the foot,
obliquely separated from the much smaller subtriangular subbasal
cell; which is somewhat larger than the irregularly rounded stalk-cell
of the nearly erect appendage, the basal cell of which is longer than
broad, somewhat narrower below than the four subequal axis-cells
above it; which are sometvhat broader than long, and each bear an
antheridium, the terminal cell bearing two, in the type, in addition
to the terminal antheridium: antheridia with long stiff nearly straight
necks directed obliquely upward and outward. Stalk-cell of the

EXTRA-AMERICAN LABOULBENIALES. 749

perithecium small and narrow, constricted in the middle, with a slight
twist; the secondary stalk-cell half as large, obliquely separated;
the basal cells surrounding the base of the ascigerous cavity, and
forming about one fifth of the stout body of the perithecium, which
comprises the venter-, neck- and tip-regions, the neck-region some-
what broader and separated from the tip-region by a slight indenta-
tion; the relatively broad apex abruptly somewhat narrower, the lip-
cells developing four erect appendages; two lateral and opposite,
more slender, longer, tapering slightly to a blunt point, each subtended
by a small rounded outgrowth hardly longer than wide; one posterior,
straight, tooth-like, tapering evenly from a broad base to a small
rounded apex, and somewhat shorter: one anterior opposite the last
and somewhat shorter, similar, rather abruptly broader distally,
the extremity broadly rounded. Spores 28 X 3yu. Perithecium to
tips of appendages, including basal cell region, 135 4; the appendages,
longer, 304. Appendage 60 X 7u at base. Receptacle 60 X 18 yn,
including sharply pointed foot. Total length about 200 uy.

On the elytra of Chilomenes lunata Fabr. No. 2158, Nairobi,
British East Africa, Mearns.

This species is intermediate between S. virescens and S. coccinel-
loides; resembling the former in the character of its appendage, and
to some extent, in the form of the perithecial outgrowths, more closely
than the latter. Its very narrow, short stalk-cell and the form of the
body of the perithecium recalls S. coccinelloides. The erect, sym-
metrically placed perithecial appendages are different from any of
the varieties of the two related forms.

Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Vou. 53. No. 10.—Srpremser, 1918.

RECORDS OF MEETINGS, 1917-18.
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.
OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES FOR 1917-18.

LIST OF THE FELLOWS AND FOREIGN HONORARY
MEMBERS.

STATUTES AND STANDING VOTES.
RUMFORD PREMIUM.
INDEX.

(TiTLE Pace AND TABLE OF CONTENTS.)

RECORDS OF MEETINGS.

One thousand and sixty-sixth Meeting.

OcTroBeR 10, 1917.— Stated MEETING.

The Academy met at its House.

The PRESIDENT in the Chair.

There were seventy-three Fellows present.

The following letters were presented by the Corresponding
Secretary: — from R. C. Archibald, B. A. Behrend, C. F: Brush,
E. W. Burlingame, R. A. Cram, E. W. Emerson, H. H. Furness,
C. N. Greenough, H. E. Gregory, F. B. Gummere, J. C. Hoppin,
W. G. Howard, G. F. Hull, F. J. Foakes Jackson, C. W. Johnson,
F. B. Loomis, Arthur Lord, R. 8S. Lull, Allan Marquand, Alexander
McAdie, W. J. Miller, Frank Morley, C. E. Park, L. V. Pirsson,
P. E. Raymond, W. N. Rice, Frederick Slocum, R. C. Sturgis,
J. B. Watson, John Zeleny, accepting Fellowship; from F. D.
Adams, Tullio Levi-Civita, R. M. Pidal, accepting Foreign Hon-
orary Membership; from E. D. White, declining Fellowship.

The Chair announced the deaths of the following Fellows:
John Williams White, Class III., Section 2; Joseph Hodges
Choate, Class III., Section 1; Bela Lyon Pratt, Class III., Section
3; James Mason Crafts, Class I., Section 3; Herbert Langford
Warren, Class III., Section 4; William DeWitt Hyde, Class III.,
Section 1; William Bullock Clark, Class II., Section 3.

A biographical notice of E. H. Strobel, by Samuel Williston was
presented by the Corresponding Secretary.

On recommendation of the Council, it was

Voted, To appropriate two hundred ($200) dollars to be ex-
pended at the discretion of the President.

The following Communication was presented: Dr. James J.
Putnam, “A General View of the Psychoanalytic Movement.”

754 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

The following paper was presented by title: “The Post-glacial
History of Boston,” by H. W. Shimer.
The meeting then adjourned.

One thousand and sixty-seventh Meeting.
NoveEMBER 14, 1917.— SratED MEETING.

The Academy met at its House.

The PRESIDENT in the Chair.

There were eighty-two Fellows and many guests present:

The Chair announced the death of George Vasmer Leverett,
Fellow in Class III., Section 1.

The following Communication was presented: Senator Henry
Cabot Lodge, “ War Legislation.”

The meeting then adjourned.

One thousand and sixty-eighth Meeting.
DeEcEMBER 12, 1917.— StaTED MEETING.

The Academy met at its House.

The PreEsIDENT in the Chair.

There were forty-five Fellows present.

A letter was presented from the University of California inviting
the Academy to send a delegate to its fiftieth anniversary, March,
1918.

The chair announced the death of Gaston Camille Charles
Maspero, Foreign Honorary Member in Class III., Section 2.

The following votes of the Council were presented: 1. To refer
the invitation of the University of California to the President with
power. 2. That in the opinion of the Council it is inexpedient
that ladies should be invited to meetings of the Academy unless by
vote of the Academy or the Council for particular meetings. 3.
That at his discretion the Treasurer be authorized, on request, to
remit the dues of any Fellow called from the Commonwealth for
service in the present war, for the term of his absence.

RECORDS OF MEETINGS. 755

The following Communications were presented :

Professor G. F. Moore, “The Properties of Numbers and the
Doctrine of Ideas.”’

Professor H. W. Shimer, “The Post-Glacial History of Boston.”

Professor A. E. Kennelly, “The Speeds, Powers, and Fatigue of
Racing Animals,” illustrated by lantern.

The following papers were presented by title:

“On Dyadics Occurring in Point Space of Three Dimensions,”
by C. L. E. Moore and H. B. Phillips.

“A Table of the Legendre Functions of the Second Kind Q,(x)
and Q’i(x) by Willard J. Fisher, presented by A. G. Webster.

The meeting then adjourned.

One thousand and sixty-ninth Meeting.
JANUARY 9, 1918.— StaTeD MEETING.

The Academy met at its House.

The PReEsIDENT in the Chair.

There were forty-seven Fellows present.

In the absence of the Recording Secretary, the Corresponding
Secretary was appointed Recording Secretary pro tem.

A biographical notice of De Amicis by W. R. Thayer was pre-
sented by the Corresponding Secretary.

Suggestions from E. B. Wilson regarding amendments of the
Statutes were referred to a committee consisting of E. B. Wilson,
H. W. Tyler and E. V. Huntington.

The following gentlemen were elected Fellows of the Academy:

Grinnell Jones, of Cambridge, to be a Fellow in Class I., Section
3 (Chemistry).

Irving Langmuir, of Schenectady, to be a Fellow in Class L,
Section 3 (Chemistry).

William Ebenezer Ford, of New Haven, to be a Fellow in Class
II., Section 1 (Geology, Mineralogy and Physics of the Globe).

William Crawford Gorgas, of Washington, to be a Fellow in
Class II., Section 4 (Medicine and Surgery).

Robert Battey Greenough, of Boston, to be a Fellow in Class IL.,
Section 4 (Medicine and Surgery).

756 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Henry Jackson, of Boston, to be a Fellow in Class II., Section 4
(Medicine and Surgery).

Thomas Willing Balch, of Philadelphia, to be a Fellow in Class
III., Section 1 (Theology, Philosophy and Jurisprudence).

Willard Bartlett, of Brooklyn, to be a Fellow in Class III.,
Section 1 (Theology, Philosophy and Jurisprudence).

Charles Warren Clifford, of New Bedford, to be a Fellow in
Class III., Section 1 (Theology, Philosophy and Jurisprudence).

Charles Evans Hughes, of New York, to be a Fellow in Class III.,
Section 1 (Theology, Philosophy and Jurisprudence).

James Madison Morton, of Fall River, to be a Fellow in Class
III., Section 1 (Theology, Philosophy and Jurisprudence).

George Burton Adams, of New Haven, to be a Fellow in Class
III., Section 3 (Political Economy and History).

Charles McLean Andrews of New Haven, to be a Fellow in
Class III., Section 3 (Political Economy and History).

Evarts Boutell Greene, of Champaign, IIl., to be a Fellow in
Class III., Section 3 (Political Economy and History).

William MacDonald, of Berkeley, Cal., to be a Fellow in Class
III., Section 3 (Political Economy and History).

Harold Murdock, of Brookline, to be a Fellow in Class III.,
Section 4 (Literature and the Fine Arts).

The following gentlemen were elected Foreign Honorary Mem-
bers:

William Napier Shaw, of London, Eng., to be a Foreign Honor-
ary Member in Class II., Section 1 (Geology, Mineralogy and
Physics of the Globe).

Thomas Barlow, of London, Eng., to be a Foreign Honorary
Member in Class IT., Section 4 (Medicine and Surgery).

Francis John Shepherd, of Montreal, Canada, to be a Foreign
Honorary Member in Class II., Section 4 (Medicine and Surgery).

Charles Scott Sherrington, of Oxford, Eng., to be a Foreign
Honorary Member in Class II., Section 4 (Medicine and Surgery).

The following Communications were presented:

Judge Robert Grant, “Ancestors and Posterity.”

Professor L. C. Graton, “A Geological Study of Copper Ores
supported by American Mining Companies.”

Professor M. L. Fernald, ‘Some Living Remnants of Ancient
Floras on the Coast of New England.”

RECORDS OF MEETINGS. 757

The following paper was presented by title:

“Ballistic Experiments by means of the Electrometer,” by A.
G. Webster and Mildred Allen.

The meeting then adjourned.

One thousand and seventieth Meeting.
FEBRUARY 13, 1918.— StaTED MEETING.

The Academy met at its House.

The PRESIDENT in the Chair.

There were forty-one Fellows, one Foreign Honorary Member,
and two guests present.

The following letters were presented by the Corresponding
Secretary: from G. B. Adams, C. McL. Andrews, T, W. Balch,
Willard Bartlett, C. W. Clifford, W. E. Ford, E. B. Greene, R. B.
Greenough, C. E. Hughes, Henry Jackson, Grinnell Jones, Irving
Langmuir, J. M. Morton, Harold Murdock, accepting Fellow-
ship; from F. J. Shepherd, accepting Foreign Honorary Member-
ship; from J. H. Wright, resigning Fellowship; from the Historical
Society of Florence, announcing the death of Pasquale Villari.

The Chair announced the following deaths: Paul S. Yendell,
Fellow in Class I., Section 1; Charles E. Faxon, Fellow in Class
II., Section 2; Pasquale Villari, of Florence, Foreign Honorary
Members in Class III., Section 3.

The appointment of Professor Arthur A. Noyes as delegate to
represent the Academy at the semi-centennial of the University
of California, March 18-23 was announced.

The Council announced the receipt of biographical notices as
follows: Cyrus Ballou Comstock, and Benjamin Baker, by G. F.
Swain; Charles Francis Adams, by W. C. Ford; Thomas Raynes-
ford Lounsbury, by Barrett Wendell.

The following Communications were presented:

Dr. S. B. Wolbach, “Studies on the Etiology of Rocky Moun-
tain Spotted Fever.”

Dr. H. A. Christian, “The String Galvanometer in the Study
of Heart Disease.”

Dr. H. C. Ernst. “An Old and New Microscope.”

The meeting then adjourned.

758 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

One thousand and seventy-first Meeting.

Marcu 13, 1918.— Statep MEETING.

The Academy met at its House.

The PRESIDENT in the Chair.

There were thirty-five Fellows and one guest present.

The following letters were presented by the Corresponding
Secretary: — from Sir Thomas Barlow, W. N. Shaw, and C. 5S.
Sherrington, accepting Foreign Honorary Membership; from
O. Kk. O. Folin, resigning Fellowship; from the Kansas Academy
of Science, inviting a delegate from the Academy to attend its
semi-centennial anniversary at Lawrence, March 15 and 16, 1918.

A biographical notice of William Sellers by F. R. Hutton was
presented.

The Chair announced the appointment of W. W. Campbell, to
represent the Academy at the semi-centennial of the University of
California, in place of A. A. Noyes, who was unable to attend.

It was also announced that an invitation to attend the meeting
of the Academy had been extended to the Archbishop of York,
who replied that owing to his departure from the city, he was
unable to accept.

On motion of A. C. Lane, it was

Voted, That the following request be sent to the United States
Fuel Administration.

“We the undersigned respectfully request the United States
Fuel Administration, that if it fixes prices for coal at the mine and
to the consumer, it give a heating value, to be determined, if re-
quired, by analysis or calorimeter test, which within reasonable
limits of variation, such coal shall have; that deductions from, or
additions to these prices be permitted for coal that proves by test
to be of substantially different heating value; and since extra
heating value is worth nearly as much at the mine as at the point
of consumption (costing no more for freight, storage, and handling)
buyers should be allowed to pay the mines for the extra heating
value they may wish in proportion to the amount the coal is worth
at the point at which it is to be consumed. This would have the
public advantage that it would lead the mines to ship the most

RECORDS OF MEETINGS. 759

concentrated fuel to the farthest points, and thus relieve the
transportation system of the burden of carrying useless slate.”

The Librarian read a letter of thanks from the Committee on the
Union List of Periodicals, for further assistance from the Academy.

The Chair appointed the following Councillors to act as Nomi-
nating Committee:

Frederick S. Woods, of Class I.

Alfred C. Lane, of Class II.

Samuel Williston, of Class ITT.

On recommendation of the Council, the following appropriations
were made for the ensuing year: —

From the income of the General Fund, $5800, to be used as
follows: —

for General and Meeting expenses $ 300.
for Library expenses 2500.
for House expenses 2000.
for Treasurer’s office 800.
for President’s expenses 200.

From the income of the Publication Fund, $3500, to be used for
publication.

From the income of the Rumford Fund, $2945.76 to be used as
follows: —

for Research $1000.
for Books, periodicals and binding 200.
for Publication 600.
for use at the discretion of the Committee 1145.76

$250 was transferred from the unexpended balance of the
current appropriation for “Publications” to “ Research” for the
coming year.

From the income of the C. M. Warren Fund, $800, to be used
at the discretion of the Committee.

The following communications were presented:

Prof. E. C. Jeffrey, “On the Origin of Rubber.”

Prof. Waldemar Lindgren, “Some Geological Observations
along the West Coast of South America.”

The meeting then adjourned.

f

760 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

One thousand and seventy-second Meeting.

Aprit 10, 1918.— StateD MEETING.

The Academy met at its House.

The PRESIDENT in the Chair.

There were thirty-one Fellows and one guest present.

A letter was presented by the Corresponding Secretary from
William MacDonald, accepting Fellowship.

The Committee to which the proposed Amendments to the
Statutes were referred recommended the following changes: —

Chapter II., Article 4, to read as follows: —

“Tf any person, after being notified of his election as rae
or Resident Associate shall neglect for six months to accept in
writing, or, if a Fellow or resident within fifty miles of Boston
shall neglect to pay his Admission Fee, his election shall be void;
and if any Fellow resident within fifty miles of Boston or any
Resident Associate shall neglect to pay his Annual Dues for six
months after they are due, provided his attention shall have been
called to this Article of the Statutes in the meantime, he shall
cease to be a Fellow or Resident Associate respectively; but the
Council may suspend the provisions of this Article for a reasonable
time.”

Paragraph 2, line 8. After the word “Fellows” insert “or
Resident Associates ”’

Article 5, line 1. After the word “Fellow” insert “resident
within fifty miles of Boston”.

Line 6, Omit “except in the case of Fellows elected at the January
meetings, who shall be obliged to pay but one half of such Annual
Dues in the year in which they are elected.”

Line 8. After the word “Fellow” insert “or Resident Asso-
ciate ”’

Article 7, line 3. Omit “all the Fellows and”’.

Line 4. Add “and to Fellows on request ”’

Article 8, line 2. Insert after the word “Member,” “or Resi-
dent Associate ”’

Chapter III., Articles 1 and 2, to read as follows: —

RECORDS OF MEETINGS. 761

“CHAPTER 3, ARTICLE 1. Elections of Fellows and Foreign
Honorary Members shall be made by the Council in April of each
year, and announced at the Annual Meeting in May.

ARTICLE 2. Nominations to Fellowship or Foreign Honorary
Membership in any Section must be signed by two Fellows of that
Section or by three voting Fellows of any Sections; but in any one
year no Fellow may nominate more than four persons. These nomi-
nations, with statements of qualifications and brief biographical
data, shall be sent to the Corresponding Secretary. All nominations
thus received prior to February 15 shall be forthwith sent in printed
form to every Fellow having the right to vote, with the names of
the proposers in each case and a brief account of each nominee, and
with the request that the list be returned before March 15, marked
to indicate preferences of the voter in such manner as the Council
may direct. All the nominations, with any comments thereon and
with the results of the preferential indications of the Fellows, re-
ceived by March 15, shall be referred at once to the appropriate
Class Committees, which shall report their decisions to the Council,
which shall thereupon have power to elect. Persons nominated in
any year, but not elected, may be placed on the preferential ballot
of the next year at the discretion of the Council, but shall not further
be continued on the list of nominees unless renominated.

Notice shall be sent to every Fellow having the right to vote, not
later than the fifteenth of January, of each year, calling attention
to the fact that the limit of time for sending nominations to the
Corresponding Secretary will expire on the fifteenth of February.”

Article 3. To be omitted.

Chapter IV., Article 2, to read as follows:

“Tf any officer be unable, through death, absence, or disability,
to fulfil the duties of his office, or if he shall resign, his place may
be filled by the Council in its discretion for any part or the whole
of the unexpired term.”

Chapter VI., Article 1, paragraph 2, line 2. After the word
“Members” insert “or Resident Associates ’’.

Paragraph 3, line 2. After the word “Fellows”? omit and:
after the word “Members” insert “and Resident Associates ”.

Article 2, paragraph 2. After the word “Fellows” insert “or
Resident Associates ”’.

762 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Paragraph 3, line 3. After the word “Fellows” insert “and
Resident Associates ”’.

Paragraph 4, line 1. After the word “Fellow” insert “and
Resident Associate ”’.

Chapter VII., Article 2, line 4. After the word “Fellows”
insert “and Resident Associates”.

Chapter VIII., Article 5, line 3. After the word “Fellow”
insert “or Resident Associate’. 7

Line 6. After the word “Fellow” insert “or Resident Asso-
ciate”.

Chapter IX., Article 4. After the word “Fellowship” insert
“or Resident Associateship ”’.

Article 7. In place of the word “Memoir” insert the words
“biographical notice ’’.

Chapter XI., Article 4, line 2. After the word “Fellow” insert
“or Resident Associate”’.

Line 3, After the word “Fellow” insert “or Resident Associate ”’.

Article 5. After the word “Fellow” insert “or Resident Asso-
ciate”

Standing Vote 2. After the word “Fellows” insert “or Resi-
dent Associates ”’.

Standing Vote 4, paragraph 1. To read as follows: —

“There may be chosen by the Academy, under such rules as
the Council may determine, one hundred Resident Associates.
Not more than forty Resident Associates shall be chosen in any
one Class.”

Paragraph 2. To be omitted.

Paragraph 3. In place of the words “one half that’’ insert
“the same as those’”’.

Add Standing Vote 5, as follows: —

“Communications offered for publication in the Proceedings or
Memoirs of the Academy shall not be accepted for publication
before the author shall have informed the Committee on Meetings
of his readiness, either himself or through some agent, to use such
time as the Committee may assign him at such meeting as may be
convenient both to him and to the Committee, for the purpose
of presenting to the Academy a general statement of the nature
and significance of the results contained in his communication.”

RECORDS OF MEETINGS. 763

On motion, it was

Voted, To amend the Statutes in accordance with the report,
the amendment to Chapter 3, to take effect May 9, 1918.

On motion of J. J. Putnam, it was

Voted, That the President be authorized to sign the following
letter:

“Dear Sir:

Some of the personal friends and colleagues of Josiah Royce, who
believe that his work and his character made a deep impression upon
a wide circle of men and women, and that he became, in fact, the
centre of a large spiritual community, many of whose members were
unknown to him, as he was unknown personally to them, feel that the
reverence and affection which went out to him as a thinker and as a
man should be embodied in some appropriate memorial of him at
Harvard University, where he expressed himself in characteristic
speech and writing for thirty years.

It is proposed, with this end in view, to create a fund of $20,000 to
be known as the Josiah Royce Memorial Fund, the income of which
shall go to Mrs. Royce during her lifetime, and thereafter to the
Department of Philosophy of Harvard College, to be used in such ways
as the Department shall decide from year to year.

There are evident reasons why this appeal should not be delayed
until the return of normal conditions, natural as such postponement
might on some accounts appear to be. And further, the due honoring
of our moral heroes though a privilege under all circumstances is
especially a privilege and a duty in heroic times.

If you desire to subscribe, please send your check to Charles Francis
Adams, Esq., Treasurer of Harvard College, 50 State Street.

(signed) The American Academy of Arts and Sciences,

by CHaRLEs P. BownirTcu,
President.”

The following Communications were presented:

Professor Clifford H. Moore. “The Decay of Nationalism
under the Roman Empire.”’

Professor W. M. Davis. “New Coast Survey Charts of the
Philippine Islands, and their bearing on the Coral-reef Problem.”

The following papers were presented by title:

764 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

“Rotations in hyperspace,” by C. L. E. Moore.

“Extra-American Dipterophilous Laboulbeniales” and

“New Laboulbeniales from Chile and New Zealand,” by Roland
Thaxter.

The meeting then adjourned.

One thousand and seventy-third Meeting.
May 8, 1918.— AnNuAL MEETING.

The Academy met at its House.

The PRESIDENT in the Chair.

There were forty-five Fellows and one guest present. |

The Corresponding Secretary presented the following letters:
from W. C. Gorgas, accepting. Fellowship; from E. B. Drew,
resigning Fellowship. The following biographical notices were
also presented: J. M. Crafts, by T. W. Richards, L. P. Kinnicutt,
by W. L. Jennings, S. P. Langley, by John Trowbridge, B. O.
Peirce, by E. H. Hall, F. W. Taylor, by I. N. Hollis, O. C. Wendell,
by S. I. Bailey, Robert Koch, by H. C. Ernst, A. S. Packard, by
A. D. Mead, Ferdinand Bruntiére, by Barrett Wendell and Louis
Allard, Edward H. Hall, by W. W. Fenn, W. G. Sumner, by T. N.
Carver, W. W. Howe, by W. H. Dunbar.

The Chair announced the deaths of Henry Adams, Fellow in
Class III., Section 3, and Marcus Perrin Knowlton, Fellow in
Class III., Section 1.

The following report of the Council was presented : —

Since the last report of the Council, there have been reported
the deaths of twelve Fellows: J. W. White, J. H. Choate, B. L.
Pratt, J. M. Crafts, H. L. Warren, W. DeW. Hyde, W. B. Clark,
G. V. Leverett, P. S. Yendell, C. E. Faxon, Henry Adams, M. P.
Knowlton; and of two Foreign Honorary Members: G. C. Mas-
pero, Pasquale Villari.

Forty-eight Fellows have been elected, of which number, one
has declined Fellowship.- The elections of Alexis Carrel and Ed-
ward Weston have lapsed. The limit of time of acceptance has
been extended for J. D. Irving. One Fellow has been dropped
from the list for non-payment of dues. Two Fellows have re-
signed Fellowship.

RECORDS OF MEETINGS.

765

Seven Foreign Honorary Members have been elected. ‘The elec-
tions of four, (Barrois, Bonnat, Marconi and Nernst) have lapsed.
The roll now includes 515 Fellows and 67 Foreign Honorary

Members.

The annual report of the Treasurer was read, of which the follow-

ing is an abstract: —

GENERAL FUND.

Receipts.
Balance, April 1, 1917
Investments
Assessments
Admissions
Sundries .
Expenditures.

Expense of Library

Expense of House

Treasurer

Assistant iheeasarer :
General Expense of Society
Income transferred to principal

Balance, April 1, 1918

Rumrorp Funp.

Receipts.

Balance, April 1, 1917
Investments
Sale of instrument ees

Expenditures.
Research.
Periodicals and isbn.
Publication HES
Sundries
Income eed & peep

Balance, April 1, 1918

$4,030 . 62
3,826.30
3,285 .00

400 .00

: 264.05

$2,426 . 64
1,729 .32
741.03
250 .00
640.70

: 282.92

$2,270.62
3,295.05
40.00

$1,800 .00
59.41

680 .97
12.44

154.64

$11,805.97

$6,070. 61
5,735.36
$11,805 .97

$5,605 . 67

$2,703 . 46.
2,902.21
$5,605.67

766 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

C. M. Warren Funp.

Receipts.
Balance, April 1, 1917 $2,592 .27
Investments ‘ 1,428 .39
Expenditures.
Research $300 . 00
Sundries efeat inode: reas icy ose elt
Income transferred to principal 43.91

Balance, April 1, 1918

PUBLICATION FUND.

Receipts.
Balance, April 1, 1917 $1,921 .83
Appleton Fund investments 932.78
Centennial Fund investments . 2,404.35
Authors’ Reprints 118.70
Sale of Publications . 181.26
Expenditures.

Publications $2,570.37

Sundries i as sen a 10.00
Income transferred to principal 163.06
Balance, April 1, 1918
Francis AMory Funp.
Receipts.
Investments $1,222 .50
Expenditures.

Publishing statement 29 .50
Income transferred to principal

1,193.00

$4,020.

$4,020 . 66

$347 .08
3,673.58

66

$5,558 . 92

RECORDS OF MEETINGS. 767
The following reports were also presented: —

REPORT OF THE LIBRARY COMMITTEE.

The Librarian begs to submit the following report: —

During the year 73 books have been borrowed by 23 persons, in-
cluding 15 Fellows and 5 libraries. Many books have been consulted,
although not taken from the library. All books taken out have been
satisfactorily accounted for.

The number of volumes on the shelves at the time of the last report
was 35,228. 472 volumes have been added during the past year,
making the number now on the shelves, 35,700. This includes 22
purchased from the income of the General Fund, 11 from that of the
Rumford Fund, and 435 received by gift or exchange. The pamphlets
added during the year number 203.

The expenses charged to the Library during the financial year are: —

pee te he OT ae et eke eee el OO)
Binding: —
eneriebimues 8, os, 8. le ee 584.10
anminorastuncd: «fo Os SO ee 20.60
Purchase of periodicals and books: —
Seneruenand ey. & af. bee. fees ee 114.85
ASOMEROROPE UNC! mete eS Aye d va0 Sees ae ee 34.81
Mittacclemcmise =. (eee ets. tk. ok oe ee 54.54
Melee ee ey ee Le Le ORY OD ee ee ee OG OU

A. G. Wesster, Librarian.
May 8, 1918.

Report OF THE RUMFORD COMMITTEE.

The Committee organized November 14, 1917. Charles R. Cross
was chosen to be chairman for the ensuing year and Arthur G. Webster,
secretary.

During the past year grants for research have been made as follows:

November 14, 1917. To Professor Raymond T. Birge in aid
of his research on the structure of Series Spectra . . . . . $150

To Professor Ancel St. John for the purchase of a refrigerating
machine and accessories to be the property of the Academy and

768 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

sent to Professor St. John for use in connection with his re-

searches on Crystal Structure by means of X-Rays . . . $500
To Professor Theodore W. Richards in aid of the pelienaen
of Marie’s Physical and Chemical data . . 250

March 13, 1918. To Professor F. A. Richiannees in ae a te

researches on the Optical Properties of Thin Films (additional) 500
To Professor Arthur L. Foley, for his research on the photog-

raphy of the electric spark at different periods of its history . 150
To Dr. Olin Tugman in aid of his research on the Conduc-

tivity of thin metal films when exposed to ultra violet light . . 100

Reports of progress in their several researches have been received
from the following persons: —

Messrs. C. G. Abbot, W. M. Baldwin, R. T. Birge, W. W. Camp-
bell, A. L. Clark, D. F. Comstock, H. Crew, F. Daniels, E. B. Frost,
R. C. Gibbs, H. C. Hayes, H. P. Hollnagel, L. R. Ingersoll, N. A.
Kent, L. V. King (research finished), C. A. Kraus, E. Kremers, A. B.
Lamb (research finished), C. E. Mendenhall, R. A. Millikan, H. W.
Morse (research finished), C. L. Norton, F. Palmer, Jr., J. A. Park-
hurst, H. M. Randall (research finished), T. W. Richards, F. A.
Richtmyer, A. St. John, W. O. Sawtelle, A. W. Smith, F. A. Saunders,

~b. J. Spence, F. W. Very, D. L. Webster.

Most of these researches have been temporarily suspended because
of the engagement of the various grantees in work for the Government.

The following paper has been published with aid from the Rumford
Fund in the Proceedings of the Academy since the last annual meeting:
P. W. Bridgman, “Thermo-electromotive Force, Peltier Heat and
Thomson Heat under Pressure.” Volume 53, No. 4, March, 1918.

At its meeting of January 9, 1918, it was unanimously voted by the
Rumford Committee for the first time and on February 13, 1918, for
the second time to recommend to the Academy the award of the
Rumford Premium to Theodore Lyman for his researches on Light
of very short wave length.

Professor Lyman, though a member of the Rumford Committee,
has been abroad in the service of his country since autumn.

CHARLES R. Cross, Chairman.
May 8, 1918.

RECORDS OF MEETINGS. 769

Report oF THE C. M. WarREN CommMITTER.

The C. M. Warren Committee begs to submit the following report?

The unexpended balance of appropriations held by the Committee
at the date of the last report was $2271.50. In March, 1918, a further
appropriation of $800 was made by the Academy.

Only one application for a grant from this Fund has been received
during the year, namely, that of Dr. James H. Ellis, for the sum of
$300 for the study of equilibrium conditions of the reaction employed
in the Bucher process for the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. This
application was approved by the Committee on November 7, 1917.
The results of this investigation should be of direct value to the
National Government.

It appears to be the general experience of Trustees of research funds
that the past year has been one of little or no activity with respect to
applications for grants. These conditions will doubtless continue
during the war, but it seems to the majority of your Committee that,
at the close of the war, there is likely to be an increased field of use-
fulness for these funds, and that the income should be allowed to
accumulate, or, if invested, it should still be regarded as available
for appropriation for the present. One member (Professor Baxter)
dissents from this view. The balance at the disposal of the Commit-
tee at the present time is $2771.50 and the Treasurer reports that
there is an unappropriated income amounting to about $1300.

During the year Professor S. L. Bigelow has published the results
of his investigations upon Metallic Osmotic Membranes.

The results of Professor J. F. Norris’s investigations are being
prepared for publication.

Respectfully submitted,

H. P. Tatsot, Chairman.
May 8, 1918.

REPORT OF THE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE,

The Committee of Publication submits the following report for the
period from April 1, 1917, to April 1, 1918.

During this period, 710 pages of the Proceedings have been issued,
namely, Nos. 10-13 of Vol. 52, and Nos. 1-5 of Vol. 53.

770 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Two of these numbers, namely 52:12 and 53:4, were paid for out
of the funds of the Rumford Committee, the total charge against the
Rumford Fund being $680.97.

The accounts of the Committee of Publication stand as follows:

Balance on hand April, 1917 .. . 2 “ejb eo Seee eee doGeco
Appropriation for 1917-1918). 3) % a. = Agee ee en
Proceeds from sale of publications . :. . .. .. . 181 .26
Total available funds ei ah old as Re ee er Oras
Expenses PA cy rahe Gates! eae 2,451.67
Balance on hand April1,1918 . -. . . .. . 3 2 $2,485.88

During the present year, authors have ordered “extra”’ reprints
through the Committee, to the amount of $118.70. ;

Respectfully submitted,

Epwarp V. Huntineton, Chairman.
May 8, 1918.

ReEporT OF THE House CoMMITTEE.

The House Committee submits the following report for 1917-18.

With the balance left from last year, an appropriation of $1600 and
money received from other societies for the use of the rooms, the
Committee has had at its disposal the sum of $1789.62. The total
expenditure has been $1769.32, leaving an unexpended balance on
April 1, 1918, of $20.30. The expenditure has been as follows:

Janitor <9... % ~.) sch aS omg)
fee ey | A. Light. 2° 4). ene ee 92.40
Sea B: Power). oe eee 46.80
Gas cori 0 344 > Ree 1 ie
Water 3. "220.2 o. a: 2) yh ene 8.00
Telephone..." . °., . <i ee ee 57.91
Gaal {Furnace =. .< 3.5, SO) eeeEoeee
: \ Water Heater . 2. =: 30 eee 20.30
Care of elevator <= .. i s2 Fee 23.19
TOG) vege Sb ae te ee 15.00
Janitor’s materials «3, ¢ (75) ee PAU II
Upkeep. i, fin 2.10) EE eae 20.38

Total expenditure’.s . -. . 5 5s We Pei eee

RECORDS OF MEETINGS. veri

The amount of $40. contributed by other societies for the use of the
building leaves the net expense of the House $1729.32.

A private subscription enabled the Committee to equip the library
stack building with double windows fitted with rubber gaskets.
These have proved effective in greatly diminishing the amount of dirt
that collects on the books. It is thought that in an ordinary winter
the result will be a material saving in coal.

Meetings have been held as follows: —

The Academy . . Sy eer Ane See Peete ON en, Be
Harvard Biblical Club pea OI Dae
Colonial Society . . . Se ot SO ee Pe
American Antiquarian Sane : 1
Archaeological Institute of America . . ... . 1

The rooms on the first floor have been used many times for Com-
mittee meetings.

In the death of William J. Reardon, on February 9, at the Cam-
bridge Tubercular Hospital, the Academy has lost a faithful and
efficient employee, who since January, 1912, has given the care of the
building undivided attention.

Respectfully submitted,

G. R. Acassiz, Chairman.
May 8, 1918.

On recommendation of the Rumford Committee, it was
Voted, To award the Rumford Premium to Theodore Lyman,
of Cambridge, Mass., for his Researches on Light of very short
Wave-length.
On motion of the Treasurer, it was
Voted, That the Annual Assessment be ten ($10) dollars.
The annual election resulted in the choice of the following
officers and committees: —
Cuartes P. Bownircu, President.
Evisu Tuomson, Vice-President for Class I.
Wituram M. Davis, Vice-President for Class IT.
GrorGE F. Moore, Vice-President for Class ITI.
Harry W. Trier, Corresponding Secretary.
Wan. Srurcis Bicetow, Recording Secretary.
Henry H. Epes, Treasurer.
Artruur G. Wesster, Librarian.

772 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Councillors for Four Years.

GrorGE D. Brrkuorr, of Class I.
CuarLes H. Warren, of Class IT.
Freperic Dopae, of Class ITI.

Finance Committee.

Henry P. Watcort, JOHN TROWBRIDGE,
Harotp Murpock.

Rumford Committee.

CHARLES R. Cross, ARTHUR G. WEBSTER,
Epwarp C. PICKERING, ArtTHurR A. NOYEs,
Louis BELL, Exinu THomMsSoNn,

THEODORE LYMAN.

C. M. Warren Committee.

Henry P. Tasot, CHARLES L. JACKSON,
WALTER L. JENNINGS, ArTHuR D. LITTLE,
ArtHur A. NoyEs, GreGcory P. Baxter,

Wiiuram H. WALKER.

Publication Committee.

Epwarp V. Huntinaton, of Class I.
Jay B. Woopwortu, of Class IT.
ALBERT A. Howarp, of Class III.

Inbrary Committee.

Harry M. Goopwin, of Class I.
Tuomas Barpour, of Class IT.
Wituram C. Lang, of Class III.

House Committee.

GrorGE R. AGAssiz, Louis DrErr,
Wo. Stureis BicELow.

RECORDS OF MEETINGS. 773

Committee on Meetings.

THe PRESIDENT, Witu1am M. Davis,
THe RECORDING SECRETARY, Epwin B. WILson,
GrEorRGE F. Moore.

Auditing Committee.

GEORGE R. AGassiz, JOHN E. THAYER.

The following gentlemen were elected Fellows of the Academy :—

Henry Bayard Phillips, of Boston, to be a Fellow in Class L.,
Section 1. (Mathematics and Astronomy.)

David Locke Webster, of Ann Arbor, to be a Fellow in Class I.,
Section 2. (Physics.)

Edmund Burke Delabarre, of Providence, to be a Fellow in
Class III., Section 1. (Theology, Philosophy and Jurisprudence.)

William Herbert Perry Faunce, of Providence, to be a Fellow
in Class III., Section 1. (Theology, Philosophy and Juris-
prudence.)

Leighton Parks, of New York, to be a Fellow in Class III.,
Section 1. (Theology, Philosophy and Jurisprudence.)

Endicott Peabody, of Groton, to be a Fellow in Class III.,
Section 1. (Theology, Philosophy and Jurisprudence.)

Francis Greenwood Peabody, of Cambridge, to be a Fellow in
Class III., Section 1. (Theology, Philosophy and Jurisprudence.)

Edward Capps, of Princeton, to be a Fellow in Class IIL.,
Section 2. (Philology and Archaeology.)

George Lincoln Hendrickson, of New Haven, to be a Fellow in
Class III., Section 2. (Philology and Archaeology.)

Elijah Clarence Hills, of New York, to be a Fellow in Class ITI.,
Section 2. (Philology and Archaeology.)

Rudolph Schevill, of Berkeley, to be a Fellow in Class IIL.,
Section 2. (Philology and Archaeology.)

Brooks Adams, of Quincy, to be a Fellow in Class III., Section 3.
(Political Economy and History.)

774 PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

Isaac Minis Hays, of Philadelphia, to be a Fellow in Class III.,
Section 3. (Political Economy and History.)

Gamaliel Bradford, of Wellesley Hills, to be a Fellow in Class
III., Section 4. (Literature and the Fine Arts.)

Charles Allerton Coolidge, of Boston, to be a Fellow in Class
III., Section 4. (Literature and the Fine Arts.)

Edward Waldo Forbes, of Cambridge, to be a Fellow in Class
III., Section 4. (Literature and the Fine Arts.)

Morris Gray, of Chestnut Hill, to be a Fellow in Class III.,
Section 4. (Literature and the Fine Arts.)

Archer Milton Huntington, of New York, to be a Fellow in
Class III., Section 4. (Literature and the Fine Arts.)

Thomas Nelson Page, of Washington, to be a Fellow in Class
III., Section 4. (Literature and the Fine Arts.)

Walter Hines Page, of Garden City, to be a Fellow in Class III.,
Section 4. (Literature and the Fine Arts.)

The following communications were presented : —

Professor Henry P. Talbot, “The Nitrogen Question and the
War.”

Professor Forris J. Moore, “Graphic Formulas of Organic
Chemistry: To what extent may they be considered true pictures
of Molecular Structure?”

The following papers were presented by title: —

“On Stability in Dynamics.”” By G. D. Birkhoff.

“JT. Diagnoses and Notes relating to tropical American Eupa-
torieae. II. A descriptive Revision of the Colombian Eupa-
toriums. III. Keyed Recensions of the Eupatoriums of Vene-
zuela and Ecuador.” By B. L. Robinson.

The meeting then adjourned.

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. |

CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS WoRTHINGTON CHAUNCEY ForD
SIR BENJAMIN BAKER G. F. Swain

FERDINAND BRUNETIERE
BARRETT WENDALL AND Louis ALLARD

ARTHUR TRACY CABOT F. C. SHarruck
CYRUS BALLOU COMSTOCK G. F. Swain
JAMES MASON CRAFTS TuHeopore W. RicHarps
EDMONDO DE AMICIS W. R. THAYER
WILLIAM WATSON GOODWIN Hersert Wertr SmyrH
EDWARD HENRY HALL W. W. FENN
WILLIAM WIRT HOWE Wititram H. DunsBar
LEONARD PARKER KINNICUTT W. L. JENNINGS
ROBERT KOCH H. C. Ernst
SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY JoHN TROWBRIDGE
THOMAS RAYNESFORD LOUNSBURY Barrett WENDELL
CHARLES SEDGWICK MINOT W. T. CounciLMan
ALPHEUS SPRING PACKARD A. D. Mrap
BENJAMIN OSGOOD PEIRCE Epwin H. Hau
ISRAEL COOK RUSSELL ALFRED C. LANE
AUGUSTUS SAINT GAUDENS DANIEL CHESTER FRENCH
WILLIAM SELLERS F. R. Hurron (Author died May, 1918)
EDWARD HENRY STROBEL SaMUEL WILLISTON
WILLIAM GRAHAM SUMNER T. N. Carver
FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR I. N. Hottis

FRIEDRICH DANIEL VON RECKLINGHAUSEN
W. T. Counci~Man

OLIVER CLINTON WENDELL S. I. BarLtey

“J
i |
o>

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS (1835-1915)

Fellow in Class III, Section 3, 1871.

Charles Francis Adams, of famous ancestry, was born in Boston,
May 27, 1835, the second son of Charles Francis and Abigail Brown
(Brooks) Adams. Of his early education and associations he has said
much in his “ Autobiography,” but heredity counted for much in his
characteristics. He had a clear recollection of his grandfather, John
Quincy Adams, then engrossed by his contest for freedom, and he had
inherited a questioning spirit which placed him in opposition to the
social and political conventions of the day. Passing through a private
school at Hingham and the Boston Latin School he entered Harvard
College and pursued the usual course of studies without indication of
possessing unusual aptitude or a special bent in any one direction.
On graduating in 1856 he entered the law office of Dana and Parker.
The personal relations with two such men exerted a strong influence
upon the young Adams, to whom law could never be a serious profes-
sion any more than it was to his grandfather; but the writings of the
English scientists and the speculations of Spencer were an even stronger
influence, encouraging his tendency to question existing conditions
and to test the strength of the economic and political structure on
which the democratic community rested.

The war of secession interrupted this training in the law, though Mr.
Adams did not at first consider military service as necessary. His
father had been appointed United States Minister to the Court of St.
James and his son was in charge of his business at home. A younger
brother, Henry, accompanied his father to London to be his private
secretary, and on Charles rested the management of the family affairs.
The call, however, became too strong to be resisted, and in December,
1861, he received a commission as First Lieutenant in the First Massa-
chusetts Cavalry. His service exercised a lasting influence upon his
career, for it later engaged him in a series of studies upon the war
which placed him high among critics of military strategy, and which
yielded rich return in the connected field of the diplomacy of the period.
Serving in South Carolina arid Virginia, he became Captain in October,
1862, was chief of squadron through the campaign of Gettysburg and
in the advance upon Richmond, and in the autumn of 1864 was
transferred as Lieutenant-Colonel to the Fifth Massachusetts Cavalry

Led

CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS. 777

(colored). Seriously affected in health he was ordered home in 1865,
and while there he received an invitation to join the military family of
Major-General Humphreys, as Assistant Inspector General. Such
was his idea of his duty to his colored regiment that he declined this
flattering offer. He entered Richmond at the head of his regiment in
April, 1865, but was obliged to resign on account of broken health.
He subsequently received the brevet of Brigadier General. His later
opposition to the scandalous waste in pensions and the manifestly
dishonest methods of agents in securing them called out no little
hostile criticism on his military service; but the charges were easily
disproved or explained by him, and the record shown to be highly
honorable to himself. In the face of great difficulties he won for him-
self a reputation for attention to duty, a desire to master the needs of
the service and a care for detail and discipline which won for him the
notice of his superior officers and the devotion of his followers.
Returning from the army he proposed to resume the study and
practice of the law, but the social conditions which followed the war
called upon his interest and directed his energy into a field of investiga-
tion which he made his own. Conscious of a certain faculty for clear
expression and an unusual quality of style he wrote much on currency,
politics and tax questions. The situation in which the railroads were
left by the war attracted his study, and he soon gained prominence in
a field where reforms were much needed and where New England,
thanks to him, was to lead the war to better conditions. His fearless
denunciation of dishonest practices and his clean cut policy for a better
conduct of railroad management led to his appointment on the first
really effective State Board of Railroad Commissioners, that of
Massachusetts. For ten years his best service was rendered in this
capacity, and for seven years, as chairman of the commission, he wrote
its reports and established it on such a plane that it became the model
of similar commissions, state and national. These reports may still
be read with profit for their remarkable grasp of an intricate subject
and for their definite propositions for bettering the condition of the
railroads and their relations to the state. So thorough was the plan
worked out that it was readily applied to the electric roads when they
came into existence. He was called upon to serve as a government
director on the Union Pacific Railroad, becoming the President of
that road in 1884. This naturally led to his resignation from the
State commission. He did much to lift the Union Pacific out of the
slough of ill repute into which it had fallen, and did much more than
a less honest and fearless reformer could have accomplished; but he

778 CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS.

never looked with satisfaction upon the experience, for he was con-
tending against influences of a sinister character which in the end
proved stronger than his own efforts. His confidence in the future
of the road was fully justified in later years, and to its subsequent
success Mr. Adams contributed more than was at the time recognized.

After leaving the army Mr. Adams had been occupied in public
business and the affairs of a great railroad; there came to him now a
period of comparative rest. So active a mind could not remain
unoccupied. He took up the subject of education, and when on the
State Board of Education, where he sat for only one year, he formu-
lated a plan of studies to be followed in the common schools. As an
Overseer of Harvard University from 1882 to 1907 he criticised freely,
but also did much constructive work, one of the important items
being his report on the English department which led to changes in
that department greatly to its improvement. His challenge to the
classics — A College Fetish — awakened wide interest, and to him
was due the requirement in entrance examination of only one of the
classical languages, instead of two. He reformed the school system of
the town of Quincey, and the “Quincy School System” has been fol-
lowed in many localities, for it applied business methods to the com-
mon schools, resulting in a higher efficiency.

Of Mr. Adams’ historical work little need be said, for it speaks so
well for itself. How he came to engage in it he has told in his “ Auto-
biography,” and for forty years it constituted his principal enjoy-
ment, the best realization of his powers for investigation and exposi-
tion. Whether it was the story of the beginnings of the plantation
of the Massachusetts-Bay, or the diplomatic career of his father, or a
biography of a man of law and letters, the result proved his unusual
qualification and high equipment. In each department he sought to
be complete — to approach as near to finality as the records permitted.
His “Three Episodes of Massachusetts History,’’ which was really a
history of the town of Quincy, is a model of local history, when treated
in its relations to national history. It was in preparing this work
that his thorough methods tempted him to edit Thomas Morton’s
“ New-English Canaan” and the Winthrop-Weld tract on “ Anti-
nomianism in New England,” two side-studies to the larger under-
taking on which he left little still to be interpreted. The “Life of
Richard Henry Dana” is also a model of its kind, wherein the subject of
the biography is made to tell his own story, the compiler adding only
what was needed for a full comprehension of the text. But how
much the “compiler” added, and how he made clear the path to the

CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS. 779

reader can be grasped only by a careful reading of the volume. As to
the life of his father, he wrote an admirable and well-proportioned
sketch of it for the “ American Statesmen,” but the larger adventure,
planned on a very much larger scale, occupied much of his time and
thought for years, and had been carried to 1861, when the end came.
Certain it is that it can never be completed as he intended it, for his
later studies in English and American records led him to modify many
of his earlier conclusions. Invited in 1913 to give at Oxford the lec-
tures on American history, he utilized the opportunity to gather a
rich harvest of private and official correspondence which was to be
used in the extended life of his father.

His connection with the Massachusetts Historical Society encour-
aged his historical leanings and offered him a vent for his many studies
in American history. His value to the Society was early recognized,
and he rapidly rose in the official line, becoming a member in 1875, the
Vice-President in 1890, and the President in 1895, holding that posi-
tion until his death. What he accomplished for the Society, changing
it from a small social “club” to an active historical society, may be
seen in the printed “ Proceedings.” He brought to it the same energy,
the same questioning attitude, and the same fearlessness as had
given him reputation as a writer on social problems. Possessing a
true historical instinct he contributed freely from his own ability and
called out from others the best that was in them in historical investiga-
tion. In time, in money, and in papers he did more for the Society
than the records will show.

In 1871 he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts
and Sciences. He was not a regular attendant on its meetings.

Mr. Adams married, November 8, 1865, Mary Howe Ogden of New-
port, R. I., who survived him. He died in Washington, D. C., March
20, 1915.

Of Mr. Adams’ many activities and positions, public and corporate,
it would be impossible to speak here. The list would be a long one,
and only a full presentation of each item could give a fitting concep-
tion of his aims and accomplishment. He was a man of letters,
possessed of a style at once clear, trenchant and individual, and capa-
ble of deep investigation and an orderly presentation of conclusions.
He had wide sympathies, was a generous supporter of social move-
ments and agencies, and encouraged the younger generation by aid
as well as by example. A liberal in religion, in politics and in social
questions, he retained an open mind and an independent position,
recognizing no party ties or dead conservatism. Eminently social,

780 SIR BENJAMIN BAKER.

he vet retained a certain shyness which invited open intercourse and
suggested the strong nature beneath this genial surface. It was a
privilege to win his regard and to be associated with him closely in
his work and ambitions.

He left an “Autobiography” which is a frank and penetrating
measure of himself. Naturally it is not complete, and his desire to
explain his own conduct has made him unjust to himself. No other
person could have said as much, or said it as well; it is therefore
characteristic, and must be held in high estimation as an open and
honest attempt at self-appreciation, a form of expression which has
become all too infrequent. In every sense he was a lovable char-
acter, vivid, stimulating, loyal and independent.

WoRrRTHINGTON CHAUNCEY Forp.

SIR BENJAMIN BAKER (1840-1907)

Foreign Honorary Member, Class I, Section 4, 1899.

Sir Benjamin Baker, K. C. B., K. C. M..G., D.Se., LL.D., Mi: Ac I.,
F. R.S., was born at Keyford, Frome, Somerset, March 31, 1840, and
died suddenly from heart failure May 19, 1907. At the age of 16 he
was apprenticed to Messrs. Price and Fox of Neath Abbey Iron works,
and remained with them four years. During the next two years he
was engaged on railway work, and in 1862 joined the staff of the late
Sir John Fowler, with whom he remained associated until the death of
the latter in 1898; — rising from the position of Junior Assistant to
that of partner.

During this long period Mr. Baker was actively engaged upon vari-
ous kinds of engineering work, including some works of the greatest
importance. Although without collegiate training, Mr. Baker early
established a reputation as an authority on the theory and practice of
engineering, displaying a remarkable combination of practical and
scientific knowledge. He was interested in education, and did much
to bridge the gulf which had long separated theory from practice.

Much of Mr. Baker’s work was connected with railways. He was
consulting engineer for the earliest “tube” railway in London, and also
for the first projected Hudson River Tunnel in this country. He was

SIR BENJAMIN BAKER. 781

for many years connected with great engineering works in Egypt.
He was also consulted in the design and construction of railways and
other engineering works in West Africa and other colonies, and in the
construction of docks and bridges in England.

The two greatest works, with which his name will forever be asso-
ciated, are the Forth Bridge in Scotland, and the Assuan Dam in
Egypt.

The Forth Bridge, in its present form, owes its conception and design
to him, who worked it out upon scientifie principles with the greatest
care. This bridge possessed for many years the longest span in the
world, which is now only surpassed (and by only 90 feet) by the re-
cently constructed bridge across the St. Lawrence at Quebec.

Mr. Baker was undoubtedly one of the greatest engineers that Eng-
land or the world has ever produced. The great variety of his work,
the care with which he studied and worked out the various problems
upon which he was called to advise, the combination of experience,
judgment, and scientific knowledge which he possessed, made him a
tower of strength, upon which those who consulted him could rely
with confidence. He was an honorary member of the American and
Canadian Society of Civil Engineers, and of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers; and in 1895 was President of the British
Institution of Civil Engineers. He became a Foreign Honorary
Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1899.
His name and works will not be forgotten. He did much for humanity,
education, and the engineering profession, and to prove to the world
that the development of civilization depends largely upon the work of
the engineer.

G. F. Swain.

182 FERDINAND BRUNETIERE.

FERDINAND BRUNETIERE.

(1849-1900.)

Foreign Honorary Member in Class III, Section 4, 1890.
if

Ferdinand Brunetiére was born at Toulon, on the 19th of July,
1849. His father, a naval officer, came from the region still best
remembered as La Vendée, about whose name lingers a romantic
savor of loyalty to tradition. As a boy Brunetiére seems to have
had no fixed home, but an unusual experience of France, ranging
from Provence to Britanny. He studied at the Lycée of Marseilles,
and finally at the Lycée Louis Le Grand in Paris, where among his
fellow-students was Paul Bourget. In 1869 he was examined for
admission to the Ecole Normale, and was rejected — an ironic incident
in the life of a man destined to be the most eminent French critic
of literature during the next thirty years.

In 1870 he served as a soldier in the defense of Paris. The subse-
quent excesses of the Commune probably intensified his temperamental
distrust of revolution as distinguished from evolution. The next
four or five years he passed obscurely, reading and studying with
characteristic intensity and precision, but supporting himself by
teaching at secondary schools. Among his fellow-teachers he again
met Paul Bourget, to whose thenceforth close friendship he owed the
chance which fixed the outlines of his career.

In 1875, the director of the Revue des Deux Mondes asked Bourget
to write an article which required more conservative affection for
literary tradition than Bourget then cherished. He therefore called
the attention of the director to his friend Brunetiére, whose opinions
happened to coincide with those desired. This almost accidental
introduction to the Revue des Deux Mondes not only brought to
public notice the remarkable individuality of Brunetiére, but began
the relation between the man and the review destined to last and
strengthen steadily. For years before he died, people thought of
them together — almost as one. Though Brunetiére in time found
many other vehicles of expression, his numberless writings for the
Revue des Deux Mondes were the basis of all the rest. Yet his

~I
f.

FERDINAND BRUNETIERE.

other fields of work were various and noteworthy. In 1887, for
example, his rejection at the Ecole Normale was more than nullified
by his appointment there as a lecturer on literature. He was soon
recognized as, on the whole, the most distinguished lecturer of his
generation, even by those who dissented from his principles and dis-
liked the massive power of his written style. No teacher has ever
had much more influence on his pupils. Public lectures presently fell
to him, at the Sorbonne, in various regions of France, and finally
in foreign countries — in Italy, in Spain, in Holland, in Switzerland,
in the United States. Meanwhile he had other recognitions,— the
Legion of Honor, for example, in 1887. Six years later, in 1893,
he received the crown of French literary distinction, admission to the
Académie Frangaise. In this year, he became head of the Revue
des Deux Mondes. He remained so for the rest of his life.

In 1895 came the beginning of the last phase of his career. During
a visit to Rome, he had a private audience with Leo XIII, of which
the result was an article in the Revue des Deux Mondes implicitly
setting forth the opinions uttered by the Pope, and also implying
Brunetiére’s increasing disposition to accept Catholic orthodoxy. Up
to this time he had been technically a free thinker, whose freedom of
thought had led him to increasing respect for tradition. Before long,
he joined the church, and presently became, so far as a layman could
be, the most conspicuous exponent in France of intelligent Catholic
thought. The politics and the passions of that time and of his
ensuing years made this course at once bold and self-sacrificing. The
tendency of the French government was by no means favorable to
established religion; the Dreyfus affair gave rise to discussions and
misunderstandings — profoundly honest on both sides — which in-
tensified beyond precedent the warmth of feeling always smouldering
beneath differences of religious and political principle; and _ finally
the abolition of the Concordat disestablished the church in France.
Meanwhile Brunetiére was deprived of his chair at the Ecole Normale,
and was refused all opportunity of teaching in any institution under
government control, such as the established universities and the
Collége de France.

Though by this time stricken with the tuberculosis which proved
fatal, he never relaxed his energy, nor his prodigious fecundity of
expression. So long as his voice lasted, he lectured still, his private
lecture-rooms always full to overflowing. When his voice was no
longer at his command, he wrote if possible more copiously and
vigorously than ever. During the last year of his life he exhibited

784. FERDINAND BRUNETIERE.

his highest powers, as a critic, a thinker and a man of letters, in what
he wrote concerning matters literary, political and religious alike.
He died at Paris, the mere shadow of a body enshrining the full power
and brilliancy of his mind, on December 9th, 1906.

i:

Among the numerous notices of Brunetiére, and of his strong and
copious literary work during a full thirty-five years, three stand out,
as deeply sympathetic. Immediately after his death, Monsieur Paul
Bourget sent Le Temps a letter of tenderly personal reminiscence;
this is published in Bourget’s “Pages de Critique et de Doctrine,”
(1912) I, 282-293. Less than a month later, the Revue des Deux
Mondes, for January, 1907, published an analogous paper by the
Vicomte Eugéne-Melchior de Vogiié, like Bourget a fellow academician
and a personal friend, though in this case the friendship began after
Brunetiére’s reputation had become established; the article is
reprinted in Monsieur de Vogiié’s “Les Routes” (1910), 202-225.
And in the Revue des Deux Mondes (1 March, 1908, and 1 April, 1908)
Brunetiére’s pupil, Monsieur Victor Giraud, published a more careful
study of the master’s life and work, which was later included in
Monsieur Giraud’s “ Maitres de Heure”’ (1912), 59-137. All three
of these articles are critical in that excellent sense of the word which
implies earnest effort sincerely to set forth what is best in thought
and in life, with no sentimental suppression of what is not quite so.
All three are affectionately sympathetic. Together they give an
extraordinary impression of a character which all must respect, even
though now and again disposed hardly to agree with the conclusions
honestly and combatively set forth in its profuse and scattered utter-
ances.

The power of summary possessed by Monsieur Victor Giraud is
held by those whose works he has had occasion to summarize remark-
able for intelligence, for sympathy and for justice. In the case of
Brunetiére, his summary is based not only on love for a teacher who
stimulated him when he was a student, and thereafter was a personal
friend and guide, but also on thoughtful study of everything that
Brunetiére had published. “Thirty-two volumes,” he tells us —
mostly collections of articles for the Revue des Deux Mondes, ete.,—
“two pamphlets, five editions of (French) classics, a hundred articles
or so scattered far and wide and never collected, represent the visible

FERDINAND BRUNETIPRE. 785

and tangible work of a man who was not only a writer but a pro-
fessor, a lecturer, and the editor of the Revue, and who died at the age
of fifty-seven. He touched on criticism, history, aesthetics, sociology,
ethics, pedagogics, philosophy, apologetics, and theology; and if he
did not remake them all, he seldom left things exactly as he had found
them. By signs like that you can recognize the true masters. Brune-
tiére was probably among the two or three greatest influences upon the
French thought of his time.”

To attempt here any detailed summary of this great though frag-
mentary work would be presumptuous. It is not, perhaps, presump-
tuous to say that Monsieur Giraud’s memorable tribute to his master
and friend revives and confirms an impression which Brunetiére
made on American readers and hearers during his life time. Nobody
was ever more French than he, in uncompromising intellectual honesty,
in untiring assiduity of work, in a vigor and a precision of thought
inexhaustible and ultimate, in fervent effort to attain and to set forth
the truth. Nobody was ever more French, either, in what may per-
haps be called the limitations inevitable to precision. To see things
clearly, you must fix your point of view. This fixed, you may look
either backward, bemoaning the faded virtues of the past; or for-
ward, anticipating the gleaming virtues of the future; or you may
strive to define that inexorable process of change which the opti-
mism of America calls progress and complacently assumes to tend
heavenward.

Brunetiére, intensely French, chose the third of these alternatives,
always conscious that the present is the creature of the past and the
creator of the future. In their passage from past to future, those who
love the past are apt to lament and those who love the future are apt
enthusiastically to hope; meanwhile, the general run of mankind are
content to live in the present, thoughtlessly accepting commonplace.
Now commonplace is the instinctive expression of humanity:— in
literature, for example, it asserts the enduring merit of works which
survive to be classics; in religion, it comfortably accepts the doctrine
of the church. Which is all very sensible; but, when asked to account
for its conclusions, its reasons are apt to be stupid and flimsy. A
rather shallow kind of conventional thought, nowadays called radical,
assumes that the task of intelligence is to dissipate the fog of canting
reasons in which commonplace assumptions are enshrouded, and
ingenuously believes that folly can thus be swept nowhere. A more
distinguished type of mind, admitting the old reasons often wrong, is
not willing to conclude that the old assumptions are equally so. It

786 FERDINAND BRUNETIERE.

believes that the highest task of the intellect is not to reject what has
been unreasonably accepted, but rather to give true reasons for sound
conclusions hitherto accepted chiefly as a matter of instinct. This
seems on the whole to have been the purpose of Brunetiére from begin-
ning to end. There has hardly ever been work more faithfully true
than his to an ideal once stated in this country as the aim and end of
all education — the illumination of the commonplace.

III.

We are fortunate in having among us now a French scholar and
man of letters who was a pupil of Brunetiére at the Ecole Normale.
Without his friendly aid, this memoir must have stayed secondary.
He has kindly consented to make it more memorable. So instead of
proceeding with my own fragmentary memories of Brunetiére when
he was hereabouts in 1897, and when I saw him at Paris in 1905, I have
been so bold as to ask Professor Louis Allard, of Harvard University,
to send the Academy some account of his personal memories of the
master, and of the master’s teaching. And, remembering that
“translation is at best like the back of an embroidery” I have asked
him to send it in his own French words. ' Whoever reads them will
surely share my gratitude for his kindness.

BaRRETT WENDELL.

EV.

Mr’. le Professeur Barrett Wendell m’a fait ’honneur de me de-
mander d’ajouter quelques notes personnelles 4 l’article substantiel
qu’il a écrit sur Ferdinand Brunetieére.

Je le remercie de l’occasion qui me permet de rendre hommage & la
mémoire d’un maitre que j’ai beaucoup admiré et aimé. Ce n’est
done pas que je me propose ici de donner de son oeuvre une analyse
critique. Ou peut la trouver dans les livres que M*. Wendell a
signalés, et surtout dans “Les Maitres de l’heure” de M®. Victor
Giraud, qui me parait avoir dit sur le sujet le mot définitif. Brune-
tiére, d’ailleurs, avait désiré un jour qu'il fait son biographe; et je ne
doute pas qu’il n’etit été Content d’un portrait dessiné par le disciple
avec amour et fidélité. Mon but est plus modeste. Sur l’invitation
de Mr. Wendell, je retracerai de mémoire quelques traits de l’homme
et du professeur, qui pourront peut-étre rendre un peu de relief et de

FERDINAND BRUNETIERE. 787

couleur & une figure jadis si vivante, et qui n’auront d’autre mérite
que d’étre l’oeuvre d’un témoin oculaire.

J’ai eu Ferdinand Brunetiére pour professeur de littérature fran-
caise, pendant ma seconde année d’Ecole Normale. II était alors A
Vapogée de sa carriére. Directeur de la Revue des Deux Mondes,
membre de |’Académie francaise, il avait été récemment, dans |’am-
phithéatre de l’ancienne Sorbonne, le conférencier acclamé d’un public
de dix-huit cent personnes qui avaient suivi avee enthousiasme
ses lecons sur |’évolution de la poésie lyrique. Ce public avait
consacré sa réputation d’orateur; et ¢’était de son éloquence qu’il
était le plus fier. Son éclatant succés lui avait été d’autant plus
sensible qu’il rencontrait de l’opposition, peut-étre devrai-je dire, de
l’antipathie chez certains professeurs de la Faculté des Lettres, depuis
surtout sa visite au Vatican et le fameux article qui en avait été le
résultat. A coup sir, les applaudissements qui l’interrompaient ou
saluaient la fin de chaque le¢on, en prenaient pour son amour-propre
plus desaveur. Quelque temps avant l’ouverture de son cours, il avait
confié & l’un de mes amis: “Je leur montrerai ce que je peux faire
chez eux.’ Etcertes, il n’avait jamais été plus inspiré: grand critique,
il s’était révélé maitre de la parole.

J’ai fait allusion 4 cet article qui souleva tant de polémiques, et qui
lui attira tant de reproches, bien qu’il protestat n’avoir jamais voulu
proclamer la faillite de la science. Comme le remarque M’. Wendell,
son entrevue avec le pape Léon XIII était le point de départ d’une
‘nouvelle orientation de sa pensée: il allait au catholicisme. Bientét
méme, il devait délaisser les travaux de pure critique littéraire pour
prendre une part de plus en plus active aux luttes religieuses de son
temps.

C’est alors que normalien de la section des lettres de seconde année,
jassistai, avec mes vingt-six camarades, 3 ses deux cours sur Moliére
et sur Encyclopédie du XVIII° siécle.

Les bruyantes discussions qui venaient de s’agiter autour de son
nom stimulaient notre curiosité d’approcher d’un homme qui avait
pris déji une si grande autorité dans le monde intellectuel. Tous,
nous ne l’avions vu que de loin, dans la salle de la Sorbonne, ou méme
nous ne le connaissions que par la Revue des Deux-Mondes. Quel-
ques-uns, et parmi ceux 1a le Charles Péguy i vingt ans, 4 cause de
leurs opinions politiques radicales ou socialistes, se tenaient sur leurs
gardes, et adoptaient par avance une attitude défiante: ils reconnais-
saient volontiers en lui le lettré et l’orateur, mais ils lui déniaient le
droit ou la capacité de penser en philosophe.

788 FERDINAND BRUNETIERE.

Brunetiére avait quarante-sept ans. Petit, maigre, et légérement
voité, le front plissé, le visage fatigué et mélancolique, parfois éclairé
d’un sourire ironique, il gardait l’empreinte de ’homme qui avait
connu les labeurs d’une dure jeunesse, avait prodigieusement lutté
pour parvenir, et s’était habitué a regarder sans illusions le monde
et la vie.

Il venait & ’Ecole avec un cahier 4 converture de serge noire, qu’il
ouvrait sur sa table, pour s’aider des grandes lignes du plan de sa
lecon. Il ne le regardait que trés rarement. Pendant une heure et
demie, il nous parlait avec le méme soin, la méme verve, la méme
éloquence que si nous eussions été le public de ses grandes conferences
de Sorbonne. Les yeux pereants et fureteurs sous le lourd lorgnon
d’éeailles circulaient autour de la petite salle comme pour nous saisir
sous le joug de ses idées. Mais surtout ce qui s’imposait a nous deés le
début, ce qui nous prenait, ce qui séduisait les plus rebelles a sa pensée,
e’était cette voix si nette, si sonore, si métallique qui le servait 4 mer-
veille, lorsqu’il lisait des textes pour illustrer le cours. Et au moyen de
cet organe incomparable, il développait, dans un ordre aussi inflexible
qu’un sermon de Bossuet et dans des phrases souvent périodiques
qui coulaient de ses lévres comme une improvisation naturelle, ces
series d’arguments qui se pressaient vers leur conclusion avec une
vivante logique. C’est qu’il ne lui suffisait pas de jeter sur le solide
charpente de ses lecons les chaines des faits et des idées; quand le
sujet le portait, il y mettait un mouvement qui venait de l’ardeur
de sa conviction et de son énergie de lutteur. C était de la dialectique
vibrante. Un geste lui était familier. Entrainé par la force de ses
idées, et pour donner 4 l’une d’elles plus d’accent, il jetait la main
droite en avant, tout en tirant sa manchette.

Parfois ce geste s’adressait & un adversaire qu’il lui fallait réfuter,
ou raillait une sottise, ou détruisait une erreur: mouvement de polé-
miste qui adorait le combat aussi bien contre les morts que contre les
vivants, Voltaire et Jean-Jacques Rousseau, comme Ernest Renan
ou Berthelot. I] lui arrivait de donner 4 son humeur un tour amus-
ant. Dans une de ses premiéres lecons sur Moliére, il avait pris a
partie le notaire qui, dressant l’inventaire de la succession du poéte,
avait oublié sa bibliothéque. Je l’entends encore, de sa voix mordante
et scandant les mots, la mamchette en avant, dire son fait au tabellion
comme s’il efit été encore de ce monde: ‘“ Eh! qu’est ce que cela
nous importe, Messieurs, que cet imbécile de notaire ait pensé a
nous donner le compte des chemises du grand homme si tout justement
il a oublié lessentiel qui était de nous apprendre quels livres il lisait

FERDINAND BRUNETIERE. 789

sans doute le plus volontiers?’”” — Le reproche était mérité. Brune-
tiére regrettait une source précieuse de renseignements sur la forma-
tion intellectuelle de Moliére. I] donnait aussi par li un exemple
de la conscience de cette érudition inépuisable qu’il possédait en
littérature, en histoire, et en philosophie. Il paraissait avoir tout
lu et tout retenu. Oui, sans doute, il était homme ou l’orateur des

idées générales; il y ramenait toute sa science et toute sa réflexion.
Mais il n’a jamais prononcé ou écrit une phrase a vide; sa logique et
son éloquence reposaient sur des faits accumulés par une lecture
inlassable, étudiés avec une conscience rigoureuse, classés avec une
réflexion tenace. J’en ai une preuve sous les yeux, dans des notes
que j’ai conservées de ses conférences. Seulement, les faits n’étaient
pour lui que la base indispensable. ‘‘ Faites-les vivre” nous disait-il.
Ne prenez |’érudition que comme un moyen et non un but. Des
faits, doivent jaillir les idées. Et c’est ainsi que son enseignement
était a la fois si nourri et si vivant. Voici comment il pratiqua sa
méthode en collaboration avec ceux d’entre nous qui devaient, en
troisiéme année, subir le concours d’agrégation des lettres. II s’était
chargé des six premiéres lecons sur Moliére, chefs-d’oeuvre par la
stireté de l’information et la pénétration de la critique. Puis, a tour
de réle, chacun de nous devait analyser et discuter une comédie;
pendant la derniére demi-heure, il corrigeait la conférence de I’éléve

et quelquefois la refondait. Ce travail achevyé, il fit six legons de
conclusion qui étaient six lecons d’idées générales, interprétation des
faits ou des remarques que les analyses avaient fournis ou suggérées
sur l’art, le naturalisme et la morale de Moliére.

On a parlé souvent de son dogmatisme, et on lui a fait la réputation
d’une sorte de préfet de police de la littérature, qui ne pouvait souffrir
la contradiction. Certes, il tenait fortement & ses idées, et il combat-
tait pour elles de toute son Ame, avec une puissance oratoire que
Jaurés seul, de son temps, a égalée. Mais ce serait le voir sous le jour
le plus faux que de croire qu’il cherchait 4 imposer ses opinions comme
la vérité intangible. Au contraire, il n’appréciait rien tant chez les
autres que l’indépendance de l’esprit, et il aimait 4 solliciter la dis-
cussion.

Dans la seconde de ses conférences hebdomadaires, il traitait, comme
je l’ai dit, des Encyclopédistes. Sujet brilant alors, car la France,
A la suite de l’affaire Dreyfus, était déchirée par les dissensions religi-
euses. En un temps oii il passait par les premiéres étapes de sa con-
version et commengait a s’affirmer comme le champion de l’Eglise,
il avait vu occasion de rechercher au XVIII® siécle les origines de

790 FERDINAND BRUNETIERE.

nos luttes et de manifester un jugement a la lumiére de ses nouvelles
convictions. Quelques-uns de mes camarades, qui se groupaient
autour de Jaurés, étaient préts 4 lui opposer une vigoureuse résist-
ance. Ille savait. Aussi, chaque fois, avant de parler, nous deman-
dait il de faire nos objections ou de poser des questions a propos de la
lecon précédente. Si la discussion était offerte en termes courtois,
il était heureux d’y entrer. Ce mérite fut éminent chez lui: ayant
horreur pour lui-méme, de l’opinion toute faite, du cliché, du convenu,
il excitait ses éléves 4 en avoir le méme dégotit; avant tout, il leur
imposait le devoir intellectuel de penser par eux-mémes. Aussi a-t-il
été un incomparable éveilleur d’esprits, et quinze générations de _
normaliens lui ont rendu cet hommage. J’emprunterai 1a dessus un
témoignage significatif 4 un de mes contemporains de |’Ecole, connu
pour son socialisme anticlérical, et qui, lancé dans le journalisme,
écrivait au lendemain de la mort de Brunetiére: “Ce n’était pas

seulement un professeur, c’était un maitre....Ceux qui secouaient
son joug en gardaient quand méme Il’empreinte....Frais émoulus

du collége, ses éléves prenaient plaisir a briler dans son feu tout ce
quwils avaient adoré avec leurs maitres de rhétorique. Brunetiére
n’enseignait pas l’admiration convenue, mais le doute méthodique et
Virrespect: il animait ses disciples de ses haines vigoureuses; juste
ou non, sa critique excitait l’intelligence, et en l’affranchissant des
manuels, des clichés et des formules, lui apprenait 4 penser librement.,,

Comme je l’ai marqué au début, je n’ai pas intention de refaire ce
qui a été si bien fait, l’analyse de son esprit et de son oeuvre. Je
voudrais cependant dire un mot de sa conversion. J’étais son éléve,
au moment ot il s’acheminait vers le catholicisme. Sa croyance
était alors d’ordre tout intellectuel; il ne devait arriver a la pratique
que plus tard, a la pratique intégrale que vers la fin de sa vie. J’ai
cru en ce temps-la, et comme beaucoup d’autres, que c’était pour des
raisons d’ordre social qu’il acceptait la religion catholique, et je l’ai
cru longtemps. En relisant plus attentivement ses Discours de
Combat, j’ai changé d’avis, et j’ai admis une explication plus simple.
Brunetiére, 4 |’€poque ot il niait Dieu, la Divinité de Jésus et la liberté
morale, admirait passionnément Bossuet. Tourmenté par les prob-
lémes de notre origine et de notre fin, n’en trouvant pas la solution
dans la philosophie, il fut amené & la demander A la révélation et
I’Eglise, et cela conduit par la main de notre grand orateur chrétien.
Ecoutons-le 4 Besan¢on, en 1900: “Moi aussi, quand je me suis mis 4
l’école de Bossuet, nourri que jétais des ideés de mon temps et des

lecons de mes maitres, moi aussi j'ai résisté, et j’ai résisté longtemps.

FERDINAND BRUNETIERE. 791

Puis, quoi qu’on dise qu’un homme ne peut pas beaucoup sur un
autre, jal trouvé dans ce commerce avec Bossuet tant de bon seus,
tant de génie, tant de probité intellectuelle, que je me suis laissé
faire....”’ Qui, j’en suis convaincu aujourd’hui, c’est la lecture de
Bossuet qui l’a amené au seuil du Vatican. A partir de 1895, il mit
toute son ardeur de logique et toute la force de sa parole au service de
Vidée religieuse. L’enseignement n’occupait plus dans ses préoccu-
pations qu’une place secondaire. Cet apostolat lui apportait un
immense surcroit de travail. Mais il avait travaillé toute sa vie et il
affrontait ses multiples responsabilités avec une énergie surhumaine.
C’est en ces années-la qu'il montra “ce que peut, selon le mot de
Bossuet, une Ame indomptable dans le corps qu’elle anime.” Ce
corps portait les marques des labeurs acharnés de sa_ premiére
jeunesse. M* Paul Bourget nous a raconté comment, aprés s’étre
livré tout entier pendant le jour a ses devoirs ingrats de professeur
libre, en y montrant la conscience intransigeante qu'il eut toujours, il
passait ses nuits a lire et a étudier. Dés lAge de vingt-quatre ans,
sa santé était compromise. Pourtant, il avait continué de travailler
inlassablement. Alors qu’il était mon maitre, la phthisie commengait
a s’emparer de lui, ou, du moins, a le menacer. I] semblait défier
la maladie, “en menant de front des travaux suffisants pour user
quatre activités d’homme.” “Mon ami,” lui disait le Comte d’ Haus-
sonville, “la vie que vous menez est une gageure, vous la perdrez.’’—
“Qu’est-ce que cela fait?” répondait-il.— Pour lui la vie ne valait la
peine d’étre vécue que s’il pouvait s’en servir—— Pendant les dix
derniéres années, il fut un miracle perpétuel de volonté invincible:
en voici un émouvant témoignage.

Un matin qu’il devait comme d’habitude venir & neuf heures et
demie donner son cours sur |’Encyclopédie, nous avions lu dans les
journaux que, trés souffrant, la veille, il avait appelé en consultation
deux illustres médecins spécialistes. A notre grande surprise, nous le
vimes apparaitre & Vheure fixée. Ayant su que la presse avait
répandu le bruit qu’il était gravement malade, il s’était habillé a
la hate, jeté dans un fiacre, et il était accouru nous apporter par le fait
de sa présence son démenti. II parlait de Montesquieu. Toutes
ses €nergies étaient ramassées dans ses yeux un peu fiévreux et dans
sa voix plus vibrante et plus dominatrice peut étre que de coutume.
Soudain, il fut interrompu par une terrible quinte de toux qui le
secouait tout entier et qui nous parut interminable. Nous attendi-
mes, douloureusement oppressés. II acheva enfin de tousser, sourit
de ce léger sourire ironique qui plissait parfois ses lévres pincées et dit

792 FERDINAND BRUNETIERE.

comme pour s’excuser: “Messieurs, la nature est la plus forte.”
Puis il continua sa conférence jusqu’a onze heures, et retourna
prendre le lit pour quelques jours. Tel était homme.

Sa vigueur morale se reflétait dans la gravité un peu jJanséniste de
son allure. II n’invitait pas la familiarité. Aussi ses ennemis, et ils
étaient nombreux dans la littérature, dans la politique et dans le
journalisme, le représentaient-ils comme d’abord revéche et hargneux.
La vérité est que je n’ai pas connu d’homme plus poli, mais sa politesse
était digne et mesurée comme d’un homme de Port-Royal; sa parfaite
courtoisie dans sa conversation comme dans sa correspondance avait
le ton des “ Messieurs.”’ Ce qui ne veut pas dire qu’il n’aimat pas a
se détendre, jusqu’a la plaisanterie, et parfois au calembour. Dans
ses cours, il avait des éclairs de raillerie mordante ou d’amusante
mauvaise humeur qui nous faisaient rire. Chez lui, rue Bara, pres
du Luxembourg, ou dans son cabinet de la Revue des Deux-Mondes,
quand il se sentait en confiance, il s’épanchait volontiers 4 propos des
idées qui l’occupaient alors. Je dois dire que sa conversation tournait
vite au monologue; mais elle apprenait ou suggérait tant de choses
qu’on n’etit pas pensé 4 s’en plaindre. Ici et 1a, il décochait un trait a
l’adresse de quelqu’un de ses contemporains. La derniére fois que je
le vis, en 1904, pour lui rendre compte d’une mission littéraire
dont je lui devais l’honneur, il me parla de différentes personnes
que nous connaissions. D’un prélat dont il était vaguement question
3X Rome pour le cardinalat, il caractérisait la vertueuse mais un peu
terne personnalité en ces mots; “c’est une sainte nullité”’; d’un jour-
naliste qu’il n’aimait pas, “c’est un écrivain qui est toujours a la veille
d’avoir du talent”; ou encore d’un évéque canadien de passage a Paris,
“aimable homme,”’ disait-il, “mais qui a l’air de prendre la France
pour un petit Canada”’. Et la malice, chaque fois, touchait juste.
On m’a dit qu’A table, hdte ou invité, dans l’intimité de personnes
qui lui plaisaient particuliérement, il pouvait étre le plus étincelant des
causeurs. ’

Sous le masque sévére, qui lui était le plus habituel, et qui effa-
rouchait les timides, il cachait une bonté tendre que n’ont connu que
ceux qui en ont été l’objet ou qui ont vécu prés de lui. En vrai fidéle
de esprit du grand siécle, il mettait une pudeur jalouse 4 dissimuler
ses sentiments ou A en atténuer l’expression. I] les prouvait surtout,
sans les montrer. Ce qui le caractérise de ce point de vue, c’est la
maniére dont il protégea les débuts de Paul Hervieu qu’il ne connais-
sait pas encore. Aprés l’avoir recu froidement 4 propos d’un roman
de jeunesse qu’il avait promis d’accepter pour la Revue des Deux

ARTHUR TRACY CABOT. 793

Mondes, en sa qualité de lecteur, et qui n’avait pas encore paru, il
menaca Buloz, alors directeur, de donner sa démission, si le roman
n’était pas inséré. Hervieu en sut que douze ans plus tard que Brune-
tiére, devenu un de ses chers amis, avait joué son avenir pour rester
fidéle A sa parole. I] poussait si loin la discrétion et la retenue dans
la manifestation de sa confiance et de son estime que certains de ses
anciens éléves n’en eurent la révélation qu’aprés sa mort. M".
Bédier, aujourd’hui le brillant successeur de Gaston Paris, au Collége
de France, avait eu avec lui depuis |’Ecole Normale des relations
affectueuses qui n’avaient jamais été jusqu’al’intimité. Grande fut sa
surprise, lorsque M™*. Brunetiére lui apprit que par son testament,
son mari l’avait chargé de l’examen et du classement de ses papiers.
S’il était permis de parler de soi, j’ajouterais que j’ai eu l’expérience
de cette bonté qui s’exercait avec délicatesse et gravité. Mais il
apportait dans le discernement de ses protégés et dans la maniére
d’accorder ses bienfaits la scrupuleuse conscience qu'il mettait a
remplir ses devoirs de critique, de professeur et d’homme privé.

C’est sur ce mot de conscience que je voudrais terminer cette rapide
esquisse. Puissant écrivain, orateur hors de pair, il a été dans sa vie
comme dans son enseignement et dans son oeuvre littéraire un grand

honnéte homme.
Louis ALLARD.

ARTHUR TRACY CABOT, M.D. (1852-1912)

Fellow in Class II, Section 4, 1889.

It is not easy, at once adequately and briefly, to set forth even the
salient facts and evolution of the life of a man of such varied activities
and interests as was the late Arthur Tracy Cabot.

He was of complex ancestry, Scotch, Irish, English and Norman
French (Chabot, Island of Jersey) blood mingling in his veins. One
of his great grandfathers, Thomas H. Perkins, was perhaps the most
conspicuous merchant of his day in Boston, public spirited, enterpris-
ing, a large man in every sense of the word. The Perkins Institution
for the Blind is one of his monuments. Samuel Cabot married one of
his daughters and became a partner in the firm of Perkins & Company.
Samuel Cabot, jr., was the second son of this marriage, the first of

794 ARTHUR TRACY CABOT.

the family to embrace medicine as a profession. After the completion
of his medical studies in Paris he went to Yucatan on the Stevens
Expedition. His independence of thought and action, his sterling
character, his services to this community as one of its leading practi-
tioners and for many years surgeon to the Massachusetts General
Hospital are still fresh in the memory of many.

Dr. Samuel Cabot married his distant cousin, Hannah Jackson,
daughter of Patrick T. Jackson, whose brothers James and Charles
were as eminent in medicine and law as was he in business.

Arthur, third son of this marriage, was born in 1852. From the
Perkins-Cabot side he inherited largely his marked taste for nature,
out-of-door manly sports and love of art, traits so prominent in some
of the race as to be almost over-mastering. From the Jackson side
he derived his physique, a slight but wiry frame, dominated by a will
and sense of duty which go far to promote sustained effort. Promptly
after his graduation at Harvard in 1872, he began the study of medi-
cine, taking his M.D. in 1876, and serving as Surgical Interne at the
Massachusetts General Hospital. He then went abroad, giving
special attention to surgical pathology, but neglecting no opportunity
of laying a firm foundation in all pertaining to the Healing Art. In
Vienna and Berlin he got nothing helpful in the line of antiseptic
surgery; but later passed a month in London, heard Lister’s Inaugural
Address at King’s College, and ever after kept on the crest of the
advancing wave of clean surgery. In 1877 he began general practice
in Boston, and steadily won recognition, alike from the profession and
the public. To surgery he had strong leanings from the first; but,
conservative, cautious, ruled by reason more than impulse, always
thinking things out to their ultimate results, it was not until ten or
more years later that he gave up all strictly medical practice. From
1878 to 1880 he was Instructor at the Medical School in Oral Pathology
and Surgery; from 1885 to 1896, Instructor in Genito-Urinary
Surgery. He would, doubtless, have become full Professor but for
his election to the higher position on the Corporation in the latter year.
He was for several years Surgeon to the Carney Hospital, Assistant
Surgeon at the Children’s Hospital from 1879 to 1881, Visiting Sur-
geon 1881 to 1889; Surgeon to Out-Patients at the Massachusetts
General Hospital, 1881 to 1886; Visiting Surgeon, 1886 to 1907.

As a general surgeon he was eminent; as a genito-urinary surgeon,
pre-eminent. True surgeon that he was, his head always ruled his
hand. He could not be persuaded into operating. He must be
convinced in his own mind of its necessity or desirability; nor would

ARTHUR TRACY CABOT. 795

he undertake any operation which he thought could be better per-
formed by another. This absolute integrity of character, combined
with rare soundness of judgment and with manual skill, won him the
implicit confidence of all who came into contact with him, and natur-
ally led to a wide consulting practice. He was as painstaking and
conscientious in the after-treatment as in deciding whether or not to
operate. He never in the least shirked responsibility; but it wore
upon him more than it does upon some men of different temperament,
and prevented him from doing as much work as he might otherwise
have done.

Among his contributions to general surgery may be mentioned his
use of the valve acting dressing and chlorinated soda irrigation for
empyema operations, and a wire splint for fractures of the lower leg,
devised while Surgeon to the Children’s Hospital, in large use through-
out the world, and, curiously enough, save in Boston, known by his
name. It displaced the old fracture box. He early advocated and
practised incision without drainage for tubercular peritonitis. In
1874 to 1875 he assisted his father in the first two successful abdominal
operations connected with the Massachusetts General Hospital.
They were on hospital patients, but the operations were done in a
neighboring house in Allen Street. It appears that Dr. Arthur Cabot
did the first successful abdominal operation within the hospital walls
in 1884, on a case of large strangulated umbilical hernia. The patient
had been admitted to Dr. Hodges’ service. He, however, being ill,
Dr. Bigelow was taking his place, and Dr. Cabot, then Surgeon to
Out-Patients, was assisting the latter. Dr. Cabot was called in the
evening. Dr. Hodges had recently published a paper on cases of this
nature, concluding that operation was always fatal, recovery occa-
sional without operation. Dr. Cabot therefore sought Dr. Bigelow,
whom he found at Dr. Hodges’ house. He stated the case. Dr.
Bigelow: “What do you want to do?” Dr. Cabot: “Operate.”
Dr. Bigelow: “Whether you operate or not the patient will die,
therefore do as you like. Is not that so, Dr. Hodges?” Dr. Hodges:
“No, if you operate he will die; if you don’t he may get well.” After
some discussion, Dr. Bigelow agreed that Dr. Cabot should do as he
liked, so he returned to the hospital, operated, and in a few weeks the
patient was well. We tell the story thus in full for the light it throws
on the state of surgery less than thirty years ago. In 1886, Dr. Cabot
had three successful cases of laparotomy in rapid succession, one for
ovarian cyst, two for fibroids.

Dr. Cabot’s qualities did not escape the keen eye of the late Dr.

796 ARTHUR TRACY CABOT.

Henry J. Bigelow, who made him his heir, as it were, in litholapaxy,
and thus led to Dr. Cabot’s becoming the leader in genito-urinary
surgery that he was, admitted to be such far and wide.

As evidence of his thoroughness and of the soundness of his judg-
ment it may be mentioned that in his paper on “Rupture of the
Bladder,” 1891, and in another on “Rupture of the Urethra,” 1896,
he laid down rules of procedure which stand unchanged today.

Here, as well as elsewhere, may be mentioned that about 1886,
realizing the importance of immediate pathological examination of
many surgical cases while under operation in order to determine the
scope and nature of the necessary operation, he and his brother
Samuel established a fund of $10,000, known as the “Samuel Cabot
Fund for Pathological Research,” in memory of their father. The
interest on this fund is used for paying a pathologist to be on hand
operating days and making such examinations as the surgeons require.
If not the first, it was surely an early effort to make thorough patholog-
ical study go hand in hand with the surgical operation. Dr. Cabot
was also the prime mover in starting the Clinico-Pathological Labora-
tory, was a leader in raising the necessary funds and planning the build-
ing. He became Librarian to the Hospital, and evolved order from
chaos in the book and case records, both now thoroughly available.

He was President of the Massachusetts Medical Society in 1905 and
1906. In his visitations to the District Societies he did yeoman service
in stirring up our profession to more actively interesting itself in the
campaign against tuberculosis. It was probably this leadership which
induced Governor Guild in 1907 to appoint him a Trustee of the Massa-
chusetts State Hospitals for Consumptives, and at the first meeting
of the Trustees, in September of that year, he was elected Chairman.
The amount and quality of his work in this capacity deserves fullness
of treatment, which, it is to be hoped, it will receive, but which it is
impossible to give here. In his automobile he traversed the State to
select suitable sites for the three hospitals for one hundred and fifty
patients each. The North Reading Hospital was opened in the fall
of 1908, those of Lakeville and Westfield early in 1909. The appro-
priation of $300,000 was not exceeded, and the requirements were
fully met at a cost of $700 a bed as against nearly $2000 a bed for the
Boston Consumptives Hospital at Mattapan. The Rutland Hospital
was then placed under the Trustees. Only those on the inside fully
know how much of the conspicuous success of this new departure was
due to the compelling wisdom and unremitting labor of Dr. Cabot.
In this, as in all his other work, its quality was only matched by his

-

ARTHUR TRACY CABOT. 197

modesty. He was influential in procuring the passage of the bill
requiring instruction in hygiene and preventive disease in the public
schools. His counsel was sought by the General Electric Company
with regard to the safeguarding and promoting the health of its
employees at Lynn and Pittsfield. So deeply did he become interested
in this line of work that in the spring of 1910 he retired from all practice
and its emoluments that he might husband his strength for public
work alone.

During about thirty years he published over one hundred and
twenty papers. The last is a plea for the prevention and treatment
of tuberculosis in childhood, to be found in the Atlantic Monthly for
November, 1912. He was a member of many medical societies and
of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

This is a meagre account of his strictly professional activities. In
1896, as has been stated before, he was chosen a member of the Corpor-
ation of Harvard College, that small body of seven which fills its own
vacancies, has exclusive charge of the funds, the initiative in most
appointments, and may, in a way, be compared, as regards the govern-
ment of the University, to the Senate of the United States; though it
has more power, relatively, to that of the lower House — the Over-
seers. Membership in the Corporation is no sinecure. It involves a
deal of work. Questions large in variety and great in moment con-
stantly arise and demand careful, deliberate, ripe judgment. Nobody
in active professional or business life can accept the honor and the
service without large sacrifice of time and strength; no physician
without also loss of income. After careful consideration he accepted
the election, and we saw the unprecedented occupation of two seats
on the Board by physicians. The part which he and Dr. Walcott have
taken in the marvelous development of the Medical School can be, in a
measure, appreciated by the most matter-of-fact. They were the
Building Committee on the part of the Corporation.

Dr. Cabot’s feeling and love for art, always keen and discriminating,
led to the Trusteeship in the Museum of Fine Arts in 1899. Here,
too, he was a worker. Everywhere and always the “good enough”
for him was nothing short of the best of which he was capable. In
social life he was more and more sought after. He had at times a
certain grimness of manner which could be raised to the nth power
by anything mean, petty or under-handed. This grimness concealed
more or less to the casual acquaintance the steady glow of one of the
warmest of hearts and the most lovable of natures; but abated, in a
measure, as he grew older. He was sympathetically receptive, and

798 ARTHUR TRACY CABOT.

gave close attention to those who asked his opinion or advice. He
was fond of horses and a good judge of them, played polo and rode to
hounds. No form of boating was foreign to him. Tennis, golf and
the like he enjoyed and played when he could get time and opportunity.
His vacations were mostly spent in hunting and fishing trips from
Florida to Canada, and as far as the Rockies. Shortly before his
death he sold his interest in the Long Point Ducking Club, probably
the best in the country, and devoted the proceeds to the purchase and
maintenance of land in Canton, his legal residence, as a playground
for the town.

Combining harmoniously and in a high degree intelligence, sound
judgment, courage both moral and physical, sense of duty, manual
dexterity and mechanical skill, he devoted his powers to the service of
others, with small thought of pecuniary return. For him to give was,
indeed, more blessed than to receive. He was, in truth, a noble
gentleman, a conspicuous example of a man born in high social posi-
tion, with means sufficient to tempt a less ardent nature to idleness,
but serving only to carry him to fields of great usefulness and public
service. He taught us how to live, and, again, how to face disease and
death with cheerful fortitude. :

He is survived by his widow, Susan, daughter and only child of the
late George O. Shattuck, a leader of the Suffolk Bar.

F. C. SHATTUCK.

Ee

CYRUS BALLOU COMSTOCK. 799

CYRUS BALLOU COMSTOCK (1831-1910)

Fellow in Class I, Section 4, 1892.

General Cyrus Ballou Comstock was born in West Wrentham,
Massachusetts, February 3, 1831, and represented the ninth generation
of an old New England family, which came from Devonshire, England.
His ancestors lived in New London, and the earliest of them in this
country fought in the Pequot war, taking part in the expedition which
captured the fort at Mystic in 1637. Later generations of the family
lived in Rhode Island and in Massachusetts. The General’s great-
grandfather was a Quaker, and took no active part in the Revolution,
but was a member of the Massachusetts convention which ratified the
Constitution of the United States, February 7, 1788, and was also a
member of the General Court of Massachusetts in 1789.

General Comstock was educated in the local publie schools and at a
private academy. His interest in engineering arose from his happen-
ing to see the operations and instruments of a party making a railroad
survey, and also of a coast survey party. The General began his
professional work as a rodman and leveler on the Providence & Worces-
ter Railroad, but in 1851 was nominated as a candidate to West Point,
and was graduated with first honors in 1855. He served through all
grades in the Corps of Engineers to that of Colonel, and was retired
from active service by operation of law in 1895. He was promoted to
the grade of Brigadier General on the retired list in 1904.

General Comstock, after serving on the construction of fortifications
before the Civil War, and as Professor of Natural Philosophy at West
Point from 1859 to 1861, was, during the Civil War, engaged in the
construction of the defences of Washington, and in service on the
engineering staff of the Army of the Potomac, of which he was Chief
Engineer. He was present, under General Grant, at the siege of
Vicksburg, and in 1864 was appointed Aide-de-camp to General Grant,
being engaged in a number of the most sanguinary battles of the war.
During the war he received rapid promotion, and attained the rank of
Major in the Corps of Engineers, and Brevet Brigadier General.

General Comstock’s principal work after the war was in the conduct
of the geodetic survey of the Great Lakes, which had been inaugurated
in 1841. This work was conducted with all the precision necessary to

800 CYRUS BALLOU COMSTOCK.

determine not only the topography and hydrography of the region,
but also to be of geodetic value. The measurements were made with
extreme accuracy, involving eight primary base lines, a primary tri-
angulation about 1650 miles in length, and a hydrographic survey
covering nearly 10,000 square miles, and also the investigation of the
earth’s magnetism. His report on this great work, published as
Professional Paper No. 24 of the Corps of Engineers, in 1882, is a docu-
ment of great value and permanent interest to geodesists, and is a
monument to his professional ability and that of his associates.

General Comstock was also engaged in studies relating to the
improvement of rivers and deltas, and was sent to Europe to investi-
gate these subjects. He served on several boards, and was Super-
intending Engineer to examine the progress of jetties built by Captain
Eads at the mouth of the Mississippi. He was a member of. the
Mississippi River commission for 16 years, and its President for
five years, during which time he had to deal with many difficult
hydraulic problems. He was also a member of the permanent Board
of Engineers for fortifications and river and harbor improvements,
and commanded the Engineer School of Application at Willets Point,
New York, for about a year.

General Comstock was a member of the National Academy of
Sciences, to which he donated a trust fund to be devoted to researches
in electricity, magnetism and radiant energy, the value of which
subjects his own experience had led him to appreciate. He became a
member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1892.

In addition to his classic report on the Lake survey, General Com-
stock’s name appears as a signer of the reports of sixty local engineer-
ing boards, of twenty-one of which he was President. His life
furnished a good illustration of the value of science to the professional
engineer, and of the value of the engineer to science. He died at
New York City, May 29, 1910.

G. F. Swan.

i This memoir is abstracted from a longer memoir of General Comstock by
General Henry L. Abbot, in the annual of the association of graduates of the
United States Military Academy, in 1912.

JAMES MASON CRAFTS. SO1

JAMES MASON CRAFTS (1839-1917)

Fellow in Class I, Section 3, 1867.

The passing of another from among the few survivors of the older
generation of leading chemists arouses sorrow for our great loss and
gratitude for his devoted labor. Among the honored names of Ameri-
can scientific men of the 19th century that of Professor Crafts will
always be remembered. Both in the direction of organic chemistry
and in that of physical chemistry he rendered contributions of great
permanent value.

James Mason Crafts was born at Boston on March 8, 1839. He was
the son of Royal Altamont Crafts and Marianne (Mason) Crafts.
He is remembered by his schoolmates at the Sullivan School in Boston
as a serious boy, but one glowing with vigor and at times full of fun
and jollity. The most vivid impression was of his mechanical ingenu-
ity and dexterity: he was able at the age of nine or ten to pull to
pieces and successfully reassemble his watch —a rare possession in
those days among school children. All his childhood was spent in
Boston, where he completed at the Boston Latin School and under
the private tuition of Dr. Samuel Eliot the excellent training in
mathematics with which he entered the then recently founded Law-
rence Scientific School of Harvard University in 1856. At Harvard
he pursued the study of chemistry under Professor Horsford, and
graduated with the degree of S. B. in 1858.

The winter of 1858-59 he spent as a graduate student of engineering
at Cambridge, whence he went to the Bergakademie at Freiberg in
Saxony to continue once more the study of the science to which he was
to devote his lifework. In 1860 he migrated to the University of
Heidelberg, where he studied under Robert W. Bunsen, at that time
and for many years afterwards director of the chemical laboratory
there. In the following year the young chemist left Germany for
Paris, where he came under the influence of Wurtz, and for four years
continued his studies at the Ecole de Médicine. Ever afterwards his
interest centered in France rather than in Germany.

Returning to America in 1865 he became mine examiner in Mexico
during 1866-1867 —a task which involved courage and resourceful-
ness as well as expert knowledge, since the country was alive with
bandits and filled with difficulties. His adventures were thrilling,

802 JAMES MASON CRAFTS.

but he told of them very modestly. In the following autumn (1867)
he became professor of chemistry and dean of the chemical faculty
at Cornell University, a position which he retained for three years.
From Ithaca he was called to the professorship at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology as successor to Professor F. H. Storer. He
devoted himself to the work, and his health suffered. The call of
France was insistent, and changing in 1874 his title to that of non-
resident professor at the Massachusetts Institute, he turned again to
Paris, where, in collaboration with Professor Charles Friedel, he dis-
covered the important organic reaction which will always bear his
name. After 1880, when he resigned even the non-resident professor-
ship at the Massachusetts Institute, he spent most of the succeeding
decade in France, and it was not until 1891 that he returned to America
as a permanent abiding place. Then he once more became connected
with the Institute in Boston, conducting research there, and for five
years (1892-97) filling the chairmanship of the chemical department
and the professorship of organic chemistry. His work as a teacher
was inspiring and effective. From October, 1897 to 1900 he was first
acting president and then president of this great technical school.
After his resignation of the presidency, which offered a sort of work
never entirely to his taste, he returned to the labors which really
claimed his interest, namely, research in the direction of organic and
physical chemistry, still doing part of his work in the old Walker
building of the Institute near Copley Square. He worked for the love
of science, not for fame or money, and his ample means never led him
away from high aims and solid attainments.

His noteworthy contributions to the sum of human knowledge
gained for him recognition on all sides. In 1885 he received the
Jecker prize of the Paris Academy of Sciences, and was made Chevalier
of the Legion of Honor of France. In 1898 he was awarded the hono-
rary degree of LL.D. by Harvard University, and in 1911 the Rumford
Medal by this Academy “for his researches in high temperature
thermometry and the exact determination of fixed points on the
thermometric scale.”’ He was first elected a fellow of the Academy in
1867 and was reelected to resident membership in 1891 after an interval
of non-membership due to his prolonged absence in France. As long
ago as 1872 he became a member of the National Academy of Sciences,
and was later corresponding member of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, foreign member of the Royal Institution of
Great Britain (1904) as well as fellow of many other learned academies
and chemical societies. He was a member also of the Saturday Club
of Boston, famous in the annals of American literature.

JAMES MASON CRAFTS. 803

On June 13, 1868, he married Miss Clemence Haggerty of New
York, who died in 1912. He is survived by four daughters: Mrs.
Russell S. Codman, Mrs. Gordon K. Bell, Miss Elizabeth Crafts and
Miss Clemence Crafts.

Although much of a traveler during the early part of his life, toward
the end he divided his time between his Boston residence on Common-
wealth Avenue and his beautiful country place at Ridgefield, Connecti-
cut, where he had a small laboratory well fitted for his work, and
where he enjoyed quiet and seclusion, always more to his taste than
publicity or the whirl of city life. He retained his vigorous mental
powers to the end, although somewhat restricted in physical activity
by illness during his last few years. His well-rounded and useful life
of over seventy-eight years came to an end at Ridgefield on June 20,
1917, when he succumbed to a sudden, painful illness of the heart.

As already stated, his scientific work divides itself naturally into
two groups of researches, namely, those in organic and those in
physical chemistry. His earliest published contributions to knowl-
edge concerned the organic compounds of silicon, upon which he pub-
lished an interesting and important paper in 1865. This was followed
by work upon the arsenic and arsenious esters, which appeared in 1871.
Six years afterwards, with Professor Charles Friedel, he published in
volume 84 of the Comptes Rendus the first notice of the method of
organic synthesis by means of the chloride of aluminum, which has
had such a remarkable effect upon the growth of organic chemistry.
In the succeeding years paper after paper from these two eminent
collaborators appeared, amplifying their great discovery. In 1880
Professor Crafts’s work upon accurate thermometry showing the
peculiar hysteresis effects in glass, which must be considered in any
accurate determination of temperature by the mercury thermometer,
began to appear. At about this time also he published valuable
papers in collaboration with Professor Friedel and others concerning
vapor densities of the halogens at high temperatures.

His work on thermometry led to the determination of new fixed
points to which the thermometric scale might be referred; and his
study of the boiling points of naphthalene and of mercury attained a
degree of accuracy little short of amazing, considering the state of
these matters before they had come under the scrutiny of his insight
and patient experimentation. Later in Boston, from 1900 almost to
the time of his death, he devoted himself to chemical research, espe-
cially to the study of organic catalytic reactions in concentrated solu-
tions, feeling that such reactions had not received the attention which

804 EDMONDO DE AMICIS.

was their due. At the same time he spent much time and thought on
the construction of an exceedingly accurate barometer, by means of
which he could measure atmospheric pressure with great precision
and thus obtain yet more accurate values for the boiling points of
various substances which should serve as standards.

In viewing collectively the outcome of Professor Crafts’s varied
work, one may note that much of it, both physical and organic, had
as its object the providing of means and methods for further advance,
of use to others in many fields. Those whose labor is lightened,
broadened, and simplified by the important contributions of his
scientific imagination and of his persistent, effective research in the
laboratory are deeply grateful for the indispensable aid which he
rendered, and will be, far into the future. His intimates mourn a
generous, loyal, high-minded friend, whose vigorous intellect always
turned toward worthy ends.

THEODORE W. RICHARDS.

EDMONDO DE AMICIS (1846-1908)

Foreign Honorary Member in Class III, Section 4, 1901.

Edmondo De Amicis was born at Oneglia, a little town on the sea-
coast southeast of Genoa, October 21, 1846. Having attended school
at Cuneo and Turin, he went to the Military Academy at Modena,
from which in 1865, he was appointed Second Lieutenant of the Third
Regiment of the Line. The following year he took part in the Battle
of Custozza. In 1867 he became managing editor of Italia Multare,
an important military journal published at Florence. To this he
contributed many sketches of the life actually lived by Italian soldiers
and officers, and when these were reprinted in a volume with the title
“La Vita Militare” in 1868, they gave him an immediate popularity
which went on widening until his death. They had also real influence
in improving the conditions of the soldiers, by moderating the harsh-
ness of their discipline, a harshness then common in European armies.
De Amicis continued to edit the Journal for some time and he remained
in the Italian army until 1871. He was present when Cadorna’s
troops entered by the Porta Pia and freed Rome from Papal rule
September 20, 1870. After resigning from the service he devoted
himself to literature, making Turin his headquarters and he was, with

WILLIAM WATSON GOODWIN. 805

two or three exceptions, probably the only Italian writer of that time
whose works had so wide a circulation as to bring him a livelihood.
They were of three kinds: first, fiction, including under this head
several novels and his very realistic sketches; second, descriptions of
his travels; and third, poems. His books of travel made him known
outside of Italy and were translated into several languages. The
earliest, on Spain, appeared in 1873; Holland in 1874; Constanti-
nople, 1877; Morocco, 1879; Argentina, to which he gave the title
“Sull’ Oceano” in 1877; besides recollections of London and of Paris.
In his later years he became like Lombroso and other intellectuals at
Turin and Milan, a socialist, and he issued several volumes in support
of this cult. He interested himself in writing for the young and his
“Cuore,” of which more than 400,000 copies had already been sold
several years ago, aims at teaching the young, (through a story which
has enchanted them by multitudes), the elements of a strong and noble
character. No other book in modern Italian, except Manzoni’s
“T Promessi Sposi’’ has been so popular. He wrote also, “ L’ Idioma
Gentile” which glorifies the Italian language; and, besides several
polemical tracts and later recollections, he produced more fiction, of
which “I] Romanzo d’un Maestro” was the most important. He died
at Turin, March 12, 1908. De Amicis was a remarkably clear writer,
a master of vivid description, and he possessed an indefinable charm
which endeared him to most of his readers and diffused a magnetic
quality over whatever he wrote.

Wiuitam RoscorE THAYER.

WILLIAM WATSON GOODWIN (1831-1912)

Fellow in Class III, Section 2, 1859 (President 1903-1908).

William Watson Goodwin died in Cambridge, June 15, 1912. He
was elected Fellow of the Academy, January 26, 1859, was a member
of the Publication Committee from 1871 to 1880, and President from
1903 to 1908, in which year his failing health compelled him to decline
re-election. His interest in the Academy was shown by frequent
addresses and by letters when he was in Europe. His last communica-
tion was an interesting description of the character of the meetings in
his early years (Proceedings, vol. XLVI, 1910).

S06 WILLIAM WATSON GOODWIN.

The son of Hersey Bradford Goodwin (Harvard College 1826,
Harvard Divinity School 1829) and Lucretia Ann Watson, he was born
May 9, 1831, at Concord, Mass., where his father was the colleague of
the Senior Minister, Dr. Ezra Ripley. Both his parents having died
during his infancy, he lived at Plymouth with his grandmother,
Lucretia Burr (Sturges) Watson until he entered Harvard College in
1847. After receiving his Bachelor’s degree in 1851 he lived in Cam-
bridge for two years as resident graduate taking a few private pupils,
(among others John C. Ropes), but devoting the major part of his
time to the pursuit of his own studies in company with Ephraim
Whitman Gurney and Henry Williamson Haynes. Finding, however,
that there was no opportunity for advanced study at Harvard (the
Graduate Department was unknown until 1872), he determined to
seek instruction in Géttingen, which had been the resort of many
Harvard men, such as Everett, Bancroft, Longfellow, Motley, and,
nearer his own day, Gould, 44, and Child and Lane (both ’46), with
whom he was to be so long associated in Cambridge. He used to recall
with interest the fact that of the five holders of the Eliot Professorship
of Greek Literature, since its foundation, three had studied at the
Georgia-Augusta. The great classical scholars there in his day were
Schneidewin and K. F. Hermann, the latter the last of the encyclopae-
dists in classical philology. After studying in Gottingen, Bonn, and
Berlin for two years, he received the degree of Ph.D. from Gottingen
in 1855. His doctor’s dissertation dealt with the Sea Power of the
Ancients (“De potentiae veterum gentium maritimae epochis apud
Eusebium”’). During his stay abroad he visited Italy and Greece.

Returning in 1856, Goodwin found that he had been made Tutor in
Greek and Latin at Harvard, a post he exchanged, in the following
year, for that of Tutor in Greek. In 1860, he succeeded Felton, who,
in that year, resigned the Eliot Professorship of Greek Literature to
become President of the College. For forty-one years Goodwin
was in active service; even after his resignation in 1901, when he
became Emeritus, his zeal did not permit him to sever himself from
the work of actual instruction, and for seven years he continued to
lecture on Plato and Aristotle. From 1903 to 1909 he was Overseer
of the University, a distinction attained by relatively few of its
teachers. :

In the history of education in America few men have exceeded
Goodwin’s period of service; and few have conferred greater distinc-
tion on American scholarship. His life is no exception to the rule that
the annals of a scholar’s career are short and simple. His many years

WILLIAM WATSON GOODWIN. SO7

were spent in unremitting and unobtrusive labor for the welfare of
Harvard in a period fruitful in far-reaching changes, a period that
witnessed the decline of the old type of American college and the rise
of the American university. He was clear-sighted in his judgment and
temperate in his reasoning alike when he advocated, or when he op-
posed, the policies that shaped the conduct of Harvard University
to its present estate.

The controlling motive that directed him during the revolutionary
changes that transformed the Harvard of his youth was the welfare
of scholarship, not merely in the Classics, but in every other discipline
as well. He opposed the reduction of the college course from four
years to three years because he believed that any reduction should be
made at the beginning, not at the end; and he never changed his
opinion as to the importance of classical study as a basis of literary
culture. He was ingenuously dismayed at the failure of some of his
contemporaries to see the value of Greek for modern education; and
he witnessed with regret a generation of youth invited, as it were, to
aim at literary culture without a knowledge of the language of Homer,
Sophocles, and Plato. But if he could not view untroubled the dis-
solution of all the old ideas as to the value of a “liberal”? education,
he never wished for the return of the system of required studies
prevalent in his undergraduate days and still in force until 1867-68;
he advocated the abandoning of obligatory Greek in the Sophomore
year; he welcomed the advent of the more fully developed elective
system, though he foresaw some of the defects it has disclosed. He
was not a blind worshipper of the classical literature of the ancients;
he saw in it, not an agent for the discipline of the intellect of all youth,
but an instrument, imperative for the understanding of the develop-
ment of European letters, and salutary for those who would win a
true appreciation of English literature. In him the intellectual spirit
of scientific research in the field of grammar did not blunt the literary
and artistic sense, which, as has well been said, is partly also moral.
The old-time humanities translated themselves in him into the spirit
of just and refined living. He did not confine his sympathies to the
ancient world that was his by the association of daily work; but he
realized, in the words of Renan, that “progress will eternally consist
in developing what Greece conceived”; and from Greece he gathered,
what many of the noblest and best have gathered thence, a large part
of that wisdom of life which is more precious and more enduring than
mere learning.

As a teacher, as I recall him in the late seventies, Goodwin insisted

SOS WILLIAM WATSON GOODWIN.

on rigid accuracy in the understanding of the words of the text as the
approach to the larger understanding of the thought — the only true
method, if a vapid sentimental enthusiasm is not to be the goal of the
appreciation of Greek, or of any other, literature. He laid no special
emphasis on formal grammar, but he had taken to heart, perhaps
unconsciously, the saying of Godfried Hermann, that without gram-
mar there can be no appreciation of literature. Looseness of method
Goodwin detested, and as he held us to strict accuracy, so in his range
of exposition he confined himself to essentials in comment and illus-
tration. His instruction was sound and informing, laying stress on
fact rather than on subjective impressions. He managed his large
store of knowledge with an ease and a security that awakened at
once our admiration and our confidence. In textual criticism, as
elsewhere, he abhored supersubtle ingenuity; he permitted no diffi-
culty or obscurity, especially in phraseology or historical allusion, to
pass unexplained, but he had the sincerity to confess his inability to
understand passages corrupt beyond all cure.

No one who knew Goodwin, no one who has ever listened to the
sustained flow of his facile translation of the “Agamemnon,” could
ever doubt that he had a deep love for Greek literature. But he was
temperamentally alien to panegyric; he would not allow the language
of emotional appreciation to trouble the beauty, the calm, the harmony
of imagination and reason that give to Greek literature its sempiternal
charm. Like the very reticences of that literature, the reticence of
its expositor marked his power. He appealed therefore less to the
many than to those, who, like himself, needed no spur in their “chase
after beauty’’—if I may use Plato’s phrase in another application.
His formative influence may be traced in the temperate and rational
style, in the absence of extravagance, exaggeration, and perverse
ingenuity, in the work of many of his pupils.

It is the common fate of men who have devoted themselves with
success to the welfare of a beloved college, that later generations should
allow the memory of their many labors to pass into forgetfulness. As
an Hellenist, however, Goodwin’s name will live, for directly and
indirectly, as an interpreter of the literature and language of ancient
Greece, he had a large influence on the temper and conscience of classi-
cal scholarship in the United States.

In the middle of the last century our native classical scholarship had
scarcely awakened to the possibility of the independence born of
original research. A leisurely interest in the classics as the humani-
ties, a somewhat torpid belief in their efficiency as a discipline for all

WILLIAM WATSON GOODWIN. SO9

mental dispositions, which was tempered but rarely by incursions into
the larger meanings of Hellenic literature, sufficed with but rare
exceptions for the generation under which Goodwin grew to manhood.
In the year when, at the age of twenty-nine, he succeeded Felton in
the Eliot Professorship, Goodwin gave evidence with a certain brilliant
audacity that he had severed himself from the past. The year 1860
may well be taken as the mark of the appearance of a new spirit in
our classical scholarship. In that year Hadley at Yale published his
“Greek Grammar” based on the work of Georg Curtius; at Harvard,
Goodwin brought out the book with which his name will be longest
associated — the “Syntax of the Moods and Tenses of the Greek
Verb.”

I cannot discover that Goodwin had occupied himself especially
with the problems of systematic Greek grammar in any of its aspects
during his residence at the universities of G6ttingen, Bonn, and Berlin;
but the “Moods and Tenses” is itself a witness to the quickening
spirit exercised by European masters upon the American philologists
who, about the middle of the last century, began to cross the ocean in
search of the inspiration they could not find at home. Yet the work,
alike in its first form and when rewritten and greatly enlarged thirty
years afterwards, owes relatively little to European research for its
essential distinction. Not that Goodwin was not indebted, as he
himself gladly acknowledged, to the labors of the great Danish scholar
Madvig, or that some of his positions had not already been occupied
by German syntacticians. But at the very outset of his career he
had learned to think for himself — “ Librum aperi, ut discas quid alii
cogitaverint; librum claude, ut ipse cogites.’’ It was due to his
native and trained sense and knowledge of language as the instrument
of the most delicate and refined expression that he was enabled to
safeguard the subject of the modal and temporal relations of the Greek
verb from the twofold danger that menaced it at the time. On the
one hand, metaphysical subtlety exercised a malign influence in
disturbing a clear understanding of the facts and their interpretation;
on the other hand, comparative grammar, a science at that time in its
infancy, by the very width of its horizon and the insecurity of its basis,
threatened to carry back to the primitive home of the Aryans many of
the problems that pertained in the first instance to the history of the
Greek language on Greek soil.

It was Goodwin’s clarity of judgment — with characteristic modesty
he called it “common sense’”’— that saw the truth when the Germans
had generally failed to release themselves from the intricacies of philo-

S10 WILLIAM WATSON GOODWIN.

sophical abstractions; and with equal sagacity and discernment he
refused to trust himself upon the shifting sands of comparative syntax.
The metaphysical syntax that held sway when Goodwin began his
career is largely a thing of the past; but historical syntax, both in the
wider area of the Indo-European languages and on Greek territory,
has immeasurably increased its influence as it has steadily built upon
securer foundations.

The wonder is that after thirty years the large increments of scien-
tific research should have found themselves easily at home and should
have worked no disturbance to the principles laid down in a book, of
which its author, in his revision of 1890, said that it had appeared “in
the enthusiasm of youth as an ephemeral production.” The truth
is that the “ Moods and Tenses”’ of 1890 is at bottom the “ Moods and
Tenses” of 1860; for, though there was much to add in a work de-
signed to fill a larger compass, there was astonishingly little to curtail,
to modify in important particulars, or to reject out-right. I know of
no book of like character that possesses the quality of prescience in
equal degree. The “Moods and Tenses,” like every other piece of
work done by its author, is marked by perfect sanity, displays the
working of an independent and resourceful thinker, who with steadied
purpose aimed at presenting the vital principles and the essential
facts, freed from the entanglements of specious and shifting theories.
It is the expression of a cautious scholar who possessed a varied and
exact knowledge of English speech, which he wielded with precision
in setting forth the fine distinctions of the delicate Greek idiom. To
its judicious presentation of the facts, to its lucidity and exactness of
statement, perhaps even to its very refusal to enter at all points and
at all hazards upon the treacherous ground of absolute definition, the
book owes its fame as a standard work, still indispensable, despite the
subsequent mass of treatises, both large and small, that traverse the
whole or some part of the same field. And it has had a wider and more
salutary influence than any American or English book in its province
for more than half a century.

Apart from its virtues of lucidity and orderliness, there are certain
special features of the “ Moods and Tenses” that have commanded
most attention: the distinction between the time of an action and the
character of an action, the-distinction between absolute and relative
time, the division of conditional sentences (and in particular the treat-
ment of shall and will and should and would conditions, which Goodwin
discussed at some length in the Transactions of the American Philological
Association, Vol. 7 (1876), and in the Journal of Philology, Vol. 8

WILLIAM WATSON GOODWIN. S11

(1879)), the relation of the optative to the subjunctive -and other
moods, and the origin of the construction of od w with the subjunctive
and the future indicative.

The author of the “Mood.and Tenses,” the doctor irrefragabilis of
Greek syntax, as he has been called, would have been the last to
claim that he had, with Browning’s grammarian, settled all of “7's
business.” He had not been, like Tom Steady in “The Idler,” “a
vehement assertor of uncontroverted truths; and by keeping himself
out of the reach of contradiction, had acquired all the confidence
which the consciousness of irresistible abilities could have given.”
There is much in Greek syntax that is debatable territory; but when-
ever Goodwin entered that territory — though he was not a statisti-
cian, as the earlier great scholars were not — his prevailing soundness
of judgment and his range of illustration afford the controversialist
only rarely the luxury of holding a different opinion.

Goodwin’s “Greek Grammar” appeared ten years after the “ Moods
and Tenses,” and inherited as by right the distinction and the distine-
tive features of the earlier work. The “ Moods and Tenses”’ appealed
to the advanced student and the teacher; the “Grammar”’ brought
before the neophyte the facts of the language in exact and clear form;
and showed that its author possessed the rare (and often underesti-
mated) faculty of making a good elementary book. Only he who has
himself followed in the tracks of Goodwin can adequately realize the
elarity and compactness of his statements that never err through undue
emphasis either on logical or on aesthetic relations.

The very excellence and success of Goodwin’s work in the depart-
ment of grammar made the wider public, and to a certain degree even
the Hellenists of this country, ignorant of the scope and the distinction
of his work in other fields. It is an altogether erroneous notion that
Goodwin was purely a grammarian, honorable as that title has been
made by many illustrious scholars. The range of his sympathies with
Greek literature was indicated early in his career. The “‘ Greek Gram-
mar’”’ appeared in 1870; in the same year was published Goodwin’s
revision, in five volumes, of the translation of Plutarch’s “Morals”’
made by various hands in the seventeenth century. Innumerable
errors and infelicities of the old translation were cleared away by
Goodwin, whose work was termed a “vindication” of Plutarch by
Emerson, who contributed an Introduction to the revision. English
readers who would acquaint themselves with the deep and broad
humanity of the sage of Chaeronea, in whom the intellect was illumi-
nated by the force of morals, will long continue to use the translation
of the Cambridge scholar.

812 WILLIAM WATSON GOODWIN.

In common with many men of his position Goodwin turned at times
to editorial work of a humbler character. He re-edited Felton’s
edition of Isocrates’ “ Panegyricus” (1863), of the “ Birds” (1868) and
the “Clouds” (1870) of Aristophanes. One of the most excellent
books of its kind is the “Greek Reader” (1877, and in many later
editions), while his edition of the “Anabasis” (1885, and in many
later editions), prepared in conjunction with his colleague, Professor
J. W. White, and augmented by an Illustrated Vocabulary, the work
of Professors White and Morgan, is a model for its exact attention to
grammatical details.

With Greek philosophy Goodwin never claimed the intimate ac-
quaintance of one whose special interests and sympathies mark him
as a philosopher by profession. The temper of his mind was not
metaphysical. Yet he had a large knowledge of the great ethical
books of Greek literature, and years of close study made him a wise
and judicious interpreter of the “ Republic” of Plato and of Aristotle’s
“Ethics.” To the investigation of the history, antiquities, and law
of ancient Greece he brought a mind keenly observant of the similari-
ties and differences between ancient and modern times. It is in the
interpretation of the masterpiece of Greek oratory that the scholar
must be able to draw, in well-nigh equal measure, upon a sound
knowledge of ancient history and ancient law. Goodwin’s mastery of
this double field appears in his editions of Demosthenes’ “On the
Crown” (1901) and “Against Midias” (1906). He wrote also on
“The Relation of the zpdeépor to the tpuTaves in the Athenian Senate,”
and on “The Value of the Attic Talent in Modern Money” (Traas-
actions of theAmerican Philological Association, Vol. 16, 1885). To
Thucydides he devoted a large share of his attention, and for many
years lectured also on certain masterpieces of the Greek drama.

It is to be regretted that Goodwin would not allow himself to be
persuaded to prepare an edition of Aeschylus, to the interpretation of
whose text he devoted years of profound study. He edited the text
and prepared a translation of the “ Agamemnon,” to be used in con-
nection with the public presentation of that play by the Department of
Classics at Harvard in 1906. Of his critical method we have a lumi-
nous example in the paper entitled “On the Text and Interpretation
of certain passages in the Agamemnon of Aeschylus.” (Transactions
Amer. Philol. Assoc., Vol. 8,,1877). In confronting the great difficul-
ties of the text of Aeschylus, Goodwin was invariably hostile to the
sciolist who complacently substitutes his emendations for the words
of the poet. “Est quaedam etiam nesciendi ars et scientia’’— an

WILLIAM WATSON GOODWIN. 813

admonition applied far more rigorously by the American scholar than
by its German author.

It was Goodwin’s good fortune to visit Greece as a young man when
fresh from his studies in Germany; and it was he who was the first
Director of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens (1882-
83), an appropriate honor for the foremost Greek scholar of his time
who was also one of the founders of the American Institute of Archae-
ology. To his acquaintance with the land of Greece, reinforcing his
knowledge of Greek literature and history, we owe the admirable
paper on “The Battle of Salamis,” first published in 1885 (Papers of
the American School of Classical Studies in Athens, vol. 1); and in
another form in 1906 (Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, vol.
XVII). Goodwin’s careful sifting of the evidence determined the
several localities in question and convincingly described the disposi-
tions and movements of the Greek and barbarian forces in connection
with that memorable contest. During his sojourn in Greece he be-
came intimate with Prime Minister Tricoupis and long continued in
association with the family of that statesman. His interest in the
land of Greece was fittingly signalized by his being named a Knight
of the Greek Order of the Redeemer.

Apart from the books and separate articles already mentioned,
Goodwin wrote relatively little. He contributed to “The Christian
Register” an appreciation of Jowett which deals sympathetically
with the “Essays and Reviews”; he prepared memoirs of Professors
Torrey and Lane, and communicated to the Massachusetts Historical
Society the Records of the Old Colony Club (1769-1773). In 1896,
when the Venezuelan dispute was in the air, he sent to the Crimson a
vigorous reply to Roosevelt’s letter in the same journal branding as
unpatriotic a Harvard protest against the war-policy of the national
executive and national legislature. But of all his writings not dealing
with things Greek, the most admirable in its tone and farthest-reaching
in its influence is the address “On the Present and Future of Harvard
College,” delivered before Phi Beta Kappa in 1891. It commands
attention for its description of the standards of the College in his
undergraduate days and for its temperate discussion of the elective
system, which in his view had immeasurably raised the scholarship
of the studious though it had possibly dulled the high personal enthu-
siasm that marked the ambitious three generations ago. But, above
all, the address is invaluable for its analysis of the relation between
liberal and professional studies and for its expression of Goodwin's
profound loyalty and affection for his College, which, “like a queen,

S14 WILLIAM WATSON GOODWIN.

can do no wrong,” though her ministers may err, and which, “has more
than an imperial treasury in the love and respect of her sons and in the
confidence of the community.”

His life was bound up with the interests of Harvard, with which he
was connected, as student or-as officer, for fifty-six years. Long
before he reached an advanced age he delighted in reminiscence, in
tales of the simplicity of college life in the fifties, and not the least part
of his charm for those of the younger generation who had a lively
interest in Harvard’s past, consisted in the inexhaustible (and now
irrecoverable) fund of anecdotes about early academic worthies —
and unworthies — that lay in the memory of one who had been a
student under Everett and Sparks and an officer of the college during
the administrations of Walker, Felton, Hill and Eliot. Harvard has
had few sons who have displayed greater devotion than he; a devotion
that he was able to signalize by the foundation of a Scholarship in
memory of his son Charles Haven, whose career of promise was cut
short by his death one year after his graduation in 1888; and, at the
end, by a bequest sufficient to establish one of the best endowed
Scholarships in the bestowal of the University.

To the cause of the higher education of women Goodwin gave his
influential support. He was one of the first of the few teachers of
Harvard who were early encouraged to try the experiment of giving
instruction to advanced women students; and for many years he
continued to make certain of his courses accessible to members of
Radcliffe. He was one of the incorporators of the Society for the
Collegiate Instruction of Women and afterward of Radcliffe College,
served on the Academic Board of the Annex from 1882 to 1893, was
Chairman of that Board in 1885-86, a member of the Council of
Radcliffe College from 1888 to 1911, and a member of the Associates
of Radcliffe College from its incorporation until his death.

Such are the landmarks in the career of a scholar whose life was
spent in quiet devotion to high things, a life that made no parade and
sought none of the noisy ways of fame. Yet to few Americans of our
time has been given an ampler measure of the tribute of recognition
that great powers have been used effectively and serviceably. Good-
win’s mastery of Greek syntax enfranchised in Great Britain the
Hellenic scholarship of the United States. The “Moods and Tenses”’
became there, as at home, a standard treatise; the Journal of Philology
and Liddell and Scott’s Greek Lexicon contain further evidences of
his exact learning. He received the degree of LL.D. from Cambridge
in 1883, from Edinburgh in 1890, and the degree of D. C. L. from

WILLIAM WATSON GOODWIN. 815

Oxford also in 1890. In 1905 Géttingen renewed honoris causa the
degree of Ph.D. which he had received at that University in 1855.
At home he received honorary degrees from Amherst, Chicago,
Columbia, Yale, and Harvard. He enjoyed the rare distinction of
being twice president of the American Philological Association (1871
and 1884); he was vice-president of the Egypt Exploration Fund;
for many years he was closely identified with the work of the Archae-
ological Institute of America. He was a member of the American
Philosophical Society, an honorary member of the Hellenic Society of
London, of the Philological Society of Cambridge, England, of the
Hellenic Society of Constantinople, of the Archaeological Society and
Academy of Science at Athens, and a foreign member of the Imperial
German Archaeological Institute.

Like the “high-minded man”’ of Aristotle, praise or blame neither
elated nor dejected him. He was unfeignedly modest, and always
took for himself far less than he deserved. He knew much about
things of which he professed to know nothing. Laudation of his work
did not cause him to think unduly of his powers, and he could rejoice
in siding with a critic against himself, the mark (according to Emerson)
of the cultured man. He kept unimpaired the serenity of the scholar
whose only aim is the truth and who sinks his personality in his work.
He was no lover of controversy and indirect challenge did not provoke
him to break silence. He never strove to be eloquent or subtle. Dis-
ingenuousness was utterly foreign to him. His every spoken and
written word was as clear and simple and straightforward as his
life.

Not that he made his deeper self familiar even to his friends. Re-
serve warded off the aggression of emotion in others as it was his
defence against its promptings in himself; but, like some unde-
monstrative natures, he had a large capacity for tenderness. He had
none of the latent unsociability of the typical scholar, but was averse
to “talking shop,” when many would gladly have had him yield to
that academic temptation. He delighted in the offices of an unosten-
tatious and refined hospitality; he seasoned life with humor and keen
wit. At the public dinner in 1901 in commemoration of his retirement
he proposed to amend Solon’s maxim “call no man happy till he is
dead” to “call no man happy till he resigns.” He relished the dry
humor of the descendants of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, and matched
their aphorisms with those of the ancients. His sayings about people
often had a quaint and humorous acidity, but they were never prompted
by ungenerous feeling. No one could pass the barrier of his aloofness

816 EDWARD HENRY HALL.

and come really to know him without loving him for the warmth of
his heart, his sympathy and his never-failing kindliness.

The large influence enjoyed by Goodwin was not due merely to his
profound scholarship and solid achievements, nor to the fact that he
was the embodiment of Greek culture, nor yet because to the younger
ceneration he was the representative of an older time and had clothed
himself with the wisdom of long experience. His influence was due
above all to his high personal distinction. To his intellectual vigor
and broad culture he united a noble temper, energy in repose, and a
character that commanded respect and veneration. He measured
the efficiency of his college by an exalted standard of scholarship;
he was just and fair and broad-minded; never disabling his judgment
by surrendering it to the caprices of momentary feeling; his character
retained the sterling qualities of his Pilgrim ancestry while it had been
softened to a gracious gentleness by the temper of his culture and a
cosmopolitanism that had made him conversant with many lands and
many men of distinction. But, more than all this, his whole life bore
witness to purity and loftiness of soul. And his beautiful face and
noble bearing affirmed the inner man —in very truth kados kat
ayaos avnp.

HERBERT WEIR SMYTH.

EDWARD HENRY HALL (1831-1912)

Fellow in Class III, Section 4, 1907.

Edward Henry Hall was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, April 16, 1831,
and died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, February 22, 1912. He was
son of Edward Brooks Hall (Harv. A. B. 1820, S.T. D. ’48) and
Harriet Ware Hall, daughter of Henry Ware, Sr., Hollis Professor of
Divinity 1805-1845 (emeritus after 1840). After graduating from
Harvard College in 1851, and from the Divinity School in 1855, he
was ordained minister of the First Church in Plymouth on January 5,
1859, where he remained until July 1867, with an interruption from
September 12, 1862 to June 18, 1863, during which he served as
chaplain of the 44th Inf. M.V.M. From February 10, 1869 to
February 26, 1882, he was minister of the Second Congregational
Church of Worcester, and from March 30, 1882 to March 31, 1893 of

EDWARD HENRY HALL. S817

the First Parish and Church in Cambridge. He was also Lecturer on
the History of Christian Doctrine in the Harvard Divinity School,
1899-1900. In 1902 Harvard conferred upon him the honorary degree
of S. T. D. as, in the apt phrases of President Eliot, “army chaplain in
the Civil War, pastor, preacher, candid student of early Christian
history, independent outspoken citizen.”

Dr. Hall was a conspicuous example of the clerical type once preva-
lent here in New England but now rapidly disappearing. Abhorring
sensationalism and sentimentalism, he maintained the most exigent
ideals of personal and civic righteousness, intellectual integrity and
personal honor. Utterly fearless, and with the sincerity and sim-
plicity which accompany courage at its best, he spoke out his full
mind on theological and social topics. Severely aristocratic in his
tastes and pleasures, with a native dignity superior to all baseness and
a fine contempt for sham and pretence, which he was keen to detect,
he was also thoroughly democratic in social principles and mental at-
titude. There was a significant difference between his appearance
on foot and on horseback. Walking the streets of Cambridge, often
accompanied by his dog, he would have attracted little attention
from a casual passer-by unless, indeed, the raising of his head to
acknowledge the greetings of a friend had given a glimpse of his keen,
strong, intellectual face, but when he rode, erect and martial, he was a
distinguished figure of whom no one could have failed to take notice.
As a scholar, he was interested in Christian History, particularly in
the earlier period. In this field his work was conscientiously thorough
and accurate, but the “enthusiasm” of the early church, and particu-
larly of Paul, was so alien to his own habits of mind and life, as to
make sympathetic appreciation difficult and hence he never quite suc-
ceeded in making its,scenes and characters live. The title of his last
book “Paul the Apostle, as viewed by a Layman” was significant of
his devotion to the ideals of Congregationalism according to which a
clergyman, as such, has no existence apart from his relation to the
particular church of which he is minister. From this point of view,
Dr. Hall, having resigned his Cambridge pastorate, properly and con-
sistently described himself as a layman.

His published works are:—

Orthodoxy and Heresy in the Christian Church— Worcester (pri-
vately printed) 1874; Boston, American Unitarian Association,
1883. ;

First Lessons on the Bible — Boston, Unitarian Sunday School
Society, 1882.

818 WILLIAM WIRT HOWE.

Lessons on the Life of Paul — Boston, Unitarian Sunday School
Society, 1885.

Discourses — Boston, George H. Ellis, 1893.

Papias and his Contemporaries — Boston and New York, Houghton,
Mifflin & Co., 1899.

Paul the Apostle, as viewed by a Layman — Boston, Little, Brown &
Co., 1906.

W. W. FENN.

WILLIAM WIRT HOWE (1833-1909)

Fellow in Class III, Section 1, 1900.

William Wirt Howe was born at Canandaigua, New York, on
November 24, 1833. He was of English descent, an ancestor having
come to America from Warwickshire about 1630. After graduating
from Hamilton College in 1853 he studied law in St. Louis and began
to practise there, but attracted by the greater opportunities in the
East soon moved to New York City. At the outbreak of the civil
war he gave up his profession for service in defense of the Union and
became a Lieutenant in the 7th Kansas Volunteers. Throughout the
war he was continuously engaged in military duty and rose to the
rank of Major. In 1862 he was married at Utica, New York, to
Frances A. Gridley.

At the end of the war Mr. Howe established himself in New Orleans
and resumed the practise of the law. He was appointed by General
Sheridan during the latter’s military administration under the Recon-
struction Act as judge of the principal Criminal Court in New
Orleans, and in 1868 was appointed by Governor Warmoth to the
Supreme Court of Louisiana, a position which he held until 1873. In
1900 he was appointed by President McKinley, United States District
Attorney for the Eastern District of Louisiana; he was reappointed by
President Roosevelt and served until in 1907 failing health compelled
his resignation. In 1909 Judge Howe died at the age of seventy-
six. He left a widow and one son, Wirt Howe, a graduate of Harvard
University and of the Harvard Law School.

In his profession Judge Howe achieved success and a reputation for |
character as well as for capacity that was rewarded by his election

WILLIAM WIRT HOWE. 819

in 1907 to the presidency of the American Bar Association of which he
had become a member in 1881, three years after its organization. In
his profession too he was recognized as a lecturer of exceptional
ability and delivered courses of lectures at the St. Louis Law School,
the Law Schools of the University of the South, Boston University,
the University of Pennsylvania and Columbia University. At Yale
University he delivered the Storr’s series of lectures and these were
published in 1896 and a second edition in 1905 under the title of,
“Studies in the Civil Law.”

Judge Howe’s interests and activities were not, however, confined to
the law. For four years he was president of the New Orleans civil
service board, receiving his appointment from the mayor of the city.
He served as president of the Louisiana Historical Association and
published a Municipal History of New Orleans, a Monograph of
Johns Hopkins and a life of Francois Xavier Martin, for more than
thirty years a judge of the Supreme Court of Louisiana and known as
the “Father of Louisiana Jurisprudence.’’ Always prominent in
philanthropic and public enterprises Judge Howe was one of the incor-
porators and at his death a trustee of the Eye, Ear and Nose Hospital;
one of the original members of the Louisiana Association for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals; administrator of the Charitable
Hospital of New Orleans; treasurer of Tulane University; an incorpo-
rator and first president of the New Orleans Art Association; an active
member of the New Orleans Chamber of Commerce and Board of
Trade; for thirty-four years senior warden of Christ Church C athedral,
and a trustee of the Carnegie Institution in Washington.

Settling in New Orleans immediately after the civil war in which he
himself had taken an active part on the Northern side, Judge Howe
began his career in a hostile community. The stormy years of recon-
struction followed. A Northerner and a republican, he could not
look with favor on the reestablishment of the old slaveholding aris-
tocracy, and he received his judicial appointments from the republi-
can party. But whatever sympathy he may have felt with the
original aspirations of the radical republicans who for five or six years
were supported by the federal government and maintained a pre-
carious rule only through the use of federal troops, he revolted from
the carnival of extravagance, dishonesty and corruption that marked
the period of republican control. He was not one of the infamous
horde of carpet baggers who after the war invaded the South intent
only on loot, and, seeking to enrich themselves at the expense of an
impoverished and distracted people, greatly aggravated the difficulties,

820 WILLIAM WIRT HOWE.

sufficiently great under the best circumstances, of the race problem.
When Judge Howe settled in New Orleans it was with no desire to
exploit the South but with the purpose of becoming a permanent
resident and of doing his part as he would have done it elsewhere for
the public good. Long before his service as a judge of the Supreme
Court ended it had been demonstrated that continuance of the negro
republican rule meant the ruin of Louisiana. Judge Howe, like other
good citizens, rallied to the support of Francis T. Nicholls and the
men who with him were struggling to save the state from further
spoliation and degradation, and without renouncing his political faith
worked patriotically for redemption of the city and the state.

It is seldom that any man starting life afresh at over thirty years of
age in a new environment, almost an alien in race, under the handicap
of most violent political and social prejudices, achieves success.
Judge Howe faced all these conditions. Probably no community in
the South felt a greater bitterness towards the North than did New
Orleans at the end of the war. This bitterness was increased ten fold
by the experiences of the reconstruction period. Yet Judge Howe
succeeded in overcoming the obstacles. First appointed to public
office by a hated military commander and later to a higher judicial
office by an equally hated republican governor, he so won the esteem
of political opponents and enemies as to be selected by a staunch demo-
crat and ex-confederate soldier for a position of honor and responsi-
bility as administrator of the Charity Hospital, and long before his
death had become, as the roll of offices of trust and honor which he
held shows, one of the leading citizens of his adopted state.

The secret of Judge Howe’s success was character. Those thrown
into association with him could not fail to recognize the cultured
gentleman, the public spirited citizen, and the loyal friend and associ-
ate. Political advancement, if he desired it, he could not expect in
Louisiana, without apostasy to his republican convictions. But once
the political atmosphere was cleared so that men judged their fellows
by other than political tests his integrity, ability and high standards
earned for him the respect and the confidence of his neighbors in New
Orleans, as they earned for him national recognition. His election
to the presidency of the American Bar Association stamped him as a
fit representative of the South in his chosen profession; his appoint-
ment as a trustee of the Carnegie Institution showed that his reputa-
3 as a wise and responsible administrator had become more than
ocal.

An interesting and amusing conversationalist, of ready wit, with a

LEONARD PARKER KINNICUTT. 821

store of dry humor and a mind well stocked with reading, study and
travel, he was much in demand for both public and private entertain-
ments and filled with distinction a social position seldom attained in a
city like New Orleans by one coming from without.

Judge Howe’s work upon the Supreme bench of Louisiana showed
courage, learning and conscientious discharge of his duties. He
dared in a strong dissenting opinion to declare against the constitu-
tionality of a state law which denied to one who in good faith had
purchased for value a note originally given for the price of a slave the
right to recover on the note. But the times were not favorable for
any great judicial career in Louisiana, and the practice of the court
which did not favor long opinions makes the reports of his decisions
for the most part little more than a record of the conclusions reached.
On the bench and in his subsequent career Judge Howe acquired
a deserved distinction as a capable judge, an able counsellor and an
effective lecturer. He lacked perhaps the attainments that would
warrant calling him a great jurist, a great advocate or a great teacher.
But if he fell short of the highest professional rank, his diversified
interests, his large public spirit, the traits which won him the respect
and esteem of the community and the affection of numerous friends,
fully entitle him to be written down as “one who loved his fellow
men’’ — and served them well.

Witi1am H. DunBar.

LEONARD PARKER KINNICUTT (1854-1911)

Fellow in Class I, Section 3, 1883.

Leonard Parker Kinnicutt ! was born in Worcester, May 22, 1854,
the son of Francis H. and Elizabeth Waldo (Parker) Kinnicutt. He
received his early education in the schools of Worcester, graduating
from the high school in 1871. He went at once to the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, where he devoted himself chiefly to the study
of chemistry. Following his graduation in 1875 he spent four years
in professional studies in Germany. At Heidelberg he came under

1 This sketch was published by the writer in Science April 28, 1911.

822 LEONARD PARKER KINNICUTT.

the inspiring influence of Bunsen from whom he acquired an apprecia-
tion of the value of careful and accurate analysis. Here also under
Bunsen’s guidance he was initiated into the refinements of gas analy-
sis. This was the period when organic chemistry was developing with
tremendous rapidity especially in Germany. Bunsen had passed the
zenith of his career and was not in sympathy with the new tendency
which was manifesting itself in chemistry. It is not surprising then
to find the young Kinnicutt leaving Heidelberg and matriculating at
Bonn. Only ten years before, Kekulé had been called to the Uni-
versity of Bonn to take charge of the newly built laboratory which at
that time was the finest in all Germany and after which later labora-
tories were patterned. Kekulé’s was a charming personality. His
lectures were a model for simplicity of arrangement and clearness of
presentation, and the experimental demonstrations were carried out
with such fascinating ease and dexterity that the young Kinnicutt
was captivated by the spirit and beauty of organic chemistry and
devoted himself diligently to its study.

He was fortunate in being accepted into the private laboratory of
the master, where he became associated with Richard Anschiitz, the
present director of the Chemical Institute at Bonn. In collaboration
with Anschiitz he published a number of papers, chiefly on phenyl-
glyceric acid. This association ripened into a lasting friendship.
Returning to the United States in 1879, he spent a year in study with
Ira Remsen at the Johns Hopkins University, and then three years
at Harvard, where he served as instructor in quantitative analysis
and as private assistant to Wolcott Gibbs, at that time Rumford
Professor of Chemistry. In 1882 he received from Harvard the degree
of doctor of science and in September of the same year accepted an
appointment as instructor of organic chemistry at the Worcester
Polytechnic Institute. In the following January he became assistant
professor of chemistry; three years later he was made full professor,
and from 1892 was director of the department.

As early as 1885 Professor Kinnicutt began to give attention to the
question of sewage disposal and sanitary problems. He became an
authority on the sanitation of air, water and gas; on the methods of
analysis and on the disposal of wastes. He paid particular attention
to the examination of water and watersheds and the contamination of
rivers and ponds by trade wastes and sewage. He made numerous
reports, both as regards private and public water supplies.

He visited England on an average every other year since 1894,
familiarizing himself with the work done in that country and the
results were embodied in various articles which he published on the

LEONARD PARKER KINNICUTT. 823

subject. He paid special attention to the subject of the pollution of
streams by wool-washings, and made a careful study of this problem
at Bradford, England, where a greater amount of wool is washed
annually than in any other city in England or in this country.

He was employed as an expert in numerous cases regarding the
pollution of streams and ponds, and was one of the experts in the case
of the pollution of the Mississippi River at St. Louis by the sewage
of Chicago. In 1903 he was appointed consulting chemist of the
Connecticut Sewage Commission, a position which he retained up to
the time of his death. He was a frequent contributor to scientific
periodicals and the proceedings of learned societies upon topics relating
to his specialty.

In 1910 in collaboration with Professor C. E. A. Winslow, of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Mr. R. Winthrop Pratt,
of the Ohio State Board of Health, he published a book entitled
“Sewage Disposal” which is considered to be one of the best treatises
on the subject of sewage disposal in the English language.

Professor Kinnicutt’s reputation was not confined to this country.
He enjoyed a wide acquaintance, both in England and on the conti-
nent, and possessed the rare faculty of keeping ever fresh and active
a friendship once established. One of his highest honors was the
appointment as president of the Section of Hygiene of the Inter-
national Congress of Applied Chemistry, which was held in Washing-
ton and New York in September, 1912. Even to within a few days of
his death he continued to work with characteristic zeal in perfecting
plans for the success of the section over which he was to have presided.
Professor Kinnicutt was deeply interested in the sanitary problems
of his native city, Worcester. He kept a careful watch upon the
city’s water supply. During the “water famine” of the winter of
1910 to 1911 he directed from his sick bed the tests to be made, had
daily reports brought to him and outlined the policy by which, in his
opinion, the city’s health might be best safeguarded.

He devoted a great deal of time and money to secure a pure milk
supply in summer for the babies in needy families, and at the time of
his death he was a member of the Worcester Medical Milk Commis-
sion. Professor Kinnicutt was widely connected with scientific associ-
ations; he was a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,
an active member of the C. M. Warren Committee from its foundation
in 1893 and its chairman from 1903 to his death; a fellow of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, of which he
was vice-president in 1904; a member of the American Chemical
Society, and councillor for a succession of years; a member of the

§24 LEONARD PARKER KINNICUTT.

Society of Bacteriology; a fellow of the New England Water Works
Association; of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers; of the Ameri-
can Antiquarian Society, and of various foreign associations, including
the Association of Managers of Sewage Disposal Works of England,
the London Chemical Society, and the German Chemical Society.
He was a member of several social clubs in Worcester and Boston and
retained to a remarkable degree his interest in the alumni reunions of
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, of the John Hopkins
University and of Harvard University, and he rarely failed to be
present and add his geniality to the general good cheer.

Esteemed and honored by the scientific world, and beloved by a
wide circle of acquaintances, yet it was as a teacher that the true worth
of his character manifested itself. Possessed of a broad training and
knowledge of his subject, and a fund of personal experiences, with
which he punctuated his lectures, he was enabled to drive home the
truths which he desired to impress on the minds of his students.
Interest in his students, however, did not cease with the lecture or the
laboratory. He was ever ready to listen sympathizingly and indul-
gently to those students who were in distress, and to all such he gave
liberally of his time and purse. This conscientious devotion to duty
and unselfish human interest endeared him to the students and
alumni. It came as a great shock to all when, after a delightful
summer of European travel and the resumption of his academic
duties, apparently in his usual good health, he was attacked by a slow
fever which confined him to the house after but a few days of activity.
The trouble was diagnosed finally as tuberculosis. He received his
first warning that he had this insidious disease in his system when he
was a student in Germany, but had apparently fully recovered from
this earlier attack. It was hoped that a year’s leave of absence and
careful nursing would restore him to health and the resumption of a
part at least of his former activities. Toward the end of January,
1911, however, his heart became seriously affected, and he failed
rapidly until the end came peacefully on the morning of the sixth of
February.

Professor William T. Sedgwick, a lifelong friend paid a fitting trib-
ute to his memory when he said, “His was a unique, lovable and
altogether charming personality. Kindness and friendship such as
his life exemplified could no further go. He was critical, yet just;
fearless, yet considerate of others; honest to a fault; a hard worker;
and . a degree nowadays unusual, an accomplished and cultivated
gentleman.”’

W. L. JENNINGS.

00
lo
or

ROBERT KOCH.

ROBERT KOCH (1843-1910)

Foreign Honorary Member in Class II, Section 4, 1901.

Robert Koch died May 27, 1910, in his sixty-seventh year. He was
born in Klaustal; was one of thirteen children; eleven sons and two
daughters.

He was at first intended to be a tradesman, but later was allowed to
carry out his own desire, which was to study medicine.

In April, 1862, at the age of eighteen, he entered the University of
Géttingen, and devoted himself to the study of mathematics, physics
and botany. The physiologist, Meissner, and the pathologist, Henle
had a special influence upon him during his stay here. In his second
semester, he was made an assistant in the Pathological Museum, and
shortly after took an academic prize.

In January, 1866, he took his Doctor’s examination in Géttingen,
and in March of the same year, after a short stay in Berlin, passed
his state examination with great distinction at Hanover. He then
spent a month as an assistant in the General Hospital of Hamburg,
and from October, 1866 to July, 1868, combined general practice with
that of physician to the Idiot’s Hospital of Langenhagen near Han-
over. He then practised a short time in Neimegk in Brandenburg,
and from 1869 in Rakwitz in the province of Posen. From Rakwitz
he went as a volunteer surgeon to the war against France; returning
home — at the suggestion of one of his friends, he passed the exami-
nation for, and until 1872 served as, District Physician in Wollstein
near Rakwitz.

In spite of all the interruptions that come to a busy practitioner,
Koch had found time for microscopic studies during the preceding
years, but it. was first in Wollstein that, thanks to his improved
financial condition, he secured better apparatus and instruments and
could control his time better. He cut off half his consulting room for a
laboratory, in which was installed a photomicrographic apparatus and
a dark room. It was in this room that the young District Physician
and busy practitioner made the discoveries that stamped him as a
master of knowledge. The aims of his life stood now clear before
his eyes. He threw a search-light on the darkness surrounding the
infectious diseases: he placed the old, much disputed doctrine of

826 ROBERT KOCH.

contagium vivum upon a solid foundation, and showed the methods
of attack and control of pestilences. :

The opportunity offered itself, at this time, to study anthrax, which
formed the subject of his first recorded and published paper: (“Die
Atiologie der Milzbrandkrankheit, begriindet auf die Entwickelungs-
geschichte des Bacillus anthracis,’ Cohn’s Beitriige z. Biologie der
Pflanzen, 11, 1876, 1 Pl.) This was the first of the series of papers
upon this disease: studies which involved him in the bitter contro-
versy with Pasteur. Before this was finished, came his special
contributions on methods (“Verfahrung zur Untersuchung, zum
Konservieren und Photographieren der Bakterien,’ Cohn’s Beitriige,
II, 1877, and “Zur Untersuchung von pathogenen organismen,” Mitt.
a. d. Kais. Gesundheitsamte, I, Berlin, 1881). Then came his work
on suppurations and septicemias (“Untersuchung iiber die Atiologie
der Wundinfektionskrankheiten,” Leipzig, 1878) on disinfection
(“Uber Desinfektion,” Mitt. a. d. Kais. Gesund., I, Berlin, 1881), and
his results on tuberculosis, first indicated in 1882 (“Die Atiologie der
Tuberkulose. Nach einen in der Physiologische Geselleschaft zu
Berlin am 24 Marz, 1882, gehalten Vortrage, Berlin, Klin. Woch.
1882,” and “ Die Atiologie der Tuberkulose,” Mitt. a. d. Kais. Gesund.,
II, Berlin, 1884.) This subject took much of his attention for many
years, and as his demonstration of the etiological factor served to give
his reputation the solid world-wide acceptance that it received, so the
forced circumstances surrounding the announcement of the remedial
substance “tuberculin,” and the disappointment of the extreme hopes.
aroused, served to embitter much of his later life. The circumstances
of this occurrence are tragic, as those familiar with the facts well
know. In 1882, however, his work on tuberculosis was interrupted
by the expedition to Egypt and India for the study of cholera. The
results appeared in 1887 in a separate volume (Arb. a. d. Kais. Gesund-
heitsamt, 1887, III), and like all his previous communications bear the
marks of painstaking research and great accuracy.

His work on “infectious-wound-diseases ” especially aroused Cohn’s
interest, so that through his influence, Koch became District Physician
in Breslau in 1879. But his reputation was so rapidly growing that
on June 28, 1880, he was brought to the Kaiserlichen Gesundsheitsamt
in Berlin, and was at last free to work and carry out his great aims.
uninterrupted. It was here that he perfected his methods of staining,
of photomicrography, and of solid culture media — all of them used
before, but not widely known and accepted — methods that form the
base of much of our knowledge of microscopic organisms, and the
perfecting of which is in itself a claim to great distinction.

ROBERT KOCH. 827

In 1885 a new promotion came —to the Chair of Professor of
Hygiene in the Medical Faculty of the University of Berlin, and
Director of the newly established Hygienic Institute.

In June, 1891, he was again transferred — to become the head of the
new Institute for Infectious Diseases, with a hospital attached.
In this place he became the leader and director of campaigns against
epidemics in all parts of the Empire. He was made Surgeon-General
of the Health Service, and Professor and Fellow of the Science Senate
of the Kaiser Wilhelm’s Academy.

As early as 1881, he had suggested that other micro-organisms than
bacteria might be the cause of some infectious processes, and that
blood-sucking insects might easily be the intermediate hosts. This he
later demonstrated in his work in India, New Guinea and Africa upon
many of the infections there prevalent.

Koch’s characteristics were those necessary for the successful inves-
tigator — patience, a strong will and great persistence. The earlier
part of his career was marked by such definite and clear-cut results in
all his published papers that the scientific world was ready to accept
the claims attributed to him as to the effects to be expected from the
use of tuberculin. His personality was modest and unassuming, his
diction, in conversation, simple, clear and convincing. These qualities
seem to have been lessened in later life, for there then appears a tend-
ency to general and dogmatic statement, and a greater inclination to
controversial methods than had been seen before. Nevertheless,
second only to Pasteur, his career stands as one of the first importance
in the advance of our knowledge of the infectious diseases and the
relief of human suffering.

H. C. ERWwST:

828 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY.

SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY (1834-1906)

Fellow in Class I, Section 2, 1883.

What can a writer of a notice of Samuel Pierpont Langley, twelve
years after his death, add to the notices already published in the lead-
ing scientific societies of the world: especially the full notices at the
memorial meeting in the Smithsonian Institution, Dec. 3, 1906?
The American Academy of Arts and Sciences, however, would feel
that it would be lacking in respect to the memory of one of its most
distinguished members if it did not commemorate, even in a brief note,
his achievements. The American Academy early recognized his
ability by the bestowal of the Rumford medals; and it can now point
with pride to the justification of their confidence in the value of his
work.

Samuel Pierpont Langley was born in Roxbury, Mass., Aug. 22,
1854. He was educated in the Boston Latin School and in the Boston
High School. Having adopted the profession of an architect and a
civil engineer, he went to the West and engaged for a time in practical
life; but his scientific tastes prevailed and he came back to the east
to take up the study of astronomy. He became an assistant in the
Harvard College Observatory, and at the age of thirty-two was ap-
pointed Director of the Allegheny Observatory, where he remained
for twenty years.

He became a pioneer in the new subject of astrophysics and soon
began a series of investigations on radiant energy, especially mani-
fested in the solar spectrum. In his early experiments he used the
apparatus made classical by previous investigators — the combination
of junctions of bismuth and antimony, called the Melloni pile. These
junctions are very sensitive to radiant heat, and the thermo-electric
currents developed at the junctions can be measured by a suitable
instrument —a galvanometer — placed in an electric circuit — namely
the circuit of the junctions and the galvanometer. Langley found, as
so many did, that thermo-electricity cannot be depended upon for
accuracy of indications of small amounts of heat. He therefore
adopted the electric balance, in which the increase of electrical resist-
ance in a coil submitted to heat, is balanced by other coils. The
electrical balance is what is known as the Wheatstone’s Bridge.
Langley’s contribution to the electrical balance was the use of an

SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY. 829

excessively fine metallic filament for the resistance submitted to radiant
energy. This filament responded to extraordinarily small increments
of heat. I well remember his enthusiasm, when on a visit to Cam-
bridge, he showed me the modification of the balance which he called
a bolometer and said “I have found a means of overcoming all my
difficulties.” A new instrument often marks the beginning of a new
epoch in science, Langley opened a great field of investigation in that
portion of the solar spectrum which extends into darkness beyond the
visible red — the portion called the infra red; and mapped lines and
absorption bands in a region eight to ten times the extent of the visible
spectrum.

With his bolometer he undertook an investigation of the heat of the
moon; but could not distinguish between the heat given off by the
body of the moon and that due to reflection of the sun’s rays. He
made journeys to Mt. Whitney where the height and steadiness of the
atmosphere promised to enable him to determine the constancy of
the radiation of the sun. He laid the foundation of the subsequent
refined measurements of Dr. Abbot. When Langley was called to
the Smithsonian, as Director he founded an astrophysical observatory
in connection with the Institution which has become renowned as a
centre of investigation of radiant energy.

Langley obtained by his investigations with the bolometer an en-
during place in the history of science which, however, was to be greatly
increased by his later work on the aeroplane. My acquaintance
with him began on a camping out expedition in Maine. He impressed
me as a man wrapped in heavy thought. One evening Professor
Alfred M. Mayer, who was of the party, expressed the conviction that
a scientific man could acquire in half an hour the practical expe-
rience which had taken our guide twenty years to obtain; and he
and Langley took lessons in paddling a canoe. There was no wind
and the lake, on the shores of which we were encamped was placid.
Langley, taking with him a copy of Maxwell’s Matter and Motion,
paddled across the lake. A thunder cloud presently arose and Langley
endeavored to return; but there was no stone in the bow of the canoe;
and it did not occur to him to shift his position to the middle of the
canoe. He had to summon the guide. Later we were together in
London, and on one occasion while riding in the suburbs, he broke
a moody silence by remarking, “ How absurd it is to be carried by this
horse — a mass of flesh and bones, nine hundred pounds in weight,
I have an engine, which weighs only four pounds and develops two
horse power.”

830 SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY.

When the idea of flying possessed him he went ahead without
regard to the universal ridicule which greeted those who believed that
flying was possible —a ridicule fully expressed by the poem, “ Darius
Green and his flying machine,” and was constantly showing his friends
little devices, modifications of boomerangs, arrangements of wings
and screws which showed marvellous capabilities of flight. Finally
in 1896 he constructed a machine which was driven by a small steam
engine and which flew down the Potomac a distance of over a mile.
The machine was set off on a car which ran forward on ways, and
which fell down at the extremity of the car’s motion, releasing the
aeroplane for its flight.

In 1898 a board consisting of army and navy officers was appointed
to investigate Langley’s experiments. Their report was favorable
and the board allotted $50,000 for the development and construction
of a large aeroplane. A difficulty was met in obtaining a suitable light
engine and suitable materials for the guys and wings. In 1901 a
gasoline engine was secured and work proceeded. The first machine
weighed 830 pounds and had a surface of 1,040 square feet. The
entire power plant weighed less than 5 pounds to the horse power.
The successful small mechanical model which made the flight of a mile,
weighed 58 pounds, had a surface of 66 square feet and an engine
which developed 23 to 3 horse power. The same launching apparatus
which had worked successfully in the case of the small model was
prepared for the large machine. The weather conditions on the
Potomac were most baffling. It seemed as if the winds followed the
course of the river and Langley, with hope deferred must have suffered
great perturbation of spirit in studying the weather conditions. There
seemed to be a malevolence in nature; which we feel in war times.
A small house had been erected on the banks of the Potomac and the
launching ways carefully tested. On October 7, 1903, in the presence
of a curious throng of spectators the conditions of the atmosphere
seemed propitious. The engineer took his seat and the car with the
aeroplane sped down the ways. Just as it left the track, with the 50
horse power engine whirling the propellor, one of the guys was caught
by the falling ways, a front guy post was also caught. The front of
the machine was dragged downwards and the machine plunged into
the water about 50 yards in front of the boathouse.

After some repairs a second attempt was made on December 8,
1903, with a resulting disaster. The rear guy post seemed to drag,
bringing the rudder down on the launching ways with a crashing
rending sound and a collapse of the rear wings. The machine was

THOMAS RAYNESFORD LOUNSBURY. 831

wrecked and the funds, exhausted. Langley said, “Failure in the
aerodrome itself, in its engines there had been none: and it is believed
that it is at the moment of success, and when the engineering problems
have been solved, a lack of means has prevented a continuance of
the work.” If he had only thought of mounting his aeroplane on
bicycle wheels! what a small thing prevented his success. One recalls
the canoe episode on the Maine lake. I know of no more touching
episode in the history of invention. He had success in his grasp. A
critic has said that he ought to have stopped with his mechanical
model; for he had not the engineering skill to perfect his invention.
It seems to me that this is not true. Langley combined with his
theoretical knowledge of mechanics a remarkable practical skill. His
aeroplane afterwards flew. Perhaps he underated the necessity of
practical experience in balancing even after a successful launching.
With what exultation of spirit he would survey today the progress of
aviation. It is one of the unintelligible things in this life that this
exultation was denied him; for he was a man especially fond of distine-
tion. He failed for the want of a few thousand dollars; and the
United States Government is now appropriating millions for aero-
planes. In the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections for 1907, will
be found a complete bibliography of Langley’s papers. It contains
284 references.

JOHN TROWBRIDGE.

THOMAS RAYNESFORD LOUNSBURY (1838-1915)

Fellow in Class I[I, Section 2, 1896.
if

Thomas Raynesford Lounsbury, son of Thomas and Mary Janette
(Woodward) Lounsbury, was born on January Ist, 1838, at Ovid,
New York, where his father was pastor of the Presbyterian Church.
At the age of seventeen he entered Yale College; he took his degree in
1859. His undergraduate career was distinguished by sundry prizes
and other such recognitions of literary propensities. After gradua-
tion he was for some time employed on the not too mature staff
engaged in preparing Appleton’s New American Cyclopaedia. From
1862 to 1865 he served as an infantry officer in the Civil War,

832 THOMAS RAYNESFORD LOUNSBURY.

during the latter part of this time as Adjutant of the Draft Rendezvous
at Elmira, New York, which was also a depot for Confederate prison-
ers. The next five years he passed in school teaching, private tutor-
ing, and eager study, particularly of the English language and literature.
In 1870 he returned to Yale, as instructor in English at the Sheffield
Scientific School; the next year he was made professor of English
there. As such he continued his work, scholar and teacher alike,
for thirty-five years, retiring in 1906. He died at New Haven, on
April 9th, 1915.

For a long time he had then been recognized not only as one who will
hardly be forgotten among the worthies of Yale but as a scholar of
national and international importance — after the death of Professor
Child, of Harvard, in 1896, undisputedly the most eminent master of
his subject in the United States. This eminence was attested by many
degrees and similar honors. He was Doctor of Laws of Yale, of
Harvard, and of Aberdeen; he was Doctor of Letters of Princeton; and,
to go no further, he was from the first a member of the American
Academy of Arts and Letters. He had been made a Fellow of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences April 8, 1896.

Apart from occasional writing, his publications were not precocious.
The first which he chose to record in Who’s Who was a compact
handbook concerning the History of the English Language, published
so late as 1879. In 1882 — though it bears the date of the following
year — appeared his Life of James Fenimore Cooper, in the American
Men of Letters Series. In 1891 came what is generally thought his
most important work, the three-volume Studies in Chaucer, affection-
ately dedicated to Professor Child. Between 1901 and 1906 came the
three volumes which he grouped together under the title of Shakes-
pearan Wars: Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist, Shakespeare and
Voltaire, and The Text of Shakespeare. Meanwhile, in 1904, he had
extended into a small volume papers originally written for occasional
purposes, concerning The Standard of Pronunciation in English.
This was followed in 1908 by a similar but rather more extensive book
on The Standard of Usage in English. In 1909, he completed this
third of his trilogies by his book on English Spelling and Spelling
Reform. In 1911 appeared his four lectures, originally given at the
University of Virginia, on the Early Literary Career of Robert Brown-
ing; in 1912 followed that rhost compact and satisfactory of anthol-
ogies, The Yale Book of American Verse. His last considerable
publication was posthumous: The Life and Times of Tennyson (From
1809 to 1850) he had left unfinished; in December, 1915, only eight

THOMAS RAYNESFORD LOUNSBURY. 833

months after his death, it was printed under the supervision of his
junior colleague and devoted friend, Professor Wilbur Cross.

In 1871, Professor Lounsbury married Jane, daughter of General
Thomas J. Folwell, of New York. With one son, she survived him.

II

It is happily characteristic of Professor Lounsbury that when he
retired from the drudgery of teaching, in 1906, a neighbor more than
twenty years younger than he sent the Yale Alumni Weekly a column
touching on the humanity of him just as a neighbor. There have
rarely been men more stoutly themselves; but you could hardly meet
him, even occasionally and casually, without a contagious sense of
human fellowship. As one thinks of him now, the first thought is
that he was of the few who can unwittingly help fellow beings to be
better fellows. His appearance was by no means academic; rather
his burly vigor bespoke the old soldier. So late as 1915, when he was
more than seventy-five years old, he allowed to stand in Who’s Who
the statement that his favorite recreations were cycling and tennis.
A tall man and a large, sandy-haired and bearded, with heavy-lidded
eyes which troubled him in his later years, he might have looked ponder-
ous, if he had been less alert. He was voluble yet affable; whether
you talked back to him or not, you felt as if you did. His boundless
range of information was always at his command. He had the buoyant
potency of a great scholar; he could master books and they could not
master him. No man was ever more free from the insidious bonds of
pedantry. Life is real, books are the record of past realities; to under-
stand books we must take them for what they truly are — the data
from which imagination can revive aspects of life no longer visible to
living men. Your pedant stops at the letter, imprisoned in the walls
of his library; your scholar finds his library an open gate to worlds
he can never explore too eagerly. He loves his path, no doubt, but
mostly because it is the way to boundless journeys of discovery; and
discovery is discovery, be it of a new flower or of a new continent or
planet. We may seem to be straying from a life which passed half its
allotted span in the teaching of boys at an American Scientific School;
yet those who remember Professor Lounsbury can hardly help, from
the very force of his memory, starting away from daily commonplace.

How tremendously commonplace the circumstances of his profes-
sional work must have been, anyone who has taught undergraduates

834 THOMAS RAYNESFORD LOUNSBURY.

must sadly know. The independence of Professor Lounsbury’s
nature kept him apart from the rigid curriculum which persisted at
Yale College during the greater part of his teaching years. In the
Scientific School he was more free to deal with his still new and some-
what suspected subject of English than he could have been in the
college itself; but this very freedom brought its penalties. Students
of science, at least in his time, have been so largely because they would
not take the trouble to make themselves students of the humanities;
and students of English, as a class, have been so largely for the reason
that they could thus dispense with the vexatious need of learning any
other language than their own. Until very late in Professor Louns-
bury’s career as a teacher, there was little graduate study of English
at Yale: even now, your graduate student of English anywhere is
seldom inspiring. So perhaps only men who have had to teach English.
at a Yankee college can fully enjoy two of his remembered comments
on this task. The first is in his life of Cooper (p. 7), who was for a
while an undergraduate at Yale. “We need not feel any distrust,”
writes Lounsbury, “of his declaration that little learning of any kind
forced its way into his head. Least of all will he be inclined to doubt
it whom extended experience in the class-room has taught to view with
profoundest respect the infinite capability of the human mind to
resist the introduction of knowledge.’’ The second of his comments
on pupils, though perhaps legendary, is at once equally characteristic
and more familiar. Towards the close of an unusually restless hour,
he is said to have admonished his class in some such words as these:
“You must stay with me a little longer. I have a few more pearls to
cast before you.”

And pearls they were, those words of his, whether they concerned
learning or sport, reminiscence or what a less robust nature would have
found the benumbing chill of college conservatism. He was a Yale
man to the core, and lived to be in his later years among the most
secure of Yale worthies in the hearts of men that loved Yale. The
way in which he instinctively combined simplicity with distinction
breathed the best spirit of the college which was his from boyhood
to the last. He was a born and a trained lover of literature. Above
all, though, he was a pitiless enemy of literary cant; he never forgot
the supreme truth of fact; and no one ever sought or asserted fact
with more sturdy common-sense. Before his time, the teaching of
English at Yale had been mostly concerned with formal rhetoric and
oratory. His own first teaching directed the attention of his pupils
straight to the texts of Shakespeare, of Milton, of Dryden, and of

THOMAS RAYNESFORD LOUNSBURY. 835

Pope — poets who have survived so surely that, whether you care for
them or not, their works are touchstones by which those who will may
test the worth of works lesser or newer. And what he thought of the
trivial conventions of petty literary grace may be gathered from the
saying attributed to him by Professor Cross, that “a man who hasn’t
brains enough to write a grammar writes a rhetoric.”

Those who knew Professor Lounsbury, even though slightly, can
never forget him. No one can remember him without interest, few
without affection.

III

Whoever, with such memory, turns now to the books where he has
left his record for future times must feel, more than usual, how little
books, even though deeply characteristic, can preserve the atmosphere
of amemorable personality. Something similar is true of two Harvard
worthies — Lowell and Norton. Lowell’s poems and essays are
securely placed among the standards of literature in America, Norton’s
books and letters are lasting records of the most gracious American
culture. But Harvard men who studied under Lowell or Norton, or
who know them as they lived and moved in the Cambridge they had
seen transformed from a unique college town to populous suburban
commonplace, grow impatient of their printed utterance. This is
doubtless good; but the men themselves were so much better that the
sense of their loss grows heavier with each page. Lounsbury’s books
are as characteristic as either of theirs — not least for his disdainful
disregard of conventional literary pretension. He wrote, as he talked,
volubly and idiomatically. He did not attempt to make literature;
he was content to know it, to love it, to assert the standards of it and
to maintain them with all the power of his insatiable study and of his
unswerving common-sense. No man ever had a sounder appreciation
of literary and poetic values; none could insist on them more sanely
or more valiantly. When he came to discussing them, however, he
was a little too apt to take them for granted. This, as one reflects,
was evident in his talk. There one felt nothing to seek; if he strayed
a bit from things themselves worth while to things about them, a word
or two would recall him to the heart of the matter; oftener, gladly
yielding to the sweep of his utterance, one was content for the moment
to take for granted with him that there was no need to dwell on what
we all knew anyway. The pitiless impersonality of print, however,
reveals too clearly this error, if indeed it be not a foible, of his strength.

836 THOMAS RAYNESFORD LOUNSBURY.

A shrewd contemporary of his, at another college, was apt to say that
books are alive, that books about books are anaemic, and that books
about books about books are still-born. In his writing as in his talk
Lounsbury was red-blooded and always animated. As one turns the
pages of his volumes, though, one sometimes suspects that the greatest
wonder of all about him is that he could manage to make a constant
impression of vigor in works which may so nearly be generalized as
books about books about books.

This is not the case throughout, to be sure. His little handbook
on the English Language, compact from the conditions of its limits,
states the facts as they were ascertained in 1879 so firmly and with
such animation that after forty years it still seems an authority. His
Life of Cooper is an excellent piece of literary biography, where you
may find not only faithful portraiture set in veracious historic back-
ground, and supplemented by compact critical comment, but now and
again pearls of such water as that which we took from its setting a
little while ago. His Studies in Chaucer, generally deemed his
principal work, may justly be called diffuse and disorderly; but, for
all their voluble vagrancies, they unquestionably accomplish the
essential task of books about books. They make you eager to read
the poet they concern, impatient again to open his pages which they
irradiate with countless gleams of new light, and above all aware of
what manner of human being that poet was, the greatest gentleman
who ever made English poetry. When we come to Lounsbury’s
second trilogy, however, which has to do with Shakespeare, the case is
different. Shakespeare lurks in the background; the foreground is
full of faintly reanimated folks who between his time and ours have
had opinions about him. The tireless erudition displayed throughout
is beyond compare; Lounsbury read more extinct criticism, you grow
to feel, than would have seemed within the range of human power.
What is more, his own vigor gives his statements about this forgotten
stuff a semblance of animation. But, after all, discussions of such
things as the Unities and as Eighteenth Century Views do not lead
you into the heart of Hamlet or of The Tempest; and if Voltaire had
done nothing but first praise and then jealously blame the greatest
of English poets we should trouble ourselves no more about Voltaire;
and when it comes to The Text of Shakespeare, the matter leads us
rather to the murky depths of the Dunciad than either to anything
Pope lives by or a bit to the poetry with which Theobold dealt so
faithfully as to rouse Pope’s hateful spite. Lounsbury’s Virginia
lectures on the early career of Browning, too, tell you not so much

THOMAS RAYNESFORD LOUNSBURY. 837

about Browning as about what critics thought of him. And Louns-
bury’s unfinished study of Tennyson leaves on your mind more dis-
tinct notions of English reviewing before 1850 than of either the
poetry or the poets with whom the reviewers concerned themselves.
Your notions of Tennyson himself meanwhile grow rather hazier than
clearer, and in the end you are not eager to clear them up.

On the whole, The Yale Book of American Verse gives one the best
notion of how admirable the critical sense of Lounsbury really was.
There are some thirty-five pages of discursive introduction, nowhere
more sturdily his own than where he touches on our national hymns,
the Star-Spangled Banner and America (pp. xli-xliv). There
are some five hundred and fifty pages of selections from American
verse, beginning with a hymn by Timothy Dwight (1752-1817) and
ending with two longish poems by William Vaughn Moody (1869-
1910). The pages are admirably printed and widely spaced. As
should always be the case with poetry, they tempt the eye to linger
and the mind to read at leisure; and, as there are extracts, sometimes
rather long, from the work of fifty-two nineteenth century poets, there
is not too much of anybody. The very mention of our national
hymns, and of the names which open and close the selections, is enough
to remind us that these range widely in point both of quality and of
renown. The two sure things about the book are first that whoever
knows our national characteristics cannot help feeling it admirably
and comprehensively American, and secondly that it demonstrates as
hardly ever before the merit of poetry in nineteenth century America.
Thus dealing directly with literature, Lounsbury could surely make
others know afresh what literature is.

His disdain of conventional rhetoric somewhat obscures this power.
Professor Cross, in his pious introduction to the posthumous volume
on Tennyson, draws a touching picture of Lounsbury, in his later years
and with sadly weakened eyes, writing in the dark, and carefully
considering the turn of his phrase. Except for incessant clearness,
one would hardly suspect from his published work that he could ever
have been haunted by any such artistic conscience as is here implied.
In general his style seems carelessly diffuse; and his passion for the
neuter pronoun was almost unholy. To take a casual example of
this, he was capable of writing and of leaving unchanged in his proof
such a sentence as “It is equally evident that it is Shakespeare’s
practice which is the one followed upon the modern stage’’ (Shake-
speare as a Dramatic Artist, p. 13). Amid the very pages blurred
with these rhetorical inadvertences, however, you will constantly

838 THOMAS RAYNESFORD LOUNSBURY.

find passages to prove that if he had chosen he might have been a
master of style. Here are two or three, taken at random as one reads.
Writing of Chaucer’s character of the Knight, he closed a paragraph
thus: “He must be a man of honor, he must be a man of courage,
above all, he must be a gentleman in his feelings, his instincts, his
aspirations. He might be stupid; it was incumbent upon him to be
chivalrous. If his virtues were heroic, his vices accordingly had to
be of the same stamp. They must be of a bold and open sort. The
knight could be licentious and arrogant and even cruel; the thing
forbidden him was to be petty and mean and false.” (Studies in
Chaucer, II, 481-2). Again, he could summarize Warton’s opinion
of Chaucer in words like these: “In his eyes Chaucer was a Goth
—a Goth of genius, to be sure — but still a Goth. Being a Goth, he
had not the severe self-restraint of the moderns, their chastity of
diction, their propriety of manner; in fine, their Art.” (Studies in
Chaucer, III, 250). Better still, when touching on an edition of
Chaucer once projected by Samuel Johnson, he thus concludes,
“Scholarship suffered no loss by the failure to carry out a scheme
which was probably never more than vaguely thought about. Liter-
ary criticism certainly has. An edition of Chaucer by Johnson could
never have been an authority, but it would always have proved an
entertainment.” (Studies in Chaucer, I, 299). You must search far
and long to find criticism or parody better than that.

Another feature of his learned books bespeaks if not literary con-
science at least literary instinct. One may fairly doubt whether any
other American scholar of the nineteenth century was capable of
disfiguring so few pages with footnotes. On general principles, every-
body would probably agree that what belongs in a book ought to be
there and that what does not belong there ought to be left out; in
general practice, the Germanic passion of American scholars for
annotating their own texts rivals Lounsbury’s passion for the neuter
pronoun. Lounsbury’s repugnance for this kind of troublous cant
was part of his pervasive common-sense. He carried it, indeed, almost
to excess. More than once, as you read his torrents of authoritative
statements, you would be glad if he had given you more references to
supplement or to verify what he says. All the while, you rejoice
that when he chose to say anything he said it out loud and not in the
whisper of small print.

Lounsbury’s third trilogy comprises his most nearly popular work.
Originally written for Harper’s Magazine, or other similar periodicals,
his papers on Pronunciation in English, on Usage in English, and on
English Spelling at once delighted the cock-sure and enraged the metic-

THOMAS RAYNESFORD LOUNSBURY. 839

ulous. He expanded them into three small volumes which appeared
between 1904 and 1909. In the matters of pronunciation and usage,
he stood firm on the ground that the true question concerning any
language still unmummied is not what ought to be the case but what
has been the case and what is. In the matter of spelling, his extensive
reading, his knowledge of language and his impatience of pedantic
pretence combined to transform his common-sense into that semblance
of folly which, throughout the whole range of human activities nowa-
days, claims authority under the magic name of reform. So far as
English spelling goes, most will agree that there has never been any
long settled practice, and the practice imposed by nineteenth century
proof readers is little better than nonsense. Wherefore, you may feel
for once, here is a region where common-sense and general principles
may unite. Perhaps so. What the reformers forget is the essential
amenity of acknowledged manners — the civilizing effect of not doing
a thing for the simple reason that it is not done. Good men have been
known to raise a casuistical question as to whether your word of
honour can fairly be held binding when honor is spelt without the w.
The spelling-books of the nineteenth century are often condemned as
training only that unimportant phase of the mind, the memory.
So they do, if you are thinking only of the reasoning powers in con-
trast. There is another aspect of the whole question, though. To
master the luxuriant unreason of modern English spelling, any child
must develop to considerable degree the power of accurate observa-
tion. More than a few old-fashioned teachers are apt to believe;
unreasoningly if not unreasonably, that the training thus given chil-
dren has had a value beyond reason.

Not to dispute, now and then, would be not to admit the mood which
Lounsbury excited and loved to excite. Throughout his books you
may often find yourself reluctant to agree; and the very sturdiness
of his voluble assertions may arouse a temper of denial. As he loved
sport, he loved contest, for its own invigorating sake; but he was a
true sportsman, he played fair. His writings, as we have said, do not
express anything like the fulness of his contagious humanity, yet, as
one thinks of them altogether, one cannot avoid the glad knowledge
that, like his human self, these writings are strong, honest, manly,
simple and masterly in their union of erudition with common-sense.

IV

One dare hardly hope, no doubt, that his books will long survive,
except as old mile-stones in the interminable journey of scholarship.

S40 CHARLES SEDGWICK MINOT.

His memory, more living now than any of his living words, must fade
as those who knew him pass. Yet his life has done work which must
endure. Whether he attracted or repelled, he never left indifferent
those whom he influenced, and he influenced almost all who came
within his range. Among the scholars and teachers who have made
the study of the English language and of English Literature important
in American universities, he was second only to Professor Child, his
elder by half a generation. Child, like Lounsbury, may soon be little
more than a name, or the shadow of a name. But the spirit of them
lives and shall live so long as the language and the literature they
loved and taught are studied and taught and loved.

BARRETT WENDELL.

CHARLES SEDGWICK MINOT (1852-1914.)

Fellow in Class II, Section 3, 1882.

Charles Sedgwick Minot was born in Boston, December 23, 1852.
His parental home, five miles from Boston, and comprising about
thirty acres, stood on the edge of the forest area which then stretched
from Forest Hills on the north to the Blue Hills and the Great Ponds
in Canton and Braintree on the south. The region even now, as seen
from the summit of Blue Hill, is largely a low forest, most of it of
second and third growth, with areas of cleared land in which are small
towns and villages, with farm lands about them. There are inter-
spersed fine villas inhabitated by wealthy Bostonians, and most of
the Forest is now included in the Metropolitan Park system and will
be preserved. There are extensive low marshy flats, subject to over-
flow, along the Neponset River, and included in the forest there are
large areas of swamp. Fine trees, elms, oaks, ash, beeches and pines
abound in the region, but the trees in the forest areas are generally
small. The flora and fauna are abundant and diversified. It is a
stimulating region even now to a boy who has the capacity to see
things and joy in seeing the wonder and beauty in nature. In Minot’s
boyhood the region must have been much wilder and hence more
interesting than now. In such surroundings the boy grew up and early
acquired the love of nature, the capacity of seeing, and the scientific
curiosity to find out the meaning of the things he saw, which dis-
tinguished the life of the man.

CHARLES SEDGWICK MINOT. S41

He was a member of a large and well known family, with “inherited
wealth and distinguished in useful service. The usual course for a
boy in his social class would have been to go through Harvard College
and it is uncertain why he went to the Institute of Technology instead.
The Institute had but recently been founded, it was just entering
upon the great career which it has attained, and had the glamour of a
new enterprise. At that time Minot could not have obtained in the
Institute much stimulation in the study of natural science which
from boyhood he had enthusiastically followed. He had already,
at the age of sixteen, made his appearance in scientific literature by
the description of the male of Hesperia Metea, a small butterfly cap-
tured in Dorchester and of especial interest because only the female
of the species had been previously found. He derived probably a
great stimulus from the meetings of the Boston Society of Natural
History, which he regularly attended and took part in the discussions.
He graduated from the Institute in 1872, at the age of twenty. The
influence of the training he acquired at the Institute can be seen in
his later life by the interest he had in mechanics and which led him to
devise a number of laboratory instruments, among them the well
known Minot microtome, which were characterized by simplicity of
structure and admirable adaptation to the end in view. The micro-
tome made it possible to cut thin serial sections of organs and is now,
with slight and unimportant modifications, the instrument almost
universally used for this purpose.

After graduating from the Institute he studied for a time with
Agassiz, but he found the most congenial atmosphere in the laboratory
of his friend, Henry Bowditch, who had returned from Europe in 187]
and established the first physiological laboratory in this country.
Minot was his first research student and found in the older man both
a congenial friend and an enthusiastic teacher. The period was one
in which teaching in medical science with the laboratory as a basis
was just beginning in this country. Previous to this the only labora-
tories, if they could be called such, in connection with medical schools
were the dissecting rooms, and in Bowditch’s laboratory the torch
of science which was kindled in the ardent flame of the physiological
laboratory in Leipzig burned brightly. His work with Bowditch
turned his mind into channels which he afterwards followed, his early
interest in form and structure being never lost, although modified by
his study in physiology of the phenomena of life. In 1874 he pub-
lished, in collaboration with Bowditch, a paper on the influence of
anaesthetics on the vasomotor system, and in 1876 a short paper on
transfusion and autotransfusion.

842 CHARLES SEDGWICK MINOT.

He went to Europe in 1873, working first at Leipzig with Ludwig
in physiology, then at Paris with Ranvier in histology, and at Wiirz-
burg with Semper in zodlogy. His was not the common fleeting visit
to these laboratories, but in each his stay was sufficiently long for him
to become acquainted not only with the laboratory work and methods,
but with the ideals which directed it. While at Leipzig under Lud-
wig’s direction, he studied the production of CQO: in the active and
resting muscle. He returned to America in 1876 and conducted an
extensive series of experiments on tetanus, which was published in
1878, and in the same year received from Harvard University the
degree of Doctor of Science.

In 1880 he received his first academic appointment, that of Lecturer
on Embryology in the Harvard Medical School, and Instructor in
Oral Pathology and Surgery in the Dental School. At that time it
was unusual anywhere that instruction in a medical subject should be
given by a person who had never taken the degree of Doctor of Medi-
cine, and the appointment of Minot was a distinct break in the
academic tradition. The appointment was due to the far-sighted
intelligence of Mr. Eliot, who recognized the ability of Minot and de-
sired for the Medical School the influence which a man trained in the
traditions of pure science would exert on both the faculty and the stu-
dents. The appointment was not welcomed in the faculty, and fora
long time Minot undoubtedly suffered from his supposed deficiencies.
The idea that a man teaching in a medical school should have some
knowledge of disease and be able to give an added interest to the subject
he teaches by pointing out the practical application of what is taught is
not altogether a faulty one, for medicine, certainly for the majority
of those entering into it is an art, but like all other arts founded on
science. In 1883 he was advanced to the position of Instructor in
Histology and Embryology, and this subject was given a satisfactory
place in the curriculum, though it was a number of years before labo-
ratory instruction in this subject was made obligatory and a definite
part of the course. In the year 1887 he was advanced to the position
of Assistant Professor. After the usual term of five years he was made
Professor of Histology and Embryology, and when the James Still-
man Professorship of Comparative Anatomy was founded he was
transferred to that position. Upon the death of Doctor Dwight,
in 1911, the subjects of Anatomy and Histology were placed together,
and in 1912 he was made Director of the combined laboratories.

As a member of the faculty Minot was always outspoken, clear
and logical. He never sought to obtain any end by suavity or the

CHARLES SEDGWICK MINOT. 843

claims of friendship. His arguments were always keen, definitely to
the point in view which was strongly presented, sometimes even too
much so. There is apt to be some suspicion in the minds of men
when a policy advocated is too clearly presented; it is not flattering
to those holding the opposite view. The general discussions in
medical faculties do not suffer from clear and logical statement, and
Minot’s presentation of a subject was in marked contrast to that
usually heard. While it often took a long time for men to agree with
him, and he usually obtained what was desired, there was never a
suspicion that the ends in view were personal and selfish. His active
support could always be obtained for any measure looking to the
betterment of instruction and the advance of scientific interest.

He was in all respects an admirable teacher; as a lecturer simple
and clear, interesting, often enlivening the subject by shafts of keen
humor, and in the laboratory stimulating, always insisting that the
students should cultivate the faculties of independent observation
and judgment. Minot was the first to introduce into the medical
schools of the country the laboratory method of student instruction,
and the way is never easy for the pioneer. It was a method new to
the students, for the men entering the medical schools seem to acquire
neither in the home, nor in the schools, nor in the colleges sufficient
training in the methods of science. Minot lived to see the modest
beginning of this method of teaching, which he made under most
unsatisfactory conditions in the old Medical School on Grove Street,
become the dominant method used alike in the pre-clinical and
clinical branches.

Minot was an excellent director of a laboratory. His laboratory
was always orderly, giving one entering it the impression given by a
well ordered household. He devised a method of giving each student
the use of a microscope by having him pay the school a small sum,
which sufficed for their upkeep and renewal. He early began the
collection of embryological material, the embryos being cut in serial
sections and arranged in suitable and permanent steel cabinets which
he devised. In the course of time this grew into an unrivalled collec-
tion, serving an admirable purpose, not only in teaching, but in
research also, as is shown by the number of researches based upon
the material of the collection. The collection was freely used by the
other departments of the school, so that any question arising which
was wholly or partly based upon the course of embryological develop-
ment could be here studied on admirably preserved material. Minot
gave much time and thought to the plans for his new laboratory at

844 CHARLES SEDGWICK MINOT.

the school and here first put into effect what he described as the labo-
ratory unit. The unit of the teaching laboratory is a room for twenty-
five students, provided with the essential instruments for laboratory
work and under the direction of one instructor. The entire class
comes together for lectures and demonstrations. The method renders
it possible to extend a laboratory indefinitely without confusion,
provided the necessary space and instructors are at hand. Minot
had moreover an excellent business sense and made the small budget
at his disposal cover a wide field.

He was a prolific writer, his most striking contributions being not
in small single researches, but in more extensive publications in which
he brought together and made more serviceable the accumulated
knowledge of a subject. Sometimes, as in the case of his well-known
Human Embryology, the work covered a large field. This large and
comprehensive work, the result of ten years labor, was in no sense a
compilation, but was based on his personal knowledge of facts,
expanded by the knowledge contributed by others. The American
edition was published in 1892 and a German edition in 1894. Of this
work His, at that time the leading anatomist of Germany, says,
“ Minot’s work is at present the fullest embryology of man which we
possess, and it will retain its value as a bibliographical treasure-house
even after its contents in many parts have been superseded.” He
early became interested in the subject of growth, the stimulus
probably coming from Bowditch, who was carrying on his well known
studies on the growth of school children while Minot was working in
his laboratory. His first paper on the subject, 1878, was “Growth
as a Function of Cells”? which was quickly followed by another
“On Certain Laws of Histological Differentiation” and in the same
year he presented in an address “On Conditions to be Filled by a
Theory of Life” an outline of his future work. There were many
papers on the subject of growth and senescence, the whole being
brought together in a book “ The Problem of Age, Growth and Death”
based on lectures at the Lowell Institute, March 1907. This work
has been so well analyzed by Lewis in his Memoir that I quote from
it. “Senescence and rejuvenation were studied by tabulating the
Weights of guinea-pigs from birth to old age, and of rabbit embryos
up to the time of birth, using weight as a measure of growth. The
conclusion was drawn that the fertilized ovum is endowed with an
enormous power for growth, over ninety-eight per cent of which has
been lost at the time of birth. The remaining two per cent is largely
exhausted in infancy. Therefore he concludes that “senescence is at

CHARLES SEDGWICK MINOT. 845

its maximum in the very young stages and the rate of senescence
diminishes with age.’”’ He protests against “the medical conception
that age is a kind of disease,” chronic and incurable, of any such nature
as intestinal intoxication or arteriosclerosis. On the contrary he finds
that it has a cytological cause, equally operative in the lower animals
which have neither intestines or arteries and in man; and he ascribes
senescence to the increase and differentiation of cytoplasm as compared
with nucleoplasm.

In 1901 he proposed “the new term cytomorphosis to designate
comprehensively all the structural alterations which cells, or suc-
cessive generations of cells may undergo, from the earliest undiffer-
entiated stage to their final destruction.” His latest works on this
subject, aptly characterized as “thoughtful and suggestive,” refer
to cytomorphosis as a most promising field for further study, and at
the time of his death, plans had been made for careful investigations
to test the validity of his cytomorphic hypothesis concerning age.”

Of Minot’s shorter contributions perhaps the best known is a paper,
1900, “On a hitherto unrecognized form of blood circulation in the
organs of Vertebrata.” Everyone was familiar with the differences
in the thin walled capillaries running in the connective tissue of most
organs, easily compressible, their calibre varying with the activity
of the circulation, and the vessels in the liver which were wide, closely
applied to the parenchyma and whose calibre cannot easily vary.
He regarded such vessels not as capillaries but as sinusoids, showed
their manner of development and the organs in which they were found.

Minot was greatly in demand as a giver of addresses and these cover
a wide range of subjects. His style was vigorous, graceful, the
subject enlivened by humor, sometimes with a little satire, and
always interesting. They were collected and issued in a German
translation under the title “Die Methode der Wissenschaft und
andere Reden”’ — Jena, 1913. Altogether he has published more
than one hundred and eighty notes and papers, including his addresses.

In 1912-1913 he was Harvard Exchange Professor at Berlin and
Jena, and used the position largely in bringing to the attention of his
German colleagues the amount and character of the contributions of
American investigators. The position was very enjoyable to him,
for he renewed and extended his wide acquaintanceship with the
German men of Science.

Minot possessed a wide acquaintance with scientific men here and
abroad; he was constant in his attendance on scientific meetings,
taking part in the discussions, and occupying a prominent place in

846 CHARLES SEDGWICK MINOT.

the conduct of societies. He was at different times chosen President
of the Naturalists, the Anatomists, the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, and the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences, and was frequently a member of the councils and of impor-
tant committees. He was an active or corresponding member of many
of the learned societies of Europe, and was honored with the L. L. D.
of Yale, 1899, Toronto, 1904, St. Andrews University, Scotland, 1911,
and Se. D. of Oxford, 1902.

No account of Minot would be contplene without some mention of
his beautiful country home at Hyde Park, the region over which he
must have rambled as a boy. The house was a plain one, roomy,
furnished simply and in exquisite taste, and stood near the road,
the land sloping away from it toward the south and west to a low
lying wood, through which a small brook ran. The whole place was
in keeping with Minot’s character. It was well ordered in its plan and
keeping. The trees he planted were properly placed, selected with
care, and were fine specimens of the species. He bought a large num-
ber of seedlings of many varieties and as these grew he selected from
them the finest specimens for planting. Every tree and shrub was
well cared for and showed the effects of this in their health and vigor-
ous growth. The garden, formal in design, with well kept grass paths,
was at the foot of the slope, some distance from the house, and entered
through a small arbor covered with climbing roses. Though formal,
it was not severe and contained good specimens of the usual annuals
and perennials and many rare plants. The two plants to which he
gave most attention were irises and peonies, of each of which, but
particularly of the latter, he had a large and rare collection. There
were several hundred varieties of peonies, every plant showed intelli-
gent care, and his system of cataloging and labelling was as simple
and complete as the system in his laboratory. It was a great joy
to go with him among the blooming peonies and see their beauty
through his observant and well trained eyes. It is not an easy thing for
an amateur gardener to obtain the prizes of the Massachusetts Horti-
cultural Society, but Minot obtained prizes both for peonies and for
the general excellence and beauty of the garden as a whole. The
grounds and garden showed that highest art by which art is concealed
and every plant grew and bloomed as though for the mere joy of living
under conditions in all respects the best. There was a profusion of
bloom from the earliest spring bulbs to the late chrysanthemums.
Many of his plants had a personal history which he would delightfully
relate, as having been procured under unusual conditions, or being

CHARLES SEDGWICK MINOT. 847

transferred to a more suitable situation, or having developed some
uncommon and interesting characteristic. He was most generous
with his plants, delighting to assist young beginners in horticulture.
Through the wood along the brook there wandered a simple path,
along the sides of which were many flowering plants collected from the
swamps and fields, each in the situation best adapted for its growth
and display; as a mass of dog toothed violets at the base of a decayed
stump overgrown with moss, or a yellow mass of marsh marigolds
intermingled with the beautiful though maloderous swamp cabbage.

I first became acquainted with Minot through the series of excel-
lent articles on anatomy of the uterus and the changes associated with
pregnancy, which were published in 1886 in the Handbook of the
Medical Sciences, to which I also contributed. He was at all times a
delightful companion, always loyal as a friend, sympathetic and
helpful. He never hesitated to testify to his friendship. He was in
all things generous, in helping younger men both materially and other-
wise, a hospitable host, one who knew how to make a guest feel that
he contributed to the pleasure of the host. He spoke well on most
subjects, as an impromptu speaker thought came clearly and quickly
and was expressed in simple language and without hesitation.

In June, 1889, he married Lucy Fosdick of Groton, Mass., in whom
he found a sympathetic, helpful companion, and those who knew
Minot will always associate her in their thoughts of him.

Science has been enriched by his life; in devising instruments which
facilitated work, in teaching and inculcating good methods, in the
research he personally conducted, and in his masterful method of
presenting the work of others he added to the sum of knowledge and
made its pursuit more profitable. He was a good patriotic citizen
with high ideals of civic duty. He increased the joy of living by bring-
ing to many people a richer and fuller sense of the beauty of living
things; the world is a better place by his having lived.

In the preparation of this Memoir I have made use of the Memoirs
by Frederick T. Lewis, by H. H. Donaldson, and by Charles W. Eliot.

W. T. CouNcILMAN.

848 ALPHEUS SPRING PACKARD.

ALPHEUS SPRING PACKARD (1839-1905)

Fellow in Class II, Section 3, 1868.

Alpheus Spring Packard was born in Brunswick, Maine, on February
19, 1839, and died at his home in Providence, R. I., on February 14,
1905.

In view of the present interest in the backgrounds of American
scholars it may be recorded that his grandfather Hezekiah Packard,
a revolutionary soldier, recetved from Harvard College the degrees
of A.B., A.M. and D.D. and was an able preacher, teacher and writer.
The Rev. Dr. Jesse Appleton, one of the early Presidents of Bowdoin
was his maternal grandfather. His father was the Professor Alpheus
Spring Packard who for sixty-five years taught various classical sub-
jects at Bowdoin, the venerable scholar to whom Longfellow addressed
his “Morituri Salutamus.”’

Packard graduated from Bowdoin in 1861; received the degrees of
A.M., Bowdoin, 1862; M.D., Bowdoin, 1864; S.B., Harvard, 1864;
Ph.D., Bowdoin, 1879; LL.D., Bowdoin, 1891.

After graduation he studied under Louis Agassiz at Cambridge for
three years and subsequently taught with him at the Anderson School
of Natural History at Penikese. The comprehensiveness of his
interests which included geology, paleontology, systematic, structural
and economic zodlogy, embryology and anthropology may be said
perhaps to have been an academic heritage through Agassiz from the
generation of Humbolt, Cuvier, Lamarck and St. Hilaire. His
geological researches are recorded in books and papers on glacial
phenomena of Labrador, Maine and the White Mountains. He
published (1867) a “ Revision of the Fossorial Hymenoptera of N. A.”
In the U. S. Geological Survey (1875-1877) under Hayden he served
as a zodlogist. As a member of the Kentucky Geological Survey in
1874 he investigated with Putnam the great caves and their fauna of
which he later wrote, “The Cave Fauna of N. A.,” 1888. He studied
also the Florida reefs and the fossil fauna of Charleston, S. C. In
1882 he published a text book “First Lessons in Geology.” He
published works so diversified as “The Development and Anatomy’
of Limulus Polyphemus,” 1871, the “ Monograph of North American
Phyllopod Crustacea,” 1883, the “Life History of Animals, including
Man, or Outlines of Comparative Embryology,” 1876, the “Zoology

ALPHEUS SPRING PACKARD. 849

for Students and. General Readers,” 1879, miscellaneous notes and
papers on anthropology and ethnology and the notable book “La-
march, the Founder of Evolution, his Life and Work,” 1901. Ento-
mology, however, was his chief interest. Professor Samuel Henshaw
in “The Entomological Writings of Alpheus Spring Packard,” enu-
merates three hundred and thirty-nine papers, books and notes, pub-
lished up to 1887. He continued to produce papers upon this subject
literally up to the last week of his life when he corrected the proof of
his “Monograph of the Bombycine Moths of America” etc., Memoir
of the National Academy of Sciences.

In his long and active career as Naturalist, Packard was associated
with many American institutions and had a prominent part in found-
ing some of them. In 1865 he became, on returning from service as
assistant surgeon in the Army of the Potomac, librarian and acting
custodian of the Boston Society of Natural History. With Hyatt,
Morse and Putnam, his former associates in Agassiz’s laboratory,
he accepted a position in the Essex Institute in Salem, and subse-
quently when the Peabody Academy of Science absorbed the Essex
Institute, he became Curator of Invertebrates and later, 1876, Director
of the Academy. The American Naturalist was founded by this
group of men in the Peabody Academy in 1868 and Packard remained
its editor-in-chief for twenty years. He was also prominently con-
nected with that novel undertaking of Agassiz’s which has proved to
have been of inestimable value to biology in America, the Anderson
School at Penikese. He taught there both years and when the school
was given up on account of Agassiz’s death, he perpetuated the idea
by establishing a summer school of natural history at Salem under
the auspices of the Peabody Academy. This he directed until 1878
when he left Salem to accept the Professorship of Zoélogy and Geology
at Brown University, the position which he held until his death. As
is evident from the title this professorship permitted a latitude in
subject matter that suited the range of his scientific interest.

As a teacher, judged from the view point of students who have
since achieved maturity, Professor Packard represents a well recog-
nized type. He was not a disciplinarian, a pedagogue or an “edu-
cator.” With impregnable faith in youth, he tried unremittingly to
awaken his students to the vision of nature which to him was totally
absorbing.

“Tt was from the judgment of his confreres, from the men who had
traversed the same intellectual territory and knew it, that he reaped
his supreme honors. From these alone could the reward have come;

850 BENJAMIN OSGOOD PEIRCE.

for below the judgment of his peers there was no other guide but
conscience.”’ “Precisely to such bodies of inexorable critics did the
intrinsic strength of the work of Professor Packard ultimately appeal.”
The American Academy of Arts and Sciences elected him to member-
ship in 1868; the Société Royale des Sciences de Liége, 1875; the
Society of Friends of Natural Science in Moscow, in 1891. In 1891
he was elected foreign member of the Linnean Society of London. He
was elected also to membership in the entomological societies of
London, Paris, St. Petersburg, Stockholm and Brussels; was made
one of the honorary presidents of the International Zoélogical Congress
in Paris, 1899; honorary president of the Zodlogical Section of the
French Association for the Advancement of Sciences; vice-president
(1899) of the corresponding Section of the American Association.

A. D. Meap.

BENJAMIN OSGOOD PEIRCE (1854-1914)

Fellow in Class I, Section 2, 1884.

The following biographical notice of Professor Benjamin Osgood
Peirce is taken for the most part from the Minute on his life and
services which was placed on the records of the Harvard Faculty of
Arts and Sciences at the meeting of February 17, 1914. A much
more extended biography will be published by the National Academy
of Sciences.

Our colleague, Benjamin Osgood Peirce, who died in Cambridge on
the fourteenth of January, 1914, was born in Beverly, Massachusetts,
February 11, 1854, of a family belonging for several generations to the
city of Salem. Of his ancestors, Richard Norman came to Gloucester
in 1623, John Peirce to Watertown in 1637, John and Christopher
Osgood to other parts of eastern Massachusetts before 1640. John
Peirce had a son Robert, but after the Cromwellian era names taken
from the Old Testament prevail in the family, and it is hard to refrain
from using the robust terms of the Old Testament genealogies in recit-

2 Carl Barus, Memorial Address.

BENJAMIN OSGOOD PEIRCE. 851

ing the generations that follow. The son of Robert was Benjamin,
and the son of Benjamin was Jerathmiel, and the son of Jerathmiel
was Benjamin, 2d, who fell at Lexington, and his son was Benjamin, 3d,
whose son was Benjamin Osgood, Ist, the father of our friend.

From Jerathmiel, potent name, were descended also Jerathmiel, 2d,
and his son Benjamin, Librarian of Harvard College from 1826 to
1831, and his son Benjamin, Tutor or Professor of Mathematics at
Harvard from 1831 to 1880, among whose sons were James Mills,
also Professor of Mathematics at Harvard; and Charles Sanders,
projector of the philosophic cult of Pragmatism. In the annals of
intellectual achievement in America there is no greater name than
Peirce.

The father of our colleague was a graduate of Waterville College
in Maine. He married, in 1841, Miss Mehetable Osgood Seccomb,
a native of Salem, whom he had met for the first time in Georgia, where
both were engaged in teaching. After his marriage Mr. Peirce re-
mained for several years in the South as Professor of Chemistry and
Natural Philosophy at Mercer. Returning to Massachusetts in 1849,
he engaged in the South African trade, and in 1864 he visited the Cape
of Good Hope, taking his son with him.

When the son was sixteen years of age and a graduate of the Beverly
High School, he developed an indisposition to study, a phenomenon
which must have seemed a portent in his household. He was accord-
ingly apprenticed to learn carpentry, and he worked for two years at
this trade, an experience which was doubtless to his advantage in
various ways.

The boy having proved a faithful apprentice received in 1872 per-
mission to go to Harvard. He devoted himself to his studies with
great zeal for the next two or three months in preparation for the Col-
lege examinations, which he took all at one time in September, 1872,
and he was then admitted to Harvard, with a condition, it is said, in
some particular of elementary mathematics. He did not have a college
room, but lived with his family in a rather distant part of Cambridge,
whence he ran a telegraph line to the room of two classmates and inti-
mate friends, Lefavour and Pine, in one of the College Halls. It is
said that his health was somewhat impaired for a time by his too severe
labor in preparation for the admission examinations, and it is not
improbable that he established the telegraphic communication with
his friends by way of diversion during this indisposition. Illness was
usually for him an opportunity to do something which he might not
have found time for in health.

852 BENJAMIN OSGOOD PEIRCE.

His first scientific paper, On the Induction Spark Produced in Break-
ing a Galvanic Circuit between the Poles of a Magnet, was printed in the
Proceedings of this Academy, having been presented February 9, 1875,
about the middle of his Junior year in college.

He graduated at Harvard in 1876, ranking second in his class for the
whole course, his friend Lefavour being first. He remained at Har-
vard for a year more, as an assistant to Professor Trowbridge in the
Physical Laboratory, and then went to Leipsic, where he received the
degree of Ph.D. in 1879. After a year in the University of Berlin,
and a year of teaching Mathematics in the Boston Latin School, he
returned to Harvard as Instructor in Mathematics. In 1884 he was
made Assistant Professor of Mathematics and Physics, and in 1888,
on the retirement of Professor Lovering, he became Hollis Professor
of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. At the time of his death
he was a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, a
member of the American Physical Society (its President during the
last year of his life), of the American Philosophical Society, of the
American Mathematical Society (Vice-president in 1913), of the
Astronomical and Astrophysical Society of America, of the National
Academy of Sciences, of the Société Frangaise de Physique, and of the
Circolo Matematico di Palermo.

He married in 1882 Miss Isabella Turnbull Landreth of Edinburgh,
whom he had met when she was a student at the Leipsic Conservatory.
Intimacy with her brothers, all ministers of the Scotch Church, has
been one of the happy relations of this marriage. His wife and his
two daughters survive him.

Our colleague was a great scholar and a remarkable man. Big and
powerful of body, and ambidextrous, he was in mind also capable and
proficient far beyond the ordinary measure of his fellows. He seemed
to grasp with equal ease and to retain with equal tenacity the pro-
foundest generalizations of mathematics or physics and the smallest
bits of information likely to be of service in his work. He always knew
the best materials and the best tools to use and the best way to use
them. Fertile in ideas, strong of purpose, ceaseless, literally so, in
industry, businesslike by instinct and tradition from his merchant
ancestors, sympathetic and generous beyond the wishes of his friends,
he was a mighty, beneficent, and genial power, wherever he took his
stand; and he was successful, as few men are successful, in winning
the confidence, the admiration, and the affection of those with whom
he was associated.

His work, always masterly, thorough, and important, was never of

BENJAMIN OSGOOD PEIRCE. 853

a kind, in subject or in treatment, to flare upon the attention of the
public; but whenever he made the acquaintance of a mathematician
or a physicist of the first rank, like the late Sir George Darwin, he was
recognized as a fellow and a peer. Professor Andrew Gray of Glasgow
says, “All mathematicians and physical workers in this country
looked up to him as a leader of thought and investigation in America.”
Sir Joseph Larmor speaks of “the increasing company over here who
knew and appreciated him personally” and of “the still larger number
who knew only his scientific work.” Karl Pearson, who was a fellow
student with Peirce in Germany, writes, “Benjamin Osgood Peirce
was representative of all that was best in science; he was never a
self-seeker nor a self-advertiser, and I learnt more from him than
from many of our professed teachers in Berlin.”...“If I had to give
the name of the man who represented America best to me, I should
still say, after thirty-four years, Benjamin Osgood Peirce.” It is
plain from these quotations that the reputation of our friend was
increasing at the time of his death.

Eminent in his profession, beyond its wide limits he was an out-
standing personality to all who knew him well. He was a prodigious
reader, and once told the present writer that he had read the Encyclo-
pedia Britannica through several times. He was fond of meeting
classical scholars on their own ground; not long before his death he
quoted Ovid fluently and evinced a lively interest in the psychology of
the Greek Optative. His service for many years as a member of the
Harvard Committee on Honors and Higher Degrees in Music was
justified by his extraordinary musical sensibility and his appreciation,
intuitive as well as learned, of musical compositions. He made music
in various ways, some of them rather surprising.

In a place and a time of the least restraint in religious matters he
quietly declined to enter upon discussions of personal religious belief,
and, though perhaps shaken at times by the same tremendous questions
which beset Carlyle, he remained steadfastly in the Baptist communion
to which his father had belonged. With characteristic force of gro-
tesque phrase he described the varieties of belief which were exhibited
in Appleton Chapel after the breaking up of the World’s Congress
held at Chicago, in 1893, as “a job lot of religions.’”” These words
indicated no bitterness or bigotry, but merely his conviction of the
needlessness and uselessness of seeking abroad for religious doctrine
or spiritual inspiration. At the last his own faith and trust were
serene.

Peirce was proverbial among his friends for a certain habit of

S54 BENJAMIN OSGOOD PEIRCE.

extravagant self-depreciation and for a frolicsome humor of speech and
action. His self-depreciation was partly caution, partly genuine
modesty, of which he had great store, partly an endeavor, not always
successful, to make others content with themselves, and partly it was
a humorous pose. A man of his intelligence could not be altogether
unaware of the scope of his own powers, and a man of his keen sym-
pathy could not be indifferent to the appreciation of his fellows. If
he found that his habitual professions of ignorance concerning matters
of which he was a master were being taken seriously, he speedily took
effectual measures to remove the false impression.

His habit of humorously grotesque speech was the natural outcome
of abounding energy, lively invention, and an amiable desire to enter-
tain; but it was sometimes also a measure of precaution, intended to
prevent the discovery and invasion of his real thought. For, with all
his genuine and hearty good-fellowship, Peirce was a man of profound
reserve; he was wont to go into his closet and shut the door, and his
privacy was respected. Behind his superficial timidity and his abound-
ing kindliness there was always the suggestion of something formidable,
and he was not a man to be trifled with.

Peirce’s last scientific paper, The Maximum Value of the Magnetiza-
tion in Iron, June, 1913, was, like his first paper, printed in the Pro-
ceedings of this Academy. This was, indeed, his customary channel
of publication, and all the members of the Academy may well be proud
of this fact.

Epwin H. HALL.

ISRAEL COOK RUSSELL. 855

ISRAEL COOK RUSSELL (1852-1906)

Fellow in Class II, Section 1, 1904.

The bones of a living memorial of I. C. Russell are found in the
successive volumes of Who’s Who down to 1906-7. Among the
notices shortly after his death two are pre-eminent,— the one by
Bailey Willis, his colleague on the U. S. Geological Survey,? which
contains a full bibliography. This notice was prepared for the Geo-
logical Society of America, of which Russell was President when he
died, and for which he had prepared his Presidential Address just
before he was stricken with pneumonia, his last sickness. The other
was by one of his colleagues at Ann Arbor, Dr. Chas. A. Davis,* who
himself has just been called from this life.

Professor Russell’s life may be divided into three parts: —

1. Before his connection with the Geological Survey. He was born
at Garrattsville, N. Y., Dec. 10, 1852, son of Barnabas Russell and
Louisa Sherman Cook Russell. He was of New England descent, and
Willis tells good stories of the New England reserve characteristic of
his ancestors and somewhat of Russell himself. When he was twelve
years old he moved to Plainfield, N. J. He was then on the Newark
formation, a monographic study of which was one of his principal
scientific works. From his birth until the time of his connection with
the United States Geological Survey we might consider him in train-
ing,— first in the High School near his home, then in the Hasbrook
Institute in Jersey City, next in New York University (A. B. and
C. E. 1872) then in the Columbia School of Mines. In 1874 he was
photographer and naturalist to the U.S. Transit of Venus Expedition
to New Zealand and Kerguelen Island. When he came back he was
made assistant Professor of Geology at the Columbia School of Mines
and was there from 1875 to 1877. This time included a season in
New Mexico and a journey to Europe and finished the first quarter
century of his life. Probably the happiest and most fruitful part of
his career was the period from 1875 to 1892.

3 (Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, Vol. 18, p. 582).

4 (Published in the 9th report of the Michigan Academy of Sciences for 1907,
p. 28). See also Science, Oct. 5, 1906, vol. 24, p. 427, and Journal of Geology,
vol. 14 (1906), p. 663.

856 ISRAEL COOK RUSSELL.

2. Work as Government Geologist, 1877-1892. For a quarter of a
century he was a servant of the United States in the Geological Sur-
vey. And that was practically his sole occupation until 1892. He
ranked with Gilbert and Powell as one of the great geologists of the
early years of the Survey. Like them he was an explorer, like them
he had an admirable literary style. I remember he once said that it
was his custom never to write anything until the end of the day’s
work. In this he was doubtless aided by his retentive memory. In
the relatively arid regions of the great West where geology was on a
large scale such a method was no doubt quite serviceable and gave
to his work a literary quality which constant jottings cannot pretend
to have. But I remember well the shock it gave to one who, accus-
tomed to working in the mines and Michigan woods, would have been
utterly lost unless he had kept some sort of continuous notes. Ar-
tistie temperament was manifest in Russell not only in his literary
style but in his keen appreciation of the beauties of nature, which
he saw not only with the eye of the savant but with that of the
artist. His description of his ascent of Mt. St. Elias is interesting
to any one; his report of the Mono Lake region of California was so
vivid that a demand was made for a reprint of the report, to be paid
for by the residents as a tourist advertisement of the region, for which
purpose its beauties of style well fitted it. His artistic temperament
was also shown in his skill and success as a photographer. Many of
the illustrations of the U.S. Geological Survey which are reprinted in
the text books of geology will be found to have been taken by him.
He had the knack of knowing whether a photograph would really
show and bring out the scientific point which one can often see with
the naked eye so much better than in a photograph. He also took
pains to get something which would make his records not only of sci-
entific but also of artistic value.

His artistic temperament also showed in a certain fastidiousness and
reserve which perhaps made him less successful as a teacher. To be
a popular teacher one must not be too fastidious or too critical of the
half-baked endeavors of the partly educated. And he had not much
of that superficial bonhommie which goes far toward making one
generally popular.

3. At Ann Arbor. In 1892 he became Professor of Geology at the
University of Michigan and remained so the rest of his life. He
continued his connection with the U. S. Geological Survey after he
became Professor of Geology at Ann Arbor; being, however, em-
ployed upon various special problems, often connected with water

ISRAEL COOK RUSSELL. 857

resources. Even such problems, however, he could not handle solely
from an economic point of view. His studies of Snake River Valley
and other similar problems made a decided contribution to the general
scientific theory of igneous action.

In Michigan University he made no such impression as in the work
of the Geological Survey. President Angell himself told me that he did
not consider that it was necessary for every State University to build
up a great geological department; and as Wisconsin had had two great
geologists as presidents he did not feel called upon to rival her. Nor
was Russell, with his artistic temperament, the type of man who
rejoices in running a large department.

He was, however, keenly interested in the Michigan Academy of
Science, was among its early presidents, and served it in many ways.
As his connection with the U. S. Geological Survey became less he
found time to take up some of the local problems of Michigan. He
was never a specialist in Paleontology and therefore did not pretend
to continue the researches of Alexander Winchell, his predecessor;
but he reverted naturally to those studies of the lakes and of surface
geology which had interested him from the very first paper he printed.
He really inspired the study of the almost unique delta of the St. Clair
River made by Leon J. Cole, one of his students. He also prepared
a study of the surface geology of a good part of the upper peninsula
and its molding under the ice, and threw light on the origin of drumlins
and hills of the same canoe-shaped type due to the remodelling of
preexisting till sheets, and also on the curious Indian ridges known as
eskers. Having been used to topographic maps in his western work
he naturally felt the lack of them on coming to Michigan and began to
agitate for the co-operation of the State with the U. S. Geological
Survey in their preparation. If it had not been for him I do not
think this co-operation would have begun as soon as it did.

His scientific works, a complete bibliography of which is given by
Willis, may be grouped as follows:— Ist, a series of papers on lakes,
their origin and phenomena, in which he treats the modern Great
Lakes and those of New Zealand and those shrunken remnants of
lakes like the Great Lakes, out West, especially Lake Lahontan, the
monograph on which he prepared; 2nd, a series of papers culminating
in a correlation essay on Triassic and allied beds of the Atlantic
Coast, which he called the “ Newark Formation’’; 3rd, a series of
descriptions, in which he appears both as artist and savant, of those |
great contrasted phenomena of nature, the volcanic eruption and
the wondrous obelisk of Mt. Pélée on the one hand, and on the other

858 ISRAEL COOK RUSSELL.

Mount St. Elias and its piedmont glaciers. Thus his studies in the
igneous rocks of the Newark formation, into the activities of Mount
Pélée, the Snake River and other voleanic regions of the great West,
gave him opportunities to add. materially to our knowledge of igneous
geology, while his explorations in Alaska, the northwestern United
States and Michigan, made him one of the authorities in glacial
geology.

He was, as C. A. Davis says, a delightful story teller if drawn out,
brilliant and witty, so that his speeches at the early dinners of the
Geological Society of America, and the passages at arms between him
and Emerson shine in the writer’s memory, yet he was not a man of
many words. Physically he seemed small and slender for one who had
proved himself an intrepid explorer, and is another illustration of. the
fact that much may be done by one of small size. His civic public
spirit was shown by his careful report on the water supply of Ann
Arbor. He held the academic distinctions which one might expect;
he was President of the Michigan Academy of Science, Chairman of
Section E of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science, was President of the Geological Society of America at the
time of his death, May 1, 1906, and was honorary Doctor of Laws of
New York and Wisconsin Universities. He was married Nov: 27,
1886, to J. Augusta Olmsted and by her had four children, three
daughters, Ruth, Helen, Edith, and a son, Ralph. Ruth was grad-
uated with the degree of A.B. from the University of Michigan in
1910, and subsequently married and now resides in Salt Lake City.
Helen also married and lives in Chicago.

ALFRED C. LANE.

CO
(|
to)

AUGUSTUS SAINT GAUDENS.

AUGUSTUS SAINT GAUDENS (1848-1907).

Fellow of Class III, Section 4, 1896.

Born in Dublin, Ireland, on the first day of March 1848, the son
of an Irish mother and a French father, Augustus Saint Gaudens,
brought to this country at the age of six months, lived to see himself
acclaimed as the foremost of American sculptors. His bent for
artistic expression first took the form of cameo-cutting by which he
practically supported himself from the time he was thirteen till he
was twenty and to which he occasionally turned for revenue during
his course of art study abroad,— in Paris at the Academie des Beaux
Arts from 1867 to 1869 and in Rome from 1869 to 1872. His first
important work of a public character was the statue of Admiral
Farragut erected in Union Square, New York, in 1881. This work
was instantly hailed as a masterpiece and the test of thirty-five years
upholds the judgment of the moment.

Saint Gaudens’ fame dates from this time and was augmented by
his later productions,— the Lincoln in Chicago, the Shaw in Boston,
the Adams Memorial in Washington and the Peter Cooper and the
equestrian statue of Sherman in New York,—all on the same high
plane of excellence and all with an appeal so general as to win the
applause and interest of the man in the street as well as of the artist
and the connoisseur.

The success of Saint Gaudens as a sculptor of heroic works was
equaled by his skill in portrait relief. One has but to recall the
Stevenson Memorial, and the children of Mr. Jacob H. Schiff to
acknowledge his supremacy in this domain. His treatment of the
medallion, as exemplified in the portraits of Sargent and LaFarge, of
Howells and Gilder, of Millet and Bunce established a precedent for
an attractive form of the art that bids fair to be followed (probably at
a respectful distance) for all time.

The art of Saint Gaudens is unique. Although it possesses the
qualities of technique and composition, of truth to nature and respect
for traditions that are common to all good art, his style is so personal,
the technique is so entirely his own, and his conceptions are so original
that we are hardly reminded of any preceding master in looking at
them. To everything that he did, he gave the best that was in him
with a thoroughness born of conscientiousness and of devotion to the

860 AUGUSTUS SAINT GAUDENS.

art that he loved and revered. Critical and suspicious of his own
work, proving and trying every experiment by which any improve-
ment might be gained, entirely regardless of the time expended, his
successes were achieved by infinite patience and travail. This
thoroughness and conscientiousness had a marked effect upon his
contemporaries, and the example that he set by them and by his
absolute fidelity to his ideals of perfection, by his sincerity and his
impatience with sham and affectation, and, finally, by the superlative
excellence of the works themselves, was felt not only by his associates,
but wherever art was practiced in the land.

Besides the general influence of his finished productions, he had a
more direct, if less extensive, influence through the sacrifice of time
and strength that he made in teaching modeling both in his own
studio and in the art schools in New York. His connection with the
World’s Fair in Chicago in 1893 afforded another opportunity through
which his influence upon the art and artists of the country was widely
extended. He was one of the committee which conceived the splendid
plan of the Exposition and was the principal advisor for the sculptural
decoration of the grounds, aiding inealculably the impetus that was
given to art in general and to sculpture in particular by this great
object lesson. It was in Chicago that the movement was inaugurated
by McKim and seconded by Saint Gaudens that led to the founding
of The American Academy in Rome. Even more important was the
service that he rendered to the Nation as a member of the Commission,
appointed by Congress, which made the comprehensive plan for the
development of the City of Washington, now being carried out.

Of “Honors” Saint Gaudens naturally had many. The Degree of
LL.D. from Harvard, Yale and Princeton, his election as an Officer
of the Legion of Honor of France and as Corresponding Member of
the Societé des Beaux Arts in 1899, and his election as a member of the
Royal Academy of London in 1906 were among the most important.
Many medals came to him, also.

An urbanite from infaney, it was not till he was nearly forty years
old that he discovered the country. In 1885 he began spending his
summers in Cornish, N. H. where he later acquired a home and lands
among the hills, and practiced, with the delight of a novice, the pas-
times of skating and swimming, of tennis and golf, of which he had
been defrauded in his childhood. His position as a sculptor, and the
fascinating qualities of mind and heart that endeared him to all who
came near him, attracted to him many distinguished artists and
literary people who, with their disciples‘and families, made up the

WILLIAM SELLERS. 861

community which has become famous. His later years were spent
entirely here, and here on the third of August, 1907 he died after a
long and painful illness.

This notice of a master-sculptor cannot close better than with the
characterization of him by President Eliot upon giving to Saint
Gaudens the Degree of LL.D. at Harvard in 1905: — “Augustus
Saint Gaudens,— a sculptor whose art follows but enobles nature,
confers fame and lasting remembrance and does not count the mortal
years it takes to mold immortal forms.”

DANIEL CHESTER FRENCH.

WILLIAM SELLERS (1824-1905)

Fellow in Class I, Section 4, 1875.

Mr. William Sellers was a representative of the school of Engineers,
Manufacturers, Producers and Works Managers, which the modern
trend of industry has caused very largely to disappear. He grew up
with his establishment from small beginnings previous to the Civil
War and was able to carry the burdens of personal supervision of its
increasing work through the years until his death.

He was born in Upper Darby, Pa., on September 19, 1824. His
early education was in a private school maintained by his father and
his relatives for the education of their children. He served the usual
apprenticeship to the machinists’ trade with his uncle, John Morton
Poole, of Wilmington, Del., and in 1845 he took charge of a large
machine shop in Providence, R. I. After moving to Philadelphia
the firm of Bancroft and Sellers was formed in 1848, and in 1853 what
was then called the “new shop” at 16th Street and Pennsylvania
Avenue was occupied. The firm became William Sellers and Com-
pany on the death of Mr. Bancroft about 1856, and in 1886 the com-
pany was incorporated with Mr. Sellers as President. Their specialty
was the manufacture of heavy machine tools and they followed largely
the practice set by the British designers as contrasted with the types
which had their origin in the shops for lighter machine work in New
England. For example, they adhered to the lathe bed of flat-top
shears and had no use for the V-top shears of the smaller builders.

862 WILLIAM SELLERS.

Probably the best known of his achievements in this field is the spiral
gear planer drive, in which the table is moved back and forth by a
multi-thread screw engaging with a rack on the under surface of the
table.

In 1868 Mr. Sellers formed the Edgemoor Iron Company which
furnished the structural material for the Centennial Exhibition build-
ings of 1876, in Philadelphia and the structural material for the first
bridge between New York and Brooklyn.

In 1873 he reorganized the Midvale Steel Company at Nicetown
near Philadelphia which, under his management entered the field of
producing material for steel cannon for the Government.

In 1860 Mr. Sellers had his attention directed to the Gifford injector
for feeding hot water to steam boilers. He commenced the manufac-
ture of injectors under this design, but in 1865 invented and patented
the self-adjusting combining tube, which automatically adjusted the
supply of water to the apparatus to meet the varying requirements
as the steam pressure in the boiler might vary. These injectors were
made in the Sellers shop by metric sizes and with the special gages
which the use of this unusual standard compelled. Further develop-
ments led to more advanced and larger sizes of injectors, particularly
for locomotive service.

The Navy Department at Washington sent out specifications for
a turning and boring lathe in 1890 for its 16’’ steel cannon. The
bed was to be 73 feet long with an extension of 53 feet for the bor-
ing arrangement. Mr. Sellers made a complete new design which
he considered superior to that offered by the Governmental Depart-
ments and with the co-operation of a special commission created in the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, at the request of the Navy
Department and of which the late Professor John F. Sweet was an
active member, the Sellers design was accepted and the Navy design
was discarded. ‘This lathe weighed more than 250 tons.

The Sellers firm is also identified with the formulation, through the
Franklin Institute, of a system of standard screw threads which
became known as the United States standard and was presented to the
Institute at a meeting on September 16, 1864.

Mr. Sellers received about 90 U. S. patents, the earliest one in 1857
and some were pending at the time of his death — January 24, 1905,
in the Slst year of his age.

Mr. Sellers received many honors in the field of applied sciences.
He became a member of the Philosophical Society in 1864, and of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1875. He was a member

EDWARD HENRY STROBEL. 863

of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers of Great Britain, the Iron
and Steel Institute of Great Britain, of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers of which he was a founder in 1880 and of the
American Society of Civil Engineers. He was a corresponding mem-
ber of the Societé d’Encouragement pour L’Industrie Nationale and
also a Chevalier de la Legion d’Honneur. This decoration was con-
ferred upon him at the close of the Paris Exposition in 1899.

F. R. Hutton.

EDWARD HENRY STROBEL (1855-1908)

Fellow in Class III, Section 1, 1902.

It does not often fall to the lot of an American to fill positions so
varied in character as those which Edward Henry Strobel held during
his life of fifty-two years — Third Assistant Secretary of State, Secre-
tary of Legation, Minister Plenipotentiary, head of a special mission,
sole arbitrator between two powers, Professor of Law in the Harvard
Law School, the trusted adviser of a progressive oriental government.

He was born in Charleston, South Carolina, on December 7, 1855,
of a family on whose fortunes the civil war bore heavily. After due
preliminary education, he entered Harvard College, was graduated
with his class, that of 1877, and thereafter entered the Harvard Law
School in the autumn of 1877, but did not take the degree of LL.B.
until 1882. After having been admitted to the bar, he practised in
New York for a short time, but soon turned to public life.

He participated in the presidential campaign of 1884, contributing
an interesting pamphlet on Mr. Blaine and his foreign policy. This
document seems to have attracted the attention of Mr. Cleveland, for
when the latter became President, he offered Strobel the post of
Secretary of Legation at Madrid. Strobel spent about five years in
Spain, and acted as Chargé d’Affaires during a third of the time.
In 1888 he was sent on a special mission to Morocco. On the change
of administration, he tendered his resignation, but was retained in
office until 1890. In 1893, President Cleveland appointed him Third
Assistant Secretary of State. In 1894 he became Minister to Ecuador,
and shortly thereafter was made Minister to Chile. He remained at

864 EDWARD HENRY STROBEL.

the latter post until 1897, accomplishing excellent work under some-
what trying conditions. At the close of his stay, he received a signal
mark of distinction in being chosen by both France and Chile to arbi-
trate a claim of a French citizen against the government of Chile.

In 1898, Strobel was called to the Bemis Professorship of Interna-
tional Law in the Harvard Law School. The founder of the chair
had expressed the desire that the occupant should be not merely a
professor of the science, but a practical co-operator in the work of
advancing knowledge and good will among nations and governments.
Strobel’s intellect and temperament peculiarly fitted him to improve
the relations between States, and the years spent in the diplomatic
service had added the qualification of experience which the late George
Bemis had also mentioned when making his bequest.

As Bemis Professor, Strobel gave courses in the Law School in
International Law and Admiralty. He also taught International Law
in the College. He was an interesting and able instructor, and gath-
ered large classes about him. Perhaps he felt a little impatience with
“theorizing,” but it is to be remembered that he had successfully
handled large affairs and had carried considerable responsibilities.
After four years of service as a teacher, he was called to a very different
field.

In a distant corner of the Far East there lies a land which has suc-
ceeded in maintaining its independence while many other empires,
kingdoms, and principalities of Asia have fallen under alien rule. How
Siam has been able to accomplish this — often only with great diff-
culty — forms an interesting study, but it is a study which cannot be
undertaken here. Suffice it to say that when in 1902 Strobel entered
into relations with Siam, its political situation was one of considerable
danger. He was offered, and he accepted, the post of General Adviser
to the Siamese Government. While he did not reach Bangkok until
March, 1904, he was occupied during a great part of the intervening
time in negotiations in Europe. These resulted in a treaty with
France, signed in 1902, which failed of ratification by the French
Government, and of another treaty signed on February 13, 1904, and
afterwards duly ratified. On the evening of the day on which the
latter treaty was signed in Paris, he started for Bangkok, with the
new treaty sewed in his coat pocket.

The post to which he was called was one which exactly suited his
abilities and experience. Siamese foreign affairs occupied most of
his attention, and here of course he was at home. The foreign affairs
of the kingdom were in a condition where “theorizing” upon legal

EDWARD HENRY STROBEL. 865

rights and wrongs would do more harm than good. What was needed
was a practical solution of problems, some of which had been pending
for years. The amount of work that came into the office of the Gen-
eral Adviser was overwhelming. But Strobel’s mind quickly grasped
the questions at issue, and — what was at least as important — he
understood the men with whom he had to deal. These men were of
many nations and races, they came from all the countries of Western
Europe and of Eastern Asia. In addition to foreign relations, he was
confronted with many questions of internal administration, and to
them he brought the same intelligence and skill.

In December, 1905, Strobel went home on leave. He stopped in
Egypt on the way, and there was stricken with blood-poisoning, from
which he never fully recovered. After fifteen months’ absence, during
most of which he suffered greatly, he was able to return to Siam, and
immediately resumed his many activities; but he was not to be long
spared, for on January 15, 1908, he died in the midst of his labors.

While the time he actually spent in Siam amounted to only about
two and a half years, he left behind him a memory which is seldom, if
ever, the crown of even a lifetime of work in the Far East. From the
beginning, he inspired the confidence both of the Government which he
served and of all with whom he came in touch. Before his arrival,
perhaps not all persons in Siam looked forward with pleasure to the
coming of an American to fill the highest post there open to a Euro-
pean. But Strobel speedily made it clear that he felt he could best
serve the Siamese Government by dealing fairly and justly with every
matter laid before him. Once that reputation was established, the
rest was easy.

SAMUEL WILLISTON.

S66 WILLIAM GRAHAM SUMNER.

WILLIAM GRAHAM SUMNER (1840-1910)

Fellow in Class III, Section 3, 1881.

William Graham Sumner, for thirty-eight years professor of Politi-
cal and Social Science in Yale University, passed away on April 12,
1910, at Englewood, New Jersey. He was born at Paterson, New
Jersey, October 30, 1840, of English parents, his father, Thomas
Sumner, having come to America in 1836 and his mother, Sarah
Graham, in 1825. He states in an autobiographical sketch that his
ancestors on both sides had been artizans, and that, so far as he knew
he was the first member of the family who ever studied Latin and
Algebra.

His early years were spent at Hartford, Connecticut, he was gradu-
ated from Yale College in 1863, studied French and Hebrew in Geneva
in 1863-64, Divinity and History at Géttingen in 1864-66, and during
a part of the year 1866 he studied Anglican Theology at Oxford.
Having been elected tutor at Yale he entered upon his duties in
September, 1866, in which position he remained until March, 1869.
He was ordained deacon in the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1867,
and became assistant to the rector of Calvary Church in New York
City in 1869. From September, 1870 to September, 1872, he was
rector of the Church of the Redeemer at Morristown, New Jersey.
In September, 1872, he began his long career as Professor of Political
and Social Science at Yale, having been elected in June of that year.

His death marked the close, as his appointment at Yale had marked
the beginning, of an epoch in university teaching and in the develop-
ment of economic thought in this country. When he began the teach-
ing of Political and Social Science at Yale in 1872, his subject had
received very little attention in our institutions of learning, and the
scientific attitude was non-existent in our public discussions. Francis
A. Walker began his work in the Sheffield Scientific School the same
year, and Charles F. Dunbar had begun at Harvard the year before.
For many years Professor Perry at Williams and Amasa Walker at
Amherst had been lecturing on Political Economy. But the rapid
development of interest in these subjects may be said to date from the
early seventies. Probably no one contributed more to that awaken-
ing than Professor Sumner. His teaching was so clear, so strong, and

WILLIAM GRAHAM SUMNER. 867

so free from sentimentality or humbug as to compel respectful atten-
tion even on the part of those who resisted his relentless logic.

During the long controversy over soft money and free silver he
stood uncompromisingly for sound money based upon the gold stand-
ard. During the equally long controversy over protectionism, he
stood with equal firmness for free trade. During the greater part of
this period of controversy he was on the unpopular side of both
questions, but he lived to see the unpopular become the popular side
of the currency question and he only lacked two years of seeing it
become the popular side of the question of protectionism. His
death, therefore, marks the close of the epoch in which questions of
currency and protectionism were the dominant questions in Ameri-
can politics.

Though he began as a teacher of Political and Social Science, he
soon found it necessary to restrict his field and to specialize. His
final years were devoted to sociology in some of its historical and
anthropological phases. Some of the results of this final specialized
study were published in his book entitled “Folkways,” which is a
monument of exact knowledge and vast learning.

It is unfortunate that no complete list of his publications has yet
been compiled. Articles from his pen are still being discovered, but
the list which closes this notice, while far from complete, will indicate
something of the breadth of his interests and the scope of his tireless
energy.

If one were looking for the best example of the austere and produc-
tive life, the life of Professor Sumner might well be selected. His
austerity and self-discipline were proverbial among his colleagues and
students, but it was not a useless austerity imposed for its own sake.
It was the austerity which harnesses every ounce of energy to pro-
ductive work.

The following is as complete a list of Professor Sumner’s works as
the writer has been able to compile.

Books

The Books of the Kings, by K. C. W. F. Bahr. Translated, Enlarged, and
Edited. Book 2, by W. G. Sumner, in Lange, J. P. A commentary on
the Holy Scripture. Scribner, Armstrong & Company. New York.
1872. Vol. VI, 312 pp.

A History of American Currency, with chapters on the English Bank Restric-
tion and Austrian Paper Money. To which is appended “The Bullion
Report.” Henry Holt & Company. New York. 1874. 391 pp.

868 WILLIAM GRAHAM SUMNER.

Lectures on the History of Protection in the United States. (Delivered before
the International Free Trade Alliance) published for the New York Free
Trade Club by G. P. Putnam’s Sons. New York. 1877. 64 pp.

Andrew Jackson as a Public Man. (American Statesmen Series). Houghton
Mifflin & Company. Boston, New York. 1882. 402 pp.

What Social Classes Owe to Each Other. Harper & Brothers. New York.
1883. 169 pp.

Problems in Political Economy. Henry Holt & Company. New York.
1884. 125 pp.

Protectionism, the -ism which teaches that Waste Makes Wealth. Henry
Holt & Company. New York. 1885. 170 pp.

Collected Essays in Political and Social Science. Henry Holt & Company.
New York. 1885. 173 pp.

Alexander Hamilton. (Makers of America Series). Dodd, Mead & Com-
pany. New York. 1890. 280 pp.

The Financier and the Finances of the American Revolution. Dodd, Mead
& Company. New York. 1891. 2 vols. 309 and 339 pp.

Robert Morris. (Makers of America Series). Dodd, Mead & Company.
New York. 1892. 172 pp.

History of Banking in the United States. (In Dodsworth, A. W., ed. A
History of Banking in all the Leading Nations. Published by Journal of
Commerce and Commercial Bulletin, New York. 1896) 4 V. v.1., 3p. 1,
ix to xv, 385 pp.

Folkways; A Study of the Sociological Importance of Usages, Manners,
Customs, Mores and Morals. Ginn & Company. Boston. 1907.
692 pp.

War and Other Essays. Yale University Press. New Haven. 1911. 381
pp.

Earth-Hunger and Other Essays. Yale University Press. New Haven.
1913. 377 pp.

The Challenge of Facts and Other Essays. Yale University Press. New
Haven. 1914. 450 pp.

Articles, ete.

American Finance. Williams, Boston. 1875. (Pamphlet).

Monetary Development. In Woolsey, T. D., and others, First Century of
the Republic. Harper & Brothers. New York.

Politics in America, 1775 to 1876. North American Review, Vol. 122, Centen-
nial number, pp. 47-87.

Preface to ‘Our Revenue System” by A. L. Earle. Published for the Free
Trade Club by G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 2p. L., xi, 47 pp. (Economic Mono-
graph No. V).

Money and Its Laws. International Review. January and February, 1878.
pp. 75-81.

WILLIAM GRAHAM SUMNER. 869

Bimetallism. Princeton Review, November, 1879, pp. 546-578. —

The Theory and Practice of Elections. Jbid. March, 1880, pp. 262-286,
and July, 1880, pp. 24-41.

Elections and Civil Service Reform. Jbid. January, 1881, pp. 129-148.

The Argument against Protective Taxes. Jbid. March, 1881. pp. 241-259.

Sociology. Jbid. November, 1881. pp. 303-323.

Wages.: Ibid. November, 1882. pp. 241-262.

Protective Taxes and Wages. Philadelphia Tariff Commission. 1882. 21 pp.

Political Economy and Political Science. Compiled by W. G. Sumner,
D. A. Wells, W. E. Foster, R. L. Dugdale, and G. H. Putnam. New
York Society for Political Education. 36 pp. 1882. Economic Tracts,
No. 2).

Our Colleges Before the Country. Princeton Review. March, 1884. pp.
127-140.

Sociological Fallacies. North American Review. June, 1884. pp. 574-579.

Shall Silver Be Demonetized? Jbid. June, 1885. pp. 485-489.

Industrial War. Forum. September, 1886. pp. 1-8.

Mr. Blaine on the Tariff. North American Review. October. 1886. pp.
398-405.

What Makes the Rich Richer and the Poor Poorer? Popular Science Monthly,
January, 1887. pp. 289-296.

The Indians in 1887. Forwm. May, 1887. pp. 254-262.

State Interference. North American Review. August, 1887. pp. 109-119.

Trusts and Trade Unions. Independent, V. 40, 1888. pp. 482-483.

The Fall in Silver and International Competition. Rand McNally’s Banker’s
Monthly. February, 1888. pp. 47-48.

The First Steps Towards a Millennium. Cosmopolitan. March, 1888. pp.
32-36.

Do We Want Industrial Peace? Forum. December, 1889. pp. 406-416.

What is Civil Liberty? Popular Science Monthly. July, 1889. pp. 289-303.

Liberté des Echanges. Nouveau Dictionnaire d’Economie Politique, vol. 2,
1891. Guillaumin et Cie, Paris. pp. 138-166.

Absurd Effort to Make the World Over. Forum, V. 17, 1894. pp. 92-102.

Banks of Issue in the United States. Forwm, V. 22, 1896. pp. 182-191.

The Fallacy of Territorial Extension. Forwm, V. 21, 1896. pp. 414-419.

The Proposed Dual Organization of Mankind. Popular Science Monthly, V. 49,
1896. pp. 4382-439

The Single Gold Standard. Chautauquan, V. 24, 1896. pp. 72-77.

The Coin Shilling of Massachusetts Bay. Yale Review, V. 7, 1898. pp. 247-
280.

The Spanish Dollar and the Colonial Shilling. American Historical Review.
V. 3, 1898. pp. 607-619.

The Conquest of the United States by Spain. Yale Law Journal, V. 8, No. 4,
1899. pp. 168-193.

Introduction to “Anthracite Coal Industry’ by Peter Roberts. Macmillan
Co., New York, London. 1901. XII, pp., 11.; 261 pp.

870 FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR.

The Predominant Issue. Burlington, Vt. Reprinted from the International
Monthly, V. 2, 1901. pp. 496-509.

Specimens of Investment Securities for Class Room Use. The E. P. Judd Co.
New Haven. 1901. 32 pp.

The Yakuts. Abridged from the Russian of Sieroshevski. Journal of the
Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, V. 31, 1902. pp.
65-110.

Justification of Wealth. Independent, V. 54. 1902. pp. 1036-1040.

Suicidal Fanaticism in Russia. Popular Science Monthly. V. 60, 1902.
pp. 442-447.

The Fallacies of Socialism. Colliers Weekly. October 29, 1904. pp. 12-138.

Address at Dinner of the Committee on Tariff Reform of the Tariff Reform
Club in the City of New York, 1906. Series 1906, No. 4. 7 pp.

Sociology as a College Subject. American Journal of Sociology, V. 12, 1907.
pp. 597-599.

Mores of the Present and the Future. Yale Review, V. 18, 1909. pp. 233-245.

Witcheraft. Forum. V. 41, 1909. pp. 410-423.

The Family and Social Change. American Journal of Sociology. V. 14, 1909.
pp. 577-591.

The Status of Women in Chaldea, Egypt, India, ete., to the Time of Christ.
Forum, V. 42, 1909. pp. 113-136.

Religion and the Mores. American Journal of Sociology, V. 15, 1910. pp.
Di —oole

War. Yale Review, (new series). V.1, 1911. pp. 1-27.

Ts N- CARVER:

FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR (1856-1915)

Fellow in Class I, Section 4, 1915.

It is not difficult to estimate the place of Frederick W. Taylor in the
industries even though only a short time has elapsed since his death. He
is the legitimate successor of James Watt. Many engineers and manu-
facturers have made valuable additions to the efficiency of the steam en-
gine and to labor-saving machinery but the improvement of James Watt
opened the gateway to all the inventions of the nineteenth century.
Out of them have sprung the development of power and the labor-
saving machinery as we have them today, and also anentirely new prob-
lem in the relation of great masses of labor to society.—It is exactly to
this problem that Mr. Taylor has turned our attention. His solution of
it is of precisely the same significance as James Watt’s contribution to
the steam engine and Mr. Taylor’s work will equally transform society.

FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR. 871

He was born in Germantown, Pa., in the year 1856. His early
education was in America and two years in France and Germany.
He was prepared at Phillips Exeter to enter Harvard in 1874 but his
eyesight failed and he became an apprentice in the Enterprise Hy-
draulic Works from 1875 to 1878. Then owing to business depression
he took a job as laborer in the Midvale Steel Works, where his ideas
on the subject of greater system in the management of industry began
to form themselves. Six years from the time of entering the Midvale
Company he was Chief Engineer. In 1880 he began at night the
engineering course as required at Stevens Institute, where he obtained
the degree of Mechanical Engineer in 1883.

He left Midvale in 1890, having inaugurated a system of shop
management and having increased the output from two hundred to
three hundred per cent. From 1890 to ’93 he was manager of the
Manufacturing Investment Company, operating paper mills in Maine.
From then on he was consulting engineer on machine-shop efficiency.
He was employed by the Bethlehem Steel Company and there made
the investigation on tool steel and with Mr. Maunsel White discovered
the process of heat treatment which has revolutionized shop practice.
He presented his system of shop management to the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers in a paper called “The Piece Rate System”’
and in 1906, when he was president of the Society, he presented the
result of twenty-six years’ investigation in an exhaustive paper on
“The Art of Cutting Metal.” This was a splendid example of scien-
tific research by an engineer in active practice of his profession. He
died on March 21, 1915.

The term “scientific management,’ under which his work will
probably be known, was devised by Mr. Taylor and gained currency
chiefly through the testimony of Louis D. Brandeis before a committee
of Congress on the Railroad Petition for a Raise in Rates. If the
writer of the above may be permitted to comment through his per-
sonal acquaintance with Mr. Taylor, he would say that the system
never was intended or planned to fetter in any way the enterprise of
workmen but was thought by the inventor to be a method of promoting
ambition and the highest good of every workman as well as of society.
His system, scientific management, is simply a plan under which the
work of the industries can be done effectively and with a minimum
expenditure of energy. It has come to stay because it has called
attention to absolutely necessary organization if mankind is to have a
real and lasting benefit from the inventions that followed the use of
the steam engine and of stored energy.

I. N. Hous.

872 FRIEDRICH DANIEL VON RECKLINGHAUSEN.

FRIEDRICH DANIEL VON RECKLINGHAUSEN (1833-1910)

Honorary Foreign Member in Class If, Section 4, 1898.

Friedrich Daniel von Recklinghausen, one of the foremost among
the German pathologists, distinguished both as a teacher and in-
vestigator, was born in Westphalia in 1833. After passing through
the gymnasium he studied medicine in the Universities of Bonn,
Wiirzburg, and Berlin, and obtained the doctor degree in 1855. His
dissertation and his first medical publication in 1855 was “ De pyaemiae
theoriis”” in which he reviewed and discussed the different theories
concerning pyaemia, giving the reasons in favor of its separation from
wound infection. His entry into medicine was at the age when men
here are graduating from college. He then devoted himself to pathol-
ogy in the laboratory of Rudolf Virchow and after three semesters
in Berlin, and studies in Vienna, Rome, and Paris, he was named an
assistant in the pathological institute in Berlin in 1858, holding this
position until 1864. In the summer of this year, without passing
through the usual stages of Docent and Professor Extraordinary, he
was chosen as Professor of Pathological Anatomy in K6nigsberg, and,
after one-half year here, to the higher post in Wiirzburg. In 1872 he
was one of the first professors chosen to the new University founded
in Strassburg, where he remained as Professor of General Pathology
and Pathological Anatomy until 1906, at which time he became
Emeritus. After this he continued to work with his usual diligence
in the institute with which his name will always be associated, com-
plaining of the short space of time remaining to him for the comple-
tion of his numerous investigations. He was instrumental in having
called to the new university such men as Golz, Leyden and Waldyer.
In 1877 he constructed the new laboratory of the University, and
which at that time was regarded as in all respects a model. In 1883
he functioned as Rector of the University, and in 1884 he refused the
call to Leipzig as the successor to Cohnheim. He died suddenly in
1910 in his seventy-seventh year.

Up to 1862 he had published as assistant to Virchow a large number
of minor papers on a variety of subjects, some of them involving chemi-
cal research. In 1862 appeared the first of the great monographs for
which he was distinguished on “ Die Lymphgefisse und ihre Beziehun-
gen zum Bindegewebe.” In this he first described the method of the
use of silver to demonstrate the lines of junction of cells, and showed

FRIEDRICH DANIEL VON RECKLINGHAUSEN. 873

that the connective tissue was filled with spaces communicating with
lymphatics, and in which the cells lie. This work led him to the
study of the character of the cells in the tissue, and in a further publica-
tion “ Uber Eiter und Bindegewebs-kérperchen” he showed the amoe-
boid motion of certain of the cells, and their identity with leucocytes
and pus cells. This work undoubtedly paved the way to the studies
of Cohnheim on leucocyte migration and inflammation, Cohnheim
being a young assistant in the laboratory. During his professorship
in Wiirzburg a great number of important publications on pathological
anatomical conditions appeared, in one of which “Uber Pilzmetas-
tasen”’ he showed for the first time the relation between metastatic
inflammatory foci and masses of bacteria in the blood vessels.

It was during the period in Strassburg that his wonderful activity
in scientific research reached its acme. There are few subjects,
either in general pathology or in pathological anatomy, which were
not advanced through his work. His various researches on the blood,
the heart and circulation were followed in 1883 by a large and com-
prehensive work “Handbuch der Ernahrung.” This work, which
treats of the different forms of disturbances of the circulation and
nutrition, is based on his rich experience and his wide knowledge of
the literature of the subject, and remains a veritable mine of informa-
tion for one working on the subject. In 1881 the monograph “Uber
die multiplen Fibrome der Haut und ihre Beziehung zu den multiplen
Neuromen”’ appeared as a contribution in honor of Rudolf Virchow’s
twenty-five year jubilee. The article is a classic, showing the relation
of the multiple fibromas to the nerves of the skin, and the condition
since then has been known as von Recklinghausen’s Disease. In
1886 appeared in Virchow’s Archives a series of articles “ Untersuch-
ungen iiber Spinabifida” which must be reckoned among the most
important contributions of this painstaking and prolific author. The
work is based on thorough macro and microscopic investigation of a
large amount of material, and the subject, formerly obscure, was
completely cleared up.

The peculiar tumors of the uterus and Fallopian tubes, the adeno-
myomata, are treated in a series of articles between 1893-99. He
was especially attracted to the diseases of bones which form, from the
complexity of the tissue and the nature of the material, one of the most
difficult subjects in pathology. In 1891 he published a large mono-
graph on “ Die fibrése oder deformierender Ostitis,” a condition which
is also known as von Recklinghausen’s Disease, and this was followed
by a great number of articles on various forms of bone disease and
resulting deformities. The last great work, on the subject “Unter-

S74 FRIEDRICH DANIEL VON RECKLINGHAUSEN.

suchungen uber Rachitis und Osteomalacie” with 127 illustrations
and 41 plates, appeared in 1910, the year of his death.

In addition to the great number of medical publications he found
time for several important addresses, he attended medical societies
and associations and took part in discussions. He was never con-
troversial, although critical of all that seemed to lack in scientific
accuracy. He was equally great as a teacher; many of the men who
hold important positions in pathology received their first inspiration
and training from him, as Friedlander, Zahn, Schmidt, Késter, Foa,
Stilling, Perteck, Aschoff, Murpiergo, Griffini and Sacordotti. His
laboratory was sought by both German and foreigners, and there was
a constant flow of publications from his students. As a lecturer he
was simple and direct, using specimens freely in illustration; his
style in writing however was the reverse of simple, and he was difficult
to follow. The laboratory was constructed on the cell system, the
students were given a small room, a subject for work, and material,
and he inculeated independence of observation with simplicity of
method. In all of his work he used the simple methods with which
he had begun to work, and it is amazing what he was able to do with
scalpel, scissors and microscope. When I worked in his laboratory
in 1883 there was not a microtome in it, and this instrument had long
been regarded as indispensable for microscopic work. Sections were
stained with picrocarmine and mounted in glycerine, and he was
suspicious of all the newer methods which were coming into use and
which have led to enormous advance in knowledge of structure. I
found his demonstrations in pathological anatomy, which were held
three times in the week, of great interest and value. The students,
ach with a microscope and a few reagents, were seated at long tables
along which the specimens were passed after the professor had ex-
plained them, and each student took pieces for study as they went
along. The disadvantage of the method was that the progress of the
material was so slow that in the two hours of the exercise the specimens
rarely reached the last fourth of the class.

Although in his great work on the diseases of the circulation he
treated the pathology of function as well as structure, his conclusions
are based more on his rich anatomical knowledge than on experi-
mental evidence. He was_by nature conservative, and though he
welcomed each advance in knowledge, he did not seem to realize the
great change in the point of view which came into pathology with the
discovery of the methods of bacteriological investigation, although his
observations on bacterial emboli are among the fundamental studies
in bacteriology. He was essentially a pathological anatomist, his

OLIVER CLINTON WENDELL. 875

work was based on embryology and the study of stages of processes,
as revealed in the abundant material which was at his disposal and of
which he made skilful use, rather than on the experimental method.
There is a disposition at present to decry all knowledge not based on
experiment, but we must remember that there is not a radical difference
between the methods of observation and experiment in disease. The
anatomical lesions studied are the results of experiments made by
nature in which it is true all the conditions are not known and judg-
ment as to their nature mode of production and relations are based
on embryology and stages in the process revealed in the differing single
examples which arise. Of this method von Recklinghausen was a
master, and most of his work has borne the test of time.

He was a tireless worker, arriving at the laboratory at seven in the
morning, and often remaining late into the night. His life was quiet,
without distraction, and eminently serviceable. Our ideas of Ger-
man culture have been derived from the work and lives of such men
as this.

W. T. CouNncILMAN.

OLIVER CLINTON WENDELL (1845-1912)

Fellow in Class J, Section 1, 1884.

Oliver Clinton Wendell was born at Dover, N. H., on May 7, 1845.
After a life largely devoted to astronomical research, he died in Cam-
bridge, Mass., on November 5, 1912.

Mr. Wendell was fitted for college in the old academy of his native
town, and graduated from Bates College in 1868. From this college,
also, he received the degree of Master of Arts, in 1871, and of Doctor
of Science, in 1907. He was one of the comparatively few men who
seemed “predestined”’ to a specific career, for on his graduation it
was announced by the President of the college that one of the small
class of five was to be an astronomer. ‘This was Wendell, who appar-
ently had come to this decision in his sophomore year. Two months
after leaving college he began work at the Harvard College Observa-
tory, but a year later he was compelled to resign his position on ac-
count of illness.

For about ten years he found it necessary to engage in outdoor
pursuits. During a part of this time he was an assistant to the emi-
nent engineer, James B. Francis, a man to whom he often referred in

876 OLIVER CLINTON WENDELL.

terms of the highest admiration. During this period, also, he was
offered a professorship of astronomy at Bates College, a position he
was obliged to decline on account of ill health. This was, perhaps,
unfortunate, for such a position would have given him, as a teacher,
an excellent opportunity for the full expression of his personality.

He returned to the Harvard Observatory in 1879, and was made
Assistant Professor of Astronomy in 1898, a position he held during
the remainder of his life. His work at the Observatory was chiefly
with the 15-inch equatorial, which in early days was often referred to
as “The Great Telescope.”’ During the latter part of his life he was
almost the sole observer with this telescope, and his relation with it
was of the nature of an intimate friendship. Even on cloudy nights,
when no work could be done, he appeared to enjoy being near the
instrument, which he really loved.

Mr. Wendell observed the eclipses of the satellites of Jupiter from
1891 to 1912. This work required his presence at all hours of the
night, a hardship which did not lessen his enthusiasm. He often
came to the Observatory on cold winter nights, even when the chance
of securing observations was small. He took part in the observation
and reduction of the work of the 4-inch meridian photometer, but his
principal work was with the photometer having achromatic prisms,
attached to the 15-inch telescope. With this instrument he observed
variable stars and asteroids. The results are probably the most
accurate which had been obtained up to that time. He discovered
several new variable stars and two variable asteroids. Although he
was able to devote less time to the subject, he had a deep interest in
comets, and, in his earlier years at the Observatory, took part in their
observation and the computation of their orbits. The results of his
astronomical work will be found in Volumes 13, 23, 24, 33, 37, 52, and
69 of the Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College.

Mr. Wendell took his vocation with great seriousness. To him,
nothing compared in interest with astronomy. It absorbed him, not,
however, to the exclusion of a poetic element, which expressed itself
at different times in verse. Regarding this phase of his character,
however, he was very reticent. Also, he had a sincere faith in the
truth of the Christian religion, and an intense belief in the immortality
of the soul. He was married, in 1870, to Sarah Butler, of Hanover,
Mass., who was a most devoted and loyal helper. Her death, in 1910,
was a shock from which he never fully recovered. It left him lonely
and inconsolable till his own death two years later. Two sons survive
them.

S. I. Barry.

American Academy of Arts and Sciences

OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES FOR 1918-19

PRESIDENT.
Cuar.Les P. BowpitcH.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

Class I. Class II. Class III.
Exurav THoMsSoN, WiuuramM M. Dayts, GeorGce F. Moore.
CORRESPONDING SECRETARY.

Harry W. Tyrer.

RECORDING SECRETARY.
Wo. Sturais BiGcELow.

TREASURER.
Henry H. Epes.

LIBRARIAN.
ArtTHuR G. WEBSTER.

COUNCILLORS.

Class I. Class II. Class III.
Harvey N. Davis, BENJAMIN L. ROBINSON, Frep N. Rosinson.
Terms expire 1919.

Grecory P. Baxter, WintramM M. WHEELER, ARCHIBALD C. CooLipGE.
Terms expire 1920.

Henry LEFAvourR, WitiramM T. SEpGwIcK, Barrett WENDELL.
Terms expire 1921.
GeorcE D. Brrkuorr, CHARLES H. WARREN, FREepDERIC Dopae.

Terms expire 1922.
COMMITTEE OF FINANCE.
Henry P. Watcort, JOHN TROWBRIDGE, Harotp Murpock.
RUMFORD COMMITTEE.
CuHaRLeS R. Cross, Chairman,

Epwarp C. PICKERING, ArtTHuR G. WEBSTER, Euiavu THomson,
Louts Bett, ArtHur A. Noyss, THEODORE LYMAN.
Cc. M. WARREN COMMITTEE.

Henry P. Tarsor, Chairman,

Water L. JENNINGS, CHARLES L. JACKSON, Grecory P. Baxter,
ArTuur A. NOYES, ArtTHur D. Litre, Wiuuram H. WALKER.
COMMITTEE OF PUBLICATION.

Epwarp V. Huntrneton, of Class I, Chairman,

Jay B. Woopwortu, of Class LI, AuBeRT A. Howarp, of Class III.
COMMITTEE ON THE LIBRARY.

ArTHUR G. WEBSTER, Chairman,

Harry M. Goopwin, of Class I, Tuomas Barsour, of Class II,
Witiram C. Lane, of Class III.

AUDITING COMMITTEE.

GeorcE R. Agassiz, JoHN E. THAYER,
HOUSE COMMITTEE.

Louis Derr, GeorGE R. Agassiz, Chairman, Wm. Sturais BigELow.
COMMITTEE ON MEETINGS.

THE PRESIDENT,

THE RECORDING SECRETARY,

Witu1aM M. Davis, Epwin B. WILson, GeorGE F. Moore.

a
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iv

LEST
OF THE

FELLOWS AND FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS.

(Corrected to July 1, 1918.)

FELLOWS.— 526.

(Number limited to six hundred.)

Cuass I.— Mathematical and Physical Sciences.— 183.

Section I.— Mathematics and Astronomy.— 39.

George Russell Agassiz one 5... <eBoston
Raymond Clare Archibald Providence, R. I.
Solon Irving Bailey . aes Cambridge
Edward Emerson Barnard Williams Bay, Wis.
George David Birkhoff Cambridge
Charles Leonard Bouton . Cambridge

Ernest William Brown .
Sherburne Wesley Burnham .
William Elwood Byerly.
William Wallace Campbell
Julian Lowell Coolidge
George Cary Comstock
Leonard Eugene Dickson .
Philip Fox :

Fabian Franklin

Edwin Brant Frost .

Frank Lauren Hitcheock .
Edward Vermilye Huntington
Dunham Jackson

Edward Skinner King .

Carl Otto Lampland

New Haven, Conn.
Williams Bay, Wis.
se Cambridge
. Mt. Hamilton, Cal.
Cambridge
Madison, Wis.

. Chicago, Ill.

' Evanston, IIl.
. New York, N. Y.

P Williams Bay, Wis.

Belmont
Cambridge
Cambridge
Cambridge

. Flagstaff, Ariz.

880 FELLOWS.

Joel Hastings Metcalf .

Clarence Lemuel Elisha Moore .
Eliakim Hastings Moore .

Frank Morley

Henry Bayard Praline:

Edward Charles Pickering

William Henry Pickering .

Charles Lane Poor . .

Roland George Dwight iSidanckon.
Arthur Searle . 7. ac) GN pee
Vesto Melvin Slipher

Frederick Slocum

John Nelson Stockwell

William Edward Story

Henry Taber . .

Harry Walter Tyler.

Robert Wheeler Willson

Frederick Shenstone Woods .

Winchester
Watertown

-. «Chicago; Il
. Baltimore, Md.
. . Boston
Cambridge

. . Cambridge
New York, N. Y.
Cambridge

. . ‘Cambridge
. Flagstaff, Ariz.
Middletown, Conn.
Cleveland, O.
Worcester
Worcester
Newton
Cambridge
Newton

Cuass I., Section II.— Physics.— 58.

Joseph Sweetman Ames
Carl Barus

Louis Agricola Bauer
Alexander Graham Bell
Louis Bell .

Clarence John Blake
Perey Williams Bridgman
Henry Andrews Bumstead
George Ashley Campbell .
Emory Leon Chaffee
Daniel Frost Comstock
William David eae
Henry Crew :
Charles Robert Cross
Harvey Nathaniel Davis .
Arthur Louis Day

Louis Derr

William Johnson Daas
William Duane

ee

. Baltimore, Md.
Providence, R. I.
Washington, D. C.

Washington, D. C.

Newton

Boston

Cambridge

New Haven, Conn.
New York, N. Y.
Belmont

Brookline

iSchonecent Noy:

Evanston, IIl.
Brookline
Cambridge

Washington, D. C.

. Brookline
Winchester
. Boston

FELLOWS.

Alexander Wilmer Duff
Arthur Woolsey Ewell .
Harry Manley Goodwin
George Ellery Hale

Edwin Herbert Hall
Hammond Vinton Hayes .
William Leslie Hooper .
John Charles Hubbard
Gordon Ferrie Hull. . .
Charles Clifford Hutchins
James Edmund Ives
William White Jacques
Norton Adams Kent

Frank Arthur Laws

Henry Lefavour .

Theodore Lyman . .
Richard Cockburn Macliurin
Thomas Corwin Mendenhall
Ernest George Merritt . F
Albert Abraham Michelson .
Dayton Clarence Miller
Robert Andrews Millikan
Harry Wheeler Morse .
Edward Leamington Nichols
Ernest Fox Nichols.
Charles Ladd Norton .
George Washington Pierce
Michael Idvorsky Pupin .
Wallace Clement Sabine
Frederick Albert Saunders
John Stone Stone 3
Maurice deKay ciiocansenk
Elihu Thomson :
John Trowbridge 5
Arthur Gordon Webster
Charles Herbert Williams
Edwin Bidwell Wilson .
Robert Williams Wood

John Zeleny

88

Worcester
Worcester

; Brookline
. Pasadena, Cal.
Cambridge
Boston

. Somerville
New Yorks N2 Yi
. Hanover, N. H.
Brunswick, Me.

. Worcester
Boston
Cambridge
Boston

Boston
Brookline
Boston

. Ravenna, O.
Ithaca, N. Y.

. Chicago; Ill.
Cleveland, O.

. . Chicago, Ill:
Los Angeles, Cal.
Ithaca, N. Y.
Hanover, N. H.

: Boston

. . Cambridge
New York, N. Y.
Boston

. Beachiee pris Na.

New York, N. Y.
Brookline

. Swampscott
Cambridge
Worcester

Milton
. . Brookline

. Baltimore, Md.

. New Haven, Conn.

Cuass I., Section III.— Chemistry.— 45.

Wilder Dwight Bancroft .

Gregory Paul Baxter
Marston Taylor Bogert

Bertram Borden Boltwood

William Crowell Bray .
Russell Henry Chittenden

Arthur Messinger Comey .

Charles William Eliot .
Henry Fay

George Shannon Borbes
Frank Austin Gooch

Lawrence Joseph Henderson .

Charles Loring Jackson
Walter Louis Jennings .
Grinnell Jones

Elmer Peter Kohler
Charles August Kraus .
Arthur Becket Lamb
Irving Langmuir .
Gilbert Newton Lewis .
Warren Kendall Lewis .
Arthur Dehon Little

Charles Frederic Mabery .

Forris Jewett Moore
George Dunning Moore

Edward Williams Morley .
Harmon Northrop Morse .
Samuel Parsons Mulliken .
Charles Edward Munroe .

James Flack Norris
Arthur Amos Noyes
William Albert Noyes .
Thomas Burr Osborne .
Samuel Cate Prescott .
Ira Remsen

Robert Hallowell Bidberde
Theodore William Richards .

Martin André Rosanoff
Stephen Paschall Sharples

Tthaca; Ne Ye

5 Cambridge

New York, N. Y.

. New Haven, Conn.

Berkeley, Cal.

New Haven, Conn.

. Chester, Pa.

Cambridge

. Boston

@ambuiiee

N ew Haven, Conn.

Cambridge

Cambridge

Worcester

Cambridge

Cambridge

Worcester

Cambridge

Suhenae cab INSANE
Berkeley, Cal.

. Boston

Brookline

Cleveland, O.

. Boston

Ww orcester

West ‘Hartiord, Conn.
. Baltimore, Md.

. Boston
iyvesieneront Di.

. Brookline

. . Boston

Urbana, II.

New Haven, Conn.

, . Brookline

. Baltimore, Md.

Jamaica Plain

Cambridge

. Pittsburgh, Pa.

Cambridge

FELLOWS.

Miles Standish Sherrill
Alexander Smith

Julius Oscar Stieglitz
Henry Paul Talbot. .
William Hultz Walker .
Willis Rodney Whitney

883

; Braet lite
New York NAY;
. Chicago, IIl.
Newton

Boston

Relioneceads: NY,

Cuass I., Section IV.— Technology and Engineering.— 41.

Henry Larcom Abbot .
Comfort Avery Adams
Bernard Arthur Behrend .
William Herbert Bixby
Francis Tiffany Bowles
Charles Francis Brush .
William Hubert Burr .
John Joseph Carty .

Eliot Channing Clarke. .
Harry Ellsworth Clifford .
Desmond FitzGerald

John Ripley Freeman .
George Washington Gocihals
John Hays Hammond .
Rudolph Hering .

Ira Nelson Hollis

Henry Marion Howe
Hector James Hughes .

Alexander Crombie Humphreys

Dugald Caleb Jackson .
Lewis Jerome Johnson .
Arthur Edwin oan
Gaetano Lanza

William Roscoe Livermore
Lionel Simeon Marks .
Edward Furber Miller
Hiram Francis Mills
Charles Francis Park
William Barclay Parsons .
Cecil Hobart Peabody .
Harold Pender ,
Albert Sauveur

Cambridge
Cambridge

. Boston

- Washington, Dse:
. Boston

Cc leveland, O.

. New Canaan, Conn.

New York, N. Y.
Boston

Newton

. Brookline
Providence, R. I.
New York, N. Y.
New York, N. Y.
New York, N. Y.
. Worcester
New York, N. Y.
, Cambridge
New York, N. Y.
Cambridge
Cambridge

. . Cambridge
Philadelphia, Pa.
: Boston
Cambridge

; Newton

. South Hingham

; Boston

New YorksNe ae
Boston
Cambridge
Cambridge

884

Peter Schwamb . .
Henry Lloyd Smyth
Charles Milton Spofford
Frederic Pike Stearns .
Charles Proteus Steinmetz
George Fillmore Swain
George Chandler Whipple

Robert Simpson Woodward .

Joseph Ruggles Worcester

FELLOWS.

Arlington
Cambridge
Brookline

. Boston
Siecscia ye
: Cambridge
. . Cambridge
ee aa, DEG
Boston

Cuass II.— Natural and Physiological Sciences.— 170.

Section I.— Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of the Globe.— 53.

Wallace Walter Atwood
Joseph Barrell

George Hunt Barton
Isaiah Bowman

Cambridge

New Haven, Conn.
.. Cambridge
WwW ashington, D. C.

Thomas Chrowder Chambeckane pees oe he a hea sonal:

William Bullock Clark .
John Mason Clarke

Henry Helm Clayton . .
Herdman Fitzgerald Gleland?
William Otis Gast
Reginald Aldworth Daly .
Edward Salisbury Dana
Walter Gould Davis
William Morris Davis .

Benjamin Kendall Emerson .

William Ebenezer Ford
Grove Karl Gilbert :
James Walter Goldthwait
Louis Caryl Graton
Herbert Ernest Gregory
Ellsworth Huntington .

Oliver Whipple Huntington .

Robert Tracy Jackson .
Thomas Augustus Jaggar .
Douglas Wilson Johnson .
Alfred Church Lane
Andrew Cowper Lawson .

. Baltimore, Md.
Albany, N. Y.
Canton
Williamstown
Jamaica Plain
Cambridge

N ew Haven, Conn.
Cordova, Arg.
Cambridge

: Amherst
N ew Haven, Conn.
. Washington, D.C.
. Hanover, N. H.
Cambridge

New Haven, Conn.
we Milton

. . °. Newport, R. I.
. Peterborough, N. H.
. Honolulu, H. I.
New York, N. Y.

. Cambridge
Berkeley, Cal.

FELLOWS. S85

Charles Kenneth Leith . .. . : . . . ... Madison, Wis.
WaldemarTandpren . ..«.. 0.4... «...«,. Brookline
Brenerie brewster Loomis) . 3. sss 8 wep Bo bes Amherst
BiecannerGeorse MceAdie~ .- . ...... 3) i ety Readville
Willma. John Miller . 2. 2 2. . 1s). «ss +, Northampton
Pemimey Palache i ew . Cambridge
Heber occ Pillsbury. y. <2 0 se) 0s wus WwW ashington, D.C.

Louis Valentine Pirsson . . . .-. . . . New Haven, Conn.

agunen bumpelly.. 6. 2S a oe Oe able Newporty Radlk

Perey-Rdward Raymond . . 1s «. << . Cambridge
MeeumNorth: Riee- ree Be oe toe Middletow n, Conn.
peri, Wilcox oayles (2 nt os es a ee. > Cambndee
harles, Scluchert 22). 2. Sa ee: 2 i s, 2 New Haven, Conn:
Midis Berrynianjseott . ~ . . < .. 0%. « 2... Pmneeton,Ned
Hervey; Woodburn Shimer.) :.-.° 2. -. + «jg... Watertown
Charles Hichard- Van bse) 7 2. .> 5 %) <7) sn eee. Madison; Wis:
Thomas Wayland Vaughan ..: <<. «. . ~« .Washmeton,.D: CG:
Gharics Weoliitle Walcott: ~. <3. =... 2>s. Washington, D.C:
Eonec, WeCourcy Ward=... < .o. s 2ae ee “Cambridge
evanlesinvde Warren. 2 -; 2 .. 2 «he oO 2 Auburndale
Pervert mercy Whitlock. °°. s 0.0 2. 0. a YE Albany, (N.Y:
Bailey Willis .. ae aa ks ey wo dy ee bee alow mitorGale
Samuel Wendell W hse, eae: ack eo 2 eae Chicago, Ill.
PeunrPliog- Woliiq==; 202° ..-2 to 4. 2 uo » er, “Cambridge
Pay tacks, Woodworth 4. /e- 22. is . Cambridge
Frederick Eugene Wright ...... . WwW ashington, D. C.

Cuass II., Section II.— Botany.— 30.

Oakes Ames . . Bt 228. Gietreiod int. ot as OREM aston:
Irving Widmer Bailey Pes ho mae ar wi eee, = (eam pra
Liberty Hyde Bailey . . pee dnek oy Somes, =e neers in ee
Douglas Houghton Campbell ey ree aoe NS Palo Alto, Cal.
George Perkins Clinton: 9... 9... ©. ~. «...New Haven, Conn.
Hanke pupley Collins... <2 2.2%, 2. <North Bastham
Jou Merle Coulter s- 2 6.0. 8 2 Sn a eS oe ee, eigago, AE
Bradley MoereDavis.. oes! «| 3 4) Philadelpina Pa
Edward Murray: Bast. <0 6 %.3 a eee oe Jamaica Blam
Alexander William Evans. . . . . . . . + New Haven, Conn.
WillianiiGilson Karlow -"3) 2.0. ss bf se 2 Seambridge

Merntt Lyndon, Fernald ~," os 4 Ss, ter 4, Cambridge
George Lincoln Goodale’. .°..°. « . «>. « ~ « ,Cambridge

886

Robert Almer Harper .
John George Jack

Edward Charles Jeffrey
Fred Dayton Lambert .
Burton Edward Livingston
George Richard Lyman

Winthrop John Vanleuven Oereehont

Alfred Rehder

Lincoln Ware Riddle
Benjamin Lincoln Robinson .
Charles Sprague Sargent .
William Albert Setchell
Arthur Bliss Seymour .
Erwin Frink Smith .

John Donnell Smith
Willaim Codman Sturgis .
Roland Thaxter .
William Trelease

New York, N. Y.
East Walpole

. Cambridge
Tufts College
Baltimore, Md.
Washington, D. C.
Cambridge
Jamaica Plain
Wellesley
Cambridge

. Brookline
Berkeley, Cal.
Cambridge

Ww ashington, D. C.
3 Baltimore, Md.
New Yorke: Nees
Cambridge
Urbana, III.

Crass II., Section III.— Zodlogy and Physiology.— 54.

Glover Morrill Allen

Joel Asaph Allen

John Wallace Baird .

Thomas Barbour

Francis Gano Benedict
Henry Bryant Bigelow
Robert Payne Bigelow .

John Lewis Bremer .

William Brewster

Charles Thomas Brues
Hermon Carey Bumpus
Walter Bradford Cannon .
William Ernest Castle .
Charles Value Chapin .
Samuel Fessenden Clarke .
Edwin Grant Conklin . . <=
William Thomas Councilman
Joseph Augustine Cushman .
William Healey Dall

Charles Benedict Davenport .

hor» Boston
New York: Nowy
Worcester

. Boston

. Boston
Concord
Brookline

Boston
Cambridge

Do ee Osta
Tufts College
Cambridge
Belmont
Providence, R. I.
Williamstown
Princeton, N. J.

. Boston

Sharon

Piyaciiaetert DSC.

Cold Sine Harbor, NY.

FELLOWS.

Gilman Arthur Drew
Alexander Forbes

Samuel Henshaw

Leland Ossian Howard
Herbert Spencer Jennings
Charles Willison Johnson .
Charles Atwood Kofoid
Frederic Thomas Lewis
Ralph Stayner Lillie
Jacques Loeb. . .
Richard Swann Lull
Franklin Paine Mall
Edward Laurens Mark
Ernest Gale Martin
Albert Davis Mead .
Edward Sylvester Morse .
Herbert Vincent Neal .
Henry Fairfield Osborn
George Howard Parker
John Charles Phillips
James Jackson Putnam
Herbert Wilbur Rand .
William Emerson Ritter
William Thompson Sedgwick
Perey Goldthwait Stiles
John Ehot Thayer .
Addison Emory Verrill
John Broadus Watson .
Arthur Wisswald Weysse .
William Morton Wheeler .
Harris Hawthorne Wilder
Edmund Beecher Wilson .
Frederick Adams Woods .
Robert Mearns Yerkes

887

. Woods Hole
Milton

. . Cambridge
Washes ¢0nt D=C;
. Baltimore, Md.
Brookline
Berkeley, Cal.
Waban

. Worcester
New York, N. Y.

New Haven, Conn.

Baltimore, Md.

. . Cambridge
. Palo Alto, Cal.
Providence, R. I.
Salem

“Tufts College

New York; Na ¥2

Cambridge
Wenham

. Boston

. Cambridge
La Jolla, Cal.
Boston
Newtonville
Lancaster

. New Haven, Conn.
. Washington, D. C.

. Boston
. Boston
Northampton

. New York,-N. Y-

Brookline

‘ yea enoe Dac;

Crass II., Section IV.— Medicine and Surgery.— 33.

Edward Hickling Bradford
Henry Asbury Christian .
Harvey Cushing. .
David Linn Edsall .

. Boston
. Boston
. Boston
. Boston

888

Harold Clarence Ernst
Simon Flexner 4
William Crawford ares
Robert Battey Greenough
William Stewart Halsted .
Reid Hunt .

Henry Jackson

Abraham Jacobi .

Elliott Proctor Joslin
William Williams Keen
Frank Burr Mallory
Samuel Jason Mixter
Edward Hall Nichols

Sir William Osler, Bart.
Theophil Mitchell Prudden
William Lambert Richardson
Milton Joseph Rosenau

Frederick Cheever Shattuck .

Theobald Smith .
Elmer Ernest Southard
Richard Pearson Strong
Ernest Edward Tyzzer

Frederick Herman Verhoeff .

Henry Pickering Walcott .
John Collins Warren .
William Henry Welch .
Francis Henry Williams
Simeon Burt Wolbach .
Horatio Curtis Wood

Jamaica Plain
New York, N. Y.

: Wee DG:

Boston
Baltimore, Md.
Brookline

.« «ue Boston
New Yorks, Ne aye
: . Boston
Philadelabien Pa.
Brookline

. Boston

2) x BOSLOM
aatan Eng.
New York, N. Y.
. Boston

. Boston

: Boston
Princeton, N. J.
. Boston

. Boston

. Boston

. . Boston
Cambridge

../ 4 Boston:
Bales Md.

. Boston

. . Boston
Palade Rae

Crass III.— Moral and Political Sciences,— 172.

Section I— Theology, Philosophy and Jurisprudence.— 47.

Thomas Willing Balch
Simeon Eben Baldwin .
Willard Bartlett .

Joseph Henry Beale
Melville Madison Bigelow
Charles Warren Clifford
Edmund Burke Delabarre

. Philadelphia, Pa.
New Haven, Conn.
. ‘Brooklyn, No Y.

Cambridge
Cambridge
. . New Bedford
Providence, R. I.

FELLOWS.

James De Normandie .
Frederic Dodge

Edward Staples Drown

William Harrison Dunbar
Timothy Dwight Cc e..
William Herbert Perry Faunce .
William Wallace Fenn
Frederick Perry Fish

George Angier Gordon

John Wilkes Hammond

Alfred Hemenway

Charles Evans Hughes :
Frederick John Foakes Jackson .
William Lawrence

Arthur Lord van
William Caleb Loring .
Nathan Matthews

Samuel Walker McCall

Edward Caldwell Moore .
James Madison Morton

George Herbert Palmer

Charles Edwards Park

Endicott Peabody :
Francis Greenwood Peabody
George Wharton Pepper

John Winthrop Platner

Roscoe Pound

Elihu Root :

James Hardy Ropes

Arthur Prentice Rugg .

Henry Newton Sheldon
Moorfield Storey 2
William Howard Taft .
William Jewett Tucker

William Cushing Wait
Williston Walker

Eugene Wambaugh. .
Edward Henry Warren

Samuel Williston

Woodrow Wilson

889

Roxbury
Belmont
Cambridge
Cambridge

New Haven, Conn.
Providence, R. I.
Cambridge
Brookline

. Boston
Cambridge

. Boston

New vale Neuve

New York, N. Y.
. Boston

. Plymouth

. Boston

. Boston
Winchester
Cambridge

. Fall River
Cambridge

. Boston

Groton

. . -Cambridge
Philadelphia, Pa.
Cambridge
Belmont

New York, N. Y.

Cambridge
Worcester
. Boston
. Boston

. New Haven, Conn.

Hanover, N. H.
Medford

. New Haven, Conn.

Cambridge
. Boston
Belmont

. Washington, D. C.

890

Cuass III., Section IIl.— Philology and Archeology.— 50.

Francis Greenleaf Allinson
William Rosenzweig Arnold .
Maurice Bloomfield .
BranzeBoas is oe. tee See
Charles Pickering Bowditch .
Eugene Watson Burlingame .
Edward Capps

Franklin Carter .

George Henry Chase

Roland Burrage Dixon
William Curtis Farabee

Jesse Walter Fewkes :
Jeremiah Denis Mathias Ford
Basil Lanneau Gildersleeve .
Charles Hall Grandgent
Louis Herbert Gray

Charles Burton Gulick
William Arthur Heidel
George Lincoln Hendrickson
Bert Hodge Hill...

Elijah Clarence Hills

Edward Washburn Hopkins .
Joseph Clark Hoppin

Albert Andrew Howard
William Guild Howard

AleS Hrdliéka .

Carl Newell Jackson

Hans Carl Gunther von Jagemann

James Richard Jewett .
Alfred Louis Kroeber
Kirsopp Lake .

Henry Roseman Lang .
Charles Rockwell Lanman
David Gordon Lyon :
Clifford Herschel Moore . -
George Foot Moore .

Hanns Oertel .

Bernadotte Perrin

Edward Kennard Rand

Providence, R. I.
Cambridge
Baltimore, Md.

o NeweVoniainna

. Jamaica Plain
Albany, N. Y.
Princeton, N. J.
Williamstown
Cambridge

. . Cambridge
Philadelphia, Pa.
Washington, D. C.
: Cambridge

. Baltimore, Md.
Cambridge

. Boston

i Cambridge
Middletown, Conn.
. New Haven, Conn.
. . Athens, Greece
. New York, N. Y.
. New Haven, Conn.
Boston

Cambridge

Ake Cambridge
Washington, D. C.
: Cambridge
Cambridge

. Cambridge
Berkeley, Cal.
Cambridge

New Haven, Conn.
Cambridge
Cambridge
Cambridge
Cambridge

New Haven, Conn.
New Haven, Conn.
Cambridge

FELLOWS. 891

George Andrew Reisner .. . . . . . . ... « +« Cambridge
Buward*hobimson .. . . . .'. « % «ae 0° New York,.Ne Y¥-
BreayNoris-tobmson . . 2... e784) «x. 2a) Cambridge
Budelpihschevill . 2. .-y =. 8 se .« # Berkeley, Gal.
Edward Stevens Sheldon. . . . .. =: =... =. +.» Cambridge
etherver Smyth —.. 2. 2. om 6 en ee Cambridge
Franklin Bache Stephenson . . . . . . . +. Claremont, Cal.
Charles Cutler Torrey. . : . .%.. . ~ New Haven, Conn.
muceaeVisrston Tozzer .° . 6 6s. : + % %.s = Cambridge
Andrew Dickson White: ...... «. -< A” e-s, 2 Tthaea,eN2 Ye
James-Haushton Woods ...- . = . . . » . . °.Cambrnidge

Crass III., Secrion III.— Political Economy and History.— 37.

OS AGAMSY 7 ln aileerir eye c. e ln ee oaks . Quincy
George Burton’Adams 92.2 2.45. si. ew ieren Conn.
Charles McLean Andrews ... . . . . . NewHaven, Conn.
(Ghares. Jesse Bullock: 3% s- 2 -e SL ee as Sry (Cambridge
piiiomaseNinum Garver “2.01 oo 5 shiny pee ae Cambridge
Johnebares Clark § 4) Sous ra 8 G3 ‘en «ust MlewadYork, N.. Ye
Prchiascary Cooltdze, so. 3 cs «. vessel es eee estou
fichordeHenry Wana 2% 4 Ek oe ee Cambridge
Amirewavickarland Davis. ~) :..°> <0? ."... &;(. ¢Cambrdge
Paws Rick Dewey) Gt. >. les es a eee 4 SC Cambrdge
Ephraim Emerton. ORR ag ny ee . . Cambridge
FMeney yy aleott et armani ig ahi VeK a ays exe fe Ge Haven, Conn.
IrvingHisher 52° 2. sy gee . . New Haven, Conn.
Worthington Chauncey For ees es img 58 aoe. . puambridge
Edwin Francis Gay. . . S45 * peg fos ombridge
Frank Johnson Goodnow . . Ho + = lia a Baltrmores Mak
ivarts Boutell'Green-. . 5 3... » %: 4 Champaign; T-
Arthur Twining Hadley . . i» a? “New: Haven, ‘(Gonr
Aipertusushnell Hart = ...0 . < « = « = <2) ~“Cambmdge
Wharles; Homer Haskins’ s .°). 0 -f)20 3) es . Cambridge
iSaneatinisshiays: peo. 6 2. aun “eo ese co tes Eilndelnin ‘Ba.
Henry Cabot Lodge . . US sx ook (a thw op etn bean
Abbott Lawrence Lowell . ee ee ee ea OT iclernl ee
William MacDonald ..... ... . .. =. . Berkeley, Cal.
Roger bigelow Merriman . od Ef She) 4, Gamibndee
Samuel Eliot Morison . . of 2 EA 2 eoston:

William Bennett Munro . 8s wl” ee 2h) Gamibadee

892 FELLOWS.

James Bord Riltodes®!’ +. -..i- 52! Goh een ae ene ay | Boston
William Milligan Sloane! \. «s.r oe oe New York; N.Y.
Henry Morse Stephens <4... =. =.= 4. © seer oBerkeleyg@al
John Osborne Summer; 20... 4.22 ee a ee cae
Frank William Taussig = <= 2 » = . ssa. = “Cambudge
William Roscoe Thayer: . a % << 2.0) ile) eae ee Combendpve
Frederick Jackson Turner . .. +... . - : . Cambridge
Thomas Franklin Waters 3.0". 2 (3 56% as ne lpswaelt
George Grafton Wilson= 2) .) « (2 2p ee ee a bride
George Parker Winship. . 4s . 4) 2:92 oshs ) 9 etcamabridae

Cuass III., Section IV.— Literature and the Fine Arts.— 38.

George Pierce Baker... {0.25292 3 oeeGe 27, Gamibridae
Arlo Bates. . . 3 es RE OS SRE Bee ec . Boston
James Phinney Baoan 3. pe ye ost Cece ee wees corns Pore Me.
William Sturgis Bigelow >. soy 4 cane ee ee stare
Le Baron Russell Brees er er eT eg fe rane bes
Charles ‘Allerton Coolidge. 2. =. sa22- 55 2 1 Deo ee a ee Ocean
Ralph Adams'Cram:> («4.2 4, GS) eee ee son
Samuel McChord: Crothers.s. <2 « a) 2 2a eos 2 Cambudge
Wilberforce Eames. .@ 22. % “5-2 aees eNews orien Neer
Henry Herbert Edes: 2/2... Seger oe, eared ce
Edward Waldo Emerson. = 4. %. 4 ass) ean eee Cemeord
Arthur Fairbanks’ 3. 20-2 SAU eee ee Oa iclee
Arthur Foote. . . . 6 8 La Regeedt oer ke et srookline
Edward Waldo F loner oa! 7 Re pce nee . . Cambridge
Kono raneke.. 40 4S ee ee (Gites ille, N. Y.

DanielChester French... . «'/ 2 2% - = New evorka Ea
Horace Howard Furness . . . . . . . ~ ~ Philadelphia, Pa.
Robert Grant. ‘os 55>. ° ).°'¢e Ie Sees oe eee OsLonm
Morris! Gray | toon «ne! Ga Ok) Re oe eee ic ieee boston
Chester Noyes Greenenen! 0 ey Sek cathe eg ae aint ume seq MO catia places
Francis Barton Gummere =~ . 3. . <4. 92). 2 dMaverfords ra:

Henry Lee Higeinsoniges2 Wo Geeee ate “2 “Boston
James Kendall Hosmer... < 9 Sieaioee vgnmenpelc! Minn.

Mark Antony DeWolfe-Howe= . . . . . +. .°= = Boston
George Lyman Kittredge. .-; . « 2°52). = =) S@ambridge
William Coolidge Lane“. £.-.. <2 922s ee ea eee
Allan Marquand. 9. V2. va >) .- 33) ae Ie oie eee

Albert: Matthews *2:: 2.4) 4050) 2 See eee Boston

Harold Murdock

William Allan Neilson
Herbert Putnam

Denman Waldo Ross
John Singer Sargent
Ellery Sedgwick . ‘
Richard Clipston Sturgis .
Barrett Wendell .

Owen Wister .

George Edward lard ee

FELLOWS. 893

- Brookline
Northampton

. Washington, D. C.
Cambridge
London, Eng.
Boston

Boston

: ae oe Boston:
Philadelphia, Pa.

Beverly

894

FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS.

FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS.—66.

(Number limited to seventy-five).

Cuass I.— Mathematical and Physical Sciences.— 22.

Section I.— Mathematics and Astronomy.— 6.

Johann Oskar Backlund

Felix Klein

Tullio Levi-Civita ;

Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer .
Charles Emile Picard Beh es
Charles Jean de la Vallée Poussin .

Cuass I., Section II.— Physics.— 9.

Svante August Arrhenius

Oliver Heaviside

Sir Joseph Larmor

Hendrik Antoon Lorentz .

Max Planck

Augusto Righi ;

Sir Ernest Rutherford . RE eee
Rt. Hon. John William Strutt, Baron Rayleigh
Sir Joseph John Thomson : Sa er

Crass I., Section III.— Chemistry.— 4.

Johann Friedrich Wilhelm, Adolf, Ritter von Baeyer
Emil Fischer .

Fritz Haber

Wilhelm Ostwald

Petrograd
Gottingen
. Padua
London
Paris
Louvain

Stockholm
Torquay
Cambridge
Leyden
Berlin
Bologna
Manchester
Witham
Cambridge

Munich
Berlin
Berlin

Leipsic

FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS. 895

Ciass I.—Srctrion IV.— Technology and Engineering.— 3.

Hemmch Muller Breslau. . 2... . ... 2. « % « « « Berlm
Vsevolod Jevgenjevic Timonoff .... . .. . . Petrograd
Mollammonwthorne-Unwin. «.. «9. « « «). sh ‘ss, Joondon

Cruass II.— Natural and Physiological Sciences.— 22.

Section I.— Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of the Globe.—8.

Prankel awson Adams, = 9 .( 62. « « « «, « «..» Montreal
Waldemar Christofer Brégger . . . . . « . « «, “Christiania
Sir Archibald Geikie . . .. . . . .. . .« Haslemere, Surrey
Muctor Goldschmidt? 4... 4. 2 5 + « Gea ds,» ddetdelbere
be liniassialctiet rir aie ec AN ele fee Lente, cae) ae allege, Wo Aa pdoke LOTIRICE
Albert Heim . . . Ee eked xp OG colt Se es eh aye EER
Sir Wiliam Napier Shang Be fs ey Mati yiss 32 “rake ene coy ed LORGOR
Jobanwlerman Icie-Vort. 2 <=: = ac je « i) &) eles ae rondhjent

Cuass II., Section II.— Botany.— 6.

NEE VANStaSP off pl Se seit ae gk. os | ae ee ah ee eCHeuae
Adolf Engler . . . eo er oe Sets
Wilhelm Friedrich Philipp Pfeffer Woe etek auc? Pt oe eee nelle
Hermann, Graf zu Solms-Laubach . . .. .-:. + Strassburg
dae A7 9 Uli OP ch Sa ee eR ee Berlin
Hupene Warne qo. 2 cy se Aone fs. sas 4 a. - ss. Copenhagen

Criass II.—Sxction III.— Zodlogy and Physiology.— 2.

sir Bdwia Ray Lankester*. < . ss « . . =. « London
Maenns Gustay Retzius . “<2 2%.é6 © 2 w. «4s Jetockholm

Cuass II., Section IV.— Medicine and Surgery.— 6.

Sir Thomas Barlow, Bart... -2.. 0. Ass « = « + ~benden
Puvh vou Benrings ois. 5.6 ee os er A il ws eee ore
Aairelon@ell, oes. Se (7, Sete Se 5 lo Sie: ea Me el ome
Adam Politzer . . BP iiekfec a ca Ge outa bh gp eee zt) eg LC EREL

Francis John Shepherd etme Ns Ne cece oe Pome omEneal
Charles Seott Shermington=) ~ 8005.4 5s) sas. 5 (sy etord

896 FOREIGN HONORARY MEMBERS.

Cuass III.— Moral and Political Sciences.— 22.

Section I.— Theology, Philosophy and Jurisprudence.— 4.

Arthur James Balfour. 2.0) 2st: Be oe oe restenkirk
Heimrch:Bronner®):: 0. (<- S eee eee Berlin
Albert Venn Dicey . . Pe Ee as we tes iy em Oe TINE
Sir Frederick Pollock, Bart Bae ag WES pg Rac a icles me ERT OLR

Section II.— Philology and Archeology.— 8.

Friedrich: Delitzsch:: -\..." waeeeen ee eee eerie
Hermann’ Diels: «<> 25 ee ee ee eee ee ee mar
Wilhelm: Dorpteld . =... O. “0s ee ee einen
Henry Jackson . . <> % 224) Getme po een ee oe Camonidee
Hermann’ Georg Jacobi 01. oka sie ie eee oe ee re
Alfred: Percival Maudslay, 33>. (202% a2 332 ss eleretorad
Ramon. Menendez, Pidal *..4" 2 on Se. a ee ee aed
RduardSeler... . <a. cee eee oe ee ring

Section III.— Political Economy and History.— 5.

James Bryce, Viscount Bryce <7 29 eaeee os ss 2 ee emuem
Adolf Harnack’ ©... 27.0 223s ten yo cee ee nine
Alfred Marshall . . . nip aos we ynce almond re
John Morley, Viscount Morley af Blaceoaen Ee hi ee eLOnoR
Rt. Hon. Sir George Otto Trevelyan, Bart. . . . . . London

Section LV.— Literature and the Fine Arts.— 5.

Georg Brandes ©... 3. 3 “a ee ee Ree es COpenbacen
Thomas Hardy: 2.ecnae 5. tak weet aS Ye oehesten
Jean Adrien Antoine Jules user Rt aebs Mr Mgereirs cow ytd ea 3) 2 ais

Rudyard. Kipling >. %..,,° 53 s0ee) an ee
Sir Sidney Lee... sa-ss he cee eel Cae be oni er

STATUTES AND STANDING VOTES

STATUTES

Adopted November 8, 1911: amended May 8, 1912, January 8, and
May 14, 1913, April 14, 1915, April 12, 1916, April 10, 1918.

CHAPTER I
THe CORPORATE SEAL

ARTICLE 1. The Corporate Seal of the Academy shall be as here
depicted:

Articte 2. The Recording Secretary shall have the custody of the
Corporate Seal.

See Chap. v. art. 3; chap. vi. art. 2.

898 STATUTES OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

CHAPTER II

FELLOWS AND FoREIGN HonorRARY MEMBERS AND DUES

ArticLe 1. ,The Academy consists of Fellows, who are either
citizens or residents of the United States of America, and Foreign
Honorary Members. They are arranged in three Classes, according to
the Arts and Sciences in which they are severally proficient, and each
Class is divided into four Sections, namely:

Cuass I. The Mathematical and Physical Sciences
Section 1. Mathematics and Astronomy
Section 2. Physics

Section 3. Chemistry

Section 4. Technology and Engineering

Cuass II. The Natural and Physiological Sciences
Section 1. Geology, Mineralogy, and Physics of the Globe
Section 2. Botany
Section 3. Zodlogy and Physiology
Section 4. Medicine and Surgery

Cuass III. The Moral and Political Sciences
Section 1. Theology, Philosophy, and Jurisprudence
Section 2. Philology and Archaeology
Section 3. Political Economy and History
Section 4. Literature and the Fine Arts

ARTICLE 2. The number of Fellows shall not exceed Six hundred,
of whom not more than Four hundred shall be residents of Massachu-
setts, nor shall there be more than Two hundred in any one Class.

ARTICLE 3. The number of Foreign Honorary Members shall not
exceed Seventy-five. They shall be chosen from among citizens of
foreign countries most eminent for their discoveries and attainments
in any of the Classes above enumerated. There shall not be more
than Twenty-five in any one Class.

ARTICLE 4. If any person, after being notified of his election as
Fellow or Resident Associate, shall neglect for six months to accept
in writing, or, if a Fellow or resident within fifty miles of Boston shall
neglect to pay his Admission Fee, his election shall be void; and if
any Fellow resident within fifty miles of Boston or any Resident
Associate shall neglect to pay his Annual Dues for six months after
they are due, provided his attention shall have been called to this

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 899

Article of the Statutes in the meantime, he shall cease to be a Fellow
or Resident Associate respectively; but the Council may suspend the
provisions of this Article for a reasonable time.

With the previous consent of the Council, the Treasurer may dis-
pense (sub silentio) with the payment of the Admission Fee or of the
Annual Dues or both whenever he shall deem it advisable. In the case
of officers of the Army or Navy who are out of the Commonwealth on
duty, payment of the Annual Dues may be waived during such absence
if continued during the whole financial year and if notification of such
expected absence be sent to the Treasurer. Upon similar notification
to the Treasurer, similar exemption may be accorded to Fellows or
Resident Associates subject to Annual Dues, who may temporarily
remove their residence for at least two years to a place more than fifty
miles from Boston.

If any person elected a Foreign Honorary Member shall neglect for
six months after being notified of his election to accept in writing,
his election shall be void.

See Chap. vil. art. 2.

ARTICLE 5. Every Fellow resident within fifty miles of Boston
hereafter elected shall pay an Admission Fee of Ten dollars.

Every Fellow resident within fifty miles of Boston shall, and others
may, pay such Annual Dues, not exceeding Fifteen dollars, as shall
be voted by the Academy at each Annual Meeting, when they shall
become due; but any Fellow or Resident Associate shall be exempt
from the annual payment if, at any time after his admission, he shall
pay into the treasury Two hundred dollars in addition to his previous
payments.

All Commutations of the Annual Dues shall be and remain perma-
nently funded, the interest only to be used for current expenses.

Any Fellow not previously subject to Annual Dues who takes up his
residence within fifty miles of Boston, shall pay to the Treasurer within
three months thereafter Annual Dues for the current year, failing which
his Fellowship shall cease; but the Council may suspend the provi-
sions of this Article for a reasonable time.

Only Fellows who pay Annual Dues or have commuted them may
hold office in the Academy or serve on the Standing Committees or
vote at meetings.

ArtIcLE 6. Fellows who pay or have commuted the Annual Dues
and Foreign Honorary Members shall be entitled to receive gratis one
copy of all Publications of the Academy issued after their election.

See Chap. x, art. 2.

900 STATUTES OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

ArticLe 7. Diplomas signed by the President and the Vice-
President of the Class to which the member belongs, and countersigned
by the Secretaries, shall be given to Foreign Honorary Members and
to Fellows on request.

ArticLe 8. If, in the opinion of a majority of the entire Council,
any Fellow or Foreign Honorary Member or Resident Associate shall
have rendered himself unworthy of a place in the Academy, the
Council shall recommend to the Academy the termination of his
membership; and if three fourths of the Fellows present, out of a
total attendance of not less than fifty at a Stated Meeting, or at a
Special Meeting called for the purpose, shall adopt this reeommenda-
tion, his name shall be stricken from the Roll. j

See Chap. iii.; chap. vi. art. 1; chap. ix. art. 1, 7; chap. x. art. 2.

CHAPTER III

ELECTION OF FELLOWS AND ForeIGN Honorary MEMBERS

ARTICLE 1. Elections of Fellows and Foreign Honorary Members
shall be made by the Council in April of each year, and announced
at the Annual Meeting in May.

ArticLE 2. Nominations to Fellowship or Foreign Honorary
Membership in any Section must be signed by two Fellows of that
Section or by three voting Fellows of any Sections; but in any one
year no Fellow may nominate more than four persons. These nomi-
nations, with statements of qualifications and brief biographical data,
shall be sent to the Corresponding Secretary.

All nominations thus received prior to February 15 shall be forth-
with sent in printed form to every Fellow having the right to vote,
with the names of the proposers in each case and a brief account of
each nominee, and with the request that the list be returned before
March 15, marked to indicate preferences of the voter in such manner
as the Council may direct.

All the nominations, with any comments thereon and with the
results of the preferential indications of the Fellows, received by
March 15, shall be referred at once to the appropriate Class Commit-
tees, which shall report their decisions to the Council, which shall
thereupon have power to elect.

Persons nominated in any year, but not elected, may be placed on
the preferential ballot of the next year at the discretion of the Council,

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 901

but shall not further be continued on the list of nominees unless
renominated.

Notice shall be sent to every Fellow having the right to vote, not
later than the fifteenth of January, of each year, calling attention to
the fact that the limit of time for sending nominations to the Corre-
sponding Secretary will expire on the fifteenth of February.

See Chap. i1.; chap. vi. art. 1; chap. ix. art. 1.

CHAPTER IV

OFFICERS

ARTICLE 1. The Officers of the Academy shall be a President (who
shall be Chairman of the Council), three Vice-Presidents (one from
each Class), a Corresponding Secretary (who shall be Secretary of the
Council), a Recording Secretary, a Treasurer, and a Librarian, all of
whom shall be elected by ballot at the Annual Meeting, and shall hold
their respective offices for one year, and until others are duly chosen
and installed.

There shall be also twelve Councillors, one from each Section of each
Class. At each Annual Meeting three Councillors, one from each
Class, shall be elected by ballot to serve for the full term of four
years and until others are duly chosen and installed. The same Fellow
shall not be eligible for two successive terms.

The Councillors, with the other officers previously named, and the
Chairman of the House Committee, ex officio, shall constitute the
Council.

See Chap. x. art. 1.

ArTICLE 2. If any officer be unable, through death, absence, or
disability, to fulfill the duties of his office, or if he shall resign, his place
may be filled by the Council in its discretion for any part or the whole
of the unexpired term.

ARTICLE 3. At the Stated Meeting in March, the President shall
appoint a Nominating Committee of three Fellows having the right
to vote, one from each Class. This Committee shall prepare a list of
nominees for the several offices to be filled, and for the Standing Com-
mittees, and file it with the Recording Secretary not later than four
weeks before the Annual Meeting.

See Chap. vi. art. 2.

902 STATUTES OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

ARTICLE 4. Independent nominations for any office, if signed by
at least twenty Fellows having the right to vote, and received by the
Recording Secretary not less than ten days before the Annual Meet-
ing, shall be inserted in the call therefor, and shall be mailed to all
the Fellows having the right to vote.

See Chap. vi. art. 2.

ARTICLE 5. The Recording Secretary shall prepare for use in
voting at the Annual Meeting a ballot containing the names of all
persons duly nominated for office.

CHAPTER V
THE PRESIDENT

ARTICLE 1. The President, or in his absence the senior Vice-Presi-
dent present (seniority to be determined by length of continuous
fellowship in the Academy), shall preside at all meetings of the Acad-
emy. In the absence of all these officers, a Chairman of the meeting
shall be chosen by ballot.

ARTICLE 2. Unless otherwise ordered, all Committees which are
not elected by ballot shall be appointed by the presiding officer.

ARTICLE 3. Any deed or writing to which the Corporate Seal is to
be affixed, except leases of real estate, shall be executed in the name of
the Academy by the President or, in the event of his death, absence, or
inability, by one of the Vice-Presidents, when thereto duly authorized.

See Chap. ii. art. 7; chap. iv. art. 1, 3; chap. vi. art. 2; chap. vii.
art. 1; chap. ix. art. 6; chap. x. art. 1; 2; chap. xi. art. 1.

CHAPTER VI
THE SECRETARIES

ArticLE 1. The Corresponding Secretary shall conduct the corre-
spondence of the Academy and of the Council, recording or making an
entry of all letters written in its name, and preserving for the files all
official papers which may be received. At each meeting of the Council
he shall present the communications addressed to the Academy which
have been received since the previous meeting, and at the next meeting
of the Academy he shall present such as the Council may determine.

He shall notify all persons who may be elected Fellows or F oreign

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 903

Honorary Members, or Resident Associates, send to each a copy of the
Statutes, and on their acceptance issue the proper Diploma. He shall
also notify all meetings of the Council; and in case of the death,
absence, or inability of the Recording Secretary he shall notify all
meetings of the Academy.

Under the direction of the Council, he shall keep a List of the
Fellows, Foreign Honorary Members, and Resident Associates, ar-
ranged in their several Classes and Sections. It shall be printed
annually and issued as of the first day of July.

See Chap. ii. art. 7; chap. iii. art. 2,3; chap. iv. art. 1; chap. ix. art. 6;
chap. x. art. 1; chap. xi. art. 1.

ARTICLE 2. The Recording Secretary shall have the custody of the
Charter, Corporate Seal, Archives, Statute-Book, Journals, and all
literary papers belonging to the Academy.

Fellows or Resident Associates borrowing such papers or documents
shall receipt for them to their custodian.

The Recording Secretary shall attend the meetings of the Academy _
and keep a faithful record of the proceedings with the names of the
Fellows and Resident Associates present; and after each meeting is
duly opened, he shall read the record of the preceding meeting.

He shall notify the meetings of the Academy to each Fellow and
Resident Associate by mail at least seven days beforehand, and in his
discretion may also cause the meetings to be advertised; he shall
apprise Officers and Committees of their election or appointment,
and inform the Treasurer of appropriations of money voted by the
Academy.

After all elections, he shall insert in the Records the names of the
Fellows by whom the successful nominees were proposed.

He shall send the Report of the Nominating Committee in print
to every Fellow having the right to vote at least three weeks before the
Annual Meeting.

See Chap. iv. art. 3.

In the absence of the President and of the Vice-Presidents he shall,
if present, call the meeting to order, and preside until a Chairman is
chosen.

See Chap. i.; chap. ii. art. 7; chap. iv. art. 3, 4, 5; chap. ix. art. 6;
chap. x, art. 1, 2; ‘chap: x1. art. 1,3.

ArTICLE 3. The Secretaries, with the Chairman of the Committee
of Publication, shall have authority to publish such of the records of
the meetings of the Academy as may seem to them likely to promote
its interests.

904 STATUTES OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

CHAPTER VII

THE TREASURER AND THE TREASURY

ArtIcLE 1. The Treasurer shall collect all money due or payable to
the Academy, and all gifts and bequests made to it. He shall pay all
bills due by the Academy, when approved by the proper officers, except
those of the Treasurer’s office, which may be paid without such ap-
proval; in the name of the Academy he shall sign all leases of real
estate; and, with the written consent of a member of the Committee
on Finance, he shall make all transfers of stocks, bonds, and other
securities belonging to the Academy, all of which shall be in his official
custody.

He shall keep a faithful account of all receipts and expenditures,
submit his accounts annually to the Auditing Committee, and render
them at the expiration of his term of office, or whenever required to
do so by the Academy or the Council.

He shall keep separate accounts of the income of the Rumford Fund,
and of all other special Funds, and of the appropriation thereof, and
render them annually.

His accounts shall always be open to the inspection of the Council.

ARTICLE 2. He shall report annually to the Council at its March
meeting on the expected income of the various Funds and from all
other sources during the ensuing financial year. He shall also report
the names of all Fellows and Resident Associates who may be then
delinquent in the payment of their Annual Dues.

ARTICLE 3. He shall give such security for the trust reposed in him
as the Academy may require.

ARTICLE 4. With the approval of a majority of the Committee on
Finance, he may appoint an Assistant Treasurer to perform his du-
ties, for whose acts, as such assistant, he shall be responsible; or, with
like approval and responsibility, he may employ any Trust Company
doing business in Boston as his agent for the same purpose, the com-
pensation of such Assistant’ Treasurer or agent to be fixed by the
Committee on Finance and paid from the funds of the Academy.

ArticLe 5. At the Annual Meeting he shall report in print all his
official doings for the preceding year, stating the amount and condition

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 905
of all the property of the Academy entrusted to him, and the character
of the investments.

ARTICLE 6. The Financial Year of the Academy shall begin with
the first day of April.

ARTICLE 7. No person or committee shall incur any debt or
liability in the name of the Academy, unless in accordance with a
previous vote and appropriation therefor by the Academy or the
Council, or sell or otherwise dispose of any property of the Academy,
except cash or invested funds, without the previous consent and ap-
proval of the Council.

See Chap. ii. art. 4, 5; chap. vi. art. 2; chap. ix. art. 6; chap. x. art.
1, .2,.3; chap. xi. art..1.

CHAPTER Vil
Tue LIBRARIAN AND THE LIBRARY

ARTICLE 1. The Librarian shall have charge of the printed books,
keep a correct catalogue thereof, and provide for their delivery from
the Library.

At the Annual Meeting, as Chairman of the Committee on the Li-
brary, he shall make a Report on its condition.

ARTICLE 2. In conjunction with the Committee on the Library he
shall have authority to expend such sums as may be appropriated by
the Academy for the purchase of books, periodicals, etc., and for de-
fraying other necessary expenses connected with the Library.

ARTICLE 3. All books procured from the income of the Rumford
Fund or of other special Funds shall contain a book-plate expressing
the fact.

ARTICLE 4. Books taken from the Library shall be receipted for to
the Librarian or his assistant.

ARTICLE 5. Books shall be returned in good order, regard being had
to necessary wear with good usage. If any book shall be lost or
injured, the Fellow or Resident Associate to whom it stands charged
shall replace it by a new volume or by a new set, if it belongs to a set,
or pay the current price thereof to the Librarian, whereupon the

906 STATUTES OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

remainder of the set, if any, shall be delivered to the Fellow or Resi-
dent Associate so paying, unless such remainder be valuable by reason
of association.

ArtIcLE 6. All books shall be returned to the Library for examina-
tion at least one week before the Annual Meeting.

ArtIcLE 7. The Librarian shall have the custody of the Publica-
tions of the Academy. With the advice and consent of the President,
he may effect exchanges with other associations.

See Chap. ii. art. 6; chap. x. art. 1, 2.

CHAPTER IX

THE CoUNCIL

ArtTICLE 1. The Council shall exercise a discreet supervision over
all nominations and elections to membership, and in general supervise
all the affairs of the Academy not explicitly reserved to the Academy
as a whole or entrusted by it or by the Statutes to standing or special
committees.

It shall consider all nominations duly sent to it by any Class Com-
mittee, and present to the Academy for action such of these nomina-
tions as it may approve by a majority vote of the members present
at a meeting, of whom not less than seven shall have voted in the
affirmative.

With the consent of the Fellow interested, it shall have power to
make transfers between the several Sections of the same Class, report-
ing its action to the Academy.

See Chap. ii. art. 2, 3; chap. x, art. 1.
ARTICLE 2. Seven members shall constitute a quorum.

ARTICLE 3. It shall establish rules and regulations for the transac-
tion of its business, and provide all printed and engraved blanks and
books of record.

ArtTIcLE 4. It shall act upon all resignations of officers, and all
resignations and forfeitures of Fellowship or Resident Associateship;
and cause the Statutes to be faithfully executed.

It shall appoint all agents and subordinates not otherwise provided
for by the Statutes, prescribe their duties, and fix their compensation.

‘

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 907

They shall hold their respective positions during the pleasure of the
Council.

ARTICLE 5. It may appoint, for terms not exceeding one year, and
prescribe the functions of, such committees of its number, or of the
Fellows of the Academy, as it may deem expedient, to facilitate the
administration of the affairs of the Academy or to promote its interests.

ARTICLE 6. At its March meeting it shall receive reports from the
President, the Secretaries, the Treasurer, and the Standing Commit-
tees, on the appropriations severally needed for the ensuing financial
year. At the same meeting the Treasurer shall report on the expected
income of the various Funds and from all other sources during the
same year.

A report from the Council shall be submitted to the Academy, for
action, at the March meeting, recommending the appropriation which
in the opinion of the Council should be made.

On the recommendation of the Council, special appropriations may
be made at any Stated Meeting of the Academy, or at a Special Meet-
ing called for the purpose.

See Chap. x. art. 3.

=

ARTICLE 7. After the death of a Fellow or Foreign Honorary
Member, it shall appoint a member of the Academy to prepare a bio-
graphical notice for publication in the Proceedings.

ARTICLE 8. It shall report at every meeting of the Academy such
business as it may deem advisable to present.

See Chap. ii. art. 4, 5,8; chap. iv, art. 1, 2; chap. vi. art. 1; chap. vii,
arted;\ chan: xi. art. 1) 4.

CHAPTER X
STANDING COMMITTEES

ARTICLE 1. ‘The Class Committee of each Class shall consist of the
Vice-President, who shall be chairman, and the four Councillors of the
Class, together with such other officer or officers annually elected as
may belong to the Class. It shall consider nominations to Fellowship
in its own Class, and report in writing to the Council such as may
receive at a Class Committee Meeting a majority of the votes cast,
provided at least three shall have been in the affirmative.

See Chap. iii. art. 2.

908 STATUTES OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY

ArticLE 2. At the Annual Meeting the following Standing Com-
mittees shall be elected by ballot to serve for the ensuing year:

(1) The Committee on Finance, to consist of three Fellows, who,
through the Treasurer, shall have full control and management of the
funds and trusts of the Academy, with the power of investing the funds
and of changing the investments thereof in their discretion.

See Chap. iv. art. 3; chap. vii. art. 1, 4; chap. ix. art. 6.

(ii) The Rumford Committee, to consist of seven Fellows, who shall
report to the Academy on all applications and claims for the
Rumford Premium. It alone shall authorize the purchase of books
publications and apparatus at the charge of the income from the
Rumford Fund, and generally shall see to the proper execution of the
trust.

See Chap. iv. art. 3; chap. ix. art. 6.

(iii) The Cyrus Moors Warren Committee, to consist of seven Fel-
lows, who shall consider all applications for appropriations from the
income of the Cyrus Moors Warren Fund, and generally shall see to
the proper execution of the trust.

See Chap. iv. art. 3; chap. ix. art. 6.

(iv) The Committee of Publication, to consist of three Fellows, one
from each Class, to whom all communications submitted to the
Academy for publication shall be referred, and to whom the printing
of the Proceedings and the Memoirs shall be entrusted.

It shall fix the price at which the Publications shall be sold; but
Fellows may be supplied at half price with volumes which may be
needed to complete their sets, but which they are not entitled to
receive gratis.

Two hundred extra copies of each paper accepted for publication in
the Proceedings or the Memoirs shall be placed at the disposal of the
author without charge.

See Chap. iv. art. 3; chap. vi. art. 1, 3; chap. ix. art. 6.
(v) The Committee on the Library, to consist of the Librarian, ex
officio, as Chairman, and three other Fellows, one from each Class,

who shall examine the Library and make an annual report on its
condition and management.

See Chap. iv. art. 3; chap. viii. art. 1, 2; chap. ix. art. 6.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 909

(vi) The House Committee, to consist of three Fellows, who shall
have charge of all expenses connected with the House, including the
general expenses of the Academy not specifically assigned to the care
of other Committees or Officers.

See Chap. iv. art. 1, 3; chap. ix. art. 6.

(vii) The Committee on Meetings, to consist of the President, the
Recording Secretary, and three other Fellows, who shall have
charge of plans for meetings of the Academy.

See Chap. iv. art. 3; chap. ix. art. 6.

(vil) The Auditing Committee, to consist of two Fellows, who shall
audit the accounts of the Treasurer, with power to employ an
expert and to approve his bill.

See Chap. iv. art. 3; chap. vil. art. 1; chap. ix. art. 6.

ARTICLE 3. The Standing Committees shall report annually to the
Council in March on the appropriations severally needed for the ensu-
ing financial year; and all bills incurred on account of these Commit-
tees, within the limits of the several appropriations made by the
Academy, shall be approved by their respective Chairmen.

In the absence of the Chairman of any Committee, bills may be
approved by any member of the Committee whom he shall designate
for the purpose.

See Chap. vii. art. 1, 7; chap. ix. art. 6.

CHAPTER XI
MEETINGS, COMMUNICATIONS, AND AMENDMENTS

ARTICLE 1. There shall be annually eight Stated Meetings of the
Academy, namely, on the second Wednesday of October, November,
December, January, February, March, April and May. Only at
these meetings, or at adjournments thereof regularly notified, or at
Special Meetings called for the purpose, shall appropriations of money
be made or amendments of the Statutes or Standing Votes be effected.

The Stated Meeting in May shall be the Annual Meeting of the
Corporation.

Special Meetings shall be called by either of the Secretaries at the
request of the President, of a Vice-President, of the Council, or of ten

910 STATUTES OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY e

Fellows having the right to vote; and notifications thereof shall state
the purpose for which the meeting is called.

A meeting for receiving and discussing literary or scientific com-
munications may be held on the fourth Wednesday of each month,
excepting July, August, and September; but no business shall be
transacted at said meetings.

ARTICLE 2. Twenty Fellows having the right to vote shall consti-
tute a quorum for the transaction of business at Stated or Special
Meetings. Fifteen Fellows shall be sufficient to constitute a meeting
for literary or scientific communications and discussions.

ARTICLE 3. Upon the request of the presiding officer or the Record-
ing Secretary, any motion or resolution offered at any meeting shall
be submitted in writing.

ArtTIcLE 4. No report of any paper presented at a meeting of the
Academy shall be published by any Fellow or Resident Associate
without the consent of the author; and no report shall in any case be
published by any Fellow or Resident Associate in a newspaper as an
account of the proceedings of the Academy without the previous
consent and approval of the Council. The Council, in its discretion,
by a duly recorded vote, may delegate its authority in this regard to
one or more of its members.

ArticLE 5. No Fellow or Resident Associate shall introduce a
guest at any meeting of the Academy until after the business has been
transacted, and especially until after the result of the balloting upon
nominations has been declared.

ArTIcLE 6. The Academy shall not express its judgment on
literary or scientific memoirs or performances submitted to it, or
included in its Publications.

ARTICLE 7. All proposed Amendments of the Statutes shall be re-
ferred to a committee, and on its report, at a subsequent Stated Meet-
ing or at a Special Meeting called for the purpose, two thirds of the
ballot cast, and not less than twenty, must be affirmative to effect
enactment.

ARTICLE 8. Standing Votes may be passed, amended, or rescinded
at a Stated Meeting, or at a Special Meeting called for the purpose,
by a vote of two thirds of the members present. They may be
suspended by a unanimous vote.

See Chap. ii. art. 5, 8; chap. iii.; chap. iv. art. 3, 4, 5; chap. v. art. 1;
chap. vi. art. 1, 2; chap. ix. art. 8.

OF ARTS AND SCIENCES. 911

STANDING VOTES

1. Communications of which notice has been given to either of the
Secretaries shall take precedence of those not so notified.

2. Fellows or Resident Associates may take from the Library six
volumes at any one time, and may retain them for three months, and
no longer. Upon special application, and for adequate reasons
assigned, the Librarian may permit a larger number of volumes, not
exceeding twelve, to be drawn from the Library for a limited period.

3. Works published in numbers, when unbound, shall not be taken
from the Hall of the Academy without the leave of the Librarian.

4. There may be chosen by the Academy, under such rules as the
Council may determine, one hundred Resident Associates. Not
more than forty Resident Associates shall be chosen in any one Class.

Resident Associates shall be entitled to the same privileges as Fel-
lows, in the use of the Academy building, may attend meetings and
present papers, but they shall not have the right to vote. They shall
pay no Admission Fee, and their Annual Dues shall be the same as
those of Fellows residing within fifty miles of Boston.

The Council and Committees of the Academy may ask one or more
Resident Associates to act with them in an advisory or assistant ca-
pacity.

5. Communications offered for publication in the Proceedings or
Memoirs of the Academy shall not be accepted for publication before
the author shall have informed the Committee on Meetings of his
readiness, either himself or through some agent, to use such time as the
Committee may assign him at such meeting as may be convenient both
to him and to the Committee, for the purpose of presenting to the
Academy a general statement of the nature and significance of the
results contained in his communication.

RUMFORD PREMIUM

In conformity with the terms of the gift of Sir Benjamin Thompson,
Count Rumford, of a certain Fund to the American Academy of Arts
and Sciences, and with a decree of the Supreme Judicial Court of
Massachusetts for carrying into effect the general charitable intent and
purpose of Count Rumford, as expressed in his letter of gift, the Acad-
emy is empowered to make from the income of the Rumford Fund, as

912 STATUTES OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY.

it now exists, at any Annual Meeting, an award of a gold and a silver
medal, being together of the intrinsic value of three hundred dollars,
as a Premium to the author of any important discovery or useful
improvement in light or heat, which shall have been made and pub-
lished by printing, or in any way made known to the public, in any
part of the continent of America, or any of the American Islands;
preference always being given to such discoveries as, in the opinion of
the Academy, shall tend most to promote the good of mankind; and,
if the Academy sees fit, to add to such medals, as a further Premium
for such discovery and improvement, a sum of money not exceeding
three hundred dollars.

INDEX.

Adams, Brooks, elected Fellow, 773.

Adams, C. F., Notice of, 776.

Adams, F. D., accepts Foreign Hon-
orary Membership, 753.

Adams, G. B., elected Fellow, 756,
accepts Fellowship, 757.

Adams, Henry, death of, 764.

Agassiz, G. R., Report of the House
Committee, 770.

Algae, The, of Bermuda, 1.

Allen, Mildred. See Webster, A. G.,
and Allen, Mildred.

Amory (Francis) Fund, 766.

Andrews, C. MclL., elected Fellow,
756, accepts Fellowship, 757.

Animals, Racing, The Speeds, Powers
and Fatigues of, 755.

Ants, The Australian, of the Pone-
rine Tribe Cerapachyini, 213.

Archibald, R. C., accepts Fellowship,
(isha

Arizona, The Genus Fraxinus in, 197.

Australian Ants, The, of the Pone-
rine Tribe Cerapachyini, 213.

Balch, T. W., elected Fellow, 756,
accepts Fellowship, 757.

Baker, Sir Benjamin, Notice of, 781.

Ballistic Experiments by means of the
Electrometer, 757.

Barlow, Thomas, elected Foreign
Honorary Member, 756, accepts
Foreign Honorary Membership,
758.

Bartlett, Willard, elected Fellow, 756,
accepts Fellowship, 757.

Pees B. A., accepts Fellowship,

53.

Bermuda, The Algae of, 1.

Bermuda Biological Station for Re-
search, Contributions from, 1.

Biographical Notices, List of, 775.

Birkhoff, D., On Stability in
Dynamics, 774.

Boston, Post-glacial History of, 439,
754, 755.

Bradford, Gamaliel, elected Fellow,
774.

Bridgman, P. W., Thermo-electro-
motive Force, Peltier Heat, and
Thomson Heat under Pressure,
267.

Brunetiére,
782.

Brush, C. F., accepts Fellowship, 753.

Ferdinand, Notice of,

Burlingame, E. W., accepts Fellow-

ship, 753.

Cabot, A. T., Notice of, 793.

Capps, Edward, elected Fellow, 773.

Cerapachyini, The Australian Ants
of the Ponerine Tribe, 213.

Chinese Paper Money, Ancient, as
Described in a Chinese Work on
Numismatics, 465.

Choate, J. H., death of, 753.

Christian, H. A., the String Galva-
nometer in the Study of Heart
Disease, 757.

Clark, W. B., death of, 753.

Clifford, C. W., elected Fellow, 756,
accepts Fellowship, 757.

Collins, F. 8., and Hervey, A. B.,
The Algae of Bermuda, 1.

Committees, Standing, elected, 771.

Comstock, C. B., Notice of, 799.

Coolidge, C. A., elected Fellow, 774.

Coral-reef Problem, New Coast Sur-
vey Charts of the Philippine
Islands and their bearing on the,
763.

Council, Report of, 764.

Crafts, J. M., death of, 753, Notice
of, 801.

Cram, R. A., accepts Fellowship, 753.

Cross. C. R., Report of Rumford
Committee, 767.

Cryptogamic Laboratory of Harvard
University, Contribution from,
695.

Davis, A. M., Ancient Chinese Paper

914

Money as Described in a Chinese
Work on Numismatics, 465.
Davis, W. M., New Coast Survey

Charts of the Philippine Islands,
and their bearing on the Coral-
reef Problem, 763.
De Amicis, Edmondo, Notice of, 804.
Delabarre, E. B., elected Fellow, 773.
Drew, E. B. Drew, resigns Fellow-
ship, 764.
Dyadics, The, which occur in a Point
Space of Three Dimensions, 387.
Dynamics, On Stability in, 774.

Edes, Henry H., Report of Treasurer,
765.

Electrometer, Ballistic Experiments
by means of the, 757.

Emerson, E. W., accepts Fellowship,
753.

Ernst, H. C., An Old and New Micro-
scope, 757.

Etiology, Studies on the, of Rocky
Mountain Spotted Fever, 757.

Eupatorinae, 774.

Faunce, W. H. P., elected Fellow,
773.
Faxon, C. E., death of, 757.
Fellows deceased, (12) —
Henry Adams, 764.
J. H. Choate, 753:
W. B. Clarke, 753.
J. M. Crafts, 753.
C. E. Faxon, 757.
W. DeW. Hyde, 753.
M. P. Knowlton, 764.
G. V. Leverett, 754.
1Bh Ib, leienr, 7s.
H. L. Warren, 753.
J. W. White, 753.
P. S. Yendell, 757.
Fellows elected, (36) —
Brooks Adams, 773.
G. B. Adams, 756.
C. McL. Andrews, 756.
T. W. Balch, 756.
Willard Bartlett, 756.
Gamaliel Bradford, 774. -
Edward Capps, 773.
C. W. Clifford, 756.
C. A. Coolidge, 774.
E. B. Delabarre, 773.
W. H. P. Faunce, 773.
EK. W. Forbes, 774.
W. E. Ford, 755.

INDEX.

W. C. Gorgas, 755.
Morris Gray, 774.

E. B. Greene, 756.

R. B. Greenough, 755.
I. M. Hays, 774.

G. L. Hendrickson, 773.
E. C. Hills, 773.

C. E. Hughes, 756.

A. M. Huntington, 774.
Henry Jackson, 756.
Grinnell Jones, 755.
Irving Langmuir, 755.
Wiliam MacDonald, 756.
J. M. Morton, 756.
Harold Murdock, 756.
T. N: Page, 774.

W. H. Page, 774.
Leighton Parks, 773.
Endicott Peabody, 773.
F. G. Peabody, 773.
HB. Phillips) 773:
Rudolph Schevill, 773.
D. L. Webster, 773.

Fellows elected, declining Fellowship,
E. D. White, 753.

Fellows, List of, 879.

Fellows resigning Fellowship,
dp lal \Wiaked tin VI
O. K. O. Folin, 758.

E. B. Drew, 764.

Fisher, W. J., a Table of the Legendre
Functions of the Second Kind
Q:(x) and Q’:(x), 755.

Folin, O. K. O., resigns Fellowship,
758.

Forbes, E. W., elected Fellow, 774.

Ford, W. E., elected Fellow, 755,
accepts Fellowship, 757.

Foreign Honorary Members de-

ceased, (2) —
G. C. C. Maspero, 754.
Pasquale Villari, 757.

Foreign Honorary Members elected,
Qe
Thomas Barlow, 756.

W. N. Shaw, 756.
F. J. Shepherd, 756.
C. $8. Sherrington, 756.

Foreign Honorary Members, List of,
94

Fraxinus, The Genus in New Mexico
and Arizona, 197.

Furness, H. H., accepts Fellowship,
(oy

Galvanometer, The String, in the
Study of Heart Disease, 757.

INDEX.

General Fund, 765; Appropriations
from the Income of, 759.

Geological Observations along the
a Coast of South America,
59.

Glacial, post-, History of Boston, 439,
754, 755.

Goodwin, W. W., Notice of, 805.

Gorgas, W. C., elected Fellow, 755,
accepts Fellowship, 764.

Gray, Morris, elected Fellow, 774.

Gregory, H. E., accepts Fellowship,
753.

Greene, E. B., elected Fellow, 756,
accepts Fellowship, 757.

Greenough, C. N., accepts Fellow-
ship, 753.

Greenough, R. B., elected Fellow,
755, accepts Fellowship, 757.

Gummere, F. B., accepts Fellowship,
753:

Hall, Edward H., Notice of, 816.

Harvard University. See Crypto-
gamic Laboratory.

Hays, I. M., elected Fellow, 774.

Heart Disease, The String Galva-
nometer in the Study of, 757.

Hendrickson, G. L., elected Fellow,
ees

Hervey, A. B. See Collins, F. S.
and Hervey, A. B.

Hills, E. C., elected Fellow, 773.

Hoppin, J. C., accepts Fellowship,
753.

House Committee, Report of, 768.

House Expenses, Appropriations for,
759.

Howard, W. G., accepts Fellowship,
753.

Howe, W. W., Notice of, 818.

Hughes, C. E., elected Fellow, 756,
accepts Fellowship, 757.

Hull, G. F., accepts Fellowship, 753.

Huntington, A. M., elected Fellow,
774.

Huntington, E. V., Report of Pub-
lishing Committee, 767.

Hyde, W. DeW., death of, 753.

Hyperspace, Rotations in, 649, 764.

Jackson, F. J. Foakes, accepts Fel-
lowship, 753.

Jackson, Henry, elected Fellow, 756,
accepts Fellowship, 757.

Jeffrey, E. C., On the Origin of
Rubber, 759.

915

see C. W., accepts Fellowship,
Jones, Grinnell, elected Fellow, 755,
accepts Fellowship, 757.

Kansas Academy of Science, Semi-
centennial anniversary of, 758.

Kennelly, A. E., The Speeds, Powers,
ang Fatigue of Racing Animals,

55.

Kinnicutt, L. P., Notice of, 821.

Knowlton, M. P., death of, 764.

Koch, Robert, Notice of, 825.

Laboulbeniales, Extra-American Dip-
terophilous, 695, 764.

Laboulbeniales, New, from Chile and
New Zealand, 764.

Langley, 8. P., Notice of, 828.

Langmuir, Irving, elected Fellow,
755, accepts Fellowship, 757.

Legendre Functions of the Second
Kind Q:(x) and Q’:(x), a Table
of the, 755.

Leverett, G. V., death of, 754.
Levi-Civita, Tullio, accepts Foreign
Honorary Membership, 753.

Library, Appropriations for, 759.

Library Committee, Report of, 767.

Lindgren, Waldemar, Some Geo-
logical Observations along the
West Coast of South America,
759.

Lodge, H. C., War Legislation, 754.

Loomis, F. B., accepts Fellowship,
(D3.

Lord, Arthur, accepts Fellowship,
1538:

Lounsbury, T. R., Notice of, 831.

Lull, R. 8., accepts Fellowship, 753.

Lyman, Theodore, awarded Rum-
ford Premium, 771.

MacDonald, William, elected Fel-
low, 756, accepts Fellowship, 760.
Marquand, Allan, accepts Fellow-
ship, 753.

Maspero, G. C. C., death of, 754.
McAdie, Alexander, accepts Fellow-
ship, 753.

Microscope, An Old and New, 757.
Miller, W. J., accepts Fellowship, 753.
Minot, C.8., Notice of, 840.
Molecular Structure, Graphic For-
mulas of Organic Chemistry:
To what extent may they be
considered true pictures of, 774.

916

Money, Ancient Chinese Paper, as
Described in a Chinese Work on
Numismatics, 465.

Moore, C. H., The Decay of Nation-
alism under the Roman Empire,
763.

Moore, C. L. E., Rotations in Hyper-
space, 649, 764.

Moore, C. L. E., and Phillips, H. B.,
The Dyadics which occur in a
Point Space of Three Dimen-
sions, 387, 755.

Moore, F. J., Graphic Formulas of
Organic Chemistry: To what
extent may they be considered
true pictures of Molecular Struc-
ture?, 774.

Moore, G. F., The Properties of Num-
bers and the Doctrine of Ideas,
755.

Morley, Frank, accepts Fellowship,
753

Morton, J. M., elected Fellow, 756,
accepts Fellowship, 757.
Murdock, Harold, elected Fellow,
756, accepts Fellowship, 757.

Nationalism, The Decay of, under

the Roman Empire, 763.

New Mexico, The Genus Fraxinus in,

197.

Nominating Committee, 759.

Numbers, The Properties of, and the
Doctrine of Ideas, 755.

Numismatics, Ancient Chinese Paper

Money as Described in a Chinese

Work on Numismatics, 465.

Officers elected, 771; List of, 877.

Packard, A. S., Notice of, 848.
Page, T. N., elected Fellow, 774.
Page, W. H., elected Fellow, 774.
Park, C. E., accepts Fellowship, 753.
Parks, Leighton, elected Fellow, 773.
Bases Endicott, elected Fellow,
Peabody, F. G., elected Fellow, 773.
Peirce, B. O., Notice of, 850.
Peltier Heat, Thermo-electromotive
Force, and Thomson Heat under
Pressure, 267.
Philippine Islands, New Coast Survey
Charts of the, and their bearing
on the Coral-reef Problem, 763.
Phillips, H. B., elected Fellow, 773.

INDEX.

Phillips, H. B. See Moore, C. L. E.
and Phillips, H. B.

Pidal, R. M., accepts Foreign Honor-
ary Membership, 753.

Pirsson, L. V., accepts Fellowship,
753.

Ponerine Tribe Cerapachyini, The
Australian Ants of the, 213.

Pratt, B. L., death of, 753.

Pressure, Thermo - electromotive
Force Peltier Heat, and Thom-
son Heat under, 267.

Psychoanalytic Movement, A Gen-
eral View of the, 753.

Publication Committee, Report of,
767.

Publication Fund, 766; Appropria-
tion from the Income of, 759:

Putnam, J. J., A General View of the
Psychoanalytic Movement, 753.

Raymond, P. E., accepts Fellow-
ship, 753.

Recklinghausen, F. D. von, Notice
of, 872.

Records of Meetings, 753.

Rehder, Alfred, The Genus Fraxinus
in New Mexico and Arizona, 197.

Rice, W. N., accepts Fellowship, 753.

Robinson, B. L., I. Diagnoses and
Notes relating to tropical Amer-
ican Eupatorieae. II. A descrip-
tive Revision of the Columbian
Eupatoriums. III. Keyed Re-
censions of the Eupatoriums of
Venezuela and Ecuador, 774.

Rotations in Hyperspace, 649, 764.

Royce (Josiah) Memorial Fund, letter
signed by President, 763.

Rubber, On the Origin of, 759.

Rumford Committee, Report of, 767.

Rumford Fund, 765; Appropria-
tions from the Income of, 759;
Papers published by aid of, 267.

Rumford Premium, 911; award of,
(yale

Russell, I. C., Notice of, 855.

Saint Gaudens, Augustus, Notice of,
859.

Schevill, Rudolph, elected Fellow,
C13.

Sellers, William, Notice of, 861.

Shaw, W. N., elected Foreign Hon-

orary Member, 756, accepts For-
eign Honorary Membership, 758.

INDEX.

Shepherd, F. J., elected Foreign
Honorary Member, 756, accepts
Foreign Honorary Membership,
757.

Sherrington, C. 8., elected Foreign
Honorary Member, 756, accepts
Foreign Honorary Membership,
758.

Shimer, H. W., Post-glacial History
of Boston, 439, 754, 755.

Slocum, Frederick, accepts Fellow-
ship, 753.

Standing Committees elected, 771;
List of, 877.

Standing Votes, 911.

Statutes, 897; Amendment of, 763.

Statutes, Committee appointed on
Amendment of, 755, report of,
760.

Strobel, E. H., Notice of, 863.

Sturgis, R. C., accepts Fellowship,
753.

Sumner, W. G., Notice of, 866.

Talbot, H. P., The Nitrogen Ques-
tion and the War, 774; Report
of the C. M. Warren Committee,
767.

Taylor, F. W., Notice of, 870.

Thaxter, Roland, Extra-American
Dipterophilous Laboulbeniales,
695-764. New Laboulbeniales
oe Chile and New Zealand,

Thermo-electromotive Force, Peltier
Heat, and Thomson Heat under
Pressure, 267.

Thomson Heat, Thermo-electro-
motive Force, Peltier Heat, and,
under Pressure, 267.

Treasurer, Report of, 765.

917

Union List of Periodicals, assistance
to, 759.

University of California, fiftieth anni-
versary of, 754.

United States Fuel Administration,
Request sent to, 758.

Villari, Pasquale, death of, 757.

War Legislation, 754.
Warren (C. M.) Committee, Report

of, 767.

Warren (C. M.) Fund, 766; Appro-
priations from the Income of
759.

Warren, H. L., death of, 753.

Watson, J. B., accepts Fellowship,
753.

Webster, A. G., and Allen, Mildred,
Ballistic Experiments by means
of the Electrometer, 757.

Webster, A. G., Report of the Library
Committee, 767.

Webster, D. L., elected Fellow, 773.

Wendell, O. C., Notice of, 875.

Wheeler, W. M., The Australian
Ants of the Ponerine Tribe
Cerapachyini, 213.

White, E. D., declines Fellowship,
753.

White, J. W., death of, 753.

Wolbach, 8S. B., Studies on the
Etiology of Rocky Mountain
Spotted Fever, 757.

Wright, J. H., resigns Fellowship,
757.

Yendell, P. S., death of, 757.

Zeleny, John, accepts Fellowship, 753.

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