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PROCEEDINGS

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AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA

FOR

PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

Vol. XXXV.

JANUARY TO DECEMBER, 1896.

PHILADELPHIA :

THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

1896.

v

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"-' >' /, (.

PROCE EDINGS

'-f-tZ/J^ 0 OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

Vol. XXXV. • January, 1896. No. 150.

TABLE OF* CONTENTS.

PAGE

Stated Meeting, January 3, 1S98 1

Stated Meeting, January 17, 1S96 3

Stated Meeting, February 7, 1S96 6

Stated Meeting, February 21, 1S96 12

Adjourned Meeting, I^ebruary 28, .1896 13

Demonstration of the Rontgen Ray (with one plate) 17

Remarks by Prof. Goodspeed 17

Remarks by E. J. Houston . 24

Remarks by Julius F. Sachse 28

Remarks by Johii Oarbutt 33

Remarks by Dr. Wm. Pejyper 34

Eucalyptus in Algeria and Tunisia, from an hygienic and climalo-

logical point ot view. By Dr. Edward Pepper 39

On the Remains of the Foreigners Discovered in Egypt by Mr.
Flinders-Petrie, 1895, now in the Museum of the University of

Pennsylvania (with three plates). By Mrs. Cornelius Stevenson. . 56
The Identification of Colored Inks by their Absorption Spectra (with

one plate). By Charles A. Doremus 71

Discussion of the Factors of Organic Evolution from the Embryo-
logical Standpoint. By Prof. E, G. Conklin 78

Factors of Organic Evolution from a Botanical Standpoint (the sur-
vival of the unlike). By Pi'of. L. H. Bailey 88

Stated Meeting, March 6, 1896 36

Stated Meeting, March SO, 1896 65

Stated Meeting, April 10, 1896 68

Stated Meeting, April 17, 1896 74

Stated Meeting, May 1, 1896 76

It^" It is requested that the receipt of this number be acknowledged.
• llt^" In order to secure prompt attention it is requested tliat all corre-
spondence be addressed simply "To the {Secretaries of the American
Philosophical Society. 104 S. Fifth St., Philadelphia."

Published for the Society

BY

MacCALLA & COMPANY INC.,

NOS. 237-9 DOCK STREET, PHILADELPHIA.

EXTRACT FROM THE LAWS.

CHAPTER XII.

OF THE MAGELLANIC FUND.

Section 1. John Hyacinth de Magellan, in London, having in the year
1786 offered to the Society, as a donation, the sum of two liundred guineas,
to b6 by tliem vested in a secure and permanent fund, to the end that
the interest arising therefrom sliould be annually disposed of in pre-
miums, to be adjudged by them to the author of the best discovery, or
most useful invention, relating to Navigation, Astronomy, or Natural
Philosophy (mere natural history only excepted) ; and the Society
having accepted of the above donation, they hereby publish the condi-
tions, prescribed by the donor and agreed to by the Society, upon which
the said annual premiums will be awarded.

CONDITIONS OF THE MAGELLANIC PREMIUM.

1. The candidate shall send his discovery, invention or improvement,
addressed to the President, or one of the Vice-Presidents of the Society,
free of postage or other charges-; and shall distinguish his performance
by some motto, device, or other signature, at his pleasure. Together
with his discovery, invention, or improvement, he shall also send a
sealed letter containing the same motto, device, or signature, and sub-
scribed with the real name and place of residence of the author.

2. Persons of any nation, sect or denomination whatever, shall be ad-
mitted as candidates for this premium.

3. No discovery, invention or improvement shall be entitled to this
premium, which hatli been^llready published, or for which the author
hath been publicly rewarded elsewhere.

4. Tlie candidate shall communicate his discovery, invention or im-
provement, either in the English, French, German, or Latin language.

5. All such communications shall be publicly read or exhibited to the
Society at some stated meeting, not less than one month previous to the
day of adjudication, and shall at all times be open to the inspection of
»uch members as shall desire it. But no member shall carry home wvth

JUL 20 189§

Jan. 3, 1806.1 -*-

PKOCE EDINGS

OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

Vol. XXXV. January, 1896. No. 150.

Stated Meeting^ January 3^ 1896.
Mr. W. V. McKean in the Chair.

Present, 27 members.

Eeports of the Clerks and Judges of the election were read
and the report of the election was submitted :

President.
Frederick Fraley.

Vice-Presidents.
E. Otis Kendall, J. P. Lesley, Wm. Pepper.

Secretaries.

George F. Barker, George H. Horn, Persifor Frazer,
Patterson Du Bois.

Curators.
J. Cheston Morris, E. Meade Bache, Benj.S. Lyman.

Treasurer.
J. Sergeant Price.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 150. A. PRINTED APRIL 13, 1896.

■^ [Jan. 3,

Councilors.

Wra. A. Ingham, Chas. S. Wurts, Robert Patterson, Henry

Hartshorne, Isaac J. Wistar, in place of Bicbard Vaux,

deceased.

Oq motion, tbe thanks of the Society were tendered to Judge
Edmunds and bis associates for their services on the board of
election.

Letters of envoy from the Geological Survey of India, Cal-
cutta ; Naturwissenschaftlichem Vereine, OsnabrUck, Prussia ;
Society of Antiquaries, London, Eng.; Direccion General de
Estadistica, Mexico, Mex.

Letters of acknowledgment from the Linnean Society of N.
S. Wales, Sydney (143, 146); Geological Survey of India, Cal-
cutta (147); M. G. Tschermak, Vienna, Austria (147); Natur-
wissenschaftl. Gesellscbaft '• Isis," Dresden, Saxony (147);
Societa Italiana d'Igiene, Milan, Italy (143, 146) ; Societa Afri-
cana d'ltalia, Naples, Italy (147) ; R. Accademia di Scienze,
Lettere, etc., Padua, Italy (143) ; R. Comitato Geologic© d'ltalia,
Rome (147); Dr. Charles S. Wurts, Philadelphia (147); Cali-
fornia Academy of Sciences, San Francisco (144, 145).

Accessions to the Library were reported from the Schweiz.
Naturfor. Gesellscbaft, Schaflfhausen ; Thiiringische Geschichte
nnd Altertumskunde, Jena, Germany ; Mr. Horatio Hale,
Ottowa, Canada ; Dr. Samuel A. Green, Boston, Mass. ; Dr.
C. A. M. Fennell, Cambridge, Mass.; Prof. E. J. James, Mr. B.
S. Lyman, Philadelphia; U. S. National Museum, U. S.
Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.; Academy of Sciences,
Department of Public Works, Chicago, 111.; Agricultural
Experiment Station, Ames, la.; Dr. Jesus Diaz de Leon,
Aguascalientes, Mexico ; Sociedad Cientifica, " Antonio
Alzate," Mexico, Mex.

Tbe stated business of the meeting being the nomination of
Librarian, J. Sergeant Price nominated George H. Horn, and
E. D. Cope nominated Benj. S. Lyman.

Prof. Cope made a verbal communication on certain

1896.] ^

types of Saurians in completion of a former paper on the
same subject.

Pending nominations 1382 to 1334 were read.

Mr. Wm. A. Ingham moved to amend Chapter viii, Section
8 of the Laws, by striking out " from 10 a.m. to 1 P.M.," and
inserting " at such hours as the Society may by resolution from
time to time direct." Laid over under the laws.

The Judges of election reported the receipt of a paper ques-
tioning the eligibility of a candidate. As they deemed the
question beyond their jurisdiction the paper was referred to
the Society for action. On motion, the President was re-
quested to appoint a committee of three to investigate and
report upon it.

After reading the rough minutes, the Society was adjourned
by the presiding member.

Stated Meeting, January 17, 1896.

President, Mr. Fraley, in the Chair.

Present, 36 members.

Correspondence was submitted as follows :

Invitation from the Socidte Imperiale Rasse de Geographic,
St. Petersburg, to attend the Fiftieth Anniversary of its foun-
dation, February 2 (January 21), 1896.

Letter from Mr. Thomas Meehan, offering to take in hand
the labeling of the South American plants from Dr. Barton's
collection belonging to the Society, and suggesting that they
be deposited in the herbarium of the Academy of Natural
Sciences, Philadelphia.

A communication from the Librarian of the University of
Virginia, Charlottesville, stating that their complete set of the
A. P. S. Proceedings was destroyed by fire, October 27, 18y5,
was referred to Secretaries with power to act.

Letters of acknowledgment (148) were received from the Wag-

^ [Jan. 17,

rer Free Institute, Franklin Institute, Historical Society of Penn-
sylvania, College of Physicians, Numismatic and Antiquarian
Society, Gen. I. J. Wistar, Hon. Mayer Sulzberger, Profs. John
Aghhurst, Jr., F. A. Genth, Jr., H. D. Gregory, James Mac-
Alister, James Tyson, M.D., Drs. John H. Brinton,W. C. Cattell,
Samuel G. Dixon, Ed, A. Foggo, George H. Horn, Morris
Longstreth, Charles A. Oliver, Charles Schiiffer, D. K. Tuttle,
William H. Wahl, Messrs. R, Meade Bache, Henry C. Baird,
George Tucker Bispham, Lorin Blodget, Arthur E. Brown,
Jacob B. Eckfeldt, Benjamin Smith Lyman, Theodore D.
Rand, J. G. Rosengarten, F. D. Stone, Philadelphia ; Mr. Heber
S. Thompson, Pottsville, Pa.; Dr. W. H. Appleton, Svvarth-
more, Pa.; Dr. John Curwen, Warren, Pa.; Prof. J. T. Roth-
rock, West Chester, Pa.; Prof. Ira Remsen, Baltimore, Md.;
University of Virginia, Prof. J. W. Mallet, M.D., Charlottes-
ville.

Accessions to the Library were reported from the Institut
Egyptien, Cairo; Academic Imp. des Sciences, St. Petersburg,
Russia; Friesch Genootschap van Geschied, etc., Leuwarden,
Netherlands ; Academic des Sciences, Cracow, Austria ; K, K.
Geologische Reichsanstalt, Vienna, Austria ; Gesellschaft fiir
Anthropologic, Ethnologic, etc., BerUn, Prussia; Gartenbau-
verein, Darmstadt, Germany ; K. Siichs. Gesellschaft der Wis-
senschaften, Leipzig ; Nassauischen Vereine fiir Naturkunde,
Wiesbaden, Prussia ; Biblioteca N. C, Firenze, Italia ; Soci^te
de Geographic, Lille, France ; Redaction Cosmos^ Le Mqs. de
Nadaillac, Paris, France ; Meteorological Office, R. Geographical
Society, Editors of Nature^ R. Microscopical Society, Editors of
The Geological Mayazine, London, Eng.; Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, Durham, N. H.; Mass. Historical Society, Bos-
ton, Mass.; Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College,
Cambridge, Mass.; Essex Institute, Salem, Mass.; R. I. His-
torical Society, Providence; Editors of The American Journal
of Science, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.; Editor of The
Popular Science Monthly^ Academy of Sciences, Editor of
The World, New York, N. Y.; College of Pharmacy, Franklin
Institute, Amer. Society for the Extension of University

1896.] ^

Teaching, Mr. Wharton Barker, Drs. Persifor Frazer, Edmund
J. James, Hon. Samuel W. Pennypacker, Philadelphia ;
Oberlin College Library, Oberlin, O.

A photograph for the Society's Album was received from Mr.
Thomas cfarke, New York, N. Y.

The death of Mr, Henry Hazlehurst, of Philadelphia, on
January 11, 1896, aet. 49, was announced, and the President
was requested to appoint a member to prepare an obituary
notice.

Prof, Cope read an obituary notice of Prof, John A. Ryder,
The stated business of the meeting being the choosing of a
Librarian, a ballot was taken, and on count of the vote the
Tellers announced the election of George H, Horn,

The choosing of Standing Committees being in order, Mr,
Prime moved that they be appointed by the President, Car-
ried unanimously.

The Special Committee appointed to inquire into the
eligibility of candidates and electors at the late election made a
report which was received and the Committee discharged.

Prof. Hilprecht presented his paper on " Old Babylonian
Inscriptions," which on motion was referred to a Special Com-
mittee to examine and report. The President appointed Tal-
cott Williams, Patterson DuBois and J, Sergeant Price, the
Committee,

Pending nominations Nos, 1332 to 1334 and new nomina-
tions Nos. 1335 to 1345 were read.

On motion of Dr. Morris, the nominations of non-residects
were referred to Council,

On motion of Mr, Price, the Society authorized the Treas-
urer to receive payment for loan of the city of Philadelphia
now due and payable.

The letter of Mr, Meehan regarding South American plants
in our cabinet was referred to the Curators to report at the
next meeting.

On motion of Dr, Frazer, amended by Dr. Brinton, the
Secretaries were directed to print a revised list of surviving
members with their addresses.

6

[Feb.

The amendment to the Laws offered at last meeting vas con-
sidered. The Librarian gave proof of advertisement.

By the requisite vote, Chap, viii. Sec. 3, was amended by
striking out " 10 A.M. to 1 P.M.," and inserting " at such hours
as the Society may fix by resolution from time to time."

The rough minutes were then read, and the Society was
adjourned by the President.

Stated Meeting^ February 7, 1896.

Present, 16 members.

President, Mr. Fraley, in the Chair.

Correspondence was submitted as follows :

A letter from Prof. George H. Smith, Los Angeles, Cal.,
expressing grateful appreciation of the honor conferred upon
liim by the Society, in publishing his essay, and presenting
him with two hundred and fifty copies.

A letter from Mr. Benjamin Sharp, Philadelphia, requesting
for the Academy of Natural Sciences the privilege of having
a microscopical examination made of two pieces of Jade, de-
jDOsited in the Museum of the Academy. On motion, this re-
quest was referred to the Curators.

Acknowledgments were received from the Institut Egyp-
tien, Cairo (147); K. K. Bergakademie, Leoben, Austria
(92-107, 110, 111, 113-120, 125-133, 135-147); K. K.
Zoolog-botanische Gesellschaft, Vienna, Austria (147) ;
Scblesische Gesellschaft fiir vaterl. Cultur, Breslau, Prussia
(147) ; Naturhistorische Gesellschaft, Hannover, Prussia
(147) ; Naturhistorische Gesellschaft, Niirnberg, Bavaria
(147); Yerein fiir Naturkunde, Offenbach-a.-M., Germany
(143, 143, 147); K. Geodatisclies Institut, Potsdam, Prussia
(147); Biblioteca N. C, Firenze, Italia (147) ; R. Istituto
di Scienze, etc., Milan, Italy (143, 146); Observatorio di
Torino, Torino, Italia (147, and Trans. ^ xviii, 2); Prof. G.
Sergi, Rome, Italy (147); Commission des Annales des Mines

1896.] •

(147 and Trans. ^ xviii, 2); Mus^e Guimet, Paris, France
(147) ; Literary and Philosophical Society, Liverpool, Eng.
(147, and Trans. ^ xviii, 2) ; Mass. Historical Society, Boston,
Mass. (147) ; Prof. Edward S. Morse, Salem, Mass. (147) ;
Newberry Library, Chicago, 111. (147) ; Museo Nacional,
Buenos Ayres, Argentine Republic (147).

Acknowledgments (148) were received from Dr., Alfred
R. C. Selwyn, Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada ; Laval
University, Hon. J. M, Le Moine, Quebec, Canada; Bowdoin
College Library, Brunswick, Me.; IST. H. Historical Society,
Concord; Boston Society of Natural History, Mass.; Histori-
cal Society, Boston Athenaeum, Mass. Institute of Technol-
ogy, State Library of Massachusetts, Dr. Samuel A. Green,
Boston, Mass.; Museum of Comparative Zolocigy, Profs.
Alexander Agassiz, N. W. Goodwin, F. W. Putnam, Dr.
Justin Winsor, Mr. Robert N. Toppan, Cambridge, Mass.;
Essex Institute, Prof. Edward S. Morse, Salem, Mass.; Prof.
Elihu Thomson, Swampscot, Mass.; Marine Biological Labo-
ratory, Woods Holl, Mass.; American Antiquarian Society,
Worcester, Mass.; Brown University, Providence Franklin
Society, R. I. Historical Society, Providence ; Mr. George F.
Dunning, Farmington, Conn. ; Conn. Historical Society, Hart-
ford ; Prof, H. A. Newton, New Haven, Conn.; Prof. James
Hall, Albany, N. Y.; Society of Natural Science, Buffalo,
N. Y.; Prof. Edward North, Clinton, N. Y.; Profs. J. M.
Hart, W. T. Hewett, Ithaca, N. Y.; Historical Society, N.
Y. Hospital, Columbia College, N. Y. Academy of Medicine,
N. Y. Academy of Science, Astor Library, Amer. Museum
of Natural History, Hon. James C. Carter, Messrs. Thos. C.
Clarke, James Douglas, Profs. Isaac H. Hall, J. J, Steven-
son, New York, N. Y.; Vassar Brothers' Institute, Pough-
keepsie, N. Y.; Geological Society of America, Rochester,
N. Y.; Prof. W. Le Conte Stevens, Troy, N. Y.; Oneida
Historical Society, Utica, N. Y.;. U, S. Military Academy,
West Point, N. Y.; Free Public Library, Jersey City, N. J.;
Prof. Robert W. Rogers, Madison, N. J.; Natural History
Society, Trenton, N. J,; Dr. R. H. Alison, Ardmore, Pa.;

8

[Feb. 7,

Prof. Martin H. Boye, Coopersburg, Pa.; Amer. Academy
of Medicine, Dr. Traill Green, Prof. J. W. Moore, Eev. Thos.
C. Porter, Easton, Pa.; Mr. John Fulton, Johnstown, Pa.;
Prof. L, B. Hall, Haverford, Pa.; Linnean Society, Lancas-
ter, Pa. ; Eev, J. W. Pobins, Merion, Pa. ; Library Company,
Prof. H. Y. Hilprecht, Drs. Edward Foggo, Persifor Frazer,
Sara Y. Stevenson, Messrs. H. Clay Trumbull, Joel Cook,
Patterson Du Bois, Eobert Patterson, Benjamin Sharp,
Charles Stewart Wurts, Ellis Yarnall, Philadelphia, Pa. ;
Eev. F. A. Muhlenberg, Eeading, Pa. ; Mr. Thos. S. Blair,
Tyrone, Pa. ; Mr. Philip P. Sharpies, West Chester, Pa. ;
Wyoming Historical Society, Wilkesbarre, Pa.; Col. Henry
A. Du Pont, Winterthur, Del.; Maryland Institute, Balti-
more, Md.; Mr. T. L. Patterson, Cumberland, Md.; U. S.
Artillery Staff, Fort Monroe, Ya. ; Hon. J. E. Tucker, Lex-
ington, Ya.; Mr. Jed. Hotchkiss, Staunton, Ya. ; Ga. Histor-
ical Society, Savannah ; Cincinnati Observatory, Cincinnati,
O.; Ohio State Archeeological and Historical Society, Col-
umbus, O.; Editors of Journal of Comparative Neurology^
Granville, O. ; Oberlin College, Oberlin, O. ; Prof. J. L.
Campbell, Crawfordsville, Ind.; University of Illinois, Cham-
paign, 111.; Field Columbian Museum, Newberry Library,
Chicago, 111.; Geological Survey of Missouri, Jefferson City,
Mo.; State Historical Society of Wisconsin, University of
Wisconsin, Madison ; la. Masonic Library, Cedar Eapids ;
Academy of Natural Sciences, Davenport, la.; State Histori-
cal Society, Iowa City, la. ; Editor of the Kansas University
Quarterly^ Lawrence, Kans.; Academy of Science, Wash-
burn College, Topeka, Kans.; University of California, Prof.
Joseph Le Conte, Berkeley, Cal.; Lick Observatory, Mt.
Hamilton, Cal.; State Mining Bureau, Cal. Historical Society,
Prof. George Davidson, San Francisco, Cal. ; Prof. J. C.
Branner, Stamford University, Cal. ; Agricultural Experi-
ment Stations, Kingston, E. I.; Storrs, Conn.; Experiment,
Ga.; Knoxville, Tenn.; Agricultural College, Mich.; Man-
hattan, Kans.; Lincoln, Neb. ; Fort Collins, Colo.; Tucson,
Arizona.

1896.] "

Accessions to the Library were reported from the Asiatic
Society of Japan, Yolvohama; Soci^te Physico-Mathematique,
Kasan, Eussia ; Societe Imp, des Naturalistes, Moscow, Rus-
sia ; Society des Naturalistes de la Nouvelle Eussie, Odessa ;
Comity G^ologique, Imp. Eussian Geographical Society,
St. Petersburg ; Statistika Central BjTans, Stockholm, Swe-
den ; Societe E. des Antiquaires du Nord, Copenhagen, Den-
mark ; Academic E. des Sciences, etc., Etat Independant du
Congo, Bruxelles, Belgique ; Societe Hongroise de Geogra-
phic, Budapest; K. K. Zool.-botanische Gesellschaft, Oester-
reichische Touristen-Club, Vienna ; Physiologische Gesell-
schaft, Verein zur Befcirderung des Gartenbaues, Berlin,
Prussia ; K. Sachs. Meteorologisches Institut, Chemnitz ;
Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Emden, Prussia ; Naturfor-
schende Gesellschaft, Freiburg-i.-B., Baden; Deutsche
Seewarte, Hamburg, Germany; M. Henri de Saussure, Gene-
va, Switzerland ; Societe des Sciences Phys. et Naturelles,
Bordeaux, France; Societe Historique, Litteraire etc., du
Clur, Bourges, France ; Societe N. des Sciences Nat. et
Mathematiques, Cherbourg, France ; Society de Borda,
Dax, France, ; Union Geographique du ISTord de la France,
Douai, France ; Society des Sciences Nat. et Archeeologique
de la Creuse, Gueret, France; Societe Languedocienne de
Geographic, Montpellier, France ; Societ^s Gdologique de
France, de Geographic, de I'Enseignement, de Physique,
d' Anthropologic, Musee Guimet, Directeur de la Eedaction
Melusine^ Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Ministre des
Travaux Publics, Paris, France ; M. Ed. Piette, Eumigny,
France ; Socidtd des Antiquaires de la Morinie, St. Omer,
France ; Society de Geographic, Toulouse, France ; E. Acad-
emia de la Historia, Madrid, Spain ; Philological Society,
Cambridge, Mass.; E. Astronomical Society, Eoyal Society,
London, Eng.; Geological Society, Manchester, Eng.; E.
Society of Antiquaries of Ireland ; Commissioner of Public
Eecords, Chief of Bureau of Statistics of Labor, Mass. Insti-
tute of Technology, Boston, Mass.; Museum of Comp.
Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; Travelers'

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 150. B. PRINTED APRIL 13, 1896.

1^ [Feb. 7,

Insurance Co., Hartford, Conn,; Meteorological Observatory,
Amer. Mathematical Society, Amer. Institute of Electrical
Engineers, Amer. Geographical Society, New York, N. Y.;
Mr. R. P. Potts, Camden, N. J.; Free Public Library, Jersey
City, N. J.; Penna. Board of Charities and Committee on
Lunacy, Harrisburg ; Engineers' Club, Maritime Exchange,
Hon. Gr. F. Edmunds, Dr. Walter M. James, Philadelphia ;
Johns Hopkins University, Editors of Chemical Journal and
American Journal of Philology^ Baltimore, Md.; Anthropo-
logical Society, Smithsonian Institution, Departments of the
Interior and State, Washington, D. C; Academy of Science,
St. Louis, Mo.; Editors of Journal of Comparative Neurology^
Granville, O.; College Library, Oberlin, 0.; State Board of
Health, Nashville, Tenn.; University of California, Berkeley;
Field Columbian Museum, Academy of Sciences, Historical
Society, Chicago, 111.; Geological and Natural History Sur-
vey of Minnesota, St. Paul ; Agricultural Experiment Sta-
tions, Amherst, Mass.; Ithaca, N. Y.; State College, Pa.;
Newark, N. J.; Lafayette, Ind.; Minneapolis, Minn.; Observ-
atorio Meteorl. Central, Observatorio Astron. N. de Tacu-
baya, Mexico, Mex.; Observatorio Meteorl. Central del estado
de Veracruz Llave, Xalapa, Mex.

A photograph for the Society's Album was received from
Dr. Edward A. Foggo, Philadelphia,

Mr. Sachse presented two pictures. The one is a copy of a
pencil sketch of the Hall of the Philadelphia Academy, in
which this Society held its meetings for many years, drawn
to scale by Pierre E. du Simiti^re. The other picture is a
print published in 1790 of the present Hall of the Society as
it was at that time.

On motion, the thanks of the Society were voted to Mr.
Sachse for his gift. The Special Committee on Prof. Hil-
precht's Paper on Cuneiform Inscriptions reported favorably,
and the Publication Committee also reported recommending
its Dublication, On motion, the paper was ordered to be
published.

On behalf of the Curators, Dr, Morris reported that they

1896.] J-J-

hacl met and considered tlie letter of Mr. Meelian with refer-
ence to the botanical collections of Lewis and Clark, and
other collections such as those of Muhlenberg, Burton, Bet-
tors and Short, now in the museum of the Society, and had
passed a resolution recommending their deposit on the usual
conditions with the Academy of Natural Sciences ; but after
further examination of them Mr. Meehan had written, stating
that unless they could be given to the Academy they had
better remain where they now are, and expressing a desire
that the Society should at some future time establish a herba-
rium of its own, to which he thought the Academy of Natu-
ral Sciences would gladly contribute some of its duplicates.

Dr. Morris moved the discharge of the Curators from fur-
ther consideration of the matter at present.

The death was announced of the Eev. William H. Furness,
D.D., on January 30, 1896, set. 93 ; and the President was
requested to appoint a member to prepare an obituary notice.

The President announced that he had appointed Dr. Brin-
ton to prepare the obituary of Henry Hazlehurst, and F. D.
Stone that of "William John Potts, and that the appointments
had been accepted.

Prof. Cope made a communication illustrating by black-
board sketches the structure of heads of certain Cetaceans.

Pending nominations 1832 to 1342 and 1344 and 1345 were
read.

Dr. Brinton asked the decision of the Chair as to whether
any action could be taken on the report of the Special Com-
mittee which was read at the last meeting.

The President decided that the matter was finally con-
cluded.

Dr. Green moved that the report of the Committee be en-
tered in full on the minutes. Adopted.

There being no further business, the rough minutes were
read and the Society adjourned by the President.

1^ [Feb. 21,

Stated Meeting, February 21, 1896.

Present, 51 members.

The President, Mr. Fraley, in the Chair.

After the meeting had been called to order. Dr. Frazer
moved that the regular order of business be suspended until
after the demonstration of the Eontgen ray, and that the Pres-
ident be authorized at his discretion at the close of the dis-
cussion to declare the meeting adjourned until February 28.

The motion having been carried by the requisite affirma-
tive vote. Dr. Goodspeed was given the floor, and presented
the entire subject in detail.

Prof. Houston followed with a discussion of the subject
from its electrical side.

Mr. Sachse followed in its photographic relations, and gave
his experiences with different styles of plates.

Prof. Robb stated that he had in his laboratory repeated
the Riintgen experiments and found that a Crooke's tube was
not essential.

Mr. Carbutt gave his experience in the manufacture of
].)lates, dwelling on the probable utility of those with a cellu-
loid basis.

Mr. Jos. Wharton exhibited a tube containing argon, and
showed its action under the induction current.

Dr. Pepper exhibited photographs from Prof. John Cox, of
McGill University, one of which illustrated the method of
obtaining a confirmation of the suspected position of a bullet
between the tibia and fibula.

The papers of these speakers will be found in the Proceed-
ings, in extenso, together with the discussion which ensued.

Dr. Frazer moved the thanks of the Societv to the Electric
Storage Battery Renting Co. for their loan of a storage bat-
tery for the present demonstration.

At 10.30 the President declared the meeting adjourned un-
til Friday, February 28.

1896.] ^'^

Adjourned Meeting, February 28, 1896.
The Yice-President, Dr. Pepper, in tlie Chair.

Letters of envoy from the Verein fur Schlesische Insekten-
kunde, Breslau, Prussia; K. Sachsische Gesellschaft der Wis-
senschaften, Leipzig ; Societe des Sciences Physiques et Nat-
urelles, Bordeaux, France ; Universite de Lyon, France ;
Facultd des Sciences, Marseilles, France ; Meteorological
Oifice, British Association for Advancement of Science, E.
Statistical Society, London, Eng.; Field Columbian Museum,
Chicago, 111.; State Librarian, Washington, D. C.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the South
African Philosophical Society, Cape Town (143, 146, 147) ;
Eoj'al Society of Victoria (143, 146) ; Eoyal Mint, Melbourne,
Australia (143, 146) ; K. Norske Yidenskabers Selskab,
Throndhjein, Norway (147) ; Eoyal Society of Sciences,
Upsal, SAveden (143, 146, 147, and I'rans., xviii, 2); E.
Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Copenhagen (147, and
Trans., xviii, 2); Verein der Freunde der Naturgeschichte,
Mecklenburg, Germany (147) ; E. Istituto Lombardo di Sci-
enze e Lettere, Milan, Italy (147) ; Accademia E. delle Sci-
enze, Torino, Italia (147) ; Academic des Sciences et Belles-
Lettres, Angers, France (143, 147) ; Socidte N. des Sciences
Nat. et Mathematiques, Cherbourg, France (143, 144, 146) ;
Universite de Lyon, France (147) ; Nova Scotia Society of
Natural Science, Halifax (148) ; Public Library, Boston, Mass.
(148) ; Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. (148) ; Free
Public Library, New Bedford, Mass. (148) ; Mercantile
Library (148), Mrs. Helen Abbott Michael (148), Mr. Wil-
liam A. Ingham (147, 148), Hon. James T. Mitchell, Dr. C.
N. Peirce, Messrs. Coleman Sellers, Samuel Wagner, Phila-
delphia (148) ; Lackawa. Institute of History and Science,
Scranton, Pa. (148) ; Maryland Historical Society, Baltimore
(148); Smithsonian Institution (452 packages), U. S. Geolog-
ical Survey (147, 148, and Trans., xviii, 2), U. S. Naval
Observatory, U. S. Patent Office, Surgeon-General's Office,

14: [Feb. 28,

Coast and Geodetic Survey, U. S. Weather Bureau, Dr. AY.
J. Hoffman, E.t. Eev. Jolin J. Keane, Prof, Charles A.
Schott, Washington, D. C. (148); Prof. E. W. Claypole,
Akron, O. (147) ; Prof. G. W. Hough, Evanston, 111. (148) ;
Editor of Kansas University Quarterly^ Lawrence (145, 146,
147) ; University of Wyoming, Laramie (148) ; Agricultural
Experiment Stations, Ealeigh, N. C. (148) ; Auburn, Ala.
(148) ; Agricultural College, Michigan (145) ; Observatorio
Astronomico de Tacubaya, Mexico (148) ; Mariano Barcena,
Mexico, Mex. (148) ; Observatorio Meteorologico Central,
Xalapa, Mexico (148).

Accessions to the Library were reported from the Royal
Society of S. Australia, Adelaide ; Acaddmie R. des Sciences,
etc., Copenhagen, Denmark; JSTederland, Maatschappij bevor-
dering Nijverheid, Amsterdam ; Geschichtsvereins, Aachen,
Prussia; Naturhist. Yerein der Preuss. Rheinlande, etc.,
Niederrhein. Gesellschaft, Bonn, Prussia; Yerein far Schle-
sische Insektenkunde, Breslau, Prussia ; Oberlausitz. Gesell-
schaft der Wissenschaften, Gorlitz, Prussia; Mr. Augustus
R. Grote, Hildesheim, Prussia ; K. Sachsische Gesellschaft
der Wissenschaften, Leipzig ; Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir
Anthropologic, etc., Munich, Bavaria ; R, Accademia di Sci-
enze, etc., Modena, Italy; Societa R. di Napoli, Italia; R.
Accademia dei Lincei, Rome, Italy ; R. Accademia delle Sci-
enze, R. Osservatorio, Turin, Italy; University de Lyon,
France ; Facultd des Sciences, Marseilles, France ; Prof.
Gabriel de Mortillet, St. Germain-en-Laye, France ; R. Sta-
tistical Society, British Association for Advancement of Sci-
ence, Society of Arts, Zoological Society, Meteorological
Council, Society of Antiquaries, London, Eng.; Royal Geo-
logical Society of Cornwall, Penzance, Eng.; Nat. History
and Philosophical Society, Belfast, Ireland ; Royal Society of
Edinburgh, Scotland ; Philosophical Society, Glasgow, Scot-
land ; Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa ; Athena3um,
Boston, Mass.; Public Library, Salem, Mass.; Amer. Chem-
ical Society, Amer. Museum Nat. History, New York, N.
Y.; Central Library, Syracuse, N. Y.; Historical and

1S9C.1 -'-'-'

Library Association, Yonkers, N.Y.; Amer. Chemical Society,
Amer. Academy of Medicine, Easton, Pa.; Penna. Society to
Prevent Cruelty to Animals, Girard College, Historical Socie-
ty of Pennsylvania, Mercantile Library, Penna. Forestry Asso-
ciation, Messrs. Guy Hinsdale, William A. Ingbam, Edmund
J. James, J. G. Rosengarten, Julius F. Saclise, Philadelphia ;
Enoch Pratt Free Library, Peabody Institute, Baltimore,
Md.; Department of Labor, Washington, D. C; Universi-
ty of Virginia, Prof. J. W. Mallet, Charlottesville, Va.;
Artillery School, Fort Monroe, Va., Elisha Mitchell Scien-
tific Society, Chapel Hill ; Mr. Charles Gildehaus, St. Louis,
Mo.; Michigan Mining School, Houghton; Agricultural Ex-
periment Stations, Kingston, R. I.; Albany, N. Y.; Geneva,
N. Y.; Jacksonville, Fla.; Agricultural College, Miss.,
Knoxville, Tenn.; Denison University, Granville, O.;
Agricultural Experiment Station, Lexington, Ky.; Iowa
State Historical Societ}^, Iowa City ; Kansas University,
Lawrence; Agricultural College, etc., Cheyenne, Wyo.;
Colorado Scientific Society, Denver ; Agricultural Experiment
Stations, Fort Collins, Colo.; Tucson, Ariz.; Asociacion
de Ingenieros, etc., Observatorio Meteorologico Central,
Instituto Geologico, Mexico, Mex.; Observatorio Astro-
nomico, Quito, Mex.; Sociedad Cientifica Argentina, Buenos
Ayres, Argentine Republic, S. A.; Museo de La Plata,
Argentine Republic, S. A.

A circular letter from the Naturhistorisch. Vereine der
Preussischen Rheinlande, Westfalens und. des Regierungsbe-
zirks Osuabriick, Prussia, announced the death of its Secre-
tary, Prof. Dr. Philipp Bertkau.

The Council reported that at the meeting held February 14
the Committee on Premiums had been named, to consist of
Messrs. Pepper, Frazer, Ingham, DuBois, Morris, Wistar
and Tatham.

Propositions for membership 1332 and 133-1 were recom-
mended to be postponed for farther information, and 1335
and 1344: were recommended for approval.

It was recommended that the first meetings in February,

16

I Feb. 28,

May and November be designated for tlie presentation and
free discussion of subjects of broad philosopbic interest, and
that a Committee of five be appointed to make the necessary
preparations therefor.

The recommendations of the Board of Officers and Council
were approved and the Chairman referred the appointment
of the Committee to the President of the Society.

The following deaths were announced :

Hon. Henry Eeed, Philadelphia, February 23, 1896, set. 49,

Dr. Owen Jones Wister, Philadelphia, February 2-i, 1896,
c^t. 70.

The President, by letter, announced that he had appointed
J. G, Rosengarten to prepare the obituary of Rev. W. H.
Furness, D.D., and that the appointment had been accepted.

The stated business of the meeting being the election of
members, the nominations were spoken to, and the ballots
cast, Secretaries Frazer and DuBois acting as Tellers,

The following papers were presented for publication in the
Transactions of the Society :

An essay on ' ' The Development of the Mouth Parts of
Certain Insects," by J. B. Smith, Sc.D.

"A New Method of Determining the Perturbations of the
Minor Planets," by Wm. McKnight Ritter, M.A."

On motion, referred to Committees for examination and
report.

The Tellers being prepared to report, announced that

2278. Dr. A. E. Kennelly, Philadelphia ;

2279. Wm. Pitts Mason, Troy, N. Y.;

2280. Rev. H. C. McCook, Philadelphia ;

2281. Henry Pettit, Overbrook, Pa.;
had been elected.

The Society, on motion, adjourned.

17

1896.] -•- ♦

Remarks made at the Demonstration of the Rontgen Ray,
at Stated Meeting, February 21, 1896.

Prof. Goodspeed describes his apparatus as follows :

In order to economize time it may be worth wliile for me to call your
attention very briefly to the apparatus that we will use to-night, before
beginning the reading of the regular paper. We have here two
terminal wires which are supplied with the electric current from several
storage batteries which are behind a screen. The electro-motive force
IS about sixteen volts. This induction coil which is to furnish the cur-
rent to stimulate the tube has a primary resistance of about three-tenths
ohm. The resistance of the secondary coil is about 3300 ohms, dead
resistance. By passing the primary current through the small resist-
ance coil and interrupting it frequently, as you all know, we produce
an induced current in the high resistance secondary coil. It is the dis-
charge of this induced current through the Crookes tube which you see
here that produces the green phosphorescence and secondarily, prob-
ably, produces or sets up the form of energy with which we are to deal
this evening.

In order to make a test case I will place this little pocketbook, with
a couple of coins and an iron key inside it, upon a sensitive photo-
graphic plate, which is placed upon the table wrapped in several thick-
nesses of light-tight paper. The plate, as you will see, is three or four
inches below the lower end of the tube. The tube is much larger than
is usually seen ; and for that reason, probably, is more efficient. The
internal pressure is probably about one one-millionth of an atmosphere.
The exposure may continue during the reading of the paper. Subse-
quently we will have the plate developed.

The Roxtgex Phenomena.

Gentlemen : — Never before in the history of science has a new discovery
commanded such intense and universal interest as that, some of the
features of which we have met here to-night to witness. Less than
two months ago, the civilized world was startled at the unofficial an-
nouncement that Prof. Eoutgen, of Wiirzburg, had discovered a form
of energy probably related to radiation, which would pass through
many substances that were opaque to known forms of ether energy.
An interesting point in this connection was that glass, ordinarily so
transparent to light, seemed to be quite opaque to the new energy.
Since the original paper of Rontgen has appeared, we have learned that
the discovery referred to resulted from a series of experiments on fluo-
rescence. The important pieces of apparatus that were used, and which
we have before us this evening, consist of an inductorium with its
secondary coil connected to a well-exhausted Crookes tube. A high
degree of exhaustion is noted by the absence of a bluish halo about one

PROC. AMEK. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 150. C. PRINTED MAY 25. 1896.

18

[Feb. 21,

or both of the terminals. The internal pressure is about one one-mil-
lionth of an atmosphere. The earliest form of vacuum tube, constructed
nearly fifty years ago, was exhausted to about one one-hundredth of an
atmosphere, and on the passage of an electric discharge, glowed
throughout its length with a purplish-blue color. As the efficiency of
the pump increased, higher vacuum became easy and the phenomenon
of the dark space about the cathode was described and exhibited to the
British Association by Crookes in 1879. As the exhaustion is increased
the dark space may enlarge so as to extend throughout the length
of the tube. Under these conditions, the position of the anode is of little
consequence, and under the action of the discharge the whole bulb
becomes fluorescent with green or blue according to the kind of glass.

"Cathode rays " is a term applied to the disturbance which seems to
start at the cathode within the tube, and extend in straight lines to the
opposite side. These rays are capable of being deflected by a magnet,
and were supposed by Crookes to consist of the molecules of the resi-
dual gas projected with great speed from the cathode terminal and
Impinging upon the walls of the tube. In the language of molecular
kinetics, it may be said, then, that the mean free path of the molecule
in one of these highly exhausted tubes, has become greater than the
length of the tube. It was discovered in 1890 by Hertz that these
cathode rays can pass through some solid substances, e. g., aluminum,
while others he found to be opaque. Lenard, the assistant of Hertz,
in 1894, passed the cathode rays outside the tube, through a small
aluminum window, placed in the wall of the tube opposite the cathode.
This window had to be very thin to facilitate the issue of the rays, and
yet thick enough, compared with its size, to withstand the pressure of
the atmosphere. Consequently, the area was very small. Lenard also
obtained shadow records on photographic plates by interposing, between
the aluminum window and the plate, opaque bodies.

The cathode rays wlien impinging upon the Lenard window do not
issue in a direction collinear with their former direction ; but seem to
spread in all directions like a beam of light passing beyond a very small
aperture. The transparency of substances for these rays seemed to be
closely related to their density. For example, in the case of gases,
hydrogen was found to behave like oxygen if it were compressed until
its density became equal to that of the oxygen. Transparency to these
rays seemed to have no relation to electric conductivity.

With reference to leaving out the aluminum window and replacing it
by merely the glass of the tube, Lenard said {Electrician, Vol.
xxxii, p. 576) : "On replacing the aluminum window by one of glass,
it was found "possible to repeat all the essential experiments with equal
success. But the aluminum remains the more suitable, not that it is
the more transparent, but because aluminum is opaque to light, and
more easily manipulated than glass of equal thickness." So we see that
Lenard actually obtained results in about the same way that we are ex-

1896.]

19

perimenting now. Dr. Oliver Lodge, of Liverpool, tried two years ago
to repeat this very experiment, with a tube of rather thick glass,
"Failing," to use his own words, "simply by reason of insufficient
pertinacity. ' ' This is doubtless the case, since Lodge has lately repeated
Rbntgen's experiment with that same tube, obtaining results "through
a quarter inch of wood and a sheet of aluminum, provided something
like a half an hour's exposure is allowed" {Electrician, Vol. xxxvi,
p. 438).

Opinions differ as to whether the rays used by Lenard were the same
as those producing the Rontgen phenomena. As has been said,
cathode rays are deflected by a magnet, while the Rontgen rays seem
not to be. The Lenard rays, also, were shown to be capable of deflec-
tion by a magnet under certain conditions. Roiitgen, himself, is of the
opinion that the new energy is some form of ether wave motion per-
haps longitudinal, and Lord Kelvin, I think, maintains the same views.
Other English authorities seem to be divided between the ultra-violet
theory and the longitudinal wave theory.

Dr. Lodge in ajecture before the Liverpool Physical Society, January
27, 1896, expressed himself as rather favoring the opinion that the
Rontgen rays are highly electrified material particles, traveling with
very great velocity. In a recent article {Electrician, Vol. xxxvi, p.
430), Lodge says, that "He permits himself to doubt and inclines to a
sort of electrolytic impulsive propagation, through and by means of
ordinary matter ; in spite of the immensely important fact that Prof.
Rontgen can detect in his rays no magnetic deflectibility whatever."
In concluding the article referred to, Lodge says, "Meanwhile, the
possibility, even the probability, that in these rays we have a new kind
of radiation, even though it be only ultra-violet, so high up as to be
comparable to the size of molecules, lends to these experiments a
prodigious interest in the eyes of physicists, far surpassing the obvious
practical applications which have gained the ear of the general public."

Since writing the above. Lodge has himself repeated the magnetic
experiment with very great care, finding no deflection {Electrician,
Vol. xxxvi, p. 471), and expresses himself as follows : "Consequently,
the hypothesis of a stream of electrified particles is definitely dis-
proved, as no doubt had already been done in reality by Prof. Rontgen
himself."

It seems that Lenard had arrived at the conclusion that he was deal-
ing with two classes of rays, as regards their deflectibility by a magnet.
The question may still arise then. May not the Rontgen rays be the un-
deflectible Lenard rays ?

The ultra-violet theory is said to be favored by Professors Schuster
and Fitzgerald. One difficulty is, that some electrical conductors are
practically transparent to the new radiation. To waves of light of
every kind they ought to be opaque according to Maxwell's theory.
However, the fact that gold and some other metals, when excessively

20

[Feb. 21,

thin, are translucent has long presented a clifSculty, -which is only par-
tially overcome bj' the assumption, that "the structure is not infinitely
fine-grained, with respect to the size of the light waves." It may not
be too much to suppose that these new waves are comparable in size
with the molecules, or even the atoms, of matter.

The theory of Prof. Roatgen, already referred to, that the new
energj" is longitudinal ether-wave motion, surely must not be ignored,
especially as it seems to be supported, among others, by the dis-
tinguished mathematical physicist, Prof. Boltzmann, of Vienna. There
are difficulties in supposing the ether to be compressible, yet it must
assume the etfects of compressibility, if it is to transmit a periodic dis-
turbance with finite speed.

Rontgen's own theory seems well supported by Q. Jaumann (Wiede-
mann's Annalen, January, 1896), who has shown in a recent article
that by a little change in Maxwell's equations, to satisfy the conditions
of high rarefaction, which is met with in a Crookes tube, longitudinal
ether waves are possible, which would possess many of the properties
of the new rays.

That the new energy does not consist of cathode rays alone, seems to
be proved by the remarkable experiment of J. J. Thomson, who placed
a protected plate inside the vacuum tube, exposed to the direct cathode
stream, and got no result (Lodge, Electrician, Vol. xxxvi, p. 473).
The same experimenter has suggested an eificient and quick way of de-
tecting the presence of Routgen rays. An insulated metal plate elec-
trically charged, either positivelj^ or negativelj', quickly loses its charge
when in the presence of the rays. This occurs even when the plate is
entirely embedded in the best insulators. It follows, then, that all sub-
stances become electrical conductors, when under the influence of the
Rontgen discharge.

Should the longitudinal ether-wave theory be demonstrated to be the
true one. Prof. Rontgen's discovery would be the greatest of the age,
and will open up a vast new field for experimental research, and will
likely lead to more definite views concerning the nature of the luminif-
erous ether.

Soon after the announcement of this wonderful discovery, we began
to experiment in the Physical Laboratory of the University of Pennsyl-
vania, at first rather skeptically and quite in the dark as to the exact
method of procedure. As the earlier statements implied the necessity of
two induction coils, the primary of one connected to the secondary of
the other, we were somewhat embarrassed as we did not have two that
could be efficiently joined in that way. To show the importance at-
tached to this point by early imitators of Rontgen abroad, let me quote
a statement by A. A. C. Swinton, who, I am told, was the first in Eng-
land to repeat some of Rontgen's experiments. He says (Nature, Vol.
liii, p. 377), "So far as our own experiments go, it appears that, at any
rate, without very long exposures, a sutticieutly active excitation of the

1896.]

21

Crookes tube is not obtained by direct connection to an ordinary
Rhumkorfif induction coil, even of a large size. So called 'high fre-
quency currents,' however, appear to give good results, and our own
experiments have been made with a tube excited by current, obtained
from the secondary circuit of a Tesla oil coil through the primary of
which were continually discharged twelve half gallon Leyden jars,
charged with an alternating current of about twenty thousand volts
pressure, produced by a transformer with a spark gap across its high-
pressure terminals."

Having no such apparatus as this at the University, and thinking that
possibly some indication might be obtained from a simpler arrange-
ment, w^e left out the second coil and joined the tube directlj' to the
secondary of the tirst coil. The coil we are using was constructed by
Apps, of London. It has a primary resistance of about 0.3 of an ohm,
and a secondary resistance of about 3200 ohms. The Crookes tube
which is one of the collection in the physical cabinet at the University,
is a shadow tube nearly twenty-flve centimeters long and eleven centi-
meters in diameter at its larger end.

The first result that was unmistakably a success was obtained on
"Wednesday, February 5. A small slip of glass and a piece of sheet
lead, together with a wedge of wood, were held in place upon a sensi-
tive photographic plate by elastic bands, and the whole enclosed light
tight in an ordinary plate holder. This was placed horizontally upon a
table, eight or ten centimeters below the large end of the Crookes tube.
An exposure of twenty minutes produced, upon development, a sharp
impression of the objects, the glass and lead appearing opaque, while
the portion of the plate covered by the wood was hardly less affected
than the parts entirely unprotected. The sight was startling at first as
every experimenter who gets the result for the first time can testify.
This experiment was immediately followed by an attempt to obtain a
skeleton view of the hand, the result of which will be shown by the first
slide.

From that time until the present, many experiments of a varied
nature have been tried, the object being to investigate substances with
reference to their transparency ; to detect, if possible, refraction or re-
flection ; to determine the action of various crystals cut in different
ways with reference to the optic axis ; and a few experiments to test
the possible efficiency of a special method of treating the sensitive film.

Early associated with the w^-iter was Dr. H. W. Cattell, who obtained
some very curious cases of malformation of the hand and fingers, and
produced results which have proved extremely interesting from a surgi-
cal point of view.

Our experiments on crystals have not resulted in much that is inter-
esting, except, perhaps, in one case which I will refer to presently.
One plate exposed had upon it a tourmaline, a double image prism, a
Nicol prism, an amethyst, an irregular quartz crystal, some mica discs.

^^ [Feb. 21,

aud some quartz plates with parallel sides. These all seemed to be
rather opaque, though I think the exposure was probably too short.
We shall experiment in this line at another time.

The second slide shows the skeleton of a lady's hand, which, as far
as I know, is the first that has been produced.

The third slide illustrates the difference in the density of the nega-
tive caused by times of exposure on the four quarters of the plate of five,
ten, twenty, forty -five minutes respectively. During the exposure of
each quarter, the rest of the plate was protected by metallic screens.
The test objects on the plate, are : a circular piece of cork ; a gold coin ;
a strip of magnesium tape ; a piece of glass, and a piece of aluminum.
The distance of the tube from the plate was about ten and a half centi-
meters during all four exposures.

The fourth slide shows the skeleton of a mouse, taken laid flat upon
its back ; the legs being stretched out and brought as near the plate as
possible.

Slide No. 5 shows the density of the negative produced by five-
minute exposures, at distances of two and a half centimeters, five cen-
timeters, seven aud a half centimeters, ten centimeters aud twelve and
a half centimeters respectively. The plate was protected by a screen
of copper having a circular aperture about one centimeter in diameter.

Slides No. 6 and 7 show the density produced at a distance of two and
a half centimeters, with exposures of one to five minutes. These slides
were also prepared to demonstrate the efficiency of a plate especially
sensitized by Mr. John Carbuttof this city for this work. He conceived
the idea that the photographic plate might be rendered more sensitive
to this energy, if the film were treated with some fluorescent substance.
Mr. Carbutt very kindly placed in our hands some of the special
plates, and your attention is directed to a comparison between a very
rapid ordinary plate (Seed's No. 27), and the one especially prepared.
The treatment throughout was precisely the same. The prepared plate
seems to have been considerably more sensitive than the other.

Slides Nos. 8 and 9 show the results of tests to demonstrate the pos-
sibility of reflection or refraction, by means of two large diamonds set
in a ring. First the diamond ring was enclosed in a flat purse with
some coins, and certainly the result is very interesting, though, per-
haps, it would be premature to say that anything new is proved by it.
The ring was next placed open directly upon the covered plate, aud ex-
posed in two positions.

Slide No. 10 shows a possible application of the Riintgen process.
"Wishing to test the value of the method for detecting flaws in metals,
the writer requested one of his associates. Dr. Richards, to have pre-
pared three aluminum plates, four or five millimeters thick, with hidden
holes, plugs, or any flaws that might seem desirable. Dr. Richards was
asked further to prepare a detailed description of the plates, to sign and
seal it, and to bring it with him this evening. The aluminum plates

1896.] "^^

have been examined by means of the Routgen process, and it may be
interesting if one of your members will open the envelope and compare
the description therein, with the one that will now be detailed. The
picture tells its own story pretty well, even to the uninitiated. No. 1
seems to have three circular holes, plugged up with some substance,
doubtless aluminum, having the same radiographic density as the
material of the plate. No. 3 appears to be perfect. No. 3 has two
holes similar to those of No. 1, and a third stopped up through a por-
tion of its length by some substance les? transparent than the aluminum,
perhaps a piece of copper or iron wire (Dr. Richards' Description of
Aluminum Plates).

Our experiments during the last two weeks have been made at all
times of the day and evening, sometimes in full daylight, and often
with no light at all, except that emitted by the tube. The presence or
absence of luminous radiation seems not to make the least ditference in
the results. We early learned that sharper outlines could be obtained
by omitting the usual plate holder, and wrapping the plate in several
thicknesses of orange paper. By this means actinic light was excluded,
and the objects were brought nearer to the sensitive film. During this
series of experiments, the writer has received much assistance and man}'
valuable suggestions from his associates in the department, Dr. H. C.
Richards, Dr. R. R. Tatnall and Mr. G. C. McKee.

In connection with this subject, it is desired to direct the attention of
the gentlemen present to a remarkable coincidence which can hardly
fail to excite interest. In the fall of 1889, the writer received a letter
from a prominent gentleman in Philadelphia, asking him to call at a
convenient and early date, to be presented to a friend who was desirous
of obtaining facilities for some experiments in electric spark photog-
raphy. On the occasion referred to, the writer had the pleasure of
meeting Mr. W. N. Jennings, of Philadelphia, who for many years has
been much interested in the photography of lightning. It was Mr.
Jennings' wish to photograph electric sparks from various forms of ap-
paratus, in order to compare the results with the lightning pictures
which he had already obtained. It is needless to say that the series of
experiments, begun at that time, have been continued to the present, as
occasion and opportunity have made it convenient.

The particular meeting of interest occurred on the evening of Feb-
ruary 32, 1890. Slides 11 to 14 show the result of some of our experi-
ments on that evening. We photographed the brush from a large in-
duction machine, by holding the uncovered plate in various positions
near the poles. We also placed coins and brass weights on the plates,
sparking them by means of the Apps induction coil in various ways.
After finishing the experiments of this sort, the writer brought out from
the cabinet quite a variety of Crookes tubes, and showed them to Mr.
Jennings simply for his pleasure and amusement. The desirability of
getting Mr. Ives to reproduce some of the color effects by means of his

24

[Feb. 21,

beautiful method was suggested. A few days later, Mr. Jennings an-
nounced the results of the evening's work and mentioned that several
of the plates that had not been exposed directly, but which were de-
veloped along with the others, were found to be fogged. He also men-
tioned one, upon Avhich had appeared a mysterious disc, that he was
quite unable to account for as the character of the impression was en-
tirely different from those that had been obtained in the regular way.

The matter was forgotten until about ten days ago, when the writer
asked Mr. Jennings to look over the records of our early experiments,
to see if we ever exposed a plate entirely covered in the plate-holder.
He immediately did so, and found the plate upon which had appeared
the mysterious disc. A very reasonable explanation now is suggested.
The disc is doubtless the shadow picture of one of the coins made while
we were viewing the Crookes tubes. To add still more weight to this
theory, we repeated, a few days ago, the experiment in the same way
that it must have been made, if at all, on that interesting evening. The
original plate and the result of the recent experiment, we have the
honor of showing you here. Now, gentlemen, we wish it clearly un-
derstood that we claim no credit whatever for what seems to have been
a most interesting accident, yet the evidence seems quite convincing
that the^As^ Routgen shadow picture was really produced almost ex-
actly six years ago to-night, in the physical lecture room of the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania.

Arthur W. Goodspeed.

University op Pennsylvania, February 31, 1896.

Prof. Edwin J. Houston's Eemarks were as follows:

It is unquestionably the fact that although natural truths cry aloud to
the scientific inquirer, yet they may long remain unrecognized. We
have heard to-night, in the excellent paper Prof. Goodspeed has read,
that although the apparatus Ave have just seen was in the possession of
the University of Pennsylvania, and although it undoubtedly long ago
produced the Rontgen effects, yet they were undetected. I had myself
a similar apparatus in the philosophical cabinet of the Central High
School ; and the Rontgen rays were unquestionably produced by it,
but they were not recognized. Many a case of a curious shadow pho-
tograph, appearing mysteriously upon a plate believed to be good,
strange shadows coming out, the cause of which could not be detected,
wei'e most probably some of these Rontgen photographs.

The paper we have heard has reviewed in so able a manner the com-
paratively few facts that are known concerning this peculiar form of
radiant energy, that I may, in my remarks, be forced to repeat some of
its statements, but it may, nevertheless, be of interest to you if I do so
in other language.

The term cathode rays is applied to the stream of electrified molecules

1896.]

25

that pass in a rectilinear direction from the negative electrode, or
cathode, of a suitably exhausted vacuum tube. This peculiar eft'ect is
not observed to any marked degree until the residual atmosphere in the
tube has a tension or pressure of but about the one-millionth of an
atmosphere, or until that peculiar condition of matter in the tube is ob-
tained, for which Crookes proposed the name of the ultra-gaseous, or
radiant state. It appears that wherever (he cathode rays strike the
walls of the tube, or any suitable substance contained therein, they
excite fluorescence. The cathode rays are deflected by magnetic flux.
Indeed, they must be so deflected if they consist of streams of electri-
fied molecules ; for, their deflection by magnetic flux is a phenomenon
allied to the deflection of a voltaic arc by a magnet, or the deflection
of the active wires on an electromagnetic motor, by the flux from the
field magnets.

Reviewing briefly the history of the Rontgen discovery, we will find
some of the facts to be as follows; viz., Hertz showed that thin metallic
films are transparent to the cathode rays. Lenard, an assistant of
Hertz, who afterwards took up the investigation both in connection
with Hertz and individually, placed an aluminum window in the tube
so that the cathode rays impinged on it. You probably noticed, in
looking at the radiation from the tube shown by Prof. Goodspeed, that
the rays did not light up the entire surface of the tube, but that a spot
directly opposite the cathode was markedly excited by the phos-
phorescence. That is the spot where a peculiar kind of radiation, called
the Lenard rays, or the Roatgen rays, was observed ; the Lenard rays
in one condition of the vacuum, and the Rontgen rays in another con-
dition of the vacuum. Assuming, that the cause of the Lenard or
Roatgen rays is the impact of a molecular stream of electrified particles,
most iDrobably molecules, we may inquire as to their origin. They are
evidently either disengaged from the substance of the negative elec-
trode or cathode, or they are simply the molecules of residual gas in the
highly exhausted tube. Inasmuch as Pupin has shown that electrode-
less Crookes tubes, that is, tubes not provided Avith interior electrodes,
produce the same effect, it would seem fair to believe that botht he
Lenard and the Rontgen efi'ects may be due to molecular bombardment
of the molecules of the residual atmosphere. In these electrodeless
tubes, pieces of tinfoil are placed on the outside of the tube, and the
terminals of the Ruhmkorflf coil being attached to them, discharges are
produced by electrostatic induction corresponding to the discharges of
the secondary of the Ruhmkorff coil, and all the eff'ects of either the
Lenard or the Rontgen rays are produced.

Lenard states that his rays are faintly visible to the eye outside the
tube. They are, however, rapidly absorbed by the air, so that at a
short distance from the tube they cease to be visible. The Roatgen
rays, on the contrary, are invisible to the eye. Both the Lenard and
the Rontgen rays produce phosphorescence in phosphorescent materials

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 150. D. PRINTED MAY 25, 1896.

26

[Feb. 21,

on which they impinge ; they both traverse opaque films of metal ;
they both produce actinic effects on photographic plates. That the
Rontgen rays are something different from the Lenard rays is proved,
I think, by the fact that they are not by any means so absorbable bj' air.

It may be interesting to know how Rontgen's original eii'ects were
obtained. He took an ordinary Crookes tube, or at least a tube con-
taining the proper vacuum, and completely covered it with blackened
pasteboard so as to render it light tight to ordinary light. He took a
paper screen which he painted with a substance capable of being ex-
cited by fluorescence, a solution of barium-platino-cyanide. He then
found that wherever this screen was impinged on by the Rontgen rays,
it fluoresced.

Rontgen found, that his rays, like the Lenard rays, possess the strange
power 9f passing through many substances opaque to ordinary light.
It is generally believed that the source of the Rontgen rays is the por-
tion of the glass tube which receives the bombardment of the molecules
shot off from the negative electrode. In other words, the Rontgen
rays are caused by the cathode rays. That they are not the cathode
rays themselves is evident from a brief review of some of their charac-
teristics.

1. The Rontgen rays are invisible to the eye.

2. They excite fluorescence. (In this respect, however, they agree
with the cathode rays and the Lenard raj^s.)

3. They produce actinic effects. In this respect they agree with the
Lenard rays, but are entirely differentiated from the cathode rays. A
photographic plate has been placed inside a Crookes tube and the
cathode rays have been caused to impinge on it. They failed to pro-
duce any actinic effects. There are clearly then these differences ; the
Rontgen rays produce actinic effects ; i. e., they possess the power of de-
composing a photographic salt placed on a sensitive plate, and are not
deflected by a magnet. This latter point has been confirmed recently
by some very careful experiments made by Dr. Oliver Lodge. The
apparatus would have detected any deflection had it existed.

There is, however, a marked similarity between the Lenard and the
Rontgen rays. The source of both is believed to be the cathode rays.
Thej" each produce fluorescence ; each possess the power of passing
through substances ordinarily opaque, the opacity increasing appa-
rently with the density, thou^gh not in direct proportion with the den-
sity. The Rontgen rays, however, difler in the valuable property of
not being so readily absorbed. The Lenard rays, though not deflected
by a magnet, in free air, are deflected by a magnet when they are
caused to enter a highly exhausted chamber — at least, so Lenard states.
It is said that Prof. Wright, of Yale, a careful student and one whose
opinion is to be regarded, does not think that the Rontgen rays difler
from the cathode rays. He rather looks on the Rontgen rays as
strained cathode rays.

1896.]

27

That the Rontgen rays possess three characteristics of ordinary light ;
viz., rectilinear propagation, as shown by their ability to cast shadows ;
the power of producing fluorescence ; and the power of effecting chemical
decomposition in a sensitive photographic plate. They difter from light,
however, in nearly all other respects. If they are ether waves they may
be transverse waves, which we know of; or they may bethelong-looked-
for longitudinal waves. They are, however, apparently incapable of re-
flection, refraction or interference, all characteristic of transverse vibra-
tions. If they are transverse vibrations they belong to some part of the
spectrum that we have not hitherto studied. In the opinion of some phys-
icists they belong to a region considerably below the red ; in the opinion
of others they are exceedingly short wave lengths, possibly approaching
atomic or molecular dimensions.

I have used in connection with my colleague, Dr. Kennelly, in the
study of the Rontgen effect, both the character of apparatus described by
Prof. Goodspeed, as well as other apparatus. Dr. Kennelly and I, charge
a battery of Leyden jars with the discharge of a large Ruhmkorft' coil ;
we get a spark discharge and a spark gap, and then use that spark dis-
charge, which is an oscillatory discharge, through the primary of a Tesla
coil. We thus obtain in the secondary coil an exceedingly high discharge
and use this to excite the Crookes tubes. The Tesla coil was immersed
in rosin oil. It seems from the experiments we have made that these
very rapid oscillations are not so apt to injure the tube and apparently
produce better results. However, in sharp opposition to this, I hear a
rumor, though it is only a rumor, that at the Johns Hopkins University
they are working in the opposite direction ; viz., with very few oscilla-
tions of the primary per second. I hope Prof. Rowland, who is conduct-
ing these experiments, will soon let us know what he is doing.

Mr. Edison has been a tireless investigator in this field of physical re-
search.

Prof. Schuster is decided in his opinion that the Rontgen rays are not
the cathode rays. He agrees that the point of origin is where the stream
of negatively charged molecules strikes the glass. Prof. Whiting finds
gum to be the most transparent and rock salt the most opaque substance
to the action of the rays. Prof. J. J. Thompson states that the cathode
rays are incapable of affecting sensitive photographic plates. We all know
that the ultra-violet rays, which some think are the same as the Rdutgen
rays, will effect the discharge of a negatively excited body. Prof J. J.
Thompson has shown that the Rontgen rays will effect the discharge of
either a negatively or a positively excited body, and this whether or not
the body is surrounded by the highest insulating substances known to the
electrician, like vulcanite or parafine. Of course, I know that most of
you will know what this means ; viz , that a leak takes place in those
substances ; or, in other words, that while the Rontgen rays are passing
through these substances they become conductors of electricity.

28

[Feb. 21,

Mr. Carbutt : Do I understand j^ou to say that no positive results have
been obtained yet at the bell of the receiver of the exhaust pumps?

A. I say that I understand that no sensitive plate has yet been obtained,
■which, placed in the Crookes tube, will have any aclinic effect produced
on it by the cathode rays. "When they pass outside the tube they are no
longer cathode rays.

Q. But if placed on the bell of the receiver of an exhaust pump?

A. I have not tried that.

Q. Just to-day I made the experiment of exposing a pair of steel
scissors ; and in five minutes obtained a strong negative effect, getting my
rays from the negative pole.

Q. Then they went through the glass of your receiver ?

A. No, sir ; they struck right on the metal scissors.

Q. Where had you your photographic plate?

A. On a bell receiver. I used no Crookes tube, nothing but just the
rays as they came down from the negative pole. The plate w^as lying on
a little table as connected with the positive pole and the rays were seen
traveling down on the plate on which were laid tiie scissors.

A. I think you had an effect very mucli like the electric discharge
effects shown on the screen to-night. I believe that a great many state-
ments made concerning the ability of other sources of light to produce
Rontgen rays are due either to heat effects, or to electric effects.

Dr. J. Cheston Morris asked if Edison was experimenting with celluloid
plates. Prof. Houston said he did not know.

Eemarks by Mr. Julius F. Saclise were as follows :

So far as the photographic properties of the new X rays of Rontgen are
concerned, it is yet a question whether they will ever be of any practical
value or use for photographic purposes, as the term is usually understood.

The fact that these rays can neither be refracted, condensed nor dis-
persed, is a fatal objection to their application to photograpliy.

It will be noticed that all of the registered or permanent results obtained
and shown here this evening are by no means photographs in the ordinary
sense of the word; they are merely fixed shadows or "sciographs"
obtained by the interposition of a sensitive gelatine plate.

I do not wish to be understood as depreciating this new factor in
physics, nor to appear skeptical as to any practical results that may be
forthcoming in the future. It is now certain that a great discovery has been
made by Prof. Rontgen, notwithstanding the fact that these identical
rays have been produced thousands of times, in nearly every physical
laboratory in the world, and that it only needed the neighborhood of a
luminous film to reveal them, and to do this was Prof. Riiutgen's oppor-
tunity. The step to substitute a sensitive plate to register the shadow
was a short one, and we have here to-night a practical demoDstration of
the results.

1836.1

29

I now wish to call your attention to another peculiarity of the new
P.ontgen rays, that has just come to my notice, and had time permitted, I
should have had the specimens here to illustrate my remarks.

The most exhaustive series of photographic experiments thus far made
in connection with the Rontgen rays are the investigations at the Im-
perial experimental institution at Vienna (K. K. Lehr- und Versuchs-
anstalt fur Photographic in Wien). Thus fiir no results have been
obtained greater than the original skeleton hand of Prof. Rontgen. Scien-
tifically, however, the curious fact has been learned that the actinic action
of the so-called X rays is dependent to a great extent upon the medium or
support that holds the haloid salts in suspension.

It appears that for some reason as yet unknown the new Rontgen
rays have a peculiar affinity for a sensitive plate whose support consists
of animal matter or gelatine. Now if we take a plate of equal sensitive-
ness, but substitute collodion for gelatine, and expose it to the action of
the X rays, no effect whatever is produced. The rays seem to be abso-
lutely inert the moment any medium is substituted for the animal support
of the ordinary commercial drj'plate.

This series of experiments at Vienna consisted in testing the ordinary
bromo-argentic gelatine dry plates of different degrees of sensitiveness
together with argentic-iodide collodion (wet) plates — bromide collodion
emulsion, and moist eosine bromo-collodion (Albert emulsion) and
argentic chloro-bromide collodion plates, the latter developed with an
alkaline solution.

The result of this series of experiments was that the Rontgen rays made
little or no impression upon any variety of the collodion plates whether
wet or dry, while upon the contrary every variety of gelatine plate, no
matter whethersensitized with argentic bromide, iodide or chloride, proved
a ready recorder for the Rontgen rays. The most effective plates were
what are known in Germany as the " Schleusner Rapid " bromo-gelatine
dry plate ; they are equal in rapidity to our American plates " Sensomiter
23."

It appears from this series of experiments that the most marked diflfer-
ence was found in the comparison of a chloro-bromo-gelatine dry plate
with a collodion wet plate, both of which were carefully tested as to their
equal sensitiveness by daylight prior to being exposed to the effect of the
X raj^s. Where the dry plate with alkaline development proved a suc-
cess, the wet plate with an acid-iron development was an absolute failure.

Another peculiarity shown was that an alkaline development in every
case gave better results than a neutral or acid one. Then again when a
dry plate of the kind giving the best results was moistened or dampened
before exposure, the sensitiveness for the X rays was greatly diminished.

Here perhaps we may find a solution to the problem why it is that none
of the American results obtained by use of the X rays thus far have been
equal, either in distinctness of outline or reproduction of detail, to the
German sciographs. It may be to the humidity of our atmosphere, more

30

[Feb. 21,

than to the quality and character of our photographic dry plates, or the
lack of skill of our experimenters, that we have to look for either cause or
failure.

It will thus be seen that many new factors enter into the photographic
development of the new forces. Conditions seem to arise at every turn
that are entirely foreign to those encountered when we work with either
solar or artificial light, and this independent from the optical features
which I have mentioned.

Now the question naturally presents itself as to which kind of sensitive
plate, or medium, should be used to obtain the maximum results of the
actinic action of the X rays, or in other words, by what means can we ob
tain the best permanent Photo-Sciographs?

As to the difference between the action of the X rays upon gelatine and
collodion I would venture the theory that if these results are confirmed by
experiments here, that it is due to the fact that while gelatine arrests the
X rays, they pass through or penetrate the collodion film. It this should
prove to be the case, it would indicate the use of double-coated plates, or
of a stripping film upon a support impervious to the X rays, such as a
sheet of lead. By such means perhaps photographic results of still greater
value might be obtained. I will here state incidentally that the Schleus-
ner plate used in the German experiments is coated somewhat heavier
than the average American plate.

I now come to another aspect of the possible development of the photo-
graphic properties of the new forces ; an experiment thus far untried in
.connection with the Rontgen rays. For this purpose I will turn back-
ward and take recourse to the original principles of heliography, and
suggest a series of experiments wherein we substitute for the gelatine dry
plate a highly polished sheet of metal, subjecting it to the action of the
X rays in the usual manner, and then seeking to develop the impinged
image, if there be one, with the fumes or vapor of mercury or iodine, or
the two in combination, a process well known to photo experts of the old
school .

Tests should also be made upon the silvered copper plate coated with
the vapor of iodine and bromine and developed with the fumes cf mer-
cury (the old daguerreotype process) ; or upon plain sheets of polished
copper, silver or tin, and developed either with vapor, or by the applica-
tion of heat to the reverse side of the plate ; a process known as " Hunt's
Thermography."

The above experiments are well worthy of a trial in connection with the
development of what may be called "photo-sciography."

In conclusion I will call your attention to a curious coincidence. It
was in this room just fifty-three years ago during the centennial celebra-
tion of this Society (May 29, 1843) than an almost identical topic formed
the theme for discussion, viz.: Moser's theory of "Invisible photographic
rays," a theory which was then attracting great attention in scientific
circles on both sides of the Atlantic. Remarks upon the subject were

1896.]

31

made by a number of members present, among whom may be named Dr.
Paul Beck Goddard, Joseph Saxton, Prof. Henry and Prof. James
Rodgers, all names that are still held in high esteem in the scientific
world.

While upon the subject of Moser's theory, I will state that therfe have of
late come to my notice several cases which seem to confirm his theory of
latent light, or invisible photographic rays. The most marked instance
was where a number of platinum prints were packed away and laid un-
disturbed in the dark for several months, and in several cases had repro-
duced themselves or formed a reverse positive picture upon the surface of
the white plate paper mount which laid immediately over the print I
merely mention tliis matter at this time so as to place it upon record, as I
expect to bring it before the Society in a more formal way in the near
future. As a fitting close to this paper I will quote the language of
Robert Hunt, used in connection with Moser's theory and read here half
a century ago, as it will apply with equal force to the theory of the un-
known waves known as the X rays of Roatgen : " As a subject of pure
scientific interest this discovery promises to develop some of those secret
influences which operate in the mysterious arrangements of the atomic
constituents of matter, to show us the road into the hidden recesses of
nature's works, and enable us to pierce the mists which at present envelope
some of its most striking phenomena. It has placed us at the entrance of
a great river flowing into a mighty sea, which mirrors in its glowing
waters some of the most brilliant stars which beam through the atmos-
phere of truth."

Referring to the paper read by Mr. Julius F. Sachse, Mr.
Joseph Wharton asked:

Q. Will the gentleman please explain more fully what is the action of
the X rays upon the more sensitive gelatine film as contrasted with their
action upon the collodion ?

A. I have not had the time to verify it by experiment ; but as the case
stands at present I cannot explain it except that the rays pass through the
collodion film : they fail to arrest. That is the only explanation I can
give at the present moment.

Q. That seems to be somewhat at variance with many of the observa-
tions that we have had set before us to night : namely, that a number of
so-called colloid bodies seem to be pervious to the ray ; while a number
of the crystalloid bodies seem to be impervious. Here are pitch, gum,
leather and several other bodies which are pervious to the ray (all col-
loids) ; while quartz, rock salt and other crystals (the speaker naming
several) all appear opaque to the ray. It may be worth while to bear in
mind, in future investigations, the question whether there may be a line
drawn between colloids and crystalloids in transparency for the new ray,
and if so to search for the reason of that distinction.

32

I Feb. 21,

Eemarks of Prof. Robb, of Trinity College, Hartford:

We are all indebted to Prof. Goodspeed for a very interesting paper and
must congratulate him. There is certainly a great deal of interest in
those slides. The first thing that attracted our attention in Hartford
about our dry plates was the fact that on a great many of them we
noticed second images which were clearly defined, but fainter than the
first, having decidedly the appearance of the ordinary halo images of
ordinary photography. At first glance one might thick that was due to
reflection. I am sure it was not due to any movement that occurred in
the plate ; and I am sure it was not due to a violet region of photograph. I
think exposures in bright light are a very dangerous thing. It is very
possible to get shadow photographs through any of the commercial plate
colors ; but in a great deal of our work where we have worked in the
ordinary light we have taken the precaution of using an aluminum cover
of over a thirty-second of an inch ; and we get second images to the same
extent using the aluminum cover. Of course there are various explana-
tions of it. It might be from fluorescence or other things that may sug-
gest themselves to you.

With reference to Prof. Moser's slow plates giving better effects than
rapid plates, that has not been our experience. We gave up the most
rapid plate. We experimented with the most rapid plate that we could
get, and we found some twenty of the plates were apparently light-struck ;
and finally we settled the question they were not light-struck ; they
were electric-struck by the brush discharge at the lower end of our
Crookes tube.

One thing is very apparent to all of us that have b3en doing much work
in this line — that the induction coil needs improvement. For as at present
constructed they are not made to run continuously for twelve hours.
They are all right to run for a few moments for showing off Crookes
tubes ; but platinum terminals soon wear out or become hot ; and we
have to put on new ones. In that connection I have a very good idea, due
to a mechanic who does a great deal of work for me, which I will show by
a sketch. The platinum point is about a quarter of an inch long ordinarily
and is attached to the end of a tube having a thread on it and gradually
wears away. Instead of fastening that piece of platinum directly under
the tube we take a piece of platinum wire four or five inches long and
place it on the end of a second metal rod which screws into the first. In
that way, instead of having simply a quarter of an inch of platinum to
wear off, we have some four or five inches at our disposal ; and in the
next place the heat is dissipated long before it gets to the soldered joint.

I think in connection with these photographs, there are shadow photo-
graphs ; but it is remarkable what an amount of detail we can see on
some of it. I have a photograph of a razor taken inside of the case which
is interesting to see. When we looked at it, it was very briglit in the
middle of the razor — more light coming through there than at the edge.

1896.] ^^

One of my students said it must be a hollow-ground razor ; and so we found
it upon measurement. The photograph that we saw on the screen by
Prof. Goodspeed of the aluminum plates with various holes bored in them
was interesting, both as showing what can be done in the case of
aluminum and what may be done in the case of other metals. From any-
thing we know now as to the Rontgen rays, it will be impossible to tell
much about armor-plating or anything of the kind ; or about the molec-
ular construction of any considerably thick pieces of the more opaque
metals ; but it does seem as though we can discover forms of ether vibra-
tion that will go through aluminum and go through hard rubber, and other
forms that will go through pitch and things of that kind, and that cer-
tainly some day we are going to discover some form of ether vibration to
which iron may be transparent. Of course we can all see what a tre-
mendous application that would have in the mechanic arts.

We have one or two rather interesting photographs from a medical
standpoint, showing its possibilities. Two or three of the students in
photographing their hands discovered differences. One case of sesamoidal
bone is very apparent, between the thumb and fore-finger of one of the
students' hands ; and then just two or three days ago we had a
laboring man who was out of work from an injured hand ; had been
injured in a runaway accident and had gone to a local physician who has
quite a reputation for doing poor work ; had his hand treated ; and it was
never getting well ; and we put it under the Crookes tube and, sure
enough, there was a partial dislocation and a fracture which had never
been attended to properly. Of course he was very glad to have us point
out how to remedy it.

We have experimented slightly with a very interesting Crookes tube.
We made a Crookes tube out of au ordinary lemonade shaker — whisky
shaker — I don't know what you call it down here — with a hard rubber
end in it ; and the results have been very negative. We have never
gotten any shadow photographs with it. We have simply taken three or
four photographs with it.

Mr. John Carbutt's remarks were as foUoAvs :

My interest in the new Rontgen rays has been from the first reading of
them. Being so interested in photography, when reading of the wonder-
ful results produced by Prof. Rontgen, I naturally saw that there was
going to be a much larger outlet for dry-plates. Outside of its commer-
cial value I naturally took an interest in its scientific aspect ; and the first
thing that struck me was the great length of time for which the objects
had to be exposed to the Rontgen rays. I therefore made it my business
to investigate and to see whether or not a plate could not be produced
which should be more sensitive to the Rontgen rays ; and, as mentioned
by Prof. Goodspeed, I experimented with the fluorescent substances, hav-
ing experimented with numerous dies in the making of anthochromatic

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 150. E. PRINTED MAY 26, 1896.

"* [Feb. 21,

plates. I knew that several of them gave off a great deal of fluorescence.
I have only produced plates printed on glass ; but I shall take up a line
of experiments at once by producing some on thin celluloid ; because,
for the physician and others that have cases to tend where the flat plate
would be very diSicult to use, the celluloid can be enclosed in an envelope
— sufficiently opaque to ordinary light — and can be bound around the
elbow or the shoulder or any part sufficiently round where a plate would
have to lie flat ; and I think it would find in that case several uses. I
have been experimenting with some professors (which matter I am not at
liberty just now to mention) when I made a sciograph negative of a
woman's hand in twenty minutes, plates as large as 14 x 17 being used.
A film of the same size could be bound around the back, for instance ;
and I think in that way that possibly the celluloid film (it is ^^g-ths
thick) may possibly come in use. As it has been mentioned that Mr.
Edison has been using slow to quick plates, I have not as yet experi-
mented with anything slower than a very rapid plate and am inclined
to increase its sensibility ; and I think that in a measure I have succeeded,
as Prof. Goodspeed has shown you. Since the sensibility of these rays is
a subject that requires both study and experiment, I do not propose at the
present moment to say that I fully understand all of its requirements ;
and it is in its experimental stage. I shall not let the matter drop ; I find
it very difficult to find any tubes that are giving the proper X rays. The
one that Prof. Goodspeed is using, so far as I have seen, is the best one
that I have come across. I have been using one to-day with which I gave a
full half-hour's exposure and got no results. The reason was explained
to me to-night in the remarks that were made that when a blue or a
purple color comes from the negative or cathode end of the Crookes tube it
is not efficient in giving off" the X rays. There is no doubt that a great
many professors who are trying these experiments and getting negative
results are working with inefficient Crookes tubes.

Eemarks of Dr. William Pepper were as follows :

I rise only to occupy the attention of the Society for a single moment.
In pursuance of the suggestion of Dr. Minis Hays to me, we owe very
much of the pleasure of this evening's discussion, he having suggested
that I write to some friends in Canada ; and as a result of it, I present
from Prof. Cox, of the MacDonald Physics Building at McGill Univer-
sity, Montreal, this brief note, accompanied by these four verj'- excellent
photographs illustrating the application of this method to surgical
diagnosis.

" The MacDonald Physics Building,
"McGiLL University,

"Montreal, February 18, 1896.

"Dear Sir : — Dr. Shepherd has sent tome your letter expressing a wish
to have some of our photographs for the meeting of the American Philo-
sophical Society on the 21st.

1896.] ^'^

" Our results have been in no way peculiar except that we were fortunate
in making a successful application to surgery almost at the start. I have
nothing to describe in the way of new methods. In fact there seems at
this moment to be nothing known or tried that was not suggested in
Rontgen's original paper.

"I am forwarding as likely to be of most interest a proof of the nega-
tive showing the revolver bullet between the tibia and fibula of a man's
leg. This was obtained on February 7, four days after my first photo-
graph. The print shows a copper wire fastened around the leg above as a
fiducial mark ;" (here Dr. Pepper interpolated as follows to the closing of
this parenthesis : " then on the Rontgen sciograph should be seen between
the tibia and fibula both in the positive and negative the small darker
shaded area indicating the position of the bullet") "and the flattened
bullet between the bones. The latter was extracted next day ; and
the patient is now nearly well enough to leave the hospital. The bullet
was two inches deep in the flesh and had been flattened into a ragged-edged
disc with a groove where it was lying against the bone. It had been in
the leg since Christmas night. Its position was guessed at ; but the photo-
graph converted a surmise into a certainty. On the same night, February
7, we obtained the hand of which I send a copy. It was interesting not
only for its good definition (for a fourth attempt), but because it shows
the rare sesamoid bones on the thumb and little finger. It belongs to a
champion canoeist.

"The main ideas I have found time to try — increasing the sensitiveness
of the plate by (1) placing a fluorescing screen inside the holder in con-
tact with it : (2) soaking the plate in the fluorescing substances — I now
see have been successfully carried out by Geissler, of Bonn ; so that I
have nothing new to interest your Society.

" Believe me,

"Very truly yours,

"John Cox."

"The idea was to excite sympathetic fluorescence and gain intensity by
resonance."

Dr. Pepper, continuing with original remarks : — As to Mr. Carbutt's
remark as to obtaining flexible discs for curved surfaces and this (from
Prof. Cox) interesting contribution as regards the diagnosing of internal
conditions, I would say tlie excitement has spread the world over :
every day I am receiving numerous letters, telegrams, visits from
people at a distance, coming to ask whether it has yet reached a
point to become an aid to internal diagnosis. I will not at this late hour
occupy the attention of the Society by calling their thoughts to the
obvious, the very great difliculties of this method. The tissues which are
inaccessible to the hand in palpation are guarded so often by bony sur-
faces that the danger of shadows existing — whicli will be almost more con-
fusing than the difliculties which surround our present means of diagnosis

*^^ [March 6,

— is very obvious. The field of investigation is of enormous proportions.
Tlie assistance of Prof. Houston and his associate, Dr. Kennelly, is
promised in entering on an elaborate series of investigations in this direc-
tion. Whatever may be the result, we promise ourselves the pleasure of
submitting them at a later period to the attention of the Society.

I have also here a few photographs of Dr. Henry Cattell ; but as most
of them have been published before I do not know whether he would
care to show them at present. i

Mr. Wliarton exhibited a tube contaiuing argon produced
by Lord Ea^deigh, which was presented by him to Dr. Theo-
dore Wm. Richards, of Harvard University. This tube being
arranged for sparking was iutroduced into the current of a
Euhmlvorff coil, where it made a tine display of color.

A number of the members examined this with a spectro-
scope provided by Dr. Goodspced, and thus observed very
clearly the characteristic lines of aro-ou.

Stated Meeting, March 6, 1896.

President, Mr. Fraley, in the Chair,
Present,, 24 members.

!Mr. Henry Pettit, a newl}" elected member, Avas presented
and took his seat.

Correspondence was submitted as follows :

Letters accepting membership from Dr. A. E. Kennelly,
Philadelphia; Prof. William Pitts Mason, Troy, N. Y.; Dr.
Henry C. McCook, Philadelphia ; ^Mr. Henry Pettit, Over-
brook, Philadelphia.

Letters of acknowledgment from Prof. A. E. Xordens-
kiold, Ph.D., Stockholm, Sweden (l-iS, 146); R. Accademia
di Scienze, etc., Modena, Italy (143, 144, 145, 146); Buffalo
Library, Buffalo, N. Y. (148); Dr. Albert P. Brubaker,
Philadelphia (147, 148) ; Hon. J. D. Cox, Cincinnati, 0.
(148) ; Colorado Scientific Society, Denver (148); Bishop
Crescendo Carrillo, Merid:i, ^'ucatan (148).

Accessions to the Library Avere re])orted from the Linncan
Society of N. S. Wales, Sydney ; Societe Ilollandaisc des Sci-

iS9C.] '^ *

ences, Haarlem, Holland ; Iv. D. Geograpliische Selskab,
Copenhagen; Societe R. de Geograpliie d'Anvers, Belgiqne ;
Gesellscliaft flir Erdkunde, Berlin, Prussia ; K. Gesellschaft
der Wissenscliaften, Gcittingen, Prussia ; Societa R. di ISTapoli,
Italia ; Dr. E. T. Hamv, Paris, France ; Philosophical So-
cietv, Cambridge, Eng. ; Theological Seminary, Andover,
Mass.; Academy of iNatural Sciences, Indian Eights' Associa-
tion, Prof. Wiiham F. Norris, Philadelphia ; U. S. Naval
Institute, Annapolis, Md.; Agricultural Experiment Stations,
Atlanta, Ga.; Las Cruces, IST. M.; Historical Society, Los
Angeles, Cal.; Observatorio Central, Xalapa, Mexico; M.
Alberto Sanchez, San Salvador, C. A.

A crayon portrait (framed) of Hon. Eli K. Price was pre-
sented to the Society by J. Sergeant Price, Esq.

The committees ai>pointed to examine the papers, "A 'New
Method of Determining the Perturbations of the Minor Plan-
ets," by Wm. McK. Ritter, M.A., and " On the Develop-
ment of the Mouth Parts of Certain Insects," by John B.
Smith, reported in favor of their acceptance, and on motion
they were referred to the Publication Committee for action.

Dr. Frazer then read a paper by Dr. Ed^y. Pepper, entitled
*' Eucalyptus in Algeria and Tunisia from an Hygienic and
Climatological Point of Yiew."

The subject was further discussed by Prof. Houston, Dr. Brin-
ton. Dr. AVm. Pepi^er, Dr. Frazer, Prof. Cope and Dr. Morris.

Dr. Morris, on behalf of the Curators, acknowledged the
receipt of the shadow })icture, and the photograph from it,
taken by Prof. Goodspeed during his demonstration on Feb.
21, and by permission of the Society was alloAved to present
his views on the subject.

It seems to me that such pictures should be called, not skiagraphs, or
photographs, but electrographs ; as they may be produced under various
circumstances involving absence of light, but always the presence of
some form of electrical energy — such as frictional electricity from the
driving belt of a wheel, or a magnet (as has been done in Baltimore),
or the direct rays of the sun in the presence of substances opaque to
light and heat.

It seems also to me that Ave have evidence, apparently convincing to
our senses, of a current or flow of a stream of some sort through the

38

[March 6,

Crookes tube, e. g., the rapid rotation of the radiometer when exposed
to it. This current or stream, of whatever it may be composed, is
striking with great intensity and velocity more than four hundred
million times per second against a thin film of glass which is not in a
normal condition of equal pressure on both sides — on one side is a
vacuum more or less perfect, on the other the w^hole pressure of the
atmosphere. Such rapid blows cannot do otherwise than place the
glass in an electrically excited condition — precisely like that of the plate
of an ordinary electrical machine. As the exciting cause in this case is a
current of negatively electrified molecules of air, the inner surface would
be negative, and the outer intensely positive, and this would induce cor-
responding conditions in all neighboring bodies. The current might be
very small, but of very high potentialitj^ ; hence would penetrate
deeply these surrounding bodies, but would also produce in them all
the phenomena of induction. To this excited condition of the glass
film of the Crookes tube we may refer the phenomena of phosphores-
cence, fluorescence and heating, which ensue by the transmutation of
forces — ^just as when a stone is thrown into a pond waves of various
size and frequency will be seen to be propagated and interfere with each
other. That induction is the cause of the formation of the picture is
rendered probable by the fact that the reduction of the silver salt takes
place next to the glass of the photographic plate, and not on the free or
gelatin surface ; and I would suggest as worth}' of experiment whether
the same efl'ect would not be produced through a series of similar plates
and not only on the uppermost one. Prof. McFarlan, of Easton, has
shown beautiful results proving the radiation of the energy from the
cathode of the tube, which also accord with the induction lij'pothesis.
"With regard to the useful applications of these rays, they seem to me to
aftord a rational explanation of some of the benefits of the currents of
induced electricity on nutrition and other vital functions, which those
of us who have emploj-ed it in our medical practice have often observed
Avithout being able fully to explain, and which we can therefore use
more intelligently and beneficially hereafter. So also with the ettects
of the direct sun-rays, or sun-bath, known from ancient times.

The plate shows the edge of the coins and other metallic bodies not
clearly defined, but surrounded as if with a shadow, or shading off;
this, when examined closely, seems to be composed of fine lines radiat-
ing from the coin or metal.

I therefore believe that the phenomena in question will be found to
be due to an induction of statical electricity, in great measure if not
entirely.

It may be well also to call attention to the fact that while sound, heat
and light can be reflected, refracted, transmitted or absorbed, no similar
phenomena have as yet been shown as to electric, galvanic or mag-
netic forces.

NcAV nomination for mcnihcrsliip lo-tG Avas reaJ.

1896.] «^*^ [Pepper.

The President announced that he had appointed Dr.
Pepper, Dr. Frazer, Mr. Ingham, Mr. Jos. C. Fraley and Dr.
Hays the Committee for the special meetings agreed upon at
the last meeting of the Society.

The Society was adjourned by the President.

Eucalyptus in Algeria and Tunisia, from an hygienic and cUmatological
point of view.

Bij Dr. Edward Pepper.

{Read before the American Philosophical 'Society, March 6, 1S96.)

INDEX.

(hap. I. Division of Algeria and Tunisia into tliree zones, as regards climate, water,

trees, healtli and population.
Chap. II. Chronological facts relating to the growing of eucalypti in Algeria and

Tunisia.
Chap. III. General and special advantages of these trees. Limitations of their uses, and

objections to them.
Chap. IV. Species and varieties most serviceable in Tunisia and Algeria.
Chap. V. When, where and how to grow them.
Chap. VI. Commercial value of eucalypti.

I.

Divisiox OP Algeria and Tunisia into Three Zones as Regards
Climate, Water, Trees, Health and Population.

Algeria and Tunisia are properly divided into

Division of three zones as regards climatological, liydrological

Algeria and and botanical, as well as hygienic and etlmographic

Tunisiaintothree conditions.*

zones as above _,, , m, n i • •

indicated. ^^^^ southern zone, ihe hahara, consisting gener-

ally of a vast area of sand, moving and j^et in parts
solidified as by petrifaction (hamada), inhabited by semi-barbarous and
roving tribes ; and of oases of date-palms, inhabited hy settled and less
barbarous communities.

The middle zone comprises the high plateaux, or steppes, covered
with a wild vegetation (herbaceous, fructiferous and rarely arborescent)

* As regards purely hydrographical conditions, these countries are divided into only
two zones : the basin of the Mediterranean and that of the desert, all water not flowing
in the one flowing In the other direction. But as regards practical hydrology or
hydroscopy and its influence on the climate, these colonies are, as stated, properly
divided into three zones here described.

Popper.] ^" ' [March 6,

and sustaining numerous flocks of sheep and camels ; also sparsely in-
habited.

Finally the northern zone, or coast region, El Tell, is generally culti-
vated and much better watered and wooded, and has both plains and
valleys, hills and mountains. Here the European population of thi'ee
or four hundred thousand only slowly increases by birth as well as by
immigration, among three or four million more prolific lowland Arabs
and Kabyle mountaineers.

The Algerian and Tunisian year has but two sea-

The year lias sons : the dry and the wet. The former or summer
but two seasons. comprising three rainless months, July-October, and
the latter or winter months, October-March, ofiering
generally short and frequently heavy showers and rains, and four
months of showers lighter and fewer as the season draws to its close.
The transition between these seasons is often sudden, an almost vertical
sun radiating great heat over the land as soon as the cloud-screens have
disappeared from the atmosphere.

A peculiarity of the coast region (the Tell) is the

Local climates diversity^ of the local climates (in most cases im-
abound in the i)roperly called artificial) due to geological and
coast region. geographical conditions, such as the nature, con-

formation and lay of the land as regards the higher
hills and mountains, valleys and rivers, the sea, lakes, etc.; and also
to orographical characteristics, such as the height of the mountains, the
depth of these valleys, etc.; as well as to hydrological facts, such as the
presence, absence, abundance or scarcity of the waters, flowing or
stagnant, either above or underground. These local climates also de-
pend on the extent of the surface cultivated, and, to a lesser degree, on
the nature of the plants grown. A soil left to, or returning to nature,
such as that of the most northern Africa after the Arab conquest, is ever
harmful ; the Corsican maquis, the Indian jungle, the African brush,
the Australian bush, etc., are among the strongholds, and so to say
the lairs of disease, especially of malarial disease.

Moreover, the winds that blow over a country exercise the greatest
of all influences on climate and vegetation, and consequently on health.
There are parts of northern Africa, as of Asia, of America and of Aiis-
tralia, and even limited parts of Europe, where a progressive popu-
lation can never dwell, while the physical causes actually at work
exist.

In the coast region of Algeria the same communes, nay even tlie
same towns frequently exhibit diff'erent climates in their ditt'erent i)arts.
Thus, Algiers itself has distinctly two local climates : that of the Bab-
eloiied and Marengo quarter is more bracing, that of the Bab-Ozouu
and Isly more relaxing. These difl^erences are of great importance to
the sojourners generally and especially to invalids passing the winter
in Algiers ; and they are even more marked in the suburbs of St.

IS'.iO.] 4-L [Pepper.

Eugene with its northeastern and of Mustapha witli its exposure south-
eastern, the hxtter being under the predominating influence of the ex-
tensive Bay of Algiers.

The mountains of tliis region have generally a drj- and Ijracing air,
with severe cold in winter in the higher altitudes, Avhcre snows last
through many months, and where e\'en cases of frozen extremities
are not rare. These highlands would in summer have great attractions
and advantages as climate stations if they possessed suitable accommoda-
tion for sufferers from the heat, debility, or malaria, prevalent in so
many parts of the lowlands. Such sanataria would, in many cases, do
aAvay with the necessity of the yearly trip to Europe, habitual with an
ever-increasing class of the population.

The general climate in this region, as elsewhere, is

General cii- ij^t the sum of local climates, with their differences
mate the sum of ^j. ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^ dampness. As to the latter, it is

tlie local c 1 1 - .

mjjtg^_ noticeable that the atmosphere is almost saturated

on and near the seashore during the sitmmer, except-
ing when the wind blows from the desert lying to the south and princi-
pally to the southeast ; the dampness being at its maximum when the
northeast wind blows ; while further inland the dampness diminishes
and finally disappears. Thus, on the seashore and in its proximity the
air contains less moisture in winter, although it is the rainy season then
and the moisture is most manifest ; that of summer being more per-
fectly dissolved in the air, and (excepting when the northeast winds
bloAv) being recognized more readily by the hygrometer. The rainy
winter months are naturally the damp months in the interior.

In the prosperous days of old, Algeria and Tunisia
Algeria and were relatively thickly wooded, as were most of the
Tunisia were countries bathed by the Mediterranean, and they
•well-u'ooded and. i i ^i t iii ^i mi

,^,. . were doubtless more healthy than now. The moun-

h e a 1 1 h 1 e r 111 •'

ancient times. tains and hill-sides, the plains and alluvial levels of

the Tell, as well as some parts of the high plateaux,
have appropriate soil for trees, which in the former region would still
abound if not systematically ruined by the fires kindled by the Arabs,*
and the abuse of pasturage, their almost universal waste of wood,
resins and l)arks, among which may be cited valuable cork and tannin
barks.

Actually the fourteen million hectares of the Tell

Extentofwoods have less than fourteen hundred thousand hectares

remaining as of forests left, offering scrub or brush, and less fre-

comparedtotiiat ^^^j although there are fine exceptions, forest

ot trance. i j> » .,.,,.„

trees ; as compared to the seven or eight million of

* And yet new growths frequently spring np from the ashes of these fires, under the
teeth of "the cattle, so to speak ; but only to be tired again to produce new pasturage,
until finally in this w(^akly and intermittent existence the beneficial influence exercised
on the;climate by trees is reduced to a minimum.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 150. F. PRINTED MAY 26, 1896.

Pepper.] 'i'^ [March 6,

hectares of generally better woods remaining in France, with its surface

of about fifty million hectares.

The above fact is (^uite sufficient to justif}^ the alarm-cry of the Ligue

clu Reboisement, which, alas, has so far been "vox clamantis in de-

serto."

Consequences This ruthless destruction of forests, groves and

of the ruthless frequently of scattered trees is still going on and is

destruction of the main cause of the diminution of the rainfall, the

trees which is exhaustion of the soil and of the consequent un-
still going on. ^

healthiness of many sections.

Other causes of agricultural decadence and of un-
Othercausesof healtliiuess have manifestly been at work in north-
agricuiturai de- ^^,^^ Africa slnce the Arab conquest, such as the waste
cadence and un-

healthiness. ^'- Di'^iiure, which is left to breed disease around the

gourbis and douars, the Avant of proper alternation
in crops, the superficial mode of tilling and the always incomplete culti-
vation of even the small surfiice that the Arab deems strictlj' necessary
for the maintenance of his family and domestic animals, his calculations
(?) being based on an average crop.

This is not true of the Kabyle mountaineers, a dift'erent and thrifty
race, comparatively progressive and who, like the Swiss, cultivate in a
primitive way, it is true, yet very generally, all their soil.

To sum up, of all countries, Algeria and Tunisia, so
Urgent reasons sparsely inhabited as compared even with the less
treer*'^**"""^ **^ densely populated nations of Europe, require to be
well provided with wood on account of the general
dryness of the climate (except on or near the seashore), the unequal
distribution of the rain-fall, which occurs only during the cooler months
of the year, when the heavy downpours are in a great measure wasted
by the impermeable nature of the soil on the Tell, where the head-
waters are torrents, and the lower and more level parts of the small
rivers lose by evaporation much or sometimes even all of the water re-
tained for any length of time in summer ; woods are needed also on
account of the great variations in temperature and dampness before
mentioned, and which in the middle and southern zones produce nycthe-
meral differences of as much as forty and even fifty degrees (centi-
grade), while in the northern, the hygrometer attains its extreme re-
cording limits, now under the influence of winds immediately laden
with the moisture of the sea, anon subjected to the parching action of
the desert. Not only should woods be protected in these colonies, but
as many trees as possible should be grown ; for is it not an axiom in
climatology that (except in countries lying in the path of damp winds)
a large proportion of woods is indispensable to that equable distribution
of heat, cold and dampness which produces successful agriculture, a
lioalthy climate and general prosperity ?

1896.] ^^ [Pepper.

II.

Chronological Facts as to the Growing of Eucalypti in
Algeria and Tunisia.

The first seeds of eucalypti consigned to the earth in
Date of intro- northern Africa were sown in the Jardin d'Essai of
diictionof Euca- Algiers in 1862, by Mr. Hardy, director of the botani-
lypti into nortii- cal garden thus named, and in the same year by the
ern Africa. Comte de Belleroche, who procured them from the

director and sowed them in his property in the Com-
mune of El Biar, four miles from town.*

These experiments having succeeded, the trees were

Successive ex- soon grown to prevent malaria, still so prevalent

penmen ts in throughout northern Africa, and which made most

growinsf them as , . ., . , ^nnr^ i -.n^n , .,

a preventive of cruel ravages m Algeria between 1867 and 1876, while
malaria. immigration and the development of the colony were

receiving their greatest impulse.

The importance of preserving the public health where satisfactory, and
of improving it in the more numerous districts where conditions and cir-
cumstances were against it, was, at this time, more generally recognized
by the government and the people. The "Fonts et Chaussees,"f the im-
portant companies and societies, corporations, municipalities and many
private individuals grew eucalypti in the principal settlements infested
by the disease, believing that they had at last discovered a panacea
against the evil.

In 1868 Mr. Ernest Lambert, inspector of the forests of Algeria, sowed
a grove on the Bouzareah mountain, above Algiers, where now is the
forest, or rather wood of Baihneu. Then Dr. Mares, atBoufarik, planted
a grove on his farm, reporting to the Societe d' Agriculture seven years
later that the health of his neighborhood was satisfactory. Malaria in
its worst forms had constantly prevailed there until then and until the
land Jiad been successfully drained.

During the two succeeding years, the Societe Algerienne planted 100,-
000 eucalypti near Ain-Mokra, a village on the shore of Lake Fetzara.

The mining company of the Mokta soon followed with many still
larger plantations in the same region, where the public health improved
towards 1875, the mines being thenceforth worked during the summer,
an impossibility until then, owing to the excessive mortality among the
workmen, due principally to pernicious forms of malaria.

The latter plantations remain among the most extensive in Algeria, and
offer a striking instance of the frequently great aid given by eucalypti
against malaria. Thick curtains of the trees were grown between the
lake and the village, while, at the same time, a draining canal was cut in

* Now known as El-Afla, and belonging to the author.

t Government engineers, entrusted with the construction and repairing of roads and
bridges, and the buoying of harbors.

Pepper.] ^"i [March G,

the shallow bed of the lake, sufficiently deep and wide (so thought the
engineers) to carry off the stagnant waters and dry up the swamp. This
result, however, was not attained, but yearly thenceforth the waters of
the lake were emptied early enough in the spring, and before the summer
heats, for the spongy shores to be covered with an herbaceous vegeta-
tion offering here and there comparatively fair pasturage. The coincidence
of this partial draining with the planting of eucalypti does not permit
the conclusion that the improved sanitary condition of Ain-Mokra is
wholly due to these trees.

At Maison Carree, Cardinal Lavigerie and the white Fathers, as well
as MMs. Sauliere, Cordier, Trottier and others sowed and planted, the
first large the last small, groves of eucalypti, with a marked improve-
ment on the health of the community, which, however, still remains far
from good.

These enterprises were rapidly followed by many others, and now most
Algerian villages, especially if in malarial districts, have more or less
extensive groves or avenues of eucalypti, and many farms are also well
provided with these trees.

in.

General and Special Advantages Claimed for Eucalypti. Limi-
tations AS TO THE Uses of and Objections to Them.

Among the advantages of trees in general, shared
Advantages of to a certain extent by eucalypti, is the grateful shade
trees hi general, procured in hot countries to dwellings, and to cattle,
including euca- ^^^| ^^jj^^ domestic animals.

lypti: shelter, _, ■,.-,■,. ,. .<., ,

good effect on Trees also, mcludmg eucalypti, gratify the eye, and

the morale and the latter have totally changed the aspect of the plain
on health. of the Isser river, since they have been grown around

its villages and farms. This is not merely an festhetic
result. The fact has its practical importance as acting directly on
the morale and therefore indirectly on the physical state of the colonist.
For trees form in the barren regions almost the only objects on which the
eye rests with pleasure, recalling the triumph of man over desolate
nature, diminishing in the heart of the pioneer that terrible longing for
less stern realities and cherished scenes in the past, which, if not checked
in time, opens the door to disease, even in the most robust constitutions.*
Another general advantage of trees, particularly of
Forests cause eucalypti, is that forests, like mountains and other
the winds to barriers, as is vv^ell known, when opposed to the wind
ascend and pro- ^^^^^ j^ ^^ ^.jg^^ dilate and cool in the higher and more
duce rain. ./,-,■, ^ , , , , .

rarified layers of the atmosphere, whence result con-

* We remark incidentally that in Algeria and Tunisia trees are not more numerous
than at the time of the French conquest ; they are fewer in fact. But trees, csiiecially
eucalypti, have been grown judiciously, where most serviceable to health. The cultiva-
tion of the viae has also acccjmplished much good, more even than eucalypti, because so
much more extensively jilanted.

1896.]

45

[Pepper.

Special advan-
tages of euca-
lypti. Rapid,
gi'outh.

densation, saturation of the diffused aqueous vapors and finally rain.
If, as Miguet says: "A forest is worth a mountain to produce rain,"
then the higher and more numerous the trees, as the higher and more
extensive the mountain, the greater the precipitation of water, ceteris
paribus* Scrub growths seem to exercise little or no influence on
the rainfall, as witnessed in Greece, northern Africa and elsewhere,
where this wild vegetation is principally composed of lentisci and
dwarf palms, while we observe that the few million trees grown in Egypt
under Mehemet Ali and his successors have brought back rains unknown
for ages. This is doubtless a fair inference and not merely a coincidence
due to other, such as cosmic causes.

Among the special advantages of eucalypti, one of
the most important for the colonist, who can ill afford
to wait long for a result from his labors, is their rapid
growth, as compared to that of other trees suitable to
this climate, excepting perhaps some acaciis mimoste,
as shown by the following table approximately correct
for an average appropriate soil and exposure :

Age, Years. Height, Metres. Cikcumference, Metre.

1 3 0.10

2 5 0.15

3 7 0.30

4 10 0.40

5 18 0.55

6 15 0.75

7 17 0.90

8 19 1.10

22 1.45

25 1.60

Moreover the trees thrive where no others will, in
the bad lands of these colonies, generally resisting
great heat, and several species withstanding relative
cold and even slight frosts and snows, as in Austra-
lia.

To their balsamic odorf is perhaps due an antimias-
matic action on the surrounding atmosphere ; and
certainly the constant evaporation through their leaves
of the dampness taken up by the roots is a most im-
portant agent of improvement for soils needing to be drained, while these

* Bare mountains lying in the path of damp winds naturally produce torrents and
landslides instead of the useful rains occasioned by wooded mountains.

tThis balsamic exhalation from the young shoots, twigs, the leaves and fruit is due to
an essential oil similar to that of cajeput, which being oxidized by the air, produces
ozone, and which, when refined, gives eucalyptol, a sort of camphor in composition and
chemical properties, most serviceable as a febrifuge, tonic stimulant, aseptic and anti-
septic.

9
10

Resistance to
lieat aud to .sliglit
frost.

Antiuiiasuiatic
action.

Pepper.] ^^ [:March 6,

trees have not the inconveniences of some other hardy trees of a slightly
less rapid growth, but also useful for draining, such as plane trees, to
which are ascribed (?) many cases of conjunctivitis and keratitis, preva-
lent in Algeria, Tunisia and throughout the East generally.*

Frequently malaria is not due to the soil on which a village or farm
is built, but to the neighborhood. In this case a heavy curtain of euca-
lypti interposed is always useful and often sufficient to arrest the disease.
Of course the swamp, or whatever be the nature of this infectious soil,
must not be too extensive or pestilential, and the curtain must be of suffi-
cient extent and thickness.

The eucalypti form open forests, free from under-

Thev form open , , ,, ^ ^ ^ i. ^ ^, ■ t i_

forests brush, that great temptation to the mcendiary shep-

herd, who sacrifices health and well-being to a scant
resource in actual pasturage for his flocks (see above the eflfect of burn-
ing down trees). If the subsoil be compact, the roots return to the sur-
face ; if permeable, they remain sometimes deep enough to allow a few
scant and coarse grasses to grow between and under their shade, if the
trees are ftir enough apart.

The seeds are light and fertile and readily dissemi-
Their seeds pro- nated by the wind, thus propagating their species and

extending plantations.
A permanent The foliage is perennial ; its benefit to the atmosphere

ijenefit to tiie (hygrometrically, electrically and antimiasmatically)

atmosphere.

is permanent.
Tiiev are killed Besides, many species are killed with difficulty, and

with difficulty. when destroyed above ground by axe or saw send out

numerous shoots from the stump ; at first easily broken
ofi", but finally firmly fixed, and during the first three years or so giving
leaves similar to those of j^oung trees of their age ; that is, lighter in color,
more flexible, sticky, cordiform, etc., and possessed of greater antimias-
matic virtue than the leaves of older trees.

It is well known that the protection of land against

A great protec- wind by an obstacle interposed between it and the

'"linstwind wind is directly proportional to the height of the

obstacle and approximately to twenty times that
height. Therefore, eucalypti protect a much wider tract than most other
trees against strong or otherwise harmful winds, such as the blighting
sirocco. With a height of forty metres thej' protect a strip of four fiftlis of
a kilometre in width, the highest indigenous trees not protecting more
than half this surface. The height to which eucalypti rapidly attain is,
therefore, a sufficient reason for preferring them to other trees, except some
Acacitc, Mimosoe, to protect land against winds. Alternate rows of euca-
lypti of appropriate species can be judiciously cut down near the ground

*At Boufarik the great improvement in public healtli is due to plane trees, and
mainly to the thorough draining of the marsh on wliich the village is built, and where
hundreds of colonists lie buried.

1893.] ^* [Pepper.

and kept trimmed, so as to afford protection by the branches sprouting
from their mutilated stumps ajicainst wind passing between them and the
higher trunks of the rows left uncut.

Finally, ashes of the eucalypti contain more
.'hes'in^ otasii potasli than those of most European or North Amer-
. lean trees.
A resource as ^ov kindling and firewood, as fully described fur-

ther on, most eucalypti offer no advantages, although
serviceable when other woods are scarce and dear, and constituting a
precious resource in these colonies against the ever-increasing price of
fuel.*

Necessary limi- Naturally eucalypti have their limitations, as has

tations to their every useful plant in nature, and it is a well-known
ciimatoiogicai fact that they have not materially improved the uu-

and hygienic ad- favorable conditions of disease-breeding soil and atmos-
^ " phere in the oases, where the former remains undrained

and indeed iindrainable, except at the sacrifice of fruitful vegetation, lost
as are these favored spots in the immense desert of ever-heated sands.
Again, even the most extensive forests of eucalypti cannot neutralize the
poison of very large swamps or of tlatlands inundated only throughout the
winter, as is the bottom land containing Lake Fetzara, already men-
tioned, where the trees cannot be planted with success, either on account
of the excessive moisture of the ground or by reason of iis brackishness
resulting from the great evaporation.!

It would, indeed, be expecting too much from eucalypti to count upon
their counteracting in Northern xifrica all the evil influences at work in
many parts, and which in other countries they have been vainly expected
to overcome.

The Italian reports are not generally favorable to

Italian reports , . , . ■, . . . , . i

conflicting. eucalypti, nothmg decisive, it seems, havmg been

ascertained as to their superiority over all other trees
in rendering less unhealthy the immense swamps of the Roman Cam-
pagna. It must be conceded that the climate of Italy is less favorable to
these trees than that of the Algerian and Tunisian coast regions. How-
ever, as noted by De Pielra Santa,:): "Malaria remains prevalent and

* Mr. E. Lambert, before quoted, claims other special advantages for the eucalypti, such
as their immunity from the mandibles of the locusts, who devour other vegetation and
even linen ; and he mentions the protection their shade would afltbrd to the thrush, black
birds and other locust-eating birds if these trees were more extensively grown in the
barren i>lains. He also claims that their foliage and bloom would feed the honey bee, as
iu Australia, whereas apiculture is now generally confined to the mountains, which are
better wooded and less parched in summer, when, in spite of the heat, the insects remain
active in this climate.

t " Eu. restrata lives in water containing as much as 1 per cent, of chloride of sodium,
but with as much as 1.50 per cent, good results are rare " (Dr. Trabut, Professor of Na-
tural History at School of Medicine of Algiers).

t Pietra Santa, "Assainissement de la Campagne Romaine," Journal d'Hygcine, 1881-
1883. Also Genie Civil, May, 18S3, Vol. iii, p. 312.

Pepper.] 40 [March 6,

severe in the very districts of the Campagna of all others where it was
expected that the disease would have been stamped out, so to speak, by
the general planting of eucalypti, especially when, as was the case in many
of these places, vigorous cultivation of the soil was added to their expected
action."

If now we turn to Australian reports, we remark, as
Australian re- recognized years ago by Prof. Liversidge, of the

ports prove a _^ . . 1^., ,.,..,.,-

limited antimias- University of Sidney, that : " Malaria is far from rare
matic action in the vast forests of eucalypti of Australia." Al-
against powerful though without doubt these trees have always a bene-
causes of ma- g^jg^j action, this is not sufficient, as previously stated,
to overcome the powerful causes of unheallhiness that
are at work in many places. Referring to this point, Tomasi Crudeli*
justly remarks that : "If all malarial soils had the same chemical compo-
sition and were similar topographically (and we may add if they had the
same climate), then, perhaps, these trees could be expected to improve the
unhealthy soils, so as greatly to attenuate or even to eradicate the disease,
if at the same time all the diverse modes of improvement which have suc-
ceeded in rendering some of them healthy were applied ; at least, we could
only be justified under such circumstances in expecting a good result.
Unfortunately, malaria is bred in very dissimilar soils, and we even recog-
nize its presence on the granitic plateau of Castille. So that systems of
soil improvement applicable to some malarial regions are useless in others.
Until now we have proceeded empirically wherever we have introduced
eucalypti, and such will be the case until a long series of scientific obser-
vations and researches, combined with practical experiments, shall have
furnished exact information as to each distinct variety of soil which pro-
duces malarial poison."

If such be really the fact, let us trust that the dawn is breaking, and
that each ray of light thrown on the subject even by such short papers as
this (be the ray never so weak) may, when collected into a beam, aid us
in seeing where the truth lies.

Objections have been and are still urged against

Ob.jections to e^^caiyptj, "vVe will only refer to them here, adding a
eucalypti as l>e- •' ^ •'

ing ugly, as being word or two of refutation. This first objection is that

d e fi c i e n t in they are ugly. This, however, is only relative, and

shade, as twist- does not extend to all species, some being quite orna-

ing their fibre to j^gQ^^l. The second is that their leaves hang vertically

T'lic iciLj cIpS not _ ^

growing with and gi^e incomplete protection against sun or rain.
other trees and But such protection is preferable to none, surely. An-
as not being re- other is their strong tendency to twist to the left.f
muuera i\e. which greatly interferes with their being sawed into

* Tomasi (Yudeli, " La malaria do Rome et I'ancicn drainage des collines Komaines."
Lecrosnier, 18M.

tTliis levogyration, wliich constitutes the main objection to eucalypti, after the consid-
eration that thi'V are unromunerative, has never, as far as I^hdwu, been exphiined satis-
factorily. It is. 'however, niueh less manifested, as liere noted, in close and extensive
plantations, and there is a marked difference amons tlie sjieeies as to twisting. But why
is this twisting ever to the left, without regard to the direction of the wind?

4Q

1896.] ^^ Ll'epper.

planks ; but this twisting can be lessened in many cases by growing
the trees in close and extensive plantations, which gives most of them
proper protection against the winds. Yet another objection is that euca-
Ij'pti will not thrive generally when iutergrown with other trees, and will
interfere with the other trees and even kill them off; or, more rarely in
these colonies, that they will be injured by the other trees. Both of these
facts can be prevented by leaving sufficient space between eucalypti and
the other trees.

The principal and insuperable objection to eucalypti requires also but a
simple mention here : there is no money to be made from them, or, at
least, such is the experience of the growers until now, the trees having
been introduced into Algeria and Tunisia more than a quarter of a cen-
tury ago. Those who recommended their being grown by others for a
large profit have benefited by being prematurely rewarded by the govern-
ment for their zeal.

Alas ! that favorable prophecies, with all the calculations to support
them, should have proved fallacious.

IV.

Species and Varieties of Eucalypti Most Serviceable ix Tunisia

AND Algeria.

Among the very numerous species and varieties of eucalypti, our choice
is founded on the recent study and actual knowledge of the trees. Eu.
globulus (blue gum) grows well enough in generally dry soils,* and yet is
especially suited to damp subsoils; its leaves and fruit are rich in essential
oil and it is abundant in its indigenous soil, Australia. We owe the fact
of its being the first species introduced into northern Africa to these ad-
vantages, as mentioned in our second chapter ; also to the fact that there
was at the time a relative, if not absolute, ignorance of the merits of the
more valuable and equally hardy or even hardier species (which are
still not sufficiently known in these colonies). But its wood is inferior
for any purpose, as is fully stated elsewhere, and the red gums have been
generally preferred within the last few years.

We refer at length in our last chapter to the many qualities of E2i. mar-
ginata, w^hich is as yet so extremely rare as to be scarcely noticeable in a
practical nomenclature of species found here.

Among the most remarkable species of red gums grown here are Eu.
rostrata and Eu. resinifera, and numerous hybrids or crosses of these
species. The former, when extensively grown from the seed and planted
out, furnishes a good wood, withstands the dryness of the summer in the
interior, seems to be one of the most resistant of trees, and reproduces it-
self spontaneously in the coast region (where, probably, it will soon be-

* Nevertheless it sometimes dies suddenly witliout apparent cause after attaining a
considerable size.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 150. G. printed JUNE 5, 1890.

Pepper.] '^^ [March 6,

come acclimated). The latter withstands intense drought and requires
deep and dry soil.

Besides the above species, among the most robust and advantageous to
northern Africa, according to Dr. Trabut, are the following: *

Eu. tereticornis.

Eu. amigdalina.

Eu. botryoides.

Eu. colossea (Eu. diversicolor).

Eu. cornuta.

Eu. corinocalyx (dry soils).

Eu. gompJiocephala (still rare, but most useful).

Eu. goniocalyx.

Eu. leucoxylon (Eu. sideroxylon) .

Eu, maculata.

Eu. mulleri.

Eu. occidentalis.

Eu. polyanthema (Shaw), Eu. populnea of Miiller, Eu. populifoha of

Hook, etc.
Eu. rostrata (brackish swamps).
Eu. robusta.
Eu. romeliana (hybrid from Eu. botryoides and Eu. rostrata, leafy and

strong, obtained by Dr. Trabut).
Eu. rudis (large capsules).
Eu. soUgna.
Eu. mminalis.

V.

Where, Whek and How to Grow Eucalypti in These
Colonies.

Eucalypti, like Acacia, Mimosm, and plane trees, thrive
Where to grow . . . , , -, ^ -,

iiieoi. ^^ countries where there are but two denned seasons ;

yet in Algeria and Tunisia they are only to be grown

in the coast region, especially in the larger valleys and on the hillsides.

Neither the extreme cold of winter on the high plateaux of the central

zone, nor the extreme heat of the southern or Saharan zone and the

changes between the temperatures of day and night, are suitable to them.

Adaptable to widely different conditions of temperature, according to

species and to the composition, depth, dryness or dampness of the soils in

different parts, yet, in the words of Sir Lambert Play fair, f it would be

* Dr. Trabut, Professor of Botany at the Ec61es Superieures, Algiers.
tSir Lambert Playfair, Consul General of Great Britain at Algiers, Report ou thi'
planting of Eucalypti in Algeria, May 16, 1877, No. 21.

1896. r "-'- [Pepper.

" as useless to attempt to grow tliem in the Tropics as it would be in the
north of Scotland."

For species suitable to special soils see preceding chapter. Generally
speaking, eucalypti should be grown throughout Algeria and Tunisia, pref-
erably in swampy localities, on the shores of lakes, arovind ponds either
shallow or brackish and partly dry in summer, in damp bottom lands, on
the banks of water courses which are sluggish or frequently changing
their beds (as are most north African rivers, which often ruin whole valleys
that might be fertile under other conditions), in places exposed to land-
slides or slips, for they are generally not on a large scale, although fre-
quent on account of the abundant clay of the coast region. We have
seen also that they aid in protecting villages and farms against noxious
winds, sun and the malaria, whether bred in locis or in the neighborhood.
Finally eucalypti are advantageously grown in any appropriate soil of
little value for other purposes, if a judicious choice be made among the
species. Whatever be the locality chosen, the surface soil must be perme-
able and otherwise suitable ; the subsoils, if compact, force the roots to
spread out mesh-like to considerable distances, sixty metres as we have
measured, in the direction of water or of deeper and better or damper
soil.

Without a ditch of a couple of metres in depth be-

wiiere not to ing dug as a separation between eucalypti and the
grow them, other more valuable plant, no eucalypti, particularly

not Eu. globulus, should be grown near these plants
(orange or other fruit trees, vines, flowerbeds, etc.), nor too close to a
spring (always most precious in these colonies), a well, a reservoir, a
building or any useful wall, as eucalypti send out roots which absorb the
nourishment of other plants, and sometimes ruin constructions even of
cement.

Eucalypti are grown from seed, either sown in loco,

Three modes of in the open field where the trees are to remain, or, pref-
propagation. erabl}' in Algeria and Tunisia, the seed should be

sown in pans, the young trees being planted out prop-
erly and at the proper time ; or they are grown from young trees.

The seeds take from fifteen to twenty days to germinate, according to
soil and season. They are small, light and generally fertile. They
should nowhere be covered by more than a centimetre of finely divided
earth.

Water is generally scarce in Algeria and Tunisia, and artificial irriga-
tion being expensive, cannot be attempted, if the plants are to be grown
on a large scale.

For both sowing and planting, the ground should

Preparation of ^^ prepared several months before the seeds or the

the ground for trees are consigned to it. The soil should be broken up

sowing and by a subsoil plough to a depth of 0.05 metre or more,

planting. when possible, and all foreign growths removed.

5Q
^^,.,.^..j — ■ [March 6,

Shortly before sowing in tlie open, the ground
should be ploughed crosswise, that is in both direc-
Sowing in tiie tions, and reploughed lightly in furrows 1.5 metres
open. apart. The seeds should be carefully deposited every

two steps (or at intervals of 1.5 metres) and covered
with a thin layer of fine earth. Of course, this entails irregularities in
the interspacing of the shoots, as manj' seeds do not germinate, being
blown or washed away or washed under, and the young plants of the
same species grow more or less rapidly, according to the quality of the
surface soil, and in a lesser degree to the nature of the subsoil in various
places in the same localities, and moreover the growth is less rapid for
some time than when young shoots are planted. This sowing in the open,
which should take place at the beginning of the rainy season, appears to
be cheaper than sowing in pans and planting out the young trees a few
mouths old, the labor being so much less, but in the end it is dearer as
so many seeds do not germinate, and the sowing has to be renewed fre-
quently.

The seeds are preferably sown in pans or boxes, and
Sowing in pans the young trees planted out at the proper age and
to plant out the season.

siioots. "Prepare a compost of vegetable mould and river

sand very finely sifted. Fill the pots of 0.15 metre in
diameter, press the earth lightly and evenly with a small zinc cylinder of
about the same diameter as the pot. Scatter the seed on the surface so as
nearly to cover the whole of it, then, with a very fine sieve, which may
be a zinc cylinder similar to the other but perforated with very minute
holes, sift just enough of the compost on the seed to cover them and no
more. Press this surface again lightly with the first cylinder and water
with a watering pot, the rose of which is perforated with the smallest
holes which it is possible to make. This should be done in early May, so
that the trees may be planted out at the first rains of autumn when the
ground is moist. Within fifteen or twenty days tlie seeds will have
germinated, and in about six weeks the plants will be ready to put out.
Weed off as soon as the trees have produced four leaves, and transfer to
other pans of 0.1 metre in diameter, to be kept in a shady place for the
first day or two, and tlien transfer to a sunny position ; water during
the summer just sufliciently to prevent them from dying. The great ob-
ject is to retard their growth during the summer so as to keep them small
and prevent their roots from becoming matted inside of the pans.

A second sowing may take place about the middle of September, so
as to obtain young plants ready to be put into the ground about the be-
ginning of spring. In some respects this plan is preferable to the other,
and it is always so when the plants can be Avatered in summer. The
young trees have a shorter time to remain in the pans, and their roots
run less chance of becoming matted ; but often, when the rains cease
early in the year, they have not become gutficientlj- rooted in the open

1890] Od [Pepper.

to enable them to resist tlie heat of summer without occasional irriga-
tion.

"The Eucalyptus is a plant that does not stand being kept long in a
pan ; its roots grow with as great rapidity as the rest of the tree, and,
if they are allowed to be contorted round the inside of the pan, the tree
does not recover from this unnatural condition of things and seldom
grows straight and healthy."

As previously stated, as soon as the ground (which

Planting in the has been broken up and freed from other growths,
open on a large ]ate in the winter or early in the spring while wet)
**''' *'' becomes again impregnated with the rains of autumn,

plough and plant out the young trees of three to five
months' growth (which have often five to eight leaves each), at inter-
spaces of four metres in trenches, and as thej' increase in height, pro-
gressively fill in the trenches, till in six months they have entirely dis-
appeared, and instead of a depression, the earth becomes piled up round
the stem of the young trees ; this serves not only to keep the roots
moist, but to prevent the slender stem fi'om being blown over by
heavy Avinds against which eucalyptus should always be protected as
much as possible to prevent twisting and a slow growth.

It is well to give each plant a good watering when put into the
ground, but they will generally not require another (?).* The soil
should be kept free from weeds and open for the first two or three
years, which may be conveniently done by passing a cultivator between
them in each direction once or twice a year. After the third year they
may be left to themselves and will require no further care.

"Weakly specimens are eliminated wherever necessary and their
places filled with hardy plants, until a full plantation of trees is ob-
tained from four to five metres apart."

"When eucalypti are to be planted on quite a small

Planting on a scale, instead of trenches, holes of a cubic capacity

small scale. of 0.5 metre may be made; but this is not to be

recommended in the open field, as the heavy rains

are apt to fill up the holes with earth and smother the plant, instead of

being carried otf hj the open trenches above described.

"By judicious management plantations can be

Definite aspect obtained in which the trees are about four metres
of a plantation. apart, and after ten years or so, every alternate row
in its entiretj' may be cut down, leaving the remain-
ing trees at eight metres apart."

* It sometimes happens, when the rains cease early m the year, that ihe young
■eucalypti have not become sufficiently rooted during their short sojourn in the open
ground to enable them to resist the heat of summer without occasional irrigation.

Pepper.] O"* [March 6,

VI.

Commercial Value of Eucalypti in Algeria and Tunisia.

The retail price of Eu. globulus, much the most
Pecuniary profit abundant among eucalypti in Algeria, ^vhen cut up
fi-oin tiie trees for fuel and sold in Algiers is $0.50 a quintal (100
genera y. kilogrammes = 220 pounds), and yet we have been

offered by the trade for full-grown trees the same
sum, all expenses of cutting down, sawing and splitting into hearth -logs,
as well as of carting to town being assumed by the buyer.* The road
to town is good, down hill and only four miles long, and the cost of
transportation is estimated at about ten cents a quintal. If the road to
market is not very short and good, the trade will not hnj standing
eucalypti at any price, as there is no profit, and frequently a positive
loss in the transaction, and in the immediate proximity to any good
market the purchaser has to pay too high a price for his land to grow
eucalypti for sale.

Thus we see that the business scarcely exists at all on any scale worth
a longer notice here. And yet firewood is generally wretched in the
coast region, good wood being procurable only in the mountains where,
with the exception of the several military roads which are admirable,
the roads are few and bad. All fuel is therefore relatively dear, because
until now no coal mines have been worked, although several are said
to exist in the colonies.

In the towns and even in xllgiers old boxes, rafters from torn-down

houses and ragged roots of leutiscus areoftered and bought as fire wood.

Counting 800 trees to the hectare (2 acres 1 rood 35

Details as to perches) left after ten or twelve years, if the trees are
expenses of grow- ^\^q^ marketable (as they rarely are under the most

ingthe trees, and - , , ■,... , . . ^ , ,

*• . ~ ^^ favorable conditions and circumstances), we have, at

margin of iirofit '

or loss. say 50 cents each, $200 for the product of an hectare

for ten years, or S20 a year, that is, about $9 a year for
the acre. From this sum, if we subtract the cost of growing the trees in
the most economical way, which is one-twentieth if the trees are grown
from the seed planted in loco (as previously noted), and which may be
estimated at $4 a year per acre ; and the interest on the price of the land
and other incidental expenses, we find no profit left, or even a pecuniary
loss, unless we start with very cheap or free land, most favorably and ex-
ceptionally well situated and with 2000 trees per acre, to be weeded out
during the first five or six years : and unless we can sell these younger
trees, which is a very rare occurrence, the trades preferring other woods

♦These trees were thirty years old, but uiuler the most favorable couditions the trees
would possibly have brought the same i)rice at lil'teen.

1806.] 5o [Pepper.

for the numerous uses to which eucalypti are put in Australia, doubtless
for want of better wood.*

Not only is there, generally, no profitable market for

A small market the wood of eucalypti in Algeria and Tunisia, but

for the accessory ^^^^^ j^ ^ ^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ undoubtedly important

products of euca-
lypti^ accessory products of these trees.

From the leaves, twigs and fruits, giving the essen-
tial oil, there is still a little profit. For the oil when produced by the
colonist the demand is relatively small compared to what it should be,
high prices being asked for it by the retail dealers. f As to the tannin, it
is not used in Algeria and Tunisia, nor in France, as it is in Spain and
Portugal for the tanning of leather ; while the tannin of Mimosfe, or mimo-
tannic acid, is recognized as a most efficient aseptic and antiseptic, ren-
dering valuable services in therapeutics, and successfully used in diphtheria
by Dr. Bourlier, the discoverer, and others, as prepared by C. Brenta, of
Algiers.

Perhaps some choice species of eucalypti, such as Eu.
Possibility of marginata, Eu. leucoxylon (the black variety), will re-
some choice .si>e- deem the reputation of the trees as a source of pecu-
cies being pecu- QJary profit, when grown under the most favorable con-

llarly profitable ,. . ' ° tt .,

in the future. dilions and Circumstances. Until now, however, noth-

ing worth recording has been accomplished with this

*Ia Australia, as stated by M. Ernest Lambert, ex-Inspector of Forests in Algeria,
eucalypti are in general use for manufacturing such implements as pitchforks from
young trees two years old, whip handles, the handles of spades, hoes, sledgehammers
and other articles of daily use. Three-pronged pitchforks, always relatively dear, are
readily procured from the young trees, the stem of which is broken off or cut off and the
leaves of which are stripped from the two side branches of such trees, or a branch is
pinched so as to distribute the sap as regularly as possible in the three forks thus
obtained. At three and four years old the trees make carriage poles or shafts, ladder
poles, fence poles and rails, wheel spokes and other articles too numerous to be recapitu-
lated here. At five years telegraph poles are obtained, which the above-named author
and others affirm to be more durable than pine poles, and not to need to be injected by a
preservative substance to enable them to last. The pine poles are only procurable from
trees of twenty-five years' growth, during which, say the above-mentioned authors,
eucalypti give five fine poles to one tree. For supports in mines eucalypti have also
their places well defined, as, indeed, for railway sleepers, five or six of which are to be
had from trees of seven or eight years of age. At nine they serve as piles for docks and
quays. When cut up at this age they are serviceable for wheel naves, carriage brakes
and drays and what not, according to the same panegyrists.

t This oil is worth about $3 a kilogramme at Grasse, France. The parts of eucalypti
employed in its manufacture yield 2 per cent, in weight, while 10,000 kilogrammes of the
petals of roses and 700 kilogrammes of those of geranium yield but a kilogramme of these
more valuable oils.

Many products, of doubtful origin, actually used- in perfumery under fanciful names,
of supposed Japanese and other origins, seem to have no other merit (when they are not
positively oflfensive to the sense of smell) than their supposed scarcity and consequent
expensiveness. Eacalyptol, if rare or still supposed to be, would doubtless be sought by
the extravagant public as an agreeable exotic perfume. It would have the merit of being
a clean product of great virtue for the toilette, which is more than can be said of any of
these so-called perfumes— and, united in due proportions with pure white vaseline and
good toilette soap, it should be extensively used for toilet purposes.

Stevenson.] 5b [>rarch 20,

species, excepting the interesting experiment made by Dr. Bourlier on his
farm near Reghaia, where a few of this species have been successfully
grown, conjointly with clivers Acacite and especially with Mimosaj.

A fine, strong, inexpensive wood, almost uninflamma-
Desirabuu.y of ble and resisting decay, fit for barn and ship building,
the propagation railway ties, piles, telegraph poles, paving blocks,
of sucii tine spe- flood-gates, carpenter's work and even cabinetmaking,
cies as Eu. mar- , tt- ., .1 1 i a . t

„in^f^ such as liu. margmata, the yarrah wood or Australian

mahogany is claimed to be, would indeed be a boon to
Algeria and Tunisia, which have so far not been blessed with any such
treasure.*

It is a pity that, with the exceptions mentioned in

Alleged blind- , . ' -; . , . ,

ness of the pub- ^'^'® paper, the very many merits claimed years ago,
lie and market and Still claimed by some, for eucalypti in general,
to the merits of should remain unrecognized in Algeria and Tunisia hy
eucalypti in gen- those who have been induced to make the experiment of
growing eucalypti for profit. Either the public and the
market are blind to the merits of eucalypti, or else the numerous services
rendered by these trees are still better rendered by others at present in use
for agricultural and industrial purposes, as well as for fuel. It is needless
to mention which of these suppositions is the most likely.

On, the Remains of the, Foreigners Discovered in Egypt by Mr.

Flinders -Petrie, JS95, now in the Museum of the

University of Pennsylvania.

By Mrs. Cornelius Stevenson.

{Read before the American Philosojjhical Society, March SO, 1S96.)

Before entering upon my subject, I must explain that what information
I have with regard to this remarkable collection is mainly derived from
private letters received from Mr. Flinders-Petrie last winter at the time
of this most brilliant of all his brilliant discoveries, and at intervals since
then. Very little has, as yet, been published concerning them. The

♦ Like the reed of the fable, Eu. marginata is flexible and bends readily without break-
ing. A block of 0.5 metre in length and offering a square section of 0.25 metre bears,
before breaking, a weight of 1400 kilogrammes suspended from its middle, POO kilo-
grammes being the breaking weight of a ruler of oak of the same dimensions. The resist-
ance of Ea. marginata to crushing in the same condition is also greater than that of oak
(both woods having the same density), and is 350 kilogrammes to the S(iuare centimetre
of bearing surface ; its tensile strength is remarkable, S'JO kilogrammes to the square centi-
metre. Its resistance to parasites is very great, even the terrible white ant cannot per-
forate its grain, nor does the Teredo navalM cause its prompt destruction, as is the case
with other woods used in naval constructions, for Ea. margmata has been known to with-
stand the action of the shi]) worm for thirty and forty years (E. Lambert, above
quoted).

189(1,1 ^ ' [Stevenson.

report has not yet appeared, and the only sources of information available
are a catalogue of the objects exhibited at University College in London
last July ; some short articles published by Mr. Flinders-Petrie in the
Times and in the London Academy and reproduced in the American
Journal of ArcJueology, and a leaflet issued by the " Egyptian Research
Account" as a brief preliminary report to its subscribers. These with
the private letters above referred to form the basis of this paper.

You are aware that last winter Mr. Flinders-Petrie, whilst working in
the neighborhood of the villages of Dallas and Nagada— that is some
thirty miles north of Thebes (near the twenty-sixth parallel) on the
western bank of the river and on the edge of the desert — made some
remarkable discoveries.

In this locality were some Mastaba-tombs of the old empire (IVth to
Vlth dynasties) and a ]\Iastaba-like pyramid, similar in form to that of
Sakkara, with a sepulchral chamber scooped out of the sand bed below,
but entirely constructed of natural blocks, selected for size, and in no
way tooled or even broken, and therefore probably one of the earliest of
such structures.

The Mastaba-tombs likewise offered interesting peculiarities : access to
them was obtained through a stepped passage, which sloped down frqm
the north as in a pyramid. Nearly all these tombs had been anciently
plundered, and little, save a large number of stone and alabaster vases,
w^as found belonging to their original occupants.

In some of these ancient tombs, however, were discovered burials of
strange intruders, the evidences of w^hose general culture, beliefs and
funeral customs show them to have been strangers :n the Nile valley.
Not a single detail of their culture did they hold in common with the
Egyptians. Moreover, their number, which was found to have spread
over a considerable portion of upper Egypt, from Abydos to Gebelen,
over one hundred miles, whilst their influence was observable from
Tenneh to Hieraconpolis, i. e., over three hundred and fifty miles, and
the absolute control of the region which they assumed and which is
shown by the total absence of any object recalling Egyptian civilization,
show them not only to have been invaders, but invaders Avho once had
swept over the region and who, settling down, had lived there for a con-
siderable period, borrowing little or nothing of the people whose land
they occupied. As Mr. Petrie wrote in the first outburst of enthusiasm
following upon his great discovery: They form "a grand new puzzle
and might as well have been found in Siberia or in France for aught of
their connection with regular Egyptian antiquities."

This complete wiping out for a time of the Egyptian civilization is one
of the most striking features of this remarkable episode, and gives point to
Mr. Flinders-Petrie's discovery. In the large number of burials opened
"nota god, notascarab, not a hieroglyph, notan amulet, notan Egyptian
bead was found." These people were great potteiy manufacturers, and
yet, altliough they settled in a land where the potter's wheel had long

PEOC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. ir)0. H. PRINTED JUNE 5, 1890.

Stevenson.] "tJ [March 20,

been in common use, all their pottery is hand-made and of form and deco-
ration peculiar to themselves.

An Egyptian town in the immediate neighborhood yielded — in different
strata — pottery of the IVth, Xllth, XVIIIth and XlXth dynasties, and
presented not one single link with the peculiar manufactures of the
intruders. What, then, had become of the Egyptians on this extensive
tract of territory and during the considerable period represented by the
layers containing variations of the original industries of the invaders?

The kings of the Vth dynasty who ruled over united Egypt were said
by Manetho to have come from Elephantine, and vestiges of their power
and of that of their successors (Vlth dyn.) have been found from the
southern frontier of Egypt to the peninsula of Sinai. Even recently,
fragments of papyri have been found at Elephantine bearing the names
of Rameri and of Noferkara which must be added to the weight of evi-
dence already gathered to show the extent of their empire (London
Acad., March 14, 1896). They were powerful monarchs, and, like all of
Egypt's strong rulers, they were active in their building enterprises and
have left, written on stone, eloquent testimony of their power.

Of their successors, the Memphite kings of the Vllth and Vlllth
dynasties, however, nothing remains save a few scarabs bearing names
that can be identified with some of those given in the Egyptian lists for
that obscure period. Indeed the silence of the monuments is so complete
as to become positively eloquent. It is evident that some national
catastrophy occurred about that time which caused the dismemberment of
the great empire of the pyramid builders and reduced the power of their
Memphite successors to comparative insignificance.

Manetho gives five kings for the Vllth Memphite dynasty and twenty-
seven for the Vllllh. The Turin fragments give eighteen, and the tablets
of Abydos give a selection of fifteen. No doubt can exist, therefore, as
to their reigns having occupied a considerable period of time. There is
evidence that during the IXth and Xth Herakleopolitan dynasties, Upper
Egypt, which — as far as the monumental evidence is concerned — seemed
to have been wiped out of existence, reappeared upon the scene of history,
and that the princes of Thebes began to assert themselves and to grow in
power. Some important inscriptions found by Mr. Griffith in the tombs
of the feudal princes of Siut cast a flash of useful light upon this obscure
period. These princes, loyal to the kings of the Herakleopolitan dynasty,
fought on their side in their wars against tlie Thebau princes, whose in-
creasing pretensions threatened the power of their liege lords. These
facts are now all-important in restricting the limits in which must be
placed the episode of the foreign intrusion just brought to light by ^Mr.
Petrie's genius. It seems obvious that such an intrusion could not have
taken place had the Theban princes been as powerful as they appear to
have been under the IXth and Xth dynasties.

That the foreigners entered Upper Egypt after the great period of the
pyramid builders is shown by the fact that the ^lastaba-tombs referred to

1896.J OJ [Stevenson.

above were usurped by them to bury their own dead. Moreover, in the
step-passage of a Mastaba, a burial of the Xllth dynasty was found super-
imposed upon the remains of the strangers. Here were therefore three
well-deSned epoch-marking layers, and the fact that briclc tombs of
the Xlltli dynasty were constructed over the ruins of a town occupied by
these people, conclusively proves that their presence in Egypt preceded
the Middle empire.

Four necropoles and two mud-brick towns extending over an area of
five miles yielded the same result as to strata and relative occupancy. It
is therefore reasonable to see in this intrusion of a strange race, spreading
over so considerable a portion of the Egyptian territory, which it held for
so long a period of time exactly coinciding with the raonume'ntal break
in Egyptian history, if not the explanation of at least an important fact
connected with that break ; and to venture upon the assertion that a
migratory movement of some magnitude took place about 3400 B.C., of
which the people whose remains have just come to light formed a portion,
and by which the first united Egyptian empire was weakened and brought
to an end.

Mr. Petrie, assisted by Mr. Duncan, pursued his investigations at
Nagada, whilst Mr. Quibell, working for the " Egyptian Research Ac-
count," explored the burials near Ballas, both exploring parties continuing
their researches until over 2000 burials were opened and their contents
examined and secured. These made it evident that the invaders liad long
retained their peculiar customs and beliefs : Instead of cutting their
tombs in the solid rock as did the Egyptians, they dug their graves in
shoals of gravel in the dry water courses of the desert edge ; tliese graves
are open square pits of the type of those found at Mycenaj ; they were
roofed over with wood, and their average dimensions are about 0x4 and
5 feet in depth. Their size varies, however, from half to double those
here mentioned. Unlike the Egyptians who mummified their dead and
laid them stifliy stretched out upon their backs, the body, reduced to a
skeleton, here lay in a contracted position turned upon its left side, facing
the west, with the head to the south. Every body, or ninety-nine out of
a hundred, was found with the head taken off or removed. Short, oblong
coffins of coarse pottery, with a lid and resembling a chest, were used. The
bodies showed evidence of having been mutilated before burial. In one
fine tomb, the bones were heaped in the centre, whilst other bones, the
ends of which had been broken off and scooped out as though for marrow,
were placed around them. This led Mr. Petrie to suggest that they must
have been ceremonial cannibals. In other graves the bones were sepa-
rated and sorted out.

Large bowls of coarse pottery, such as those exhibited with the coffin,
contained ashes, probably of the funeral feast, and Mr. Petrie aptly
quotes with reference to this custom 2 Chron. xvi. 14, xxi. 19, and Jere-
miah xxxiv. 5, referring to a great burning made at every funeral — a cus-
tom probably Amorite. These were placed at the foot, and other jars,.

Stevenson.] ^^ [March 20,

such as may here be seen, and whicli originally contained liquids — beer,
■water, etc. — were placed along the sides. As many as eighty vases have
been found in one grave, and few interments were provided with less
than ten or a dozen. Among these were sometimes found a vase of black
incised ware, evidently imported.

Jars of pottery with wavy handles, containing scented fat or its Nile-
mud substitute, were placed along the head end, with a rough pointed
brown jar in the middle. This type of pottery, Avhich was very common
and which gave rise to varieties of forms and uses during the sojourn of
these people in the Nile valley, must be regarded as part of their indus-
trial equipment, and is so specialized as to have led Mr. Petrie to suggest
that these men were related to the Amorites of Palestine, who used
similar pottery and who, he thought, might be another branch of the
stock to which these invaders of Egypt belonged.

In bringing these objects to your notice, 1 am laboring under serious
disadvantages and I must claim your indulgence should it so happen that
I cannot make all points of detail clear to you. Although the collection
reached here early in the winter, lack of proper space to work it up and
to display it with safety, prevented my unpacking it until now, and I have
not had a chance to study each specimen as it should be studied. This is
all the more to be regretted as the material is quite new, and as, for the
first time in the course of our much more than satisfactory relations, Mr.
Flinders-Petrie, owing to pressure of business, was unable personally to
superintend the packing, so that I have had very little to guide me in my
identifications save my own limited experience and the general indications
furnished in Mr. Petrie's letters. The types peculiar to these strangers
are, however, as a rule readily recognized.

The main difficulty has been with the alabaster and stone vessels, of
which we have a great quantity. These are principally derived from the
Mastaba tombs of the old empire, and in sorting them there lies therefore
some danger of confusion, especially where, as in the later layers of the in-
vaders, a certain overlapping took place. I have, however, onlj^ brought
here those specimens of Libyan stone work as to the origin of which I can
entertain no doubt : Elongated vases of various dimensions with useless
ledge like feet too small for use, intended to be suspended by means of
long tubular handles, a frog of breccia, and various other types which
have no Egyptian equivalents. These stone vessels are hand-worked and
show no trace of the turning-lathe. The material whicli I have not been
able to determine with certainty must remain until Mr. Petrie's full illus-
trated report is pul)lished, when each group of objects in our collection
will, no doubt, find its proper place.

Most of the flint implements now before you are from the invaders —
these are oval in shape and eciually worked on both sides. There are,
however, a few dark weathered flints found upon the top of tlie limestone
plateau, some 1400 feet above the Nile— all of which show signs of a
longer exposure than that to which were subjected those flints to which

189(3.] ^^ [Siovcnsou.

we know can be assigned more than 5000 years of existence under similar
conditions. These are regarded by their discoverer as Palfeolithic ; among
them are two whitened flints of the pointed type, thickly patinated, also
regarded by Mr. Petrie as Palseolithic.

The stone work of these people was, as may be seen, of the verj'- highest
order. We have here some flint bangles, one of which is perfectly cut to
less than the eighth of an inch in diameter. Some of the finest blades
excel not only anything done in that line by the Egyptians, but are unsur-
passed by any ancient neolithic workmen. The exquisite regularity of
the surface flaking and the fine serrated edge of some of their tools is
startling in its perfection. Some forked stone lances used in hunting
the gazelle are both carious and beautifully executed, and their numbers
show their owners to have been great huntsmen.

It is more than probable that some fine specimens of similar workman-
ship found in Egypt from time to time and which have been brought into
various museums were, in reality, relics of these people. Mr. Petrie has
already called attention to a fine blade belonging to General Pitt-Rivers'
collection and which is set in a handle of undoubted Egyptian manufac-
ture. This is certainly the adaptation of an older blade.

These interlopers also used copper tools. Other metals such as gold,
silver and lead were apparently known to them, although valued as rare
products.

In their pottery they seem to have often aimed at reproducing the stone
forms common among them, and even at imitating the very substance,
such for instance as the limestone breccia, which they copied in splashed
pottery, of which we have here a beautiful specimen.

The red polished and the black and red polished wares are the most
common manufactures. Animal forms and curious devices were produced.
The black and red is very distinctive. This is of the sam e material as the
plain red, but is harder and is given a higher polish. The forms also
differ, and are generally remarkable for the elegance of their proportions.
According to Mr. Petrie, the black color is due to the " deoxidizing action
of the wood ashes in the kiln, reducing the red peroxide to a black mag-
netic oxide of iron. The brilliant lustre of the black is probably due to
the solvent action of carbonyl, due to imperfect combustion, which enables
the magnetic oxide to rearrange in a continuous surface."

The effect of this process seems identical with that observed on certain
vessels found by Dr. Richter in the lowest stratum of the copper-bnmze
age in Cyprus and approximately placed by him sometime between 4000
and 3000 B.C. In the collection which we purchased from him some
years ago and which contains a part of the results of his own excavations in
Cyprus, there' is a round bowl to which th« above date is assigned, and
which is identical in coloring, polish and general effect to this black and
red ware ; the form, however, is different from that of any vessel in this
collection, and a small perforated handle for suspension on one side
would in itself draw attention to a difference in the manufacture. It

Stevenson.] ^— ' ] March 20,

would seem from this, however, that the deoxidizing process as systemati-
cally applied to red pottery for purposes of decoration was a widespread
fashion at that remote period.

Some of the pottery of these strangers was decorated with crude figures
of ostriches, antelopes, etc., often represented in long lines, in brown on
buff and in red upon a lighter red. A very common decorative motive is
a long boat with two cabins, an ensign pole and many oars; sometimes the
figure of a man is added. The red polished ware, decorated in while
lines, "dents de loup," plants and flowers, etc., is imported from the
Mediterranean region. It is stated by Mr. Petrie to occur only in a
limited range of the territory occupied by the foreigners, and it gave rise
to no varieties of type. The shapes of these vases are also peculiar, espe-
cially the specimens in which two or three tall, straight stems or necks
arise from one base.

The black incised bowls, with white decoration, in lines and "dents de
loup," are also imported. No such pottery is known of Egyptian make,
although in later times, during the Middle empire, a style of pottery sim-
ilar, though much finer, appears. A near approach to it is found in the
later Neolithic stations of Italy, Spain and in the lower strata of Ilissarlik.

In a paper read before the Anthropological Section of the British Asso-
ciation— a notice of which was published in the Academy (September 28,
1895) and in L' Anthropologie (October-December, 1895, p. 590) — mention
is made of a Neolithic station near Butmir, in Bosnia, recently studied
and described by Mr. Radminsky, where pottery was found offering a
great variety of decoration, among which, by the way, appears a spiral
ornament. Figurines showing some artistic aspirations were also recov-
ered. In the discussion that followed Mr. John Evans expressed the
opinion that this station probably belonged to the transition period from
the Neolithic to the bronze age. Certain holes cut in the clay reminded
Mr. Petrie, who was present, of the sand pits dug in Egypt. He said that
the pieces of black pottery exhibited by Mr. Radminsky were absolutely
identical with pieces found by himself in Egypt and by others at Hissarlik
and in Spain, and that he, therefore, would date such a settlement, bj'
this black pottery, from 3300 to 3000 B.C.. when it was generally manu-
factured {Anthrop., October-December, 1895, p. 560).

Among the small objects in our collection are a number of bone combs
and tools, one of which, a puncher, has just been identified by Prof. Cope
as the metatarsal of a gazelle. We have also a series of slate pallets upon
which Malachite, etc., was ground probably for tattooing purposes. These
are in the shape of the turtle and fish, besides more simple forms, such as
squares and rhombs ; but a larger variety of animal forms has been found,
and Mr. Petrie mentions the ibex, elephant and birds among those in his
collection.

It is worthy of notice that the taste for sj-^mmetry, which prompted the
introduction of the double-headed bird design among so many ancient and
modern peoples, was already developed among these men, as may be

1896.1 [Stevenson.

seen by the handle of a bone implement. Here, however, the double-
headed bird is no eagle but an ostrich.

Where was the centre of this culture — whence did these men come into
the Nile valley ? This must now be the problem which archteologists
have to solve. It is the last riddle propounded by the Egyptian Sphinx.

They were a tall, robust race, with strongly marked features and a
hooked nose. They wore a long pointed beard and had brown wavy
hair, as shown by their representations of the human figure. Altogether
they closely approached the type of the Libyans and the Amoriles, and
probably belonged to the same stock. Mr. Flinders-Petrie calls them
Libyans, and Messrs. Evans and Boyd Dawkins corroborate this opinion.
By Libyan here is meant a people inhabiting some as yet undetermined
region of northern Africa, and representing a branch of the Neolithic cul-
ture of southern Europe, although these particular Libyans were just
emerging from the Neolithic stage when they invaded Egypt.

The connections which can, through them, be traced with the con-
temporary Mediterranean civilization are of immense value. Not only do
their importations from the Mediterranean region give us interesting
glimpses of the active intercourse of nations inter se in those early days
and reveal it to us as much the same in character and degree as it appears
in subsequent ages, but they furnish us with the means of approximately
dating certain typical Mediterranean products. As we find these asso-
ciated in the Mediterranean region with the transition period of the Neo-
lithic culture, it seems that we are more or less safe in regarding 3500 as
the likely period of the introduction of metals into the western Mediter-
ranean region.

Not only has Mr. Petrie's splendid discovery filled up what has long
seemed a hopeless blank in Egyptian history, but it has furnished science
with a solid foundation upon which the prehistoric period of Europe may
stand whilst like a coral reef it builds its way up in an eflort to reach the
surface of history.

Before closing my remarks, I beg to take advantage of this opportunity
to acknowledge Mr. Flinders-Petrie's disinterested kindness and liberality
in helping us to develop in this city a museum which must prove an edu-
cational instrument of the highest value to our people. At a time when
we are indebted to him for this priceless collection, it is but proper I
think to publicly recognize the constant interest which Mr. Petrie has
shown in our efibrt.

Dr. D. G. Brinton sajd :

The chipped flints which have been exhibited appear to be of widely
iiiflferent ages, those from the tombs showing scarcely any patina, while
the two from the surface of the plateau are covered with a thick, white,
weather-wearing. Of course, allowance must be made for the constant

Stevenson.] ^^ [March i20,

exposure of tlie latter and the protected condition of the former. But
this is not sufficient to account for the marked differences. Moreover,
the shape of the plateau implements is distinctly " palseolithic." They
are not Intended to be hafted, but to be held in the hand when in use.
What is further noteworthy about them is that obviously both are adapted
to be held in the left hand only. So far as they go, they support the
theory advanced by some writers that primitive man was less right-
handed than later generations.

The pottery and stone articles from the tombs of the so-called " new
race " near Abydos are good examples of their arts. I speak of this with
some knowledge, as early last August I examined with much care Prof.
Flinders-Petrie's immense collection in London, and had the advantage
of his personal explanations. The article that I published in reference to
it, in Science (August, 1895), was I believe the first original report on the
subject in any American periodical. That the "new race " was supposed
by Prof. Petrie to be Libyan, that is, Berber, attracted me, as the ethnog-
raphy of that stock has been a special study with me.

This identification, I believe, will finally be established. If we examine
the configuration of the Nile valley and its surroundings, no other theory
is tenable, providing the Libyan stock extended that far south of the
Mediterranean at a date 8000 B.C. We know they did, and much earlier,
from their very early presence in east Africa. The invading " new race "
could not have come from the east. The natural highways from the Red
Sea to that portion of the Nile valley centime at Koptos, and there few or
no specimens of this peculiar art have been exhumed. They must neces-
sarily have entered from the west, and a study of the ancient and modern
caravan routes leads inevitabl}^ to the conclusion that their last previous
station must have been the so-called "Oasis magna" of the Libyan
desert. This consists of a series of arable depressions in the calcareous
Libyan plateau, which here rises to an average height of about 1200 feet.
The central portion of the Oasis is about 130 miles westerly from Abydos,
and to it a number of caravan routes converge from the north, south and
west. So far as history, archajology and linguistics teach us, this group of
cases, as well as the "Oasis parva," opposite the Fayoum, andthatof.Tupiter
Ammon, still farther north, have alwa3's been peopled by the Libyans.
This stock has not been shown to be connected in culture with the Neo-
lithic peoples of western Europe, and no positive traces of the Berber
language remain there, though it is probable that the word "Iberian"
(fromlberus) indicates their presence in the peninsula of that name. The
conclusion which I urge, therefore, is, that the correlatives of the art of
the "new race" will be found in the "Oasis magna." That some of
the tombs contain Egyptian and even ftlediterranean relics is readily ex-
plained by the commerce which it is evident from the figures of their
boats they soon established on the Nile.

1:896.] "^

Stated Meeting, March 20, 1896.

Yice-President, Dr. Peppee, in the Chair.

Present, 22 members.

Correspondence was submitted as follows :

Letter of envoy irom Mr. Robert N. Toppan, Cambridge,
Mass.

Letters of acknowledgment from the Royal Society ol New
Sonth Wales, Sydney (143-146); K. B. Astron.-meteorolo-
gische Observatorinm, Triest, Austria (142-147) ; Prof. Dr.
F, Muller, Vienna, Austria (147) ; Oberhessische Gesellschaft
fiirlSTatur- und Heilkunde, Giessen, Germany (147); K. Sachs.
Gesellschaft d. Wissenschaften, Leipzig (143, 146, 147) ; Mar-
quis Antonio De Gregorio, Palermo, Italy (147) ; Prof. E. D.
Cope (147, 148), Mr. F. Prime, Philadelphia (147); Prof.
John F. Carll, Pleasantville, Pa. (148) ; Lieut. A. b'. Wyck-
off, IST. Yakima, Washington (148).

Letters of acknowledgment (149) from the Laval University,
Quebec, Canada ; Canadian Institute, Toronto, Canada ;
Bowdoin College Library, Brunswick, Me.; N. H. Historical
Society, Concord ; Vermont Historical Society, Montpelier ;
Amherst College Library, Mass.; Mass. Historical Society^
Boston Athenaeum, Boston Society of Natural History, Dr.
Samuel A. Green, Boston, Mass.; Museum of Comparative
Zoology, Harvard College, Profs. W. W. Goodwin, F. W.
Putnam, Mr. Robert N. Toppan, Cambridge, Mass.; Essex
•Institute, Salem, Mass.; Amer. Antiquarian Society, Worces-
ter, Mass.; Agricultural Experiment Station, Kingston, R. I.;
Providence Franklin Society, Brown University Library,
Providence, R. I.; Mr. George F. Dunning, Farmington,
Conn.; Conn. Plistorical Society, Hartford; Buffalo Library,,
Society of Natural Sciences, Buffalo, N. Y.; Prof. Edward
North, Clinton, N. Y.; Profs. T. F. Crane, J. M. Hart,,
Ithaca, N. Y.; Astor Library, N. Y. Academy of Medicine,
Columbia College, Plistorical Society, Amer. Museum of Na-
tural History, N. Y. Hospital, Prof. Joel Asaph Allen, Hon.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 150. I. PRINTED JULY 3, 1890

t>b [March 20,

Charles P. Daly, Mr. J. Douglas, Dr. Daniel Draper, New
York, N. Y.; Prof. Eobert W. Rogers, Madison, N. J.;
Profs. W. Henry Green, Charles W. Shields, Princeton, N. J.;
Dr. Robert H. Alison, Ardmore, Pa.: Prof. Thomas C. Por-
ter, Easton, Pa.; Mr. John Fulton, Johnstown, Pa.; Linn^ean
Society, Lancaster, Pa.; Dr. James W. Robins, Merion, Pa.;
Historical Society, Apademy of Natural Sciences, Engineers'
Club, Franklin Institute, Library Co. of Philadelphia, Penn-
sylvania Hospital, Wagner Free Institute, Numismatic and
Antiquarian Society, Profs. John Ashhurst, E. D. Cope, F.
A. Genth, Henry D. Gregor}^, Lewis M. Ilaupt, James Mac-
Alister, Benjamin Sharp, Drs. W. G. A. Bon will, John H.
Brinton, Edward A. Foggo, Persifor Frazer, George II. Horn,
Frank W. Lewis, Morris Longstreth, John Marshall, George
R. Morehouse, Charles A. Oliver, William Pepper, Charles
Schaffer, Charles Stewart Wurts, Messrs. R. Meade Bache,
Henry C. Baird, Cadwalader Biddle, George Tucker Bispham,
Joel Cook, Jacob B. Eckfeldt, Charles C, Harrison, William
A. Ingham, Benjamin Smith Lyman, Franklin Piatt, J. Ser-
geant Price, Theodore D. Rand, J. G. Rosengarten, Julius F.
Sachse, Coleman Sellers, F. D. Stone, W. P. Tatham, Joseph
Willcox, Philadelphia ; Mr. Heber S. Thompson, Potts ville.
Pa.; Rev. F. A. Muhlenberg, Reading, Pa.; Dr. W. II. Ap-
pleton, Swarthmore, Pa.; Mr. Thomas S. Blair, Tj^rone, Pa.;
Philosophical Society, Mr. Philip P. Sharpies, West Chester,
Pa.; Agricultural Experiment Station, Newark, Del.; Mary-
land Institute for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts, Enoch
Pratt Free Library, Prof. Ira Remsen, Baltimore, Md.; Uni-
versity of Virginia, Charlottesville ; West Virginia Univer-
sity, Morgautown ; Georgia Historical Society, Savannah ;
Athena3um, Column bia, Tenn.; Newberry Library, Chicago,
111.

Accessions to the Library were reported from the Comity
de Conservation des Monuments de 1' Art Arabe, Cairo, Egypt ;
Koloniaal Museum, Haarlem, Holland ; Bataafsch Genoot-
schap der Proefondervindelijke Wijsbegeerte, Rotterdam,
Holland ; Magyar Tudomanyos Akadcmia, Budapest, Hun-

1896.]

67

gary ; Wiirttembergisclie Kommission fiir Landesgeschiclite,
Stuttgart ; // Nuovo Gimento^ Pisa, Italy ; Bibliotheque de
la Faculte des Sciences, Marseilles, France ; Prof. Gabriel de
Mortillet, St. Germain-en-Laje, France ; Mr. Charles Sedel-
meyer, Paris, France ; R. Academia de Ciencias j Artes,
Barcelona, Spain; R. Academia de Ciencias, etc., Madrid,
Spain ; R. Meteorological Society, London, England ; Mr.
Robert Noxon Toppan, Cambridge, Mass.; General Alumni
Society of University of Pennsylvania, College of Physi-
cians, Profs. E. D. Cope, Theopliilus Parvin, Philadelphia ;
Bureau of Education, Washington, D, C; Western Society
of Engineers, American Humane Association, Prof. Ed-
mund J. James, Chicago, 111.; Bishop Crescencio Carrillo,
Meri da, Yucatan ; Instituto Medico Nacional, Mexico, Mex.;
Agricultural Experiment Stations, Lake City, Fla., Fay-
ettesville. Ark., Manhattan, Ivans., Corvallis, Oreg., St. An-
thony Park, Minn.

Mr. J. G. Rosengarten read an obituary notice of Rev. W.
H. Furness, D.D.

Mrs. Stevenson read a paper on the recent discovery in
Egypt of non-Egyptian remains. Numerous specimens were
exhibited, principally pottery, showing various shapes of de-
velopment. These belonged to a race which had invaded
Egypt 3500 or 2800 B.C., bringing its customs without
adopting much from the country occupied by it.

Dr. Frazer moved the thanks of the Society to Mrs. Ste-
venson for her address. Adopted.

Dr. Brinton objected to the identification of the Libyans
with the neolithic tribes. In his view they were near relatives
of the triljes now known as Berbers. In his opinion the in-
vaders descended on Abydos from the Oasis Magna.

Pending nomination 13-16 and new nomination 13-17 were
read.

Dr. Greene offered a resolution of inquiry, why certain
omissions were made in the records of the proceedings.

The Secretaries explained that the communication was in-
formal and without motion and seemed to have no place in
the minutes.

^O [April 10,

On the resolution being put to vote, the yeas and nays being
called, it was lost by 12 nays to 5 ayes.
Dr. Brinton offered the following :

Resolved, That papers by non-members be read by title only, except
when the author is present, or by unanimous consent of the SocietJ^

The resolution was referred by consent of mover to Council.
The rough minutes were read, and the Society adjourned.

April 3 being Good Frida}" and a legal holiday, the
meeting was postponed, by direction of the President, until
April 10.

Stated Meeting^ April 10, 1896.

Vice-President, Dr. Pepper, in the Chair.

Present, 18 members.

Correspondence was submitted as follows :

Acknowledgments of election to membership from M. G.
Bertin, Paris, France, March 15, 1896 ; Mr, Henry A. Pilsbry,
Philadelphia, March 30, 1896,

Circular letter from the Principal and Yice-Cliancellor of
the University of Glasgow and the Lord Provost of Glasgow,
on behalf of the Committee of Arrangements of Jubilee of
the Right Hon. Prof. Lord Kelvin, on the completion of the
fiftieth year of his tenure of the Chair of Natural Philosophy
in the University of Glasgow, requesting the Society to
appoint a representative to take part in the celebration, Jane
15 and 16, 1896.

An invitation, on parchment, from the University of Prince-
ton, N, J., to attend its one hundred and fiftieth anniversary.

On motion, these letters were referred to the President, with
power to appoint representatives.

Letters of envoy from the K. K. Astronomisch-Meteoro-
logische Observatorium, Triest, Austria ; K. Leopoldinisch-
Carolinische Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher, Halle
a. S,, Prussia; R. Accademia di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti,

1896.] ^y

Modena, Italy ; Ministero di Pabblica Istruzlone, Rome, Italy ;
Mr. James Douglas, New York, N. Y. ; Field Columbian Mu-
seum, Chicago, 111. ; Museo de la Plata, Provincia de Buenos
Aires, S. A.

Letters of acknowledgment from the Vogtlandische Alter-
lumsforschende Verein, Hohenleuben, Saxony (143, 146, 147);
I. R Accademia degli Agiati, Rovereto, Austria (142-147) ;
K. Leopoldinisch-Carolinische Deutsche Akaderaie der Natur-
forscher, Halle a. S., Prussia (146, 147, and Trans.^ xviii, 2) ;
Academy of Science, Rochester, IST. Y. (148); Prof. Charles
A. Young, Princeton, N. J. (148) ; Mr. L. A. Scott, Philadel-
phia (148).

Letters of acknowledgment (149) from the Geological Sur-
vey, Ottawa, Canada ; Manitoba Historical and Scientific
Society, Winnipeg ; Public Library, State Library, Boston,
Mass.; Prof C. H. Hitchcock, Hanover, N. H.; Prof. James
Hall, Albany, N. Y. ; Editor of Poimlar Science Monthly,
Profs. C. F. Chandler, Isaac H. Hall, J. J. Stevenson, New
York, N. Y. ; Vassar Brothers' Institute, Poughkeepsie, N. Y.;
Academy of Science, Geological Society of America, Roch-
ester, N. Y. ; Oneida Historical Society, Utica, N. Y. ; New
Jersey Historical Society, Newark ; Prof. Charles A. Young,
Princeton, N. J. ; Prof, Martin H. Boyd, Coopersburg, Pa. ;
American Academy of Medicine, Prof. J, W. Moore, Easton,
Pa. ; State Library of Pennsylvania, Harrisburg ; Hon. James
T. Mitchell, Rev. H. Clay Trumbull, Drs. C. N. Peirce, Wm.
H. Wahl, Messrs. Samuel Dickson, Patterson Du Bois, Philip
C. Garrett, L. A. Scott, Frank Thomson, C. Tower, Jr., Phila-
delphia ; Lackawanna Institute of History and Science, Scran-
ton, Pa. ; AVeather Bureau, U. S. Naval Observatory, U. S.
Geological Survey, U. S. Patent Office, Coast and Geodetic
Survey, "War Department, Dr. W. J, Hoffman, Prof. Chas. A.
Schott, Washington, D. C. ; Mr. T. L. Patterson, Cumberland,
Md. ; Mr. Jedediah Hotchkiss, Staunton, Va. ; Elisha Mitchell
Scientific Society, Chapel Hill, N. C. ; South Carolina College,
Columbia ; University of Alabama, University P.O.; Univer-
sity of California, Prof. Joseph Le Conte, Berkeley, Cal. ; Lick

70

[April 10,

Observatory, Mt. Hamilton, Cal. ; Historical Society, State
Mining Bureau, San Francisco, Cal, ; Prof, J, C. Branner, Stan-
ford University, Cal. ; Geological Survey of Missouri, Jefiferson
City ; Oberlin College, Oberlin, 0. ; Cincinnati Observatory,
Cincinnati, 0. ; Prof. J. L. Campbell, Crawfordsville, Ind. ;
Prof. G. W. Hough, Evanston, 111. ; University Library,
Champaign, 111. ; Dr, M, D. Ewell, Chicago, 111, ; Academy of
Natural Sciences, Davenport, la. ; State Historical Society of
Iowa, Iowa City ; University of Wisconsin, State Historical
Society, Madison, Wis. ; Kansas University Quarterly^ Law-
rence ; Academy of Science, Washburn College Library, To-
peka, Kans, ; Colorado Scientific Society, Denver ; Agricultural
Experiment Stations — Geneva, N. Y. ; Auburn, Ala. ; Michi-
gan Agricultural College, Ingham Co. ; Ames, la. ; Lincoln,
Neb. ; Corvallis, Oreg. ; Tucson, Ariz.

Accessions to the Library were reported from the Geological
Survey of India, Calcutta ; Linnean Society of New South
Wales, Sydney ; Soc. Finno Ougrienne, Helsingfors, Finland ;
Ministerie van Binnenlandsche Zadun, s' Gravenhage, Nether-
lands ; Osservatorio Astron. Meteorol., Tri est, Austria; Akad.
der Wissenschaften, K. Friedlander und Sohn, Berlin, Prussia ;
K. Leopold.-Carol. Akademie, Halle a. S., Prussia ; Ba3'er.
Numismat. Gesellschaft, Miinchen ; R. Ministero della Instru-
zione Publica, Padova, Italia ; R. Accad. di Scienze, etc., Mo-
dena, Italia ; Ecole Nat'l Supt. des Mines, Mr. Georges Bertin,
Paris, France ; Geographical Society, Manchester, Eng. ; Ca-
nadian Institute, Ontario Archaeological Museum, Mr. J. M.
Clark, Toronto, Canada ; Mr. George M. Whitaker, Boston,
Mass.; Academy of Sciences, Araer. Museum Nat. History,
Mr. James Douglas, New York, N. Y. ; Free Public Library,
Jersey City, N. J. ; Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. ; Pepper
Laboratory of Clinical Medicine, Dr. Charles A. Oliver,
Messrs. Wharton Barker, Frederick Prime, Maxwell Sommer-
ville, Philadelphia; Lighthouse Board, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, U. S. Geological Survey, Prof. Albert S. Gatschet,
Washington, D. C. ; University of California, Berkeley ; State
Historical Society, Madison, Wis.; State Historical Society,

71

1896.] • ■*• [Dorcmus.

Iowa City, la. ; Agricultural Experiment Stations — College
Park, Pa. ; Lexington, Ky. ; Columbia, Mo, ; Agricultural
College, Michigan ; Madison, Wis. ; Denver, Colo. ; Berkeley,
Cal. ; Institute Medico Nacional, Laminas, Mexico.

Photograph for the Society's Album was received from Dr.
W. G. A. Bonwill, Philadelphia.

The following death was announced : Hon. William Strong,
Washington, D. C, August 19, 1895.

A paper was read on the " Identification of Colored Inks by
the Absorption Spectra," by Dr. C. A. Doreraus, of New York.

Prof. Cope made some remarks on the figures of men and
animals on a tablet from Nippur, and expressed the opinion
that the men were of the pure white race and not mixed.

Dr. Brinton followed, corroborating the views of Prof. Cope.

Pending nominations 1346 and 1317, and new nominations
1348 to 1362, were read. On motion, the nominations of non-
residents were referred to Council.

The Curators reported on the collections of coins and medals
formerly deposited with the Numismatic Society, but at present
deposited in the Pennsylvania Museum and School of Indus-
trial Art. All the articles had been accounted for with but
two exceptions.

The report was received, and the Curators discharged from
further consideration of the subject.

The rough minutes were then read, and the Society ad-
journed.

The IdenUficatio7i of Colored Inks by their Absorption Spectra.

By Charles A. Dor emus.

From the committee appointed by the Society to investigate the various
methods for the examination of documerits.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, April 10, 1896.)

The substitution of aniline dyes for other coloring matters in the pre-
paration of colored inks, especially red, necessitates the adoption of means
for their recognition.

Doremus.] *^ (April 10,

A characteristic feature of the aniline colors is a surface iridescence,
distinguishable even in the thinnest layers.

The beetle bronze is unmistakable. The iridescence is frequently com-
plementary to that of the color — thus green to red.

Many of these inks also show fluorescence. This is especially developed
in very dilute solutions. Highly attenuated solutions of fluorescein
behave differently to light from concentrated ones. The dichroism of
concentrated solutions is quite distinct from the fluorescence obtained by
dilution.

Concentration appears to destroy fluorescence. This is also true of
glass. Glass containing ten per cent, of uranium oxide would not be
recognized as the uranium glass whose greenish yellow fluorescence is so
well known.

The writer was led to investigate many of tliese properties in connec-
tion with a case tried in New Jersey in 1891.* The circumstances were
briefly as follows : Mr. George P. Gordon, of printing press fame, left a
large estate by a will dated 1873. This will was rejected because the sub-
scribing witnesses would not swear to the execution of it. Tlie case
became one of intestacy and was taken in charge by the Public Adminis-
trator of Brooklyn. Tlie estate was then settled with the parties named
in the will. The widow and a daughter by a first wife were the chief
beneficiaries. The daughter died in 1890 and her will was off'ered for
probate in New York city. A contest took place. The contesting attor-
neys received a letter from a party stating that he had seen a notice of the
contest in the daily press and that they would hear something to their ad-
vantage should they communicate with him. This led to the finding (?)
in a garret of a will purporting to have been executed by George P. Gor-
don in 1868. The subscribing witnesses to this document were all dead.
The wife and daughter had also died before this alleged will was brought
to light. This document was proved ex parte in New Jersey and ancillary
probate was allowed in New York. The instrument was also filed in
Trenton. The legal representatives of the heirs of the wife and daughter
contested the genuineness of this will. The proponents were parties con-
testing the daughter's vpill to whom was joined Henry C. Adams, who
claimed to have drawn the will and who would be benefited should it be
established. For a time the litigation was conducted on the part of the
contestants in attempts to prove by the handwriting that tlie signature of
tlie testator was a forgery. The case to this point rested entirely upon
expert testimony, when Adams brought forward a draft of the will pur-
porting to have been made in July, 1868, and offered it in evidence. This
draft was interlineated and amended with red ink. When submitted to
expert chemists they pronounced the ink one of some aniline color and
from general appearances eosine. The controversy then centred on the

*The Prerogative Court of the State of New Jersey in tlie matter of tlic Probate in
solemn Form and the Last Will and Testament of George P. Gordon, deceased. Jersey
€ity News Press, 1S91.

1896.1 *" [Doromus.

question cas to whether the ink was cosine or not. Experts were called
for both sides and the writer was among those retained by the executors.
As the right to use reagents on the document was denied all the preliminary
tests had to be of a physical character, though they were afterwards veri-
fied by chemical tests in court. My attention had been called several
years previously to the black appearance of the lips of players using
rouge, one kind of which I knew to be eosine. Eosine is irresponsive to
yellow rays and seems almost black in the glare of the footlights. Carmine
and other reds retain more of their red color. Experiments were there-
fore made with different red inks, as carmine, aniline red, safrauine, and
eosine, and their appearance noted under monochromatic illumination of
, a sodium flame.

The results were not as pronounced as desired. Recourse was then had
to comparing the various inks in strong daylight behind differently colored
glasses. The eflects were very striking, especially with the aniline inks
since they possess iridescence.

Colored glasses also greatly aid in the discovery of their fluorescent
qualities.

The ink on the document presented a lustre when illuminated through
green glass which was quite different from that of carmine and various
aniline inks.

The fluorescence of eosine may also be enhanced by the use of blue or
purple glass.

These experiments induced the writer to try a spectroscopic examination
of inks, both in solution and in form of writing.

A Zeiss micro-spectroscopic eye-piece and low-power lens were used at
first, then a higher power. This test is especially valuable since the docu-
ment is uninjured.

It requires the brightest sunlight as a source of illumination. The ink
is viewed by transmitted light and an absorption spectnim is obtained.
When mapped the spectra are found to vary.

This means of identification was, however, not sufficiently developed to
enable it to be used in court, nor could it be shown because of the absence
of proper facilities.

At court the preliminary examination of the experts was strengthened
by chemical tests applied to the ink on the document and prominently
the action of hydrochloric acid which produced a yellow color and by the
greenish yellow fiuorescent nature of a solution of the ink.

The opinion of the experts for the defense that the ink was eosine was
corroborated by several ink manufacturers and a well-known importer of
aniline dyes.

In rebuttal it was claimed that the ink was aurine.

It was necessary to breaVi the evidence going to prove the ink to be
eosine since that color was not discovered until 1874, eight years after the
date of the will. Aurine was, however, in commercial use in 1865, and

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 150. J. PRINTED JULY 2, 1896.

74

[April 17

as per patent of Henry Ellis, Great Britain, No. 2267. It was not shown,
however, that it was purchasable as ink in this country in 1868.

The decision of the Chancellor in favor of the contestants was sustained
in 1894 by the Court of Errors and Appeals.

While an alkaline aurine solution produces an ink very similar to
cosine in many properties and reactions, it differs widely in others and es-
pecially in not having greenish yellow fluorescence of eosine in diluted
solution and in not showing the same absorption spectrum and derivative
spectra.

The accompanying maps show the spectra observed with thin layers of
various inks. A Donne lactoscope proved very useful in varying the
thickness of the layer until the most characteristic appearance was obtained.
The same absorption bands were afterwards recognized when pen marks
made with these inks were examined under a microscope to which a Zeiss
spectroscopic eye- piece was adjusted.

The spectroscopic examination of the ink while on the document should
be followed whenever allowed by observations of the spectra produced
when the ink is subjected to the action of chemicals.

Very marked changes occur, and since even colorless solutions may
show absorption bands this means of identification possesses the double
advantage of an accurate physical test without injury to the document
together with a combined chemical and physical test where the application
of reagents is permitted.

Stated Meeting^ April 17^ 1S96.

President, Mr, Fraley, in the Chair.

Present, 20 members.

Mr. Georges Bertin, a newly elected member, was presented
and took his seat.

Minutes of meeting of April 10 were read and approved.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Public
Library, Wellington, N. Z. (147); Universitatis Lundensis,
Lund, Sweden (147); Profs. Friedrich MUller, Edward Suess,
Vienna, Austria (148) ; Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Bam-
berg, Bavaria (147) ; K. Sachs. Meteorol. Institut, Chemnitz
(148) ; Yerein fiir Erdkunde, Dresden, Saxony (147, 148) ; Wet-
terauische Gesellschaft, Hanau, Germany (147); Verein fiir

1896.] *^

Kunst und Alterthum, Ulra, Germany (143, 146, 147) ; R. Acca-
demiadi Scienze Lett. Arti, Modena, Italy (147); Texas Acad-
emy of Science, Austin (149) ; Kansas State Historical Society,
Topeka (148) ; Observatorio Estado de Vera Cruz, Jalapa
(144, 147, 149) ; Don Mariana Barcena, Observatorio Meteoro-
logico, Mexico, Mex. (149).

Accessions to the Library were reported from the Genoot
schap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen, Batavia, Java ; Neder
landsche Maatschappij ter bevordering, etc., Amsterdam
Netherlands; K. Universitetet, Lund, Sweden; Roemer Mu
seum, Hildesheira, Prussia ; Deutsche Geologische Gesell
schaft, Berlin, Prussia ; Academic des Sciences, Paris, France
Prof, Henry Wilde, Manchester, Eng.; Hon. J. M. LeMoine
Quebec, Canada ; Amer. Antiquarian Society, Worcester
Mass.; Academy of Natural Sciences, Mr. A. E. Outerbridge
Philadelphia; U. S. Senate, U. S. Dep't of Agriculture
Washington, D. C; California Academy of Sciences, San
Francisco.

On behalf of the special committee in charge of the quar-
terly meetings. Dr. Pepper reported the details of that to occur
May 1.

Dr. Brinton then read an obituary of the late Henry Hazle-
hurst.

Prof. Cope gave a brief account of his investigation of the
remains found at Port Kennedy, the result so far being mam-
malia, 38 ; birds, 3 ; reptiles, 6.

In reply to Dr. Brinton, Prof Cope stated that the general
term Plistocene is applied to the age of the deposit. It is
part of Cenozoic times, beginning with a depression of probably
2200 feet, its middle corresponding with an elevation which
had much to do with the preservation of the continental ice-
cap. After this was a period of subsidence leaving but little
land above the water.

In reply to Prof. Prime, Prof. Cope stated that Prof,
Spencer had observed the depression along the New England
coast.

Prof. Prime thought that no great depression could have

*^ IMayl,

occurred in Pennsylvania, as the terminal moraine in North-
ampton county is but 650 feet above sea-level and is practically
unchanged.

Pending nominations 1346 to 1362 were read.

The Library Committee reported through Dr. Greene and
asked for an appropriation for the purchase of books and the
filling of lacuna.

On motion duly seconded the following was adopted :

Resolved, That an appropriation of $500 be made to the Committee on
Library for expenses during the year 1896.

The rough minutes were read, and the Society adjourned.

Stated Meeting^ May i, 1896.

Vice-President, Dr. Pepper, in the Chair.

Present, 39 members.

Correspondence was submitted.

The death of Jean Baptiste Leon Say, on April 21, was
announced.

A letter was read by the Chairman from Dr. J. S. Minot,
regretting his inability to be present and take part in the dis-
cussion.

A letter from the President announced that he had ap-
pointed Hon. Craig Biddle to represent this Society at the
sesqui-centennial of Princeton University, and Dr. J. Cheston
Morris at the semi-centennial jubilee of Lord Kelvin, at the
University of Glasgow.

Prof. Cope was then called upon and opened the discussion
of the " Factors of Organic Evolution," from the Palaeontologi-
cal standpoint.

Prof. Conklin followed, presenting the subject from an Em-
bryological point of view.

Prof. L. D. Bailey, of Cornell, presented the subject from its
Botanical aspect.

-896.

77

Dr. D. G. Brinton then presented his views of the
subject.

The three original speakers were then called upon and each
supplemented his remarks bj thoughts suggested by the
others.

In the course of his remarks, Prof. Cope exhibited two
specimens illustrative of generalized types of Yertebrata. One
of these was a cast of a species of the genus Phenacodus, from
the Eocene, which represents the family from which all the
Ungulate Placental Mammalia have descended. The other
was a part of the skeleton of a reptile from the Permian, of
the new genus Otocoelus. This genus is the type of a new
family of the order Cotylosauria. This order approaches
most nearly of all the Reptilia to the class Batrachia. It is
also the most generalized of the Reptilia, and from it all other
orders of the class have probably descended by modifications
in different directions. The particular family Otocoelid^ dif-
fers from the other families of Cotylosauria in the possession
of a meatus auditorius externus and of an osseous carapace.
From it were probably descended the orders of Pseudosuchia
and Testudinata, which first appear in the Trias. A descrip-
tion of this family and the species it includes will be given in
an early number of the Proceedings of the Society.

Nominations 13-1:6 to 1362 were read.

The Society was then adjourned.

The meeting of the first of May having been designated as
that on which a discussion of the theme, " Factors of Organic
Evolution," should be held. Prof. Cope, to whom the Special
Committee in charge of the preparations for this meeting had
confided the task of opening the discourse, presented an epi-
tome of the subject as it exists to-day from the standpoint
of paleontology.*

* [Prof. Cope, being umvilling to furnish the Society with the text of his remarks, or to
have the stenographic copy printed in the Proceedings, his part of the joint discussion
must be necessarily omitted.— Secretaries.]

Conklin.l *^ [May 1,

Discussion of the Factors of Organic Evolution from the Embryological

Standpoint.

By Frof E. G. Conklin.

{Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 1, 1SD6.)

Up to the beginning of this decade embryology was largely domi-
nated by the phj^logeny idea. Individual development was generallj'
studied, as the paleontologist studies his fossils, with a view to
deciphering the evolutionary record in the various stages. It is now
generally recognized, however, that embryology is but little fitted for
the service into which it was so long forced, viz., the determining of
phylogenies. The only safe guide in this matter is comparative anatomy
of both living and extinct forms. On the other hand, our knowledge
of the mechanics of evolution must always depend in large part upon
the study of individual development. More than any other discipline,
embryology holds the keys to the method of evolution. If ontogeny is
not a true recapitulation it is, at least, a true type of evolution, and the
study of the causes of development will go far to determine the factors
of phylogeny.

The causes and methods of evolution are intimately bound up with
those general phenomena of life such as assimilation, growth, differen-
tiation, metabolism, inheritance, and variation ; and the evolution
problem can never be solved except through a study of these general
phenomena of life itself. Our great need at present is not to know
more of the course of evolution, but to discover, if possible, the
causes of growth, differentiation, repetition, and variation. All these
general phenomena are most beautifully illustrated in the develop-
ment of individual organisms, and because they are fundamental
to any theory of evolution I shall dwell upon them rather than upon
the evidences for the Lamarckian or the Darwinian factors.

I call your attention very brieflj^ to the following propositions : 1.
Development, and consequently evolution, is the result of the interac-
tion of extrinsic and intrinsic causes. 2. Intrinsic causes are dependent
upon protoplasmic structvire. 3. Inherited characters must be prede-
termined in the structure of the germinal protoplasm. 4. Germinal,
as compared with somatic, protoplasm is relatively stable and contin-
uous, but not absolutely so as maintained by Weismann ; therefore,
extrinsic causes may modify both germinal and somatic protoplasm.
5. It is extremely difficult to determine whether or not extrinsic factors
have modified the structure of the germinal protoplasm. This is illus-
trated by some of the evidences advanced for the inherited efi'ects of
(1) diminished nutrition, (2) changes in environment, (8) use and
disuse. 6. Experiment alone can furnish the crucial test of these
Lamarckian factors.

1896.] *" [Conklin.

1. The causes of developmeut in general are usually recognized as
twofold, extrinsic and intrinsic. As examples of extrinsic causes may
be mentioned gravit}', surface tension, light, heat, moisture, and chem-
ism in general ; examples of intrinsic causes are the uon-exosmosis of
salts from living bodies in water, the pouring of a glandular secretion
or the sap of plants into a cavity under high pressure, the active
changes in shape and position on the part of cells, assimilation, growth,
division, etc. There is not, however, a uniformly sharp and distinct
line of demarcation between these two factors of development. Phe-
nomena once supposed to be due entirely to intrinsic causes are now
known to be the result of extrinsic ones, and it is practically certain
that this will be found true of still other phenomena. But although it
is not possible to draw any hard and fast line between these two classes
of causes, one can, in general, recognize a very marked ditference
between them. Extrinsic causes may, in large part, supply the stim-
ulus and the energy for development, and may more or less modify its
course ; the intrinsic causes are of a much more complex character than
the extrinsic ones, they are inherent in the living matter and in large
part predetermine the course of developmeut. In one form or another
the distinction between these two classes of causes is recognized by all
naturalists. His calls the intrinsic causes "the law of growth," the
extrinsic ones the conditions under which that law operates. These
designations correspond, at least in part, to Prof, Cope's Anagenesis
and Katagenesis, and to Roux's "simple and complex components" of
developmental processes.

While it is necessary to emphasize the diflerences between these
two classes of causes, it is not intended thereby to dogmatically assert
their total dift'erence in kind. It may well be that these extrinsic and
intrinsic causes are totally different in kind, but in our present state
of ignorance it would be unjustifiable to affirm it. On the other hand,
it would be just as unwarrantable to dogmatically affirm that there is no
difference in kind between these two classes of causes, and that, there-
fore, all vital phenomena are only the manifestations of heat, light, elec-
tricity, attraction, repulsion, chemism, and the like. It may be that
this is true, but there is as yet no sufficient evidence for it, and to at-
tempt, as certain dynamical and mechanical hypotheses do, to refer all
vital phenomena directly to such simple components as those named
above is practically to make impossible at present any explanation of
vital phenomena. "If we would advance without interruption," fays
Roux,* ''we must be content, for many years to come, with an analysis
into complex components."

2. We need not now further concern ourselves with an explanation
of extrinsic causes or simple components, since this subject properly
belongs to chemistry and physics. If, however, we examine more
closely some of the intrinsic causes or complex components, we will lind

* Wilhelm Roux, Einleitung. Archiv fiir Enturicklungsmechanik der Organismen.

Conklin.j ^^ [May 1,

that they are always associated with more or less complex structures;
in fact, that they are dependent upon structure.

The smallest and simplest mass of protoplasm that can manifest all
the fundamental phenomena of life, such as assimilation, growth,
division, and metabolism, is an entire cell, nucleus and cytoplasm,
and probably centrosome. The cell is composed, as microscopic study
plainly reveals, of many dissimilar but perfectly coadapted parts, each
performing its specific function, and it may therefore properlj' be called
an organism. Some phenomena of cell life may be directly referred to
the various visible constituents of the cell, but many of them are evi-
dently connected with structures ivhich we cannot see, structures
which may perhaps never be seen, and yet which must be vastly more
complex than the most complex molecules known to chemistry, and
yet much more simple than the microsomes, centrosomes, and chromo-
somes which are visible in the cell. With these ultra-microscopical
particles many of the most fundamental phenomena of life are asso-
ciated, viz., assimilation, growth, metabolism, and probably differentia-
tion, repetition, and variation. These functions are so coordinated that
there can be no question that the ultra-microscopical structure is an
organization, with part coadapted to part. The organization of the
cell, therefore, does not stop with what the microscope reveals, but
must be supposed to extend to the smallest ultimate particles of living
Blatter which manifest specific functions. These are the vital units so
generally postulated, the "smallest parts" of living matter, as they
were called by Briicke, who first demonstrated that they must exist \.
the "physiological units" of Spencer, the "gemmules" of Darwin,
the "micella-groups" of Nageli, the "pangenes" of De Yries, the
"plasomes" of Wiesner, the "idioblasts" of Hertwig, the "bio-
phores " of Weismann. Such ultimate units have been found abso-
lutely necessary to explain those most fundamental of all vital phe-
nomena, assimilation and growth, while many other phenomena, espe-
cially particulate inheritance, the independent variability of parts, and the
hereditary transmission of latent and patent characters, can at present
only be explained by referring them to ultra-microscopical units of
structure. To deny that there are such units does not simplify the
problem, as some seem to suppose, but renders it impossible of^ip-
proach. A corpuscular hypothesis of life, like that of light, may be
only a temporary makeshift, but it is better than nothing.

Whitman* well says : "Briicke's great merit consists in this that he
taught us the necessity of assuming structure as the liasis of vital phe-
nomena, in spite of the negative testimony of our imperfect micro-
scopes. That function presupposes structure is now an accepted axiom,
and we need^only extend Briicke's method of reasoning, from the tissue
cell to the egg cell, in order to see that tliere is no escajK' from the

* C. O. Whitmun, The Inadequacy of the CcU-Theonj of Dcvclvpiiunt, Biological Lectures,
1893.

1S96.J ol [Conklin.

conclusion that the whole course of developmental phenomena must be
referred to organization of some sort. Development, no less than other
vital phenomena, is a function of organization."

3. A study of the phenomena of development, as well as the prin-
ciple of causality, make it certain that all the characters of the species
are predetermined within the protoplasm of the fertilized egg cell.
From a frog's egg only a frog will develop, from an echinoderm egg
only an echinoderm, and the course of the development is, under
normal circumstances, definitely marked out in each case, even down
to the minutest details. All the results of experiment, as well as
observation and induction, only serve to render this conclusion the
more certain. It should be observed that to affirm that characters are
pi'edetermined is a very different thing from saying they are preformed.
The one merely asserts that the cause of the transformations which
lead from one step to another in the development is determined by the
initial conditions of the fertilized egg cell ; the other affirms that those
transformations have already taken place.

The absolute determinism of development depends primarily upon
the constant structure of the egg cell, but also to a certain extent upon
a definite relation to extrinsic factors. Since, however, these extrinsic
factors may be exactly the same in two cases, and yet the result of de-
velopment be very different (e, g., the egg of the starfish and that of
the sea urchin), we can only conclude that while ontogenetic difi'erences
may be caused by a disturbance of the extrinsic factors, inherited char-
acters are always the result of a definite structure of the germinal pro-
toplasm, and that, therefore, development is, in the words of Prof.
Whitman, "a function of organization."

Inheritance and variation are general terms which include a great
many different kinds of phenomena, many of which seem to be due to
entirely different factors. A great many phenomena of inheritance
seem to be due entirely to extrinsic forces, but a more careful inquiry
always reveals the fact that they are invariably due to the reaction of
certain extrinsic causes on a perfectly definite living structure. As
examples may be mentioned the following :

(1) The tiger-like striping of the egg of Fundulus, which is very
characteristic and would certainly be regarded as an inherited char-
acter, has been shown by Loeb* to be due entirelj' to the position of
the blood vessels of the blastoderm. The pigment cells are at first
uniformly distributed, but when the blood vessels are formed they
gather around them, probably through chemotropic action, and thus
the characteristic banded appearance is produced. Graf has since
shown that the color paterns of leaches are produced in the same way.
It is not necessary, therefore, to assume that the color paterns in these
cases are specifically represented in the germinal protoplasm ; it maj^

* Jacques Loeb, Some Facts and Principles of Plnjsiological Morphology, Biological Lec-
tures, 1893.

PhOC. AMEIi. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 150. K. PRINTED JULY 7, 1896.

Q9

Conklin.] *^^ [May 1,

even be that the position of the blood vessels is not so represented, but
there must be some ultimate cause back in the germinal plasm itself
•which determines the series of causes which finally produces the color
paterns. In short, this feature, like most others, was predetermined
from the beginning.

(2) Herbst * has shown in a series of interesting experiments that bj^
tlie use of various chemical substances the development of echinoderms
may be profoundly modified. For example, in sea water deficient in
calcium-chloride, or in which there is an excess of potassium-chloride,
the pluteus larva, instead of developing calcareous spicules and the long
ciliated arms which give the normal larva an angular, easel-shaped
appearance, remains rounded in shape much like the larva of Balano-
glossus, in which no spicular skeleton is developed. The withdrawal,
therefore, of certain normally present substances from the environment
may profoundly modify the end result. But in this case, as in the
other, it is absolutely certain that the calcareous spicules were prede-
termined in the egg cell, although in the absence of calcareous matter
from the water those spicules could not be built — the plan was there,
but the building material was lacking.

Such modifications resulting from unusual conditions of pressure,
temperature, density, nutrition — in fact, any alteration of the chemical
or physical environment — may appear in any stage of development
from the unsegmented egg to the adult condition, but it must not be
supposed that the entire development can be reduced to such factors.
Loeb argues that we do not inherit our body heat from our parents
))ecause it depends upon certain chemical processes, but is it not abso-
lutely certain that we inherit a certain protoplasmic structure which
determines those chemical processes, and hence the body temperature ':
To assume that extrinsic causes determine whether there shall hatch
from an egg a chicken or an eagle is the sheerest nonsense. The study
of extrinsic factors in relation to inheritance will serve to simplify some
of the intricate problems to be explained, but surely no one believes
that development can ever be referred entirely to such factors. The
lact is that determinism, which is the most fundamental characteristic
of inheritance, is manifested at every step of development, and there is
certaiily no escape from the conclusion that this determinism depends
upon protoplasmic structure, and that this structure it is which is trans-
mitted from generation to generation and which forms the physical
basis of inheritance.

All really inherited characters must, therefore, be represented in
the structure of the germinal protoplasm, and must consequently be
])resent from the beginning of development. " We must consider it as
a law derivable from the causality principle," saysllatschek,t "that in

*Zeit. wiss. ZooL, Bd. Iv.

t Berthold Hatschek, Vcber die EntuickluJigsgtschichlc von Teredo, Arb. Zool. Inst.,
Wicn, 18S0.

1896.] ^^ [Conklin.

the phylogenetic alterations of an animal form the end stages are not
alone altered, but the entire series from the egg cell to the end stage.
Every alteration of an end stage or addition of a new one must he
caused by an alteration of the egg cell itself." Nageli* has expressed
a similar view in the following famous sentence : "Egg cells must con-
tain all the essential characteristics of the species as perfectly as do
adult organisms, and hence they must difter from one another, no less
as egg cells than in the fully developed state. The species is con-
tained in the egg of the hen as completely as in the hen, and the hen's
egg difl'ers as much from the frog's egg as the hen from the frog."

4. The remarkable tenacity of inheritance, as shown especially in
reversions and the preservation of useless and embryonic characters
through many hundreds or thousands of generations, and amid the
most diverse circumstances, bears strong testimony to the great stability
of that living structure which is the basis of inheritance. On the other
hand, all experience goes to prove that the living substance of the body
cells in general is readily modified, and that in a surprisingly short
time. The fact of this great difference cannot fail to be recognized ; its
cause is at present merely a matter of conjecture.

Weismann at one time supposed the cause of this to be an absolutely
stable, absolutely separate, and perpetually continuous germ plasm.
However, there is the most convincing and abundant evidence that
although the germ plasm is relatively very stable and continuous, it
does not possess those divinely perfect characters ascribed to it. More
recently Weismann has expressly abandoned each and all of these
characters,! and now, like a good Lamarckian, finds "the cause of
hereditary variation in the direct eflects of external influences on the
biophores and determinants."

The outcome of the whole matter, then, is that we find ourselves
much in U^e same position as we were before Weismann denied the
possibility of the inheritance of acquired characters. All hereditary va-
riations are caused by the action of extrinsic forces on the germinal proto-
plasm, producing changes in its structure. Strangelj^ enough, this propo-
sition was admitted as a logical necessity by one who undertook by
rigorous logic to prove the reverse. Since almost the only objection to
this position was the one raised by Weismann, it may now be considered
as definitely settled,- and the only question before us, then, is : How can
extrinsic causes modify the structure of the germinal protoplasm?

Since by his own admissions, as Romanes has shown, the most char-
acteristic features of Weismann 's system, both as to inheritance and
evolution, have been virtually abandoned, it seems to some that his
theories have been of no real value, and that, like an ignis fatuus, they
have only served to lead biologists astray far from the path of science
into the dangerous quagmires of speculation. I do not share any such

* Nageli, Mechanisch-physiologwche Theorie der Abstanunungslehre, 1884.
t See Romanes' Examination of Wcismannism, 18t)3.

Coukliiw] ^i [Miiy],

opinion. Apart from his splendid observations and the great stimulus
to investigation which Weismann's theories have furnished, there re-
main many elements of permanent value in his work.

Osborn * tliinks that "Weismann's most "permanent service to biology
is his demand for direct evidence of the Lamarckian principle." It
seems to me that his greatest service consists in the emphasis which he
has laid upon the intrinsic factors of development and evolution as
opposed to the extrinsic factors, a thing which he has indeed over-
emphasized, but which has sadly needed a strong defender in these later
years. Largely as an outcome of his work, we now recognize the pos-
sibilities and the limitations of the selection Iheory as never before, and
we also recognize that many of the evidences which were adduced in
support of the Lamarckian factors are not conclusive, while the method
of securing conclusive evidence is clearly marked out. Whatever we
may think of his theories, this certainly is no slight service.

5. It is by no means an easy task to determine whether the influence
of extrinsic forces has really reached the germinal protoplasm and
modified its structure ; much more difficult is it to determine how that
modification takes place. I believe it is safe to say that a majority of
the cases which are supposed to prove the inheritance of acquii-ed char-
acters prove only that characters are acquired, not that they ai'e inher-
ited. There is great need of caution against supposing that any char-
acter is inherited unless it repeats itself under manj^ and difiereut con-
ditions. Apart altogether from inheritance, similar conditions may
produce similar results, and consequently this source of error must be
eliminated if we would be certain that the structure of the germinal
protoplasm has really been modified. Many of the alleged cases of the
inheritance of mutilations, ot the direct influence of the environment
and of use and disuse fall away under this precaution.

The general evidence for the inheritance of mutilations is so noto-
riously bad that I pass it by altogether, and select for consideration a
few cases, chosen from a recent work on the subject,! which have bj'
various writers been alleged as showing the direct influence of environ-
ment in modifying species and also the inherited ettects of use and
disuse.

(1) It is well known that certain gasteropods, if reared in small
vessels, are smaller than when grown in large ones, and this case has
been cited as showing the influence of environment in modifying
species. There is good evidence, however, that this modification does
not affect the germinal protoplasm, for these same gasteropods will
grow larger if placed in larger A^essels. It seems very probable that
the diminished size of these animals is due to deficient food supply, but
this has so little modified the somatic protoplasm that, although thej'
may be fully developed as shown by sexual maturity, they at once

* 0.sborn, Tlie Unknown Factors of Evolution, Biological Lectures, 1S9-1.
t K. D. Cope, The Primary Factors aj Organic Evolution, 1890.

1895.] ^^ [Coiikliu.

increase in size as soon as more abundant food is provided, and tliis
takes place by the active growtli and division of all the cells of the
body. In higher animals, once maturity has been reached, there is
little chance for groAvth, apparently because many of the cells are so
highly ditferentiated that they can no longer divide. Consequently
the growth is limited, and hence the size of the adult may depend in
part upon the amount of nutriment furnished to the embryo. This
limitation of growth is due to the high degree of differentiation of the
somatic cells. But as the germ cells are not highly differentiated and
are capable of division, it follows that Ihey Avould not be permanently
modified by starving. It may be, as Prof. Brewer argues, that long
continued starving and consequent dwarfing of animals may leave its
mark on the germinal plasm ; but, as he also remarks, this influence
must be very slight as compared with the cumulative effects of selec-
tion in breeding, and it is safe to assert that there is no such wholesale
and immediate modification of the germinal plasm due to the influence
of nutrition as some people seem to suppose.

(2) The interesting experiments of Schmankewitsch in transforming
one species of Artemia into another by gradually increasing the salinity
of the water, or in transforming Artemia into another genus, Branchi-
necta, by decreasing the salinity of the water are Avell known, and are
often cited as illustrations of the fact that specific and even generic
differences may suddenly be produced under the influence of the
environment. The very fact, however, that these changes are sud-
denly produced, and that they can at will be quickly modified in one
direction or the other is evidence that they are not represented in the
structure of the germinal plasm, and the fact that definite extrinsic
causes, sucl^is salt or fresh water, acting upon this plasm produces
results which are constantly the same is the best evidence that the
internal mechanism, i. e., the structure of the germinal plasm, is con-
stantly the same. The same can be said of many artificially produced
modifications, such as the exogastrulas and potassium lai-vse of Herbst,
all of which profound changes are due entirely to extrinsic and not to
intrinsic causes, as is shown by the fact that they disappear as soon as
the immediate extrinsic cause is withdrawn. The same thing is shown
in Poulton's experiments on the colors of Lepidopterous larva;, and in
this case also it is known that the changes are not inherited, at least
during the limited period through which the experiments were con-
ducted ; and it should be observed that to assume that this would take
place at the end of an indefinite number of generations is simply to beg
the question.

Very many other cases of a similar character might be instanced
under this head if time permitted, but I hasten on to another class of
evidence.

Under the subject of the inherited effects of use and disuse the fol-
lowing cases may be mentioned as showing how inconclusive much of
this evidence is :

Conklin.] ^^ [May 1,

(1) In the first place, this whole line of argument starts with the
assumption that the indiyitlual habits of an animal are inherited, and
that these habits ultimately determine the structure — an assumption
which really begs the whole question ; for, after all, the substratum of
any habit must be some physical structure, and if modified habits are
inherited it must be because some modified structure is inherited. I
take an example which will serve as an illustration of a whole class :
Jackson* says that the elongated siphon of Mya, the long-necked
clam, is due to its habit of burrowing in the mud, or to quote his words :
"It seems very evident that the long siphon of this genus was brought
about by the effort to reach the surface, induced by the habit of deep
burial." It certainly would be pertinent to inquire where it got this
habit, and how it happened to be transmitted. It is surely as difficult
to explain the acquisition and inheritance of habits, the basis of which
we do not know, as it is to explain the acquisition and inheritance of
structures which are tangible and visible. Such a method of procedure,
in addition to begging the whole question, commits the further sin of
reasoning from the relatively unknown to the relatively known !

This case is but a fair sample of a whole class, among which maj- be
mentioned the following : The derivation of the long hind legs of jump-
ing animals, the long fore legs of climbinganimals, and the elongation
of all the legs of running animals through the influence of an inherited
habit. All such cases are open to the very serious objection mentioned
above.

(2) Another whole class of arguments may be reduced to this propo-
sition : Because necessary mechanical conditions are never violated bj-
organisms, therefore modifications due to such conditions show the iu-
lieritance of acquired characters. Plainly, the alternative proposition
is this : If acquired characters are not inherited, organisms ought to do
impossible things.

(3) Many of the arguments advanced to prove the inheritance of
characters acquired through use or disuse seem to me to prove entirely
too much. For example. Prof. Cope argues very ably that bones are
lengthened by both stretch and impact, and that modifications thus pro-
duced are inherited. Even granting that this is true, how would it be
possible fortius process of lengthening to cease, since in active animals
the stretch and impact must be continual? Prof. Cope answers that
the growth ceases when "equilibrium" is reached. I confess I cannot
understand this explanation, since the assumed stimulus to growth
must be continual. But granting again that growth may stop when an
animal's legs become long enough to "satisfy its needs," how on this
principle are we to account for the shortening of legs, as, for example,
in the turnspit dog and the ancon sheep and numberless cases occurring
in nature? If any one species was able, by taking thought of mechan-
ical stresses and strains, to add one cubit unto its stature, how could
the same stresses and strains be invoked to decrease its stature?

* R. T. Jackson, Memoirs Boston Soc. Nal. Ilist., 1890.

1896 ] ^7 [Conkliu.

These evidences are, I know, not the strongest ones which can l)c
adduced in support of the Lamarckian factors. There are at present a
relatively small number of such arguments which seem to be valid and
the great force of which I fully admit. But the cases which I have
cited are, I believe, fair samples of the majority of the evidences so far
presented, and in the face of such "evidence" it is not surprising that
one who is himself a profound student of the subject and a convinced
Lamarckian praj'^s that the Lamarckian theory may be delivered from
its friends.*

6. Another line of evidence, and by far the most promising, is that of
direct experiment. So far most of the experiments which have been
carried on to determine this question have been carried only half way
to a conclusion — they have shown that characters are acquired, they
have usually failed to show that they are transmitted to descendants.
Among animals one of the best known cases is the inheritance of
epilepsy and other disorders in Guinea pigs, due to certain nervous
lesions of the parents. But Romanes,! who spent much time in trying
to corroborate these results, concludes as follow^s : "On the whole,
then, as regards Brown-Sequard's experiments, it will be seen that I
have not been able to furnish any approach to a full corroboration."

Among plants, on the other hand, there is more and better experi-
mental evidence, but it is not by any means as full or satisfactory as
could be wished. Of one thing we may be certain : a satisfactory solu-
tion of the problem can be reached only by experiment. The mere
observations and inductions of the morphologist, while affording valu-
able collateral evidence, can never furnish the crucial test. As long
as we deal mereh' with probabilities of a low order there will be pro-
found differences of opinion : e. g., Cope believes in all the Lamarckian
factors; Romanes rejects use and disuse, but believes in the others;
Weismann rejects all of them. Why? Is it because each does not know
the facts upon which the others build? Certainly not. Those so-called
facts are merely probabilities of a higher or lower order, and to one
man they seem more important than to another. 'No conviction based
even upon a high degree of probability can ever be reached in this way.
There is here a deadlock of opinion, each challenging the other to pro-
duce indubitable proof. This can never be furnished by observation
alone. Possibly even experiment may fail in it, but at least it is the
only hope.

Conclusion.

On the whole, then, I believe the facts which are at present at our
disposal justify a return to the position of Darwin. Neither Weismann-
ism nor Lamarckism alone can explain the causes of evolution. But
Darwinism can explain those causes. Darwin endeavored to show that

* H. F. Osbom, Evolulion and Hrredily, Biological Lectures, 1890.
tG. J. Romaue-, Post- Darwinian Questions, 1893.

Bailey.] *^^ [May 1,

variations, perhaps even adaptations, were the result of extrinsic factors
acting upon tlie organism, and that these variations or adaptations were
increased and improved by natural selection. This is, I believe, the
only ground which is at present tenable, and it is but another testimonj'^
to the greatness of that man of men, that, after exploring for a score of
years all the ins and outs of pure selection and pure adaptation, men
are now coming back to the position outlined and unswervingly main-
tained by him.

Finally, we ought not to suppose that we have already reached a
satisfactory solution of the evolution problem, or are, indeed, near such
a solution. "We must not conceal from ourselves the fact," says Roux,
"that the causal investigation of organism is one of the most difficult,
if not the most difficult, problem which the human intellect has at-
tempted to solve, and that this investigation, like every causal science,
can never reach completeness, since every new cause ascertained oul}"
gives rise to fresh questions concerning the cause of this cause."

The Factors of Organic Evolution from a Botanical Standpoint.

By Prof. L. U. Bailey.

(Read before tlie American PhilosopJucal Society, May 1, 1S96.)

THE SURVIVAL OF THE UNLIKE.

We all agree that there has been and is evolution ; but we probably
all disagree as to the exact agencies and forces which have been and are
responsible for it. The subject of the agencies and vehicles of evolution
has been gone over repeatedly and carefully for the animal creation, but
there is comparatively little similar research and speculation for the plant
creation. This deficiency upon the plant side is my excuse for calling
your attention, in a popular way, to a few suggestions respecting the con-
tinuing creation of the vegetable world, and to a somewhat discursive
consideration of a number of illustrations of the methods of advance of
plant tj'pes.

1. Nature of the Divergence of the Plant and Animal.

It is self-evident that the development of life upon our planet has taken
place along two divergent lines. These lines originated at a common
point. Tliis common life-plasma was probably at first more animal like
than plant-like. The stage in which this life-plasma first began to assume
plant-like functions is closely and possibly exactly preserved to us in that
great class of organisms which are known as mycetozoa when studied by
zoologists and as myxomycetes when studied by botanists. At one stage

1896.J ^^ [Bailey.

of their existence, these organisms are amcebi-like, that is, animal-like,
but at another stage they are spnriferous or plant like. The initial diver-
gencies in organisms were no doubt concerned chiefly in the methods of
appropriating food, the animal-like organisms apprehending their food at
a more or less definite point, and the plant-like organisms absorbing food
throughout the greater or even the entire part of their periphery. It is
not my purpose to trace the particular steps or methods of these diver-
gencies, but to call your attention to what I believe to be a fundamental
distinction between the two lines of development, and one wliich I do
not remember to have seen stated in the exact form in which it lies in my
mind.

Both lines probably started out with a more or less well-marked circu-
lar arrangement of the parts or organs. This was consequent upon the
peripheral arrangement of the new cells in the development of the mul-
ticellular organism from the unicellular one. A long line of animal life
developed in obedience lo this peripheral or rotate type of organization,
ending in the echinoderms and some of the mollusks. This line long ago
reached its zenith. No line of descent can be traced from them, accord-
ing to Cope. The progressive and regnant type of animal life appeared
in the vermes or true worms, forms which are characterized by a two-
sided or bilateral, and therefore more or less longitudinal, structure. The
animal-like organisms were strongly developed in the power of locomo-
tion, and it is easy to see that the rotate or centrifugal construction would
place the organism at a comparative disadvantage, because its seat of sen-
sation is fartliest removed from the external stimuli. But the worm- like
organisms, "being longitudinal and bilateral," writes Cope, "one ex-
tremity becomes differentiated by first contact with the environment."
In other words, the animal type has shown a cephalic, or head-forming,
evolution in consequence of the bilateralism of structure. The indi-
vidual has become concentrated. Out of tliis vvorm-form type, theie-
fore, all the higher ranges of zootypic evolution have sprung, and one is
almost tempted to read a literal truth into David's lamentation that "I
am a worm and no man."

If, now, we turn to plants we find the rotate or peripheral arrangement
of parts emphasized in all the higher ranges of forms. The most marked
bilateralism in the plant world is amongst the bacteria, desmids, and the
like, in which locomotion is markedly developed ; and these are also
amongst the lowest plant types. But plants soon became attached to the
earth, or, as Cope terms tliem, they are *' earth parasites." They there-
fore found it to their advantage to reach out in everj' direction from their
^upport in the search for food. Whilst the centrifugal airrangement has
strongly tended to disappear in the animal creation, it has tended with
equal strength to persist and to augment itself in the plant creation. Its
marked development amongst plants began with the acquirement of ter-
restrial life, and with the consequent evolution of the asexual or sporo-
phytic type of vegetation. Normally, the higher type of plant bears its

PUOC. AMEK. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 150. L. FEINTED JULY 7, 1896.

Bailey.] '^^ [May 1,

parts more or less equally upon all sides, and the limit to growth is still
determined by the immediate environment of the given individual or of
its recent ancestors. Its evolution has been acephalic, diffuse, or head-
less, and the individual plant or tree has no proper concentration of parts.
For the most part, it is filled with unspecialized plasma, which, when
removed from the parent individual (as in cuttings and grafts), is able to
reproduce another like individual. The arrangements of leaves, branches,
the parts of the flower, and even of seeds in the fruit, are thus rotate or
circular, and in the highest type of plants the annual lateral increments
of growth are disposed in like fashion ; and it is significant to observe
that in the compositse, which is considered to be the latest and highest
general type of plant-form, the rotate or centrifugal arrangement is most
emphatically developed. The circular arrangement of parts is the typi-
cal one for higher plants, and any departure from this form is a speciali-
zation and demands explanation.

Tiie point I wish to urge, therefore, is the nature of the obvious or ex-
ternal divergence of plant-like and animal-like lines of ascent. The
significance of the bilateral structure of animal-types is well understood,
but this significance has been drawn, so far as I know, from a compari-
son of bilateral or dimeric animals with rotate or polymeric animals. I
want to put a larger meaning into it, by making bilateralism the symbol
of the onward march of animal evolution and circumlateralism (if I may
invent tlie term) the symbol of plant evolution. The suggestion, however,
applies simply to the general arrangement of the parts or organs of the
plant body, and lias no relation whatever to functional attributes or pro-
cesses. It is a suggestion of analogues, not of horaologues. "We may,
therefore, contrast these two great lines of ascent, which, with so many
vicissitudes, have come up through the age?", as Dipleurogenesis and Cen-
trogenesis.

The two divergent directions of the lines or phyla of evolution have
often been the subject of comment, but one of the sharpest contrasts
between the two was made in 1884 by Cope, when he proposed that the
vegetable kingdom has undergone a degenerate or retrogressive evolu-
tion. " The plants in general," he then wrote, "in the persons of their
protist ancestors, soon left a free-swimming life and became sessile.
Their lives thus became parasitic, more automatic, and, in one sense,
degenerate." The evolution of the plant creation is, therefore, held to
be a phenomenon of catagenesis or decadence. This, of course, is merely
a method of stating a comparison with the evolution of the animal line or
phylum, and is therefore of the greatest service. For myself, however, I
dislike the terms retrogressive, catagenetic, and the like, as applied to the
plant creation, because they imply intrinsic or actual degeneracy. True
retrogressive or degenerate evolution is the result of loss of attributes.
Cope holds that the chief proof of degeneracy in the plant world is the
loss of a free-swimming habit, but it is possible that the first life-plasma
was stationary ; at any rate, we do not know that it was motile. Degen-

1896.] *^^ [Bailey.

eracy is unequivocally seen in certain restricted groups where the loss of
characters can be traced directly to adaptive clianges, as in the loss of
limbs in the serpents. Retarded evolution expresses the development of
the plant world better than the above terms, but even this is erroneous
because plant types exhibit quite as complete an adaptation to an enor-
mous variety of conditions as animals do, and there has been rapid prog-
ress towards specialization of structure. As a matter of fact, the vege-
table world does not exhibit, as a whole, any backward step, any loss of
characters once gained, nor any stationary or retarded periods ; but its
progress has been widely unlike that of the animal world and it has not
reached the heights which that line of ascent has attained. The plant
phylum cannot be said to be catagenetic, but suigenetic. Or, in other
words, it is centrogenetic as distinguished from dipleurogenetic.

The hearer should be reminded, at this point, of the curious alternation
of generations which has come about in the plant world. One genera-
tion develops sexual functions, and the product of the sexual union is an
asexual generation, and this, in turn, gives rise to another sexual gen-
eration like the first. In the lowest sex-plants, as the algse, the sexual
generation — or the gametophyte, as it is called — generally comprises the
entire plant body, and the asexual generation — or sporophyte — develops
as a part of the fructifying structure of the gametophyte, and is recog-
nizable as a separate structure only by students of special training. In
the fungi, which are probably of catagenetic evolution, alternation of
generations is very imperfect or wanting. In the true mosses, the
gametophyte is still the conspicuous part of the plant structure. It com-
prises all that part of the moss which the casual observer recognizes as
"the plant." The sporophytic generation is still attached to the per-
sistent gametophyte, and it is the capsule with its stem and appendages.
In the ferns, however, the gametophytic stage is of short duration. It is
the inconspicuous prothallus, which follows the germination of the spore.
Therefrom originates "the fern," all of which is sporophytic, and the
gametophyte perishes. With the evolution of the flowering plants, the
gametophyte becomes still more rudimentary, whilst the sporophyte is
the plant, tree or bush, as we see it. The gametophytic generation
is associated with the act of fertilization, the male prothallus or gameto-
phyte developing from the pollen grain and soon perishing, and the
female prothallus or gametophyte developing in the ovule and either soon
perishing or persisting in the form of the albumen of the seed. The great
development of the sporophyte in later time is no doubt a consequence of
the necessity of assuming a terrestrial life ; and with this development
has come the perfection of the centrogenic form.

2. The Origin of Differences.

The causes which have contributed to the origin of the differences which
we see in the organic creation have been and still are the subjects of the

Bailey.] "■" [>ray 1,

most violent controversy. Those persons who conceive these differences
to have come into existence full-formed, as they exist at the present time,
are those who believe in the dogma of special creations, and they usually
add to the doctrine a belief in design in nature. This doctrine of special
creation receives its strongest support when persons contrast individual
objects in nature. Certainly nothing can seem more unlike in very fun-
damental character than an insect and an elephant, a star-fish and a potato,
a man and an oak tree. The moment one comes to study the genealo-
gies of these subjects or groups, however, he comes upon the astonishing
fact that the ancestors are more and more alike the farther back they are
traced. In other words, there are great series of convergent histories.
Every naturalist, therefore, is compelled to admit that differences in na-
ture have somehow been augmented in the long processes of time. It is
unnecessary, therefore, that he seek the causes of present differences
until he shall have determined the causes of the smallest or original
differences. It is thus seen that there are two great and coordinate prob-
lems in the study of evolution, the causes of initial differences, and the
msans by which differences are augmented. These two problems are no
doubt very often expressions of the same force or power, for the augmen-
tation of a difference comes about by tiie origination of new degrees of
difference, that is, by new differences. It is very probable that the origi-
nal genesis of the differences is often due to the operation ot the very
same physiological processes which gradually enlarge the difference into
a gulf of wide separation.

In approaching this question of the origin of unlikene&ses, the inquirer
must first divest himself of the effects of all previous teaching and think-
ing. We have reason to assume that all beings came from one original
life-plasma, and we must assume that this plasma had the power of per-
petuating its physiological. identity. Most persons still further assume
that this plasma must have been endowed with the property of reproduc-
ing all its characters of form and habit exactly, but such assumption is
wholly gratuitous and is born of the age-long habit of thinking that like
produces like. We really have no right to assume either that this plasma
was or was not constituted with the power of exact reproduction of all
its attril)utes, unless the behavior of its ascendants forces us to the one or
the other conclusion. Inasmuch as no two individual organisms ever are
or ever have been exactly alike, so far as we can determine, it seems to me
to be the logical necessity to assume that like never did and never can
produce like. The closer we are able to approach to plasmodial and un-
specialized forms of life in our studies of organisms, the more are we im-
pressed with the weakness ot the hereditary power. Every tyro in the
study of protoplasm knows that the amoeba has no form. The shapes
which it assumes are individual, and do not pass to the descendants. To
my mind, therefore, it is a more violent assumption to supjiose that this
first uuspecialized plasma should exactly reproduce all its minor features
than to suppose that it had no distinct hereditary power and therefore, by

1800 ] «J^ [Bailey.

the very nature of its constitution, could not exactly reproduce itself.
The burden of proof has been thrown upon those who attempt to explain
the initial origin of differences, but it should really be thrown upon those
who assume that life-matter was originally so constructed as to rigidly
recast itself iuto one mould in each succeeding generation. I see less
reason for dogmatically assuming that like produces like than I do for
supposing that unlike produces unlike.

I advanced this proposition a year ago in my Plant- breeding (pp, 9,
10), and I am now glad to find, since writing the above paragraph,
that H. S. Williams has reached similar conclusions in his new Geological
Biology. Pie regards mutability as the fundamental law of organisms,
and speaks of the prevalent notion that organisms must necessarily repro-
duce themselves exactly as "one of the chief inconsistencies in the preva-
lent conception of the nature of organisms." "While the doctrine of
mutability of species has generally taken the place of immutability," he
writes, "the proposition that like produces like in organic generation is
still generally, and I suppose almost universal!}', accepted. It therefore
becomes necessary to suppose that variation is exceptional, and thatsome
reason (or the accumulation of variation is necessary to account for the

great divergencies seen in different species The search has been

for some cause of the variation ; it is more probable that mutability is the
normal law of organic action, and that permanency is the acquired law."
I do not suppose that Professor Williams makes definite variation an inhe-
rent or necessary quality of organic matter, but that this matter had no
original herediiary power and that its form and other attributes in suc-
ceeding generations have been moulded into the environment, and that
the burden of proof is thrown upon those who assume that life-matter
was endowed with the property that like necessarily produces like. At
till events, this last is my own conception of the modification of the
streams of ascent.

In other words, I look upon heredity as an acquired character, the same
as form or color or sensation is, and not as an original endowment of
mailer. The hereditary power did not originate until for some reason it
was necessary for a given character to reproduce itself, and the longer any
form or character was perpetuated, the stronger became the hereditary
power.

It is now pertinent to inquire what determined the particular diflferen-
ces which we know to have persisted. The mere statement that some
forms became sessile or attached to the earth, and that others became
or remained motile, is an assumption that these differences were direct
adaptations to environment. Every little change in environment incited
a corresponding change in the plastic organization ; and the greater and
more various the changes in the physical attributes of the earth with the
lapse of time, the greater became the modifications in organisms. I be-
lieve, therefore, that the greater part of present diflerences in organisms
are the result directly and indirectly of external stimuli, until we come

Bailey] ^4 piay ],

into those higher ranges of being in which sensation and volition have
developed, and in which the effects of use and disuse and of psychologi-
cal states have become increasingly more important as factors of ascent.
The whole moot question, then, as to whether variations are definite or
multifarious, is aside from the issue. They* are as definite as the changes
in the environment, which determine and control their existence. More
differences arise than can persist, but this does not prove that those which
are lost are any the less due to the impinging stimuli. Those who write
of definite variation, usually construe the result or outcome of some par-
ticular evolution into a measure of the variation which is conceived to
have taken place in the group. Most or all of the present characters of
any group are definite because they are the survivals in a process of elimi-
nation ; but there may have been, at various times, the most diverse and
diffuse variations in the very group which is now marked by definite
attributes. As the lines of ascent developed, and generation followed
generation in countless number, the organization was more and more im-
pressed with the features of ancestral characters, and these ancestral
characters are the more persistent as they have been more constant in the
past. But these characters, which appear as hereditary or atavistic varia-
tions in succeeding generations, were no doubt first, at least in the plant
creation, the offspring, for the most part, of the environment reacting
upon the organism. As life has ascended in the time-scale and has become
increasingly complex, so the operation of any incident force must ever
produce more diverse and unpredictable results. What I mean to say is
that, in plants, some of the variations seem to me to be the resultants of
a long line of previous incident impressions, or have no immediate inci-
ting cause. Such variation is, to all appearances, fortuitous. It is, there-
fore, evident that the study of the effects of impinging environments at
the present day may not directly elucidate the changes which similar con-
ditions may have produced in the beginning.

Whilst the steadily ascending line of the plant creation was fitting
itself into the changing moods of the external world, it was at the same
time developing an internal power. Plants were constantly growing
larger and stronger or more specialized. The accumulation of vital energy
is an acquired character the same as peculiarities of form or structure
are. It is the accumulated result of every circumstance which has con-
tributed to the well-being and virility of the organism. The gardener
knows that he can cause the plant to store up energy in the seed, so that
the resulting crop will be the larger. Growth is itself but the expression
or result of this energy which has been picked up by the way through
countless ages. Now, mere growth is variation. It results in differences.
Plants cannot grow without being unlike. The more luxuriant the
growth, the more marked the variation. Most plants have acquired or
inherited more growth-force than they are able to use because they are
held down to certain limitations by the conditions in which they are neces-
sarily placed by the struggle for existence. I am convinced that many of

1S96.] *^«-' [Bailey.

the members of plants are simply outgrowths resulting from this growth-
pressure, or as Bower significantly speaks of them ("A Theory of the
Strobilus in Archegoniate Plants," Annals of Botany, viii, 358, 359),
the result of an "eruptive process." The pushing out of shoots from any
part of the plant body, upon occasion, the normal production of adventi-
tious plantlets upon the stems and leaves of some begonias (especially
Begonia phyllomaniaca), bryophyllum, some ferns, and many other plants,
are all expressions of the growth-force which is a more or less constant in-
ternal power. This growth-force may give rise to more definite variations
than impinging stimuli do ; but the growth- force runs in definite direc-
tions because it, in its turn, is the survival in a general process of elimi-
nation. Many of the characters of plants which — for lack of better ex-
planation— we are in the habit of calling adaptive, are no doubt simply
the result of eruption of tissue. Very likely some of the compounding
of leaves, the pushing out of some kinds of prickles, the duplication of
floral organs, and the like, are examples of this kind of variation. We
know that the characters of the external bark or cortex upon old tree
trunks are the result of the internal pressure in stretching and splitting
it. This simply shows how the growth-force may originate characters of
taxonomic significance when it is expressed as mere mechanical power
acting upon tissue of given anatomical structure. This power of growth
is competent, I think, to originate many and important variations in
plants. I suppose my conception of it to be essentially the same as that
of the bathmism of Cope, and the " Theory of the Organic Growth " of
Eimer.

We have now considered two general types of forces or agencies which
start ofl" variations in plants — purely external stimuli, and the internal
acquired energy of growth. There is still a third general factor, cross-
ing, or, as Eimer writes it, "sexual mixing." The very reason for the
existence of sex, as we now understand it, is to originate diflerences l>y
means of the union of two parents into one offspring. This sexual mix-
ing cannot be considered to be an original cause of unlikenesses, however,
since sex itself was at first a variation induced by environment or other
agencies, and its present perfection, in higher organisms, is the result of
the process of continuous survival in a conflict of differences.

The recent rise of Lamarckian views seems to have been largely the
result of an attempt to discover the vera causa of variations. Darwin's
hypothesis of natural selection assumes variability without inquiring into
its cause, and writers have therefore said that Darwin did not attempt to
account for the cause of variations. Nothing can be farther from his views.
Yet some of our most recent American writings upon organic evolution
repeat these statements. Cope, in his always admirable Primary Factors
of Organic hvolution, writes that " Darwin only discussed variation after
it came into being." Yet Darwin's very first chapter in his Origin of
Species contains adiscusbion of the "Causes of Variability," and the same
subject is gone over in detail in Variation of Animals and Plants Under

Bailey.] ^^ [Mayl,

Domestication. Darwin repeatedly refers the cause or origin of varia-
tion to "clianged conditions of life," whicli is essentially the position
maintained by the Lamarckians, and he as strenuously combats those who
hold that definite variation is an Innate attribute of life. " But we must,
I think, conclude . . . ." writes Darwin in the latter book, "that organic
beiugs, when subjected during several generations to any change what-
ever in their conditions, tend to vary." He discussed, at length, the par-
ticular agencies which he considered to be most potent in inducing varia-
bility, and enumerated, amongst other factors, the kind and amount of
food, climate and crossiog. "Changes of any kind in the conditions of
life," he repeats, "even extremely slight changes, often suffice to cause
variability. Excess of nutriment is perhaps the most efficient single ex-
citing cause." Cope, in his discusfeion of the "Causes of Variation,"
starts out with the proposition "to cite examples of the direct modifying
effect of external influences on the characters of individual animals and
plants," and he closes with this paragraph: "I trust that 1 have ad-
duced evidence to show that the stimuli of chemical and physical forces,
and also molar motion or use and its absence, are abundantly sufficient
to produce variaticms of all kinds in organic beings. The variations may
be in color, proportions, or details of structure, according to llie condi-
tions whicli are present." This is, in great part, the thesis to which
Darwin extended the proofs of a most laborious collection of data from
gardeners and stock-breeders and from feral nature. It has been the
great misfortune of the interpretation of Darwin's writings that his hy-
pothesis of natural selection has so completely overtopped everything
else in the reader's mind that oilier important matters have been over-
looked.

Whilst the one central truth in the plant creation is the fact that diflfer-
ences arise as a result of variations in environment, there are nevertheless
many exceptions to it. There are various types of differences which are
merely incidental or secondary to the main stem of adaptive ascent. Some
of these are such as arise from the cessation of the constructive agencies,
and others are mere correlatives or accompaniment of type diM'erences.
As an example of the former, we may cite the behavior of tlie potato.
By high cultivation and careful breeding, the plant has been developed
to produce enormous crops of very large tubers, so heavy a crop that the
plant has been obliged to spare some of its energy from the production of
pollen and berries for the purpose of maintaining the subterranean pro-
duct. It is evident that this high state of amelioration can be maintained
only by means of high cultivation. The moment there is a let-down in
the factors which have bred and maintained the plant, there is a tendency
towards a breaking up and disappearance of the higli bred type. Tiiis is
an illustration of the phenomenon of panmixia, as outlined by Weismann,
except that the force which has ceased to act is human selection rather
than natural selection. "This suspension of the preserving influence of
natural selection," Weismann writes, "may be termed Panmixia." In

1896.] "* [Bailey.

his opinion, "the greater number of those variations which are usually
attributed to the direct influence of external conditions of life, are to be
attributed to panmixia. For example, the great variability of most
domesticated animals and plants essentially depends upon this principle."
In other words, certain differences are preserved through the agency of
natural selection, and certain differences are lost ; if the organism is
removed from this restraining and directing agency, all variations have
the chance of asserting themselves. "All individuals can reproduce
themselves," Weismann explains, " and thus stamp their characters upon
the species, and not only those which are in all respects, or in respect to
some single organ, the fittest." I am convinced that this term expresses
a very important truth, and one which, as Weismann says, is particularly
apparent in domestic animals and plants ; but panmixia does not express
an incident force. If new differences arise in consequence of the cessation
of the directive agency of natural selection, it is because they were first
impressed upon the organization by some unaccountable agency ; or, if
there is simply a falling away from accumulated characters, the residuary
or secondary features which appear are probably the compound and often
deteriorated result of various previous incident forces. In short, panmixia
is a name for a class of phenomena, and it cannot be considered as itself
an original cause of variation. It is, to my mind, largely the unrestrained
expression or unfolding of the growth-force consequent upon the removal
of the customary pressure under which the plant has lived.

3. The Survival of the Unlike.

The one note of the modern evolution speculations which has resounded
to the remotest corner of civilization, and which is the chief exponent of
current speculation respecting the origin and destiny of the organic
world, is Spencer's phrase, "the survival of the fittest." This epigram
is an epitome of Darwin's law of natural selection, or " the preservation,
during the battle for life, of varieties which possess any advantage in
structure, constitution or instinct." In most writings, these two phrases
— "natural selection" and "the survival of the fittest" — are used
synonymously ; but in their etymology they really stand to each other in
the relation of process and result. The operation of natural selection
results in the survival of the fittest. One must not be too exact, however,,
in the literal application of such summary expressions as these. Their
particular mission is to aftbrd a convenient and abbreviated formula for
the designation of important principles, for use in common writing and
speech, and not to express a literal truth. Darwin was himself well!
aware of the danger of the literal interpretation of the epigrahi " natural
selection." "The term 'natural selection,' " he writes, "is in some
respects a bad one, as it seems to imply conscious choice ; but this will be
disregarded after a little familiarity." This technical use of the term
" natural selection " is now generally accepted unconsciously; and yet
there have been recent revolts against it upon the score that it does not

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 150. M. PRINTED JULY 9, 1896.

Bailey.] ^'^ [May 1,

itself express a literal principle or truth. If we accept the term in the
sense in which it was propounded by its author, we are equally bound to
accept " survival of the fittest " as a synonymous expression because its
author so designed it. "By natural selection or survival of the fittest,"
writes Spencer, "by the preservation in successive generations of those
whose moving equilibria happen to be least at variance with the require-
ments, there is eventually produced a changed equilibrium completely in
harmony with the requirements."

It should be said that there is no reason other than usage why the phrase
" survival of the fittest " should not apply to the result of Lamarckian or
functional evolution as well as of Darwinian or selective evolution. It
simply expresses a fact without designating the cause or the process.
Cope has written a book upon the " Origin of the Fittest," in which the
argument is Lamarckian. The phrase implies a conflict, and the loss of
certain contestants and the salvation of certain others. It asserts that the
contestants or characters which survive are the fittest, but it does not
explain whether they are fit because endowed with greater strength,
greater prolificness, completer harmony with surroundings, or other
attributes. I should like to suggest, therefore, that the chiefest merit of
the survivors is unlikeuess, and to call your attention for a few minutes
to the significance of the phrase — which I have used in my teaching dur-
ing the last year — the survival of the unlike.

This phrase — the survival of the unlike — expresses no new truth, but I
hope that it may present the old truth of vicarious or non-designed evolu-
tion in a new light. It defines the fittest to be the unlike. You will
recall that in this paper I have dwelt upon the origin and progress of dif-
ferences rather than of definite or positive characters. I am so fully con-
vinced that, in the plant creation, a new character is useful to the species
because it is unlike its kin, that the study of diff"erence between individuals
has come to be, for me, the one absorbing and controlling thought in the
contemplation of the progress of life. These differences arise as a result
of every impinging force — soil, weather, climate, food, training, conflict
with fellows, the strain and stress of wind and wave and insect visitors —
as a complex resultant of many antecedent external forces, the eflfects of
crossing, and also as the result of the accumulated force of mere growth ;
they are indefinite, non-designed, an expression of all the various
influences to which the passive vegetable organism is or has been exposed ;
those difl'erences which are most unlike their fellows or their parents find
the places of least conflict, and persist because they thrive best and there-
by impress themselves best upon their off'spring. Thereby there is a con-
stant tendency for new and divergent lines to strike ofi", and these lines,
as they become accented, develop into what we, for convenience sake,
have called species. There are, therefore, as many species as there are
unlike conditions in physical and environmental nature, and in propor-
tion as the conditions are unlike and local are the species well defined.
But to nature, perfect adaptation is the end ; she knows nothing, pe)' se,

18%.] ^'^ [Bailey.

as species or as fixed types. Species were created by Joliu Ray, not by
the Lord ; they were named by Linnoeus, not by Adam.

I must now hasten to anticipate an objection to my phi-ase which may
arise in your minds. I have said that when characters are unlike existing
characters they stand a chance of persisting ; but I do not desire to say
that they are useful in proportion as ihey are unlike their kin. I want to
express my conviction that mere sports are rarely useful. These are no
doubt the result of very unusual or complex stimuli, or of unwonted
refrangibility of the energy of growth, and not having been induced by
conditions which act uniformly over a course of time, they are likely to
be transient. I fully accept Cope's remark that there is "no ground for
believing that sports have any considerable influence on the course of

evolution The method of evolution has apparently been one of

successioual increment and decrement of parts along definite lines."
Amongst domestic animals and plants the selection and breeding of sports,
or very unusual and marked variations, has been a leading cause of their
strange and diverse evolution. In fact, it is in this jjarticular thing that
the work of the breeder and the gardener are most unlike the work of
nature. But in feral conditions, the sport may be likened to an attribute
out of place ; and I imagine that its chief effect upon the phylogeny of a
race — if any efiect it have — is in giving rise in its turn to a brood of less
erratic unlikenesses. This question of sports has its psychological signifi-
cance, for if the way becomes dark the wanderer invokes the aid of this
ignusfafuus to cut short his difficulties. Sir William Thompson supposes
that life may first have come to earth by way of some meteor, and Brinton
proposes that man is a sport from some of the lower creation. It is certainly
a strange type of mind which ascribes a self-centred and self-sufficient
power to the tree of life, and then, at the very critical points, adopts a
wliolly extraneous force and one which is plainly but a survival of the
old cataclysmic type of mind ; and it is the stranger, too, because such
type of explanation is not suggested by observation or experiment, but
simply by what is for the time an insuperable barrier of ignorance of
natural processes. If evolution is true at all, there is reason to suppose
that it extends from beginning to finish of creation, and the stopping of
the process at obscure intervals is only a temporary satisfaction to a mind
that is not yet fully committed to the eternal truth of ascent. The tree of
life has no doubt grown steadily and gradually, and the same forces,
variously modified by the changing pliysical conditions of the earth, have
run on with slow but mighty energy until the present time. Any radical
change in tlie plan would have defeated it, and any mere accidental cir-
cumstance is too trivial to be considered as a modifying infiuence of the
great onward movement of creation, particularly when it assumes to
account for the appearing of the very capstone of the whole mighty
structure.

Bear with me if I recite a few specific examples of the survival of the
unlike, or of the importance, to organic types, of gradually widening dif-

Bailey.] 1^^ [May 1,

ferences. Illustrations might be drawa from every field of the organic
creation, but I choose a few from plants because these are the most
neglected and I am most familiar with them. These are given to illus-
trate how important external stimuli are in originating variation, and how
it is that some of these variations persist.

Let me begin by saying that a good gardener loves his plants. Now, a
good gardener is one who grows good plants, and good plants are very
unlike poor plants. They are unlike because the gardener's love for
them has made them so. The plants were all alike in November ; in
January, the good gardener's plants are strong and clean, with large
dense leaves, a thick stem, and an abundance of perfect flowers ; the poor
gardener's plants are small and mean, with curled leaves, a thin hard
stem, and a few imperfect flowers. You will not believe now that the
two lots were all from the same seed-pod three months ago. The good
gardener likes to save his own seeds or make his own cuttings ; and next
year his plants will be still more unlike his neighbor's. The neighbor
tries this seed and that, reads this bulletin and that, but all avails noth-
ing simply because he does not grow good plants. He does not care for
them tenderlj^ as a fond mother cares for a child. The good gardener
knows that the temperature of the water and the air, the currents in the
atmosphere, the texture of the soil, and all the little amenities and com-
forts which plants so much enjoy, are just the factors which make his
plants successful ; and a good crop of anything, whether wheat or beans
or apples, is simply a variation.

And do these unlikenesses survive? Yes, verily ! The greater part of
the amelioration of cultivated plants has come about in just this way, — by
gradual modifications in the conditions in which they are grown, by
means of which unlikenesses arise ; and then by the selection of seeds
from the most coveted plants. Even at the present day, there is com-
paratively little plant-breeding. The cultivated flora has come up with
man, and if it has departed immensely from its wild prototypes, so has
man. Tlie greater part of all this has been unconscious and unintended
on man's part, but it is none the less real.

As an illustration of how large the factors of undesigned choice and
selection are in the amelioration of the domestic flora, let me ask your
attention to the battle of the seed-bags. In the year 1890, the census
records show, for the first time, the number of acres in the United States
devoted to the growing of seed. I give the acreage of three representa-
tive crops, and these figures I have multiplied by the average seed-yields
per acre in order to arrive at an approximate estimate of the entire crop
produced, and the number of acres which the crop would plant. I have
used low averages of yields in order to be on the safe side, and I have
likewise used liberal averages of the quantity of seed required to plant an
acre when making up the last column :

1396.] 101 [Bailey,

Average

Approximate

Acres.

yield per
acre.

crop.

Would plant.

Cabbage,

1,2G8

200 lbs.

253,600 lbs.

1,014,400 acres,

Cucumber,

10,219

120 "

1,226,280 "

613,140 "

Tomato,

4,356

80 "

368,480 "

1,473,920 "

The last column in this table has particular interest because it shows
the enormous acreage which these seeds, if all planted, would cover.
We are now curious to know if such areas really are planted to these
species, and if they are not, it will be pertinent to inquire what becomes
of the seeds. Unfortunately, we have no statistics of the entire acreages
of these various truck-garden crops, but the same census gives the statis-
tics of the commercial market gardens of the country. Inquiry of seed-
merchants has convinced me that about one-fourth of all the seeds sold in
any year go to market gardeners. I have therefore multiplied the census
figures of market gardens by four for the purpose of arriving at an esti-
mate of the total acreage of the given crops in the United States ; and I
have introduced the last column from the above table for purposes of
comparison :

Probable
Acreage of market total There are seeds enough

gardens. acreage. to plant Difference.

Cabbage, 77,094 308,376 1,014,400 acres. 706,024 acres.

Cucumber, 4,721 18,884 613,140 " 594,256 "

Tomato, 22,802 91,308 1,473,920 " 1,382,712 "

It will thus be seen that there are enough cabbage seeds raised in this
country each year — if the census year is a fair sample — to plant nearly
three-quarters of a million acres more than actually are planted; about
the same surplus of cucumber seeds ; and a surplus of tomato seeds suffi-
cient to plant over one and a quarter million acres. It is possible, of
course, that the figures of actual acreage of these crops are too low ; but
such error, if it occur, must be much overbalanced by the large quanti-
ties of home-grown and imported seeds which are used every year. These
startling figures would not apply so well to many other crops which are
detailed in the census bulletin. For instance, the peas raised in this
country would plant only about 46,000 acres, whilst there are over 100,000
acres actually grown ; but this discrepancy is probably accounted for by
the fact that the larger part of the seed peas are grown in Canada and
therefore do not figure in our census. There is a somewhat similar dis-
crepancy in the watermelon, but in this crop the seeds are very largely
home-saved by the heavy planters in the South and West. I do not give
these figures for their value as statistics, but simply for the purpose of
graphically expressing the fact that many more seeds are raised by culti-
vators each average year than are ever grown into plants, and that
the struggle for existence does not necessarily cease when plants are taken
under the care of man.

Bailey.] ^^^ [Mayl,

What, now, becomes of this enormous surplus of seeds ? Let us take a
rough survey of the entire seed crop of any year. In the first place, a
certain percentage of the seeds is laid aside by the seedsman as a surety
against failure in the year to come. Much of this old stock never finds its
vray into the market and is finally discarded. We will estimate this ele-
ment of waste as twenty per cent. Of the eighty per cent, which is
actually sold, perhaps another ten per cent, is never planted, leaving
about seventy per cent, which finds its way into the ground. These two
items of loss are pure waste and have no effect upon the resulting crop.
Now, of the seeds which are planted, not more than seventy -five per cent,
can be expected to germinate. That is, there is certainly an average loss of
twenty-five per cent, in nearly all seeds — and much more in some — due to
inherent weakness, and seventy-five per cent, represents the survival in a
conflict of strength. We have now accounted for about half of the total
seed product of any year. The remaining half produces plants ; but here
the most important part of the conflict begins. In the crops mentioned
above, mucli less than half of the seeds which are grown ever appear in
the form of a crop. We must remember, moreover, that in making the
estimate of the number of acres which these seeds would plant, I have
used the customary estimates of the quantity of seeds required to plant an
acre. Now, these estimates of seedsmen and planters are always very
liberal. Every farmer sows from five to twenty times more seeds than he
needs. Some years ago, I sowed seeds according to the recommendation
of one of our best seedsmen, and I found that peas would be obliged to
stand four-fifths of an inch apart, beets about twenty to the foot, and other
vegetables in like confusion. I suppose that of all the seeds which
actually come up, not more than one in ten or a dozen, in garden vege-
tables, ever give mature plants. What becomes of the remainder? They
are thinned out for the good of those which are left.

This simple process of thinning out vegetables has had a most powerful
eff"ect upon the evolution of our domestic flora. It is a process of unde-
signed selection. This selection proceeds upon the difl"erences in the
seedlings. The weak individuals are disposed of, and those which are
strongest and most vinlike the general run are preserved. It is a clear
case of the survival of the unlike. The laborer who weeds and thins
your lettuce bed unconsciously blocks out his ideas in the plants which
he leaves. But all this is a struggle of Jew against Jew, not of Jew
against Philistine. It is a conflict within the species, not of species
against species. It therefore tends to destroy the solidarity of the specific
type, and helps to introduce much of that promiscuous uulikeness which
is the distinguishing characteristic of domestic plants.

Let us now transfer this emphatic example to wild nature. There we
shall find the same prodigal production of seeds. In the place of the
gardener undesignedly moulding the lines of divergence, we find the
inexorable i)hysical circumstances into which the plastic organisms must
grow, if they grow at all. These circumstances are very often the direct

1896.] J- 03 [Bailey.

causes of the iinlikenesses of plants, for plants ■which start like when they
germinate may be very unlike when they die. Given time and constantly
but slowly changing conditions, and the vegetable creation is fashioned
into the unlikenesses which we now behold. With this conception, let
us read again Francis Parkman's picturesque description of the forest of
Maine in his Half ■Century of Conflict: "For untold ages Maine had
been one unbroken forest, and it was so still. Only along the rocky
seaboard, or on the lower waters of one or two great rivers a few
rough settlements had gnawed slight indentations into this wilderness of
woods, and a little farther inland some dismal clearing around a block-
house or stockade let in the sunlight to a soil that had lain in shadow
time out of mind. This waste of savage vegetation survives, in some
part, to this day, with the same prodigality of vital force, the same
struggle for existence and mutual havoc that mark all organized beings,
from men to mushrooms. Young seedlings in millions spring every sum-
mer from the black mould, rich with the decay of those that had preceded
them, ci'owding, choking and killing each other, perishing by their very
abundance ; all but a scattered few, stronger than the rest, or more fortu-
nate in position, which survive by blighting those about them. They in
turn, as they grow, interlock their boughs, and repeat in a season or two
the same process of mutual suftocalion. The forest is full of lean saplings
dead or dying with vainly stretching towards the light. Not one infant
tree in a thousand lives to maturity ; yet these survivors form an innumer-
able host, pressed together in struggling confusion, squeezed out of sym-
metry and robbed of normal development, as men are said to be in the
level sameness of democratic society. Seen from above, their mingled
tops spread in a sea of verdure basking in light ; seen from below, all is
shadow, through which spots of timid sunshine steal down among legions
of dark, mossy trunks, toadstools and rank ferns, protruding roots, matted
bushes, and rotting carcases of fallen trees. A generation ago one might
find here and there the rugged trunk of some great pine lifting its verdant
spire above the indistinguished myriads of the forest. The woods of
Maine had their aristocracy ; but the axe of the woodman has laid them
low, and these lords of the wilderness are seen no more."

In such bold and generalized examples as this, the student is able to
discern only the general fact of progressive divergency and general adap-
tation to conditions, without being able to discover the particular direc-
tive forces which have been at the bottom of the evolution. It is only
when one considers a specific example that he can arrive at any just con-
clusions respecting initial causes of modification. Of adaptive modifica-
tions, two general classes have been responsible for the ascent of the vege-
table kingdom, one a mere moulding or shaping into the passive physical
environments, the other the direct result of stress or strain imposed upon
the organism by wind and water and by the necessities of a radical change
of habit from aquatic to terrestrial life, and later on by the stimuli of in-
sects upon the flowers. One of the very best examples of the mere pas-

Bailey.] iU4 [May 1

sive ascent is afforded by the evolution of the root as a feeding organ ;
and a like example of development as a result of strain is aflbrded bj^ the
evolution of the stem and vascular or fibrous system. Our present flora,
like our present fauna, is an evolution from aquatic life. The first ses-
sile or stationary plants were undoubtedly stemless. As the waters in-
creased in depth and plants were driven farther and farther from their
starting points by the struggle for place and the disseminating influence
of winds and waves, the plant body became more and more elongated.
Whilst the plant undoubtedly still absorbed food throughout its entire
periphery, it nevertheless began to difl"erentiate into organs. The area
chiefly concerned in food-gathering became broadened into a thallus, a con-
stricted or stem-like portion tended to develop below, and the entire
structure anchored itself to the rock by a hold-fast or grapple. This hold-
fast or so-called root of most of our present sea-weeds is chiefly a means
of holding the plant in place, and it probably absorbs very little food.
As plants emerged into amphibian life, however, the foliar portion was
less and less thrown into contact with food, and there was more and more
demand upon the grapple which was anchored in the soil. The foliage
gradually developed into organs for absorbing gases and the root was
forced to absorb the liquids which the i^lant needed. I do not mean to
say that there is any genetic connection between the sea-weeds and the
higher plants, or that the roots of the two are homologous ; but to simply
state the fact that, in point of time, the hold-fast root developed before
the feeding root did, and that this change was plainly one of adaptation.
Specialized forms of flowering plants, which inhabit water, still show a
root system which is little more than an anchor, and the foliage actively
absorbs water. The same environmental circumstances are thus seen to
have developed organs of similar physiological character in widely remote
times and in diverse lines of the plant evolution. "As the soil slowly
became thicker and thicker," writes King in his book upon The Soil, "as
its water-holding power increased, as the soluble plant food became more
abundant, and as the winds and the rains covered at times with soil por-
tions of the purely superficial and aerial early plants, the days of sunshine
between passing showers, and the weeks of drought intervening between
periods of rain, became the occasions for utilizing the moisture which the
soil had held back from the sea. These conditions, coupled with the uni-
versal tendency of life to make the most of its surroundings, appear to
have induced the evolution of absorbing elongations, which, by slow de-
grees and centuries of repetition, came to be the true roots of plants as
we now know them." Some aquatic flowering plants are, as we have
seen, still practically rootless and they absorb the greater part of their
food directly by the foliar parts ; but the larger number of the higher
plants absorb their mineral food by means of what has come to be a sub-
terranean feeding organ, and the foliar jiarts have developed into gas-
absorbing organs and they take in water only when forced to do so under
stress of circumstances.

1896.] ^^^ [Bailey.

But as a mere feeding organ, the root requires no fibrous structure. It
is still a hold-fast or grapple and its mechanical tissue has developed
enormously, along with that of the stem, in order to preserve the plant
against the strain of the moving elements and to maintain its erectness in
aerial life. When this self-poised epoch arrives, the vegetable world be-
gins its definite and steady ascent in ceutrogenic form. Whilst the ani-
mal creation leaves its centrogenic arrangement earlj' in its own time-
scale, the plant creation assumes such arrangement at a comparatively
late epoch in its time-scale.

Perhaps the best illustration which I can bring you of the origin of the
unlike by means of environmental conditions and the survival of some
of this unlikeness in the battle for life, is the development of the winter
quiescence of plants. What means all this bursting verdure of the liquid
April days? Why this annually returning miracle of the sudden expan-
sion of the leaf and flower from the lifeless twigs ? Were plants always
so ? Were they designed to pass so much of their existence in the quies-
cent and passive condition ? No. The first ph'ints had no well-defined
cycles, and they were born to live, not to die. There were probably no
alternations of seasons in the primordial world. Day alternated with
night, but month succeeded month in almost unbroken sameness age after
age. As late as the Carboniferous time, according to Dana, the globe " was
nowhere colder than the modern temperate zone, or below a mean tem-
perature of 60^ F." The earth had become wonderfully diverse by the
close of the Cretaceous time, and the cycads and their kin retreated from the
poles. Plants grew the year round ; and as physical conditions became
diverse and the conflict of existence increased, the older and the weaker
died. So a limit to duration, that is, death, became impressed upon the indi-
viduals of the creation ; for death, as seen by the evolutionist, is not an
original property of life-matter, but is an acquired character, a result of
the survival of the fittest. The earth was perhaps ages old, even after
life began, before it ever saw a natural death ; but without death all
things must finally have come to a standstill. When it became possible
to sweep away the old types, opportunity was left for new ones ; and so
the ascent must continue so long as physical conditions, wiiich are not
absolutely prohibitive of life, shall become unlike.

Species have acquired different degrees of longevity, the same as they
have acquired difterent sizes and shapes and habits — by adaptation to their
conditions of life. Annual plants comprise about half of the vegetable
kingdom, and these are probably all specializations of comparatively late
time. Probably the greater part of them were originally adaptations to
shortening periods of growth, that is, to seasonal changes. The gardener,
by forceful cultivation and by transferring plants towards the poles, is
able to make annuals of perennials. Now, a true annual is a plant which
normally ripens its seeds and dies before the coming of frost. Many of
our garden plants are annuals only because they are killed by frost. Thej^
naturally have a longer season than our climate will admit, and some of

PKOC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 150. N. PRINTED JULY 9, 1896.

Bailey.] -^-^^ [May 1,

them are true perennials in their native liomes. These plants are, with
us, plur-annuals, and amongst them are the tomato, red pepper, eggplant,
potato, castor bean, cotton, Lima bean and many others. But there are
some varieties of potatoes and other plants which have now developed into
true annuals, normally completing their entire growth before the approach
of frost. It is all the result of adaptation to climate, and essentially the
same phenomenon is the development of the annual and biennal flora of
the earth from the perennial. An interesting example of the eflFect of
climate upon the seasonal duration of plants is the indeterminate or pro-
longed growth of plants in England as compared with the same plants in
America. The cooler summer and very gradual approach of winter in
England develop a late and indefinite maturity of the season's growth.
When English plants are grown in America, they usually grow until
killed by fall frosts ; but after a few generations of plants, they acquire
the quick and decisive habit of ripening which is so characteristic of our
vegetation. I once made an extended test of onions from English and
American seeds (Bull. 31, Mich. Agric. College), and was astonished to
find that nearly all of the English varieties continued to grow until frost
and failed "to bottom," whilst our domestic varieties ripened up in ad-
vance of freezing weather. This was true even of the Yellow Danvers
and Red Wethersfield, varieties of American origin and which could not
have been grown very many years in England. Every horticulturist of
much experience must have noticed similar unmistakable influences of
climate upon the duration of plants.

A most interesting type of examples of the quick influence of climate
upon plants — not only upon their duration but upon habit and structural
characters— is that associated with the growing of "stock seed" by
seedsmen. Because of uncertainties of weather in the Eastern States, it
is now the practice to grow seeds of onions, Lima beans and other plants
in California or other warm regions ; but the plants so readily acquire the
habit of long-continuing growth as to be thereafter grown with dilficully
in the Northeastern States. It is, therefore, necessarj' tliat the seedsman
shall raise his stock seed every year in his own geographical region, and
this seed is each year sent to California for the growing of the commer-
cial seed crop. In other words, the seed of California-grown onions is
sold only for the purpose of growing onion bulbs for market, and is not
planted for the raising of a successive crop of seed. This results in grow-
ing only a single generation of the crop in the warm country. Onion seed
from stock which has been grown in California for several years pro-
duces onions which do not "bottom" well, much as I found to be the
case with the English onion seed.

But many plants, in geologic time, could not thus shorten up their life-
history to adjust themselves to the oncoming of tlie seasons. They
ceased their labors with the approach of the cold or the dry, tucked up
their tender tissues in buds and resigned themselves to the elements. If
a man could have stood amongst those giant mosses and fern forests of

189(3.] -Lv* I^Ba cy.

the reeking Carboniferous time, and could have known of the refrigera-
tion which the earth was to undergo, he would have exclaimed that all
living things must utterly perish. Consider the effects of a frost in May.
See its widespread devastation. Yet, six months hence the very same
trees which are now so blackened, will defy any degree of cold. And
then, to make good the loss of time, these plants start into activity rela-
tively much earlier in spring than the same species do in frostless climates.
This very day, when frosts are not yet passed, our own New York hill-
sides are greener with surface vegetation than the lands of the Gulf
States are, which have been frostless for two months and more. The
frogs and turtles, the insects, the bears and foxes, all adjust themselves
to a climate which seems to be absolutely prohibitive of life, and some
animals may actually freeze during their hibernation, and yet these April
days see them again in heyday of life and spirits ! What a wonderful
transformation is all this ! This enforced period of quiescence is so im-
pressed upon the organization that the habit becomes hereditary in plants,
and the gardener says that his begonias and geraniums and callas must
have a "rest," or they will not thrive. But in time he can so far break
this habit in most plants as to force them into activity for the entire year.
These budding days of April, therefore, are the songs of release from
the bondage of winter which has come on as the earth has grown aged
and cold.

I must bring still one more illustration of the survival of the unlike,
out of the abundance of examples which might be cited. It is the fact
that, as a rule, new types are variable and old types are inflexible. The
student of fossil plants will recall the fact that the liriodendrons, gink-
gos, sequoias, sassafrasses and other types came into existence with
many species and are now going out of existence with one or two species.
Williams has considered this feature, for extinct animal forms, at some
length in his new Geological Biology. "Many species," he writes,
"which by their abundance and good preservation in fossil state give
us sufficient evidence in the case, exhibit greater plasticity in their char-
acters at the early stage than in later stages of their history. A minute
tracing of lines of succession of species shows greater plasticity at the
beginning of the series than later, and this is expressed, in the systematic
description and tabulation of the facts, by an increase in the number of
the species." "When species are studied historically, the law appears
evident that the characters of specific value .... present a greater
degree of range of variability at an early stage in the life-period of
the genus than in the later stages of that period." So marked is this
incoming of new types in many cases that some students have supposed
that actual special creation of species has occurred at these epochs. It
should be said that there is apt to be a fallacy in observation in these
instances, because the records which are, to our vision, simultaneous in the
rocks may have extended over ages of time ; but it is nevertheless true
that some important groups seem to have come in somewhat quickly with

Baik'y.] J-^O [jlay 1,

many or several species and to have passed out with exceeding slow-
ness.

To my mind, all this is but the normal result of the divergence of
character, or the survival of the unlike. A new type finds places of least
conflict, it spreads rapidly and widely, and thereby varies immensely. It
is a generalized type, and therefore adapts itself at once to many and
changing conditions. A virile plant is introduced into a country in which
the same or similar plants are unknown, and immediately it finds its
opportunity and becomes a weed, by which we mean that it spreads and
thrives everywhere. Darwin and Gray long ago elucidated this fact.
The trilobites, spirifers, conifers, ginkgos, were weed-types of their time,
the same as the composites are to-day. They were stronger than their
contemporaries, the same as our own weeds are stronger than the culti-
vated plants with which they grow. After a time, the new types outran
their opportunity, the remorseless struggle for existence tightened in upon
them, the intermediate unlikenesses had been blotted out, and finally only
one or two tj^pes remained, struggling on through the ages, but doomed
to perish with the continuing changes of the earth. They became spe-
cialized and inelastic ; and the highlj^ specialized is necessarily doomed to
extinction. Such remnants of a vanquished host remain to us in our
single liriodendron, the single ginkgo and sassafras, and the depleted
ranks of the conifers.

My attention was first called to this line of thought by contemplating
upon the fact that cultivated plants difter widely in variability, and I was
struck by the fact that many of our most inextricably variable groups — as
the cucurbits, maize, citrus and the great tribes of composites — are still
unknown in a fossil state, presumably because of their recent origin.
Many other variable genera, to be sure, are well represented in fossil
species, as roses (although these are as late as the Eocene), pyrus, pru-
nus and musa ; but absolute age is not so significant as the comparative
age of the type, for types which originated very far back may be yet in
the comparative youth of their development. The summary conclusions
of a discussion of this subject were presented to the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science two j'ears ago.* A modification of
these points, as I now understand them, would run something as follows :

1. There is a wide difference in variability in cultivated plants. Some
Bpecies vary enormously, and others very little.

3. This variability is not correlated with age of cultivation, degree of
cultivation, or geographical distribution.

3. Variability of cultivated plants must be largely influenced and
directed, therefore, by some antecedent causes.

4. The chief antecedent factor in directing this variability is probably
the age of the type. New types, in geologic time, are polymorphous;
old types are monomorphous and are tending towards extinction. The
most flexible types of cultivated plants are such as have probablj' not yet

* Proc. A.A.A.S. 189-1, 255 ; Botanical Gazette, xix. 3S1.

189G.] ^^'^ [Bailey.

passed their zenith, as the cucurbits, composites, begouias and the lilve.
The varieties of cereals, which are old types, are so much alike that expert
knowledge is needed to distinguish them.

5. New types are more variable and flexible because less perfectly
moulded into and adjusted to the circumstances of life than the old types
are. They have not yet reached the limits of their dissemination and
variation. They are generalized forms.

The reader will please observe that I have here regarded the origin and
survival of the unlike in the plant creation in the sense of a plastic
material which is acted upon by every external stimulus and which must
necessarily vary from the very force of its acquired power of growth, and
the unlikenesses are preserved because they are unlike. I have no sym-
pathy with the too prevalent idea that all the attributes of plants are direct
adaptations or that they are developed as mere protections from environ-
ment and associates. There is a type of popular writings which attempts
to evolve many of the forms of plants as a mere protection from assumed
enemies. Perhaps the plant features which have been most abused in
this manner, are the spines, prickles and the like, and the presence of
acrid or poisonous qualities. As a sample of this type of writing, I will
make an extract from Massee's Plant World :

"Amongst the most prominent and general modes of protection of
vegetative parts against the attacks of living enemies may be mentioned
prickles, as in roses and brambles, which may either be straight, and thus
prevent the nibblings of animals, or, in more advanced species, curved,
thus enabling the weak stem to climb and carry its leaves out of harm's
way. Spines, that are sharp-pointed abortive branches, serving the same
purpose as prickles, as in the common sloe or blackthorn (Prunus spinosa).
Rigid hairs on leaves and stem, as in the borage {Borago officinalis), and
comfrey {Symphytum officinale). Stinging Jiairs, as in the common net-
tles {Urtica dioica, and TJ. urens). In these cases the stinging hairs are
mixed on the leaves and stem with ordinary rigid hairs, of which they
are higher developments, distinguished by the lower or basal swollen
portion of the hair containing an irritating liquid that is ejected wlien the
tip of the hair is broken off. Bitter taste, often accompanied by a strong
scent, as in wormwood (Artemisia vulgaris), chamomile {Anthemis nohilis),
and the leaves and fruit of the walnut (Juglans regia). Poisonous alka-
loids, as in the species of Strychnos, which contain two very poisonous
alkaloids, strychnine and brucine, in the root and the seeds ; decoctions
of species of Strychnos are used by the Javanese and the natives of South
America to poison their arrows. Some of the species, as Strychnos nux-
vomica, are valuable medicines, depending on the strychnine they contain,
which acts as a powerful excitant of the spiijal cord and nerves ; thus the
most effective protective arrangements evolved by plants can be turned
to account, and consequently lead to the destruction of the individuals
they were designed to protect. Our common arum (Arum maculat2im),
popularly known as 'Lords and Ladies,' has an intensely acrid sub-

Bailey.] J-1" [Mayl,

stance present in the leaves, which effectually protects it from the attacks
of mammals and caterpillars, but not from the attacks of parasitic fungi,
which appear to be indifferent to all protective contrivances exhibited by-
plants, nearly every plant supporting one or more of these minute pests,
the effects of which will be realized by mentioning the potato disease,
' rust ' and 'smut ' in the various cereals, and the hop disease, all due to
parasitic fungi."

Now, this is merely a gratuitous and ad captandruvi species of argu-
ment, one which is designed to please the fancy and io satisfy those super-
ficial spirits who are still determined to read the element of design into
organic nature. It does not account for the facts. These particular
attributes of plants are specialized features, and it is always unsafe to
generalize upon specializations. Each and every one of such specialized
features must be investigated for itself Probably the greater number of
spinous processes will be found to be the residua following the contraction
of the plant body ; others are no doubt mere correlatives of the evolution
of other attributes ; and some may be the eruptions of the growth-force ;
and the acrid and poisonous properties are quite as likely to be wholly
secondary and useless features. The attempt to find a definite immediate
use and office for every attribute in the creation is superficial and per-
nicious. There are many attributes of organisms which are not only use-
less, but positively dangerous to the possessor, and they can be under-
stood only as one studies them in connection with the long and eventful
history of the line of ascent.

The thought which I want to leave with you, therefore, is that unlike-
nesses are the greatest facts in the organic creation. These unlikenesses
in plants are (1) the expressions of the ever-changing environmental
conditions in which plants grow, and of the incidental stimuli to
which they are exposed ; (2) the result of the force of mere growth ; (3)
the outcome of sexual mixing. They survive because they are unlike,
and thereby enter fields of least competition. The possibility of the entire
tragic evolution lay in the plasticity of the original life-plasma. The
plastic creation has grown into its own needs day by day and age by age,
and it is now just what it has been obliged to be. It could have been
nothing else.

Eemarks by Prof L. H. Bailey .

Prof. Cope has given us three general proofs or series of proofs of evo-
lution. In the first place he says there is variation ; in the second place
succession ; and in the third place we have the proof of embryology. I
might subdivide them and might add two or three more proofs which
appeal to me with particular force. It seems to me that we must accept
the truth of evolution on the mere f\ict that the earth from its beginning
has undergone wonderful physical changes, affecting the organisms living
upon it, and which must have adapted themselves to the changes by them-

1S96.] -L-l-L [Bailey— Brintou.

selves changing. In the second place, we know that there must be an in-
tense struggle for existence amongst all forms of life ; that the result of
this struggle for existence must be adaptation to the organic environment.
Again, another line of proof that evolution is true is the classiflcatory
verification. The very fragment of the tree of life whicli Prof. Cope has
put upon the board is an evidence that there are converging histories of
animals, or, in other words, that there are relationships. But tlie proof
which appeals to me most stronglj' is the fact that gardeners and breeders
have it in their power to make new forms and that they have been making
them since man began to deal with plants and animals. The palseontolo-
gical and embryological records do not appeal to me with such force as
the experiences of breeders and gardeners, who for ages have been modi-
fying plants and animals almost to suit their will. This, of course, sug-
gests that I am not skilled in the sciences of paleontology and embryology;
but have given more attention to gardening.

I assume that you all believe in evolution. Heredity is not a necessary
attribute of the theories of evolution. It is a matter for the physiologists
and the embryologists to discuss rather than for one who looks broadly at
nature and tries to discover some of the general and fundamental facts
which have determined the onward progress of creation. I wish to call
your attention to the facts of the origin of differences. I speak of differ-
ences rather than of variations.

Dr. D. G. Brinton made the following remarks :

We have listened with interest to this able exposition of the principles
of evolution from three eminent scholars approaching it from different
points of view. The question proposed, however, was one which was
intended to go beyond the mere facts of natural science. Facts are not
factors. The word means something more, something deeper. When we
have these series of facts laid before us, however interesting they may be,
they do not themselves express the primary law of evolution, but are
merely a number of incidents illustrative of it. Therefore I think that the
first speaker in his clear descriptions of the palceontologic evolutionary
claims gave us little information as to the factors which brought them
about.

We shall no doubt grant, as was urged by the second speaker, that
there are extrinsic and intrinsic factors of evolution ; but what he
advanced as extrinsic factors were again series of external facts, and his
intrinsic factors were series of Internal facts or processes. The law by
virtue of which they acted upon organic forms so as to produce a varying
morphology was not, it seems to me, definitely stated.

By the third speaker the doctrine of evolution has been put forward as
a sort of religious dogma of the scientific church. For myself, I cannot
look upon it in that light. I believe I caught his words correctly when I
quote him as saying that evolution holds good " from beginning to finish

Brinton.] -*■-'-" [May 1,

of creation." I cannot see that any known facts justify such a statement.
Evolution is a matter of the past not of the future. We have nothing to
do with the "finish of creation," and it is not likely that we know any-
thing about it. Such a dogma has no place in scientific bodies. All we
know is, that of the many millions of organized species a few have devel-
oped into higher forms, while the immense majority have perished utterly.
We have no guarantee but that evolution has reached its acme and may
cease to-night. Let us hold it, therefore, as a fact of past time, not as a
dogma of faith regarding the future.

Turning now to the question of the evening. What are the ultimate
factors or primary causes, so far as we can trace them, which liave influ-
enced and do influence the development of organic forms? For an
answer I turn to an expression once used by my teacher, Prof. James D.
Dana, whose name is a household word to every man of science. His sug-
gestive expression was, "The whole of Nature is bound in a straight-
jacket of mathematics." It means that we must go back to the purely
mechanical forces of the universe, if we would find the primary factors
of organic variation. The last speaker well said that mutability,
change, not permanence, is the law of organic life. He developed it
admirably in his references to the like and the unlike, and in his state-
ment that unlikeness is really the secret of advance. This theory, as
doubtless some will remember, was that brought forward with force and
beauty by the late eminent Dr. Pasteur in his remarkable papers on
Asymmetry as the source of change in both the organic and inorganic
worlds. Unquestionably he was right. Change is the law of the uni-
verse. It is no new perception of the thinking mind. Nigli two thou-
sand years ago the philosopher Heraclitus of Ephesus laid down the
principle, "All is flowing," ravra pet. No two organic forms are
alike, or can be alike. The son is never the image of his father ;
the plant never finds in its product the precise reproduction of itself.
You remember how Leibnitz amused the ladies of the court by liaving
them try to find two leaves of an oak which were alike. They tried in
vain. Never anywhere is uniformity or identity ; everywhere is indefi-
nite, infinite variability.

What is the explanation of this?

I ask your attention again to the mechanical principles of nature. To
them alone must we return when we search for primary agencies of
change. All organic and inorganic substances are constantly subject to
the innumerable forces which play upon them from all parts of the uni-
verse. Every atom of earth is influenced by each distant star. Con-
stantly each atom is bombarded by thousands, by millions of forces, and
its changes are the resultants of these.

The primary laws of motion with which we are familiar in the Principia
of Newton are also the primary causes both of the permanence and the
variability of organic forms. His first law — that motion would continue
forever in the same direction unless interfered with by other motion in

-I 1 o

Iggfi.] 1. ifJ [Brinton— Bailey.

another direction — gives us tlie stability of species, the potent tendency
of the individual to transmit the specific characteristics, the maintenance
of traits by tiie aierminal protoplasm, as brought out by the second
speaker. It is the conaius in se perseverare of Spinoza.

The second law of motion is the basis of all change and variation It
is, as doubtless you remember, that change of motion is proportional to
force and takes place in the line of the force. Infinite forces infinitely
different in power are forever acting on every atom, and its changes are
the resultants of them all.

These ceaseless changes are purely mechanical, and mechanical laws
produce their results absolutely without regard to future aims, absolutely
indifferent to the quality of results, whether towards evolution or degen-
eration. For that reason. I repeat that any dogmatic assumption of evo-
lution as a law of nature is unscientific. Of a million changes, a few may
act in so strengthening the energy of the primary and permanent char-
acters that they will resist the deterrent or subversive action of other
forces So far as we know, this is mere chance. Purely mechanical
forces decide the progress of a species or its extinction. Beyond such
mechanical, raathematical laws, natural science has no right to go.

In conclusion, I would say a few words in reference to "sports," a
topic introduced by the last speaker. These sudden and exteoeive
changes received the careful attention of Darwin, who in his work on the
Domestication of Animals and Plants, refers to it by the term "spontane-
ous variation . . . ." He pointed out that in some cases it is extraordi-
narily great and also permanent, as in the instance of the niata cattle in
La Plata. In the vegetable world, Mr. Meehan has illustrated this form
of change by numerous and striking examples. The last speaker men-
tioned that the lines of species had not been traced through sports. I
would call attention to the obvious fact that the origin of what are called
specific peculiarities from a sport would be likely to cause the scientific
investigator to lose the trail at that point. Darwin says that nothing but
the record would reconcile us to believing that such sports as some he
describes issued from the species to which they belong.

How unconsidered then is the remark of the last speaker in reference
to those who have suggested that man himself may have owed his specific
peculiarity to such an origin ! There is nothing impossible in this, noth-
ing incredible, nothing absurd. When our ancestors ascended from the
plane of the beast to that of reasoning intelligence, a part of the path
may have been won by one of those bounds which have been called salta-
tory evolution. There is nothing in this contrary to either theory or
observation. It is supported by both ; and having once gained that
higher plane, they would not willingly have forfeited its advantages.

Farther remarks by Prof. L. H. Bailey:

Dr. Brinton has quoted me as saying, " From beginning to finish of
creation, evolution is true." He quoted me correctly. That fs my own

Bailey.] ^ ^^ [Mayl. 1S9G.

conviction. I have no proof. I have no proof that the sun will rise to-
morrow. But the greater the collection of facts and of data which we
make respecting the evolution of the world in the past, the more are tlie
clianges seen to be continuous and gradual ; and it seems to me that if
evolution has taught us anything it has been to show that there is a law
of evolution, continuous throughout time. I believe, myself, that evolu-
tion is true from beginning to finish of creation ; and if we could not
prophesy that our race has nobler possibilities for the future I should lose
my zest to live.

Spontaneous variations are not necessarily sports in the sense in which
I refer to them. Sports are those forms of variation which appear to lie
outside the general or customary type of variation of the species — or phy-
lum— with which we are dealing. They are those forms which are so
unusual as to be ordinarily considered to be a taxonomic variety or divi-
sion or subspecies. Tiie causes of sports are unknown to us, as are also
the causes of all spontaneous differences whicli may be of much less
moment. The fact that Darwin dwelt upon the origin of sports in domes-
tic animals is a matter which I discussed in my paper and, I believe, it is
the chief line of effort in which man's work differs from nature's — the fact
that he does save the sports and breed them up. I have no evidence
that nature does the same ; and so far as the plant creation is concerned,
I am more and more convinced that sports have had but comparatively
small influence upon the phylogenies of our present types.

I wish to add just one word in reference to a matter which Prof. Conk-
lin introduced. He took issue with Prof. Cope with respect to the doc-
trine of natural selection and the notion that Darwin did not attempt to
account for variation. The doctrine of natural selection itself does not ac-
count for variation. It has been the misfortune of Darwin's writings that
his doctrine of natural selection has been so emphasized as to overshadow
everything else which he did. Amongst the causes of variability which
Darwin enumerates are external stimuli, soil, weather, food, climate and
other impinging factors ; so that Darwin conceived the idea that imping-
ing stimuli were the causes of variations which, when they have arisen,
have been bred up by natural selection.

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IW A few sets of the Society's Transactions, New Series, 1818 to 1893,
XVIII vols., 4to, can be obtained from the Librarian. Price $90.00.

PEOCEEDINGS

OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA, M PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

Vol. XXXV. Lf^U^ August, 1896. No. 151.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE

Stated Meeting, May 15, 1896 115

The Joly Process of Color Photography (with one plate). By Julius
F. Sachse 119

Second Contribution to the History of the Cotylosanria (with four
plates). By E. D. Cope 123

Sixth Contribution to the Knowledge of the Marine Miocene
Fauna of North America (with two i^lates). By E. D. Cope. • 139

Notes on the Osteology of the White River Horses (with one
plate). By Marcus 8. Farr 147

On Natural Selection and Separation. By Arnold E. Ortmann 175

"It is requested that the receipt of this number be acknowledged.
i^^In order to secure prompt attention it is requested that all corre-
spondence be addressed simply "To the Secretaries of the American
Philosophical Society, 104 S. Fifth St., Philadelphia."

Published for the Society

BY

MacCALLA & COMPANY INC.,

NOS. 237-9 DOCK STREET, PHILADELPHIA.

EXTRACT FROM THE LAWS.

CHAPTEK XII.

OF THE MAGELLANIC FUND.

Section 1 . John Hyacinth de Magellan, in London, having in the year
1786 offered to the Society , as a donation, the sum of two hundred guineas,
to be by them vested in a secure and permanent fund, to the end that
the interest arising therefrom should be annually disposed of in pre-
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the said annual premiums will be awarded.

CONDITIONS OF THE MAGELLANIC PREMIUM.

1. The candidate shall send his discovery, invention or improvement,
addressed to the President, or one of the Vice-Presidents of the Society,
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2. Persons of any nation, sect or denomination whatever, shall be ad-
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3. No discovery, invention or improvement shall be entitled to this
premium, which hath been already published, or for which the author
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4. The candidate shall communicate his discovery, invention or im-
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5. All such communications shall be publicly read or exhibited to the
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day of adjudication, and shall at all times be open to the inspection of
sucli members as shall desire it. But no member shall carry home Muth

SEP ;^^ 1896

May 1.3, l>m.] -*--L^

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

Vol. XXXV. August, 1896. Xo. 1.51.

/Stated Meeting, May 15, 1896.

The Treasurer, Mr. Price, in the Chair.

Present, 52 members.

Minutes of May 1 were read and approved.

Letters of envoy from the Geological Survey of India, Cal-
cutta ; Observatoire Physique Central, Socidt^ Imperiale Eusse
de Geographic, St. Petersburg, Russia; Societas pro Fauna et
Flora Fennica, Helsingfors, Finland ; Universite Royale, Lund,
Sweden ; K. Sachsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften,
Leipzig ; Bath and West and Southern Counties Society,
Bath, Eng ; Royal Observatory, Greenwich, Eng.; Meteoro-
logical Office, R. Statistical Society, London, Eng.; Missouri
Geological Survey, Jefferson City.

Letters of acknowledgment from R. Zoologisch Gesellschaft
" Natura Artis Magistra," Amsterdam, Netherlands (148) ;
Zool. Botan, Society, The Hague, Holland (148) ; Colonial
Museum (148) ; Fondalionde P. Teyler van der Hulst, Harlem,
Holland (148, and 7rans. xvi, 1, 2) ; Maatschappij der Neder-
landsche Letterkunde, Leiden, Holland (148) ; Universite
Royale, Lund, Sweden (147) ; Prof. Japetus Steenstrup, Copen-
hagen, Denmark (148) ; M usee Royal d'Histoire Naturelle de
Belgique, Bruxelles (148) ; R. and T. Observatory, Prague,
Austria (148) ; Dr. H. Rollett, Baden bei Wien (143, 146-148);
K. K. Central Anstalt, flir Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus.

riJOC. AlIEE. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. lol. O. PRINTED AUGUST 12, 1890.

11^ [May 15,

(148) ; Dr. Aristides Brezina (145) ; Prof. Gustav Tschermak,
Vienna, Austria (142, 144) ; Anthropologische Gesellschaft,
Prof. Dr. Eeuleaux, Berlin, Prussia (148) ; Vogtlandische Alter-
tumsforschenden Verein, Hohenleuben, Saxony (148) ; Dr. 0.
Bohtlingk, Prof. I. Victor Carus, Leipzig, Saxony (148); K.
Sternwarte (148), Dr. Paul Thyse, Munich, Bavaria (147, 148) ;
K. Geodatische Institut, Potsdam, Prussia (148); Institut de
France, Dr. E. T. Hamy, Profs. Gaston Maspero, Leon de Rosny,
Paris, France (148) ; Mr. Samuel Timmins, Arley, Coventry,
Eng. (148); Profs. C. A. M. Fennell, R. T. Glazebrook, J. P.
Postgate, Cambridge, Eng. (148) ; Phil, and Lit. Society, Leeds,
Eng.; Royal Society, Victoria Institute, R. Astronomical
Society, R. Meteorological Society, R. Geological Society,
Royal Institution, R. Geographical Society, Society of Antiqua-
ries, R. Statistical Society, Sir Henry Bessemer, Col. William
Ludlow, Sir James Paget, Prof. W. C. Unwin, London, Eng.
(148); Geographical Society, Manchester, Eng. (148); Lit.
and Phil. Society, New Castle-on-Tyne, Eng. (148) ; Radcliffe
Observatory, Prof. James Ligge, Oxford, Eng. (148); R
Geological Society of Cornwall, Penzance, Eng. (148) ; Dr
Isaac Roberts, Stariield, Crowborough, Sussex, Eng. (148)
Nat. Hist, and Phil. Society, Belfast, Ireland (148); Ro_yal
Society, Prof. James Geikie, Edinburgh, Scotland (148)
Society of Natural History, Portland, Me. (148, 149} ; Mass
Agricultural College, Amherst (149); Prof. Alpheus Hyatt
Dr. Justin Winsor, Cambridge, Mass. (149) ; Amer. Antiqua
rian Society, Worcester, iSIass. (149); Amer. Mathematical
Society (148), Amer. Institute Electrical Engineers, New
York, N. Y. (149), Prof. Lyman B. Hall, Haverford, Pa.
(149) ; Prof. John F. Carll, Pleasantville, Pa. (149) ; Philoso-
phical Society, West Chester, Pa. (148); U.S. Naval Insti-
tute, Annapolis, Md. (148, 149) ; Maryland Historical Society,
Baltimore (149); Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.
(144, 145, 146); N. C. Experiment Station, Raleigh (149);
Ohio State Archaeol. and Hist. Society, Columbus (149) ;
Prof. H. T. Eddy, Minneapolis, Minn. (147-149); Kansas His-
torical Society, Topeka (149) ; Observatorio Astronomico Mex-

1896.]

117

icano, Tambaya, Mexico (149) ; Rt. Rev. Crescencio Carrillo,
Merida, Yucatan (149); Societd Scientifique du Chili, Santiago
(141).

Letters of acknowledgment [Transactions) from the Museum
of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.; Amer. Antiqua-
rian Society, Worcester, Mass.; Yale University, New Haven,
Conn.; The Buflfalo Library, Buffalo, N. Y.; Historical Society,
Astor Library, New York, N. Y.; U. S. Military Academy,
West Point, N. Y.; Haverford College, Haverford, Pa.;
Academy Nat. Sciences, Historical Society of Pennsylvania,
Library Company, Philadelphia (xviii, 3) ; Johns Hopkins
University, Baltimore, Md. (xvi, 2, 3 ; xvii, 1, 2, 3 ; xviii, 1,
2,3).

Accessions to the Library were reported from the Societe
des Naturalistes, Kieff, Russia ; Socidte des Naturalistes, Mos-
cow, Russia ; K. Russische Geog. Gesellschaft, Phys. Central
Observatoriums, K. Mineralogische Gesellschaft, St. Peters-
burg, Russia ; Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica, Helsingfors,
Finland ; I. R. Accad. di Scieuze, Lettere, etc., Degli Agratis
Roveredo, Austria; K. P. Meteorol. Institut, K. Museums fiir
Volkerkunde, Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologic, Ethnologic, etc.;
Prof. A. Bastian, Berlin, Prussia; Direcgfio Trabalhos Geo-
logicos de Portugal, Lisboa ; Instituto y Observatorio de
Marina, San Fernando, Spain ; Bath and West and Southern
Counties Society, Bath, Eng.; Royal Observatory, Green-
wich, Eug.; Literary and Philosophical Society, Liverpool,
Eng.; Literary and Philosophical Society, Manchester, Eng,;
Hon. J. M. Lemoine, Quebec, Canada; Free Library, Boston,
Mass.; Zoological Society, Mr. William A. Ingham, Phil-
adelphia ; Chief of Engineers, Committee to Establish the Uni-
versity of the United States, Department of Labor, Prof. Alex-
ander Graham Bell, Washington, D. C; Missouri Geological
Survey, Jefferson City ; University of Michigan, Ann Arbor ;
Agricultural Experiment Stations, Lafayette, Ind.; Brookings,
S. Dak.; Observatorio Meteorol., Leon, Mexico ; Direccion
General de Estadistica, Guatemala, C. A,; Museo Biblioteca de
Filipinas, Manilla.

118

[May 15,

Dr. Morris, of the Curators, called attention to photographs
presented by Mrs. Stevenson of the relics found in Egypt.

Also, on behalf of Robert Patterson Field, he presented a por-
trait in oil of Dr. Robert M. Patterson.

The Report of Council was read, in which nominations 1332,
133-i, 1357, were recommended to be postponed for written
information.

The resolution presented at the meeting of March 20 was
recommended for approval, amended to read as follows :

Resolved, That papers "by noa-members presented to the Society shall
be read by title only, except when the author is present or by consent of
two-thirds the members present.

Prof. A. H. Smyth then read an obituary notice of Henry
Phillips, Jr.

The stated business being the election of members. Secretary
DuBois and Dr. Hays were made Tellers. The names were
read and spoken to and the ballots cast.

The following papers were then read by title and referred
to the Secretaries :

" Second Contribution to the History of the Cotylosauria " by
E. D. Cope ; " Sixth Contribution to the Knowledge of the
Marine Miocene Fauna," by E. D, Cope ; " On Natural Selec-
tion and Separation," by Arnold E. Ortman ; " Notes on the
Osteology of the White River Horses," by Marcus S. Farr.

Dr. Frazer announced that Mr. Barkley had brought from
New York specimens of results of color photography accord-
ing to the system of Mr. Joly, and had placed them in Mr.
Sachse's hands.

Mr. Sachse then explained the system and exhibited the
specimens.

Dr. Frazer then advocated the reproduction in facsimile of
our signature book for distribution among the members, and
the matter was referred to the Secretaries with power to act.

The Tellers reported the result of the ballot, and the follow-
ing were declared elected :

2282. Edward S. Dana, New Haven, Conn.

1896.] 11 J [Sachse.

2283. C. Hanford Henderson, Ph.D., Philadelphia.

2284. Chas. Sedgwick Minot, Harvard Univ., Mass.

2285. L. H. Bailej, Ithaca, N. Y.

2286. Wm. H. Welch, M.D., Baltimore, Md.

2287. T. Mitchell Prudden, M.D., New York City.

2288. John Trowbridge, Harvard Univ., Mass.

2289. Nikola Tesla, New York City.

2290. Arthur W. Wright, Ph.D., New Haven, Conn.

2291. Prof. Henry A. Rowland, Baltimore, Md.

2292. Prof. Arthur W. Goodspeed, Philadelphia.

2293. Prof. Michael I. Pnpin, New York City.

2294. Thos. A. Edison, Orange, N. J.

2295. Edw. C. Pickering, Cambridge, Mass.

2296. Frank H. Cashing, Washington, D. C.

The Joly Process of Color Photography.

By Julius F. Sachse.

{Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 15, 1S96.)

I have the honor to present to j'our notice this evening, by courtesj-
of Mr. Richard Barkley, of New Yorlv, a series of specimens illustra-
ting the so-called "Joly " process of color-photography.

They are the same as were lately shown before the Royal Society of
England, and excited considerable attention.

This process, although it depends upon the three primary color sen-
sations, differs materially from all others thus far brought to the notice
of the public, because but a single photographic manipulation is required,
and no apparatus is needed other than such as is used in ordinary
every-day photographj-.

This process consists in making a negative through a closely-lined
screen, ruled in three colors, viz., orange, yellow-green and blue-violet.
The screens used in the specimens here shown were made with an ordi-
nary ruling pen, such as is used by draughtsmen, and the lines number
about two hundred to the inch. A finer ruling in the future will make
the lines which we now see in the specimens before us less prominent.

It will be noticed that Prof. Joly, in his "taking" screen, which is
here before you, has substituted, for the usually accepted primary color

Sachse.] ^'^^ [May 15,

sensations, red, green, blue, the colors orange, yellow-green and blue-
violet. Experience lias taught him that not onlywere the former colors
unsuitable for the purpose, but that to reproduce the effect of natural
colors, a somewhat different screen must be used over the resultant
positive image. For this purpose Prof. Joly rules a screen in pure red,
green and blue-violet. This he calls his viewing screen.

[For the red-selecting lines of the "taking" screen. Prof. Joly uses
a spectrum color, such as that to be found at one-sixth of the distance
from the line D to the line C ; for the green-selecting lines he uses a
color coi'responding to that of the spectrum at about one-third of the
distance from the E line to the D line ; and for the blue-violet-selecting
lines he uses a color corresponding to the spectrum color near the F line,
but toward the G line. On comparison of the "taking" screen with
the spectrum, these colors can be called a red-orange, yellow-green, and
a violet-blue. For the colors of the "viewing" screen he uses a pure
red not far from the C line ; a green near the E line ; and for the blue-
violet lines he takes a spectrum color between Gr and H, the object
being in the "viewing" screen to transmit fundamental color sensa-
tions only, and to let the eye do its own mixing ; the eye is assisted by
the depth of light and shade in the linear areas of the positive ; for
instance, if the full amount of light of two adjacent red and green
lines be transmitted, the eye sees a yellow ; if now some of the green
be obstructed or shut out by the positive over it, then the eye will see
an orange ; and if, on the other hand, some red be shut out by the posi-
tive, then the eye sees a yellow-green, and it is easy to see that one can
run all the colors from pure red to pure green by the varying amounts
of the red or green lines shut out by the positive.]

The first specimen we have here is a negative of a china plate and
jug, photographed through the "taking" sci-een.

The next one is a glass positive printed in contact from the above
negative. It will be noticed that neither of these specimens differ from
ordinary photographic results except that lines due to the use of the
screen are somewhat prominent.

The third specimen is a positive similar to the one just shown, phiced
in register with a "viewing " screen ; and by holding it up to the light,
and viewing it through the ruled grating, we see the china plate and
jug in the bright colors of the original objects.

The next subject is a male portrait from life ; this illustrates the pos-
sibility of the process in its application to professional portraiture.

We now have a portrait of an "Irish peasant girl," not from life, it
is true, but from a water color, which is here before us. The specimen
labeled No 7 is placed in contact with a "viewing "screen. The original
is here offered for comparison, so that you may judge of the fidelity of
the reproduction to the colors of the original. To prove the correctness
of his theory, Prof. Joly here presents another specimen of the same
subject. No. 13. This is taken and placed in contact with the same

1896.] l-jl [Sachse.

("taking ") screen. The great ditierence and the falsity of the color
rendering will at once be noted by comparison with the original.

The next specimen is perhaps the most interesting one of all, on
account of being an almost instantaneous picture.* It represents a
military band in the Park of Trinity College, Dublin. It will be noted
that the bright reds of the uniform coats are exceptionally well ren-
dered. Further, this example indicates a possible application of this
method of color reproduction to snap-shot photography.

I now wish to call your attention to an interesting feature of this
process, viz., the necessity for having the photograph and screen in
exact register, and viewing it in a normal position. Viewed direct, this
transparency shows the colors of nature : the brilliant red hue of the
coats is especially noticeable. Now if we turn the transparency so as
to view it at a slight angle, we at once note a change of the colors, and^
in this particular instance, an apparent change of the nationality of the
subjects : in place of English soldiers in bright red coats, we see a body
of men dressed in brilliant green : in short, the Englishman appears to
have been turned into an Irishman of the most pronounced type.

The next subject is a perfect representation of a green fluorescent
bowl made of uranium glass.

We now come to another interesting specimen — a photograph of a
bunch of wall flowers, executed in two color sensations only, viz., the
red and green sensations. This picture derives an additional interest
from the fact that it was made by Prof Joly at the request of Lord
Kelvin, to show the effect of "violet blindness," an extremely rare
variety of color-blindness.

I now present to your notice two pliotographs of the solar spectrum
from nature — the first one made through a "taking" screen, and seen
through a "viewing" screen, which, as you will perceive, shows some
of the principal lines ; the other one, both taken and viewed through
the "viewing " screen, shows a false color rendition. The j^ellow pass-
ing through the red lines only, is almost entirely represented hj pure
red. The incorrectness of the result is evident on comparing it with
the first specimen or with nature.

I now come to the commercial part of this process. I have here for
your inspection a specimen of three-color printing : the original photo-
graph consists of a single negative ; the printing was done from three
separate half-tone blocks or plates — red, yellow and blue.

This result is obtained by making three positives in the camera from
the original negative in the following manner : A sp<ecial screen is pre-
pared with black lines twice the width of those upon the taking screen,
the intervening space being the width of a single line. This screen,
when placed in register with the original negative, it will be observed,
exposes only every third line of the negative. Now it will be obvious
that if this screen be moved the width of a single line before each

♦Actual time about three seconds.

Cope.] 1^2 [May 15.

exposure, we shall obtain three positives, each showing but one-third
of the original negative, and at the same time representing a ditfereut
color sensation. An ordinary half-tone plate is now made from each
positive, in the usual manner, and then printed successively in yellow,
red and blue inks, the same as in the ordinary chromo-typographic or
three-color process.

In the case under consideration you will note the almost perfect
result, without the presence of the objectionable mathematical cross-
line hatch-work.

This latter adaptation of the Joly process, I am informed, is the inven-
tion of two j'oung men in this country ; and should it prove practical
and give certain results, it will without doubt be a great step forward
in chromo-tjqjography, and also have commercial value.

It is a curious fact that the foundations of the interesting processes I
have described are based, and depend for their ultimate success, upon
the ruling machine — an invention of Joseph Saxton. a former member
of this Society, specimens of whose early photo-mechanical reproduc-
tions, made in 1841, are still in our possession.

In conclusion, I will state that the one great advantage which this
process seems to ofter over other schemes in heliocliromy or the three-
color process, is the fact that but a single negative is required, which is
obtained by the ordinary' methods of photography, so tbat all special or
intricate apparatus, with uncertain results, are obviated. It will be
further noted that the specimens shown here to-night are among the
earliest ones made, with crude appliances as to the ruling of the screens
and the pigments.

Second C'ontrihiition to the History of the Cotylosaitria.*
By E. D. Co2)e.

(Read before the American Philosophical Society, 3/ay 15, ISOG.)

The examination of new material derived from tlie Permian tormatKui
of Texas enables me to make some important additions to the knowledge
of the Cotylosaurian Reptilia, as set forth in my synopsis i)ublis]R'd in
these Proceedings for November, 1895 (p. 437).

In the first place, I have to describe a type new to the oidcr. and wiiirh
resembles nothing hitlicrto found in \\\v Peiiuiaii brds of Xorlh America,
or apparently elsewhere. It must be referred to a new Ihniiiy with the
fcdlowiiig name and eliaraeters.

* Read bofore the V. S. National Academy of Scioaces April. ISiH!.

1896. J 1-^*^ [Cope.

OTOCCELID.E.

Posterior border of temporal roof excavated laterally by the meatus
auditorius externns. Teeth present in a single row, not transversely
expanded. Ribs immediately overlaid by parallel transverse dcrmoossi-
fications which form a carapace.

In the presence of the meatus auditorius this family diifers from the
other members of the Cotylosauria. In the latter the vestibular space is
enclosed by the lateral part of the temporal roof, and has no distal inferior
bounding Avail. The meatus results in the Otoccelidse not merely from
the excavation of this roof but also from the excavation of the posterior
border of the suspensorium. In Conodectes this excavation is not great,
but in Otocoelus it is very considerable, the proximal extremity of the
suspensorium having the anterior position seen in the Loricata and Tes-
tudinata. It resembles the quadrate of the latter order in the decurva-
ture of the proximal extremity into a descending hook, which partialh'
bounds the meatus posteriorly.

This meatal excavation constitutes an approximation in the Cotylo-
sauria to other and later orders of Keptilia, where it is nearly universal.
It is interesting to observe that it precedes in time the division of the
roof into longitudinal bars by perforation, in the series of which the
Otoco?lidie form a part. This fact renders it probable that it is from this
family that the order of the Testudinata has descended. It may also be
found that the Pseudosuchia have the same origin. The carapace of the
Otocoelidfe approaches nearly that of tlie genus Typothorax* Cope, of
the Trias ; where each rib is expanded, and bears above it a distinct
dermosseous band of equal width, with a sculptured surface. This
genus probably belongs to the Pseudosuchia, whose type genus Aetosau-
rus Fraas, lias a carapace consisting of transverse bands of osseous
plates in mutual contact. The transverse segmentation of the carapa-
cial bands of Otoccelns would produce such a structure. The same char-
acter is found in the genus Episcoposaurus Cope of the Trias, where the
cranium is unknown. A reduction of the number of the transverse
bands of the Otoccelidge would approximate the carapace to that of the
Testudinata. The arrangement of the clavicles and episternum is quite
like that of the corresponding elements in the anterior lobe of the plas-
tron in the tortoises. The median and posterior part of the abdominal
wall of the Otoccelidai is unknown. The teeth are quite insignificant,

*Iu the last edition of Dana's Geology, 1895, p. 758, it is inaccurately stated that "A
large Crocodilian of the genus Belodon has been described by Cope .... under the
name of Typothorax coccinaruvi." The fact is, that two animals were included in the
description, which I afterwards determined to belong to different genera. The one for
which I reserved the name Typothorax does not belong to the genus Belodon. See Pi-oc.
Amer. Philos. Soc, 1887, p. 200. Plate I, where the genus and species are defined. Recently
Marsh has described {Amei: Jouni. Sci. Arts, July, 1896, p. 61) the cast of a similar rep-
tile from the Trias of Connecticut, to which he gives the name Stegomus arciiatiis. He
does not distinguish the supposed new genus Stegomus from Typothorax.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 151. P. PRIKTED AUGUST 12, 1806.

Cope.] J--'* [May 15.

and their loss would bring us again to the Testudinata type. Their
implantation in deep alveoli is reptilian in character.

I have pointed out that the notch in the posterior border of the cranial
table in the stegocephalous Batrachia was probably covered by a mem-
branum tympani, since the stapes terminates there. This notch is the
first appearance of a meatus auditorius in the Vertebrata, and it is not
present in all Stegocephalia. It seems that the members of the Cotylo-
sauria differ among themselves similarly, some presenting the meatus,
and others lacking it. In Conodectes the character approaches tliat of
the Stegocephalia more nearly than it does in OtocQ?lus.

In tlie American Naturalist for 1885, p. 247, I publislied the conclu-
sion that the Testudinata were descended from the Theromora. In my
system at that time the Theromora included the Cotylosauria. In 1892
{Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc, p. 24), I distinguished the Cotylosauria as
the primitive source of the Testudinata. The discovery of the Otocffilidse
renders it almost certain that this anticipation was correct.

In this family the slight posterior concavity of the quadrate region of
the Diadectidie is extended forwards to a great distance, and the osseous
tympanum is produced further outwards. The position of the parts is
difierent from that which is characteristic of the Stegocephalia, where
the tympanic notch, when present, is superior, owing to the much greater
length of the suspensorium. The dental characters also distinguish this
family from the Diadectidte. No ossicula auditus were found in the tym-
panic cavity.

Two genera of this family are known, and are characterized as follows:

Mandible articulated much anterior to cranial Ijorder; nostrils opening
vertically Otoco'lus Cope.

Mandible articulated posteriorly and on line of posterior border of
skull ; nostrils opening horizontally Conodectes Cope.

Two species of Otocoelus and one of Conodectes are known from the
Permian bed.

Otoccelus testudineus, Amer. Naturalist, 1896, 399.

Char. gen. — Teeth with simple subconic crowns. 3Iandibular ramus
not produced posterior to quadrate. Superior cranial bones strongly
sculptured.

This genus is established on a skull from which the muzzle anterior
to the orbits has been broken off. On its under side, pushed forwards
out of place, are a considerable part of the shoulder-girdle, the head of
the humerus and a bone of the forearm. On anotlier block, which was
found with it, is a part of the carapace, two vertebr;v, numerous ribs
and both hind legs, lacking the tarsus and digits. The legs and vertebne
were not found attached to the foreleg and the skull, but the actual con-
tact of the corresponding parts is found in the type specimen of another
species, tlie 0. iniineticus.

. 1896.] -^-"-^ [Cope.

There is considerable resemblance between several parts of this animal
and those of the stegocephalian Batrachia. This is seen in the forms of
the femur and of the shoulder-girdle, which are similar to those which I
have referred to Eryops. The close approximation of the huge auricular
meatus to the orbit is only seen elsewhere in the anurous Batrachia.
The teeth on the other hand are of strictly reptilian type in their mode
of implantation, and the lack of dentinal inflections distinguishes them
from those of many of the genera of Stegocephalia. There is nothing
in the shoulder-girdle to distinguish it from the Cotylosauria, and the
humerus so far as preserved is of the type of that order. It is impossible
to get at the occipital condyles without destroying important parts of
the specimen. The vertebrae are amphicoelous.

It is probable that in life the species of this genus had an enormous
tj'mpanic drum.

The tabular part of the skull is large as compared with the facial part.
Its posterior border is broken in the 0. testudineus, but it is continued to
a transverse line posterior to the auditory meatus. It was not probably
produced into horn-like processes. The suspensorial part of the quad-
rate is directed posteriorly below. The mandibular ramus has a hori-
zontal expansion of the inner side just anterior to the short angle.

The clavicles have the distal expansion overlapping the episternum
characteristic of the order. The shaft makes an obtuse angle with the
expanded portion, and is compressed. Its proximal extremity is ex-
panded into a rounded disc, whose plane is horizontal and at right angles
to that of the shaft. Between the shaft and the mandibular angle the
edge of the pterygoid is visible. The episternum has the posterior part
broken off. The part preserved is a transverse plate, which has, like the
clavicles, a smooth surface. The scapula lacks the proximal end. Dis-
tally it presents a strong longitudinal ridge which extends to the cora-
coid. Anteriorly the shaft expands into a procoracoid laminar exten-
sion in its plane. The coracoid is small and has a convex internal bor-
der, which is not notched as in the Pelycosauria. It may be coossified
with the scapula. The humerus has a greatly expanded head and a
narrow shaft.

The femur is longer than the tibia, and displays the condyles charac-
teristic of the Cotylosauria and Pelycosauria. They are unequally pro-
duced posteriorly. There is a long and strong anterior crest.

Two vertebral centra are only moderately well preserved. They are
probably anterior dorsals. They are wider than long and are separated
by a large and protuberant intercentrum. A free intercentrum of the
same shape lies at one side. It is probable that a rather short neural
spine rises to the inferior side of the carapace. Only tire part next the
carapace can be seen in the specimen.

The ribs are much expanded, but do not touch each other. The cara-
pacial bands alternate with them above, resting on their adjacent
edges and separated by narrow interspaces. Towards the supposed

Cope.] J--^ [May 15,

anterior part, the superior costal surfaces rise between the carapacial
bands to the plane of the latter, forming a closer surface tlian poste-
riorly.

This genus forms a remarkable example of homoplastic resemblance
to the rhachitomous genus Dissorhophus, which I described in the
American Naturalist for IS'ovember, 1890. The superficial resemblance
is very great, and it is only after an examination of the constitution of
the carapace that the difference of this part of the structure in the two
genera is observed. In the batrachian genus the ribs are free from and
not in contact with the carapace, and the inferior stratum of the latter
consists of the expanded neural spines. (See Plate X.)

Char, specif. — Muzzle verj' short and In-oadly rounded. Top of head
between and posterior to orbits flat. Orbits directed principally up-
wards, lutertympanic width 2.5 times interorbital width. Table of
skull posterior to orbits about as long as wide. Postorbital width
(longitudinal) half as great as interorbital width, which is equal trans-
verse diameter of orbit. Long diameter of orbit obliquely directed out-
wards and forwards. Malar bar narrow. Quadratojugal surface i)os-
tei'iorly overhanging border of maudi])le a little, and these contracted
to an apex overhanging angle of mandible posteriorly. Mandibular
angle undivided. The superior surfaces of the skull have a strongly
impressed honej'comb sculpture, the ridges between the pits being fre-
quently interrupted. The sculpture extends to the inferior border of the
mandible. The pits average 2 mm. in diameter. The sculpture is
present on the external surface of the posttympanic hook, where the de-
curved border is concave. The median parts of the frontal and parie-
tal l)ones are smooth, but whether this is normal or is the result of
weathering I do not know.

The mandibular ramus presents, a short distance anterior to the angle,
a horizontal expansion with convex border directed inwards and in con-
tact with the pterygoid.

The crowns of the teeth are acute and smooth. They overlap the
edge of the lower jaw and are separated by interspaces equal to their
own diameter. They are of quite small size.

The articular face of the humerus extends doAVnwards on the inner
border of the head ; perhaps it is restricted to this part of the latter.
The section of the shaft is semicircular.

The fragment which contains the vertebra^, hind leg and carapace,
does not fcn-m a fit with any fractured face of the mass containing the
skull. As, howcA'er, everytliing al)out tlie two l)locks is harmonious,
and as they were found close together, I have no doubt of their i)erti-
nence to the same skeleton. The second block is split longitudinally, so
that only one-half of the carainice is preserved; but at the supposed
proximal end enough of tlie middle portion remains to include the two
vertebne already described. A portion of one hind leg. including the
distal ])ar1 of tlie femur with tlic tibia and lihula. lie over tlie earapace

189G.] J--'^ [Cope.

externally, while the three principal elements of the other leg lie on the
interior side of the carapace. Both legs are extended in the same direc-
tion, i. e., forwards.

The shaft of the femur has a triangnlar section, the external face con-
cave owing to the prominence of the anterior crest. The external con-
dyle is produced further posteriorly than the internal, and is a continu-
ation of the general distal surface and is not reflected on the posterior
face as in so many of the Pelycosauria. The anterior fiice is flat above
and shallowly concave at the condylar border below. Tlie head of the
tibia is expanded and the shaft narrowed, as in Pelycosauria. It is
straight, while the flbula presents towards it a concave outline ; and the
two extremities of the latter are about equally expanded.

The surfaces of the vertebral centra are slightly concave anteroposte-
riorly. The intercentra are somewhat swollen and knob-like on the in-
ferior face. It is probable that the ribs are less closely adherent to the
carapacial bars posteriorly than anteriorly. As already remarked, ante-
riorly the ribs emerge between the bars to form part of the surface ;
medially the ribs are below the bars but touch them. Further poste-
riorly a cross section displays a rib which does not touch a bar, except
perhaps at the extremity, as the curvature would indicate ; but this part
is broken off. The superior surfaces of the carapacial elements are of
dense bone marked with coarse and fine fossae and intervening ele-
vations irregularly distributed.

Tlie size of this animal is about that of the adult of the larger Japanese
salamander, Megalobatrachus.

Measurements.

MM.

Width of skull between meatus auditorius To

" " " " orbits ol

" " " " orbit and meatus 15

• • orbit, transversely 27

Length of skull above posterior to orl)its fio

Depth of malar bone at middle of orbit 13

" "mandible " " " " 14

Length of tooth exterior to alveolus o

" " clavicle (chord) 78

/ liroximal 22

Widths of clavicle •■ median 4

^distal 21

m Til ^ head 35

Transverse diameters humerus •'

( shatt o

Length of femur C)7

. ^ , • T * ce ^ proximally 23

Anteroposterior diameter ot temur -] \.

^ i distally 20

Length of tibia 51

1 90,

Cope.] ■^^'^ [May 15.

3Ieasin'emcnts.

MM.

Long diameter of head of do 17

" " " distal end of do 13

Lengtli across ends of six ribs 75

' ' of part of carapace preserved 105

Width of a posterior carapacial bar 10

"an anterior " " 8

T^. , n .1 ^anteroposterior 8

Diameters of a vertebra < '

c transverse lb

Diameters of iutercentrum

anteroposterior 6

transverse 13

Otoccelus mimeticus, sp. nov.

This species is represented by a sknll with hnver jaw in ph^ce, Avhicli
is connected by a band of matrix to a carapace, and some of the bones
of one of the limbs. Greater and smaller parts of thirteen bands of the
carapace are preserved.

The sknll is short and wide. The superior surface is nearlj' flat from
the posterior border to between the nostrils. The muzzle does not pro-
ject beyond the mouth border. The orbits and nostrils are not superior
in direction, although the superior orbital border is excavated. The
nostrils are directed forwards and a little laterally ; thej' are separated ])y
a space equal to the transverse diameter of each. The auricular meatus is
large and is directed outwards and not upwards. The posterior hooks of
the quadrate project on each side beyond the slightly concave posterior
horder of the cranial table. Interorbital region flat, considerabl)^
wider than the diameter of the orbit.

The carapace commences at a point about as far posterior to the skull
as the posterior border of the latter is behind the orbits. The anterior
baud has an obtuse anterior border like that of the anterior border of the
carapace of an armadillo. The bands are gently convex from side to
side, and they become narrower anteroposteriorly as we pass backwards.
The state of the specimen is such that neither ribs nor vetebr* can be
discovered.

As compared with the 0. testudineus the following differences appear.
The table of the skull projects beyond the posterior hook of the quadrate
in the former ; not so far in the latter. The auricular meatus and orbit
present more laterally in the 0. mimeticus, more vertically in the 0. tes-
tudineus. The size of the two species is not very dift'ercut.

3Ie<(SHrernents.

MM.

Length of skull on middle line 120

Width " " at posterior liorder of orbits 90

" " between orbits 38

nostrils 22

1896.] -L^J [Cope.

Measurements.

MM.

Length of skull (median) to anterior l)order of ovl)its . . 78

Distance from skull to carapace 65

Length of thirteen carapacial bands 155

Anteroposterior diameter of first band 17

" " " seveuth Ijand 12

The species is named to express the superficial reseml)lance to the
Dissorhoph us articula t us.

CoKODECTES FAVosus, gen. et sp. nov.

Cluir. gen. — Quadrate bone extending posteriority so that the mandi-
bular articulation is opposite the posterior border of the cranial table.
Meatus audit orius small, connected with a meatal notch. Xostrils
directed upwards and a little outwards. Teeth conic, acute, increasing in
length to the middle of the. maxillary region.

This genus is of much interest, as it displays the character of the
family in a less pronounced degree than the genus Octocoelus, and thus
approximates more nearly the other forms of Cotylosauria. Its structure
illustrates how the meatus auditorius has arisen by the emargination and
excavation of the posterior part of the cranial roof of the Cotylosauria.
In the other families the access of the internal ear to the external
median is closed by the thin temporal roof.

Char, specif. — Established on a cranium with lower jaw in place,
which lacks the left half posterior to the orbit, and a piece from the
middle of the right side. Both nostrils and a part of the border of the
left orbit are preserved, together with the teeth as far posteriorly as the
orbit, the premaxillaries imperfectly. A large part of the palate is pre-
served. The teeth ])reserved show that the premaxillary teeth are small
as in the Isodectes megalops, and that they increase in length posteriorly.
The maxillopalatines are excavated on the median line so as to present
two parallel ridges which continue as far as the posterior border of the
internal nares. These ridges probably continue on the palatine bone
and they support each a tooth near the posterior extremity. In Isodectes
megalops the i)alatines support numerous small teeth on their inner
borders. I find no trace of the interior rows of maxillarj' and mandi-
bular teeth which are characteristic of the PariotichidiTe. Some such
teeth may, however, have existed, as a portion of the maxillaiy bone is
wanting from both sides of the skull.

This species is seven or eight times the linear dimensions of the
Isodectes megalops, and a little smaller than the Otocmlus testudineus.
The skull is as wide posteriorly as it is long, and is rather depressed, so
that the orbits and nares liaA'e a vertical as well as a lateral presentation.
The muzzle is flat and projects beyond the lower jaw, and it is rounded
in outline, and not narrowed and portuberant as in most of the species
of Pariotichus. The internareal and interorbital regions are flat. The

Cope.] i-Oy) [May 15,

narrower brain case is continued between the orbits, and its lateral
walls are robust. The palatine bones extend from the raaxillaries, and
approximate each other nearly on the median line, where they are
separated medially by a groove, which becomes wider posteriori}'. Xo
teeth can be discerned in the specimen, excepting the large anterior one
already mentioned. The surface of the bone is, however, not in good
condition. The plate of the pterygoid extends to the jugal on each side,
and its posterior border is but little deflected, and is at right angles to
the long axis of the skull, with indications of teeth. The posterior
branch of the pterygoid is slender. The occipital region is injured. The
superior surface of the skull is sculptured, on the posterior frontal region
in a coarse honeycomb pattern, the ridges occasionally forming small
tubercles.

The teeth are conic, acute, and with a round section. In this respect
they differ from those of most of the species of Pariotichus, where the
crowns are obtuse. They are rather closely placed, and they increase
in length to below the anterior border of the orbit. Their character
posterior to this point cannot be ascertained. The single, large palatine
tooth is similar to the maxillaries in form, and equals in dimensions the
maxillary tooth which is below the posterior border of the nostril. The
posterior border of the internal nostril marks a point half way between
the posterior border of the anterior nostril and the anterior border of
the orbit.

Measurements. >im.

Total length of skull 158

Width posteriorly 153

Width between nostrils 30

Length from end of muzzle to posterior border of pterygoid

plate 103

Width between summits of ridges of vomer 10

Length from posterior border of nostril to anterior border

of orbit 41

Length of longest maxillary tooth 10

Diameter of longest maxillary tooth at l)ase o.5

A part of the muzzle of a second individual was found at the same
locality.

DIADECTID.E.

[ am now able to make some additions to the family of the Diadecti-
<1:l'. I omitted also in my recent synopsis* of the genera to inchuk\the
genus Plianerosaurus Von Mej^er, from the Permian of Germany, which
I had previously referred to this family. f A revision <»1' the species

* Proc. Amer. Pliilos. Soe., 1895, DecembLT, p. -1-11.
t rransac. Amer. Philos. Soc, 1892, p. 13.

1896.1 Idl [Cope.

indicates a somewhat different generic reference to that which I have
hitherto adopted, as the generic characters have only now become clear
to me. The following are the generic characters as I now understand
them :

I. Posterior maxillary teeth transverse, depressed, molariform, the
heel (external above, internal below) broad and flat.

Skull without dermal or osseous sutures Empedias Cope.

II. Posterior maxillary teeth compressed, transverse, with non-molari-
form edge or apex, except on wear.

a Teeth with an external heel, besides the apical cusp.
Cranial bones coossified ; dermal scuta few or none Diadectes Cope.

aa Teeth with a cusp only.

Adult cranium sutureless Bolhodon Cope.

Cranium with osseous but no dermal sutures Phanerosaurus V. M.

Cranium with both osseous and dermal sutures Cliilonyx Cope.

The species of these genera are the following :

Empedias fissus Cope.

" molaris Cope.
Diadectes sideropelims Cope.

" phaseoUnus Cope.

" latibuccatus Cope.
hiculminatus Cope.
Bolhodon tenuitectus Cope.
Phanerosaurus naumannii Von Meyer.

" pugnax Gein. u. Deiclim.

Chilonyx rapidens Cope.

The above species are from the Permian bed of Texas, excepting the
two species of Phanerosaurus, which are from the corresponding horizon
in Germany. This genus displays the hyposphen-hypantrum articula-
tion in a less perfect degree than it appears in the American genera
where it is known, but it is nevertheless present. It presents conspicu-
ously other characters of the family in the broad closely articulating
neural arches, and short, robust neural spines

PROC. AMEI?, PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 151. Q. PRINTED AIGUST 13, 1896.

Cope ]

132

[May 15,

The molar teeth of three of these genera are represented in the accom-
panying figures. Nos. 1 and 4 are superior molars, and Nos. 2 and 3
are inferior molars. Their parts are reversed in the two jaws.

1. Bolhodon teauitectns. 2. Diadectes pltaseoUnus. 3. Diadectes bi-
culminatus. 4. Emju'dias fissiis.

a. Posterior view.
h. End view.

The new forms of the family are as follows :
Diadectes biculminatus, sp. nov.

As this species is represented l)y a fragment of a mandilile tlic ciiar-
acters can be drawn from the teeth only. These are reniarkaMe for

1896.] -L^'J [Cope.

their compressed form, and for the unequal elevation of the grinding
surface. There is a median cusp much elevated above an external heel,
which is at the base of the crown ; and there is an internal cusp which
is fused to the median cusp, and reaches a similar elevation. It is
doubtful whether there are any interalveolar walls, as the teeth are
closely placed.

The internal cusp is a little more elevated tlian the median, and its
apex is separated from that of the latter by a shallow notch. The outer
wall of the median cusp is vertical, while the inner wall of the inner cusp
is convex both verticallj' and anteroposteriorly. The worn section of the
two is unequally dumbbell-shaped. The external face of the median
cusp exhibits a median rib, with a groove on each side, besides finer
grooves, which are also present on the anterior faces of the crown near
the external border. Internal to these, the median cusp sends shallow
grooves obliquely inwards and downwards, which do not reach the base
of the internal cusp. The transverse diameter of the crowns diminishes
gradually posteriorly, so that the alveolus of the last one of the series is
small and round.

The groove which separates the teeth from the external parapet of the
jaw is half as wide as the width of the molars. Its edge is roughened
with projections which separate fossae and foramina of difi'erent sizes.
The external surface of the jaw is roughened with innumerable wrinkles
and tubercles separated by grooves, fossaj and foramina.

Measurements. mm.

Length of series of nine teeth 46

Width of crown of largest molar 13

Elevation of external heel 5

" internal cusp 11

Anteroposterior diameter 5

Width of mandibular ramus at do 26

The specimen by which this species is known was found by Mr. J. C.
Isaac in 1878. It is the "No. 2 " of mj^ description of Diadeetes sidero-'
pelicus of the Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc, 1878, p. 505.

DiADECTES SIDEROPELICUS Cope, loC, cU.

T^iis species is represented by a left maxillarj- bone which contains
three molar teeth in place and spaces for five or six others. A simple
tooth at its anterior part is larger than is usual in the species of this fam-
ily. I have accordingly defined the genus Diadectes as characterized by
the presence of a canine tooth. It is, however, not possible to determine
whether the other simple teeth may not have been of equal proportions,
as they are represented by alveoli in the specimen. I therefore define
the genus by the molar characters, which are distinct. In this respect
the species D. latibuccatus and D. phaseolinus agree with it. In the last-

Cope.] 164: [May 15,

named the lieel of the molars is larger than in the two others, approach-
ing remotely the genus Empedias. The D. latibuccntus difiers from the
D. sideropelicus in the smaller number of molar teeth, and smaller and
more numerous caniniform teeth.

BOLBODON TENUITECTUS, gen. et sp. nov.

Char. gen. — Molar teeth without external heel, and with one median
cusp. Cranial bones coossified ; no grooves indicating the sutures of
dermal scuta. Internal borders of palatine bones in mutual contact,
and dentigerous.

The dentition of this genus is not diiferent from that of Phanerosau-
rus, as described and figured by Geinitz and Deichmiiller.* In that
genus, according to these authors, the cranial elements are distinct,
the sutures being persistent. In Bolbodon the cranial elements are
entirely coossified, excepting only the tabular bone, which is distinguish-
able. The nostril is large, and a turbinal bone is visible within it as in
Pariotichus. The lateral and inferior bones of the brain case, and the
mandible, are not preserved.

Char, specif. — This species is represented by a portion of the cranium,
which includes nearly the entire right side, and a portion of the median
part of the superior wall from the tabular border to the premaxillary
inclusive. The vomer and the middle portions of the palatines, with the
right premaxillary and maxillary bones, are preserved.

From the middle line at the apex of the vomer to the posterior ex-
tremity of the maxillary bone there are alveoli for seventeen teeth. Of
these six only are occupied by teeth, which are numbers 5, 7, 10, 12, 13,
16. Of these only numbers 5, 13 and 16 have perfect crowns. The
skull has been somewhat distorted by pressure, so that the longer axis of
the roots and crowns are somewhat oblique to their correct positions.
The roots of numbers 5 and 7 are wide-oval in section, and the long axis
becomes longer posteriorly up to the number 16, in which it is a little
contracted, and where the entire dimensions are smaller. The crown of
number 5 is caniniform and acute, is curved backwards as to its anterior
face, and has a worn posterointernal face due to the opposing tooth of
the inferior series. In number 13 the crown is much more expanded
transversely, and the external vertical border is convex medially and
incurved above and below. Curved shallow grooves radiate from the
external apex downwards and inwards. The crown of the sixteenth
tooth is cordiform, with the acute apex upwards. Shallow grooves de-
scend from the latter. Like the maxillary teeth the palatines are widely
spaced. The sections of their crowns are a wide oval placed longi-
tudinally ; apices lost.

The nostril is large and is rounded subquadrate. The orbit is large
and is subround, and its border is not notched as in the Diadectes lati-
huceatus, nor the superior border dei)ressed as in D. phaseoUiius. Tlie

*^ittheiliingen min.- gcol. a. prxhist. Museum of Dresden, 1882, p. 10.

135

[Cope

Diameters of nostril

Diameters of orbit

interorbital space is gentlj' convex, and is wider than tlie diameter of
the eye, bnt how much wider the state of the specimen leaves un-
certain. The jugal bone is quite narrow below the orbit, its vertical
diameter equaling two-fifths that of the latter. The surface of the
cranium is rather minutely wrinkled, and does not display the grooves
seen in the Diadectes latibuccatus. The tabular bone forms a rounded
and narrowed cap of the posterolateral angle of the skull, and is
much less prominent than in the genus Chilonyx, but more so than in
Diadectes, where it is not distinguishable by suture.

Measurements. mm.

Total length of cranium from premaxillary border to

OS tabulare inclusive 384

vertical 25

transverse 33

Distance from nostril to orbit 78

vertical 53

transverse 54

Interorbital width (posterior to middle) 70

Length of dental series (chord) 150

! longitudinal 15

anteroposterior 7

transverse 10

f longitudinal 13

Diameters m. xii } anteroposterior 6.5

' transverse 13

! longitudinal 10

anteroposterior 5

transverse 8.5

The dimensions of this skull are equal to those of the Diadectes
;phaseolinus, and about one-fourth larger than those of the D. latibuccatus.
The bones of the cranium are thinner and lighter than those of any
other species of the famil}' that has come under my observation.

PARIOTICHID^.
Pariotichus adxjncus, sp. nov.

Represented by a cranium of which the muzzle and right side, with
the right ramus of the mandible, are preserved, together with some other
fragments, of one individual ; and by a distorted cranium of a second.

The species is intermediate in size and characters between the type of
the genus P. brachyops and the larger P. agiiti, besides presenting a
number of peculiarities of its own. The elongate maxillary teeth are
graded in size to the smaller, and the sixteenth from behind, the largest,

Cope.] 1-^^ [May 15,

is nearer the anterior border of the orbit than to the nostril. In front of
it are three teetli which are preceded by an interval. There are three and
perhaps four incisors on each side, of which the external two are small
and the internal two very large, the inner the largest. The mandibular
teeth increase regulurl}- in length anteriorly. The nostrils are lateral
and absolutely terminal. The premaxillary bones are recurved so that
the alveolar edge is in vertical line with the posterior border of the nos-
tril. Thus this recurvature exceeds that seen in any other species of the
genus, and the symphysis mandibuli is correspondingly posterior. The
orbits are larger than in any other species, exceeding the interorbital
width considerably, and equaling the length of the muzzle from the orbit
to the middle of the nostril. The muzzle is wide above in proportion
to its length. It is probable that the width of the skull behind does
not exceed the length from the posterior border to the front of the orbit,
though this measurement is uncertain owing to the mutilated condition
of the right side.

The surface is sculptured with shallow pits separated by rather thick
ridges. The nasal bones send back a short angle of the external margin
to meet the inferior prefrontal siiture, about halfway between the orbit
and nostril.

Measurements. mm.

Length of skull to end of os quadratum 54

" " posterior to orbit 18

orbit , 15

Length from orbit to nostril 12

Width of muzzle at middle 15

" interorbital space 10

' ' internareal " 8

Length of recurved part of premaxillary 7

' ' premaxillary I, 1 5

' ' longest maxillary tooth 4

Depth of mandible at middle of orbit G

From the Permian formation of Texas.

? PARIASAURID.E.

Labidosaurus hamatus Cope, gen. nov. Parioticlius hamatus Cope,
ProG. Amer. Philos. Soc, 1895, p. 448, PI. viii. Figs. 1 and 2.

Char. gen. — One series of pleurodont maxillary teeth slightly unequal
in size. Internal incisor much enlarged, conic, acute, and directed back-
wards. No teeth on the maxillopalatines ; teeth on the palatines small,
subcouic, in one row. Nostrils lateral.

Better specimens of the above species show that it has but one row of
maxillary teeth, which are pleurodont, so that it is clearly a meml)er of
a genus distinct from Pariotichus. If the character I have assiii'ned as

1S96.] 1^' [Cope.

definitive of the Pariotichiclfe be the true one, the genus Labidosaurus
must be referred to a dilTerent one, and I know of no character at present
to separate it from the Pariasauridte of which the known species are so
far as known up to the present time restricted to South Africa. It differs
from the known genera of that family in the greatlj^ elongate premaxil-
lary teeth, and in the simple conic dental crowns.

Char, specif. — Specimens since received display numerous character-
istic peculiarities not preserved in the type. The sculpture of the cra-
nial surfaces is in shallow fossae with rather thick partitions, of smaller
size than in the Pariotichus aguti, which resembles it most nearly. Thus
there are a dozen ridges between the orbits on the front in the latter,
while there are fifteen to seventeen in the L. hamatus. The maxillary
teeth are relatively smaller than in any of the species of Pariotichus
known, and they extend only to below the middle of the orbit. The
orbit is subround ; in the type it is oval, perhaps owing to pressure.
Its diameter is about half the length of the skull, both anterior and pos-
terior to it, and equals the interorbital width. The nostril is anteropos-
teriorly oval, and the apex of the elongate incisor tooth is below its
anterior part. Thus, though the muzzle is more elongate than in any of
the species of Pariotichus, it does not project so far bej'ond the premax-
illary border. Length of skull of new specimen 155 mm.

APPENDIX ON A SPECIES OF TRIMERORHACHIS.
Trimerorhachis conangulus, sp. uov.

Size, the least of the species of the genus. Angle of the mandible
produced, conic. Orbits rather large, the posterior border nearer the line
of the end of the muzzle than to the posterior extremity of the mandi-
bular angle, but not so near as to the posterior border of the tabular
bone. External nares half way between orbit and end of muzzle. In-
terorbital width equal diameter of orbit.

Teeth small, the crowns elongate and acitte. Twenty-two may be
counted from the posterior end of the series to a point opposite the an-
terior border of the orbit. A much larger tooth is situated on the ex-
ternal border of the maxillopalatine ("vomer"), a little distance in front
of the choanse, while an equally large one is situated directly on the pos-
terior border of the latter. Another tooth of equal size is situated ex-
ternal to the posterior tooth, near the maxillary border, and the base of
a smaller one is visible beneath the two.

The mandibular ramus becomes quite slender anteriorly-. Posteriorlj^,
the sittures of the angular, articular, dentary and splenial, are distinct.
The symphysis projects beyond and turns up in front of the premax-
illarjr border. The angle projects considerably beyond the quadrate,
and is rounded below and at the sides. The extremity is verticalljr
grooved, but whether accidentally or normally I cannot determine.

The elements composing the cranial roof are mostly distinguishable.

Cope.] I'JO [May 15,

The supraoccipitals have considerable extent on the superior face of the
skull. The largest bones are the parietals, whose median suture is
interrupted by the foramen at about the middle. The next largest
bone is the tabular, which extends half the length of the parietal for-
wards. The supramastoid is pyriform and is rather small, and its anterior
angle is wedged in between the posterior parts of the postfrontal and post-
orbital. The postfrontals separate the frontals from the orbital border.
The frontals are distinct, and their posterior border is about in the line
of the posterior borders of the orbits. The supratemporal region is in-
jured, and only the suture between the quadratojugal and jugal is visible.
The sculpture consists of radiating ridges from some point in each
bone to its circumference. This point may be near the centre or one of
the borders of the bone. The ridges maj' be more or less interrupted
and inosculating. They are present on the lower jaw as well as the
upper.

Measurements. mm.

Length of skull on base including symphj'sis 40

Width of skull at quadrate articulations 36

Length of mandibular angle from do 6

Transverse diameter of orbit 5

Length from posterior border of skull to orbit. ........ 18

Width between nostrils 10

From the Permian bed of Texas.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Pl.\te YII.

Otocmlus testudi/ieus Cope ; parts of skull and skeleton with carapace,
from above ; two-thirds natural size.

Plate YIII.

Otocoelus testmUneus Cope ; specimen figured on preceding plate, from
below ; two-thirds natural size.

Plate IX.

Fig. 1. Otocoelus mimeticus Cope ; skull and part of carapace in con-
tinuous relation in the matrix, from above ; three-tifths nat-
ural size.

Fig. 2. Otocoelus testudineus Cope ; broken edge of typical specimen
representing sections of ribs and carapacial bands near the
vertebral column : two-thirds natural size.

1896.] lOJ [Cope.

Plate X.

Dissorhophus articulatus Cope, American Naturalist, 1895, p. 998; por-
tion of skeleton, five-sixths natural size.
Fig. 1. Carapace from above.

Fig. 2. Vertebral column ribs and carapace from below ; stime speci-
men as Fig. 1.
Fig. 3. Anterior extremity of same specimen.

Lettering.
Q., Quadrate bone, Md., Mandible; Pg., Pterygoid; MA., Meatus
auditorius externus ; C7., Clavicle ; ^s., Episternum ; a'?!?.. Scapula ; Co.,
Coracoid ; GL. Glenoid cavity; H., Humerus; Cu., Cubitus; Ce., Cen-
trum; Ic, Intercentrum ; Pc, Pleurocentrum ; Ns., Neural spine; E.,
Eib ; Ca., Carapace; Fe., Femur; T., Tibia; Fi., Fibula.

Sixth Contribution to the Knowledge of the Marine Miocene Fauna o/
North America.

By E. D. Cope.

{Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 15, 1S96.)

The fifth contribution was published in the Proceedings of the Society
for 189o, p. 13.1, and the fourth in the same for 1870, p. 270.

Syllomus crispatus Cope, gen. et sp. nov.

Char. gen. — Order Testudinata ; family probably Cheloniida?. Costal
bones developed beyond rib extremities, and uniting with marginals by
suture. Surface sculptured with grooves and ridges. Humerus with
entepicondylar foramen enclosed, and flattened shaft. Radial process
remote from head.

This is the only definable form of Testudinata yet discovered in the
Yorktown bed of the Chesapeake region. It is quite rare, as I have met
w^ith it at one time and place only. The carapace is more fully
developed than in Chelone and Argillochelys, and it dift'ers from these
and from Lytoloma in the sculpture of the surface. From all of these
genera and from Peritresius it ditl'ers in the union of the marginal bones
with the costoids by suture.

A few fragments of a species of Lytoloma have been found in the same
formation.

Char, specif. — This tortoise is known to me from two incomplete
costal bones and a humerus. One costal fi-agment is distal, and the
other is proximal. The humerus has the deltoid crest broken off at the
base.

The carapacial bones are very thin and consist of a thicker superior

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 1.51. R. PRINTED AUGUST 13, 1896.

Cope.] 140 [jlay 15,

dense laj^er, a light spongy layer, and a very thin inferior dense layer.
There were no horny scuta, and it is doubtful whether there were any
dermal sutures. The surface is marked with numerous tuliercles which
are of elongate form, and run in various directions, frequently inoscu-
lating and separating generally narrow fosste. They are finer and more
nearly parallel on the distal part of the costal than on the proximal, and
they turn at right-angles to the intercostal sutures. The proximal part
of the costal is crossed by an angular keel which runs parallel to the
middle line of the carapace. It is smooth, interrupting the sculpture.
There are therefore two low parallel keels on the superior part of the
plastron. AVhether there is a median keel cannot be determined, as no
vertebral bone is preserved. At one side of this keel ('?proximad) is a
smooth shallow groove, which may represent the border of a vertebral
scutum. Not enough of it is preserved to demonstrate its nature.

The shaft of the humerus is flat in the plane of the distal extremity
and is nearly straight, except that it bends a little downwards proximad
of the distal extremity of the deltoid crest. The latter descends low on
the shaft marking one-third the leugth. Its inferior portion is recurved
inwards towards the head. The long axis of the head is at right angles
to that of the shaft. The radial process is prominent, and marks two-
fifths the length of the shaft from the head on the internal edge. The
straight line of the axis of the humerus reaches the distal extremity be-
tween the condyles and the entepicondylar foramen. Thus the con-
dyles are turned slightly ectad. The internal portion of the condyle has
a greater anteroposterior diameter than the external, and though the
articular surface is convex anteroposteriorly, transversely there are
three shallow concavities, one external and two internal. The internal
epicondyle is wide and flat, and equals the condyles in transverse
diameter. The external epicondyle is little prominent. The entepicon-
dylar canal is oblique, entering nearer the inner margin l)elo\v, and
issuing at about the middle above.

Meusurements. mm.

Proximal width of costal 1 47

Thickness of do. at margin 7

Width of costal 2, at distal end GO

Thickness of do. at distal margin 3

Leugth of humerus 100

-p.. , ,. , T ( anteroposterior 32

Diameters ol head ■ '■

i transverse 1 <

"Width of humerus distally 41

Transverse extent of condyles 22

Length from radial process to distal end 53

I obtained the specimens al)ove described from a Neocene bed on the
Pamunky river, Virginia. It was associated with the Mesocetus siphun-
culus Cope, and various species (jf Plalanistid;e, and a S(pialodon.

1896.] ,141 [^Cope.

3IETOPOCETUS DURiNASus, geii. et sp. nov.

Char. gen. — Lateral occipital crests continuous with anterior temporal
crests which diverge forwards. Frontal bone elongate, not covered
posteriorly by the maxillary, coossified with the nasals. Xasals short,
coossified with each other, not projecting anterior to frontals.

Accompanying the cranial fragment on which this genus is founded
is a piece of a premaxillarj" bone of appropriate size, which presents the
character of that of a whalebone Avhale. The true position of this
genus is probably between Cetotherium and Agorophius. It is probably
a mysticete which approximates the ancestral zeuglodont type which is
represented in our present: knowledge by the genus Agorophius. It is
connected with Cetotherium by the new genus Cephalotropis, Avhich is
described below. The three genera form a group, which may be
properly referred to the BalsenuUe, which is characterized by the elonga-
tion of the frontal and parietal bones on the superior walls of the skull.
They differ as follows :

A temporal ridge ; maxillaries little produced posteriori}' ; nasals not
produced beyond frontal, coossified with the frontal and with each

other Metopocetus Cope.

A temporal ridge ; maxillaries much i)roduced posteriorly ; nasals free

from frontals and from each other, produced well anteriorlj'

Cephalotropis Cope
No temporal ridge ; maxillaries much produced posteriorly ; nasals free

from frontals and from each other, well produced forwards

Cetotherium Brandt.

The specimen on which the genus Metopocetus is founded is quite
mature so that the sutures are coossified. The frontomaxillary and
froutopremaxillary sutures are however distinct, as they appear to me,
and they are remarkable for their position. They extend but little
posterior to the external nareal openings. The latter are, in relation to
the supraoccipital crest, anterior, but in relation to the position of the
nasals, posterior. The nasals are short for a Bal^enid, although they
enter wedge-like into the frontals for a considerable distance.

The position of the genera Metopocetus and Cephalotropis may be
similar to that of the genera Ulias and Tretulias, which are known from
mandibular rami only. One or both of the former may be identical with
one or both of the latter ; but of this there is as yet no evidence.

Char, specif. — The specimen which represents the Metopocetus duri-
nasus is a cranium posterior to the nares, lacking the left exoccipital and
squamosal regions, and the right zygomatic process. Both occipital
condyles are preserved, and the basicranial region as far as the anterior
nares.

The supraoccipital extends well forwards and its lateral crests present
a moderate concavity outwards and forwards. Its apex is represented
by a semicircular mass, posterior to which it is deeply concave, and the
concavity is divided by a longitudinal median crest. The temporal

<'ope.] 14^ [^jlay 15,

fossse approach near together on the median line, forming a short sagit-
tal crest, which is about as wide as it is long. From this the temporal
ridges diverge abruptly, and these extend in a nearly straight line for-
wards, diverging from the line of the axis of the skull at an angle of
about twenty-five degrees. Between it and the lateral occipital crest
the temporal fossa is concave to the line of the anterior border of the
squamosal bone. At the latter point the line of the suture presents an
angle, which extends downwards, outwards and forwards. Between
it and the posterior temporal crest the surface is concave above.

The exoccipital is flat vertically, and extends a little posterior to the
transverse line of the occipital condyles. The postglenoid face of the
squamosal is vertical, and it projects laterally beyond the exoccipital.
The postglenoid crest is not conspicuous, and the glenoid cavity presents
downwards, and very little forwards. The posterior temporal crest
bounds a groove of the superior face of the part of the squamosal that lies
posterior to it. The latter face is quite wide, and its external bounding
angle is a right angle. It is continued as the superior face of the zj'go-
matic process.

The petrous bone has a peculiar form. Its mastoid portion presents
externally a nearly discoid outline between the exoccipital and squam-
osal. Its inferior portion descends as a process which forms the short
stem of a half-tubular horizontal portion, which opens dowuAvards
and posteriorly, forming a partial meatus auditorius.

The lateral descending borders of the basioccipital are so prominent
as to enclose a deep groove between them. The posterior nares are
about opposite to the anterior border of the foramen lacerum.

The frontal region at its posterior apex is convex from side to side.
As it widens it presents three subequal faces, two lateral and one
median. The median plane is separated from the laterals by a shallow
groove on each side, which become deeper anteriorly, and turn abruptly
outwards at tlie nareal border. They appear to be the outlines of the
nasal bones. Anteriorly the lateral planes become thickened longitudi-
nally just external to these grooves. The entire anterior portion of the
external planes is a sutural surface, with longitudinal grooves for a
length averaging 40 mm. This surface can relate to nothing but the
premaxillary and maxillary elements. This point of attachment is, how-
ever, anterior to that of any known genus of Mj'sticete ; and is anterior
to that in tlie Agoropliius pygmceus Miill. In not extending so far pos-
teriorly as the nasal bones, it leaves the frontals to embrace the latter
anteriorly to an unusual extent. This is on the supposition that the
indistinct grooves on each side of the middle line really represent the
lateral borders of the nasal bones, which is not certain, except as to
tlieir anterior portions.

Measurements. mm.

Widtii of skull at exoccipitals 406

" " " postglenoid angles 570

1896.] 143 [Cope.

3Ieasureinents. mm.

Width of occipital condyles 150

' ' foramen magnum 65

' ' sagittal crest 17

" anterior border of nasal bones 90

" skull at sagittal crest 170

" sphenoid at middle of for. lacerum 135

Anteroposterior diameter of glenoid surface 115

Length of nasal canal 350

" from occipital condyles to anterior nares 450

" " foramen magnum to posterior end of sag-
ittal crest (oblique) 210

Length of sagittal crest 15

" from " to anterior nares 195

This specimen was obtained hj Prof. Arthur Bibbins from a Miocene
marl from near the mouth of the Potomac river, in Maryland. I am
under much obligation to the Rev. John T. Goucher, President of the
Woman's College, of Baltimore, for the opportunity of studying the
specimen, which belongs to that institution.

Cephalotropis coronatus, gen. et sp. nov.

Char. gen. — Parietal bone separating supraoccipital and frontal by a
considerable space and presenting a sagittal crest. Frontal extensively
overlapped by the maxillaries, premaxillaries and nasals. Nasals elon-
gate, distinct from the adjacent elements. Frontal presenting divergent
temporal angles.

This genus differs from Cetotherium in the presence of temporal
ridges or angles. It difters from Metopocetus in the free elongate nasal
bones.

Char, specif. — The specimen M'hich represents this species is a portion
of the cranium which includes the elements which surround the brain
except the occipital, the superior part of the latter remaining ; together
with the posterior parts of the maxillaries, premaxillaries and the
greater part of the nasals, and the basisphenoid and presphenoid in part,
and a considerable portion of the left temporal. The sutures distin-
guishing the several elements are distinct, so that the boundaries of the
latter can be readily distinguished. In describing this fragment I will
compare it especially with the Metopocetus durinasus and Cetotherium
megalophysutn, where the corresponding parts are preserved.

The supraoccipital angle is produced further anteriorly than in either
of the species named, and the sagittal crest is longer than in either.
The summit of the smooth occipital surface forms a transverse border,
which cuts off the apex of the occiput, thus bounding posteriorly a tri
angular area, of which the sides are a little longer than the base. This
triangle has a low, median keel, on each side of which the surface is

Cope.] 1^4: pjay 15^

concave, and is marked with numerous irregular fossa?. The surface
has been evidently the seat of the insertion of something ; hut whether
it was entirely of a ligamentous character or whether some tegumentary
structure had its basis there I do not know. The superior border of the
temporal fossa is regularly concave towards the middle line, and regard-
ing the sagittal crest as restricted to the parietal bone, its truncate edge
is wider at the extremities than at the middle. The narrowest portion
of the crest is nearer the frontoparietal than the parietooccipital suture.
The temporal ridge is in regular continuation of the edge of the sagittal
crest, and becomes transverse in direction towards the orbital border of
the frontal bone. This border is broken ofl".

The vertical temporoparietal suture does not run along a ridge as in
the 31. dur in as us, hut its superior portion is on a low, obtuse angle.
The frontoparietal suture extends posteriorly from the sagittal crest
downwards, much posterior to the direction it presents in the C. megalo-
pliysum, where its direction on each side is a trifle anterior to transverse.
Across the front the suture is coarsely serrate, difl'ering from the sutures
of the anterior border of the frontal bone, which are closely and deeph*
interdigitate, as in the G. 7negalop7iysum. The superficial median part
of the frontal is about one-third as long as the corresponding part of the
parietal. The nasomaxillary suture with the frontal is short in the
transverse direction, not reaching the temporal ridge on each side. The
frontomaxillary suture then becomes nearly longitudinal for a distance
of 50 mm. and then turns outwards for 25 mm. On the opposite side
the posterior border of the maxillary is more oblique, and extends from
the transverse m.edian portion divergent from the line of the temporal
ridge, forwards and outwards. The latter is probably the normal direc-
tion of the suture. The nasal bones are very narrow, but expand grad-
ually anteriorl3^ They do not terminate posteriorly in an acute angle as
they do in the C. megalopJiysum and M. durinasus (apparently), but are
truncate. The premaxillaries are also narrow at this point. Their pos-
terior extremities are broken off. The glenoid cavity presents down-
wards. The prespheuoid is plane below antcTOposteriorly and trans-
versely posteriorly, but is slightly convex below anteriorly. It is hollow.

Measurements. mm.

Length of supraoccipital triangle to occipitoparietal

suture 80

Length of parietal on middle line 60

frontal " " " 35

Width of supraoccipital at base of suj)ra()ccii)ital tri-
angle 124

Width of base of cranium opposite supraoccipital tri-
angle 115

" sagittal crest 18

nasals at base 28

" " 140 mm. anterior to base 50

1896.] 14:5. [Cope.

In the interstices of the specimen portions of matrix remain which
have the color and character of the material of the Yorktown forma-
tion. Embedded in this at certain points are fragments of Molhisca of
the genera Pecten, Lncina and Turritella. It was probablj^ derived from
the Chesapeake region. The fragment belongs to the museum of Johns
Hopkins Universitj'. oi^ Baltimore, and I am under many obligations to
Prof. William B. Clark, State Geologist of jVIarjdand, for the opportu-
nity of studying it.

Rhegnopsis pal^^atlanticus Leidy. Balcena paUeatlantica, Proceeds.
Academy Phila., 1851, p. 308. Bulmnoftera jjalceatlantica Cope,
Proceeds. Academy PMla., 1868, p. 193. I^'otobala>na palmatlantica
Leidy, Extinct Mamm. Dakota, Nebraska, 1869, p. 440.

The typical and only specimen of this species is a fragment of a lower
jaw from the Yorktown bed of S. E. Virginia. Its specific characters
ditier from those of other BalaMiidne referred to in this and preceding
papers by me, and it displays in addition a character which Leidy has
described, and which is very conspicuous. That is, the presence of a
Meckelian fissure, which extends deeply into the mandibular ramus. I
agree with Leidy that this feature should be regarded as generic, and so
define the genus as follows, under the name Rhegnopsis. Roof of dental
canal perforated by gingival tubes ; a ]\Ieckelian fissure. Dr. Leidy's
name Protobahtna is preoccupied by Van Benedeu (1867).

Cetotherium leptocentrum. Eschrichtius leptocentrus Cope, Pro-
ceeds. Academy Phila., 1867, p. 147. Cetotherium leptocentrum Cope,
American Naturalist, 1890, p. (iKi. Cetotherium crassangulum Co\ie,
Proceeds. American Philosoj)hical Society 1895, ji. 148.

After the latest description of this species was published I visited
the locality at which it was discovered, in companj^ with Prof. Arthur
Bibbins, of Baltimore. I found a ]iart of a mandibular ramus which
coincides in all respects so closelj' with the portions which are still
adherent to the skull that I have no doubt that they pertain to the same
species, and probably to the same individual. One character in which
this fragment agrees with the other portions of the rami is the presence
of coarse cancellous bony tis.sue throughout the gingival dental canal.
This reduces the diameter of the latter to that of the large external
gingival canals. The form of the middle part of the ramus as indicated
by the fragment is very different from that of any other whalebone
whale known to me. The internal face is nearly flat and vertical, while
the external face is convex only at the superior portion. For a short
distance exterior to the superior angle it is subhorizontal ; it then
gradually decurves, and is then entirely flat to the inferior sul)acute
edge. Tlie section is then subtriangular, with the base superior and the
apex inferior. The interior gingival foramina continue very small, and
they are not connected by a groove. Distance between two of them,

Cope.] -L4b [May 15,

45 mm. The external foramina are quite large ; distance between two of
them, 165 mm.

A third cervical vertebra was picked up on the James River, Virginia,
by Prof. Bibbins, a few^ miles below the locality from which the type speci-
men of the G. crassangultim was derived, and kindl}' presented by him to
me. It belongs to an adult animal, and considerable parts of one of the
parapophj^ses and neurapophyses are preserved. The former are directed
downwards at an angle of about 25°, and therefore much less steeply
than in the C. cephalus. The form of the centrum is a transverse parallel-
ogram and therefore similar to that of the two individuals previously
described. The diameters are : transverse below middle 140 mm. ; ver-
tical 97 mm.; anteroposterior at base 84 mm. The dimensions, while less
than those of the type C. crassangulum, are appropriate to a smaller in-
dividual of that species.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Plate XI.

Fragmentary crania of Baltenidae of the Yorktown epoch, one-sixth
natural size.

Fig. 1. Cetotherium megnlophysum Cope, from above. ColL .Johns
Hopkins University.

Fig. 2. Cephnlotropis coronatus Cope, from above. Coll. Johns Hop-
kins University.

Fig. 3. Metopocetus durinasus Cope, from above. Coll. Woman's Col-
lege, Baltimore.

Plate XII.

Diagrams of sections from near the middle of the mandibular rami of
extinct BaliEnidiB, one-half natural size.

Fig. 1. Cetotherium leptocerUruia Cope ; Virginia.

Fig. 2. Getotherimn cephalus Cope ; Maryland ; section i)ro\imad of the

middle.
Fig. 3. Getotherium cephalus Cope, same jaw as Fig. 2. distad of the

middle.
Fig. 4. Getotherimn davidsonii Cope ; California.
Fig. 5. Bhegnopsis paUeatlanticus he'idy ; Virginia.
Fig. 6. Mesocetus siphunculus Cope ; Virginia.

No. 1, Coll. Woman's College, Baltimore; 2, 8, 4. 5. Coll. .\cademy
Natural Sciences, Philadelphia ; 6, Coll. E. D. Cope.

Lettering.
So., Supraoccipitalbone ; Sq., Squamosal ; Z., Zygomatic : P.. Parietal ;
F., Frontal; N., Nasal; Na., External Nares ; M.v., Maxillary; Pin.r.,
Premaxillary ; 7'. R., Temporal Kidge.

1896.] -•-*< [Farr.

JVotes on the Osteology of the White River Horses^.

By Marc^is 8. Farr.

{Read before the American PhilosopJiical Society, May 15, 1S96.)

MESOHIPPUS.

Although nearly half a century has elapsed since MesoJiip^ms hairdi
was first described by Leidj',* our knowledge of its osteology has
remained comparatively incomplete, all the known material being lim-
ited to foot bones and more or less complete skulls. Most all of the
skeletons that were found were badly broken up and only the larger
and more perfect bones were saved. Modern methods of collecting,
essentially those introduced by Mr. J. B. Hatcher,f have revolutionized
all this and now even the most delicate bones, though badly broken up,
are preserved as easily as the large bones were before collecting was
done in a scientific manner.

Fortunate discoveries of more complete skeletons during the last three
years have given us very much better material and now enable us to
supplement the accounts of M. bairdi that have already been given, to
add many new points on the osteology of the species and to oft'er a
restoration which is an improvement on those heretofore oft'ered.

Several species of Mesohippus have already been made on material
fi"om Nebraska, Dakota and Colorado. These have either been founded
on a few teeth presenting peculiarities or on foot bones not associated
with teeth. These species have not been generally accepted, and the
founding of species on such limited material especially in such a genus
as Mesohippus which presents such a marked degree of individual varia-
tion does not seem justifiable and merelj^ burdens science with useless
synonyms. I have not seen the types upon which the various species,
31. exoletum,X M. agrestis,% M. cu)ieatns,\\ M. celer,^ etc., have been estab-
lished, but from the study of the individual variations in the many**
specimens of M. bairdi studied by the writer it seems very evident that
the species are not well grounded and that the peculiarities may be
accounted for by the factor already mentioned.

The discovery of the Protoceras beds and their recognition as a dis-
tinct subdivision of the White River formationsf f marks a stage in the
development of the palaeontology of this epoch.

*Leidy first described this species as Palxotherium bairdi, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sd., 1810,
p. 122.

+ Curator of Vertebrate Palaeontology in the College of New Jersey.

tCope, U. S. Geol. Survey of the Teiritwies, 1873.

§Leidy, Kept. U. S. Geol. Sur. Terrs. (4to), i, p. 251, PI. vii.

II Cope, Palseontl. Bull., No. 16, p. 7, August 20, 1873.

H Marsh, Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts, 1874, p. 251.

•* Remains of nearly one hundred individuals have been studied by the writer.

+t Wortman, On the Divisions of the White River, Ball. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. v, pp. 95-
100.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 151. S. PRINTED SEPT. 2, 1896.

Farr.] ^-^^ [May 15,

The fauna of the Protoceras beds is unique in many ways, especially
in the number of new and bizarre forms that come in, some evidently
by migration, while others are the direct descendants of the species of
the underlying Oreodon beds.

These strata are interesting, as they form a transition to the later John
Day beds, their fauna being intermediate between the latter and that of
the Oreodon beds.

A new species of horse has been found in this formation which helps
very greatly in explaining the individual variations of 31. bairdi, as
many of these are seen to be attempts in the direction of M. intermedius,
which is undoubtedly the direct descendant of the former. Besides
these two species which are seen to stand in the direct relation of ances-
tor and descendant there is another species, M. copei, which occurs first
in the strata of the Oreodon beds and is represented in the Protoceras
beds by larger individuals.

Geological succession of the species :

Protoceras beds : M. bairdi, M. copei, M. intermedius.

Oreodon beds : M. bairdi, M. copei.

Titanotherium beds : M. bairdi.

The genus Mesohippus occurs then in all the different horizons of the
White River beds. In the Titanotherium beds it is usually represented
only by fragmentary remains, which, however, are unmistakably those
of M. bairdi.

The Oreodon beds have yielded most of the best material. Through
the whole extent of the fossiliferous strata of these beds, a vertical thick-
ness of at least one hundred and eighty feet, remains of 3/. bairdi are
fairly abundant. However, the remains are not well preserved, groups
of teeth and the larger limb bones are common, while well-preserved
portions of the skeleton are rare — a perfect skull has never yet been
found. Beside M. bairdi Ave get in the upper Oreodon beds a new spe
cies which has been described as M. copei.* The Protoceras beds have
yielded only fragmentary remains of M. bairdi. This species does not
represent the main line of descent during this epoch, but it is here taken
up by M. intermedius while the former still persists as a side line. We
also get M. copei, which continues on from the Oreodon beds and is now
represented by larger individuals.

Of 3/. bairdi ne-dv\y the entire skeleton is represented by material in
the Princeton collection.

The skull has been quite fully described by Leidy,f and the skeleton
has been the subject of an exhaustive paper by Prof. Scott, :|: but when
this paper was written the entire skeleton had not yet been found and
the incisor teeth of upper series are the result of explorations of the
summers of 1894 and 18()o, so some points in the description will be new.

*Osborn and Wortman, I'ldl. Am. Mtis., Vol. vii, pp. 850-35^.

+ Tilt Extinct Mammalian Fauna t if Dakota and Htbraska, Philadelphia, ISO'.'.

XJourn. oj 3I<M-i)holo(jy, Vul. v, No. o, Dfceniber, 1891.

1896.] 14 J [Farr.

Moreover the description of this species de novo is justifiable because we
wish to trace the steps in the evolution of the horse as they can be fol-
lowed in the horizons of the White River strata and must therefore have
a description of one species as a standard for comparison.

It is the purpose of this paper to add some new" iwints on the osteology
of M. hairdi and to give a new, more accurate and more complete restora-
tion ; to give a short description of M. intermedins and M. capei, and to
show their relation to each other and to M. hairdi.

I must acknowledge my very great indebtedness to Prof. Scott, who
has given me so much assistance in the way of suggestion and criticism
and whose kindly interest in my Avork has ever been an inspiration dur-
ing my three years of graduate study in Princeton. To Mr. J. B.
Hatcher I am also very much indebted for free access to collections and
for kindlj' criticism and help and for much information on White Itiver
mammals.

I must also extend my thanks to Prof. H. F. Osborn and Dr. J. L.
Wortman, of the American Museum, for permission to study some of
their very beautiful material ; also to the latter for valuable suggestions.

The drawings are by Mr. R. Weber, and add materially to the value of
the paper.

The Dentition

The dental formula is I. f, C. \, Pm. |, M. f. The dentition is thus
seen to be unreduced, and the specialization or modernization consists in
the complexity of the last three premolars which are molariforni and
Pm. 2 is beginning to assume the elongate character, so marked in the
living horse by the elongation of the anterior part of the external half
of the tooth. The characters of the permanent teeth have already been
described by Leidy,* Osborn, f and Scott, ^ but very little has been
Avritten concerning the milk dentition and the superior incisors have
only very recently been found. Only tAvo skulls are known bearing the
upper incisors, nearly all the skulls that are discovered having the end
of the very narrow snout broken oft".

The inferior canine is the smallest of all the teeth ; it is suberect and
conical, and there is a wide diastema between it and Pm. 1. The lower
incisors are spatulate or chisel shaped and do not show any indication of
a depression or pit. They have sharp cutting edges, and their inner sur-
faces are strongly concave. The first incisor is the longest (i. e., highest
above alveolar border) and also the widest of the incisor series. I. 2 is
smaller than I. 1, while I. 3 is the smallest of the incisor series. There
is thus a decrease in size and length of incisors outwardly towards the
canine. The six incisors form an unbroken row.

* Ancient Fauna of Nebraska, pp. 70, 71 ; Extinct Mam. Fauna of Dah and Nth., pp. 3C5-
309, 1869.

^ Bull, of Must, of Comp. Zoijl., Vol. xvi, pp. 88, 89.

J"Obteology Of Metohippusaud Leptomeryx," Journ. of Morph., Vol. v, No. 3, pp. 303-305.

Farr.l 150 [May 15,

The anterior border of the mandible is rounded and tlie teeth are ar-
ranged in the segment of a circle.

The fourth lower premolar is wider transversely than any of the other
teeth, while the posterior half of Pm. 3 is wider proportionately than any
of the remaining teeth, with the exception of the former. Pm. 4 has a
massiveness not seen in the other lower teeth. Sometimes this is so
marked that if the teeth were not found together they would in all
probability be attributed to a larger individual. It had long been sup-
posed that the superior incisors were not pitted. Prof. Scott * has sepa-
rated Mesohippus from Miohippus on the character of the upper incisors.
A skull in the Princeton collection shows the upper incisors which seem
to be pitted, but as they are so much worn a determination of their
character is not possible. Osborn and Wortmau f have just described
these teeth and through the kindness of these gentlemen I have been
permitted to examine this beautifully preserved skull. The two outer
pairs of incisors show a distinct invagination, which is not, however,
present on I. 1. Upper Pm. 1 is a small single-coned tooth, which has
two distinct roots. The ciugulum is well-developed on the inner side,
enclosing a deep pocket. Anteriorly there is a tiny accessory ccnule.
The corresponding tooth of the lower jaw is very small and inserted by
only a single fang. Pm. 4 of the upper series is wider transversely than
any of the other teeth.

Succession of the Teeth.

From all that can be observed the three large deciduous molars first
appear simultaneously in both jaws. The next tooth to appear is that
Avhich represents Pm. 1 of the permanent set. Nothing is known as to
the time of appearance of the incisors and canines, but judging from
analogy we may presume that they appear as early as the milk molars.
A mandible of Mesohippus (No. 11107), with milk dentition and M. 1
of the permanent set, shows alveoli for the three incisors and c. :ne.
The next tooth to appear (after persistent Pm. 1) is M. 1, which is suc-
ceeded by M. 3. Next the temporary molars are replaced by the perma-
nent premolars.

In the upper jaw these are replaced in the following order: Pm. 4, Pm. 3,
Pm. 2 (Pm. 1 persisting in both jaws). One specimen shows Pm. 4 almost
ready to erupt, while Pm. 3 is very much smaller and the germ of Pm. 2 is
very feebly developed. The mode of succession in the lower jaw seems
to follow the same order. In specimen No. 10995, M. 1 and M. 2 have ap-
peared, and the germs of the permanent teeth are seen by picking away
the bone and exposing roots of teeth, where the germ of Pm. 4 is seen to
be better developed than that of Pm. 3. This also accords with the rate

* Ti-ann. Amcr. Phil. Soc, 1883, p. 79. In the light of present knowledge it seems be.st
to abandon tlie genus Miohippu.s and to make the genus Mesohippus include the John
Day equines as well as tlie White Kiver forms.

t IhiU. Am. Mas. Nat. Hist., Vol. vii, p. o53.

1896.]

151

[Farr.

of wear of teeth, as Pm. 4 is usually more worn by attrition than Pm. ;i.
After the deciduous teeth are replaced by those of the permanent set,
M. 3 appears in both jaws.

It is not possible to tell from available material whether the incisors
and canines are replaced or are persistent. In the later horse from the
Equus beds, the incisors were certainly replaced, and the germ of canine
is seen piercing the jaw\ The foramen, through which it is growing, is
large, but it is not possible to determine whether it had a predecessor or
represents a permanent canine which does not appear until the other
teeth are developed. Chauveau* makes the statement that the canine
persists and is not replaced in the horse. However, judging from
analogy, we are quite safe in presuming that in M. hairdi both the in-
cisors and canines had predecessors in the milk series.

The Milk Dentition.

The temporary dentition may be given in the following formula :
I. f, C. \, D. J. See Fig. 1.

The tooth which represents Pm. 1 of the adult skull is not a true milk
tooth, as it does not appear until the other teeth of the milk set are fully
developed, and is not replaced as are the teeth of the temporary series.
It may be considered a persistent

milk tooth, as it has no predeces- ^*^' '

sor, and then the dental formula
will be as given above. If consid-
ered one of the permanent set, as
there are ample reasons for doing,
the molar formula will be : D.f.

The differences between the de-
cidu(ms teeth and those of the per-
manent set are not due to any ad-
dition or reduction in the number
of elements entering into the forma-
tion of the teeth, but are due to the
difl'erence in the relative develop-
ment of the elements in the two
sets. The differences can best be described by instituting a comparison
between the two sets, and to do this it will be best to describe those of
the permanent set and then show how the deciduous molars differ from
them. The last two of the temporary set differ only in minute detail
from the corresponding teeth of the later set, but there is a fundamental
difference between Pm. 2 of the permanent set and its predecessor in the
milk series.

All of the premolar teeth, with the single exception of Pm. 1, are
molariform. Pm. 2 of both jaws presents some points of difference

Milk Molaes of M. baiedi, \.
a, superior series.
6, inferior series.

* Comparative Anatomy of the Domesticated Animals.

Fair.] ±02i [May 15,

from the other teeth, while the simple character of Pm. 1 has already
been sufRciently commented upon. The last lower molar, as in so
many forms, difl'ers from the others in the presence of an additional
less well-develo])ed lobe situated posteriorly. The lower molars and
Pms. 3 and 4 have oblong, quadrate crowns, with an outer pair of fore
and aft principal lobes, and an inner pair of secondary lobes connate
with them. "The principal lobes of the crown are slightly oblique in
their relative position, angularly convex and sloping externallj% con-
cavely excavated internally and are acutely crescentoid at their summit.
Of the inner secondary lobes, the anterior is much the larger, and is
pyramidal in form with a twin pointed summit." This character is
observable only in teeth that are not worn excessively and disappears as
the summits of the crown are worn off in mastication. "The antero-
internal cusp springs from the crown at the conjunction of the principal
lobes and is continuous with their contiguous crowns. The posterior of
the secondarj' lobes is conical and springs from the crown in conjunc-
tion with the back horn of the posterior principal lobe. The front horn
of the anterior principal lobe curves inward, downward and backward
to the base internally of the anterior secondary lobe. A basal ridge (or
cingulum) nearly continuous bounds the crowns of the lower molars
externally. Posteriorly it rises inward and terminates in a tubercle
springing from the conjunction of the two posterior lobes." Pm. 2
deserves a slight mention in passing. In the lower jaw the posterior
half of this tooth is an exact copy of the corresponding part of anj- of
the succeeding premolars or molars. One half of the antero-internal
lobe is present as usual, but this alone forms all of what corresponds to
this lobe in the succeeding teeth. Anterior to this and externally there
is another lobe more nearly median in position. This is connected Avith
the former by a ridge and the two together form a lobe which is very dif-
ferent from any of the others. Anterior to this and connate with it is a
small lobe on the internal surface of the tooth. The deciduous tooth
differs from the permanent one in that in the former the two anterior
lobes are more distinct from each other and from the other lobes, so that
we seem to have five lobes in this tooth. Again in the earlier set this
tooth has a greater antero-posterior extent than any of the other teeth,
almost equaling in length M. 3 of the permanent set, which has the
additional lobe. In the permanent set Pm. 2 is even shorter antero-pos-
teriorly than the succeeding tooth in the premolar series. In the milk
set D. 4 has the posterior half narrower than the anterior half. In D. 3
both halves of tooth are of approximately the same width, while, in the
permanent premolar series the posterior half of the tooth is always the
wider, while in the molar series the reverse condition obtains. The cin-
gulum is not so well developed on the deciduous molars as on the corre-
sponding teeth of the permanent set. It is not developed on the external
surface of the posterior lobe as in the permanent tooth, but is present on
the posterior border of tooth where it ends in a tubercle. The cingulum

1896.] 153 [Farr.

is well developed on the antero-external lobe of Ds. 3 and 4, even better
than on the corresponding permanent tooth. It has lately been called
to my attention that the cinguliim varies in the individual with the
nourishment, well-nourished individuals having it better developed than
those poorly nourished, but the recurrence in many individuals of the
character as given above precludes the possibility of its being an indi-
vidual variation. The antero-internal cusp is wider antero-posteriorly
in the temporary teeth than in the permanent set and the bifid character
of this cusp is more marked in the former. All the lower milk teeth are
narrower and longer antero-posteriorly than the permanent teeth. Both
the upper and lower molars of the deciduous set are of not nearly so
great vertical length as those of the later series.

The Upper Molars.

Premolars 2, 3 and 4 are molariform and Pm. 2 is beginning to assume
the elongate character which is so much emphasized in the living horse.
The six molars (t. e., molars and molariform premolars) are nearly alike
in size and form. "They have square crowns, wider transversely than
broad antero-posteriorly and both these measurements greatly exceed
the length. The crowns consist of three pairs of lobes — an outer and
an inner pair of principal lobes and a much smaller pair situated
between them, the secondary or accessory lobes. The outer lobes are
demi-conoidal and form at their junction a narrow buttress externally.
A stronger buttress bounds the fore part of the anterior of the two
lobes. A tendency to the development of a buttress is seen also at the
back part of the posterior of these lobes. The buttresses expand and
are conjoined at the bottom of the crown, forming together a pair of
arches bounding the external surfaces of the outer lobes. These sur-
faces are nearly flat and are divided by a conspicuous median ridge.
The inner surfaces of the outer lobes are prominently or almost angu-
larly convex. The inner lobes of the crown are simply conical, wider
transversely than fore and aft and with the anterior slightly larger than
the posterior. The median lobes are not more than half the size of the
principal ones and appear as prominent folds curving outwardly from
the inner lobes to the anterior face of the outer lobes. Elements of a
basal ridge exist at the fore and aft parts of the crown and at the outlet
of the valley separating the inner lobes. In the interval posteriorly
between the back inner and outer lobes there exists a tubercle which in
association with the contiguous portions of the basal ridge assumes the
dignity of a sublobe." In Pm. 1 the anterior buttress is more distinct
or separate than in the other molars, though it is not so large. The
anterior of the median cusps is larger than the posterior, except in Pm. 2,
which is peculiar in this as in so many other respects.

The teeth of the temporary set present the following differences from
those of the permanent set described above :

1. The cusp situated between the outer and inner posterior lobes, the

Farr.l ib^ [May 15,

so-called hypostyle, is less well developed in the deciduous molars than
in those of the permanent set.

2. D. 2 is much larger, more elongate antero-posteriorly, more com-
plex, the antero-external buttress being much larger and more distinct
in the earlier set. It is so large that it might almost be considered a fifth
principal lobe.

3. The median accessory lobes (5 and 6) are more conical than in the
permanent set, where they are somewhat appressed. These lobes in the
early set are separated by a distinct notch from the internal lobes.

4. The transverse ridges are more nearly confluent with the outer wall
of tooth in most of specimens in the temporary set. There is, however,,
great individual variation in regard to this character.

5. In the adult skull all the molars and molariform premolars are
much wider transversely than antero-posteriorlj'. The deciduous teeth
are more nearly square, the two diameters being subequal.

6. The buttress on the antero-external lobe of tooth, the parastyle, is
better developed in the milk set.

7. D. 3 is the longest tooth of the milk series and is beginning to
assume the elongate character of this tooth in the modern horse, while
the corresponding tooth of the permanent set is smaller than any of
the other molar teeth.

8. All the temporary teeth are shorter in vertical height than those of
the permanent set.

The Vertebral Column.

The cervical and dorsal vertebrae have already been minutely de-
scribed. The lumbar vertebrae are almost certainly five in number.
The centra are large and are renifoi-m in shape, being wide transversely
and not having the more nearly circular outline of the median dorsal
vertebrae. All of the lumbars, with the exception of the last, have their
centra strongly keeled. The centra are moderately opisthoccelous. The
interlocking character of the vertebrae through the zygapophyses is
marked. The neural spines are long, transversely compressed and
narrow and have considerable antero-posterior extent. They are all
directed forward at an angle. The transverse processes are well devel-
oped and widely expanded. The intervertebral foramina perforate the
bases of the neural arches, and are not merely notches in the ends of
the neural arch as they are in the anterior vertebra of the column. The
last two lumbar vertebrae have their transverse processes expanded
almost as widely as those of the fli'St sacral itself, and the transverse
processes of the fourth lumbar abut against those of the fifth, while the
latter bears on the posterior surface of the transverse processes deep
concavities for the corresponding surfaces of the anterior end of sacrum.
An analogous condition is seen in Equus, and in old individuals the last
two lumbars are very frequently immovably coossified. The last lumbar
has the spine more nearly erect than that of the penultimate lumbar
vertebra.

1896.]

155

[Farr.

Fig.

A very remarkable character of the lumbar vertebrae is that they have
spines which are nearly, if not quite, as high as those of the anterior
dorsal region, which in the horse are so much elongated. In the latter
the lumbars have spines which are lower, more nearly erect, of more
considerable antero-posterior extent proportionately and are much less
compressed transversely.

The Sackum.

The sacrum of M. baircli, as in most of the Ungulata, consists of one
broad vertebra joining the ilia, followed by a series of narrower ones,
gradually diminishing in width anchylosed to it behind. These latter
diminish in width very gradually. In living Ungulates the number of
vertebrte entering into the formation of the sacrum varies with the age
of the individual and also varies in individuals of
the same age.

In the specimen which belongs with the pelvis
described below there are six vertebrse. This is
the most perfect sacrum of M. hairdi yet found,
and the component vertebra are fortunately well
preserved and hardly crushed at all (see Fig. 2
and Plate xiii).

The first or true sacral vertebra is greatly ex-
panded transversely and bears large articular sur-
faces for the ilia.

Anteriorly there are large convex facets which
fit into the corresponding concavities in the trans-
verse processes of the last lumbar vertebra. The
first sacral has a low and comparatively wide cen-
trum. The spine is very high, very much com-
pressed laterally, as are all the spinous processes of
the vertebras, and is directed strongly forward, while in the modern
horse it is almost vertical. The five succeeding vertebras have trans-
verse processes which are not so widely expanded, the centra are very
much depressed and the neural arches are low and gradually decrease
in height posteriorly. This, of course, conditions the size of the neural
canal, which in this region is very much attenuated. The expanded trans-
verse processes of the contiguous vertebrae are all united, so that they
form a narrow elongate plate. The spine of the second sacral is gone, but
the others are all preserved. That of the third is almost vertical, while
the spines of the three posterior sacrals all slope backward at a decided
angle. There is thus a very abrupt transition in the direction of the incli-
nation of the spines from the first in which the spine projects forward
to three in which the process is almost vertical. The plate formed by
the anchylosis of the centra and transverse processes of the vertebras is
concave inferiorly or curves downward posterior to first sacral. The
sacrum presents inferiorly the foramina for the five pairs of sacral

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 151. T. PRINTED SEPT. 2, 1896.

Sacrum of M. baiedi,
Inferior view.

Farr.] J ^^ [May 15,

nerves, the inferior sacral foramina, while above "we also find laterally
between the uenral arches of the contiguous vertebrae the five pairs of
the superior sacral foramina.

3feasurements of the Sacrum. >nr.

Length IIG

Extreme width 64

Width third sacral 23

Width fourth do 21.5

Width fifth do 20

The Caudals.

The few caudal vertebrae preserved are sufficient to give us a general
idea of the character of the tail. The first caudal has very widely ex-
panded transverse processes similar to those of the posterior sacral re-
gion ; the centrum is oval and the neural arches arise at a very great
angle enclosing a high and very narrow neural canal. The transverse
processes are of considerable antero-posterior extent, but do not equal
the length of the centrum in width as they do in the posterior vertebrse
of the sacral region. It is not possible to determine how many of the
caudal vertebra^ had complete arches, because of incomplete material.
In Equus* the spine of the neural arch is bifid in the second caudal and
the arches are incomplete on the third. The transverse processes gradu-
ally become shorter, the neural arches more rudimentary and are finally
lost, and all we have is a cylinder of bone with very rudimentary pro-
cesses which gradually diminish in size. Among the caudals preserved
is one of these last, in which all the processes are very feebly developed.
All the vertebrae of the tail are in general like those of the horse, and in
them, as in most all of the anatomical features, we see a foreshadowing
of what the future horse is going to be.

The Sternum.

With the almost complete skeleton figured in the restoration of M.
bairdi in Plate xiii are preserved three segments of the sternum. These
are the xiphisternum and two segments of the mesosternum. The
former is very much more elongate and not so high as the other divisions
of the sternum. Anteriorly it is about twice as broad as high, while
posteriorly it is very much flattened. The free border is thin and
rounded with irregular surface, showing where cartilage was attached.
Laterally tlie body of this segment as of all the other is concave. The
superior border is almost plane, while the inferior is slightly concave, or
the free end may be said to project slightly downward.

The next segment in front of the above that is preserved is very evi-
dently the penultimate segment of the mesosternum. This is very differ-
ent in shape from the xiphisternum. The posterior portion is wide and

* No. 33?, rriuccton Coll.

1896.]

157

[Farr,

low, while anteriorly it is much narrower and higher. Both superior and
inferior surfaces are plane and the sides are very strongly concave. The
third segment is evidently the first division of the mesosternum, and is
high and long and almost trihedral in cross-section. These separate
segments of the sternum are not coossified, and the surfaces for the articu-
lation of the sternal cartilages of ribs are not well shown. From the por-
tions of sternum described above we are safe in assuming that there were
at least six segments in the sternum of M. bairdi.

The Scapula.

The nearly complete skeleton from which the restoration given here-
with is made fortunately has the scapula very well preserved, and this
reveals quite an unexpected character, viz., the presence of a distinct
acromion. The only other Perissodactyl known to have retained this
process is Pachynolophus (Orohippus) of the Bridger Eocene. Marsh *
has described it in this genus as follows : "The scapula has a prominent
acromial process, which is com-
pressed and decurved as in some Fig. 3.
Carnivora." Mesohippus is the
only Perissodactyl known to have
retained this process until Oligo-
cene times, and it has thus been
retained longer by the horses than
by any other family of this order.
It is possible tliat future discoveries
may also reveal the presence of a
clavicle in Mesohippus, as it has
been discovered in the contem-
porary Oreodon eulbertsoni,\ and in
the latter genus it persists until
Deep River times, where it has
been found by Prof. Scott J in the
form which he has called Mesoreo-
don. The possession by both
Mesohippus and Pachynolophus of
this process would seem to justify
us in regarding the latter as the
Bridger ancestor of the horse line
of which Mesohippus is the White
River representative. The scapula
is wider in proportion to its height
than that of Equus. The anterior
margin is very thin and strongly

*Amer. Jour. Sc. and Arts, Series 3, Vol via, 1874, p. 247

+ A specimen in tlie museum of the University of Chicago reveals the presence of the
clavicle.
I Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc, Vol. xvii, p. 136.

Scapula of M. bairdi, %.
a, from outride.
6, from behind.
c, from below.

Farr.] l^O [May 15,

convex, while the posterior border is only slightly rounded and is very
much thickened, a character that has been retained by the Equidas, Tylo-
poda, Pecora and Suina, but has been lost in the Tapiridge and Rhinocer-
otidse. The spine of the scapula is very high and seems to extend nearly or
quite to the vertebral border. It is much nearer to the anterior border than
the posterior, thus making the prescapular fossa much smaller than the
postscapular.

The spine becomes gradually more prominent towards the middle por-
tion, at which point it seems to have been highest and the edge was here
strongly retroverted as in Tapirus and Rhinoceros. From this point it
decreases in height towards the vertebral border.

The acromion is styliform in shape, is compressed antero-posteriorly
and extends outward and downward, but does not quite reach the level
of the glenoid cavity. It resembles in shape that of the camel and
llama, but diflt'ers from these in that they are more slender, more nearly
perpendicular and extend nearly or quite to the level of the glenoid
cavity. The process gradually tapers towards the free end, which is
somewhat rounded. The neck of the scapula is very much constricted
and is comparatively long. The glenoid cavity is quite deeply ex-
cavated, is very slightly elongate antero-posteriorly and has a well-de-
fined rim.

The coracoid process is strong, curves inwardly and is slightlj^
retroverted.

Measurements of Scapula. mm.

1. Extreme length 136

3. Width of neck 18

3. Width of distal end 32

4. Extreme width T-l

5. Width at highest point of spine 74

6. Width of supra-spinous fossa here 25

7. Width of infra-spinous fossa here 45

Measurements of Scapula of Equus* mm.

1. Extreme length 414

2. Width of neck 73

3. Width of distal end 107

4. Extreme width 18G

5. Width at highest point of spine 140

G. Width of supra-spinous fossa here '48

7. Width of infra-spinous fossa here 93

These measurements show the scapula of M. hairdi to have been pro-
portionately more expanded superiorly than that of the horse and at the
same time the neck is proportionately more contracted than in the latter.

* No. 338, Princeton Coll.

1898.]

159

[Farr.

Fis. 4.

Pelvis of M. bairdi, ^.

The Pelvis (No. 11376).

The pelvis is equine in all its characters and very much like that of the
modern horse with some characteristic points of difference. The speci-
men described below is the first pelvis of Mesoliippus bairdi that has ever
been found showing all the characters, being almost perfect. See Fig.
4, and Plate xiii. It was discovered by
Mr. J. W. Gidley during the past sum-
mer in the lower Oreodon beds.

The most striking difference between
the pelvis of M. bairdi and that of the
horse is that the former is narrower in
proportion to its length than that of
Equus.

The great breadth of the pelvis an-
teriorly in the latter is owing to the very
great lateral expansion of the ilia, while
in the earlier genus they are propor-
tionately less widely expanded. The ilia
directly in front of the acetabulum are
slender in their proportions and expand
more gradually than in the horse, so that
they are longer in proportion, to their
width than in the latter. The bone is
widely expanded superiorly and the angle above the point of articulation
of the ilium with the sacrum curves upward and outward, and the free
end is thickened and somewhat rugose. This upward and outward ex-
pansion of angle makes the external border of superior aspect of the
ilium concave. The crest is more slender and elongate comparatively
than in Equus and is strongly everted. The border of the ilium between
the angle and the crest is very thin and strongly concave. The whole
anterior expanded portion is thin except along the outer or lower
border. The posterior border of the angle above the point of articula-
tion of the sacrum is also slightly thickened. The sacral border of the
ilium is large and extends high above the articular facet for the sacral
vertebrae forming the angle. The ilia as well as the long axis of pelvis
are directed downward at an angle from the vertebral column. The
acetabulum is an elongate oval in shape and its borders are elevated and
well-defined. The border is incomplete below owing to the encroach-
ment of the pit for the ligamentum teres on the acetabular fossa. This
is less emphasized, however, than in the horse. The pit for the liga-
mentum teres is quite deep.

The ischium is straight and on a line with the long axis of the ilium.
The bone curves outwardly posteriorly, but does not curve upward as in
the horse. The posterior border is expanded and thickened outwardly
where it ends in a stout process, the tuberosity of the ischium. The in-
ternal border posteriorly is deflected towards the median line and meets

Farr.] 1^^ [May 15,

its fellow of the opposite side at this point forming part of the symphysis.
Above the acetabulum the border of bone is high and rounded, but is not
sharp and angular as in the horse. The obturator foramen in the pelvis
of the latter is rounded and shorter in proportion to its width than in
M. bnirdi, being only slightly elongate, while in the species under con-
sideration the foramen is narrow and very much elongated, the length
equaling twice the breadth. This conditions the shape of the posterior
portion of ischium, which in M. hairdi does not extend far back of the
posterior border of obturator foramen, while in Equus the ischium forms
a large expanded plate posterior to the obturator foramen.

The pubis is elongate, flattened from above downward and irregularly
triangular in shape. The portion of pubis nearest the acetabulum is
almost round in cross-section, while in the horse the corresponding por-
tion, as in fact the entire pubis, is very much more flattened. It meets
its fellow of the opposite side in the median line forming the anterior
part of the symphysis with the bases of the triangles applied together
The symphysis is formed by both pubes and ischia conjointly, the former
constituting the anterior and larger part while the ischia form the poste-
rior part. Fusion of the pubes is so complete that no trace of a suture
remains, while the ischia are not anchylosed together. The anterior
part of the symphysis is flattened in the form of a large plate, which
bears inferiorly in the median line a prominent spine. All the processes
for muscular attachments are less strong and rugose than in the horse.
The pelvic foramen (or cavity) is longer in proportion to the breadth in
M. hairdi than in the horse, being a little longer than broad, while in
the latter the pelvic outlet is broader than long. In Mesohippus the
length (or vertical height) is about 65 mm. and the breadth 60 mm.,
while in the horse the reverse condition obtains and we find a length
of only 174 mm. as compared with a width of 199 mm.*

Other measurements of the pelvis are as follows :

MM.

1. Extreme length 309

2. Length of acetabular cavity 26

3. Length of symphysis 63

4. Extreme width of ischia 74

5. "Width at acetabulum 102

6. From top of angle to outer point of crest 89

7. From anterior border of acetabulum to point midway

between angle and crest 74

Restoration of M. bairdi (Pl. xiii).

In 1879, Prof. Marsh, f in giving the genealogy of the horse, brought
out the fact that the chief moditications through which the horse passes
in its evolution are the following :

1. Progressive increase in the length of teeth and in their complexity,

* (G/s X 7/b inches) Chauveau loc. cit. ^ Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. xvii, p. 497.

18%.] lv)l [Farr.

from a very short-crowned tooth with distinct roots, to one with very
long crown in w^hich roots are not formed till animal becomes adult.
3. The gradual lengthening of the limb bones with the suppression of
the lateral digits and the concentration of the growth force in metapo-
dial iii, producing ultimately a monodactyl foot from a pentadactyl
ancestor.

3. The continued reduction of ulna and fibula and their ultimate
coalescence witli the radius and tibia.

4. Gradual increase in size from an animal not larger than a fox up to
the modern horse.

Mesohijypus hairdi is an interesting intermediate stage in the evolution
of the horse ; though primitive in many respects, it had already made
considerable advance over its Uinta predecessor.

The restoration here given is made from a nearly perfect skeleton
which enables us to make some improvements on the one already given,*
which, however, was as good as could be made with the material then
available.

The lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, pelvis and a few of the posterior dor-
sals are from another individual reduced to proportion. Part of the
skull is also restored from another specimen.

Mesoliippus occupies a position about midway in the line of descent of
the horse series. It presents the following advances over its Bridger
predecessor, Pachynolophus.

1. The teeth are longer (vertically) and more complex, the interme-
diate cusps are better developed, and the transverse ridges are likewise
better developed and more nearly confluent with outer wall of tooth.

2. The lateral metapodials are more reduced comparatively, and meta-
podial iii is much larger. In the Bridger form the phalanges of the
fifth digit are present, but M. bairdi has lost these.

3. Both the ulna and fibula are more reduced than in the earlier form

4. In M. bairdi, Pms. 2-4 are molariform, while in Pachynolophus
Pm. 4 only is molariform and is smaller than true molars. Epihippus,
the Uinta representative of the series, has Pms. 3 and 4 molariform, and
this is the only generic distinction between the Bridger and Uinta
genera.

The orbit is commencing to retreat, though it is still over the molars,
the anterior border being directly over the posterior half of M. 1. In the
horse it is situated posterior to molar series, and we can trace a gradual
transition in the position of orbit up through the different genera from
Mesohippus to Equus. This shifting backward of the orbit brings
about a gradual elongation of the facial region of the skull. The alve-
olar border of the maxillaries is low, this of course being associated with
low-crowned, short-rooted teeth.

From the character of the teeth we may judge of the life habits of
the animal. The teeth of the modern horse have very long crowns

*Journ. o/Morph., Vol. v, No. 3. p. 337.

Farr.] 1^^ [May 15,

(hypsodont), grow from persistent pulps and do not form distinct roots
until the animal is quite old, not until a length of crown is attained
which under normal conditions will aflford sufficient grinding surface for
an average lifetime. As the teeth wear off by attrition the loss is
replaced by growth, and growth and w^ear proceed pari-passu until the
animal becomes adult.

The little Mesohippus, with its short-crowned (brachyodont) teeth,
inserted by distinct roots, must therefore have fed on succulent plants
that grew in swampy, marshj' land — as if subjected to w^ear necessitated
by the mastication of the hard, silicious grasses of Miocene times, the
teeth would soon have worn out entirely and the animal would have
succumbed to starvation. In most of the specimens found the teeth are
only moderately abraided.

The feet, too, being tridactyl are adapted to progression along the
oozy shore of rivers or to swampy, marshy ground as the toes would
spread and thus support the animal in the mud, while the mouodactyl
foot of the horse is preeminently adapted for rapid locomotion over the
grassy plains. This would seem to prove that the life habits of the ani-
mal have changed very greatly during its evolution. Many of the
White River animals were adapted by their anatomical structure to life
in swamps. Some were at least semi-aquatic in their habits, as is denoted
by the position of the posterior nares, which in some forms are removed
very far backward, e. g., Ancodus.

The skull is equine in its characters, but is still quite small and the
facial region is short. The orbit is not enclosed behind.

The neck is long, and, as in the horse, these vertebrae are larger than
those of the dorsal region of the column. The processes are not so mas-
sive as in Equus, but are quite as complex and are very well developed.
The spines of the dorsal vertebrae are not so high as w^e should expect,
and very evidently M. hairdi did not have any great elevation of the
anterior dorsal region. T'le modern horse is much higher at the withers
than at the haunches. 'L'.ie spines of the lumbar vertebrae are very
high and incline forward at quite an angle. There is a very abrupt
transition in height of spines from the first sacral, which has a verj'
high spine to third sacral, which has a very much lower spine,
though it is still much compressed laterally. Six vertebra; take part
in the formation of the sacrum. The centra of the first few caudals
are flat with wide transvei'se processes, but these, as well as all the other
processes, gradually become suppressed and the neural arches disappear
so that the lower caudals are merely cylinders of bone. It is impossible
to determine the exact number of vertebrae taking part in the formation
of the tail, but it is fair to imagine that it had one at least as long pro
portiouately as the horse.

The scapula is remarkable for the persistence of the acromion process,
in which character it is unique among all Perissodactyls, with the excep-
tion of Pachynolophus (Orohippus) of the Bridger. The spine is better

1896.] ibo [Farr.

developed, the bone is lower and broader, the neck is more constricted
proportionately than in the horse. In the latter the anterior border of
the scapula is not rounded as in Mesohippus. The ulna is very much
reduced in AT. bairdi, and the radius is enlarged to sustain the weight of
body. The ulna is distinct from the radius through the whole of its ex-
tent, the two bones not being coossified even in old individuals. Below
the proximal half the bone is much compressed and tapers rapidly to-
ward the distal end. This gives it a frail character so that it is almost
always broken away in fossilization, and only recently have specimens
been found which permit an accurate determination of its character.
The distal end is not compressed as it is higher up, but is round in cross-
section and bears a facet for the cuneiform. A rudiment of the fifth meta-
carpal persists. All the metacarpals and their phalanges are somewhat
shorter and less massive than the metatarsals and the phalanges of the
hind foot. The pelvis is thoroughly equine and yet differs in many
minor characters from that of the horse. It is narrower in proportion to
its length than that of the latter. The ilia expand less abruptly, the crest
is narrower and more elongate proportionately, and the ischia do not
bend upward posteriorly as in the horse, but are in a straight line
with the long axis of the ilia. The obturator foramen is more elongate
and narrower transversely, and the pelvic outlet is higher and narrower
proportionately than in the modern equine.

The fibula was complete in M. bairdi ; was very much reduced in size
and was coossified with the tibia. The proximal end is quite small, the
shaft is filiform, while the distal end alone is quite large and forms the
external malleolus articulating with the astragalus, and in extreme ex-
tension of the foot also with the calcaneum. The fibula remains com-
plete until John Day times, for in Mesohippus (Anchitherium) prcestans
Cope from this formation it is retained in its entirety.

The hind limbs are much longer than the fore limbs, more so propor-
tionately than in the horse, so that the rump must have been much ele-
vated above the withers if the different elements of the limb were not
very much more flexed on each other than would seem justifiable, judg-
ing from recent animals. Many of the White River animals had a curved
arched back instead of a straight back as in the horse, e. g., Hyoenodon,
Leptomeryx, etc. This is shown by the character of the centra of the ver-
tebrae. The great individual variations met with in M. bnirdi have been
noticed by every investigator who has studied a series of specimens of
this species. These variations are principally in the limbs and teeth.
Some of these have already been noted. In several individuals the
three cuneiforms of tarsus are all coossified into a single compound
cuneiform. Usually the ento- and meso-cuneiforms are united.

There is usually a moderately large contact of metatarsal iii with
the cuboid, this latter usually extending below the level of the ecto-
cuneiform, so that all contact of metatarsal iii with cuboid is lateral.
In some specimens there is a slight extension outwardly of the proximal

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 151. U. PRINTED SEPT. 5, 1896.

Farr.] ±K)^ [May 15,

end of M. iii and the cuboid is slightly shorter, so that it articulates
■with the distal end of cuboid instead of being confined to mere lateral
contact. The antero-internal angle of cuboid is accordingly somewhat
modified in shape to correspond with the changed outline of metapodial
iii. This is a tendency in the direction of M. intermedms of the Pro-
loceras beds, and a foreshadowing of the condition in the modern horse
which has such a large facet on the cuboid for the widely expanded proxi-
mal end of metatarsal iii. Between this condition and that where there
is only lateral contact with the cuboid, we find all the intermediate
stages. Again, there is a great deal of variation in the relative propor-
tions of the lateral digits to each other, and in the relation they bear to the
median digit. Sometimes the lateral digits are not much reduced and
are subequal in size, while again we find tlie lateral digits very much
reduced, and Mt. iv, at least proximally, is usually larger than Mt. ii.

In 31. bairdi usually there is no confluence of posterior transverse
crest Avith the outer wall of tooth, usually separated from it by a large
interval, but occasionallj^ we get an individual in which there is actual
confluence, and we get all stages intermediate between these two ex-
tremes. We get individuals where the interval between outer end of
transverse crest and outer wall is less, and, again, others in which there
is a small process jutting inwaitl from the point of union of outer lobes,
toward the transverse crest, these separated by a verj- small interval,
and then we get complete confluence. These highly specialized forms
were, of course, not ancestral, but were prematurely modernized and
left no descendants. However, these individuals most specialized occur
highest up in the beds, showing that these variations are attempts in the
way of evolution.

Mesohippus Copei.

This is a new species of horse from the White River, wliich has just
been described by Osborn and Wortman.* In their description of the
type no specific characters other tlian those of size are given, by wliich
it may be distinguished from the two other species from this liorizon.
Tliis species was founded upon a complete half of a pelvis, femur, tibia
and part of a hind foot, together with a median metatarsal and one lat-
eral metatarsal of another individual, a collateral type. "These re-
mains indicate an animal of much larger size than those of M. interme-
dius, and, so far as we know, is the largest horse of the White River
epoch, even larger than Mesohippus {Anchitherium) prtestans of the
John Day." The species is undoubtedly well founded, but the material
in the Am. Museum did not permit the establishment of good siiecific
characters. I have studied carefully the material upon which the species
is founded and have been able to refer some material in the Princeton
Collection to this species. Tliis material consists of the distal end of a

* Bull Am. Mus., Vol. vii, pp. 352-35S.

1896.] 165 [Farr.

femur, tibia and almost complete liind foot, and enables me to give some
further characters of the species. M. copei differs from M. hairdi in the
following respects : (1) The lateral metapodials curve outwardly quite
sharply distally and the toes were thus more spreading than in AI. bairdi
(see Fig. 5). (2) The meso-cuneiform is proportionately less deep than
the ecto-cuneiform than in M. hairdi. (3) The carina or median keel of
the distal end of metatarsal iii, which in the smaller species is almost
entirely confined to the plantar surftxce of the bone, in M. copei extends
far up in the dorsal surface of the distal end of the bone. (4) The lat-
eral metapodials are comparatively shorter than the median metapodial,
so much so that the ungual phalanges could scarcely have been func-
tional at all, and this form had progressed tarther toward monodactylism
than any other known form from the White River. (5) The combined
depth of the navicular and ecto-cuneiform w^as greater than in M. bairdi,
and greatly exceeded that of M. intermedius. (6) The cuboid did not
extend below the level of the ecto-cuneiform. Metatarsal iii was borne
by the latter alone and did not extend over on the cuboid, so that ante-
riorly there is no contact of these two bones either lateral or distal as in
both the other species.

The tibia is about one and one-half times as long as that of M. bairdi,
and is proportionately much stouter.

The shaft is very long, even longer than that of the John Day species,
but is more slender, and seen from the side it presents the characteristic
sigmoid curve. The cnemial crest is very high, curves slightly outward
and has the usual tendinal sulcus on its outer border. It extends farther
down on the shaft than in M. bairdi. The proximal surface is very much
more rugose than in the latter. The femoral facets slope downward and
backward at quite an angle. The outer facet is convex antero-pos-
teriorly and concave transversely. The inner facet is concave antero-
posteriorly and convex transversely. The distal end of tibia is turned
slightly outward. The distal end of tibia and fibula together are pro-
portionately wider than those of M. bairdi. The facets for the trochlear
surface of astragalus are deeply incised, are oblique in position and are
separated by a high intertrochlear ridge.

The proximal end of the fibula is not preserved, but the very large
distal end and a portion of the shaft persists. Eugosities on the outer
border of tibia indicate that it was complete and closely applied to the
latter. The portion of the shaft preserved is very much reduced. The
expanded distal end forms the external malleolus and bears the two
usual facets.

The tarsus presents striking differences from that of M. bairdi, and
can best be described by instituting a comparison between it and the
latter.

The calcaneum is stouter and more massive, but has about the same
relative proportions as in M. bairdi. The tuber calcis is large and rugose
for the insertion of the tendo Achillis. The tuberosity is quite high

Fdrr.]

166

[May 15,

Fig. 5.

with its inferior border slightly convex. The upper border is broken
away. The tuberosity is much thicker and more mas-
sive than in the smaller species, where all the bones
are gracefully shaped. The sustentaculum is very
strongly developed and bears a large facet for the as-
tragalus, which facet is elongately oval in shape. The
crest formed by the superior or ectal astragalar facet
is broken off so that its character cannot be deter-
mined. There is a slight prolongation of this facet an-
tero-externally which is somewhat more emphasized
than in the smaller species. The inferior facet is
near the distal end, and is the smallest of all the
facets of calcaneum, and does not extend far back
from the distal end — elongate in shape. The facet for
the cuboid is large, occupying all the distal end of the
bone which is more obliquely truncated than usual.
The shape is triangular with the apex towards the
sustentaculum.

The astragalus is merely an enlarged copy of that
of M. hairdi with some differences of detail. It is pro-
portionately broader. The trochlea is more widely
open and the condyles are higher and thicker. The
neck is of about the same relative proportions as in
M. bairdi. The internal condyle as usual is the
longer of the two and anteriorly slightly overhangs
the navicular facet while in the .smaller species it does
not quite reach it. The outer cond3'le is very much
shorter than the inner and is separated from the navi-
cular facet by quite an interval.

The navicular is a flat bone, is wide transversely
and seems proportionately higher than in M. bairdi.
articular surface is stronglj^ concave antero-poste-
riorly for the corresponding surface of astragalus. Posteriorly there
are two elevations on the inner and outer borders respectively, be-
tween which is a wide and shallow depression for the projection on
the inferior margin of distal surface of the astragalus. The exter-
nal margin of this latter projects strongly downward, extending
around the outer edge of navicular. These two characters make
a very close interlocking joint so that there is scarcely any direct lateral
movement possible. This interlocking is not quite so complete, how-
ever, as in M. bairdi, as in this latter the external margin of inferior sur-
face of astragalus extends tarlher down on outside border of navicular.
This outside projecting border is in the form of a crest which is placed
obliquelj' on bone and limits the direction of the movement of the two
bones taking part in this articulation on each other to an oblique motion.
The distal surface of bone presents a large triangular facet for ecto-cunei-

Left Foot of
M. CoPEi, %.

The proximal

1896.] 167 fFarr.

form. Coalescing with apex of above is a facet extending up on posterior
border of bone, wliicli articulates with cuboid. On the proximal surface
there is a small facet on the antero-external corner of bone, which articu-
lates with the calcaneum by a small facet just above the inferior astraga-
lar facet and which seems to be a part of the latter, but on close exami-
nation proves to be a distinct facet. In M. bairdi the navicular just
touches the calcaneum, but does not have such distinctly marked facets.
This character is seen in some individuals, but in all observed specimens
the contact is smaller.

The ecto-cuneiform is high and massive, the breadth being twice the
height. The proximal facet for navicular is concave, both antero-pos-
teriorly and transversely. The inferior (or distal) facet is concave in
both these directions. On the external side it abuts against the cuboid,
and this latter seems to have been just equal in length to the combined
length of ecto-cuneiform and navicular. It bears no facet either lateral
or proximal for metatarsal iv.

The coossified ento- and meso-cuneiforms show an emphasized condition
of that of M. bairdi, in that the tendency of the distal row of tarsal bones
to form a closed circle is more marked here. The portion representing
meso-cuneiform bears most all of the proximal end of metatarsal ii. The
ento-cuneiform is high and compressed transversely and curves strongly
backward and around towards the other side of foot. On its inferior
surface it bears a facet at its point of contact with metatarsal ii.

The metatarsus of J/. 5a«ir(Z4 exhibits the following characters : (1) The
cuboid which bears metatarsal iv extends down below the external
cuneiform which bears M. iii. (2) The meso-cuneiform does not quite
reach to level of the ecto-cuneiform. From this it results that M. iv
does not quite reach up to level of M. iii, while M. ii reaches above the
latter. In M. copei, M. iv extends quite up to the level of JVI. iii, while
the meso-cuneiform is not so deep proportionately as in the smaller
species. Metatarsal iv is proximally much less reduced than M. ii, but
tapers to about the same size distally. It is borne entirely by cuboid.
The disproportion in size of the proximal ends of the two lateral meta-
podials can hardly be more than an individual character, as we find all
degrees of difference in the relative sizes of the two lateral digits in the
smaller species.

In some specimens the two lateral digits are of the same size, in others
subequal with the ivth slightly the larger and in others this digit is
very much larger than ii. One individual exhibits the very peculiar
character of having the lateral metapodials of the same size on one foot,
while in the opposite foot the fourth metatarsal is much larger than the
second.

Metatarsal ii is slightly less reduced than in the average individual of
M. bairdi. Proximally it bears a large concave facet for the meso-cunei-
form and posteriorly there is a small facet by which it abuts against the
inferior retroverted edge of the ento-cuneiform. This latter extends

Farr.l 1^^ [May 15,

botli above and below the nieso-cuneiform and conditions the shape of
the head of M. ii, about one-half of the proximal surface being sup-
ported by the meso-cuneiform. Posterior to this facet the proximal sur-
face slopes abruptly downward and presents the above-mentioned facet.
About two-fifths of the internal surface of ecto-cuneiform is taken up
with a facet for metatarsal ii, which in M. hairdi extends upward pro-
portionately less on the ecto-cuneiform. The shaft is of about the same
dimensions proportionately as in M. bairdi and was closely applied to
M. iii proximally, but both the lateral metapodials curve outward dis-
tally. The distal end is merely an enlarged copy of that of the smaller
species, is high and compressed and the median keel is strongly devel-
oped. Metatarsal iii bears about the same relation to the lateral meta-
tarsals in size as in M. bairdi. In the latter we have a distinct facet on
M. iii, either lateral or proximal for the cuboid, but in the new species
M. iii does not touch the cuboid and the only facet on exterior surface
of the proximal end is that for M. iv. It is borne entirely by the ecto-
cuneiform and is quite large in proportion to the size of the lateral digits
and supports nearly all the weight and receives most of the impacts and
strains of the foot. The distal end is somewliat wider than the proximal
end. M. iii is quite a little longer than the lateral metatarsals, more
so than in M. bairdi. All the phalanges are slightly more massive pro-
portionately than in the smaller species.

The pelvis in the Am. Mus. Collection referred to M. copei, I do not
regard as Mesohippus at all because it is too much specialized in its own
way to belong to a White River equine. It diflers very much from tliat
of M. bairdi and in some respects is more specialized tlian that of the
modern horse. If the reference to M. copei is correct, we have in this
species a very aberrant side line of the horse series. The pelvis under
discussion differs from that of M. bairdi in the following respects :
(1) The ilium expands very abruptly, almost directly in front of the acet-
abulum, while in M. bairdi it expands very gradually and begins its ex-
pansion a long way in front of the acetabulum (see PI. XIII and Fig. 4).

(3) The angle of the ilium in M. bairdi and of all the known equines is
sharp, but in this specimen it is very much rounded. (3) The crest is
broad and stout instead of being narrow and elongate as in M. bairdi.

(4) The border between angle and crest is very much less concave than
in M. bairdi and the horse. (5) The border of bone above acetabulum
is drawn out into a sharp crest even more pronounced than in tlie recent
horse. (6) The acetabulum is round as in Hyracodon, not elongate as
in M. bairdi and the horse. (7) The obturator foramen is broader in
proportion to its length than in M. bairdi. (8) The ischia turn upward
at an angle posteriorly almost as much as in the horse, wliile in M. bairdi
the ischium is in a straiglit line with the long axis of the ilium and does
not turn up posteriorly. In view of these great differences I cannot
regard the reference to M. copei as correct.

In the American Museum there are a series of lumbar vertebraj which

1896.] ■ l^J [Farr.

are too large for M. ' intermtdius, and their provisional reference to
M. copei is justifiable. These are very like those of M. hairdi, but much
larger and more massive. The provisional reference of the two pre-
molars described with the type is also justifiable, as they are too large
to pertain to any other known species of horse from the White River.
Leaving the pelvis out as questionable, we may say that the remains in-
dicate a very large equine agreeing with M. bairdi in most of its charac-
ters and yet specialized in its own way so that it is a little oft' the line of
equine descent though most probably developed from M. bairdi.

Measurements of M. copei.

MM. MM.

Tibia 398 ;31:3

Calcaneum, length 83

Calcaneum, extreme width 30

Astragalus, length 46 50

Astragalus, width of neck 81 37

Height of navicular 11

Height of ecto-cuueiform 11

Length of M. iii 177 189

Femur, distal end width 51

Width of patellar surface 29

Extreme length of first phalanx of M. iii 24

" " second " " 11

" " ungual " " 29

Length of M. iv 155

Phalanx 1 of M. iv 14

2 " 9

3 " '*'>■

■vv

Mesohippus intermedius O. and W.

M. intermedius, as the name indicates, stands intermediate between
M. bairdi of the Oreodon beds and Mesohippus {AnchitJieriurn) prcestans
of the John Day. It occurs in the Protoceras beds. It is a strange and
interesting fact that M. bairdi continued on into the time of the Protoceras
beds after having given rise to the two species.* A careful study of the
principal characters of M. intermedius brings out very strongly its rela-
tion to the preceding and succeeding species. In all these points it is
seen to stand directly intermediate between M. bairdi and Mesohippus
(Anehitherium) prtestans of the John Day. In the light of present
knowledge there can ])e no doubt that M. bairdi is the direct ancestor of
the modern horse, and by the study of the individual variations of the

* A remarkable instance of the persistence of an ancestral type is seen in the Loup
Fork. Here Protohippus, a form with long-crowned, cement-covered molars, repre.sents
the main line of equine descent, while right alongside of it there is a much smaller spe-
cies of M. bairdi tyi>e which Cope has called Andutherium ultimum. This form hus short-
crowned molars, without cement.

Farr.] ^*^ [May 15,

former we can trace a tendency toward the establishment of the 31. in-
termediiis type.

The skull of Jif. intermedins is much more equine in character than
that of if. hairdi. It presents the following differences which may be
looked upon as modernizations : (1) Increase in length, size and in gen-
eral proportions. The largest skull of if. 6cnV(Zi observed measures 218
mm., while that of M. intermedins measures 280 mm. (2) The upper
incisors are all pitted (see Fig. 0), while in the smaller species only the
p. J. two outer pairs have the enamel invagination.

(3) The facial region of the skull is more elon-
gate and the orbit is shifted backward. In M.
hnirdi the anterior border of orbit is over M. 1 ;
in M. intermedins it is over interA-al between
Ms. 2 and 3. (4) The diastema between Pm. 1
and the canine is proportionately greater in the
larger species.

/% 1^ "^^^^ canine has a well-developed cingulum on

\^ ^ its internal surface. This is the foreshadowing

„ ^ of the cupping, as the pit in an incisor tooth is

Superior Incisors and i i »> i

Canine OF M. inter- formed by the cingulum, which rises up on the

MEDius, J. internal border of the tooth to enclose the de-

pression. Teeth have been observed from the lower Oreodon beds which
have a strongly developed cingulum anticipating the development of the
pit. (5) The occiput is slightly more overhanging in the larger species.
(6) The aveolar border of the jaw is better developed and higher in M. in-
termedins. This, of course, is correlated with larger teeth, with longer
roots. (7) The postorbital processes are better developed, more nearly
enclosing the orbit. (8) There is in 31. intermedins a large deep ant-
orbital fossa or depression occupj'ing nearly all of the lateral wall of
skull and extending forward almost to Pm. 1. (9) Tlie teeth of the
molar series are much larger, longer and more specialized than those of i/.
bairdi. These diflFerences, which have been given by Osborn and Wort-
man in their description, are: {a) "The internal cingulum of Pm. 1 is
more strongly developed and a distinct basin is formed. (6) In the sec-
ond upper premolar, the parastyle or antero-exterual buttress is consider-
ably larger than in 3f. bairdi and gives to the crown an incipient trian-
gular shape. (<■) The midrib of the external lobes is better developed
than in 31. bnirdi, and the postero-transverse crest is more nearly con-
fluenced with outer wall of tooth."

Length of 3folar-P)-emolar Series.
31. bairdi ... . 73.5 31. intermedins.... 97 3f. prastans.... 112.5

Molar Series.
23 46 51

Pi'emolar Series.
42 53 61

1896.] 1» 1 [Farr.

The Milk Dentition.

In the Princeton Collection there is a skull bearing the temporary den-
tition (No. 11168). In the young skull the anterior border of the orbit
is just between D. 4 and M. 1, so that as growth takes place the orbit is
forced to retreat by the elongation of the facial region of the skull, as in
the adult skull the anterior border of the orbit is over the interval be-
tween molars 2 and 3. The milk teeth agree in all essential points with
those of M. hairdi.

Measurements of the Superior Milk TeetJi. mm.

Length milk series 57

D. 1 10

" 2 18

" 3 16.5

" 4 17

The lower teeth of the deciduous set agree in all their characters, ex-
cept size, with those of M. bairdi.

There is nothmg noteworthy about the vertebrae except their increase
in size over those of M. bairdi. The limbs bear the same general pro-
portions as in the smaller species. The scapula is higher and narrower
proportionately than in M. hairdi. All the limb bones are characterized
by being much longer than in the smaller species. The ulna is not more
reduced distally than in M. bairdi, and is distinct from the radius through-
out. The shaft is compressed laterally and is very slender, but distally
it is stouter and has a large facet for the cuneiform. Proximally the
olecranon is more massive than in M. bairdi. The radius is very large
and is fast becoming the important bone of foi-earm. The carpus pre-
sents no important differences from that of the smaller species. It is
still high and narrow. A rudiment of the fifth metacarpal still persists,
but is not so elongate as in M. bairdi, but is shorter and stouter and on
the way to disappearing. The lateral digits are usually more flattened
than in the smaller species but are not more reduced, the distal ends
being even more massive proportionately. The ungual phalanges of
the lateral digits are long, narrow and sharply pointed at the ends.
That of metacarpal iii is proportionately wider than that of M. bairdi.

MM.

Length of ]M. iii 155

M. iv 188

M. ii 143

The ribs are characterized by their length and extreme slenderness,
those of the median dorsal region being especially long, not much flat-
tened, being almost round in cross-section. The pelvis presents few
characters that are new. The ilia expand even more gradually than in
M. bairdi. The angle rises up in a pointed process. The crest is partly

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 151. V. PRINTED SEPT. 5. 1896.

Farr.l 1 ' 2 [May 15,

broken away so that all its characters cannot be determined. The bor-
der of bone above the acetabulum is rounded and not sharp. The
ischia turn upward slightly posteriorly and form more of a plate poste-
rior to the obturator foramen posteriorly than in the smaller species. The
sacrum has five vertebrae entering into its formation. The spines of the
lumbars are still very high, but they have a more considerable antero-
posterior extent proportionately than in M. bairdi. The femur has a
massive proximal end, the great trochanter being lower and more mas-
sive than we usually see it in Mesohippus, but this may in part be due
to the fact that our skeleton is of a young animal.* The tibia of M. inter-
medins is somewhat stouter in proportion to its length than that of M.
hairdi. The cnemial crest is strong and well developed. As usual,
there is a large fossa external to the cnemial crest. The fibula is still
complete and is distinct from tibia. The proximal end is quite small
and the shaft is very much reduced, while the distal end is quite large,
forming the external malleolus to articulate with astragalus and with
calcaneum in extreme extension. Both proximal and distal ends, as well
as the shaft, are closely applied to the tibia, but are not coossified with
it. The tarsus of M. intermedius is more modern than that of M. hairdi
in that the tarsus is wider and lower, which is a step in the direction of
the modern horse. The calcaneum is very long, the tuber proportion-
ately longer than in M. bairdi, and is quite stout with an expanded free
end. The cuboidal facet is long and narrow, almost crescentic in shape
and extends downward and inward to the sustentaculum. There is
quite a large fibular facet. The astragalus is broader and the trochlea is
not so deeply incised as in M. bairdi, though it is distinctly equine in
pattern. The two condyles of the astragalus are very unequal in size.
The inner almost always overlaps the navicular facet, while the external
is separated from it by a long interval. In M. bairdi the internal con-
dyle never reaches the navicular surface. The navicular is much flatter
and lower, as is also the ecto-cuneiform, than in M. bairdi. The cuboid
is also shortened, just equaling the height of the two contiguous bones,
metatarsal iii extends over on cuboid.

This is another modernization. There is a distinct facet on the cal-
caneum for the navicular. There is a much more complete interlocking
of the tarsal bones in M. intermedius than in any other White River
horse. The ento-cuueiform as usual is high, extending both above and
below the meso-cuneiform which is still not so deep as the ecto-cunei-
form. On its posterior surface it bears a distinct facet for the cuboid
with which it unites in forming the small facet for M. iv. Metatarsal iv
is usually less reduced proximally than M. ii, but tapers to about the
same size distally. This demonstrates the manner in whicli the reduc-
tion of digits takes place in the family. We know from M. bairdi that
M. i first disappeared and afterward M. v. The condition in M. inter-
medius indicates that M. ii would next become rudimentary, and then
M. iv. In the horse where the lateral metapodials are mere splint

* This may also account for the fact that fibula is not coossified with tibia.

1896.]

173

[Farr.

bones and closely applied to M. iii, M. iv is still larger than M. ii
proximally.

The inter-relationships of these three species may be expressed by the
following diagram :

Protoceras Beds.

M. bairdi. M. intermedins. M. copei.

Oreodon Beds. / M. bairdi.

M. copei.

Titanotherium Beds. / M. bairdi.

The phylogeny of the horse series as it is now generally understood
may be given as follows :

Pliocene to Recent

Loup Fork

Deep River

Equus

Hippidium

Protohippus Hipparion

Desmatippus Anchitherium

John Day

White River

Uinta

Bridger

Wasatch

Mesohippus

Mesoiiippus

Epihippus

Pachynolophus

Hvracotherium Palseotherium

Puerco Condylarthra

l Represents the line of descent.

Protogonia
Protogonodon

Farr.] ^*^ [May 15,

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189C.1 175 [Ortmann.

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On Natural Selection and Separation.

By Arnold E. Ortmann.

{Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 15, 1S96.)

1. It is generally understood that the chief merit of Darwin in creating
his theory of the origin of species is the establishment of the principle of
Natural Selection, and that by the introduction of this principle the pro-
cess of development of organic nature from the conditions existing in
former times to the present may be made intelligible, and mostly it is also
understood, that natural selection is only one of the factors playing a
part in the formation of species. But the proper line of action of natural
selection, as conceived by Darwin, is estimated by some other authors
very differently. I refer especially lo Weismann, who calls natural
selection "all-sufficient," which implies that it is the only factor that
forms species ; but I regard this expression only an exaggeration, since
Weismann contradicts himself in this respect.* The assertion, however,
stands, that natural selection of itself may form different species. On
the other hand, Eimer maintains, in opposition to Weismann, that there is

* See Ortmann, Qrundziige der marinen Tiergeographie, 1896, p. 30.

Ortmann.] 170 [May 15,

no formation of species by natural selection, but that the only action of
this factor consists in the preserving of existing species.* This opinion is
as erroneous as that of Weismann, but in the opposite direction.

So far, however, Darwin's definition of natural selection, as the sur-
vival of the fittest, was not altered, only the efficacy was regarded differ-
ently. But recently Pfefferf has given another conception of natural
selection, differing from Darwin's. According to the latter, by the
struggle for existence the fittest are selected (hence the term "selec-
tion "), while all others are destroyed. Pfeffer, however, says that
there is no selection of particularly good variations, but the struggle for
existence destroys indiscriminately fitted and not fitted individuals, and
certainly it destroys all the not fitted. Thus the surviving remainder
(according to Darwin's terminology the selected part) consists of a
number of good and better individuals, which show a good average. The
struggle for existence continued in this way during many generations —
destroying all the bad individuals — effects little by little that this good
average improves from generation to generation. Pfeffer calls this pro-
cess "Transformation of species by sel f- regulation " ("Umwandlung
der Arten durch Selbststeuerung ").

This conception of natural selection differs only slightly from that of
Darwin, and one could say, that only the form of expression is different,
while the effect in both cases is the same. But we shall see below, that
the form used by Darwin is in some respect inferior to that used by
Pfeffer, and although Darwin's meaning is nearly the same as that of
Pfeffer, we shall have some advantage in accepting Pfeffer's phrase,
especially in maintaining, that not the fittest, but good individuals sur-
vive, and that the change effected is an extremely slow one.

Recently I have pointed out,^: that this " transformation of species " is
nothing else than the well-known "mutation" of palaeontologists, a
term, the differences of which from " variation " are first shown by
Waagen and Neumayr, and subsequently most vigorously maintained by
W. B. Scott. § These differences are neglected by many zoologists,
although the "comparatively lawless and uncontrolled character "|| ol
the variations and the "directness of advance towards the final goal "H
of the mutations differ strikingly. Scott says :** "While variations are
dtie to the union of changing hereditary tendencies, mutations are the
effect of dynamical agencies acting long in a uniform way and the results

* Eiraer {Die Arlbildung und Verwandtschaft bei Schmetterlingen, ii, 1^95, p. 33) uses even
the expression : "Inefficiency of Natural Selection" (" Ohnmacht der Naturziiclitung")

tP.oflfjr, '-Die U.nvvaniling der Arten, ein Verging functioneller Selbstgestaltung,'
Verhandl. Naturw. Ver. Hamburg (3) i, 1894.

X Grundzilge der marinen Tiergeographie, p. 31.

g Scott, "On Variations and Mutations," Amer. Jour. Sci., 4S, 1894, pp. 355-374.
II i. c, p. 370.

IT^. c, p. 360.

** This sentence is first given in the paper "On the Osteology of Mesohippus and Lcp-
to:iierys," Journ. Morplwl., v, 1891, p. 38S, and repeated l. c, p. 372.

1896.] li< [Ortmann.

controlled by natural selection." If thus mutation is influenced by nat-
ural selection, it implies, that any particular mutation must advance in a
direction advantageous for the respective species, and, indeed, many
examples of mutation known among fossil animals are apparently due to
the advantage produced by the change.* I must add here, however
that probably not all mutations (in a palaeontological meaning) are due
to natural selection, but that many do not imply an actual improvement.
In this respect Elmer's investigations of the Papilionidoe are important.
The variations in the colors of the wings, on which Eimer exclusively
relies, are apparently neither useful nor injurious, yet they are caused
most likely by external conditions, for example, by warmth or cold dur-
ing the development of the imago from the larva. Eimer points out,
that in his butterflies a distinct direction of variation is evident, which he
calls " Orthogenesis." We shall see below that this is a process of inher-
itance. By the constant action of certain external causes upon subse-
quent generations, and the repeated inheritance of the characters thus
acquired, a certain tendency of variation in a distinct direction may
develop. If this tendency does not bear on utility, the degree of varia-
tion in the single individuals difl'ers considerably, and even individuals
varying in other directions are preserved. Thus a gradual transition
results from the less to the more changed individuals. But altogether,
from generation to generation, the variation in that direction increases,
and the changed individuals may become the most numerous, thus effect-
ing a slow change of the average characters of the species, which looks
exactly like a mutation. We may call this latter mutation, produced by
accumulative inheritance, by Eimer's term "orthogenesis," in contrast
to the "mutation" produced by natural selection. " Orthogenetic
mutations " are also known among fossil animals, and I referf especially
to the group of Ammonites whose mutations have been first studied.
Here most of the characters advancing in certain lines, ornaments and
form of the shell, etc., are apparently not subject to natural selection. Of
course, we do not know, in most of the cases, whether a particular trans-
formation is useful or not, and in many cases, where we cannot recognize
any advantage, the latter is pre&ent nevertheless. But since Eimer's
investigations have amply proved that such changes, indifferent as
regards utility, are certainly present in living animals, they must also
have been present in fossil animals X

* I mention only the example of the transformation of the structure of the extremities
in the horse-phylum, as discussed by Scott (I. c, p. 368). With the change of one char-
acter in a useful direction the change of others may be connected, which are in correla-
tion with tlie first. This would be an indirect action of natural selection."

t A very illustrative example of " Orthogenesis " is the transformation of the Miocene
and Pliocene Fulgur contrarius into the Pliocene and Recent Fulgurperversuf. See Leidy,
" Remarks on the Nature of Organic Species," Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci., ii, 18S9,
p. 51fr., Pis. 9 and 10.

J Weismann indeed denies, even in respect to Eimer's butterflies, that there are any
u.seless variations, but tliis is one of his many assertions, which he does not even try to
establish properly (comp. "Germinal Selection," The Mmiist, Vol. 6, No. 2, Jan., 1896,

Ortmann.] lliD [May 15,

We cannot say, however, that animals subject to orthogenesis are not
at all under the influence of natural selection : the latter must necessa-
rily act also upon them, since all injurious variations are destroyed and
cannot be transmitted and give cause to orthogenetic mutations. Natural
selection does not invariably imply mutation, but often, especially if the
external conditions are unchanged, it efi'ects only a preservation of an
existing species : by destroying all bad individuals it maintains the good
standard of the characters of the survivors, and only if there is any advan-
tage in any variation, this standard will be improved in a direction indicated
by this advantage. Thus we may say that natural selection gives origin to
mutation in a useful direction, but that this mutation is very slow, and
often so inflnitesimal, that it amounts almost to nothing, that is to say,
only the good standard is saved. This action of natural selection effects
besides the general adaptation of each animal form : the surviving indi-
viduals comply with the requirements of the surrounding conditions of
life.

We have no reason to look upon natural selection as a factor of minoi
importance, as Eimer is inclined to do. Even the preserving of a good
standard is all-important. Natural selection is a factor which cannot be
left aside, and which is a necessary one in the development of all beings,
and it is a grave mistake to abate its value in favor of any other factor
cooperating in the formation of species.

II. Yet the value of natural selection has not only been underrated by
some authors, but, on the contrary, it has been overrated, especially by
Weissman. The latter believes that natural selection does form species.
One can hardly understand on what grounds he is induced to allege this
action, and why he even believes that it is the only factor in the formation
of species, since he himself accepts Darwin's conception of this factor,
namely, that it acts selectively upon the best variations, and destructively
upon all the others, thus inducing only a change, a transformation of one
existing form or species into one other, but never causing the origin of
divergent forms or species. This point is so plain, and so beyond any
doubt, that only a great logical mistake, and a complete misapprehension
of Darwin's theory on the part of Weismann can explain this error. Yet
it is perhaps a little difficult, to say precisely, where the fallacy is hidden,
and it would be interesting to examine this point more closely.

I have no doubt that this wrong interpretation of natural selection is

p. 254). Weismann's argument as respects this point is the following : Eimer believes to
have shown, that there are no advantages for the respective species visible in the uif-
lerent colors of the butterflies: but since I (Weismann) have propounded the theory,
that all characters are due to natural selection, the latter must have produced these
color markings also, and we must assume, that they are or were nevertheless advantage-
ous ! Comp. Spencer ( Ttie Inadequacy «f Natural Selection, 1893, p. 49) : " He ( Weismann)
practically says: Propound your hypothesis ; compare it with the facts ; and if the facts
do not agree with it, then assume potential fulfillment, where you see uo actual fultill-
ment,"

1896.] 1 < *) [Ortmaiiii.

due to the form in which Darwin has given the definition of tliis term. I
am confirmed in tliis belief, as the same error is committed again and
again. Still very recently, at the last meeting of the German Zoological
Society, in the discuss^ion following Elmer's discourse, Ziegler* expressed
his opinion tliat no important difference exists between Darwin's natural
selection and Pfeffer's ; that it is irrelevant whether one says that the
fittest is selected, or that the not fitted are destroyed: both processes have
the same or nearly the same result, as may be at once uoderstood by an
example he quotes from the breeding of races in domesticated animals.

But even this reference to man's selection in domesticated animals, and
the unconditional comparison of it with natural selection, is the weak
point, and apparently the term "selection" used by Darwiuf induced
this error. I shall demonstrate here, that both processes, the natural and
the artificial, are certainly not identical, although apparently similar, and
especially that the final results of both are entirely different. It is true,
Darwin himself avoided this mistake,:]: but it was certainly made by sub-
sequent authors, and especially Weismann must have fallen into it, since
his odd misinterpretation of natural selection could otherwise hardly be
intelligible.

Weismann apparently has reasoned in the following manner. Natural
selection etfects that individuals possessing certain useful characters are
preserved ia the struggle for existence, and man's selection in domesti-
cated animals has a similar eflfect, preserving individuals provided with
certain characters desired by the breeder. Consequently both processes
are completely identical, with the only modification, that in the first the
principle of utility is ruling, in the second the wishes of man. Fartiier,
since in domesticated animals a great number of varieties or races are
often obtained from a single original species, and since these races do not
differ in their morphological differentiation from natural species, and
indeed are perfectly analogous to the latter as regards their relation to the
ancestral forms, it was believed that the natural species originated
exactly in the same manner, that is to say, since under domestication
different races are obtained by man's selection, iu nature different species
are formed by natural selection. By this argument, I believe, Weismann
came to the view, that species are formed by natural selection alone, and
although this opinion of the complete parallelism of natural and man's
selection is nowhere explicitly given in his writings, we have to infer it.§

*See Verhandl. deutsch. Zoolog. Qeselisch., 1.895, p. 129.

t Darwin, Origin of Species, 6th ed., 1878, p. 49 : "I have called this principle, by which
each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term Natural Selectiou, in order to
mark its relation to man's power of selection." Comp. also p. 65, ibid.

t It is well to be noted that Darwin did not commit this mistake, and that he always
regarded natural selection only as taking part in the formation of species, but not as
the only cause of it. This is already amply demonstrated by Romanes (" The Darwinism
of Darwin and the Post-Darwinian Schools," The Monist, Vol. 6, Xo. 1, October, 1895, p.3ff.,.

g I do not know whether I have succeeded in trying to fbllow Weismann's thoughts,
but I confess fieely : if he did not reason as I have conjectured above, I am at a loss to
understand him at all ou this point. But if the latter is the case, I do not think it is a
fault of mine.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 151. W. PRINTED SEPT. 4, 1896.

Ortmann.] -1-^^ [May 15,

But if we analyze the action of man iu breeding, we shall find that it does
not correspond to natural selection, but is more complex, and that
accordingly the final result obtained by man is different from that in
nature.

The breeder selects from a certain species a number of individuals
fitted for his particular intentions. The whole number of individuals of
this species is thus divided into two parts : the selected and the rejected.
By natural selection also the individuals of a species are divided into two
parts: Ww fitted ?ind ihe unfitted. There seems to be complete analogy,
but this is not the case. In natural selection, as we have seen above,
the fitted survive, and the unfitted are destroyed. But iu man's selection
there is a difference: of course, the selected corresponding to the fitted
survive, but the rejected corrresponding to the unfitted are not invariably
destroyed. On the contrary, they survive too, at least a great number of
them. It is not at all in the breeder's power to kill all the individuals
not wanted of the species under domestication ; he may kill of a particu-
lar litter, perhaps of all his stock those not corresponding to his wishes,
he may continue this killing during a series of generations, but he never
can succeed in destroying all the rejected individuals of the original spe-
cies with which he deals. On the contrary, this original species will pro-
pagate, and will continue to exist beside the new race obtained from it.
The result of the breeder's art is a new race coexisting with the original
species.

See the difference. Natural selection preserves only a number of indi-
viduals possessing a certain number of useful characters, while all the
others are destroyed: it preserves the good standard of the species or may
even improve it. Man's selection, however, gives origin to a new race
branching off" from the original species, which is preserved, too, and may
be subject for itself to the action of natural selection or may be domesti-
cated and subject to breeding again. Therefore, it is easily understood,
that it is certainly incorrect to look upon natural selection and the art
of the breeder as analogous processes, and natural selection cannot be the
cause of the origin of different species.

We may, however, safely say that the races obtained by the breeder
are analogous to natural species, and we are to examine by what addi-
tional lactors the complete parallelism of the breeding of races and the
formation of different species in nature is accomplished.

Recently* I have endeavored to demonstrate that we are to imagine
natural selection supplemented by the process of Separation (or Isola-
tion), in order to understand the development of coexisting different spe-
cies from one original species. The main point in separation is the action
of different conditions of life in different localities separated from each
other. The descendants of one ancestral form, if separated under different
conditions, tend to develop separately, and the directions of either muta-
tion or orthogenesis become different in each separated group : another

* Qrandzugc der marinen Ticrgeographie, pp. 31, 32.

189C.] 181 [Ortmann.

average fitted for the particular conditions of life, or another direction of
orthogenesis prevails among the surviving individuals of each group, and
after ^permanent separation during a series of generations the changes in
each separated group amount to what is called specific diflTerences.

If we compare in this respect the origin of species in nature with the
art of the breeder, we see at once that separation is implied in the action
of man. The breeder not only selects his material— in so far he complies
with the requirement of natural selection— but he isolates it from the
other individuals, and farther on, his chief occupation is the repeated
application of the same principle in the separated stock of animals and
their descendants, namely, the selection only of individuals answering
his wishes. This action corresponds exactly to natural selection in
isolated localities. Thus the breeder clearly unites two difi'erent actions.
(1) The selection of particular individuals possessing certain desired
characters corresponds to natural selection. But the breeder cannot, or
cannot completely, destroy the rejected remainder. (3) Accordingly he
directs his chief attention to the isolation of the selected material, in order
to secure control over the true breeding in subsequent generations. Since
the organisms kept under domestication are mostly amphimixotic,* the
breeder must exclude especially the possibility of interbreeding with the
outsiders. This latter point, although clearly understood by Darwinf
himself, has been overlooked generally. It was forgotten, that beside the
material used for breeding, there exists other " raw " material, and that
the preservation of the latter constitutes a very important difference from

* As regards the origin of races as well as of species it matters nothing, whether the
respective organism is amphimixoiic or not (see Grundziige, etc., p. 32). Amphimixis,
tliat is to pay propagation by crossing effects equality, the fusion of dififerent characters,
and not, as Weisraann asserts, the appearauee of new variations. This law is not only
logically evideut, but is amply demonstrated by facts. Comp. Darwin, Variation of Ani-
mals and Plants under Domestication, 2d ed., ii, 1S76, p. 62ff., where numerous examples of
the equalizing power of crossing are recorded. This question is to be looked upon as
finally settled already by Darwin and no doubt in the most convincing manner, namely,
by well-established facts. It is extremely unintelligible how Weismann could throw
oside all the proofs carefully collected by Darwin and substitute his own ill-founded con-
ception of Amphimixis. I may add here that between the action of Amphimixis and
that of Panmixia as accepted by Weismann, there exists a grave logical error. Amphi-
mixis is the simple process of crossing occurring but once, Panmixia is the same process
repeated often and in difTerent directions : the effects of both can only differ in quantity.
According to Weismann, however, Amphimix of different animals results in new differ-
ences, Panmixia of different animals in the disappearance of existing differences (vari-
ations without value for selection are absorbed). This remains an insurmountable con-
tradiction until Weismann demonstrates that his Amphimixis and Panmixia are concep-
tions contradictory to each other. Eimer {Eatstehung der Arten, i, 1888, p. 48) says.
Amphimixis may produce new things by uniting different things. That is true in so far
as the offspring is different from either parent. But this is the first step in uniting the
characters of the parents. The single individuals resulting from the same or similar cross-
ings are more alike to each other than the parents were to each other.

t Darwin ( Variation under Domestic, ii, p. 62) says : " The prevention of free crossing,
and the intentional matching of individual animals, are the cornerstones of the
breeder's art," and "Xo man in his senses would expect to improve or modify a breed

. . . unkss he separated his animals."

Ortmann.] XO^ [May 15,

the process of natural selection, where such a remnant corresponding to
the "raw" material does not survive — unless a separation by natuial
conditions is added.

III. The principle of Separation or Isolation, first conceived by M.
Wagner, is considered by nearly all authors* as a factor of minor import-
ance, although nearly all have conceded, that its occasional action cannot
be denied. It was looked upon as an additional factor now and then
favoring the formation of species, but not as a necessary one. In the
original theory of Darwin isolation is not contained as a particular factor,
although Darwin recognized the value of it very well, but he understood
it in a purely geographical sense. f As regards the formation of different
species he believes:j; it to be explained by the principle of divergence :
divergence is useful, and if there are any divergent variations within one
species, he says (p. 87): "They will be better enabled to seize on many
and widely diversified places in the polity of nature, and so be enabled to
increase in numbers." The introduction of this principle, however, is a
mere circumlocution of "differentiation of species," not an explanation :
we want to know, what are the causes of the divergence? If we peruse
Darwin's writings in this respect, we fiud that he was very near to recog-
nizing that separation actually eflects the divergence, § but since he under-
stood separation only in a strictly geographical sense, he failed to put this
factor in its proper place. Darwin's principle of divergence is nothing
else than the result of separation, and if we substitute the latter for the
former we shall complete Darwin's theory in a very important point.

Even Wagner, in introducing the principle of separation, did not give it
its correct place within Darwin's theory, but tried on the contrary to
replace, at least partly, selection by separation, and farther, he conceived
the latter almost entirely in a purely geographical sense. Besides, he laid
much stress upon the prevention of the crossing of the separated groups
of animals, which is not at all the chief peculiarity of the action of sepa-
ration. So have all other aulliors|| in discussing this principle. But as
we have seen, separation acts chiefiyin the line, that each separated group
is subject to different conditions of life, and that thus the variations, the
directions of inheritance and natural selection become different. It does
not act, however, always in this manner, since separation is possible

* I am to mention that G. Baur is almost the only author who estimate s correctly the
value of this principle. See the references to his papers : Gruudziige, etc., p. i;9, footnote,
and Science, March 6, 1896. p. 361.

t Origin of Species, Gliaps. xii and xiii.

I Ibid., p. 86fr.

§ Darwiu {Orir/in of Species, pp. 98-100) u.ses even the words "confined or peculiar sta-
tions," and " isolated stations." On p. 169 he answers the question: "How .... can a
variety live side by side with the parent species ? " by the following : '• If both have become
fitted for slightly different habits of life or conditions, they luiglit live together" and " tlie
more permanent varieties are generally foiuid, as far as 1 can discover, inhabiting distinct
stations."

|] For example, Haeckcl and Wcismanu : see Grumhiii/e, etc., p. 31, footnote.

1896.] ^C)6 [Ortmami.

without a cbange or differentiation of external conditions of life : then a
differentiation of species does not result, but we shall have the same spe-
cies in separated localities. We call such species " relicts" from a former
continuous distribution.*

Eiraer, although he appreciates the value of geogi-aphical separation,
names other causes besides: but what he calls " genepistasis " and
" kyesamechania " are nothing else than particular actions of separation.

But for a plain understanding we should examine Elmer's theories more
closely. f

Eimer:}: defends the opinion that variations are caused by external con-
ditions, but that variability is not an indefinite one, but that the varia-
tions are comparatively few, and take place only in distinct directions.
There is, according to him, no "fortuitous" or "irregular" variability, but
a variability in certain few and distinct lines : he calls this the principle of
Orthogenesis, and believes that it is contrary to Darwin's alleged supposition
of unlimited and " fortuitous " variability. I can hardly see that this differ-
ence from Darwin exists at all. It is true Darwin uses the words "indefi-
nite variability," but certainly not in the sense as interpreted by Eimer
("zufal'ig," "regellos"). Darwin says ;g " All such changes of struc-
ture, whether extremely sliglit or strongly marked, which appear amongst
many individuals living together, may be considered as the indefinite
effects of the conditions of life on each individual organism, in nearly the
same manner as a chill affects different men in an indefinite manner, accord-
ing to their state of body constitution," etc. That is certainly not a varia-
bility subject to casuality, but a variability governed by external causes,
which may differ only according to the disposition of the individuals, and
this opinion, that "the nature of the organism and the nature of the con-
ditions "|| are connected in the formation of variations, is also upheld by
Eimer.^

Further, he lays much stress upon the fact that variability advances in
a definite direction (orthogenesis), but, I think, he confounds here two
actions, that of variation and that of inheritance. Orthogenesis is varia-
tion, which is transmitted, and which is accumulated by the repeated
action of the same external causes upon a series of descendants. We can
hardly decide, whether a variation lends to advance in a distinct direction,
unless we see that again and again specimens vary in the same direction,

*Grundzilge, etc., p. 34 and p. 86.

+ 1 go more iuto details here than seems perhaps necessary, because I consider Elmer's
investigations as very important, especially as regards the facts collected. But we shall see
that Elmer's views do not differ considerably from Darwin's, and that the chief differences
are ouly differences of terminology.

X Eimer, Die Entstehung der Arten aiif Grund von Vererbung erworhener Eigensehaflen naeh
den Gesetzen organischen Wachsens, i, 1888.

§ Origin of Species, p. 6.

\\ Ibid., p. 6.

yComp. I. c, p. 5. Variation is effected by " Weehselwirkung zwisohen der stofflichen
Zusammensetzung des Korpers und iiusseren Einfliissen."

Ortmann.] * lo4: [May 15^

and if we see the same variation present in different degrees in a large
number of individuals, we have reason to suppose that inheritance plays
a part, since the amount of change, if often inherited, must on the one
hand increase, and since, on the other hand, the force of inheritance is
generally different in each individual. Thus orthogenesis, variation in a
distinct direction, is the result of the combined action of variation and inher-
itance : but it is "perhaps advantageous to accept Eimer's term, because,
as we have seen above, it is important as regards the transformation of
species.

Orthogenesis results in series of variations consisting each of a number
of individuals varying in the same direction but in a different degree : it
unites the single variations into varieties, that is to say, into groups of
animals showing the same tendency of variation. This grouping of vari-
ations into varieties is especially due to inheritance.

Eimer tries farther to find out the causes of the breaking up of any
series of variations into species, and reaches the conclusion that species
are formed when a certain group of individuals within a series "loses its
connection with its other allies."* This breaking up of a series of varia-
tions in consequence of lost connection he calls " genepistasis."^ Under
this head come, according to him, Oeograpliical Separation, Ilalviatogcn-
esis, and Kyesamechaina.X

If we direct our attention to the general definition of " genepistasis"
given by him, that it is the losing of connection of certain groups, we see
at once that genepistasis is exactly the same as separation, and under
the same head comes kyesamechania.^. The latter term means that a
sexual crossing between animals of more or less different characters is
rendered impossible by morphological or physiological causes. This im-
possibility of crossing is certainly not the first cause of difference, but it
is the result of already existing differences produced by beginning separa-
tion, and as respects the formation of species, kyesamechania can never
be a primary cause of the origin of different species, but it is the result of
the beginning differentiation, and may develop an additional factor accel-
erating the process of specific differentiation.

As regards Balmatogenesis, which means the sudden appearance of any
new variation, Eimer explains this process by correlation :| but this
explanation is insufficient. If any character changes, other characters
connected by correlation with it change also, but if the change of the first
is slow, certainly the changes of the others are so also, and a sudden
change of characters by correlation presumes a sudden change of the
leading character. Tlius correlation cannot explain balmatogenesis.

*SeeZ. c, p. 26 : " Wenn .... eiue Gruppe von Individuen .... auf irgend eiue Weise
die Verbindung iiiit den iibrigen Verwandten verloreu liat .... spriLlit uiun von Arton."

fSee /. c, p. 30ff.

1 1 cannot make out with certainty what Einipr thinks as to tlic logical relations of these
terms to each other, hut I hope I have quoted him correctly.

g See Eimer, Die Artbildung und Venvandtschaft bei den Schmetterlingen, ii, 1895, p. 14ft".

II See Enlslehung, etc., p. 5:i.

1896.] LoD [Ortmaun.

But we do not need this at all. Halmatogenesis is a well-known process
of inheritance, and comes under different heads in that chapter. For
example, accumulative inheritance (even orthogenesis) may effect a
sudden rise of the degree of development of a certain character, or char-
acters remaining latent during one or more generations may come sud-
denly into reappearance, or farther, atavism may effect the same. Hal-
matogenesis does not at all play a part in the breaking up of a " chain of
organisms," but it takes part only in the formation of varieties.

Therefore, of Eimer's new terms, only Oenepintasis and Kyesamecliania
may form different species, and both are nothing else than Separation, or
as Eimer himself says : "the interruption of connection."

i3y this brief sketch of Eimer's views we see that there is no consider-
able difference from Darwin's theor3%* except that he considers natural
selection to be of minor importance. Tliis is probably due to the fact that
he has investigated chiefly characters not at all subject to natural selec-
tion. He forgets, however, that even upon animals provided with indif-
ferent characters natural selection must necessarily act in order to main-
lain the good standard of all the other characters. All the principles
introduced by Eimer : Orthogenesis and halmatogenesis as forming varie-
ties in a distinct direction, genepistasis and kyesamechania as forming
species, are onl}- new words for old ideas, which indeed have been set
forth already by Darwin. And farther, these new terms are mostly
results of well-known laws and not the primary causes of the formation
of varieties or species, and they do not give us a better knowledge than
before of the respective processes, in some cases, indeed, they may even
induce confusion.

As respects sepamtion we have seen that Eimer considers it only as an
additionalt factor causing specific differentiation, but farther we have
seen that his genepistasis is also separation. Like all the other authors
he apparently has conceived separation only in a purely geographical
sense. I have, however, demonstrated:}: that we are to conceive the term
separation in a bionomical sense, that is to say, that any causes "effecting
a permanent interruption of the bionomical continuity between certain
groups come under the head of separation. Separation keeps particular
groups permanently under particular conditions, and thus they are pre-
vented from migrating from one station of definite conditions of life into
others with other conditions."

* Eimer identifies Darwin's tlieory witli tlie " Darwinism after Darwin " (comp. Arthildung
und Vencandtscfiafl bei Schmetlerlingen, ii, 1895, Preface, p. v), in supposing tliat Darwin's
theory alleges that species are formed by natural selection. But we know that this is an
entirely unwarranted imputation.

\See Artbildung, etc., 1895, p. 9. I should like here to point out an apparent error in
Eimer's arguments for the origin of new species in the middle of the range of the original
form : he says (ibid., p. 11) that the group of Papilio asterias originated from amidst the pro-
vince of distriluition of the group of P. machaon. A glance at his tables (PI. vi-viii),
however, shows that this is not the case.

X See Grundzilge, etc., p. 31, and Amer. Jour. Sci., p. 63, et seq , 189G.

Ortmann.] J-"^ [May 15,

This prevention of migration is very important. Migration (as under-
stood by M, Wagner) is an accessory factor, often cooperating with sepa-
ration, and often working against it. Each species, which originated in
a limited area, tends to occupy other territories : it is a well-lsnown fact
that each animal form possesses its peculiar "means of dispersal," and by
such means it migrates. Migrating species occupy new territories, which
have either the same or slightly different conditions of life : in the latter
case migration by itself may induce new variations in consequence of the
slightly modified action of the external conditions of life. Further,
migration is often slow, or only possible under peculiar circumstances,
often it is accidental, and only a few individuals can transgress the orig-
inal limits on rare occasions : then even migration acts as a means of
separation. The few individuals occupying a new locality are afterwards
practically separated from the original stock remaining in their native
country, and thus they may develop separately into a different species,
even in the case that immigration from tlie OHginal stock is not altogether
impossible, since any rare individuals of the latter, reaching the new col-
ony from time to time, are soon absorbed by the new form and their char-
acters disappear J)y the continuous crossing with the modified individuals
and by the transfbrming power of the external conditions. Separation,
however, is not always connected with migration : the original "centre
of origin " of a species may be broken up again into parts, thus inducing
the origin of new species, if the external conditions favor it.

Separation in any form may be more or less complete, and since between
complete continuity and complete separation intermediate steps are inter-
posed, also a complete differentiation of species is reached by degrees.
Tiiis corresponds exactly with what we see in nature. We know of
many groups, the species of which are very insufficiently limited and pass
gradually into each other : in such cases the formation of species is not
yet accomplished. It is an incomplete separation, if a species occupying
a large area is divided into different varieties, which are locally more or
less limited, and differ in most remote localities considerably, while in
intermediate places intermediate forms are present. The distinct varieties
on the most extreme limits of the range are certainly under different con-
ditions of life, but in the intermediate area transitions are present : a com-
plete difterentiation of species is not yet reached here, and we have to
regard these forms still as varieties.

Of course, it is possible, that nearly allied species, which originated
separately, may occupy by migration the same territory and come into
competition with each other. If their morphological and physiological
peculiarities are not sufficiently fixed, there may result by hybridization a
new species. But if llie characters are well fixed by iniieritance, espe-
cially if there is "kyesamechania," they may live together or the stronger
may suppress the weaker. But I may safely say, that it is very improbable
that two closely allied species ever lived precisely under the same condi-
tions in the same locality. I refer in this respect to the example of four

1896.] 187 [Ortmann.

species of the Derapod genus Gelasiinus on the East African coast
recorded by me.* These four species lived in a particular locality com-
pletely separated, although often only a few yards from each other, and
a collector less careful would have put them all together in one jar. Yet
as a rule collectors are well acquainted with the fact that particular spe-
cies are to be sought for in particular localities.

IV. I may, I think, conclude. I have amply demonstrated that only
separation can effect differentiation of sp«cies, and that all the principles
created by other authors for this particular effect come under the head of
separation, i. e , the breaking up of a number of individuals into groups,
each subject to particular conditions of life. Some authors, indeed,
have not understood at all that the whole process ending in the formation
of species is composed of a series of distinct factors, only the last of
which is separation. But I wish to say here expressly that already Darwin
conceived those different factors correctly, and distinguished them well
according to their particular line of action. The only change of Darwin's
views that I should like to propose is to substitute for his " principle of
divergence" that of "separation." Besides, it would be well to con-
ceive the terra "Natural Selection" in a modified sense, as Pfeffer has
proposed, and we have seen that there is some advantage in so doing.
And farther, Elmer has pointed out that not all the characters of each
animal form are subject to natural selection : there are many which do
not bear on utility, but are indifferent in this respect. But since such
characters are probably also due to the influence of external conditions,
they may be transmitted and may increase, giving origin to a distinct
direction of variation, f to a "mutation," which is independent of natu-
ral selection, and may be called by Elmer's term "Orthogenesis."

For the rest, the whole of Darwin's theory stands, and none of those
" Darwinists after Darwin " — I venture to say — have been able to weaken
any of his ideas in the least degree. Especially Weismann has not, since

*See Grundzilge, etc., p. 33, footnote. Compare also the following sentences of Petersen
{Del Videnskabelige Udbytte af Kanonbaadens Ifauchs Togler, 1893, p. 45.5) : " Each species
seems to be distributed according to certain rules, which .... can be brought in relation
to one or several .... natural conditions," and (p. 457) : " no species is found everywhere
in our seas," and farther : F. Dahl, " Vergleicheude Untersuchuugen Uber die Lebensweise
wirbelloser Aasfresser," Silz. Ber. Akad. Wist. Berlin, January, 1896, pp. 29, 30.

t Already Darwin holds the same opinion and concedes {Origiruof Species, ■p\>. 110,111),
that there are variations which appear to be of no service whatever to their possessors. This
passage is the more interesting, since he talks of the " laws of growth," which are apparently
identical with Elmer's " Gesetzen organischeu Wachsens." Comp. farther, ibid., p. 175:
" When from the nature of the organism and of the conditions; uiodiflcations have been
induced which are unimportant for the welfare of the species, they may be and appa-
rently often have been transmitted .... to numerous .... descendants," and p. 176 :
" Morphological differences, which we consider as unimportant .... first appeared ....
as fluctuating variations, which sooner or later became constant through the nature of the
organism and the surrounding conditions." (In the last jiassage the word I have italicized
stands originally as important, but according to the foregoing and following sentences this
is no doubt a misprint )

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 151. X. PRINTED SEPT. 4, 1896.

Ortmann.] J-^^ [May 15,

it is now demonstrated by the ablest scientists explicitly,* and by many
olliers incidentally, that his theories are without any proper foundation.
As regards Eimer's theories, I have endeavored in the above to show,
that the alleged opposition in certain points to Darwin does not exist,
except as Eimer creates new scientific terms for old ideas, and as he does
not distinguish properly between cause and effect.

To sum up, we have to d'lsiingnMi four factor s\ accomplishing the diver-
sity, developracLt and differentiation into species of organic beings : we
may call conveniently this whole process : origin of species.

1. All organic beings vary. There exists an "inherent tendency to
vary,":}: but this tendency is manifested only by the influence of external
causes upon the respective organism. The faculty of variation is an
unlimited one,§ but the actual variation is limited, namely by the external
conditions of life. Variations coming into existence are modifications
" directly due to the physical conditions of life," which "in this sense
are supposed not to be inherited. "|| ^1 variation is impossible without
external conditions producing it.

2. These variations may be transmitted to descendants.^ Inheritance is
due to the process of propagation, which may be either by one parent or
by two parents (Amphimixis). By inheritance acquired ciiaracters are
transmitted from the parent to the descendants, and thus the consangu-
inity becomes morphologically visible, and individuals of common descent
are more closely connected by morphological characters with each other
than with any other group of individuals. By inheritance the unsteady
and temporary variations are transformed into varieties, that is to say,
into groups of individuals having the same ancestors and resembling each
other more or less.**

*I refer to the followiug names : Eimer, Haacke, Haeckel, O. Hertwig, Pfeffer, Romanes,
Spencer, and others. I would especially mention O. Hertwig's book, Zeil- und Streit-Fragen
tier Biologie, Heft i, " Praeformation oder Epigenesis." I recommend this masterjoiece of
criticism for study, not only because it refutes completely Weismann's fantastic germ-plasma
theory, but because the exposition of this theory given in that work is much more intelli-
gible than that given by Weismann himself. In his latest paper ("Germinal Selection,"
pp. 282, 285 and 286) Weismann refers to Hertwig's criticism : but his remarks are entirely
aside from the question, since they do not touch the chief point, and, partly (p. 282), attri-
bute to Hertwig an opinion which the latter, according to his own express statement, did
not entertain (see pp. 10 and 11 of Hertwig's book).

fSee Crrundziige, etc., p. 32.

J Darwin, Var. and Domes., p. 2.

? Unless checked by inheritance !

II Darwin, Orig., p. 33.

1[ The transmission of acquired characters is denied by many competent naturalists and
cannot be regarded as demonstrated. In the problems of geographical distribution one is con-
tinually brought back to this as a probable assumption, and I propound it here as a " work-
ing hypothesis."

=** Darwin, Orig., p. 33: In "the term variety .... community of descent is ... . im-
plied."

1896] loJ [Ortmann.

The process of inheritance is most obscure.* We Icnow nothing of
the causes of inlieritauce or — perhaps it is better to say — of non-inheritance
often occurring. Weismann's theory of inheritance, even if we accept it
(as I do not), does not explain the essence of heredity : it merely refers
inheritance to minute processes in fertilization. But this knowledge that
heredity is due to the peculiarities in propagation is a very old one, as
old as modern zoology and perhaps even older, and more accurate knowl-
edge of the minute details in propagation, and their arbitrary augmenta-
tion by supposed complications does not promote our understanding of
heredity. Yet we do not know how the "tendencies of inheritance " of
the germs (or parts of the germs) are. transferred to the "soma" of the
descendants; we do not know how the germs get these "tendencies"
from the "soma" of the parents ; we do not know why certain "tenden-
cies " become visible in the descendants, while others do not ; we do not
know what a "tendency of inheritance " is like anyhow. f A theory of
inheritance has to endeavor to answer the questions put here, otherwise
it does not explain anything, and the essence of heredity continues to be
as obscure as before.

By inheritance and repeated action of particular external conditions a
distinct direction of variation may be induced : certain animal forms tend
again and again to vary in the same direction, and the degree of the varia-
tions is thus increased. This process is what Eimer calls orthogenesis,
and if the action of the external conditions as well as of inheritance is
not a steady one, but interrupted and irregular, we have his halmatogen-
esis. Both terms clearly come under the head of inheritance. Ortho-
genesis and halmatogenesis can eft'ect " mutations," but we must bear in
mind that here no principle of utility comes into play.

It is well to be noted that the two factors mentioned, variation and
inheritance, act only upon single individuals. They act often upon a
number of individuals in the same or analogous manner, but each individ-
ual can vary and inherit without regard to others. The tw^o following
principles (natural selection and separation) can only act upon a multi-
tude of individuals simultaneously, and their action becomes conspicuous
only by the comparison of many individuals.

3. Upon the material produced by variation and inheritance acts a third
factor: Natural Selection. By this principle all variations injurious in
the struggle for existence, all the forms not fitted for existence under a

*See Osborn ("The Hereditary Mechanism and the Search for the Unknown Factors of
E%'olution," £iV. Led. Mar. Biol. Lab., Wood's Holl, 1895): " If acquired variations are
transmitted tliere must be some unknown principle in heredity."

fOf course, Weismann has tried to answer these questions, at least partly, by his " theo-
ries," but such questions cannot be explained at all by " theories," the very foundations of
which are either disputable or arbitrary, or even illogical and contrary to the known facts.
On the whole, Weismann's arguments run in a perfect circulus viliosus. His theory of inher-
itance is founded upon the belief that acquired variations are not transmitted, and tlie
demonstration, that acquired variations are not transmitted, is founded upon the belief
that his theory is correct (comp. Keue Gedanken zur Vererhungsfrarje, 1895, pp. 11 and 21).

Ortmann.] IJU [May 15,

certain sum of conditions of life are destroyed. The remnant left is fit
for existence, and all the individuals surviving are able to live and propa-
gate. There may be slight differences between them, especially as regards
characters not bearing on utility, but a certain average of good characters
is present. Natural selection at least preserves this good average, and if
there arise any useful characters, a smaller percentage of the individuals
possessing the latter is destroyed, and thus the better individuals may
gain little by little the preponderance in number : the average is displaced
slowly in a distinct direction, namely, toward the better. This latter
"mutation" is distinguished from the mutation by orthogenesis by the
advantage connected with the particular line in which the change
advances. Natural selection effects a general adaptation of the whole
number of the surviving individuals to particular conditions of life.

4. But natural selection does not form species ; it only preserves or
transforms already existing species. If we suppose, however, that of tlie
individuals surviving in natural selection difterent groups are separated
from each other under different conditions, and that this separation
cannot be overcome, so that each group must remain under the constant
action of particular conditions, the difference of the latter effects, that
each group tends to develop its characters in a different direction. It is
true, if upon each separated group the same external conditions act in the
same manner, there would be, of course, no separation of the directions
of development. But differentiation of the external conditions by bio-
nomic separation, and the splitting into groups of individuals living for-
merly under the same conditions wiU give origin to different characters in
each group, and animals distinguished by the constant presence of differ-
ent characters we call species. Different species are formed hy bionomie
separation ; separation does not always imply differentiation of the condi-
tions of life, and accordingly does not always form new species ; but if there
is a differentiation into species, it is always due to separation under different
bionomie conditions.

In the above the particular action of each of the four chief factors play-
ing a part in the evolution and diversification of the organic world is
properly limited. We have seen that the two last-named factors, selec-
tion and separation, are imitated by man in the breeding of domesticated
animals. Both nature and man use the material furnished by variation,
and the success of both is warranted under the condition that the acquired
characters maj^ be fixed by hereditary transmission. The four factors
named, variation, inheritance, selection and separation, must work
together, in order to obtain different species, and, indeed, they do so
always; it is impossible to think that one of them should work by itself,
or that one could be left aside.

The proper action of each of these factors was recognized almost cor-
rectly by Darwin, only as respects the <lifterentiation of species, which he
attributes to the principle of divergence, he was not quite satisfied.* But

* Darwin, Origin, p. 87 : " Though it was a long time before I saw how."

1896.] lyi [Ortmann.

most of the successors of Darwin, especially those who pretended to
have modified, corrected or enlarged his views in any respect, have not
understood his theory correctly : generally the origin of variations, vari-
eties and species has been hopelessly confused, and the latter is especially
true of the writings of Weismann, in which the origin of species and vari-
eties, and the origin of the adaptive characters of life are mixed up con-
stantly.*

In, conclusion I should like to add that the principle of separation, as
set forth above, bears very importantly on the definition of the systematic
term Species, and indeed, that it alone enables us to give a correct defini-
tion of it. There is no doubt that a proper and logical definition of any
term depends largely on the knowledge of the genesis of the object, and
in the present case we may say that if the process of the formation of
species is properly understood, we can derive from this knowledge a defi-
nition of the term species. In my book often above referred to, I have
propounded the following:! " W^ designate as Species such forms as in
consequence of separation differ sharply and constantly by morphological
character s from allied coexisting forms. " It is not necessary that separa-
tion should be still evident in all the existing species : the separating
causes have often disappeared, while their result, tlie difterent species,
still exist. But then the separation in the past must have been sufiicient
to modify and difi"erentiate the respective forms in such a degree that
the characters are fixed by inheritance, so tliat changed external condi-
tions cannot influence them again, and farther, there must be kyesame-
chania, which prevents hybridization. The possibility, however, of
hybridization by artificial means cannot be always regarded as a proof
against the value of the respective forms as species : if two species live
separated they do not interbreed in nature, and if they are forced to do
so, this possibility cannot affect their value as species under normal
and natural conditions.

As separation is reached by degrees, distinct species must have devel-
oped gradually, and such must still develop. We know numerous
examples of so-called "polymorphous" genera, where apparently the
process of formation of species is beginning or not yet accomplished. It
is true, variations, varieties, and species pass gradually into each other,
but this does not imply that these three terms shall be treated alike,
and that there is no difference at all between them. A tree is not a
shrub, although there are intermediate growths. So we can give a
correct definition of variety and species, although there are intermediate
forms, which may be doubted, wliether they belong to the one or the
other.

*This confusion of Weismann's ideas is most evident in the two last pages of his latest
publication (" Germinal Selection," The Monist, Vol. 6, No. 2, January, 1896, pp. 292, 29.3).
This whole paper is devoted to the demonstration of the action of natural selection as eflfect-
ing adaptation, and though he saj-s that " the mode of formation of the living world as a
whole " may be understood by this principle !

t See I. c, p. 32.

Ortmaun.] 1 -^^ [May 15, 1896.

The principle of constant difference is practically applied generally 'bj
systematists, and I hope I have given above a logical foundation of this
principle. In many cases, indeed, the constancy of dift'erence is the
only means by which species can be distinguished, if the former or the
actual separation of the respective forms cannot be made out with
certainty. But in all cases, where an actual separation is evident, we
should consider the respective forms, if morphologically distinct, as
species, not as varieties. Under the new definition of the term species
given here, many of the so-called local varieties become species, since
such are often distinguished only because the ditt'erences from "good "
species are only slight ones and are not considered as important enough
to create a distinct species. But this standpoint is not correct : any
dift'erence in characters, however slight, constitutes a distinct species, if
constant and due to separation.

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9>

PROCE EDINGS

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AMERICA^NT PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,

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Vol. XXXV. Novembeb, 1896. No. 152.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE

Stated Meeting, September 4, 1S96 193

Stated Meeting, September 18, 1896 v)

Vocabulary of llie Noanama Dialect of the Choco Stock. By Daniel,
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On the Second Abdominal Segment in a Few Libellnlid;ie (witli
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PKOCE EDINGS

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Nikola Tesla, New York, N. Y.; Thomas A. Edison,
Orange, N. J.; Arthur Willis Goodspeed, Philadelphia ; C.
Hanford Henderson, Philadelphia ; Henry A. Rowland, Bal-
timore, Md. ; William H. Welch, Baltimore, Md.

Letter declining membership from T. Mitchell Prudden,
New York, N. Y.

An invitation from the President of the Soci^t<^ Physico-
Mathematique de Kasan, Russia, to the inauguration of a
monument to perpetuate the memory of N. J. Lobatchefsky,
the celebrated Russian geometrician, to take place September
13, 1896.

A circular letter from General-Major M. Rykatchew, an-
nouncing his election by the Academic Impdriale des Sciences,
St. Petersburg, Russia, to the post of Directeur of the Obser-
vatoire Physique Central de St. Petersburg.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 152. Y. PRINTED NOVEMBER 16, 1896.

-l-^'* [Sept. 4,

Letters of envoy from the Geological Survey of Ijiclia,
Calcutta ; Naturfbrsclier-Gesellschaft, Dorpat, Kussia ; Mus^e
Teyler, Harlem, Holland ; Maatschappij der Nederland-
sclie Letterkunde, Leiden, N. Holland ; Academic E,. des
Sciences, Stockholm, Sweden ; JSTaturforschende Yerein,
Briinn, Austria ; K. Geologische Landesanstalt und Berga-
kademie, Berlin, Prussia ; ISTaturwissenschaftliche Verein fiir
Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel, Prussia ; Wiirttembergische Ver-
ein fiir Handelsgeographie, Stuttgart ; P. Accademia di
Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, Modena, Italy ; Faculte des Sci-
ences, Marseilles, France ; Societe Philologique, Bureau des
Longitudes, Paris, France ; Zoological Society of London,
Meteorological Ofl&ce, London, Eng.; Radcliffe Observatorj^,
Oxford, Eng.; Poyal Dublin Society, Royal Irish Academy,
Lublin, Ireland; Mr.- T. W . Higginsou, Dublin, IST. H.;
Meteorological Observatory, ISTew York, N. Y.; U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, Bureau of American Ethnology,
U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C; Agri-
cultural Experiment Stations, Madison, Wis., St. Anthony
Park, Minn., Brookings, S. Dak.; Museo Nacional, Buenos
Aires, S. A.; Instituto Fisico-Geografico Nacional, San Jos6
de Costa Rica, C. A.

Acknowledgments for Transactions (N. S.) xviii, 3, from
the Mus(^e Teyler, Harlem, Holland ; K. K. Stern warte,
Prag, Bohemia ; K. Bibliothek, Berlin, Prussia ; Literarj^
and Philosophical Society, Manchester, Eng.; Royal Society,
Edinburgh, Scotland ; Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa :
State Library of Pennsylvania, Harrisburg ; Franklin Insti-
tute. Philadelphia ; Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D. C; University of Michigan, Ann Arbor ; Kansas Acad-
emy of Science, Topeka.

Letters of acknowledgment from the Ro^^al Geographical
Society of Australasia, Brisbane, Queensland (1-13, 1-16) ; Mr.
Samuel Davenport, Adelaide, S. Australia (1-13, 146); Royal
Society of Victoria, Melbourne (147) ; Geological Survey of
India, Calcutta (148) ; Tokyo Library, Tokyo, Japan (148,
149) ; Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica, Ilelsingtors, Fin-

1896.]

195

land (148) ; Central Physical Observatory, Russian Physical
Chemical Society, St. Petersburg, Russia (148, 149) ; Tash-
kent Observatory, Tashkent, Russia (148, 149) ; Universitets-
Biblioteket, Lund, Sweden (149) ; Statistika Central Byran
(148, 149), Prof. A. E. Nordenskiold, Stockholm, Sweden
(148) ; K. Zoologisch Botanisch Genootschap; The Hague,
Holland (149);"Musee Teyler, Harlem, Holland, (149);
Maatschappij der Nederlanilsche Letterkunde, Leiden,
N. Holland (149) ; K. D. Yidenskabernes Selskab, Copen-
hagen (148) ; Soci^te R. de Geographic, Antwerp, Belgium
(148); K. B. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Prag (142,
144, 145, 147) ; K. K. Central- Anstalt f. Meteorologie und
Erdmagnetismus (149), Section f. Naturkunde des 0. T. C.
(148, 149), K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt (148), K. B. Geo-
graphische Gesellschaft (149), Dr. Aristides Brezina (148,
149), M. Franz v. Hauer a49). Dr. Friedr. S. Krauss (148,
149), Prof J. Szombathy, Vienna, Austria (148, 149) ; Natur-
forschende Gesellschaft des Osterlandes, Altenburg (148,
149) ; K. BibUothek (149), Anthropologische Gesellschaft
(149), Redaction der Naturwissenschaftlichen Wochenschrift
(149), Gesellschaft flir Erdkunde, Berlin, Prussia (148) ;
JSTaturwissenschaftlicher Yerein, Bremen, Germany (148, 149) ;
K. Sachs. Meteorol. Institut, Chemnitz, Saxony (149) ; Yer-
ein fiir Erdkunde, K. Sachs. Alterthumsverein, Naturwis-
senschaftliche Gesellschaft " Isis,'' Dresden, Saxony (149);
JSTaturforschende Gesellschaft, Emden, Prussia (148) ; Societas
Physico-Medica, Erlangen, Bavaria (148, 149) ; Senckenber-
gische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Frankfurt a. M.,
Germany (148); Naturwissenschaftlicher Yerein, Frankfurt
a. 0., Prussia (148, 149); Oberhessische Gesellschaft f.
ISTatur- und Heilkunde, Giessen, Germany (148) ; Deutsche
Seewarte, Geographische Gesellschaft, Hamburg, Germany
(149) ; Geographische Gesellschaft, Hannover, Prussia (147-
149) ; Roemer Museum, Hildesheim, Germany (149) ; Yogt-
liindischer AltertumsforscheDder Yerein, Hohenleuben, Sax-
ony (149) ; Prof. E. Hceckel, Jena, Germany (134, 147) ; M.
Otto Bohtlingk, Profs. I. Yictor Carus, W. Wundt, Leipzig,

196

[Sept. 4,

Saxony (149) ; K, Stern warte, Dr. George Ebers, Munich,
Bavaria (149) ; K. Geodatisclies Institut, Potsdam, Prussia
(149) ; K. Universitaits und Landes-Bibliotliek, Strassburg,
Germany (136-149) ; Societe d'Histoire et d'Arcb^ologie,
Clialon-sur-Saone, France (149) ; Societe Geologique, S. Nor-
mandie, Le Havre, France (147, 149) ; Ecole Polytecliniqne
(148); Musee Guimet (148, 149), Society d' Anthropologique
(148), Eedaction Cosmos (149), Profs. G. A. Daubree (148),
M. A. des Cloiseaux (148), E. Mascart (148, 149), Marquis de
Nadaillac (148), Dr. Edward Pepper (148, 149), Dr. Paul
Topinard (148), Prince Eoland Bonaparte, Paris, France
(148, 149) ; M. H. de Saussure, Geneva, Switzerland (149) ;
Prof. E. Kenevier, Lausanne, Switzerland (149) ; R. Accademia
di Scienze Lettere ed Arti, Modena, Italy (148); Societa
Africana d' Italia, Naples (148, 149); P. Accademia di
Scienze, Lettere, etc., Padua, Italy (146-148); Prof. G. Sergi,
Rome, Italy (148, 149); R. Osservatorio, Turin, Italy (148);
Marquis Antonio di Gregorio, Palermo, Sicily (148) ; Mr.
Samuel Timmins, Arley, Coventry, Eng. (149) ; L^niversity
Library, Dr. C. A. M. Fennell, Mr. R. T. Glazebrook, Cam-
bridge, Eng. (149) ; Sir William G, Armstrong, Cragside,
Rotlibury, Eng. (149); Britisli Museum (147-149), R.
Meteorological Society, R. Institution of G. B., R.
Geographical Society, R. Astronomical Society, Victoria
Institute, Geological Society, Linntean Society, Royal
Society, Meteorological Office, Society of Antiquaries
(149), Sir Henry Bessemer (148, 149), Sir James Paget,
Dr. William Iluggins, Mr. C. Juhlin Dannfelt, London,
Eng. (149) ; Geographical Society, Literary and Philosophical
Society, Manchester, Eng. (149) ; Natural History Society,
New Castle-on-Tyne, Eng. (149) ; Sir Lowthian Bell,
Northallerton, Eng. (149) ; Radcliffe Library, Profs. James
Legge, F. Max Miiller, Oxford, Eng. (149) ; R. Geographical
Society of Cornwall, Penzance, Eng. (149) ; Dr. Isaac Roberts,
Stariield, Crowborough, Sussex, Eng. (149) ; Yorkshire Geo-
logical and Polytechnic Society, Hopton, Mirfield, Eng. (126,
129, 133-135, 137-141, 148, 149) ; Natural History and Philo-

1896.]

197

sophical Society, Belfast, Ireland (1-19) ; E. Dublin Society,
Dublin, Ireland (l-tO) ; Royal Society (149), Prof. J. Geikie
(11:9), Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, Scotland (147-14:9);
Geological Society, GlasgoAv, Scotland (149) ; Public Library,
Boston, Mass. (149) ; Drs. Henry Hartsliorue, Samuel P. Sadt-
ler, Philadelphia (149) ; Wisconsin Academy of Science, etc.,
Madison (148, 149) ; Museo Nacional, Buenos Aires, S. A. (148,
149) ; Museo de la Plata, La Plata, S. A. (143, 146, 147) ;
Societe Scientifique du Chili, Santiago (147-149); M. E. im
Thurn, British Guiana, S. A. (148); Agricultural Experiment
Stations, New Haven, Conn. (149), Knoxville, Tenn. (149),
Manhattan, Kans. (149), St. Anthony Park, Minn. (138-141).
Accessions to the Library were reported from the Societe
de Geographic, Alger, Africa ; South African Philosophical
Society, Cape Town ; Observatory, Adelaide, Australia ; R
Geographical Society, Melbourne, Australia ; Tokyo Library
Tokyo, Japan ; Observatory, Madras, India ; Societe Ron
maine de Geographic, Bukarest ; M. Enzio Renter, Helsing-
fors, Finland ; Naturforscher Gesellschaft, Dorpat, Russia
Naturforscher Verein, Riga, Russia ; Societe de Geographic
St. Petersburg, Russia ; K. Nordiske Oldskrift Selskab
Lieut.-Col. Axel Staggemeier, Copenhagen, Denmark ; K
Svenska Yetenskaps Academic, Stockholm, Sweden ; Musee
Teyler, Harlem, Holland ; Nederlandsche Letterkunde
Maatschappij, Leiden, Holland; K. Bibliotheek, 's Graven-
hage, Z. Holland ; Societe Entomologique de Belgique,
Societe Beige de Geologic, de Pal^ontologie, etc., Bruxelles,
Belgique ; JSTatuiforschender Verein, Briinn, Austria ; Sieben-
4 biirgische Yerein f. ISTaturwissenschaften, Hormannstadt,
. V4 Austria ; Naturhistorische Landes- Museum in Karnten,
^Klagenfurth; K. K. Sternwarte, K. B. Gesellschaft d. Wis-
senschaften, Prag, Bohemia ; I. R. Accademia degli Agiati,
Roveredo, Tyrol ; K. K. Central Anstalt f. Meteorologie, K.
B. Gesellschaft d. Wissenschaften, Yienna, Austria ; Physi-
kalische-Technische Reichsanstalt, K. P. Geologische Lan-
desanstalt, Physiologische Gesellschaft, Association G^odes-
ique Internationale, etc., Berlin, Prussia ; JSTaturwissenschaft-

198

[Sept. i,

liclie Verein, Bremen, Germany ; ISTaturwissenscliaftliche
Gesellscliaft " Isis," Dresden, Saxony; Verein f. die Ge-
schiclite nnd Altertliumskunde, Erfnrt, Prussia ; Verein
f. Geograpliie imd Statistik, Frankfurt a. M., Germany ;
Naturwissenschaften Verein f. d. Reg. Bez., Frankfurt a.
O., Prussia ; Verein der Freunde der Naturgescliichte in
Mecklenburg, Giistrow ; Naturwissenscliaftliche Verein f.
Sclileswig-Holstein, Kiel, Prussia ; Institut Grand-Ducal,
Luxembourg, Germany ; Bayerisclie Botaniscbe Gesellscliaft,
Miinchen ; Wiirttembergisclie Verein f. Handelsgeograpliie.
Stuttgart ; Verein f. Kunst und Alterthum, Ulm, Wiirttem-
berg ; Mittelschweizerische Geograpliisch-Commercielle Ge-
sellscliaft, Aarau, Switzerland; Geograpliisclie Gesellscliaft,
Berne, Switzerland ; Societe Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles,
Lausanne, Switzerland ; Societe Neucliateloise de Geograpliie,
Neucliatel, Switzerland ; Naturwissenscliaftliche Gesellscliaft.
St. Gall, Switzerland ; Naturforscliende Gesellscliaft, Zurich,
Switzerland ; R. Instituto di Studi Superiori, Practice, etc..
Firenze, Italia ; Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pisa,
Italy ; E. Comitato Geologico d'ltalia, Roma ; R. Accademia
delle Scienze, Torino, Italia ; R. Instituto Veneto di Scienze,
etc., Venice, Italy; Society Linneene, Bordeaux, France;
Academic JST. des Sciences, Caen, France ; Societe d'Histoire
et d'Archeologie, Clialon-sur-Saone, France ; Universite de
Lyon, Lyon, France ; Societe de Physique, Bureau des
Longitudes, Societe Philologique, Societe Zoologique de
France, Societe de Geographic, Minist^re de I'lnstruction
Publique, Paris, France ; Cambridge University, Cam-
bridge, Eng.; R. Cornwall Polytechnic Society, Falmouth,
Eng.; Royal Institution of Great Britain, Victoria Institute,
London, Eng.; Radcliife Observatory, Oxford, Eng.; R.
Irish Academy, R. Dublin Society, Observatory of Trinity
College, Dublin, Ireland ; N. S. Institute of Science,
Halifax ; Natural History Society, Montreal, Canada ;
Society of Natural History, Boston, Mass.; Peabody
Museum, Mr. T. II. Iligginson, Cambridge, Mass.; Ameri-
can Association for Advancement of Science, Salem, Mass.;

1896.] IVV

E. I. Historical Society, Dr. Albert Leffingwell, Providence,
R. I.; Connecticut Historical Society, Hartford; Yale
University, New Haven, Conn. ; Brooklyn Library, Brook-
lyn, ]Sr. Y.; Buffalo Library, Historical Society, Buffalo,
N. Y.; Historical Society, Academy of Sciences, Mr. Thomas
A. Davies, New York ; Geological Society of America,
Academy of Sciences, Rochester, N. Y.; Rev. Thomas
C. Porter, Easton, Pa.; Pennsylvania Geological Survey,
Harrisburg, Pa.; Wagner Free Institute, Protestant Episco-
pal Diocese of Pennsylvania, American Medical Association,
Drs. D. G. Brinton, Persifor Frazer, Charles A. Oliver,
Messrs. John F. Lewis, Julius F. Sachse, Philadelphia ; Amer-
ican Historical Association, 'U. S. Fish Commission, U. S,
Coast and Geodetic Survey, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, D. C; Tulane Univer-
sity^" of Louisiana, New Orleans ; Missouri Botanical Garden,
St. Louis ; Iowa Geological Survey, Des Moines ; State
University of Iowa, Iowa City ; University of California,
Sacramento ; Kansas Historical Society, Kansas Academy of
Sciences, Topeka ; University of Wyoming, Laramie ; Rt.
Rev. Bishop Crescendo Carrello, Merida, Yucatan ; Instituto
Medico Nacional, Mexico, Mex.; Museo Nacional, Oficina
Meteorologica Argentina, Buenos Aires, S. A.; Society Sci-
entifique du Chili, Santiago ; Instituto Fisico-Geografico N.
San Jose de Costa Rica, C. A.; Museo Paulista, S. Paulo,
C. A.; Agricultural Experiment Stations, Burlington, Vt.,
New Haven, Conn., Storrs, Conn., Blacksburg, Va., Raleigh,
N. C, Lincoln, Neb., Las Cruces, N. M.

A photograph for the Society's album from Dr. P. Topi-
nard, Paris, France.

The following deaths Avere announced :

Prof. Dr. Ernest Curtius, Berlin, Prussia, July 11, 1896.

Prof. Gabriel Auguste Daubree, Paris, France, May 29,
1896, set. 81.

Prof. Abel Hovelacque, Paris, France.

Sir William Robert Grove, London, Eng., August 2, 1896,
«et. 85.

200

[Sept. 18^

Sir Joseph PrestAvicli, Slioreham, near Sevenoaks, Kent,
Eng., June 25, 189(3.

Prof. Josiali D. Whitney, Cambridge, Mass., August 19,
1896, xt. 77.

Mr. Lewds A. Scott, Philadelphia, August 11, 1896, set.
77.

Mr. Henry D. Wireman, Philadelphia, May 30, 1896, set.
50.

Prof. Hubert Anson Newton, New Haven, Conn., August
12, 1896, a?t. 66.

The President was requested to appoint members to prepare
obituaries of L. A. Scott, H. D. Wireman and Gabriel
Auguste Daubree.

A letter from Prof. Branner was read transmitting a paper
on the " Marine Fossils of the Coal Measures of Arkansas,"
by Dr. J. P. Smith.

On motion the paper was referred to a committee for exam-
ination and report.

Pending nominations 1332, 1334, 1357, and new nomina-
tions 1358 and 1359 were read.

On motion of Mr. Tatham, the President was requested to
appoint a representative of this Society at the International
Congress of Geologists, to be held in St. Petersburg, Russia,
in 1897.

On motion, Dr. D. G. Brinton was appointed the represen-
tative of this Society at the International Congress of Ameri-
canists in Havre in 1897.

The rough minutes were read and approved, and the meet-
ing adjourned by the presiding member.

Stated Meeting, September 18, 1896.

Curator, Dr. J. C. Morris, in the Chair.

Present, 9 members.

Correspondence was submitted as follows :

From the President, appointing Messrs. Cope, Lyman and

1896.]

201

Prime a Committee to examine the paper on "The Fossils of
the Coal Measures of Arkansas ;" Dr. G. R. Morehouse to pre-
pare an obituary of L. A. Scott ; Prof. J. P. Lesley that of
Gabriel Aug. Daubree.

Dr. Frazer was appointed to represent this Society at the
International Congress of Geologists to be held in St. Peters-
burg in 1897.

Letters of envoy from the Academic P. Suedoise des
Sciences, Stockholm ; Soc. R. de Geographic, Anvers, Bel-
gique ; Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.

Letters of acknowledgment from the Royal Society of N,
S. W., Sydney (148, 149) ; Public Library, Wellington, New
Zealand (148, 149) ; Geological Survey of India, Calcutta
(149) ; Hungarian Academy of Science, Budapest (143, 146-
149) ; K. K. Sternwarte, Prag, Bohemia (149) ; Gesellschaft
fiir Erdkunde, Berlin, Prussia (149) ; Library of Bonn, Prus-
sia (149) ; Geographical and Statistical Soc, Frankfurt a. M.
(143-14(3, 149) ; K. Leop. Carol. Akademie, Halle a. S. (149) ;
Kolonial Museum, Haarlem, Holland (149) ; A'erein f. Thiir-
ingische Geschichte u. Alterthums, Jena, Germany (149) ;
Phys. Okon. Gesell., Konigsberg (148) ; R. Instituto di Studi
Superiori, Firenze, Italia (148, 149) ; Prof. E. Levasseur (148,
149), Marquis de JSTadaillac, Paris, France (149) ; Meteoro-
logical Office, London, Eng. (149) ; Prof. A. Agassiz, Cam-
bridge, Mass. (149).

Accessions to the library were reported from the
Observatoire Imperial, Constantinople, Turkey ; Anthro-
j)ological Society, Tokyo, Japan ; Ponasang ! Missionary
Hospital, Foochow, China ; Dr. Aristides Brezina, Vienna,
Austria ; K. P. Meteorologische Institut, Berlin ; Mr. A. C.
Tannert, Neisse, Prussia ; Phj-sikalisch-Oekonomische Ge-
sellschaft, Konigsberg, Prussia ; R. Accademia di Belle Arti,
Milan, Italy ; Institut International de Statistique, Rome,
Italy ; Miuistre des Travaux Publics, Dr. E. T. Hamy, Paris,
France ; R. Academia di Cieucias y Artes, Barcelona, Spain ;
Linnean Society, Cobden Club, Meteorological Office, London,
Eng.; Universite Laval, Quebec ; Mr. Wharton Barker,

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 152. Z. PRINTED NOVEMBER 16, 1896.

Brinton.] ^0^ [Sept. 18,

Prof. E, D, Cope, Pliilaclelpliia ; Commissioner of Labor,
Washington, D. C; Oliio Archgeological and Historical Soci-
ety, Columbus ; Society of Natural History, Cincinnati, 0.

The death of Prof. Gr. Brown Goode, Director of the U. S.
National Museum, Washington, D. C, September 6, 1896, set.
46, was announced.

Dr. Brinton read a paper on the ' ' Vocabulary of the Noan-
ama Dialect of the Choco Stock."

Dr. Horn spoke of the difficulties of reporting these unwrit-
ten dialects o^^ing to the absence of a standard of pronuncia-
tion. He also adverted to the evident use of the " r " sound,
which was absent in the Indian dialects of western America.

Dr. Frazer suggested the use of the symbols made by the
phonographic stylus, as he had described them in a paper
read before this Society, April 5, 1878.

Pending nominations 1332, 1334, 1357, 1358, 1359 and new
nominations 1360 and 1361 were read.

The rough minutes were read and approved, and the Society
adjourned by the presiding member.

Vocabulary of the Noanama Dialect of the Choco Stock.

By Daniel G. Brinton, M.D.

{Read before the American Philosophical Society, Sept. i8, i8g6).

In the Proceedings of this Society for November last (Vol. xxxiv,
pp. 401, 402), I presented a short vocabulary of the Andagueda
dialect of the Choco stock, obtained by Mr. Henry Gregory
Granger on the upper waters of the Atrato river, Colombia, South
America.

During the summer of the present year, Mr. Granger visited the
west coast of Colombia, and at the mouth of the river San Juan (N.
lat. 5°) met a tribe of about fifty Indians, who spoke an idiom,
said not to be understood by those of the interior or the other coast
tribes. They are still rather primitive in culture and have the
peculiarity of piercing their ears to form apertures about half an
inch in diameter, in which they insert bunches of sweet-smelling
herbs.

1896.]

203

[Brinton,

Mr. Granger took occasion of an enforced delay at their hamlet
to collect some words of their language, which he sent me for ex-
amination. On comparison it proves to be a dialect of the Choco
stock, evidently the Noanama, that being the name of the tribe
which, in recent years, was located on the upper waters of the Rio
San Juan.

The statement that it is unintelligible to their neighbors need
cause no surprise, as this is apt to be asserted of closely related dia-
lects of the same family. From this habit, the old writers were ac-
customed to believe that in America, especially South America, as
Cieza de Leon averred, each day's journey brought them into a
totally different language. In fact, the modern studies of South
American tongues are rapidly diminishing the linguistic stocks of
that continental area. This vocabulary is valuable, therefore, not
only for itself but as dispelling another delusion of this nature.

Man,

em cbyddJi .

Woman,

boedah.

Sun,

ehdow.

Fire,

eggdow.

Water,

daugh.

Head,

pbro.

Eye,

dote (as English "now '").

Ear,

kdtcJiee.

Mouth,

e (as in English").

Nose,

kayoh"^ (in one sjilable).

Tongue,

mayungkunah.

Teetli.

kuyehrdh.

Hand.

hooah.

Foot,

hen (as in French beiirre).

House,

dee.

Boy,

emcdydum.

Girl,

ooedvm.

Hot,

■paitclike.

Cold,

nemheitcJiaga.

Day,

assdowwah.

Night,

ehdarrah.

Fisli,

kiioorah.

Sea,

ixwassah (the picas verj' nasal)

Canoe,

liappakkali.

Comments.

Man, Woman. — In all the Choco dialects these are compound
words, having the same second element {eda, era, ena, ira), which

Brinton.] ^t)4 [Sept. IS,

must be generic for " human being," preceded by an element indi-
cating sex, emu {emo, umu, ';«//, uma, itn) for the masculine, and
ue {ui, aue) for the feminine. These have analogies in neighbor-
ing stocks. The words for boy and girl, given above, are the same
as for man and woman, with a suffixed in, indicating diminutive
size {di'im =ddh-m).

Sun, Moon. — Mr. Granger does not give the word for moon, but
other vocabularies show that it is the same as for sun, edau, the dis-
tinction being made by adding night, or some such term. This is
common in American languages. The similarity between the
words for sun and fire is accidental, and is not borne out by other
dialects of the stock.

Water. — The word given daugh (otherwise do) properly means
"river." The Choco word for water in general ispania.

Tongue. — Other vocabularies give mcuhina.

Foot. — Another vocabulary gives bo-pidi. The first syllable is
evidently identical.

Day, Night. — Evidently compounds, the second element dowwah
or darrah being the same, the prefixes ass and eh (or probably ehd')
distinguishing the concepts. The latter seems to be the same as in
ehdow, sun or moon.

Sea. — This is the usual Choco word, puscha.

Canoe. — The Choco term is hampua, of which happakah is prob-
ably a variant.

The words given for hot, cold, fish, are those not found in my
vocabularies of other dialects. They may be synonyms or bor-
rowed expressions.

The numerals, as given by Mr. Granger, are :

One,

aanibaJi.

Two,

noome.

Three,

tanlioopali.

Four,

Iiayydppah.

Five,

Juramhah.

Ten,

hirapputumah.

Twenty,

07'riudnambah.

Thirty,

orrmonahharraJi.

Forty,

orrmdnnoo)m.

The system is evidently vigesimal ; orrmon-ambah = one twenty,
20 X 1 J orrmon-noome, 20 X 2, etc. In the usual Choco it is
quinary, as iua soma, 5 ; ome jua soma, 2 X 5 = 10 ; guimane Jua
soma, 4 X 5 ^ 20, etc.

1896.] -^^5 [Godrtard.

On the Second Abdominal Segment in a Feio LibellulidcB.

By Martha Freeman Goddard.

{Read before the American Philosophical Society, October 2, 1S96)

In the spring of 1892, I made, in connection with my work in the
zo51ogical department in Wellesley College, a somewhat careful study
of the second abdominal segment and the penis in a few male Libel-
lulinse. Though I was unable to do all that I had planned, it seems
worth while to publish my results in spite of their fragmentariness,
since they may serve as a basis for the work of some one else.

I wished to learn the details of external structure in this part of the
body and to determine as far as possible the homologies of the various
parts. Tlie species studied were Diplax rubicundula and vicina ; Celi-
themis elisa ; Libellula pulchella, quadrupla and exusta ; Plathemis
trimaculata. I will begin by a full description of Diplax, rubicundula,
and then follow this by a brief statement of the more important respects
in which the other species studied ditfer from this one.

The second abdominal segment, like most of the others, consists of a
narrow ventral piece, and a broad dorsal piece covering both back and
sides of abdomen. The first is the sternum; the second, the tergum.
The tergum (Fig. 1) is made up of three sclerites which form a longi-
tudinal series. The suture between the first and the second is present
only on the dorsal half of the segment, becoming obsolete as it ap-
proaches the sides ; that between the second and third is distinct for its
entire extent. Each side of the second sclerite is produced caudo-
laterally into a rounded process called the genital lobe («). The third
sclerite is shorter than either of the others ; it ends abruptly at the base
of genital lobe. The sternum {e, Fig. 2) consists of but one sclerite.
This is nearly as long as the first tergal one and lies ventrad of it, the
cephalic edge a little caudad of the cephalic edge of the tergum. The
cephalo-lateral angles are produced into wing-like processes (/) which
underlie the tergum and serve for the attachment of muscles. Caudad
of the sternum is a long extent of membrane which lies ventrad of the
caudal part of the tergum, and where it meets the sternum is so infolded
as to make a recess over which the latter projects like a pent-house roof.
Indeed, excejit at its very cephalic edge, the whole sternum bulges out
to a greater or less degree from the rest of the segment.

On the membranous surface directly caudad of the sternum lie a pair
of stout appendages {(j) called hamules, readily to be seen with the
naked eyes. Each is a thick, laterally compressed and somewhat
elongated organ which is cleft distally into two divisions ; a short, strong
spur ending in an incurved, strongly chitinized tip (A), and a truncate
shorter portion {i) having the face turned towards the spur concave.
The liamule projects ventrad and the lobes lie cephalad and caudad ; the

Goddard.J ^^'O [Oct.?,

truncate lobe is the more caudal. The divisions varj^ greatly in length
and shape in different species, though they generally form, as in Diplax
rubicuiulula, about one-third of the length of the entire appendage.
From the point of bifurcation, a ridge extends for a considerable distance
towards the base of the liamule. The mesal face of the organ is largely
membranous, especially at the base, so that the hamule can be flexed
freely towards its fellow of the opposite side.

The hamules are borne by a chitinous framework {k). in shape
roughly resembling a U, and attached by its tips to the inner face of the
ventral sclerite. It seems to arise as a local chitinization of the mem-
brane which lies caudad of this sclerite. Projecting from either side of
the framework just caudad of the sclerite is a short rod (/«) to which is
attached one of the hamules. On the median part of the framework is
borne a triangle (Fig. 3, n). Its apex points cephalad ; its cephalo-
lateral sides are chitinized, though elsewhere it is membranous ; and its
base projects more or less caudad of the frramework. The basal angle of
either side forms a second, posterior point of attachment for the hamule
of that side.

Another conspicuous structure is attached just caudad of the frame-
work on the median line (Fig. 2). When extended as in the diagram,
its tip points cephalad, but the distal end is ordinarily flexed upon the
proximal part. The organ consists of an enlarged basal portion, the
genital bladder, and of a slender, rodlike distal part, the penis. The
genital bladder is a somewhat hemispherical body. The caudal half of
its dorsal surface is attached for nearly its entire width to tlie under-
lying part of the abdomen and the rest of the dorsal face is chitinized.
The ventral face is imperfectly chitinized, the chitin being deposited in
three triangles ; a median caudal one {lo) and two cephalo-lateral ones
{o and r), all separated from one another by band-like membranous in-
terspaces, which, evidently, afford opportunity for variations in the size
of the bladder. This mode of attachment of the bladder causes the
structure of which it constitutes tlie base to appear as an appendage of
the second segment ; it does really, however, belong to the third, as is
clearly seen in OeUthemis elisa.

The penis consists of three segments ; the first two are very simple,
but the third is extremely complicated. The first is chitinized continu-
ously on its dorsal surfiice, but the second, though in the main chitinous
on this aspect, is membranous on the dorso- mesal line. Both arc mem-
branous ventrally and this condition is evidently correlated with the
fact that in the position of rest this portion is covered bj' the reflexed
tip of the penis. What we have called the third segment consists of
two entirely distinct sclerites and of a cluster of appendages, some mem-
branous and some chitinous, borne at the extreme tip of the organ. The
lai'ger and more proximal sclerite (1) constitutes the dorsal aspect of the
segment. It is somewhat shield-shaped, but the distal angles are pro-
longed and curved around to the ventral side where thev almost meet.

1896.] ^^)* [Goddard.

For convenience we shall term it the shield. When the penis is flexed,
the distal part is protected by the overlying hamules so that this sclerite
is the only portion exposed. The point of flexion is just proximad of it,
which accounts for its very limited extent on the ventral aspect. The
second sclerite (2) is narrower than the first, is irregularly ring-shaped
and lies just distad of the shield. We shall call this the ring. As will
be seen later, it encircles most but not all the divisions of the penis-tip.
Distad of the ring on the dorso-mesal line is a chitinized body (5), which
divides into slender, tapering horns ; it is recognizable by its honey-
yellow color and Ave shall call it the fork. Arising from nearly the
same place are two membranous lobes (4), with transverse rows of
closely set chitinous hairs. These may be contracted into roundish
masses which, because of the brown hair, seem on first appearance to be
chitinized. When extended, as in the plate, they appear bannerlike,
and we shall term them the banners. Near the base of each is a small
cluster of long, stout bristles. Laterad of the banners are two blunt
lobes (6), somewhat membranous proximally but strongly chitinized
toward their distal end. As these are in many species somewhat twisted,
we have termed them the twists. Pressure on the genital bladder causes
them to rotate laterad and ventrad ; they may possibly serve, therefore,
to retain the hold of the penis-tip within the vulva. Ventrad of all the
others lies a large, membranous lobe which somewhat resemliles the
shape of a monk's hood and which we have called the hood (3). With
a view to possible homologies it is well to note the relative position of
these sti'uctures. The penis viewed from the tip presents a depression
or pit guarded above by the fork, below by the hood, laterad by the
banners and these again are guarded laterad by the twists. The ring
lies entii'ely dorsad of the hood and does not encircle it. According to
Rathke, there is in i. (enea a minute opening at the penis-tip.

In Diplax vidua, the ventral sclerite is deeply emarginate, and its
caudo-lateral angles are strongly chitinized. The hamules are small and
inconspicuous (Fig. 5, g). The basal portion is short and the two lobes
are of about equal length. The tip of the anterior lobe is strongly
chitinized and very markedly incurved.

The last division of the penis consists of but one sclerite in addition
to the cluster of appendages at the tip. This sclerite is long on the dor-
sal and short on the ventral aspect, where its edges nearly but not quite
meet. Its general shape would seem to indicate that it is formed by the
fusion of the shield and ring ; moreover it bears a pair of short trans-
verse ridges which look like the indications of such fusion. But as the
sclerite encloses the hood as well as the other part of the penis-tip, it
seems probable that no part of it corresponds to the ring, but that this
sclerite is entirely wanting in the present specimen. The penis-tip is
divided into a dorsal and a ventral portion. The ventral part is a
rounded lobe, thickly beset with hairs ; the dorsal part forms a mem-
branous base from which arise three pairs of appendages. Beginning

Goddard.] 208 [Oct. 2,

at the most proximal, these appendages are a pair of horns, twisted at
the base; 'a pair of membranous lobes, thickly beset with hairs irregu-
larly arranged ; and lastly two slender horns (Fig. 6).

We appear to have in Diplax vicina a more primitive condition than
in Diplax ruhicundula, in that the base which bears the appendages at
the penis-tip is elongated so that they arise in succession instead of
forming a clump. The inner horns are very probably the result of the
division of the fork of D. ruhicundula, and the other parts appear to be
homologous respectively with the hood, the twists and the banners of
that insect.

In Celithemis elisa, the mesal part only of the caudal edge of the ven-
tral sclerite is emarginate. The hamules are inconspicuous, being but
little larger than the genital lobes ; their basal part is membranous or
but slightly chitinized and the lobes are long, stout, and of nearly equal
length. The framework which bears the hamules is strongly chitin-
ized ; its lateral projections (Fig. 8, m) are long and stout ; the part of
the median triangle (n) cephalad of the framework is short, but the
triangle extends caudad, farther than in other forms.

In the genital bladder the two latero-cephalic triangles of the ventral
face are replaced by a single sclerite, somewhat cleft mesally, which
apparently corresponds to the two united. The bladder is attached
only by a small proximal neck and the dorsal aspect bears a tapering
triangular sclerite (Fig. 9, s), each basal angle of which is attached to
one side of the sclerite (w).

As to the distal segment of the penis, the shield is a broad sclerite,
bearing lateral hornlike projections which point ventrad. The rmg is
of smaller diameter, but is very long, and has in general much the shape
of a boddice ; its edges meet on the dorsal lin^ but, so far as I can make
out, do not unite. These edges are prolonged distad into two rodlike
pieces (2). The fork is represented by a thick yellow sclerite, somewhat
bifid, which lies close beneath but is quite free from these pieces (5).
Laterad and proximad of the fork are a pair of tiny membranous lobes
apparently corresponding to the banners (4). The hood is a large mem-
branous lobe, thickly beset with hairs (3).

In this species, the twists of D. rubicundula appear to be entirely want-
ing. It is just possible, of course, that they maj' have moved dorsad
and fused with the ring forming the rodlike projections of the sclerite.
I have, however, no evidence tending to show that this has taken place,
and in the absence of such evidence it cannot be assumed. We must
suppose, therefore, that the twists are absent and that these rodlike
projections are new developments. The advantage of having the gen-
ital bladder provided with three sclerites seems evident, so that C. elisa
is probably primitive, since retrogression is hardly likely to be accom-
plished by fusion. There seems some slight reason for believing also
that the condition of the fork found in this species is the original one,
and that the two horns found in B. vicina have arisen bv the division of

1896.] ^UJ [Goddard.

■what was originally a single sclerite, while the condition in D. rubicun-
dula represents an intermediate stage.

The relation of the parts in these three species are, in the main, toler-
ably clear. But when we turn to Libellula the problem is much more
complicated. Not only have I not been able to liomologize the parts
found in Diplax and tliose of this genus, but I have also found it impos-
sible to determine the relations of the parts found in different species of
Libellula. I can therefore give little more than a bare description.

We may begin with Libellula exusta. The general arrangement is
much as in Diplax. The genital lobes are short and stout. The ventral
sclerite is wide, short, and only slightlj' emarginate caudally (Fig. 11, e).
The lateral parts of the free edges are somewhat undulate. The hamules
are stout and are membranous proximally, and the tip of the spur is very
strongly incurved. The framework is wide and strong. The lateral
rods are connected for their entire length to that part of the framework
caudad of them by feebly chitinized triangles (x). The triangle («)
borne by the middle part of the framework is very long ; its apex lies
under the free edge of the ventral sclerite.

The cephalic part of the bladder is chitinized in a single sclerite with
a mesal cleft. The last segment of the penis is made up mainly of a
single large sclerite (Fig. 13, p^), much longer on the dorsal than on
the ventral surface. Its edges approach but do not quite meet on
the ventrimeson. There is a curious dorsal hump on the distal part
of the sclerite and the distal edge bears ventrally a pair of small,
spine-like projections. If this sclerite is the result of the fusion of the
shield and the ring there is no indication of the fact. As to the distal
part of the segment, it projects only slightly beyond this sclerite; it
consists of two pairs of appendages rising from a full membranous base.
The median and dorsal pair are sigmoid rods curved towards the dorsal
surface at their distal ends (u). The second pair are membranous at
base but strongly chitinized distally (y).

I would suggest the following as the possible homologies of some of
these parts : the large sclerite corresponds to the shield ; the ring is
wanting ; the hood is represented in a much less differentiated state
than in Diplax, by the full membranous portion of the penis-tip. As
to the homologies of the other parts I am entirely uncertain.

In Libellula pulchella, the blunt division of the hamule lies almost
laterad instead of caudad of the spur ; it is moreover reduced nearly to
a knob. The spur is long and strong and its point turns laterad.

The dorsal aspect of the genital bladder, though normally united for a
considerable portion of its extent with the abdomen, separates readily
therefrom after maceration in caustic potash. In the penis, the first seg-
ment is extremely long and bears a dorsal terminal tubercle ; the second
segment is very small and triangular ; the third bears distally a large
dorsal upgrowth. The edges of this sclerite do not quite meet ventrally,
and between the angles projects a small membranous lobe which per-

PROC. AMEB. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 152. 2 A. PRINTED DEC. 18, 1896.

Coddard.] -1^ [Oct. 2,

haps corresponds to tlie hood of Diplax. Attached to the hase of this
structure on either side is a tiny, membranous, finger-lil^e lobe. The
tip of the penis is formed by a great mass of membrane which projects
from the distal end of the third sclerite described above. This mem-
brane is covered with scattered chitinized papillse and is chitinized in
such a way as to form a pair of irregularly shaped sclerites, somewhat
like a moose's antlers, narrow at the base, broadening distally and
uniting dorsally and ventrally so as to form a ring which divides the
membrane into a proximal and a distal division. This arrangement
will be made clear by a glance at the diagram (Fig. 14). At the base of
these sclerites on either side is a small piece visible after the removal of
the shield ; these pieces appear to be rudiments of structures much
more developed in L. quadruj)la.

In L. quadrupla, the general appearance is much the same as in the
species last described ; there are, however, one or two interesting differ-
ences in the penis-tip. The hood is bi-lobed and so far as I could dis-
cover, there are no such lobes laterad of it as in L. pulchella. The mem-
branous tip of the penis is not chitinized in any part, but the chitinous
papillfE with which it is beset are much more closely placed in a region
which corresponds with that part which in L. pulchella'i?, chitinized. It
seems possible that this massing of papill* is, so to speak, an attempted
adaptation to certain unkown conditions and that the chitinization is a
more satisfactory adaptation to the same conditions. The dorsi-mesal
portion of the membrane is largely free from papillae and is extended
into a long, finger-like, membi'anous tip.

Plathemis trimaculata is in several respects a most interesting species.
The first abdominal. segment bears on its ventral aspect a pair of chitin-
ous lobes ; these structures have a position on the first segment exactly
corresponding to that which the hanlules occupy on the second, and
their form is not unlike that of the undivided hamules found in many
kinds of Libellulinse. They are, however, continuous with the abdomi-
nal wall instead of being jointed to it as are the hamules.

In the second segment, the sternum is short ; it bears on its free edge a
small median lobe which is indented on the mesalline so as to form two
scallops (Fig. 16). The hamules show only very slightditierentiation into
lobes. The cephalic lobe, Avhich corresponds to the spur of the ordi-
nary hamule, is shaped somewhat like a man's boot, the toe of the boot
being turned towards the caudal lobe. The toe alone is free, but from
the point of division between the two lobes a membranous band ex-
tends towards the base of the hamule ; if this membrane were unfolded
the condition found in the other Libellulinsie would be produced. The
caudal lobe is deeply grooved at its tip so that it appears almost bi-
lobed. I am unable to describe the penis.

This species seems to me to give us some reason to believe that the
hamules are the survivors of the series of abdominal appendages jiresent
in the ancestor of the insects. And in this connection, I would suggest

1896.] ^11 [Goddard.

the possibility that the penis is to be regarded as the fused and greatly
modiiied abdominal appendages of the third abdominal segment. The
hamules of Plathemis also afford us a suggestion of the way in which
the branched maj^ have arisen from the simple condition.

Conclusion : While my work has been mainly description, there are a
few general suggestions which may be thrown together here. 1. There
seems some reason for believing that the hamules are homologues of
abdominal appendages. 2. Various stages are observed between the
ordinary bifid condition of the hamules and the uniramous condition of
other subfamilies. As we have no reason to believe that the abdominal
appendages were originally biramous, we must suppose the condition in
Libellulinse a secondary one. 3. It has been impossible to homologize
the appendages of the penis- tip, though there seems some reason to
think that wider study might enable one to do it. 4. The resemblance
between these appendages in Diplax vicina and ruMcundula is very
close ; Celithemis elisa is quite different in some respects. This species
was formerly jslaced in the genus Diplax ; the marked difference and
the general similarity of the penis-tip is what we should expect in two
genera so closely related as to have been formerly classed as one and
leads us to believe that the study of this organ may prove to be of sys-
tematic importance. In conclusion, I wish to acknowledge the valuable
aid given me by Prof. M. A. "Willcox in the preparation of this paper,
both in general suggestion and revision. I have found no literature
which was of value save Rathke's paper, "De Libellarum Partibus
Genitalibus."

Desckiption of Diagrams, Plates XIV akd XV.*

Diplax ruMcundula.

Fig. 1. One-half of tergum.

Fig. 2. Second segment — ventral view.

Fig. 3. Framework, triangle, and hamules.

Diplax meiiia.

Fig. 4. Second segment — -ventral view.

Fig. 5. Framework, triangle, hamules, and sternum.

Fig. 6. Genital bladder and side-view of penis,

■Celithemis elisa.

Fig. 7. Second segment — ventral view.

Fig. 8. Framework, triangle, hamules, and sternum.

Fig 9. Genital bladder and penis — dorsal view.

Lihellula exusta.

Fig. 10. Second segment — ventral view.

Fig. 11. Framework, triangle, hamules, and sternum.

Fig. 12. Genital bladder and side-view of penis.

* The scale by wliich drawings were made differs, but as size in mm. is given, there
need be no misunderstanding.

Goddard.] 212 [Oct. 2,.

Lihellula pulcJiella.

Fig. 13. FrameAvork, triangle, hamnles, and sternum.
Fig. 14. Genital bladder and side view of penis.

Libellula quadrupla.

Fig. 15. Genital bladder and penis — side view.

PlatJiemis trimaculata.

Fig. 16. Framework, triangle, liamules, and sternum
Fig. 17. Genital bladder and penis — ventral view
Fig. 18. Penis — dorsal view.

In the above diagrams, the letters stand for organs as follows :

a. Genital lobe. &. First segment of tergum. c. Second segment of
tergum. d. Third segment of tergum. e. Sternum. /. Triangular
appendage of sternum, g. Hamule. h. Spur of hamule. i. Truncate
lobe of hamule. k. Framework, m. Lateral rod of framework, n. Tri-
angle. 0. Left cephalic triangle of genital bladder, p^, p^, p^. Seg-
ments of penis, r. Right cephalic triangle of genital bladder, s. Dorsal
triangle in genital bladder of Celitliemis elisa. t and p. appendages of
l)ems of PlatJiemis ti'imaculata. « and «. Appendages of penis of Libel-
lula exusta. w. Caudal triangle of genital bladder, x. Membranous
appendage of framework in Libellula exusta. 1. Shield of third seg-
ment of penis. 3. Ring. 3. Hood. 4. Banner. 5. Fork. 6. Twist.

1896.] ^Id [Smith.

Marine Fossils from the Coal Measures of Arkansas.*

By James Perrin Smith.

{Read before the American Philosophical Society, October 2, 1S96.)

Contents. page.

Preface by J. C. Branner 214

Introduction 314

Localities Discovered by the Survey 215

Lower Coal Measures 316

Upper Coal Measures 219

Fayetteville Shale 321

Comparison with the Permo-Carbouiferous of Kansas and Nebraska 321

Relations to the Texas Upper Carboniferous 323

Comparison with Foreign Upper Carboniferous 223

The Lo-ping Fauna of China 223

The Salt Range Beds of India 224

The Itaituba Fauna, Brazil 225

Classification and Age of the Arkansas Coal Measures 225

Provisional Classification 225

The Lower Coal Measures 226

The Upper Coal Measures 226

Paleobotanic Evidence 237

The Pacific Carboniferous Sea 228

Revolution in Devonian Times 228

The Carboniferous Sea 229

Upper Carboniferous in the West 230

The Pawhuski Limestone 230

Intercliange of Life between East and "West 331

Replacement of Limestones by the Coal-bearing Formations

in Western Europe 333

Land Areas in the West 332

The Permian Pacific Ocean 232

The Triassic Pacific Ocean 233

Time of the Ouachita Uplift 233

Correlation Table of the Coal Measures of Arkansas 234

Descriptions of the Coal Measure Marine Fossils 235

Tabulated List of the Marine Fossils of the Coal Measures of

Arkansas 274

Explanation of Plates 283

Plate xvi. Plate xxi..

Plate xvii. Plate xxii.

Plate xviii. Plate xxiii.

Plate xix. Plate xxiv.

Plate XX.

* An abstract of this paper was published in Journal of Geology, V ol. li, No. 2, pp. 187.
204.

Smith.] ^14 [Oct. 2,

Preface.

The Coal Measures cover an area of 14,700 square miles in the State
of Arkansas. The greater part of this area lies in the geosyncline of
the Arkansas Valley. Tlie total thickness of the sediments in this
geosyncline is enormous — 24,000 feet. These conditions, taken in con-
nection with the occurrence in these sediments of both land plants
(coal beds) and of marine fossils seem to show that the beds were de-
posited upon a subsiding (for the most part) floor, and that the land
stood near the sea level, below which it occasionally sank.

The marine fossils from the Coal Measures area, so far as they were
collected by the Geological Survey of Arkansas, are listed and described
in the following paper kindly prepared at my request by Dr. J. P.
Smith, of Stanford University. It is volunteer work done origin-
ally for the State Survej^ and was to have been published in a volume
upon the paleontologj' of Arkansas. Upon the abolition of the Survey
by the Legislature in 1893 several volumes of reports were left unpub-
lished, and among them one on the paleontology of the State.

John C. Branner,

Late State Geologist of Arkansas.
Stanford University, California, July 10, 1896.

Introduction.

Marine fossils afford the best means of correlating strata of different
regions, but in the Coal Measures they are usually rare, and therefore of
especial interest and \^alue when found.

Of all the Paleozoic systems the Carboniferous is most subject to
facies variations, which make it difficult and often impossible to recog-
nize with certainty the minor subdivisions at any great distance from
the place where they were first established. This is true even of the
Mississippian formation, whose limestones were deposited under com-
paratively uniform conditions, so that one would expect the fauual rela-
tions to be the same over the whole area where the Mississippian facies
prevails. But the American Coal Measures were formed under condi-
tions not favorable to uniformitj^ either of rock character or of life,
hence the correlation of tliese strata becomes more difficult. And in
these geologists have been more prone to rely on lithologic charac-
ters and unaided stratigraphy. Such correlations have only a local
value, and cannot be extended over any wide scope of territory. For
this reason no divisions of the Coal Measures into zones has every been
carried out, nor can it be done, in the present state of our knowledge.

Previous to the collections made by the Geological Survey of Arkan-
sas, marine fossils were known from but a single locality in the Coal
Measures of Arkansas. Dr. David Dale Owen, in his Geological
Eeco?inoissance of Arkansas, Yo]. i, p. 68, says: "Three miles north-

1896.] ■^-L«^ [Smith.

west of Searcy, at a 'bald point,' in the vicinity of the widow Gilbert's
farm, sixty feet of shaly strata are exposed, dark or nearly black, in its
lower i"»art, and reddish yellow and ferruginous towards the top. The
shale includes numerous segregations of carbonate of iron and carbon-
ate of lime ; the latter containing several fossil marine shells, amongst
which the Nautilus ferratus was discovered, a species which occurs in
the ferruginous shales of Nolin, in Edmonson county, Ky." The local-
ity mentioned is now known to be in the Lower Coal Measures, and is
situated not three but thirteen miles northwest of Searcy.

F. B. Meek, in the Fined Report of the U. 8. Geological Survey of
Nebraska,* mentions Hydreinocrinus (Zeacrinus) mucrospinosus McChes-
ney, from the Coal Measures of Arkansas, but he does not cite any
authority for the statement, nor does he say he has seen this fossil from
Arkansas, or give any locality. In all the other literature where this
species is mentioned, nothing is said about Arkansas. It is, therefore,
concluded that this species was never found in the State. It was, how-
ever, found by the Geological Survey, in strata of the Upper Coal Meas-
ures, on Poteau mountain, Indian Territory, two miles west of the line
of Scott county, Arkansas.

Featherstonhaughf mentioned a "new species of pentremite in the
old red sandstone of Maunielle." The strata of Maumelle mountain,
Pulaski county, are of Lower Coal Measure age, and it is not likely
that a pentremite was ever found there, since the systematic searches of
the Survey failed to tiud any fossils in this region.

Localities Discovered by the Survey.

Marine Coal Measure fossils were found by the Survey at twenty-one
different places, besides that mentioned by Owen. These extend from
Independence county westward to Indian Territory, giving a total of
forty-eight genera and ninety species, forty-eight in the Lower Coal
Measures, and fifty-two in the Upper, with ten species common to both.
It is not thought that this small number of species represents the entire
fauna, or that only ten species are common to the two divisions, for the
collections were much too scattered and meagre to exhaust the possi-
bilities. But the fauna is a poor one, such as one would expect to wan-
der in from deeper waters whenever a slight subsidence made the shal-
low waters a little more habitable. The faunas could not become well
established, because the conditions soon reverted to their okl state, and
the inhabitants of the seas were forced to migrate or be exterminated.

There is, therefore, in this region no gradual transition from the fauna
of the Lower Carboniferous limestone, and the fossils of the Lower
Coal Measures are just as different from those of the Lower Carbonifer-
ous as are those of the Upper Coal Measures.

It is not attempted to carry the division further than into Upper and

*0p. cit., p. 149.

t Geolog. Rep. Elevated Country between the Missouri and Red Rivers, p. 61.

Smith.] -^It) [Oct. 2,

Lower Coal Measures, and even this division is often uncertain, for in
most cases the relations of the fossiliferous beds to each other could not
be determined with any degree of certainty. Also in most of this region
the stratigraphy is difficult ; the rocks vary so little, and are so folded
and faulted that by stratigraphy alone it was often impossible to locate
a bed within several hundred feet.

In addition to this, the number of the siiecies is usually too small,
and their character too indecisive to enable one to say with certainty to
which division the strata belonged. Therefore, in enumerating the lo-
calities there are given onlj^ the character of the rocks, the fossils found
in them, and the place in the section where these strata are thought to
belong.

Loicer Coed Measures.

Of these localities there were seventeen discovered, and they will be
given in order from east to west.

No. 1. Independence county, 11 N., 5 W., section 9, centre of the
section. Soft brownish sandstone with Eaomphalus {Straparollus) sp.;
near the middle of the Lower Coal Measures. Collector, J. C.Bran-
ner.

No. 2. White county, 8 N., 7 W., section 26, Bee Rock on Little Red
river. Massive yellowish sandstone, over one hundred feet exposed,
nearly horizontal ; at the top with marine fossils, at the bottom with
plants. Near the base of the Lower Coal Measures. Collector, J. P.
Smith.

Crinoid stems.

Productus semireticulatus Martin.

Spirifer rocky montanus Marcou.

Aviculopecten carhoniferus Stevens.

BelleropJwn sp.

Plant remains, undetermined.

No. 3. White county, 8 N., 7 W., section 33, east half of southeast
quarter, south of Norton's field, on the road from Searcy to Griffin
Springs. Hard yellowish and in places ferruginous sandstone, with a
dip of about 30° south. Horizon same as tlic last locality. Collector,
J. P. Smith.

Fenestella sp.

Orthis conf. resupinoides Cox.

Productus semireticulatus Martin.

Rhynchonella sp.

Spirifer rockymontanus Marcou.

Schizodus conf. amplus Meek and Worthen.

Bellerophon sp.

No. 4. White county, 9 N., 4 W., section G. Soft pinkish sandstone.
Near middle of Lower Coal Measure. Collector, J. C. Branner.

1S9G.] ^^* [Smith.

PJdlUpsia {Griffithides) scitula Meek and Wortlien.

Euomphalus {Straparollus) suhquadratus Meek and Wortlien.

AtJiyris subtilita Hall.

PresticicMa sp. or a new genus closely allied to PrestwicMa.

No. 5. White county, 9 N., 5 W., section 1. Soft reddish sandstone,
similar to that of locality No. 4, containing also PhilUpsia (Griffithides)
scitula Meek and Worthen. Collector, J. C. Branner.

No. 6. Lonoke countj', 4 N., 10 W., section 12, southeast quarter of
northwest quarter. Gray quartzite conglomerate seen in a well by the
roadside to dip 45'^ south. Towards base of Lower Coal Measure. Col-
lector, J. P. Smith.

Crinoid stems, undetermined.

No. 7. Conway country, 6 N., 16 W., section 29, southwest quarter of
southwest quarter, on east bank of Arkansas river, about one mile below
the Old Lewisburg ferrj^. A brown ferruginous shale near the top of
the Lower Coal Measures and probably a few hundred feet above the
shales of locality No. 8. Collector, J. F. Newsom.

Productus punctatus Martin.

Derbyia crassa Meek and Haj'den.

OrtJiis peeosii Marcou.

Spirifer cameratus Morton.

Spiriferina cristata Schlotheim.

Athyris subtilita Hall.

Terebratula hastata Sowerby.

Aviculopecten occidentalis Shumard.

No. 8. Conway county. 5 N., 16 W., section 17, two hundred yards
west of the centre of northwest quarter, west of the Arkansas river,
and four miles south of Morrilltou. The horizon is near the top of the
Lower Coal Measures. Reddish ferruginous shale. Collector, J. F.
Newsom.

PhilUpsia {Griffithides) ornata Yogdes.

Zaphrentis sp.

Nueula parva McChesney.

Nucula ventricosa Hall.

Macrodon carbonarius Cox.

Conocardium aliforme Sowerby.

Aviculopecten occidentalis Shumard.

Aviculopecten carboniferus Stevens.

Pleurophorus oblongus Cox.

Bellerophon carbonarius Cox.

Bellerophon crassus Meek and Worthen.

Pleurotomaria sp.

Macrocheilus (Soleniscus) conf. primigenius Conrad.

Macrocheilus conf. fusiformis Hall.

Goniatites {Paralegoceras) iowensis Meek and Worthen.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 152. 2 B. PRINTED DEC. 18, 1896.

Smith.] ^18 [Oct. 2-,

Nautilus {E2')Mppioceras) ferratus Cox.
Nautilus {Endolobus) missouriensis Swallow.

No. 9. Conway county, 7 N., 16 W., section 8, northeast quarter of
northeast quarter, about two hundred yards east of the centre ; one
hundred yards northw^est of the iron bridge. Ferruginous, porous sand-
stone, full of poorly preserved casts of fossils, that could not be speci-
fically identified. This horizon lies about one thousand feet below that
of locality No. 7, near Old Lewisburg, and is probably the same as that
of locality No. 10, Cook's quarry, near Hattieville. Collector, .T. F.
Newsom.

Zaphrentis (?),

Grinoid stems.

Spirifer sp.

Eiiomphalus sp.

No 10. Conway county, 8 N., 17 W., section 33, northeast quarter of
northeast quarter, Cook's quarry, near Hattieville. Hard yellowisli
sandstone. Upper part of Lower Coal Measures. Collector, J. F.
Newsom.

Orthoceras sp.

Astartella newherryi Meek.

Aviculopecten occidentalis Shumard.

Edmondia unioniformis Phillips.

Schizodus icheeleri Swallow.

ScJdzodus cuneatus Meek.

Belleroplion carbonarias Cox.

Pleuroto7naria hatii S. A. Miller.

Pleurotomaria sp.

Euomphalus sp.

Orthoceras sp.

Ortliis resupinoides Cox.

Orthis sp.

Terebratula hastata Sowerby.

No. 11. Pope county, 10 N., 20 W., section 8, southeast quarter of
northwest quarter. Ferruginous shale like tliat near Morrillton. Col-
lector, H. E. Williams.

Crinoid stems.

Pleurotomaria sp.

Goniatites ( Gastrioceras) excelsus Meek.

No. 12. Johnson county, 11 N., 24 W., section 2fi. southwest (luaitcr
of southwest ([uarter. Brownish ferruginous sandstone. CoUec-tor,
A. G. Taff.

Phillipsia sp.

No. 13. Franklin county, 11 N., 27 W., section 4, southeast (iiiartcr of

1896.] ^iJ [Smith.

northeast quarter. Weathered ferruginous sandstone. Collector, A. G.
TafF.

Crinoid stems.

Spirifer sp.

No. 14. Franklin county, 10 N., 26 W., section 2, southeast quarter of
southeast quarter. Ferruginous sandstone Collector, A. G. Taft'.
Bellcrophoii carbonarius Cox.

No. 15. Franklin county, 11 N., 28 W., section 27, northeast quarter
of southeast quarter Ferruginous sandstone. Collector, A. Gr. Tafl".
Pleurotomaria sp.

No. 16. Crawford county, 12 N., 30 W., section 17, northeast quarter
of southeast quarter. Brownish sandstone, very like that of Bee Rock,
White county. Collector, E. C. Buchanan.

Spirifer rockymontanus Marcou.

No. 17. Carroll county, 17 N., 19 W., northeast corner of section 18 ;.
Pilot mountain, three and a half miles southwest of Valley Springs.
Millstone grit, about sixty feet above a brownish limestone supposed to
represent the Chester horizon. Collector, Stuart Weller.

Gastrioceras branneri n. sp. J. P. Smith.

Pronorites cyclolobus Phillips, var. arkansiensis nov. var. J. P. Smilli.

Upper Coal Measures.

In the Upper Coal Measures, three localities were discovered by the
Survey, giving fifty-two species, of which thirty -two were found on
Poteau mountain, Indian Territory.

No. 1. Scott county, 1 N., 28 W., section 4, southeast quarter of south-
east quarter. Yellow ferruginous shale, with fossils in hard nodules.
Tliis horizon is probably equivalent to the Canyon division of Texas,
lower part of Upper Coal Measures, since many similar fossils were
found in that horizon by the Geological Survey of Texas. Collector,
C. E. Siebenthal.

Cyathocrinus {?).

Conularia conf. crustula White,

Naticopsis sp.

Nuculana afF. belUstriata Stevens.

Pleurophorus sp.

Goniatites ( Gastrioceras) sp. indet.

Goniatitcs {Gastrioceras) globu.losus Meek and Worthen.

Goniatites ( Gastrioceras) marianus Verneul.

Goniatites {Pronorites) sp.

Orthoceras conf. rushense McChesney.

While the stratigraphy seems to place these beds in the Lower Coal
Measures, the fossils are decidedly Upper Coal Measure forms, and are
characteristic of that horizon in Texas, Kansas, etc.

Smith.] ^-^O [Oct. 2,

No. 3. Crawford county, 10 N., 30 W., section 10, southeast quarter of
northwest quarter. Soft ferruginous shale. Collector, C. E. Siisbenthal.
Zaphrentis sp.
RhyncJioneUa sp. '
Macrodon sp.

JDentaliuvi conf. meekianum Geinitz.
PolypJiemopsis inornatus Meek and Worthen.
PJeurotomaria modesta Keyes.
Ndutilus sp.

No. 3. Sebastian county, 8 N., 32 W., section 12. Ferruginous shale
near Mr. Wilson's house. High up in Upper Coal Measures. Collec-
tor, Arthur Winslow.

CHnoid stems.

Fistulipora noduUfera Meek.

AtJiyris subtilita Hall.

Productus splendens Norwood and Pratten.

Retzia mormonii Marcou.

Spirifer earner atus Morton.

Spiriferina eristata Schlotheim.

Macrodon ohsoletus Meek.

JVucula parva McChesney.

Bellerophon carbonarius Cox.

Bellerophon marcouanus Geinitz.

Naticopsis nana Meek and Worthen.

Pleurotomaria sp.

No. 4. Poteau mountain, Indian Territory, two miles west of the Scott
•county, Arkansas, line, on the east fork of Sugar creek, 150 feet below
the southern crest of the mountain. The fossiliferous bed is a soft gray
shale about four inches thick. About 1000 feet of shales lie above this,
but no fossils were found in them. The fossiliferous bed is several hun-
dred feet above the highest bed of coal known in that region.

The following fossils were collected here by C. E. Siebenthal :

LophophyUiim proliferum McChesney.

Erisocrinus (C'eriocrinus) inflexus Geinitz.

Ilydreinocrinus mucrospinosus McChesney.

Poteriocrinus (?).

Orthis pecosii Marcou.

Derhyia crassa Meek and Hayden.

Productus cora d'Orbigny.

P. splendens Norwood and Pratten

Phync?ionella iita Marcou.

Terebratula Jiastata Sowerby.

Petzia radialis Phillips.

Athyris subtilita Hall.

jSpir^er cameratiis Morton.

991

1896.] ■^-"- |S;nith.

Spiriferina cristata Schlotheim.

FistuUpora nodulifera Meek.

Rhombopora lepidendroides Meek.

Septopora Mserialis Swallow.

Aviculopeeten coxanus Meek and Wort hen.

A. germanus Miller and Faber.

Lima retifera Shumard.

Macrodon carionarius Cox.

31. tenuistriatus Meek and Worthen.

M. ohsoletus Meek.

Astartella vera Hall.
A. newberryi Meek.

Edmondia nehrascensis Geinitz.

Pleurotomaria tenuicincta Meek and Worthen.

P. conf. speciosa Geinitz.

Ortlwceras cribrosum Geinitz.

Phillipsia diftonensis Shumard.

Calamites sp.

A fauna of proba])ly the same age has been described from the upper
part of the Wyoming Valley limestones of the Upper Productive Coal
Measures of Pennsylvania.*

Fayetteville Shale.

In Scott county, 3 N., 29 W., section 36, near the centre, C E. Sie-
benthal and J. F. Xewsom discovered a bed of brown thinly laminated
shale, with some sandy layers, containing pyritiferous nodules in which
Ooniatites ( GlypMoceras) conf. spJimricus Martin was found in a good
state of preservation. In the shale itself were found many poorly pre-
served specimens of the Ooniatites conf. spJimricus, and countless speci-
mens ot Posidonomya {Lunulicardium) couf. fragosum Meek, also many
specimens of OrtlioMra& sp.

These were at first thought to belong to the Coal Measures, but a very
similar bed of shale, with the same fossils in the identical state of pre-
servation, were found at Moorefield, Independence county, in the Fay-
etteville shale, which probably corresponds to the Warsaw group of the
Lower Carboniferous.

Comparison with the Permo-Carboniferous of Kansas and
Nebraska.

It will readily be seen that the fauna of the Upper Coal Measures of
Arkansas bears a strong resemblance to that of the youngest Paleozoic
beds of Nebraska, described as Permian by Prof Geinitz in his mono-
graph, " Carbonformation and Dyas in Nebraska."

F. B. Meekf redescribes this fauna, and comes to the conclusion that

*Penna. Qeol. Survey Ann. Rep., 1886, pp. 437-158, C. A. Ashburner and A. Heilprin,^
" Report on the Wyoming Valley Limestone Beds."
■f Final Report U. S. Geol. Survey Nebraska, p. 128, et seq.

Smith.] ^^^ [Oct. 2,

tlie rocks iu question are not to be referred to the Permian, because lie
can find no paleontologic or stratigrapliic break in the series. He finds
sixteen genera cliaracteristic of the Carboniferous and seven genera not
lliouglit to antedate tlie Permian in Europe, but associated with genera
not thought to occur later than the Carboniferous. Meek* says that
Fusulina, which occurs in great numbers in tlie Upper Coal Measures of
Nebraska, is considered in Europe to be mainly a Lower Carboniferous
genus. In this, however, he was mistaken ; his opinion dates from the
time when geologists were inclined to place all Carboniferous limestone
in the Lower Carboniferous. But it is now known that Carboniferous
limestone occurs in the Upper Carboniferous about as often as in the
Lower, and that the Fusulina limestones of Sicilj' and Russia grade
over into beds of undoubted Permian age.

This is also true of corresponding beds in the upper part of the Car-
boniferous of Texas, since the line between Permian and Coal Measures
is purely arl)itrary.

Although undoubtedly believing in continuity of life and formations,
Meek seems to have based his reasoning somewhat upon the old idea of
catastrophies, since he thought that the absence of a paleontologic or
stratigrapliic break was a sufficient reason for calling the beds in ques-
tion Upper Coal Measures rather than Permian. A large majority of the
genera and species are characteristic of the Carboniferous, and this
Meek thinks sufficient to off'set the fact that several genera previously
considered tj'pical of Permian are present. But some of these doubtful
strata have at last been acknowledged to be Permianf by Williams and
Tschernyschew, and Prof. Hyatt has described in tlie Fourth Annual
Report of the Geological Survey of Texas several cephalopods that are
common to the Permian of Texas and of Kansas.

In the Upper Coal Measures of Arkansas, out of fifty -two species, there
are twenty -five in common with the doubtful strata of Nebraska, and
eleven other species are common to the Nebraskan Permo-Carboniferous
and the Lower Coal Measures of Arkansas, but have not yet been found
in the Upper Coal Measures of the latter state. But of the genera men-
tioned by Meek as being not considered to antedate the Permian of
Europe only two are found in the Arkansas strata, namely, SynodndiaX
and Lima.

There is not sufficient reason for classing the Poteau mountain beds
with the Permian, but their fauna, as well as stratigrapliic position, place
them very high in the Coal Measures, since they are like the fauna and
position of the Mississippi Valley Upper Coal Measures.

These beds derive an additional interest from the fact that on Poteau

* P. 133, op. dl.

t Trans. Kansas Acad. ScL, Vol. xiii, p. 38.

X Waiigen has shown iu Pal. Indica, Sail Range Fossils i, Pmductus Limestone Fossils, p.
802, that Synocladia is not found in America, the species described by Swallow as Synoc-
India biserialis being a Scptopura. There is also some doubt as to whether Lima relifera is
;i true Lima.

1896.] 223 [Smith.

mountain, 1000 feet of shale, in which no fossils were sought for, lie
above the thin layer from which the entire collection was taken ; thus
the chances of fiudiug true Permian beds in that region are verj' good.

Relations to the Texas Upper Carboniferous.

The most philosophical presentation of the Permian problem in
America has been given by Dr. C. A. White.* He finds the fauna of
tlie upper Paleozoic beds of northern Texas, discovered by Prof. W.
F. Cummins, to be analogous to that of the Fusulina Limestone of
Sicily, the Artinsk stage of Russia, and the upper Productus Limestone
of the Salt Range in India. These strata all show that peculiar com-
mingling of ordinary Coal Measure fossils with ammonite genera, such
as Popanoceras, Medlicottia and Waagenoecras, which seems to be char-
acteristic of open sea facies of the Permian.

None of the characteristic ammonite genera were found in the
xVrkansas region, but nearly every fossil found in these Coal Measures
was also found in Texas. And in the Texas Permian nearly all the
species excepting the ammonites were found in the underlying Upper
Coal Measures. This makes the analogy between the Upper Coal
Measures of the two regions very strong.

Nearly all these fossils are also found in Illinois, Iowa, etc., in beds
that have never been thought to be other than Coal Measures.

"We are, therefore, safe in concluding that while some of the beds in
western Arkansas are very high up in the Coal Measures, none that be-
long above them are as yet certainly known, and the Poteau mountain
syncline, across the line in Indian Territory, is the only place where
there is any likelihood of finding Permian deposits. These beds may
turn out to be the equivalents of the Wichita division of the Texas
Permian, which, as Prof. W. F. Cummins has told the writer, contains
the exact fauna of his Albany division. The Albany beds were for-
merly thought to be Coal Measures ; and Prof. Cummins' work in de-
termining them by paleontology as well as stratigraphy to be the
equivalents of the Wichita division will be of great help in the study of
the doubtful so-called uppermost Coal Measure strata all over the Mis-
sissippi Valley. Many of these strata are very probably the homotaxial
equivalents of the Albany division, and of the Artinsk stage of the Ural
mountain region.

Comparison with Foreign Upper Carboniferous.

T/ie Lo-piiKj Fauna of China.

The descriptions of the fauna of this Lo-ping district of China by
Prof. E. Kayserf throw great light on the relations of American Car-
boniferous faunas to those of Asia. Near Lo-ping, in eastern China, are

* Bulletin 77, V. .S. Geol. Siu-vey.
t Richtofen's China, Vol. iv.

Smith.] ^^4 [Oct. 2,

found in beds overlying the coal beds numerous marine fossils of
Upper Coal Measure age. Kayser has described fifty -five species, ten
not specifically identified, fifteen cosmopolitan species, and eleven forms-
that are typically American, and belong chietly to the Upper Coal
Measures.

MacTocJieilus anguUferus.

Sehizodus wJieeleri.

Macrodon carbonarius.

Aviculopecten maccoyi.

Retziiv compressa.

Orthis pecosii.

Producti/s mexicanus.

Bhomhopora lepidendroides.

Lophop)]iyllum proliferum.

Lophopliyllitm proliferum var. sauridcns.

Fusulina cylindrica var. gracilis.

Also the Nautilus orientalis Kayser is most closely related to N. occi-
dentalis Swallow, and Nautilus mingsTianensis Kayser resembles the-
same American species. Myalina trapezoidalis Kayser finds its neai-est
representative in M. subquadrata Shumard. The fifteen cosmopolitan
species are also nearly all found in the American Upper Coal Measures,
so that of the entire Lo-ping fauna nearly all the species are either
found in America, or they have their nearest relatives there. The two
regions belong to the same zoological province, the Pacific Carboniferous
sea.

Many of these species that are very common in America and Asia are
unknown or rare in Europe, which fact would tend to prove a connec-
tion with Asia by water, and the separation of the European and the
American Upper Coal Measure deposits by a land barrier.

The Carboniferous plants collected by Baron von Richthofen num-
bered about forty species, and are nearly all identical with European
Carboniferous plants. The natural inference is that in those times Asia
was connected by laud with Europe, while the sea opened out to the east.

Prof. J. S. Newberry * described a small collection of Carboniferous
plants from China, and found nearly all of them to belong to well-
known European species. This is in perfect agreement with the con-
clusions drawn above.

The Salt Range Beds of India

In the Salt Range, in northwest India, are found Upper Carboniferous,
deposits, some of which resemble those of Lo-ping, China, and the
Lower Productus Limestone of India is probably of the same age as
the beds of Lo-ping, and the western American Uppermost Coal Meas-
ures. These deposits and their fauna are described by Prof. W.

* American Journal of Science, Vol. cxxvi, 1883, p. 123 ct seq.

1896.] ^^^ [Smith.

Waagen, in the Paleontologia Indica, and in the volume on Geolo(jicnl
Results he draws some very interesting parallels between the faunas of
the Upper Carboniferous in different countries. Many of the American
species that are found at Lo ping are also found in the Salt Range beds.
This same type of Carboniferous is found on Sumatra, where it has been
described 1)y Ferd. Roemer,* and on Timor, where it was described by
E. Bey rich, t

This is the furthest southward that the Indian or northern type of
Upper Carboniferous is known, and indeed the deposits of Sumatra and
Timor begin to show already a greater affinity for the Australian or
southern deposits.

Waagen:f divides the Carboniferous into two types — the northern, or
Asiatic, and the southern, or Australo-African. The northern type is
found in western Europe, Russia, the Himalayas, China, the Arctic
regions, and North America. The southern type is developed in South
Africa and Australia, and extends into Peninsular India and Afghan-
istan. Brazil probably belongs to this type, but is to a certain extent
transitional.

The Itnituha Fauna, Brazil.

A comparison of the Brazilian Upper Carboniferous fauna, as described
by Prof. O. A. Derby, § shows that of twenty-seven species of Brachio-
poda twelve are identical with American forms, although most of these
are cosmopolitan. The genus Strophalosia is common in these beds, and
as Prof. Derby II says, the species shows affinity^ with the Permian.
Many of the new species are closely related to European forms. Prof.
W. Waagen, T[ says that the beds of Itaituba are of the same age as the
Middle Productus Limestone of India, that is of the Permo-Carboniferous
transition beds. The Brazilian Strophalosia is closely related to Austra-
lian forms, indicating a closer connection with the Australian or southern
Carboniferous region than with the Pacitic province.

Cl.vssificatton and Age op the Arkansas Coal Measures.**

Pi'ovisional Classification .

The Coal Measures of Arkansas have been temporarily classified by
the Survey, for the sake of convenience, as Upper or Productive, and
Lower or Barren Coal Measures. The division is not based on any

* Palseontographica, Vol. xxvii, 1880.

\ Abhandlungen dcr Berliner AkacUmie der Wissenschoften, 1865.

X Salt Range Fossils, Geological Results, p. 239.

I Bulletin Cornell University, Vol. i, No. 2, and Journal GeoL, Vol. ii, pp. 480-.501.

II loc. tit , p. 60.

If i>aft Range Foisils, Geological Residts, p. 207.

**The writer is greatly indebted to Messrs. E. T. Bumble and W. F. Cummins of the
Geological Survey of Texas, for their kindness and courtesy to him in the Texas Museum,
a Ifo for valuable aid in the correlation of the Coal Measures of Arkansas and Texa.s.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 152. 2 C. PRINTED DEC. 3, 1896.

Smith.] ^^^ [Oct. 2,

paleontologic or stratioTapliic break, but merely on the oecurrence or
non-occurrence of coal.

The divisions that are recognized in Pennsylvania could not be recog-
nized in Arkansas, but the strata of the two sections arc correlated as
far as possible, with the scanty data now at hand.

The Lower Coal Measures.

Of the age of the Lower Coal Measures we have only stratigraphic
evidence, their position above the limestones of the Lower Carboniferous
and below the coal-bearing beds of the L^pper Coal Measures being
unmistakable. But their known fauna and flora have been too limited
and indecisive to enable us to correlate the stages with those of other
Carboniferous areas, since collections have been made in but few places,
and these chiefly in sandstones, where the preservation of fossils is
usually unsatisfactory, and the determination uncertain.

But the Lower Coal Measures correspond in a general waj- to the
Strawu and the lower part of the Canyon division of Texas, to the Potts-
ville Conglomerate series, the Lower Productive Coal Measures, and
part of the Lower Barren Coal Measures of Pennsylvania. The series
corresponds in the main to the Middle Carboniferous limestone of eastern
Eussia.

The Ujyper Coal Measures.

The Arkansas Upper Coal Measures corresj^ond to the upper part of
the Canyon and the whole of the Cisco division of Texas,* and below
the transitional Permo-Carboniferous or Artinsk stage, to which latter
age the lower part of the Wichita and Albany divisions of Texas
belong. The Lower Permo-Carboniferous beds of Kansas and Nebraska
iire also probably to be correlated with the Artinskf stage, although
AVaagen:}: classes the entire series with the ammonite-bearing beds of
northern Texas, described by Dr. C. A. White, in Bulletin 77 of the
U. S. Geological Smwey. Most of the latter Texas beds belong rather
above the Artinsk stage, and in the true Permian, and are probably of
the same age as the Middle and Upper Productus Limestone of the Salt
Eange.

Waagen, in Salt Range Fossils, Geological Eesults, p. 238, gives a com-
parative table, showing the relationship of the upper Paleozoic strata
all over the world. While the position assigned some of the American
deposits does not agree with that accepted by most American geologists,
still the table is very useful for comparison, and it has been freely used
In compiling the comparative table accompanying this paper.

*The writer, in Journal Geology, Vol. ii, p. 194, following Karpinsky, plaoed the Popa-
noceras parkcri bed.s iu the lower Permian or Artinsk, but in this he was mistaken. Prof.
W. F. Cummins told the writer that these beds arc not in the I'pper Cisco, but in the
Strawn division, and therefore are Lower Coal Measures.

t Karpinsky, Anwionren der Artinsk- St life, p. '.'>'2.

I Salt Range Fossils, flcological Results, p. 201.

1896.] 227 [Smith.

The beds of Poteau mouiitaiu, ludiau Territory, are probably of the
age of the Lo-piiig strata, while the yellow shales of Scott comity,
Arkansas, 1 IST., 28 W., section 4, southeast quarter of southeast quarter,
are probably of the age of the Upper Carboniferous Limestone of Mos-
cow, and the west slope of the Urals,* if we can judge by the occurrence
of Gastrioceras conf. marianum and Pronorites in them. This would
make them older than the Poteau mountain shales, which is very likely
the case. They are the prol)able equivalents of the Canyon division of
Texas.

P(( Icobota )i it' Ee iden ce.

Our knowledge of the paleobotanj' of the Coal Measures of Arkansas
has been up to the present time very limited, depending almost entirely
on the publications of Lesquereux in the Second Annual Be2)ort of a
Geological Reconnoissance of the Middle and Southern Counties of
Arkansas, 1860, and in the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania,
"Report of Progress, P. Description of the Coal Flora of the Carbonif-
erous Formatio)! in Pennsylvania, and throughout tlie United States,"
1884.

The joint monographf of H. L. Fairchild and David White on tlie
Fossil Flora of the Coal Mc<(sur€s of Arkansas throws much new light
on the stratigraphic and regional distribution of species, and has been of
material aid in correlating the Arkansas strata with those of other
regions. They prove that all the Coal Measure plants:]: published from
Arkansas belong to the horizon of the Upper or Productive Coal Meas-
lu-es. The Van Buren plant l)ed is thought from paleobotanic evidence
to belong above the horizon from whicli most of the coal of Arkansas is
obtained, that of the Ouita coal, and this agrees with the evidence
given by the stratigraphy and the marine fossils. The Van Buren plant
bed occurs below the Poteau mountain marine beds, and above those in
8 N., 33 "W., section 12, Sebastian county, near Fort Smith ; and these
latter marine beds occur above the horizon of the Ouita coal.

The Poteau mountain marine beds are of about the same age as the
Wyoming Valley limestouesg of the Upper Productive Coal Measures of
Pennsylvania, and these belong below the Dunkard creek series of the
Upper Barren Coal Measures. The Dunkard creek beds have lately
been proved by Prof I. C. White || to be of the same age as the Permian
of northern Texas, on the basis of plant remains that occur towards the
top of the Texas beds in which marine Permian fossils were found. T[
But the paleobotanic evidence aids in establishing the age of the

* C2 of Tschernischew, Mim. Com. Gcot. Bussie, Vol. iii. No. 4, p. :>)3.
t -\ii unpublished report of the Geol. Survey of Arkansas.

J The work of the Survey shows that the plants described by Lesquereux from Wash-
ington county as Subconglomerate belong to the Lower Carboniferous.
i Upper part of C2, Tschemischew, Man. Com. Gi I. I^iissie, Vol. iii, No 4, p. 353.
li Bull. Geol. Sac. America, Vol. iii, p. 217.
1| Bull. 77, U. S. Geol. Survey.

Smith.] ^28 [Oct. 2,

Uj)per Coal MoassurL'S only ; i)lants are not reported <mi iVoin any hori-
zons of the Lower Coal Measures, although they are known from a few-
localities.

Owen* mentions Stujmaria ficoides as occurring at Patterson's mill,
near Bee Rock, on Little Red river, White county. In August, 1892, a
few plants w^ere found by the Survey in the Bee Rock sandstone near
tlie base of the series and below most of the marine fossils, but none of
these could be identified.

Mr. D. McRae, of Searcy, informed the Survey that in 7 N., 7 W.,
section 4, White coiTnty, were found shales containing numerous Lcpi-
dodenclra and ferns. These shales are above the Bee Rock sandstones.

In a well at Dr. Griffin's, 5 N., 10 W., section 5, near El Paso, White
county, specimens of Lepidodendron were collected by Dr. J. C. Bran-
ner, in micaceous flaggy sandstone, thought to be of about the same
age as the shales of Searcy. About fifty feet al)ove the flaggy sand-
stone was found a thin bed of coal, and thirty feet higher was another
coal bed with numerous ferns and Calamitcs.

C. S. Prosserf mentions plants supposed to be of Lower Carbonifer-
ous age, from Shinall mountain, in 2 N., 14 W., section 17 ; also from
section 20 of the same township.

In quarries in the sandstones of Big Rock, near the city of Little
Rock, are found plant remains of indeterminable character. The
stratigraphy of the Survey places the three last localities in the Lower
Coal Measures, and probably above the fossiliferous sandstones of Bee
Rock, on Little Red river.

The Pacific Cahboniperous Sea.
Bevolution in Bevonian Time.

In Paleozoic times there have been many revolutions and alterna-
tions of continents and seas, and consequent readjustment of their
inhabitants to new surroundings. One of the greatest of these revolu-
tions was that which broke up a large zoological province, and put in
direct connection regions that before were separated.

Dr. A. Ulrich:}: has shown that in Lower and Middle Devonian tin-
faunas of Bolivia, Brazil, the Falkland Islands and South Africa were
very similar to those of North America, and that they were very difter-
ent from the fiiunas of Europe and Asia. This state lasted until the
end of the Middle Devonian, when the revolution began. Prof. II. S.
Williamsg has shown that with the beginning of the Upper Devonian
in America there came in a fauna, many sjjecies of which were not the
direct descendants of those immediately ])reccding them. This new

* Second Geol. Reconn. Ark., Vol. i, p. 68.
fArk. Gcol. Survey Ann. RejJ., Vol. iii, 1890, p. 423.

XBeitrdge zur Geoloi/ie und Palaont. Siidamerika, I, " I'aUiozoischo Versteinoningcii aiis
Bolivien."
g Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. i, " The Cuboides Zone and Its Fauna."

1896.] .^29 [Smith.

fauna was, however, closely related to forms known in Europe and
Asia, but unlike those of the southern regions. Prof. AVilliams* after-
wards elaborated this theory and followed out closely the changes that
were inaugurated towards the close of the Devonian. The culmination
of these changes produced the Pacificf Carboniferous sea.

The Carhoniferous Sea.

From Chapter v, in Suess' AntUtz der Erde, Vol. ii, we get many
valuable suggestions as to the outlines of tlie Pacific Carboniferous
ocean. The Subcarbouiferous Avas the time of greatest transgression of
sea over the present land areas, while the sea in which the FusuUna
beds of Europe and America were formed was more circumscribed.

The Waverly group when tra<;ed towards the west gradually takes on
the character of deep water fonnations ; it is persistent through Nevada
and California,:!: and has been shown hj the writer § to have a similar
fauna in these tw'o states. The Waverly probably persisted much
longer in the west than in the east, for in northern Missouri Dr. C.
R. Keyes|| has obseiwed that in the midst of an undoubted Burlington
fauna a well-marked Kinderhook or Waverly fauna reappears. This
lie explains by Barrande's theory of colonies. It is probablj^ an in-
cursion of the inhabitants of a deeper western sea, where the
Waverly had persisted longer, into the shallower eastern waters. The
work of the Geological Survey of Arkansas shows that a similar phe-
nomenon occurs in that state. The Fayetteville shale, which is of
Warsaw or St. Louis age, contains a fauna that differs markedly from
those of the limestones above and below it. A recent jjaper by Prof.
Henry S. WilliamsT[ shows the occurrence in the Fayetteville shale of
several species that occur in a doubtful U])per Devonian or Lower Car-
boniferous black shale in the White Pine district, Nevada. Along with
these Devonian or Waverly species occur others that belong much
higher, as Productus semireticulatus and Goniatites conf. sphwricus.
Below the Fayetteville shale is the Boone chert, which at the base con-
tains a decided Burlington fauna, and at the top probably belongs to
the Warsaw. This has been observed in so many places that there is no
possibility of mistake in the sequence of the strata.

We have therefore in Arkansas an incursion similar to that in Mis
souri, except that in Arkansas the incursion came considerably later.
This is evidence that somewhere in the west the Waverly fauna per-
sisted throughout the Osage and possibly a part of the St. Louis. This

* Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. ScL, 1892, Section E, Address, "The Scope of Paleoutology
and Its Value to Geologists."

t See also Tschernischew, Man. Com. Geol. Rtissie,\o\. iii, No. 4, p. .364, on the physi-
•cal geographic changes that occurred in Europe towards the end of the Carboniferous.

J Zoe, Vol. iii, p. 274, Proc. Calif. Acad. ScL, Oct. 17, 1892.

^Journ. Geo/., Vol. ii. No. 6, Metamorphic Series of Shasta County, California.

11 American Journal of Science, December, 1892, p. 447.

•^ Amer. Journal qf Science. Vol. xlix, ls95, pp. 94-101.

Smith.] ^'^^ [Oct. 2^

is in accordance ■with tlie phenomenon described by Prof. C. D. Wal-
cott in' Monograph viii, U. S. Geological Survey, from the Eureka dis-
trict, Nevada, where a Waverly fauna occurs three thousand feet above
the base of the Carboniferous formation. The same thing has been ob-
served by the writer in the Carboniferous of Sliasta county, California.*
The Lower Carboniferous limestones can be traced all through the
West and the Mississippi vallej', to the base of the Appalachian moun-
tains, where they are replaced by conglomerates and other coarse
sediments.

Upper Carboniferous in the West.

Of the Upper Carboniferous all that we know west of Indian Ter-
ritory takes on a decidedly marine character, contaiaiing thick beds ot'
limestones. There are however some thin beds of coal in Texas, and
some carbonaceous seams with a few land plants in New Mexico and
Nevada. The coal \i\ Texas was probabl}^ deposited near the southern
shore line of the Carboniferous sea, and the carbonaceous seams in the
far West probably belong to the insular areas. The fossils described
from the western Carboniferous are all marine,, with the slight excep-
tion that Walcottf mentions a few specimens of pulmonate Gasteropoda
that were found along with brachiopods, corals and land plants, evi-
dently washed in from a distance, since no terrestrial Carboniferous de-
posits are known near the Eureka district.

llie Pawltu^ki Limestone..

In the the eastern part of Indian Territory are found large deposits of
coal in the Upper Coal Measures, but further west the same horizon is
represented by mtirine limestone. In 1893, Mr. H. C. Hoover, of the
Geological Survey of Arkansas, found at the Government lime-kiln,
three miles northwest of Pawhuski, Oklahoma Territory, Osage
agency, a bed of massive limestone about 100 feet thick, lying horizon-
tally on heavily bedded sandstones. The limestone is fossiliferous, but
the sandstones are not. The fossils collected were placed at my dis-
posal, and on examination they proved to be ;.

Spirifer cameratus Morton.

Athyris suhtilita Hall sp.

Productus seniireticulatus Martin, sp..

Productus nebrascensis Owen.

Productus splendens Norwood and Prat ten.

Derbyia erassa Meek and Hay den.

These are plainly of Upper Carboniferous age. Tlic limestones cap
the hills in that region, and spread over a gi'cat area, but fossils were-
collected at this place only.

* Journal of Geology, Vol. ii, Xo. 6, pp. 588-(".r-'.
t Mon. viii. U. S. Geol. Survei/, p. 262..

189f..] -"^1 [Smith.

Tnterch<uige of Life Between East and West.

The many beds of marine fossils in the Productive Coal Measures are
simply transgressions from the western sea, and reach no further east
than Pennsj'lvania and West Virginia. The Appalachian system was
the western border of the ancient Atlantis* which separated the Euro-
pean from the Pacific waters, while the great Indo-Australianf conti-
nent bounded the Pacific ocean on the south. This ocean must have
stretched from the American Coal Measures to Eastern China, the Bait
range in India, the Ural mountains on the borders of Russia, and into
the Arctic regions, for we find related faunas in all these places. "What-
ever we have of western European Coal Measure species must have
migrated from this direction, since on tlie east there was no direct com-
munication with European waters. An example of this is Productus
giganteusX Martin, which is common in Europe, and is found in the
Lower Carboniferous of the McCloud river, Shasta county, but is not
found east of that place, unless P. latissimus Sowerby, from Montana,
west of the main chain of the Rocky mountains, be an equivalent.
Another example is Omphalotrochus wMtiwyi Meek, which was first de-
scribed from the Carboniferous limestone of Shasta county, California,
but is also very common in the Lower Coal Measure limestone (C2) of
eastern Russia.^

On the other hand, many species seem to be confined to, or character-
istic of, this ocean ; among them may be mentioned Productus corn
d'Orbigny, which Waagen|| says is not found in Europe, its nearest rep-
resentative being Productus riparius Trautschold ; it was however first
described from South America.

Goniatltes marianus Verneul is found in the Artinsk region of the
Urals and in Arkansas. The genus Pronoriles, while found in western
Europe, is rare in it, and is much more common in the Pacific region.
Pronoritcs is found in the Artinsk region and in Arkansas, while the
ammonite genus Medlicottia, the direct descendant of Pronorites, is
found in the Permo-Carboniferous strata of Sicily, the Urals, the Salt
range, and Texas.

It is impossible to suppose that the same genus and species originated
at different localities, and since we have both ancestors and descendants
in places so widely separated, we can only suppose that there was free
interchange of life between those places at that time, or in other words
an open sea, on the borders of which these fossiliferous deposits were
laid down, and along the margin of which the cephalopods and other
marine animals could migrate.

* Sucss, Antlitz der Erdc, ii, p. 17.
tSuess, Ibid., ii, p. 316.

X See Annual Report U. S. Geog. and Geo!. Surv. Terr., 1883, Part i, p. 132, and Bull. Geog.
and Geol. Surv. Terr., Vol. ii, No. -1, p. 354.
g See Journal Grol., Vol. ii, No. 6, pp. 59,S-600.
11 Pal. Indica, Salt Range Fossils, Brachiopoda, p. 677.

Smith.] 232 [Oct. 2,

Replacement of Limestones hy Cocd-hearincj Formations in Western

Euroiie.

On tracing the Upper Carljoniferous deposits of the Ural region to-
wards the west, we find the limestones thinning out, and the Coal mea-
sitres and Culm formations taking their places ; we find also that the
transgression of marine on terrestrial deposits takes place from the east,
just the reverse of Avhat is seen in America.

Land Areas in the West.

It is not thought that the Pacific Carboniferous sea was an un-
broken expanse of water in western America ; on the contrary there
are many evidences of large isolated land areas and archipelagos.
Dr. Joseph Le Conte* has argued that the Basin range, during much
of Paleozoic and Mesozoic time, was a continent, oflf the western shores
of which the sediments that afterwards became the Sierra Nevada and
Coast range w^ere laid down. Clarence Kingf thought that the great
thickness of Paleozoic littoral deposits in the Great Basin region proved
the existence of a large body of land further west ; he thought that the
eastern shore of this continent was in Nevada, and east of this stretched
the Carboniferous sea, which covered all but the island chain of the
llocky Mountain region. King:]: further concluded that the Carbonifer-
ous in California, west of the old shore line, indicated shallow bays that
permitted the western extension of the upper Paleozoic deposits, while
the bulk of them was stopped by the bold coast. There are evidences
of land areas in the Eocky mountains, Wahsatch mountains. New Mex-
ico, and Nevada, but from the facts now known it seems more probable
that these were large islands or archipelagos, rather than continents.

The Permtan Pacific Ocean.

The outlines of the great western ocean can be traced in Permian
times also, but with much more circumscribed limits. Open-sea deposits
of this age are known in Texas, in the Salt range, on the west slope of
the Urals, on the island of Sicily, and in scattering places in Central
Asia. In all these the genera are nearly the same, except that the Ar-
eestes types are confined to the more southern regions. This similarity
indicates plainly a connection of these deposits.

Suessg argues that the open-sea Permian fauna wandered in from the
south, and that the Mesozoic types of ammonites were foreign to the
northern regions. Karpinsky, || on the contrary, holds that they were
autochthonous, at least in the Ural region, since he could trace the de-
scent of all the ammonites except the Popamwcrata from goniatites that

* American Journal of Science, iii, Vol. 16, p. lOS.

t U. S. Gcol. Explor. Fortieth Parallel, Vol. i, p. 5o-l.

:J: Oi>. at., p. 5S5.

§ Antlitz der Erde, ii, p. 316.

1! Ammoiieen der Artinsk-Stnfe, p. 86.

1896.] ^^^ [Smith.

were found iu the uuderl^-iiig Carbouiferous. As lias been already men-
tioned, the ammonite genus Medlicottia is not a foreigner on this side of
the Permian Pacitic ocean, because its ancestor, Pronorites, is found
here too.

The Triassic Pacific Ocean.

Our knowledge of the Triassic Pacific ocean is based on the work of
Mojsisovics, ArktiscJie Triasfaunen.^ We find that in this period the
American part of the great western ocean has mostly become land, and
only on the westei'n border of ximerica do we find marine Triassic beds,
in Nevada, California, Idaho, and along the coast region in widely sep-
arated places, from Alaska through British xlmerica to Peru.

Tliese deposits, with similar faunas, can be traced on the other side of
the Pacific from jSTew Zealand, Timor, New Caledonia, to Japan, and
Siberia. This sea stretched out on one side over the Himalayas to the
eastern Alps, forming what Neumayrf called the "central Mediter-
ranean sea." On the other side the sea stretched up to Spitzbergen,
but did not reach the Atlantic region. The Triassic was a continental
period for the greater part of the present continents.:}: After the Trias
the outlines of the western ocean had changed entirely, and no resem-
blance to the original boundaries can be traced.

Time op the OcAriiiTA Uplift.

The youngest rocks known to take part iu the Ouachita Mountain
system belong to the Upper Coal Measures, and the disturbance must
have taken place at the border l)etween Carboniferous and Permian.
Still, it is not unlikely that deposits of Permo-Carboniferous age may
yet be found at some places in the region.

Another fact that makes this time for the uplift probable is that the
Permo-Carboniferous beds of Kansas and Nebraska are not of the open-
sea type, but belong to the northern European or Zechstein type of de-
posits. The beds of Texas, presumably of nearly the same age, are of
the Artinsk or open-sea facies, and are characterized hy the occurrence
of ammonites, commingled with ordinary Upper Coal Measure fossils.

This uplift may be of the same age as that movement in the Appa-
lachiausg which cut off the Upper Barren Coal Measures of Pennsylva-
nia and West Virgiuia|i entirely from the western sea ; in those deposits
no marine fossils are found, but only land plants and fresh-water Crus-
taceans, T[ and a few fresh-water mollusks.

* Mem. Acad. Imper. Sci. St. Petersbourg, Tome 33, No. 6.

■\ Denkschrift Wiener Akad., 1885, ''Die geographische Verbreitung der Juraformation."

I Suess, Antlitz der Erde, ii, p. 147.

I Penna. Second Geol. Smvey, P. P., p. 120.

II I. C. White, Bull, mh U. S. Geol. Survey, p 41.

^ Penna. Second Geol. Survey, P. P., Permian Flora, \V. M. Fontaiue and I. C. White, p.
116.

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Descriptions of the Coal Measure Marine Fossils.

The lists of fossils given above establish beyond question the age of
the species described in this paper, and enable us, even without the aid
of stratigraphy, to assign them to their proper horizon, by a study of
the accompanying faunas. Of the goniatites only one, Oastrioceras
branneri 5 . P. S., is thought to be a new species, although all are new
to Arkansas. Oastrioceras marianum Verneul, and Pronorites eyclolobus
Phillips, have never before been found outside of Europe ; Oastrioceras
globulosum Meek and Worthen is found here for the first time outside of
Illinois ; Oastrioceras excelsum Meek is found for the first time outside
of Kansas; Paralegoceras iowense Meek and Worthen is found here for
the third time, being known elsewhere only in Iowa and in Texas, and
shows on the Arkansas specimen the internal lobes, features that have
never before been seen in this species and genus.

Both stocks or families are represented in the collection, and genera
that probably were the ancestors of important genera and families in the
Permian and the Mesozoic, and thus as transitional forms, or links in
genetic series, they command especial interest. All species described in
this paper are deposited in the geological museum at Stanford Uni-
versitj', except the originals of Oastrioceras brnnneri J. P. S., and Pro-
norites cyclolobxis Phillips, var. arkansiensis J. P. S., which are depos-
ited in the U. S. National Museum.

Subkingdom Coelenterata.
Class Anthozoa.
Genus Fistulipora, McCoy. Fistidipora nodnlifera Meek, U. 8.
Oeol. Survey Nebraska, p. 143, PI. v. Fig. 5.

This species, whicli is common in the Upper Coal Measures of
Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois, etc., Avas found in corresponding strata on
Poteau mountain, Indian Territory.

Genus Lophophyllum, Milne-Edwards and Haime. Lo2)hophyllum
proliferiim McChesney sp., McChesney, Descript. Neic Pal. Foss.,
1860, p. 75 ; F. B. Meek, U. S. Oeol. Survey JSTebraska, p. 144.
Several specimens agreeing with the typical L. proliferum were found
in the Upper Coal Measures of Poteau mountain, Indian Territory.
Specimens closely resembling this species were also found in tlie Boone
Chert, Lower Carboniferous, of Boone county, 17 N., 19 W., section 2, near
Valley Springs. The latter specimens are more like LophophyUum pro-
liferum var. saiir ideas White, C. A. White, U. S. Oeog. Su7-v. W. of
100th Meridian, iv, p. 101, PL vi. Fig. 4, from Carboniferous strata, New
Mexico and Colorado.

Genus Zaphrentis, Rafinesque. Zaphrentis, sp. indet.

In Crawford count j', 10 N., 30 W., section 10, southeast quarter of north-
w^est quarter, in strata of the Lower Coal Measures, and in the same

Smith.] ^'^^ [Oct. 2,

formation in Couwa}' county, 5 N., 16 W., section IT, near centre of tlie
north half, were found specimens of this genus, too poorly preserved to
allow the species to he determined.

Suhkingdom Echinodekmata.

Class Crinoidea.

Glenus Cyathocrixus, Miller.

In the Upper Coal Measures of Poteau mountain, Indian Territorj-
were found a great many stems that seem to helong to Cyathocrinus,
but no other parts w'ere found, to make the identification more certain.

Genus Erisocriki's, 3Ieek and Worthen. Erisoerinus (Ceriocrinus)
inflexus Geinitz, sp. Cyathocrinus inflexus Geinitz, Carh on forma-
tion unci Dyns in Nebraska, p. 62. Poteriocrinus liemisphcericus
Shumard, Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., i, p. 221. Scap/iioci'inus
hemisplmricus Shumard, sp., F. B. Meek, U. 8. Geol. Survey
Nebraska, p. 147. Erisoerinus (Ceriocrinus) i/iflexus Geinitz, sp.,
C. A. White, Twelfth Ann. Rept. Hayden's U. S. Geol. Survey
Wyoniiny and Idaho, Part i, p. 128, PI. xxxiv. Fig. 9.

This species which is common in the Coal Measures of Nebraska,
Utah, etc., was found in the Upper Coal Measures of Poteau mountain,
Indian Territory.

Genus Hydreikocuixus, De Koninck. Hydreinocrinus mucrospinosus
McChesney, sj). Zeacrinus mucrospinosus McChesney, Descr. New
Pal. Foss., p. 10. nydrei7iocrinus mucrospinosus McChesne3% F. B.
Meek, TJ. S. Geol. Survey Nebraska, p. 149.*

Found in the Upper Coal Measures of Poteau mountain, Indian Ter-
ritory.

Genus Poteriocrinus, Miller. Poteriocrinus, sp. indet.

In the Upper Coal Measures of Poteau mountain, Indian Territory,
were found numerous crinoid stems that seem to belong to Poteriocrinus.

Crinoidea, genus undetermined.

In the Lower Coal Measures of White county, 8 N., 7 W., section 33,
southeast quarter, and section 26, southeast- quarter, and in beds of the
same age in Pope county, Point mountain spur, 10 N., 20 W., sections,
southeast cpiarter of northwest quarter, wei-e found numerous crinoid
stems, wliich could not be identified since tliey were mostly in tlie form
of moulds or casts.

* Meek cites this species from Arkansas, Ixit gives no locality, or authority for the
statement.

1896.] ^'^7 fSmith.

Subkingdom Molluscoidea.
Class Bryozoa.

Genus Fenestella, Lonsdale. FeiiestcUa shumio'di Frovit., Trans. St..
Louis Ac. 8e., i, p. 232 ; F. B. Meek, U. S. Geol. Surcey NebrasJ^-a,
p. 153, PL vii, Fig. 3.

This species was found in the Upper Coal Measures of Poteau mountain,
Indian Territory, and one very closely resembling it, if not identical,
was found in the Boone Chert, Lower Carboniferous, at several places
in northwestern Arkansas.

Genus Rhombopora, Meek. Rhombopora l&pidendroides, F. B. Meek,
U. S. Geol. Survey Nebraska, p. 141, PI. vii. Fig. 2 ; C. A. ;jVhite,
U. S. Oeol. Survey W. of 100th Meridian., iv, p. 99, PI. vi, Fig. 5.

This Bryozoan is common and characteristic in the Upper Coal
Measures of Nebraska, and is found in the same horizon in Utah and
Arizona, and was also found in the Upper Coal Measures of Poteau
mountain, Indian Territory. The same, or a very similar species, occurs
in the Boone Chert, Lower Carboniferous, of northern Arkansas.

Genus Weptopora, Prout. Septopora biserialis Swallow, sp. Synoela-
dia biserialis Swallow, Trans. St. Louis Ac. Sci., i, p. 179 ; F. B.
Meek, U. S. Oeol. Survey Nebraska, p. 156, PI. vii, Fig. 5 ; C. A.
"White, Survey W. of 100th Meridian, iv, p. 107, PI. vii, Fig. 3.

This species is common in the Upper Coal Measures, or Permo-Car-
boniferous, of Nebraska and Kansas, and in the true Coal Measures of
Illinois, and in the Upper Carboniferous of Arizona. It has also been
found in the Chester and the St. Louis Limestone, Lower Carbonif-
Bjfous, of Illinois. Waagen * says that the true genus SynoclaOia has
not been found in America, and that in Europe or Asia it is characteris-
tic of the Permian. He refers the American forms to the genus Sep-
topora of Prout.

Class Brachiopodu.

Genus Orthis, Dalman. Ortlds pecosii Marcou, Geol. North Amer., p.
48. 0. carbonaria Swallow, Trans. St. I^ouis Ac. Sci., i, p. 218.
0. carbonaria Meek, U. S. Geol. Survey Nebr., p. 173. 0. pecosii
Marcou, C. A. White, U. S. Oeol. Survey W. of 100th Merid., iv, p.
125, PI. ix, Fig. 5. Orthis, sp. indet.. Meek, Pal. Cal., I p. 10, PL
ii. Fig. 5, a, b, c.

A single specimen was found in the Upper Coal Measures of Poteau
mountain, Indian Territory ; it agrees best with Dr. C. A. White's-
figures. The species is of frequent occurrence in the Upper Coal
Measures of Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas, Illinois, Texas and in the Uppei-

* Pal. Indica, Salt Range Fo.ssils, I. Productus Limestone Fossil?, p. 802.

Smith.] "^^O [Oct. 2,

Carboniferous of New Mexico, and in the Lower Carboniferous of Cali-
fornia. Dr. C. A. White* mentions a small Orthis, similar to this
species, from the Keokuk of Iowa and Illinois. In the Boone Chert,
Lower Carboniferous, of northern Arkansas, probably Keokuk, was
also noticed a small Orthis of this type, but the preservation was not
good enotigh for the identification to be certain.

Oi'tJds conf. resuplnoides Cox, Geol. Siirv. Kentucky, Vol. iii, p. .570, PL
ix. Fig. 1 ; C. A. White, U. 8. Geog. Survey West of 100th Merid.,
Vol. iii. Appendix, p. 23, PI. iii. Fig. 2.

This type of Orthis is exceedingly rare in the Carboniferous, being
rather characteristic of the Devonian. 0. i^esiqnnoides is found in the
Coal Measures of Kentttcky and the Upper Carboniferous of New Mexico.
Dr. C. A. White compares the species to Orthis iowensis Hall, 0. tul-
liensis Vanuxem and 0. •propinqua Hall of the Devonian.

A few poorly preserved specimens were found in White county, 8 N ,
7 W., section 33, southeast quarter, east half, in the Lower Coal Meas-
Tires ; also in Conway county, 8 N., 17 W., section 33, northeast qitarter
of northeast ciuarter.

Genus Dekbyia, Waagen. Derbyla crassa Meek and Haydeu. Orthi-
sina crassa M. and H , Proc Ac. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1858, p. 260.
Streptorhynchus crussus M. and H., F. B. Meek, U. S. Geol. Surv.
Nebraska, p. 174. Derbyia crassa M. and H., Waagan, Salt Itange
Fossils, Brachiopodu, p. 592.

This species is widelj" distribttted in the Coal Measures of Kansas,
Nebraska, Illinois, Texas, etc., and was fotiud in the Upper Coal Meas-
ures of Poteau mountain, Indian Territory, and in the Lower Coal
Measures of Conway county, Arkansas, 6 N., 16 W., section 29, south-
west quarter of southwest quarter. It is also very common in the Lower
Carboniferous of the Mississippi valley.

Genus Productus, Sowerby. Productus cora d'Orbigny, Puleont. de
I'Amer. Merid., 1842, p. 48. P. cora d'Orbigny, C. A. White, Geol.
Survey Indiana, 1883, p. 126, PI. xxvi. Fig. 1, 2, 3, ^P. prattenianus
Norwood.
This species is almost world-wide in its distribution in the Coal Meas-
ures, and is also found in the Productus Limestone of the Salt Range,
India. Waagen, in Paleontologia Indica, Salt Range Fossils, Brachio-
poda, p. 677, says that the true Productus cora is probably not found in
Europe, its nearest representative being P. riparius Trantschold.

In America the typical species is very common in both Coal Measures
and Lower Carboniferous. It was found in tlic former liori/.on on
Poteau mountain, Indian Territory, and in the latter in numerous
places; Fayetteville shale, probably Warsaw, Independence county, 13

* U. S. Oeoj. Surveii W. of lOOtli Merid., iv, p. 126.

1896.] ^'^'^ [Smith.

N., 6 W., section 18, southeast quarter of southeast quarter, near Moore-
iield ; Marshall shale, probably Warsaw division, Independence county,
13 N , 6 W., section 12, and Stone county, Blue mountain, 14 N., 11 W.;
Archimedes Limestone, probably of St. Louis age. Independence county,
13 N., 6 W., section 14.

Marcj' (Expl. Red River of Louisiana, p. 187) cites this species from
Subcarboniferous limestone of Washington and Crawford counties, but
does not give the localities.

Productus (Jlarginifera) splendens Norwood and Pratten. Productus
splendens Norwood and Pratten, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1854,
Vol. iii, p. 11, PI i. Fig. 5. P. loabashensis Norwood and Pratten,
Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1854, p. 13, PI. i. Fig. 6. P. longisjnnus
Meek (non SoAverbj'), Final Report U. S. Oeol. Survey Nebraska,,
p. IGl. Margi/iifera splendens N. and P., Waagen. Palceontologia
Indica, Salt Range Fossils, Productus Limestone Fossils, Brachio-
poda, p. 714.

This typical Upper Coal Measure and Permian species is a probable
■descendant of Productus longispinus Sowerby, and so closely are these
two related, that for many j'ears they were considered identical. But
the Marginifera type of Productus seems to be confined to the Upper
Carboniferous and Permian, while P. longispinus Sow erhj is also found
in the Lower Carboniferous. The Arkansas specimens agree perfectly
with specimens from Indiana and Illinois. This species is very common
in the Coal Measures and Permian of North America, and probably
occurs also in Asia A very similar small species occurs in the Lower
Carboniferous limestone. Stone county, 14 N., 11 W., on Blue moun-
tain, but this lacks the ventral sinus, and has fewer spines, and there
fore probably belongs to the true P. longispinus Sowerby.

P. {Marginifera) splendens N. and P. was found in the Upper Coal
Measures of Sebastian coianty, Arkansas, 8 N., 88 W., section 12, and
on Poteau mountain, Indian Territory, in strata that are either of upper-
most Coal Measure or of Lower Permian age.

Productus pnnctatus Martin. Anoinites panctatus Martin, Petrif. Derh.,
PI. 37, Fig. 6. Productus punctatus Martin, Davidson, J/on. Brit.
Garb. Brachiopods, p. 172.

This species is cosmopolitan in the Coal Measures and Lower Carbon-
iferous, although more common in the latter horizon. It is very sel-
dom that the shell is so preserved that the internal characteristics can
be seen. In the figured specimen the arm impressions, adductor muscle
scars, median septum, and the cardinal process are all perfectly pre-
served.

The dorsal valve is somewhat squarer than those figured by Davidson
{Mon. Brit. Garb. Brach., PI. 44, Figs. 9-17). but the internal markings
are the same in every detail, except that Davidson's figure makes the

Smith.! 240 [Oct. 2,

cardinal process a little longer. The internal characteristics are imper-
fectly illustrated by McChesney {Trans. Chicago Acad. Sci., PI. i, Figs.
10, 11).

Occurrence. — Productus punetatus was found in great numbers in the
upper part of the Lower Coal Measures of Conway county, G N., IG W.,
section 29, on the east bank of Arkansas river, about one mile below the
Old Lewisburg ferry. It was also found in the Lou'er Carboniferous at
several places in the State.

Productus semireticulatus Martin, sp., Pctrifacta, Derhiensln, p. 7.

This well-known cosmopolitan species was found in the Barren or
Lower Coal Measures in White county, 8 N., T W., section 33, south-
east quarter, and in section 26, southeast quarter. It was also found in
the Lower Carboniferous, in the Fayetteville shale, probably Warsaw,
in Searcy county, 16 N., 17 W., section 1, southwest quarter of south-
west quarter ; in the Boone Chert, upper Burlington or lower Keokuk,
in Searcy county, 17 N., 18 W., section 28, and at various other places
in northern Arkansas ; in the Marshall shale, probably Warsaw, in
Stone county, on Blue mountain, 14 N., 11 W., south of Mountaiu
View.

Genus Rhynchonella, Fischer de Waldheim. RhynchoneUa xita Mar-
con. Terehratala uta Marcou, Geol. of N. Amer., p. 58. Rhynchn-
nella osagensis Swallow, Trans. St. L. Ac. Sci., 1858, p. 219. E/ii/n-
chonella osagensis, F. B. Meek, U. 8. Geol. Sure. Nebraska, p. 179.
Rhynchomlla uta Marcou, C. A. White, U. S. Geol. E.rpl. W. of V.i'ith
Me rid., iv, p. 128.

This characteristic Coal Measure species, found in Kansas, Nebraska,
Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, Texas and South America (V), was found in the
Upper Coal Measures of Sebastian county, 8 N., 32 W., section 12; also
in the same horizon on the Poteau mountain, Indian Territory.

RJiynclionella, sp. indet.

In the Lower Coal Measures of White county, 8 X., 7 W., section 33,
southeast quarter, and of Crawford county, 10 N., 30 W., section 10,
southeast quarter of northwest quarter, were found several Phyncho-
nellas that could not be specifically determined.

Genus Terebkatula Lhwyd. Tcrehratnhi haatata Sowerh}', Mineral
Coneliology, Vol. v, p. 446. Terebratula, bocidens Morton, Am.
Journ. 8c. , Vol. xxix, p. 150. Terebratula bocidens, F. B. Mefi<,
U. S. Geol. Suro. Nebraska, p. 187, PI i, Fig. 7.

Meek {loc. rit.) speaks of the strong resemblance of T. bocidens to 7'.
elongata Schlotheim, sp., and T. hastata Sowerby, sp., but is strongly
inclined to believe in the specific difierence. Davidson {Monograph Brit.
Garb. Brach., Appendix, p. 22G) is inclined to unite T. elongata, T. Ims-
tata and T. sujjlata. If Dielasnia bocidens is really identical with 7'.

1896.] -^4:1 [Smith.

hastatn, it is an example of one species ranging from the Devonian up
into the Permian. Tliis species ranges tlirougli the Coal Measures in
Nebraska, Kansas, Illinois, Texas, New Mexico, etc. It is very com-
mon in the Upper Coal Measures of Poteau mountain, Indian Territory,
and was also found in the Fayetteville shale, Lower Carboniferous, pi-ob-
ably Warsaw, of Independence county, 13 N., 6 W., section 18, southeast
corner, near Mooretield ; also in the Lower Coal Measures of Conway
county, 8 N., 17 W., section 33, northeast quarter of northeast quarter.

Genus Athyris, McCoy. Athyris suhtilita Hall. Terebratula suhtilita
Hall, Stansbitry' s Exjyl.Gt. Salt Lake, p. 409. AtJii/ris si/htilifa Hall,
sp., F. B. Meek, U. S. Geol. Surv. Nehraska, p, 180, PI. i, Fig. 12,
PI. viii. Fig. 4.

This species is found nearly all over the world in the Coal Measures.
It is also found in various places in the Lower Carboniferous, as in Eng-
land and India

It was found to occur frequently in the Upper Coal Measures of Se-
bastian county, 8 N., 32 W., section 12, and of Poteau mountain, Indian
Tei'ritory ; in the Boone Chert, Burlington or lower Keokuk, of Stone
county, 14 N., 10 W., section 9, northwest quarter.

Marcy (Expl. Bed River of Louisiana, p. 189) cites Athyris subtilita
from the Subcarboniferous limestone of Washington county.

Genus Retzia, King. Retzia radialis Phillips. Terrehratula mormonii
Marcou, Oeol. N. Amer., p. 51, PI. vi. Fig. 1. Retzia punctilifera
Shuniard, Trans. St. Louis Ac. Set., i, p. 220. Retzia suhglohosa.
McChesney, New Pal. Foss., p. 45, PI. i, Fig. 1. Retzia compressa
Meek, Pal. Calif., i, p 14, PI. ii. Fig. 7.

R. radialis is common in the Western Coal Measures and Lower Car-
boniferous ; it was found in great numbers in the Upper Coal Measures
of Sebastian county, 8 N., 32 W., section 12, and of Poteau mountain,
Indian Territorj-.

Genus Spiripetj, Sowerby. Spirifer earner atus Morton, Am. Journ. Sc,
Vol. xxix, p. 150. Spirifer meusibachianus Rcemer, Kreidebildung
lion Texas, p. 88. Spirifer triplicatus Hall, Stansbury's Expl. Ot.
Salt Lake, p. 410. Spirifer cameratus Morton, C. A. White, U. S.
Expl. W. of 100th Merid., iv, p. 132, PI. x, Fig. 1.

This species is distributed throughout the Coal Measures from Penn-
sylvania and West Virginia to Arizona ; it is also found in the Permo-
Carboniferous of Kansas ; * Meek, in Oeol. Exp)l. 4.0 Parallel, iv, p. 8,
cites the species from the Upper Carboniferous of the White Pine
Mining district of Nevada. It was found in great numbers in the
Upper Coal Measures of Sebastian county, 8 N., 32 W., section 12, and
of Poteau mountain, Indian Territory ; also in the Lower Coal Measures
* F. B. Meek, V. S. Geol. Surv. Nebraska, p. 184.

PROC. AMEK. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 152. 2 E. PRINTED DEC 9, 1896.

Smith.] ^^2 [Oct. 2,

of Conway county, G X., IG W., section 29, sotithwcst quarter of south-
west quarter.

Spirifer rocky montamis Marcou, Geol. of N. Amer., p. 50, PI. vii, Fig. 4.
Spirifer opima Hall, Oeol. Surv. Iowa, Yo]. i, Part ii, p. 711. Spir-
ifer suhventricosa McChesney, Besc. New Pal. Foss., p. 44. Spirifer
rockymontanus Marcou, C. A. White, JJ. S. G. Erpl. W. of 100th
Merid., iv, p. 134, PI. xi. Fig. 9.

S. rockymontanus occurs in the Upper Carboniferous from Pennsylva-
nia to New Mexico.

It was found in the Lower Coal Measures of White county, 8 N.,
7 W., section 33, southeast quarter, in the form of well-preserved casts,
also in section 2G, on Bee Rock ; also in the same horizon, Crawford
county, 12 N., 30 W., section 17. These specimens agree with Dr.
White's figures and descriptions so well that no fitrther description is
necessary.

Genus Spiriferina, d'Orbigny. Spiriferina cristata Schlotheim. Ter-
ebratulites eristatus Schlotheim, Beitrage Nut. Verst. Muenchen,
PL i. Fig. 3. Spiriferina kentuckensis Shumard, Oeol. Surv. Mis-
sotiri, 1858, p. 203. Spirifer octoplicatus Hall, Stansbury' s Expl. Gt.
Salt Lake, p. 409, PI. xi. Fig. 4. Spirifer laminosus Geinitz, Car-
bonformation und Byas in Nebraska, p. 45, PI. iii. Fig. 11. Spir-
iferina kentuckensis Shumard, sp., F. B. Meel^, U. S. Geol. Surv.
Nebraska, p. 185, PI. vi. Fig. 3, PI. viii. Fig. 11.

Dr. C. A. AVliite. in U. S. Geog. Expl. W. of 100th Merid., iv, p. 140,
egards S. octoplicatus Hall and S. kentuckensis Shumard as distinct
species. C. D. Walcott, Pal. Eureka Bistrict, p. 218, regards them both,
as well as S. spinosa Norwood and Pratten, as synonyms of S. cristata
Schlotheim, sp. If this reference is correct, then the species ranges
from the Upper Devonian of the White Pine Mining district into the
Upper Carboniferous of the Eureka district.

Davidson {Monograph Brit. Garb. Brach., p. 207) regards Spiriferina
octoplicata Sowerby, sp., as synonymous with S. cristata Schlotheim, sp.,
which ranges from the Carboniferous into the Permian. Taken in these
broader limitations, the species ranges from the Devonian, through the
Lower Carboniferous of the West, and tlirough the entire Coal ]Meas-
ures from Kentucky to Nevada.

Hall (Geol. Survey Iowa, Vol. i. Part ii, p. 706, PI. xxvii, Fig. 5) de-
scribes and figures Spiriferina spiiwsa N. and P. from tlie Kaskaskia
group of Iowa. He states that S. spinosa differs from *S. kentuckensis in
being more robust and in possessing the tubular spines.

But specimens of S. kentuckensis from the Upper Coal Measures of
Arkansas are equally robust and possess the spines tliat are thought to
be characteristic of S. spinosa.

A comparison of specimens from the Upper Coal Measures of Sdias-

1896.] "'^'^ [Smith.

tian county, 8 N., 33 W., section 13, shows the perfect resemblance
between the two so-called species. There are live distinct but rather
rounded plications on each side of the mesial fold and sinus, but no
concentric striations or lamellae were observed. The entire surface is
thickly covered with short spines, which seem to be unusually well
preserved.

This species was found in the Lower Coal Measures of Conway county,
6 N., 16 W., section 39, southwest quarter of southwest quarter, and in
the Upper Coal Measures at the locality mentioned in Sebastian county;
also on Poteau mountain, Indian Territory ; in the Lower Carbonifer-
ous, Boone Chert, upper Burlington or lower Keokuk, at St. Joe, in
Searcy county.

Subkingdom Mollusca.

Class Lamellibran cMata.

Genus Aviculopecten, McCoy. Aviculopecten curhoniferus Stevens,
Amer. Journ. Sc, Vol. xxv, p. 361.

Two imperfect specimens from the Lower Coal Measures, White
county, 8 N., 7 W., section 36, southeast quarter, agree fairly well with
the figures and descriptions of this species. Another specimen was
found in the Lower Coal Measures of Conway county, 5 N., 16 W., sec-
tion 17, northwest quarter.

Aviculopecten coxanus Meek and Worthen, Proc. Aaid. Ndt. Sc. Phil.,
1860, p. 453 ; Geol. Surv. Ill, ii, p. 336, PL xxvi. Fig. 6 ; F. B. Meek,
U. S. Geol. Surv. Nelrasica, p. 196, PL ix. Fig. 3.

This species is found in the Upper Coal Measures of Illinois and Ne-
braska, and was also found in the same horizon on Poteau mountain,.
Indian Territory.

Aviculopecten germanus Miller and Faber, Journ. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist.,.
July, 1893, p. 79.

This species was described from the Coal Measures of Elkhorn creek„
Kentucky, and was compared by tlie authors to A. rectilaterarius Cox
sp., Geol Surv. Kentucky, iii, p. 571, PI. ix. Fig. 3, but it resembles;
more closely A. eclwardsi "Worthen, Bull. 2 State Mus. Nat. Hist, of 111.,
p. 33 ; both species were founded on left valves, the right being un-
known. They are both very similar to A. segregatus McCoy, British
Pal. Fossils, p. 489, PI. iii, E, Fig. 1, of the Carboniferous limestone of
Northumberland, although the latter has from two to three secondarv
intermediate ribs, instead of one.

A single small left valve was found in the Upper Coal Measures of
Poteau mountain, Indian Territory. It agrees in the main points with
Miller and Faber's description, except that the intermediate rib is some-
times obsolete, and distinct concentric lines of growth are seen on the
shell.

Smith.] ^"^ [Oct. 2,

The beak is sharp, and projects beyond the cardinal margin ; the ribs
number about twelve, and are rather coarser than those shown iu Miller
and Faber's figures.

Aviculopeeten occidentalis Shumard, Geol Survey Missovri, 1855, Part
ii, p. 307, PI. C, Fig. 18.

This species is very common in the Coal Measures from Pennsylvania
to Arizona ; in Arkansas it was found in the Lower Coal Measures of
Conway county, 5 N., 16 W., section 17, northwest quarter ; about four
miles southeast of Morrillton, and 6 N., 16 W., section 29, east bank of
Arkansas river, about one mile below the Old Lewisburg ferry, in the
Lower Coal Measures.

Genus Lima. Lima renf era ^hwiiVavH. Lima retif era '^\i\\i\\ay(\, Trans.
St. Louis Ac. Sc, i, p, 314. Crenipecten retiferus Shumard, sp., S.
A. Miller, If. Amer. Geol. and Pal., 1889, p. 473.

Lima retifera is characteristic of the Coal Measures in Kansas, Illi-
nois, Nebraska, Texas, etc., and was also found iu the Upper Coal
Measures of Poteau mountain, Indian Territory.

Genus Macrodon, Lycett. Macrodon carhonarius Cox, sp. Area car-
bonaria Cox, Geol. Sure. Kentucky, iii, p. 567, PL viii, Fig. 5. Ma-
crodon carhonarius Cox sp., F. B. Meek, Pal. Ohio, ii, p. 384.

This species resembles so closely M. obsoletns Meek, Pal. 0/iio, ii,
p. 334, PI. xix, Fig. 9, as to raise doubts as to their being different
species. They are both found in the Coal Measures, in the upper part
of which several specimens of M. carhonarius were found on Poteau
mountain, Indian Territory. This species was also found in the Lower
Goal Measures of Conway county. Ark., 5 N., 16. W., section 17, north-
west quarter.

Macrodon obsoletus Meek, Pr/?. Oliio, ii, p. 334, PI. xix. Fig. 3.

This species, which is found in the Coal Measures of West Virginia
and Ohio, also occurs in the Upper Coal Measures of Sebastian county,
8 N., 33 W., section 13, and on Poteau mountain, Indian Territory.

Macrodon tenuistriutus Mt'vk and Wortheu, Proc. Clncitijo Ac. Sc., i. j). 17.
Area striata Geinitz, Carh. u. Dyas in Nebraska, p. 20, PI. i. Fig.
32. Macrodon tenuistriatus M. and W., F. B. Meek, U. S. Geol.
Surv. Nehraska, p. 207, PI. x. Fig. 30.

This is a characteristic LTpper Coal ^Measure species, being found in
that horizon in Nebraska, Illinois and Iowa ; it is (juite common in the
Upper Coal Measures of Poteau mountain, Indian Territory.

Macrodon sp.

In the Upper Coal Measures of Crawford county, 10 N , 30 W., sec-

1896.] 245 [Smith.

tion 10, southeast quarter of northwest quarter, were found specimens
oi Macro don too poorly preserved to be identified witlx any species.

Genus Nucula, Lamarclv. Nucula parra McCliesney, Proc. Chicago
Ac. Sc , i, 11. 39, PI. ii, Fig. 8. Nuciila parva McChesney, Meek
and Worthen, Geol. Sitrv. Illmois, v, p. 589.
This diminutive Nucula, which is found in tlie Coal Measures of Illi-
nois, was found in the form of casts in ferruginous shale of the Lower
Coal Measures of Conway county, 5 N., 16 W., section 17, centre of the
north half, and in similar strata of the Upper Coal Measures in Craw-
ford county, 10 N"., 30 W., section 10, northwest quarter.

Nucula veiitru'osa Hall, Geol. Surcei/ loica, Vol. i. Part ii, p. 71(5, PI. 29,
Figs. 4 and 5.

This species is common in both Lower and Upper Coal Measures from
Pennsylvania to Texas. In Arkansas it was found in the Lower Coal
Measures in Conway county, 5 N., 16 W., section 17, northwest quarter,
about four miles southeast of Morrillton.

Genus Nuculaxa, Link. Nuculana aff. helUstriata Stevens,

This specimen, found in the form of a mould, showing very distinctly
the hinge teeth and the surface markings, resembles in general form
Nuculana belUsti-iata Stevens, Am. Joui'n. 8c. , 1858, Vol. xxv, p. 261, but
differs from it in having the concentric ribs much coarser and less
numerous.

Locality, Scott county, 1 N., 28 W., section 4, southeast (piarter of
southeast quarter, in the L'pper Coal Measures.

Genus Schizodus, King. Schizodus cuneatus Meek, PI. xxii. Fig. 3.
ScMzodus cuneatus Meek, Pal. Ohio, Vol. ii, p. 336, PL xx. Fig. 7.

An internal cast from the L^pper Coal Measures of Crawford county,
10 N., 30 W., section 10, southeast quarter of northwest quarter, agrees
in shape with the species described by Meek from the Lower Coal
Measures of Ohio. The strongly elevated beak without any backward
curve is very characteristic. It being an internal cast, the obscure lines
of growth seen on the specimens from Ohio do not show, but the muscle
scar is distinct, and indications of tlie hinge teeth can also be seen. In
Paleontolofjy of Ohio, Vol, ii, p. 337, Meek mentions a similar ScMzodus
from the Upper Coal Measures of Nebraska, but thinks it is probably a
distinct species, on account of the small size, more nearly central beaks
and more prominent central and anterior margins. The specimen from
Arkansas really agrees better with this description than it does with the
undoubted ScJiizodus cuneatus, but the Nebraska specimen was never
figured and named. Schizodus cuneatus was also found in the Lower
Coal Measures of Conway county. 8 N., 17 W.. section 33. northeast
quarter of northeast quarter. «

Smith.] ^4^ [Oct. 2,

Schizodus icIieeUri Swallow, PI. xxii, Fig. 4. CypricarcUa (?) wheeleri
Swallow, Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., Vol. i, p. 96. Sehkodus
wlieeleri Swallow, F. B. Meek, Final Rept. U. 8. Geol. Survey
Nebraska, p. 209.

This species is very common in the Coal Measures from Pennsylvania
to New Mexico, in both Upper and Lower Coal Measures. It has been
figured and described so often that nothing new can be added. Our
specimens agree best with those from Iowa, described by F. B. Meek,
Final Report of the IT. S. Geological Survey Nebraska, p. 209, PL x.
Fig. 1, c.

Occurrence. — Several specimens, both right and left valves, were found
in the Lower Coal Measures of Conway county, 8 N., 17 W., section 33,
northeast quarter of northeast quarter, at Cook's stone quarry, near
Hattieville. This horizon is in the so-called Millstone Grit, and near
the middle of the Lower Coal Measures. All the fossils in these strata
are preserved in the form of casts.

ScMzodus conf. amplus Meek and Worthen, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phil.,
1870, p. 41 ; Geol. Surrey Illinois, Vol. v, p. 579, PL xxvii. Fig. 6.

Tliis large Schizodus is found in the Coal Measures of Pennsylvania
and Illinois, and an imperfect specimen, probably belonging to the same
species, was found in the Lower Coal Measures of White county, 8 N.,
7 W., section 33, east half of the southeast quarter, in ferruginous sand-
stone, on the road from Searcy to Griffin Springs.

Genus Astartella, Hall. Astartella neioberryi Meek, Pal. Ohio, ii, p.
340, PI. xix. Fig. 1.

This characteristic species is common in the Upper Coal Measures of
Poteau mountain, Indian Territorj', and in the Lower Coal Measures
of Conwa}" county, Arkansas, 8 N., 17 W., section 33, northeast quarter
of northeast quarter.

Astartella vera Hall, Geol. Surrey Iowa, i. Part ii, p. 715, PI. xxix. Fig. 1.

This species occurs in the Coal Measures of Iowa, Indiana, Illinois
and Pennsylvania, and was found in the upper division of the same
series on Poteau mountain, Indian Territory.

Genus Pleurophorus, King. Plcnrophorus oblongusMeek, JJ. S. Geol.
Surv. Nebraska, p. 212, PI. x, Fig. 4.

This was described by Meek from tlic Upper Coal Measures of
Nebraska, and was found in the Lower Coal Measures of Conwaj'
county, 5 N., 16 W. , section 17, centre of the north half.

Pleurophorus. sp., C. A. White, BuU. 77 U. S. Geol. Surrey, p 27, PL iv,
Figs. 5-10.

This Pleurophorus was described and figured 1)ut not named by Dr.

189G.] 247 [Smith.

C. A. White (loc cit.), from the Permian of Texas. No analogous form
was found in the true Coal Measures of Texas, which is not at all sur-
prising, since their fauna is so little known. In the Upper Carboniferous*
beds of Scott county, Arkansas, 1 N., 28 W., section 4, northeast quarter
'of southeast quarter, was found a single specimen that agrees perfectlj'
with the PUuroi^horiis of Dr. White. It is nothing unusual to find a
Permian species in the Carboniferous, but the identification is uncertain,
owing to the poor preservation of Dr. White's original and of the
Arkansas specimen.

Genus Conocardium Bronn. ConocarcUum aliforme Sowerby, sp., PI.
xxii, Figs. 1 and 2. Cardium aliforme Sowerby, Miii. Conch., Vol.
vi, p. 100, Table 552, Fig. 2. Conocardium aliforme Sowerby, sp.,
Bronn, Leth. Geocjii., i, p. 420, PI. iii. Fig. 9. Pleurorhynchus mi-
nax Phillips, Geol. of Yorkshire, p. 210, PI. t. Fig. 27.

This genus is rare in the American Carboniferous, and especially so
in the Coal Measures, being represented there by only two other species,
C. ohUqvum Meek and Wortheu, Geol. Surv. Illinois, Vol. vi, p. 529, and
C. parrisld Worthen, Geol. Surv. Illinois, Vol. viii, p. 112. The former
is more nearly related to C. aliforme, but difi"ers from it in its much
smaller size, greater obliquity of the shell, and shorter hinge line. The
surface of C. oliquum is marked by narrow radiating ribs, while those of
C. aliforme are wider tlian the depressions between them.

The intermediate spaces are occupied by a secondary rib only on the
rounded anterior side of C. aliforme, while the same thing occurs even
on the posterior side of C. ohliqimm. C. aliforme also has the hinge
line longer, and the space between the incurved beaks wider ; also the
ribs on the anterior cordate space are much finer, and this area is
bounded by a rather distinct carina, being slightly concave near the
rounded border, and rising toward the anterior rostrum, which is pre-
served on some of our specimens. Tlie shell has its greatest convexitj^
at the anterior end, wliere tlie broad carina cuts off the cordate area.
Behind this is a distinct furrow, Avhich shades off into the posterior com-
pression of the shell, and dies out in a gentle curve toward the rounded
gaping margin. Tlie ribs are broader and the concentric growth lines
more distinct towards the posterior end. The concentric lines are not
visible on the cordate area. The posterior portion of the shell, next to
the hinge line, is not ribbed, but marlied with fine, radial lines.

Goldfuss, in PetHfacta Germaniw, Part ii, p. 203, PI. cxlii, Fig. 1.
describes and figures Conocardium aliforme, but according to McCoyf
he has confused two species, one of which is a Devonian species from
the Eifel. The true 0. aliforme is that described by Phillips, Geol. of
Yorkshire, Vol. ii, p. 210, PI. v, Fig. 2, as Pleurorhynchus minax, of the
Carboniferous Limestone, and by Goldfuss, PI. cxlii, Fig. 1, e, f, h, i, I,

*By the stratigraphy these beds are Barren Coal Measures, but the fossils sh ow close
relations to the Tipper Coal Measures,
t British Palseozoic Fossils, p. 517.

Smith.] -jiO [Oct. 2,

and m, the others under Fig. 1 belonging to the Devonian species,
which McCojr proposes should retain the name C. Jiystericum Schlot-
heim. Phillips* proposed to transfer the name G. aliforme to the Devo-
nian species, but the type originally described by Sowerbj' under that
name is undoubtedly the Carboniferous species.

This species is found all over Europe, in the Carboniferous, chiefly
Mountain Limestone, but owing to the confusion that exists on the Con-
tinent one cannot usually tell whether this means Upper or Lower Car-
boniferous or both.

Nine specimens were found in the Lower Coal Measures of Conway
county, 5 N., 10 W., section 17, centre of the north half. They were
found in a ferruginous shale, and although in the form of casts they
show the sculpture of the surface with unusual clearness, even the deli-
cate, wavy growth lines being as sharply defined as on the original
shell. The specimens all had a length of more than one inch, the
dimensions of the largest being : length, 1.30 inch ; diameter, 0.88 inch ;
width of the cordate area, 0.62 inch.

Genus Edmondia de Koninck. EdmoncUa neirascensls Geinitz, Meek,
U. 8. Geol. Survey Nebraska, p. 214, PI. x. Fig. 8. Astarte nehras-
censis Geinitz, Garbon. und Dyas in Nebraska, p. 16, PL i, Fig. 25.

A few poorly preserved specimens from the Tipper Coal Measures ot
Poteau mountain, Indian Territory, seem to belong to Meek's Nebraska
species.

Edmondia unionif or mis VlnWi^^, Geol. Yorkshire,Yo\.\\,'\).'iO^. Edmon-
dia unioniformis (?) Meek and Worthen, Paleont. Illinois, Vol. ii, p.
346, PI. xxvii, Fig. 6.
An imperfect cast from the Upper Coal Measures of Illinois was

doubtfully referred by Meek and Worthen to the European species.

The Arkansas specimens agree fairly well with Meek's figures and much

better with his descriptions, except that they have the concentric ribs

coarser.

Occurrence. — Numerous casts were found in the Lower Coal Measures,

"Millstone Grit," of Conway county, 8 N., 17 W., section 33, northeast

quarter of northeast quarter at Cook's stone quarry.

Class Olossophora.
Subclass Scaphopoda.

Genus Dentalium Liuntcus. Dentalimn conf. meekianum, Geinitz,
Carbon, u. Dyas in Nebraska, p. 13.
This species was described from the Permo-Carboniferous of Nebraska,
and was also found in the undoubted Upper Coal Measures of Illinois.
Imperfect specimens were also found in the Upper Coal Measures of
Crawford county, Arkansas, 10 N., 30 W., section 10, southeast quarter
of northwest quarter.

* Pal. Foss. Cornwall, Devon, and M'est Somerset, p. 33.

1896.] ^4J [Smith.

Subclass Oastro'poda.

Genus Bellerophon. Bellerophon carhonarhis Cox, Geol. Surv. Ken-
tucky, Vol. iii, p. 574, PI. x. Fig. 2. B. urii C. R. Keyes, Proc. Ac.

Nat. 8c. Phila., July 31, 1888, p. 14.

In the Lower Coal Measures of Conway county. Ark., 5 N., 16 W.,
section 17, centre of north half, were found specimens of this charac-
teristic Coal Measure species, but poorly preserved. Better ones were
found in the Lower Coal Measures of Conway county, 6 N., 16 W., sec-
tion 29, southwest quarter of southwest quarter.

BelleropJion crassus Meek and Worthen, Geol. Surv. Illinois, ii, p. 385,
PI. xxxi. Fig. 16.

This species is found in the Upper and Lower Coal Measures of In-
diana, in the Subcarboniferous and the Coal Measures of Pennsylvania,
and the Upper Carboniferous limestone of Nevada, etc. Good speci-
mens of it were found in the Lower Coal Measures of Conway county.
Ark., 5 N., 16 W., section 17, centre of the north half

Bellerophon marcouanus Geinitz, Carbon, u. Dyas in Nebraska, p. 7.

This species in the Upper Coal Measures of Kansas, Nebraska and
Iowa, in the Coal Measures of Illinois and West Virginia, and was found
in the Upper Coal Measures of Sebastian county. Ark., in 8 N., 32 W.,
section 12.

Bellero-phon sp.

In the Lower Coal Measures of White county, 8 N., 7 W., section 33,
southeast quarter, and section 26, southeast quarter in the massive
sandstone, were found several large imperfect specimens of a Bellero-
phon that resembles B. crassus, but it is probably a diflerent species ; it
is too imperfectly known for specific identification and description.

Genus Pleukotomaria, Defrance. Pleurotomaria modesta Keyes, Proe.
Ac. Nat. 8c. Phila., 1888> p. 238, PI. xii, Fig. 2. P. depressa Cox,
Geol. 8urv. Kentucky, iii, p. 569, PI. viii, Fig. 10.

A single specimen of this exceedingly delicate and beautiful species,
showing all the markings, was found in the Upper Coal Measures of
Crawford county, Ark., 10 N.. 30 W., section 10, southeast quarter.

Pleurotomaria conf speciosa. Meek and Worthen, I^'oc. Ac. Nat. 8ei.

Phila., 1860, p. 459; Geol. Surv. Illinois, Vol. ii, p. 352, PL xxviii.

Fig. 5.
One small imperfect specimen from the Upper Coal Measures of Po-
teau mountain, Indian Territory, shows the characters of the Illinois
species, although very much smaller. The well-defined suture and fine
ornamentations are similar on both and serve to make their identity
probable.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC, XXXV. 152. 2 F. PRIXTED DEC. 9, 1896.

Smith.] 250 [Oct. 2,

Pleui'otomaria tenuicincta Meek and Worthen, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci. Phila.,
1860, p. 459 ; Geol. Stirv. Illinois, Vol. ii, p. 355, PL xxviii, Fig. 3.
This species was described from tlie Upper Coal Measures of Illinois,
and a similar specimen was found in the same horizon on Poteau moun-
tain, Indian Territory.

Pleurotomaria liarii S. A. Miller, Seventeenth Annual Report State Geol-
ogist of Indiana, p. 693, PI. xiv. Figs. 3, 4.

This species was recently described from the Upper Coal Measures of
Kansas City, Mo , and until now has not been found anj'where else. It
is a very striking form and easily recognized. The rather rounded
whorls are about five in number and marked with numerous rather
coarse revolving ribs, which show traces even on the cast.

A single cast, and mold showing the surface markings, was found in
the Lower Coal Measures, so-called "Millstone Grit," of Conway
county, 8 N., 17 W., section 33, northeast quarter of northeast quarter,
at Cook's quarrj^ near Hattieville.
Pleurotomaria sp.

In the Lower Coal Measures of Conway county, 5 N., 16 W., section
17, centre of the north half; in Franklin county, 12 N., 28 W., section
27, southeast quarter of northwest quarter ; and in Pope county, on
Point mountain, 10 N., 20 W., section 8, southeast quarter of northwest
quarter, were found numerous specimens of Pleurotomaria, that while
they seem to belong to several distinct species could not be more accu-
rately identified. They are all preserved as casts and usually badly
weathered.

Genus EuoxrHALrs, Sowerby. Euoviphalus (StraparoUus) suhquad-

ratus Meek and Worthen, Geol. Surv. Illinois, Vol. v, p. 605, PI.

xxix. Figs. 12, 13.

This very common species was found in the Lower Coal Measures of

White county, xVrk., in 9 N., 4 W., section 6, and 9 N., 5 W., section 1,

in a soft pinkish sandstone, along with Phillipsia {Grifflthides) scitula

Meek and Worthen.

Euomphalus (StraparoUus) sp.

In the Lower Coal Measures of In(lci)endcnce county. Ark., 11 X.,
5 W., centre of section 9, was found a specimen of Euomphalus that
seemed to be different from E. subquadratus but could not be determined
with certainty.

Genus Natk^opsis, McCoy. Naticopsis nana Meek and Worthen. Platy-
ostonia nana Meek and Worthen, Pror. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phila., 1860,
p. 463. Natacopsis nana Meek and Worthen, Geol. Surv. III., ii,
p. 365, PI. xxxi. Fig. 4. Naticopsis nana Meek and Worthen, C. A.
White, U. S. E.rpl. W. of 100th Merid , iv, p. 159, PI. xii, Fig. 4.
This characteristic Upper Carboniferous siiecies is distributed from

251

[Smith.

Illinois to Nevada ; it was found in the Upper Coal Measures of Sebas-
tian county, Ark., 8 N., 33 W., section 12, associated with numerous
otlier fossils characteristic of tlie same horizon.

Nntkopsis sp.

In the Upper Coal Measures of Scott county. Ark., 1 N., 28 W., sec-
tion 4, southeast quarter of southeast quarter, was found a specimen of
Natiropsis that resembles somewhat N. slmmardi McChesney, found by
Dr. White in the Permian of Texas, Bull. 77, IT. S. Geol. Sun., p. 24,
PL iii, Fig. 11, but it is too imperfect to justify a reference to this species.

Genus Macrocheilus, Phillips. MacrocTieilus conf fusiformis Hall,
Geol. Surr. Lma, i, Part ii, p. 718, PL xxix; Fig. 7.

In the ferruginous slialc of the Lower Coal Measures of Conway
county, Ark., 5 X., 16 W., section 17, centre of the north half, were
found a few specimens that probably belong to Hall's Coal Measure
species.

MacrocJu'ilus (Solcniseus) primigenius Conrad, Hall, Geol. Sui'v. lotca,
Vol. i. Part ii, p. 720, PL xxix. Fig. 11.

This species is widelj^ distributed in the Coal Measures of the Missis-
sippi Valley states, and was also found in the Lower Coal Measures, in
Conway county. Ark., 5 IS"., 16 W., section 17, centre of the north half.

Genus Polyphemopsis, Portlock. Polyphemopsis inornata Meek and
Worthen, sp. Loxonema inornata Meek and Worthen, Proc. Ac.
Nat. Sc. PMla., 1860, p. 463. Polyphemopsis inornata M. and W.,
Geol. Surv. Illinois, li, p. 374, PL xxxi, Fig. 8.

This species, originally described from the Upper Coal Measures of
Illinois, was found in the same horizon in Crawford county. Ark., 10
N., 30 W., section 10, southeast quarter of northwest quarter.

Subclass Pteropoda.

Genus Conularia, Miller (Sowerby). Conularia conf . cj'ustulaWhite,
XII Am. Rep. U. S: Geol. and Geog. Surv. of Terr., 1878, p. 170,
PL xlii. Fig. 4; U. S. Expl. W. of 100th Merid.. iii, Appendi.x, p.
28, PL iii, Fig. 4.

The genus Conularia is not common in the Lower Carboniferous, but
is exceedingly rare in the Coal Measures, so much so that Dr. White
mentions this species as being the only representative in that series.
Dr. White found it in the'Coal Measures near Kansas City, and also
near Taos, N". M. The species has been found in the Coal Measures
of Texas, and also in the Coal Measures of Scott county, Ark., 1 N.,
28 W., section 4, southeast quarter of southeast cpiarter.

Smith.] ^5-^ [Oct. 2,

Class Cephalopoda.

Order TetrahrancTdata.

Suborder Nautiloidea.

Genus Endolobus, Meek aud Worthen. E/ulolobus {Nautilus) vds-
souriensis Swallow, sp., PL xxi, Figs. 1-8. Nautilus missouriensis
Swallow, Trans. St. Louis Ac. Sc, 1857, p. 198. Endolobus missourien-
sis Swallow, sp., C. A. White, Indiana Geol, Survey, 1883, p. Ui6,
PI. XXXV, Figs. 1, 2.

This species resembles very closely Endolobus spectabilis Meek and
Worthen, Geol. Siirv. Illinois, u, p. 308, PI. xxv, Fig. 18, and, as Dr. C. A.
White* remarks, almost the only reason for regarding them as distinct
species is their occurrence in such ditlerent horizons as the Chester Lime-
stone of the Subcarboniferous, and the Coal Measures. Also Dr. White's
specimen was i)oorly preserved, and he thought it might possibly have
had the nodes originally. It is really impossible to recognize the species
by Swallow's imperfect original description, but Dr. White's description
is very useful in determining this species, which in the Coal Measures
of Arkansas does not have nodes on the sides of the shell ; the difference
is all the more probable, because in the Fayetteville shale, Lower Car-
boniferous, of Independence county, near Mooretield, was found an
Eiidolobus, with very strongly marked nodes, resembling, if not identi-
cal with, E. spectabilis.

This species also resembles Endolobus {SolenocJieilus) indianensis
Worthen, Geol. Surv. Illinois, viii, p. 150, PI. xxviii, Fig. 1, but on the
Arkansas specimens the whorls are more embracing, are broader and
not so high.

In E. gibbosus Hyatt, Second An. Rept. Geol. Survey, of I'exas, p. 353,
the whorls are much more flattened, and the umbilicus is narrower,
and the umbilical shoulder subangular, while in E. missouriensis the
shoulders are round. In both, as in E. spectabilis, in adult specimens
the outer whorl embraces nearly one-half of the next inner whorl. The
septa are like those of E. spectabilis, and are far apart, genth' sinuous
and deeply concave. The internal lobe is deep and funnel-shaped.
The siphon is slightly nearer the internal than the external side, and is
slender.

The casts are smooth, but some specimens have the shell parti}' pre-
served. It is ornamented Avith tine, sharp, spiral lines crossed by finer
lines of growtli, about one-half as far apart as the spiral lines, giving a
finely reticulated appearance to the shell ; these transverse lines bend
sharply backward on the outside of the whorl.

In our collections are septate fragments of specimens that must luive
been at least four inches in diameter, and the body chamber would have
added about one-half of another revolution, so this species altaliied a
diameter of not less than six inches.

* Geol. Surv. Indiana, 1883, p. 166.

1896.] -^5d [Smith.

The best preserved specimens are small, being only the inner whorls
of large individuals, since the body chamber is not seen on any of them.
Dimensions of a small specimen, ligured on PI. xxi, Fig. 2 :

Dimensions. mm.

Diameter 28

Height of the last whorl from umbilicus 19

Height of the last coil from the top of the inner whorl. . 11

Position and Localiti/. — Several specimens of this species were found
in the Lower Coal Measures of Conway county, Ark., 5 N., 16 W., sec-
tion 17, centre of the north half.

Oenus Ephippioceras, Hyatt. Ephippiocerasf erratum Cox. Nautilus
ferratus Cox, Oeol. Surr. Kentucky, iii, Fig. 574, PI. x, Fig. 2.
Ephippiocerasf erratum Cox, A. Hyatt, Proc. Boston Soe. JVat. Hist.,
1883, p. 290.

A single large specimen that probably belongs to this species was
found in the Lower Coal Measures of Conway county. Ark., 5 N.,
16 W., section 17, centre of the north half. Owen, in his Report on a
Geol. Reeon. Arkansas, Vol. i, p. 68, cites NaMtilus ferratus from a bold
point three (?) miles nortliAvest of Searcy, "White county. The rocks of
that region are now known to belong to the Lower Coal Measures.

Nautilus sp.

In the Upper Coal Measures of Crawford county, Ark., 10 N., 30 W.,
section 10, southeast quarter of northeast quarter, were found frag-
ments of a Nautilus too imperfect even for reference to any of the
genera into which the old genus Nautilus has been split up.

Genus Ortiioceuas, Breynius. Ortliocevas crihrosum Geinitz, Carbon.
«.. Dyas in Nebraska, p. 4. Orthoceras cr-ibrosum Geinitz, Meek, V.
8. Oeol. Surv. Nebraska, p. 234, PI. xi. Fig. 18.

In the Upper Coal Measures of Poteau mountain, Indian Territory,
were found specimens of Orthoceras, showing the peculiar indentations
of surface supposed to be characteristic of this species. The markings
seem to be due to the growth of a bryozoon on the shell, for when
magnified they show six-sided cells. Meek, op. cif., p. 234, stated his
belief that this marking is accidental.

OHhoceras conf. rushense McChesney, New, Pal. Foss., p. 08. Orthoceras
rushense, C. A. White, Bull. 77, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 22, PL ii,
Figs. 14-16.

This species was described originally from the Coal Measures of
Indiana and Illinois, and Dr. C. A. White found it in the Permian of

Smith.] ^54 [Oct. •_>,

Texas. Some imperfect specimens that probably belong here were
found in the Upper Coal Measures of Scott county, Ark., 1 N., 28 W.,
section 4, southeast quarter of southeast quarter.

Orthoceras sp.

A long slender form Avith very close chamber walls could not be
identified with any species known from the Carboniferous, but the
specimens found were not perfect enough for specific description.

Locality. — This species was found in the Lower Coal Pleasures of
Conway county, 8 N., 17 W., section 33, northeast quarter of northeast
quarter, at Cook's quarry, near Hattieville.

Sul)order Am monoidea.

Tlie Gephalopoda alone, of all animals, preserve in the individual a
complete record of their larval and embryonic history, the protoconch
and early chambers being enveloped and protected by the later stages
of the shell. And by breaking oft" the outer cliambers the naturalist
can in effect cause the shell to repeat its life liistory in inverse order, for
each stage of growth represents some extinct ancestral genus. These
genera appeared on the scene in the exact order of their minute imita-
tions in the larval history of tlieir descendants, and by a stud}' of adult
forms in the order of their appearance the naturalist finds tlie key to tlie
stages of growtli of later forms, and is thus enabled to arrange species
and genera in genetic series. Studied in this way, paleontology becomes
a biologic science.

It has long been known that the goniatites were the ancestors of the
ammonites, and the researclies of Branco, Hyatt and Karpinsky have
traced out these lines of descent in many cases, by studying the succes-
sive genera of adult shells in comparison with stages of growth in the
individual. Eacli ammonite is known to begin its life as a goniatitc.
and only by gradually increasing complication to reach the amnion it ic
stage. This advance took place in some stocks much earlier than in
others, since some show ammonitic characteristics even in the Carl)()n-
iferous, while others persist in their goniatitic characteristics even in the
Trias. In the great majority of eases, Iiowever, the transition was made
near the end of Paleozoic time, that is, somewhere during the Carbon-
iferous or Permian.

Cldssifituitioii of Goiiiafitcs. — The goniatites have been dixidcd into
two great stocks or families, Goitiatif Ida' and Prolecanittda', l)oth of whicii
persist from the Devohian to the Permian. This classification, while
the best at present possible, is by no means satisfactory, for it is certain
that some of the forms ascribed to the ProUca/tifida' descended from
genera classified as Gonuititidic

The Qoniatitidm of the Carboniferous consist of the genera Brauvo

1896.] -^^^ [Smith.

ceras, Gli/pJiioceras, Gastrioceras, Paralegoceras, Nomhmoeeras, Pericy-
clus, Dimorpltoceras, with numerous subgenera. They comprise many
rough-shelled species, and on this account they are thought by Stein-
mann* to have given rise to the trachyostracan Ceratitidm and Tropi-
tidcE of the Trias. In this opinion also concurs Dr. K. A. von Zittel.f
as far as the TropiUdce. are concerned, for these, he thinks, liave been
developed out of Gastrioc-eras and Pericyclas.

The Prolecanitidce of the Carboniferous comprise the genera Prole-
canites, Pronorites. Agathieeras; all of which live on into the Permian
and branch out during that period into a number of genera and sub-
genera. Some of these genera live on into the Trias, and branch out
during that i^eriod into numerous f\imilies, whose Jurassic and Creta-
ceous descendants made up the bulk of the cephalopod faunas.

Besides the Goniatitidcn and the Prolecanitida of the Carboniferous,
the Ammonoidea are represented already in the Coal Measures of
America by the fiimilies Arcestida, in Popmioceras parkeriX Heilprin, of
the StraAvn division, Lower Coal Measures of Texas.

In the European Coal Measures the TropiUdce are represented by
Thalassoceras looneyi Phillips. Thalassoceras Avas described by Gem-
mellarog to include certain species of the Carboniferous and Permian,
and referred to the TropiUdce ; thi^ genus, along with ParacelUtes Gem-
mellaro, Gastrioceras, and some Permian forms referred to GlypMoce-
ras, are said by Mojsisovics|| to he the Paleozoic representatives of the
TropiUdce.

Family GoniaUtidce von Buch (Zittel).
Subfiimily GlyphioceraHdce Hyatt.

This group includes a series of forms that range from the Upper De-
vonian into the Permian. The older members have the siphonal lobe
undivided, thus showing their relationship to the older ProlecaniUdcB.
The form may be compressed and discoidal as in Brancocerus of the De-
vonian and Carboniferous ; or broadly rounded and involute, with
semilunular cross-section, as in most species of Glypldoceras ; or evo-
lute, with wide umbilicus, trapezoidal cross-section, and umbilical I'ibs,
as in most species of Gastvioeeras. The sutures are simple, consisting
of a siphonal lobe, which may or may not be divided by a secondary
siphonal saddle, and one or two pairs of lateral lobes, which are some-
what pointed, also usually a pair of short lobes on the umbilical shoul-
ders. The internal lobes consist of a long and rather pointed antisi-

* Elemente der Palaeontulooie, 1890, p. 393.

t Qrundziige der Palxonlologk, 1895, ]>. 405.

X The writer, in Journ. GeoL, Vol. ii, No. 2, p. 194, following Karpinsky in Ammoneen d.
Artinsk-Stufe, p. 92, referred the Popanoceras parkeri beds to the Artiusk stage, but Prof.
W. F. Cummins, of the Geological Survey of Texas, has pointed out to the writer the
true horizon of this species.

§ Oio)~nale Sci. Nat. Econom., Vol. xix, 1888, p. 67.

II Das Gebirge um Hallsladt, Bd. ii, p. 10

Smith.] ^5^ LOct. 2,

plioiial lol)e, and a pair of pointed lateral lobes. The saddles, both
external and internal are usually rounded, although even thej' may be-
come angular, as in old specimens of GlypMoceras sphcericum Martin.
The surface in most of the older members of the group is ornamented only
with strife, but in many, especially the later members, umbilical ribs are
developed, which in Pericyclus cross the abdomen. Periodic constric-
tions, or varices, representing temporary cessations of growth, are
found on most of the genera.

Hyatt * says that the GlypJiioceratidai are derived directly from the
group Magnosellaridm, as represented by Pavodkeras of the Devonian.
And, in fact, the development of Glyphoceras diadema Goldfuss, as
worked out by Branco.f shows at 2.25 millimetres diameter a decided
resemblance to the adult sutures of Tornoceras. The younger larval
sutures of this form show derivation from a radicle like Anarcestes.
PI. xix. Fig. 5, shows the development of Tornoceras (Parodiceras) re-
trorsum Buch, after Branco, in PalmontograpMca, Vol. xxvii, PI. v. Fig.
7. We thus have probably the complete genealogy of the Glyphiocera-
tidce in the larval stages of the two genera, GlypMoceras and Torno-
ceras. PI. xix. Fig. 4, shows the development of GlypMoceras diadema
Goldfuss, after Branco, in PaliBontogrupMea, Vol. xxvii, PI. iv. Fig. 1.

Oenus Gastrioceras, Hyatt.

This genus was originally established by Hyatt (Proc. Boston Soc, Nat.
Hist., Vol. xxii, 1883, p. 327) to include evolute species with open um-
bilicus, trapezoidal or semilunular cross-section, and usually ribs or tuber-
cles on the sides ; the species included by Hyatt in this genus all have
prominent siphonal saddles, first lateral saddle broadly rounded, second
lateral saddle broad but inclined to be pointed ; the siphonal lobes are
long, narrow and pointed, and the lateral lobes broad and pointed. In
all the species cited by Hyatt (loc. cit.) as belonging to Gastrioceras
there is but a single pair of lateral lobes visible, that is, on the sides of
the shell ; and in the Second Annual Report Geol. Survey of Texas, 1891,
p. 355, Hyatt limits Gastrioceras to forms with a single pair of lateral
lobes and with the second pair on the umbilical shoulders. Hyatt (loc.
cit.) refers G. russiense Zwetajew to liis genus Paralegoceras, because
that species has the second pair of lateral lobes on the sides of the shell
and not on the umbilical shoulders. But Gastrioceras russiense has just
the same number of lobes as all other known species of Gastrioceras,
namely nine in all, and lacks the lobe on the umbilical border, which is
characteristic of Paralegoceras. Another species, Gastrioceras baylor-
ense White (Bull. 77, U. S. Geol Survey, p. 19, PI. ii, Figs. 1-3), also
has two pairs of lateral lobes. White's figures and description do not
show whether the umbilical lobe is present or not ; if it is, G. baylorense
rightfully belongs with Paralegoceras, but it most probablj^ belongs in

*Proc.. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. xxii, 1883, p. 322.
t Palxontographica, Vol. xxvii, PI. iv, Fig. 1.

1896.] -^^7 [Smith.

the same group as G. russiensc. Dr. K. von Zittel, in Griidzilge der Pal-
leontologie, 1895, p. :599, confines Gastrioceras to forms with a single pair
of lateral lobes. But tlie relations of Gastrioceras, Glyphioceras and
Paralegoce.ras have been best worked out by Karpinsky,* who shows
that there is no marked distinction between Glyphioceras and Gastrio-
ceras ; that both have the same number of lobes and saddles — nine of
each ; that the second pair of lateral lobes may be on the umbilical
shoulders or on the sides of the shell, thus differing from Paralegoceras,
in which the third pair of lateral lobes is on tlie umbilical shoulders.
Gastrioceras usually has a trapezoidal cross-section and umbilical ribs;
but some species lack the ribs, as G. glohulosum M. and W., Avhile some
species of Glyphioceras have umbilical ribs and, in their youth, also the
elliptical cross-section, as Glyphioceras cliadema Goldfuss. But the two
extremes are widely separated from each other, as Gastrioceras jossce
Verneul and Glyphioceras sphcericum Martin.

This genus has been looked upon by Steinmannf as the ancestor of the
trachyostracan families of the Trias, the Ceratiiidm and the Tropitidve.
Dr. K. von Zittel % agrees with this opinion as to the origin of the Trop-
itido', but thinks the Geratitidm developed out of the Prolecanitidte.

Gastrioceras hranneri sp. nov. J. P. Smith, PI. xxiii, Figs. 1-6.

The adult shell is discoidal, with low, narrow wliorls of semilunular
cross-section ; the adult whorl is very evolute, embi-acing not more than
a third of the preceding one, and the increase in height and breadth is
extremely slow. The young whorls are proportionally broader and
more involute, so that the umbilicus of the younger part of the shell is
deeper, but widens rapidly with age, as the involution decreases.
G. branneri is the most evolute species of Gastrioceras known in the
Carboniferous, and approaches the narrow evolute Permian type,
described by Gemmelarog from Sicily ; but the Sicilian form still retains
the strong constrictions, and has also acquired the spiral striaj tliat are
characteristic of Permian Gastrioceras.

Dimensions. mm.

Diameter 39.5

Height of last whorl 10.5

Width of umbilicus 19.0

Breadth 15.0

Height of last whorl from top of preceding 8.0

The specimen shows nine whorls at the diameter of 89.5 mm.
Sutures. — The sutures consist of three external lobes and as many

* Mem. Acad. Impcr. Sei., St. Petersburg, vii Ser., Tome xxxvii, No. 2, " Ammoneen d>
Artinsk-Stufe," pp. 45-48.

t Elemente d. Palxontologie, 1890, p. 393.

X Grundzilge d. Palxontologie, 189J, p. 405.

§ Giorn. Sci. Nat. ed. Scan., Vol. xx, 1890, p. 31, PL D, Figs. 21-20, Gastrioceras waageni
Gemm.

PHOC. AMER. ririLos. soc. XXXV. 152. 2g. pkixted dec. 9, 1896.

Smitli.] -08 [Oct. 2.

Siuklles. The siphonal l()])es are lono-, narrow, and pointed ; the first
lateral broadly pointed, and on the nmbilical slioulder is another shallow
lolie, broad and pointed. Tlie siphonal saddle is narrow, with the usual
indentation at the end ; the first lateral saddle is broadly rounded and
deep, the second lateral saddle shallow and inclined to be pointed. The
inner lobes ai"e three in number, a long, narrow, pointed antisiphonal
lobe, and a pair of sliorter, pointed lateral lobes ; the four internal sad-
dles are rounded. The figures on PL xxiii, Fig. 5, a and h, show the
sutures to be characteristic of Gnstriocer'as ; but the second lateral lobe,
while on the i;mbilical shoulders, is plainly visible from the outside.
Thus the species might be referred to the genus Paralefjoceras of Hyatt ;
but it has onlj' nine lobes and nine saddles, while Paralcgoceras has
eleven of each. For a discussion of this see p. 256 under description of
the genus G(fstriocer<(s.

Surface Characters. — The shell is preserved on only a small portion of
the specimen, but the cast shows the generic and specific characters
quite as well. Obscure and somewhat doubtful constrictions were
observed, but the preservation is such that their interval could not be
ascertained. The umbilical shoulders are marked with rather weak
nodes or ril)s, whicli on the outer whorls reach uj) nearly to the
abdomiinil shoulders ; on the young shell they are relatively much
stronger.

Affinities. — Gastrioceras hrainieri belongs to the group of 6r. lister l
^lartin, G. jossee Verneul, and G. maricmum, all characterized by trape-
zoidal cross-section, umbilical ribs, pointed lobes and rounded saddles,
and evolute whorls. From the above-mentioned species G. hraimeri
differs in the narrowness of its whorls, and wide, shallow umbilicus ; it
seems to depart further from the Glyp]iiocer(ts stock than any other
Carboniferous species of the genus Gastriocrrax.

Occnrrence. — Gastrioceras hranneri was found along with Pronorites
eyclolohiis Phillips, var arkansiensis J. P. Smith, in Arkansas, on Pilot
mountain, Carroll county, three and a half miles southwest of Valley
Springs, in 17 N., 19 W , section 18, northeast corner, in the Lower Coal
]Measures, so-called "Millstone-Grit" (AlO of Prof. H. S. Williams'
section). About fifty-five feet below this horizon lie coarse, reddish
brown, fossiliferous limestone supposed to be the Chester beds of the
Lower Carboniferous.

The tj^pe, for the use of wliieh the writer is indel>1ed to Prof. H. S.
Williams, is the property of the LT. 8. Geological Survey (National
Museum), catalogue number Sta. 1275.

Gastrioceras (ih)hidosiim^\vi'\\;\\\i\^\i)Y\\\v\\. PI. xviii. Figs. !-(>. Gonia-
titesglohulosiis Meek and Worthen, J'roc. Acad. Nat. Sri. Phila.. 1800,
p. 47. Goiriatitcs (jlobulosas Meek, Geol. Sin'r.IUiitois, ii, p. 300, PI
XXX, Fig. 2. Gastrioceras (jlobulosam M. and W., sp , A. Hyatt,
P-oc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 1888, p. 827.

Tliis species resembles Gmtiatit-s (Gastrimu ra.s) hai/lmu /i.si.-< ^VIlite, of

18%.] ZbJ [Smith.

the Texas Permian, but the lobes of the latter are alone sufficient to sep-
arate the species, exceeding by one the number on the sides of G. globu-
losiim. The Texas species also has the umbilicus much wider and more
open, and is not so globose.

The angle of the umbilicus is 45°, which remains constant notwith-
standing the fact that the shell grows more involute with age, being in
its youth a comparatively open coil. In youth the whorls are flattened,
but with age they become more rounded, until the shell reaches almost
the form of Glyphioceras sphmriciim Martin. As many as six whorls are
known.

The deeply marked constrictions, that are so common in tlie family of
the Glyphioceratida', are seen on the casts, about four to a whorl.

Sutures. — The sutures show nine lobes and nine saddles ; the siphonal
lobes are narrow and pointed, the first lateral lobe is broad, but pointed,
and on the umbilical shoulder is a small, pointed "suspensive" lobe.
There are three pointed, internal (concealed by the involution) lobes,
of which the antisiphonal (dorsal) is the longer.

The siphonal saddle is rather deeply notched, long and narrow ; the
tw^o lateral saddles are broad and rounded. The two internal saddles
are rather pointed and long, as is the case with most species of this
genus. The internal lobes and saddles have never been seen before in
this species.

The septa are exactly like those figured by Meek and Worthen, so
that no further description of them is necessary ; they are typical of tlie
genus Gastrioceras, as characterized by Hyatt, although, as Karpinsky*
remarks, the sutures alone are not sufficient to separate the genera Gly-
phioceras, and Gastrioceras, since a comparison of the sutures of Gastri-
oceras jossm Verneul and Glyphioceras diadema Verneul (not Goldfuss)
shows the almost perfect similarity of the two.

The surface of the shell was unknown to Meek and Worthen, but
some of the Arkansas specimens have the shell partially preserved. It
is marked with fine, sharp, doubly arcuate, sickle-shaped stri* or ribs,
with the sinus on the ventral portion pointing backwards. This surface
ornamentation resembles that of Glyphioceras ohtusuin Pliillips, Geol. of
Yorkshire, ii, p. 285, PI. xix, Figs. 10-13, but the form is much more
globose, and the lobes unlike those of Phillips' species.

Dimensions. — One of tlie fragments shows a diameter of over two
inches ; on this onlj' the body whorl was seen, it being at least one coil
in length.

Bi/iicnsions of the Largest Figured Specimen.

MM.

Diameter 36

Breadth 27

Height of last whorl 14

*"Ueber die Ammoneen der Artinsk-Stufe," Man. Ac. Inper. Sci. St. Petersburg, vi
Series, Tome xxxvii, No. 2, p. 46.

Smith.] ^bO [Oct. 2,

MM.

Height of last whorl from centre of umbilifus 19

Heiffht of last whorl from top of the inner one 8

Width of umbilicus 9

These measurements show the adult shell to be verj' globose.

Position and Locality. — Several specimens of this very interesting spe-
cies were found in the Upper Carboniferous of Scott county, Arkansas, 1
X., 28 W., section 4, southeast quarter of southeast quarter, in beds sup-
posed to belong to the Barren Coal Measures ; but from this and asso-
ciated fossils seem more likely to belong to the Upper Coal Measures.
This species is also found in the Cisco division of the Texas Upper Coal
Measures.

Oastrioceras exeelsum Meek, PI. xvii, Fig. 1. Ooniatites globulosus var.
excelsus Meek, Bull. U. 8. Geol. and Geog. Survey Terr., No. 6,
second series, p. 445. Goniatites globulosus Meek and AVorthen
(pars), Geol. Sure. Illinois, Vol. ii, p. 390, Fig. 38.

This species was originally described from the Upper Coal Measures
of eastern Kansas, from Osage, associated with Spirifer cameratus
Morton, and Athyris subtilita Hall, and other species characteristic of
that horizon.

It resembles closely in everything but size Gastrioceras globulosum
Meek and Worthen of the Upper Coal Measvires of Illinois, and we
know too few specimens of the latter species to say that it did not grow
to the immense size of the Kansas species.

In the Lower Coal Measures of Pope county, Arkansas, 10 N., 20 W.,
section 8, southeast quarter of northwest quarter, was found a large sep-
tate fragment of a specimen that must have been five or six inches in
diameter, since the body chamber is at least one coil in length on all
nearly related species. The ventral (external) portion of the shell is
higher and not so rounded as in G. globulosum, but as has already been
noticed on that species the coil becomes with age rounder and more ele-
vated, and this may be only an advanced stage of growth not seen on
any of the smaller specimens. The lobes are almost exactly like those
of the small Gastrioceras globulosum of Meek and Worthen.

Gastrioceras marianum Y erne\x\, PI. xvi. Figs. 1-5. Goniatites mariamis
Verneul, Geol. of Russia, ii, p. 369, PI. xxvii, Fig. 2. Goniatites
jossce Verneul (pars), Eichwald, Let?i. Boss., i, p. 1324. Goniatites
listeri Martin (pars), var. 7Mario?, Gurow, Abhandl. d naturf. Gesell.
Charcoio, 1873, p. 87. Gastrioceras ■marianum Verneul ; Karpinsky,
Ammoneen der Artinsk-Stiife, p. 49.

This is easily distinguished from all other American species l)y its low,
broad whorl, wide and deep umbilicus, and the strong ribs on the umbil-
ical shoulders. These together with its sutures make it a most typical

189C,] ^^i ^ [Smith.

representative of the genus Gastnoceras. But there are species of Oas-
trioceras tliat are globose and not flattened, and without the umbilical
ribs or nodes ; also certain species have their sutures very angular. On
the other hand certain species of Glyphioceras have weak umbilical
nodes and rounded sutures.

This species is so closely related to Oastrioceras lister i Martin, sp.,
Petrif. Derb., PI. xxxv. Fig. 3, that they have been united by Gurow.
Others still are inclined to unite it with Glyphioceras diadema Goldfuss,
while many would join it with Oastrioceras jossm Verneul.

From G. josscB it differs in the almost total absence of spiral ribs or
striae, and in the wider and more angular umbilicus, but they are so
similar that G. marianum may be considered the ancestor of G. jossce.

The best mark of sejiaration from G. listeri is the greater number of
coils which G. marianum has, as many as seven being known on a
specimen of less than one inch in diameter.

G. kingii Hall and Whitfield, U. 8. Expl. Fortieth Parallel iv, p. 279,
PL vi, Fig. 9-14, is a closely related form, but diff'ers in having the
umbilical slope a little more gentle, the angle with the axis of the shell
being 40-45°, while that of G. marianum is about 37°. G. kingii has
fewer whorls to the same diameter. G. marianum also has the external
saddle not so deeply divided, and the two siphonal lobes are wider and
become somewhat broadened at the ends. The ribs on the sides of
G. marianum are much stronger. Weak spiral strife are seen on the
inner whorls.

The transverse lines of growth form incipient undulations on the
ventral portion of the shell. Strong constrictions occur both on the
cast and on the shell, on the body chamber, as well as on the rest of
the chambers, becoming weaker with age ; their number is about three
to a whorl, and the^^ curve forward, with a gentle sinus pointing back-
ward.

The ribs are strong on the sides, forming sharp nodes or tubercles,
and are continued across the ventral portion by fine undulations.
Towards the centre or umbilicus the ribs weaken very suddenly. The
sutures are like those figured by Verneul, but show also the small
"suspensive" lobe on the umbilical border, as described and figured
by Karpinsky.

The body chamber is at least one coil in length.

Dimensions. — Some fragments indicate a size of not less than two and
a half inches in diameter. The most perfect specimen has the follow-
ing dimensions :

MM.

Height of last whorl 9

Diameter , 30

Width of umbilicus 14

The breadth of the last whorl is about two-thirds of the diameter of

Smith.] 262 [Oct. 2,

the shell. Angle of umbilicus with the axis of the shell about 87^^.
These measurements agree very Avell with those given by Karpinsky.

The smallest of the Arkansas specimens gave the following dimen-
sions :

MM.

Diameter 8.5

Height of last whorl "2.5

Width of umbilicus 4.5

Breadth of last Avhorl li.O

These measurements agree closely with the measurements Karpinsky
gives of small specimens from the Urals. The proportions would be

Diameter 1.00

Height of last whorl .... 0.29

Width of umbilicus 0.53

Breadth of last whorl 0.70

These proportions agree very well with those given by de Verneul,
Geol. Russie cV Europe et des Mont, de V Oural, Vol. ii, p. 369.

Occurrence. — This species was originally described by Verneul from
the Upper Carboniferous limestone of Schartymka in eastern Russia,
C2, and does not occur in the Artinsk or Lower Permian deposits,
although it has been confused by many authors with Gustrioceras
jossce, which is characteristic of those strata. Karpinsky, in his mono-
graph on the Ammoneen der Artinsk- Sti/fe, pp. 50 and 51, describes the
differences that separate G. marianum from G. jossce and G. listeri;
the most striking of these distinctions is that on G. mariamim the con-
strictions have a weak sinus pointing backward, while on the others it
is forward.

We have therefore at least some evidence of an Upper Carboniferous
sea, stretching from the Ural mountains eastward to the Mississippi
valley. This would help to explain the fact that our marine Carbonifer-
ous fa\ma has more analogy to the Asiatic than to the western European
fauna of the same age.

G. marianum was found in the Upper Coal Measures in Scott county,
Ark., 1 N., 28 W., section 4, southeast quarter of southeast quarter.
This, or a very closely related species, occurs also in the Cisco division
of the Upper Coal Measures of Texas.

Gastrioceras, sp. indet. PI. xx. Fig. 1.

In the young stages this species resembles closeh' G. marianum Ver-
neul, bnt the umbilicus is nariower. The young whorl has also a
trapezoidal cross-section, each succeeding whorl becoming more highly
arched, until all resemblance to the Ural species is lost in the adult
stage.

The coil, too, sliows decidedly the plienouKMion calK'd by ^lojsisovics

18%.] ^^'^ [Smith.

"agression," ])y wliicli is meant a clianiie in the (lireetion of the spiral
iic:;()mpauied by widening of tlie umbilicus, so tliat witli age it Hares
open. Even witli the wide umbilicus of the adult stage, this species is
easily distinguished from (r. iiKiriarmm by its narrower and more highly
ai'clied whorls.

The sides of tiie whorl are ornamented with strong tubercles, which
on the young stages are like those of G. mariunum, but on the adult
form ribs reach halfway from the umbilical shoulders to the ventral por-
tion of the shell.

Constrictions are seen on the cast, aljout three or four to a revolution.
The surface of the shell is not known. The sutures arc like those of
G. maridnum, but the siphonal or external lobes are somewhat l)roader,
and the lateral lobes are longer, narrower and more pointed.

Tlie lateral saddle is broad, rounded and considerably shorter than
the lateral lobes. There is also a small auxiliary or "sttspensive " lobe
on the uml)ilical shoulders, like that of G. marianiim. The sutures
resemble still more closely those of GlypMocer'as diadema Goldfuss as
figured and described by DeKoninck in Description des Animaux Fos-
siles Terr. Garhoiiif. Behjiqne, p. 574, PI. 1, Fig. 1, e. But the Belgian
species is considerably more involute, has a lower whorl, and propor-
tionally narrower umbilicus. Also the umbilical ribs are much weaker
than on the Arkansas species.

Verneul, in Geol. Eiissie d' Europe et des Mont. Oural, Vol. ii, p. 367,
has described a goniatite as G. diadema, bitt this form is less like the
Arkansas species than the Belgian form. In addition to this, there is
no likelihood that all the forms referred to G. diadema are really one
species It is cxuite possible that the Arkansas species may be identical
with one of the many varieties ascribed to G. diadema, but at present it
is impossible to prove this.

Occurrence. — Several badly broken casts and moulds were found in
the Upper Coal Measures of Scott countj', Arkan.sas, 1 N., 28 W., sec-
lion 4, southeast qtiarter of southeast quarter, associated with Gastrio-
ccras tiKirianum Verneul, G. (jlohulosum Meek and Worthen, Pi'o-
noritcs sp., etc.

Genus Pabalegocekas, Hyatt. Paralegoceras iotoense Meek and
Worthen, PI. xix. Figs. 1-B. Goniatites iowensis Meek and Worthen ;
Geol. Surv. of Illinois, Vol. ii, p. 392, PI. xxx, Fig. 3. Paralego-
ceras iowense M. and W , Hyatt, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol.
xxii, 1883, p. 327. Paralegoceras ioicense M. and W., Hyatt,
Geol. Survey of Texas, Fourth Ann. Report, 1893, p. 474, Figs. 52-
55. Goniatites missouriensis Miller and Faber, Journ. Cincin. Soc.
Wat. Hist., Vol. xiv, p. 164, PL vi, Fig. 1.

The genus Paralegoceras is extremely rare, being known lieretofore
only from the Coal Measures of Iowa, the Upper Carboniferous and
Artinsk beds of Russia, and the Bend Formation of Texas, and in the
Upper Coal Measures near Kansas City, Missouri.

Smith.] -^"4: [Oct. 2,

The Arkansas specimen is a septate east that when complete must
have heen at least four inches in diameter. The whorl is broader and
rounder than on the Iowa specimen, but this is to be expected on a
young individual since the evolution of most of these forms takes place
after this manner. The whorls are quite Involute and the umbilicus is
narrow on the young shell, becoming wider as the shell grows older.
The surface of the cast is smooth, no constrictions or other ornamenta-
tions appearing on the older shell. But on the younger shell the um-
bilical shoulders show faint ribs, that shade off into tine undulations on
the sides. Hyatt has shown the same thing in Geol. Survey Texas, Sec-
ond Ann. Beiiort, p. 355. But in Texas specimen the ribs persist to a
much later stage than on that from Arkansas.

Dimensions. — Although the specimen was not well preserved, the
measurements of the entire form could be taken. They were as follows :

MM.

Diameter 55.5

Height of last whorl from umbilicus 25.5

Height of last whorl from top of inner whorl 17.0

Width of umbilicus 13.5

An inner coil taken out of the same specimen gave the following
measurements :

JIM.

Diameter 28.5

Height of last whorl from umbilicus 12.0

Height of last whorl from toji of inner whorl 7.5

Width of umbilicus 0.0

These show the inner coils to be much lower, less highly arched, and
less embracing than the outer ones.

Surface Markings. — On the inner whorls a trace of the shell is pre-
served, and is like that figured by Hyatt. The undulating stria' are like
those common on the Glyp/iioceratida'.

Sutures. — The sutures are like those figured by Meek and W^orthen,
but the siphonal saddle is notched by a small siphonal lobe. The three
external lateral saddles are broadly rounded, while the lobes are sharply
pointed. The lobes are eleven in number, three on each side, one on
each umbilical shoulder (suspensive lobe) and three internal, that is,
covered by the involution. The interior lateral lobes and the antisiph-
onal lobe (dorsal; are very sharp and long. These have not been seen
before on this species. The sutures approach very closely to those of
Gastrioccras russiense Zwetajew, but Paralegoceras ioicenseh^s, one more
pair of lobes than the Russian species and has also a suspensive lobe on
the umbilical shoulders. In the latter characteristic Paralegoceras
iowense resembles P. tschernyschcici Karpinsky (Ammoneen der Artinsk-
Stufe, p. 62, PI. iii. Fig. 1). Karpinsky {loc. cit.), has emended Hyatt's

1896.] '^t)0 [Smith.

genus to embrace tlioso forms with two lateral lobes and a "suspen-
sive" lobe on the umbilical shoulders. Hyatt, in the Geological Survey
-of Texas, Second Annual Report, 1891, p. 355, emended the genus Paral-
^goceras to include those forms with the second lateral lobe on the
iiimbilical shoulders, and he included in it GastiHoceras russiense Zweta-
jew. But the Russian species has the suspensive lobe on the side and
has onl}' nine lobes in all, and thus ought to remain in the group char-
acterized as Gastrioceras.

In the Fourth Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Texas, 1893,
p. 474, Hyatt has described under the name of Paralegoceras iowense
Meek and Worthen, a goniatite from the Bend Formation of Texas.
But the lobes are not exactly like those of the Iowa Coal Measures spe-
cies, the third lateral saddle is on the umbilical shoulders, and the
young shell is marked with ril)s which form well-defined tubercles, even
on the older shell. These difierences were explained by the supposition
that the Texas specimen was the young of Paralegoceras iowense, and
might thus naturally show them. But since the Arkansas specimen is
a young one and still shows all the characteristics of the adult, it
I)ecomes very likely that the Texas specimen belongs to another species.

There is also another reason why this is probable. The Bend Forma-
tion is called Coal Measures by the Geological Survey of Texas, but its
fauna seems to be identical with that of the Fayetteville shale of
Arkansas, which belongs to the Lower Carboniferous, and probably to
the Warsaw or St. Louis division. Species that are almost certainly
identical with Glyphioceras incisuni Hyatt and G. cumminsi Hj^att have
been collected in the Fayetteville shale of Arkansas. And since these
goniatites have unusually only a limited stratigraphic range, it is very
probable that the species from the Bend Formation is not identical with
that from the Coal Measures.

Occurrence — A single specimen oi Paralegoceras ioicense was found in
Arkansas, in the Lower Coal Measures of Conway county, 5 N., 16 W.,
section 17, near centre of north half. The species was originally
described from the Coal Measures of Iowa and since then has not been
cited from any other locality up to the present occurrence, unless the
Texas species of Hyatt should be the same. There can, however, be
very little doubt that Goniatites misso uriensis Miller and Faber {Journ.
Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. xiv, p. 164, PI. vi. Fig. 1), from the
Upper Coal Measures of Missouri, near Kansas City, is identical with
Paralegoceras iowense Meek and Worthen.

Family Prolecanitidce Hyatt.

The Prolecanitida', as originally described bj^ Hyatt,* included cer-
tain elements that do not belong to this stock ; but, as revised by Kar-
pinsky,f it forms the most perfect genetic series known, radiating from

* Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. xxii, p. 331.
■^Ammoneen der Artinsk-Stufe, pp. 41-45.

PKOC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 152. 2 H. PRINTED DEC. 9, 189G.

Smith. I ^Ob [Ot-t. 2.

the common radicle, Ibergiceras, in several parallel series or subfamilies,
including the Medlicottinm, the NoritinK, and the Lecanitince of the
Permian and Trias, the Piiiacoceratidiv of the Trias, and the Amolthei-
d(K of the Trias, Jura and Cretaceous.

Dr. K. von Zittel* says that this family jirobahly also gave rise to llie
Ceratitidxe of the Permian and Trias.

Genus Pronorites, Mojsisovics.

In the adult stage Pronorites is discoidal, has high, narroAv whorl,
with nearly parallel sides, is very involute, and has narrow umbilicus.

The siphoual lobe is three-pointed, the first lateral lobe divided into
two or three parts by secondary sinuses. In addition to these there are
several auxiliary lateral lobes, three to six, all slightly pointed, while
all the saddles are rounded. No constrictions or other surface ornamen-
tations are known, except that on the adult body-chamber faint ribs
liave been observed.

The first septum of Pronorites is latisellate, and the broad sinus is soon
divided by a siphonal lobe into two lateral sinuses (PI. xxiii, Fig 7).
This is the end of the embryonic stage, in which the shell is seen to
belong to an ammonoid cephalopod, but the familj' is not yet indicated.

In the next stage the lateral sinuses are subdivided hy broad, rounded
lobes ; the sutures then resemble those of Goiiiatites (Ihergiceras) tetrti-
goitus Roemer of the Upper Devonian, and the shell is in the beginning
of the larval or nepionic stage (PI. xxiv, Fig. 9ft) ; a little further on the
sutures are like those of a Prolec/inites (P. serpentinus Phillips), and
the larval stage is approaching its end.

In the following or neanic stage the siphonal lobe becomes three-
pointed, and the shell corresponds to Paraprolecauites Karpinsky.t and
its familj^ affinities are beyond doubt (PI. xxiv, Fig. db).

With the adult or ephebic stage the first lateral lobe becomes divided
into two or three parts (PI. xxiv, Fig. 9c-/). With this stage the genus
Pronorites stops. But C4emmellaro:j: has described from the Permian of
Sicily a further development of this form in the genus Ptirapronorites,
in which the double latei-al lobe and some of the simple ones become
serrated.

Another line of develojiment of Pronorites has been described by
Gemmellaro (oj). cit.) as SicDifes, in which all the lateral lol)es
become double like the first one. The next higher stages are given by
Medlirottin Waagen, in which the siphonal saddles become indented and
ammonitic. Karpinsky§ shows that Jledlicottia in its development
goes through the Ibergiceras, Prolecanites, Pnriiprolecdiiiten, Pronorites.
Sicanites and Promcdlicottia stages.

* Grundzuge der Palxontologie, 1S95, p. 400.

\ Ammoneen der Artinsk-Stiife, p. 7.

I Fauna Calc. Famlinn d. Valle d. Jium Sosio, 1S'^7, \i. (JO.

§ Amiiiimcen der Artiiisk-Stiifi , p. 41. •

267

[Smith.

Thus the finding of Pronorites in Arkansas is of great importance,
since it is tlie ancestor of a form Medlieottia, which tliougli unknown
in Arkansas, has been found at no great distance away in the Texas Per-
mian.* Pronorites, on the otlier liand, lias not yet been found in Texas.

These occurrences lielp to prove the continuity of life from the Car-
boniferous into the Permian, and to show that the same conditions
existed here as in the Artinsk region of the Ural mountains, where the
Carboniferoiis beds contain the goniatites out of which most of the Per-
mian ammonites were developed.

Pronorites <\i/rlolotjus Phillips, variety arkiinsiensis J. P. Smith, PI. xxiv,
Figs. 1—4. Oonidtites cydolobus Phillips, Geol. Yorkshire, Vol. ii,
p. 237, PI. XX, Figs. 40^2. Goniatites cydolobus Phillips, Verneul,
Geol. Russia and the Ural Mountains, Vol. ii, p. 370, PL xxvi, Fig. 4.
Goniatites cydolobus Phillips, Roemer, Palceontographica, ix, p.
167, PI. xxvii, Fig. 1. Goniatites cydolobus Phillips, DeKoninck,
Faune calc. Carh. Belcj., Vol. ii, p. 121, PI. 1, Figs. 5, 6. Pronorites
cydolobus Phillips, (variety tiralensis) Karpinskj', Mem. Acad. Iin-
per. Set. St. Petersbourg, vii series. Tome 37, No. 2, p. 8, PI. i. Fig. 4.

Phillips' original description of Goniatites cydolobus is as follows :
"Discoid, sides flat, back broad, inner whorls half concealed, septa
with four round lateral lobes, a small double dorsal lobe, and small
acute dorsal sinuses, the first lateral sinus double, the others simple, all
round."

This description is too meagre to be of more than generic value, and
also the term "dorsal " is used where now "abdominal " is in common
use.

The shell is smooth, discoidal, very involute. The sides are nearly
parallel and the breadth increases very slowly ; the abdominal shoul-
ders are nearly square, and the abdomen flat. The whorls are deeply
embracing and increase rapidly in height. The umbilical shoulders are
square, the umbilicus narrovr and deep, and increases slowly in diame-
ter.

Dimensions. — The specimen, Avhich was septate throughout, gave the
following dimensions :

MM

Diameter 34.0

Height of last whorl from umbilical shoulders 17.5

Breadth 10.0

Width of umbilicus 7.0

This gives the proportions: 1: 0.5: 0.29: 0.20 : which agree almost
exactly with Karpinsky's figures, 1 : 0.5 : 0.30 : 0.20. On the Arkansas
specimen the involution is shown by the height of the last whorl from
the top of the next inner one, 12.5 mm. as compared with ihe total

*C. A. White, Bull. 71 U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 21.

Smith.] -"OO [Oct. 2,

height of the whorl which is 17.5 mm. No measurements of this rela-
tion were shown on the Russian specimen.

This description applies onlj" to the adult shell, the relative measure-
ments of the nepionic and neanic shells being very ditferent. The
Arkansas specimen showed onlj- the last whorl, but the young stages
have been worked out by Karpiusky,* from whose work the following
description is translated : "Around the cylindrical embryonic chamber
(PI. xxiii, Fig. 8) are coiled very evolute whorls, whose involution
increases gradually, but at first only in slight measure (PI. xxiv. Fig. 8)-
So, for example, the fourth whorl embraces at the beginning only about
one-fourth of the preceding ; thus the height of the evolute portion of
this fourth whorl is six or seven times as great as that of its own invo-
lute portion.

With later stages of growth the involution increases so that the
whorls become finally completely embracing, and probably conceal a
portion of the umbilicus. Because of this mode of growth the umbili-
cus appears at first broad, and increasing rapidly, then only gradually,
and finally not at all, while the whorl continues to grow in height with
great rapid it j'. Thus, at a diameter of the whorl of four or five milli-
meters, the umbilicus is about one-half of the total diameter, and at
thirty mm. only about one-fifth. The first and second whorls have a
broad elliptical cross-section (PI. xxiv. Fig. 8), while that of the succeed-
ing whorls becomes higher, with the long elliptical axis vertical (PI. xxiv,
Fig. 6), and then finally the fianks are bounded bj' almost parallel lines
and the siphonal side is only slightly arched."

Ontogeny. According to Karpinsky,f the first or typembryonic stage is
latisellate, that is the suture consists of a broad abdominal saddle ; this
saddle is next divided by a broad siphonal lobe (PL xxiii. Fig. 7 k

The next stage corresponds to the genus Ibergiceras Karpinsky, of which
Oon. tetragonus Roemer, of the Upper Devonian, is the type ; in this
the whorls are broad, low and only slightly embracing, the umbilicus
wide and shallow. The sutures consist of a long rather narrow sipho-
nal lobe, and two bi'oadly rounded lateral lobes. This is the nepionic
or larval stage (PI. xxiv, Fig. 9a). In the continuation of this stage the
whorls become higher, and the lobes more complicated, corresponding
to the genus Frolecanites, of which Gon. henslotci Phillips and Gon.
serpentinus Phillips are types.

In the next stage the shape of shell does change materially, but the
siphonal lobe becomes three-pointed (PL xxiv, Fig. 9&); this is the
neanic or youthful stage, and corresponds to the genus Puraprolecanites
Karpinsky, of which the type is Gon. mixolohus Sandberger (not Phil-
lips) (Verstein, Rhein. Schichten-Systein in Nassau, p. 07, PL iii, Fig.
13?; PI. ix, Fig. 6).

The further development consists in the division of the first lateral

* Ammoiicen der Artinsk-Stvfe, p. 8.
t Oji. cit., p. 4 et seq.

1896.J -t)J [Smith.

lobe by a secondary saddle ; the shell is then in the ephebic or adult
stage, and in Pronorites gets no higher in its development.

The sutures are then constant in shape, and consist of a three-pointed
siphonal lobe, a tirst lateral lobe deeply divided by a secondary saddle
and five secondary lateral lobes outside the umbilical border, and one
on the umbilical shoulder. All the lobes are pointed, and the saddles
rounded. The inner lobes, covered by the involution, are unknown.

The sutures, as figured on PI. xxiv, Fig. 4, show some difterences from
those figured by Phillips, PI. xxiii, Fig. 9, and by Karpinsky,* PI. xxiv,
Fig. 9/. On the Arkansas specimen the three-pointed siphonal lobe is
longer than on the type of Phillips, or the variety P. cyclolobus, variety
uralensis Karpinsky, the secondary sinus on the first lateral lobe is deeper,
and the second lateral lobe is proportionally longer. In this the Arkan-
sas specimen does not depart further from the type than the variety
uralensis. But if this difference should be thought to be of sufficient
importance to characterize a new variety, the name P. cyclolobus Phil-
lips, variety arkansiensis is proposed.

Surface Markings. — The shell is smooth and devoid of constrictions
or other ornamentation, but on the body chamber of the adult, Kar-
pinskyf observed weak ribs, that are stronger on the abdomen and grow
A\ eaker towards the umbilicus.

Affinities. — Tliis species is certainly a variety of Pronorites cyclolobus
Pliillips ( Geol. Yorkshire, Vol. ii, p. 237, PI. xx, Figs. 40-42), but is more
involute at the corresponding diameter, and has a narrower umbilicus
and a greater number of lateral lobes. Specimens described by De
KoninckJ from Belgium, and by Roemerg from the Hartz mountains in
Germany, agree perfectly with the type of Pi'onorites cyclolobus ; the
English, Belgian and German beds, in which the species was found, are
all older than the Lower Coal Measure horizon in Arkansas in which it
was found, and considerably older than the Upper Carboniferous lime-
stone, in which it was found in the Ural mountains From this Kar-
pinsky || thinks the variety uralensis represents a mutation from the type
of the species.

The form from the Pyrenees described by Barrois^ as Pronorites
cyclolobus Phillips has been shown by Karpinsky** to be a new species,
P. barroisi Karpinsky. This form is more evolute than even the type
of P. cyclolobus, and its lobes and saddles are broader and also less
numerous.

Occurrence. — Pronorites cyclolobus Phillips, variety arkansiensis J. P.
Smith, was found with Oastrioceras branneri, sp., nov. J. P. Smith, in

* Ammoneen der ArUnsk-Stufe, PI. I, Fig. 4 1.
t Op. cil., p. 9, PI. I, Fig. 4 c and d.

I Faune dii Calc. Carbon Belgique, Vol. ii, p. 121, PI. 1, Figs. 5 and 6.
^, Pahtonlngraphica, Vol. ix, p. 167, PI. xxvii, Fig. 1.

II Ammoneen d. Artinsk-Shi/e, p. 10.

^ Re.' Ii'i-clie.-; s. I. ten: anc. d'Asturies ei de la Gallce, 1S82, p. 295, PI. xiv, Fig. 2.
♦* L'/c. eil.

Smith.] -^'^ [Oci. 2,

Arkansas, on Pilot mountain, Carroll count}', three and a half miles
southwest of Valley Springs, in 17 N., 19 W., section 18, northeast
corner, in the Lower Coal Measures, so-called "Millstone Grit." The
beds are called A 10 in Prof H. S. Williams' section ; below them lie
fifty-five feet of micaceous sandstones and shales (A 9 of the section),
and below that coarse, reddish-brown fossiliferous limestone, supposed
to represent the Chester horizon of the Lower Carboniferous.

The type figured on PI. xxiv, Figs. 1-4, is the property of the Ignited
States Geological Survey (National Museum), catalogue number Sta.
13To. The writer is indebted to Prof. H. S. Williams for the use of the
type.

Other Localities — Pronorites cyclolobus has been found in England in
the upper part of the Mountain limestone ; in Belgium in the limestone
of Vise ; in the Kohlenkalk of the Hartz, in Germany, and the variety
urnlensis has been found in Russia in the Upper Carboniferous lime-
stone of the Ural mountains in C 2 of the section.

Froiiorites, sp. indet., PI. xx. Fig. 2.

In the Upper Coal Measures beds of Scott county, Arkansas, 1 N., 28 W.,
section 4, southeast quarter of southeast quarter, wasf<mnd a single frag-
ment that seems to belong to this genus. It is septate, and must have
belonged to an individual about two and a half inches in diameter. The
sides are smooth and little embracing and almost parallel ; the coil is
thin and discoidal, and the ventral or external portion seems to be only
slightly arched. From the umbilicus towards the ventral portion are
seen five lateral lobes that are long and pointed, the saddles being some-
what rounded. The siphonal lobe and part of the first lateral lobe are
not seen, that part of the shell being worn so that they cannot be made
out, l)ut enough of the first lateral lobe is visible to show the secondary
sadtUe that divides it. The septa are very close together, as seems to be
the case on all species of this genus.

The nearest known relative is Pronorites cyclolobus Phillips, var.
nralensis Karpinsky, Die Ammoneen der Artinsk-Stufe, p. 8, PI. i. Fig. 4.
The lobes figured on PI. i. Fig. 4, of Karplnsky's monograph are very
like those of the specimen from Scott county, and the general shape of
the coil, the height and the amount of the involution are about the same
on both.

Class Crustacea.

Order Trilohiti^.

Genus PuiLLirsiA, Portlock Phillipsia cliftonensis Shumard, PI. xxii^

Fig. 5. Phillipsia cliftonensis Shumard, I'rans. St. L. Ac. lSci.,\o\.

i, ]). 22G. Compare Phillipsia scitula Meek and Worthen, F. B.

Meek, U. >S'. Geol. Surv. Mbra.s/,a, j). 2:58, PI. vi, Fig. 9.

A single well-preserved pygidiuni seems to belong to Shumard's

271

[Smilli.

specie?. It is longer than wide, semi-elliptical. The axis is very promi-
nent, has from thirteen to fourteen segments, and tlie furrows on each
side are deep. The segments on the lateral lobes are sharply defined
and are eight in number ; Shumard mentions only seven on his speci-
men, but that slight difference is no obstacle to identity of species, since
the number varies with age. These lateral segments do not reach the
border, but terminate in a lateral furrow whicli surrounds the pygi-
dium. The species is closely related to P. stitula Meek and Worthen,
but that species has only eleven axis segments and seven on the sides.
]\Ieek Avas of the opinion that the specimen described as P. scitnla in
U. S. Geol. Surv. Nebraska, p. 238, might very possibly belong to
P. cUftoiwnsis, but Shumard had seen only a pygidium and had no
means of characterizing the rest of the body.

Phillijisid major Shumard, figured by Meek in U. jS'. Geol. Sure.
JVebrrfska, PI iii, Fig. 2, grows much larger than our specimen, and has
twenty-two to twenty-three segments on the axis and twelve to thir-
teen on the sides. These end abruptly at the lateral furrow, which is
much wider than that on P. cliftonensis.

Occarrence and Locality. — A single well-preserved p^'gidium was
found in the Upper Coal Measures of Poteau mountain, Indian Terri-
tory, associated with a fauna similar to that of the Upper Coal Measures
or Permo-Carboniferous of Nebraska.

P/iilUpsia {GriffithkJeH) «ct7/;?rt Meek ami Worthen, Proc. Ae Scl. PJtila.,
1865, p. 270, and Paleont. 111., Vol. v, p. 612, PI. xxxii. Fig. ?>.
A pygidium from the Lower Coal Measures of White county, Arkan-
sas, 9 N., 4 W., section 6, and another from similar strata in 9 N., 5 W.,
section 1, show the characteristics of this species, but are too imperfect
to figure

PJdlUpsia, sp.

In the Lower Coal Measures of Johnson county, Arkansas, 11 X., 24
W., section 26, southeast quarter of southwest quarter, was found a
pygidium of Phillipsia that could not be identified with certainty,
although it probablj' belongs to one of the known species.

Phillipsia (Grijfithides) ornata A.W.Vogdes, PI. xxii. Fig. 6. Grifflthides
ontata A. W. Vogdes, Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., Ser. ii, Vol. iv, p. 589,
"Notes on Palaeozoic Crustacea, No. 4. On a New Trilobite from
Arkansas Lower Coal Measures," by A. W. Vogdes.
The following description is copied from an advance sheet kindly fur-
nished by Capt. Vogdes :

"The only specimen of this new species was discovered in Conway
county, Arkansas, and consists of a head shield which is unfortunately
not quite perfect, only exhibiting the right side and part of the glabella,
witli portions of the thorax and an entire pygidium ; but it shows suffi-
cient new characters to authorize us in considering it as a new species.

smith. J ^i^ [Oct. 2,

" The head shows that the latero-posterior augles are produced into
short spines extending to about the third segment of the thorax, the
glabella is pyriform, gibbous in front, and destitute of lateral furrows ;
basal lobes prominent The posterior border of the glabella has two
small, round nodes. The cervical lobe is broad and well marked, much
broader than the axial lobes.

"The thorax exhibits imperfectly parts of the pleura' and also the axis.
Thorax with nine segments. The axis shows a series of nodes running
through the centre of each ring. The pleurae are smooth, each pleural
groove extending slightly beyond the fulcral point ; the extremities are
probably rounded, but this is not indicated by the imperfect specimen
now before us.

"Thepygidium exhibits both in the axis and lateral lobes distinct
segmentation. The axis does not extend to the posterior margin. The
entire pygidium is surrounded by a marginal border, which widens out
slightly anteriorly.

"The tail is parabolic in form, very convex and not as broad as the
head, measuring on its anterior border 12 mm. The axis is broad, con-
ical and prominent, occupying a little less than one-third the width of
the tail on the anterior margin. It is marked with eleven rings ; these
become smaller and smaller and end in an obtuse point. Each ring is
distinctly ornamented along the centre by a series of nodes, arranged
into three double rows of two each. The sides of the axis are smooth.

" The lateral lobes are slightly flattened on top to the fulcral point.
They are marked with seven pleurae ; the grooves between the pleurse
are deep and distinct, each being rounded on top and ornamented with
a single node at the fulcral point; here they bend suddenly and join
the marginal border.

''Locality and Position.— hovi-er Coal Measures, T. 5 N., R. 16 W.,
section 17, near centre of northwest quarter of the section, Conway
county, Arkansas. From the collection of the Geological Survey of
Arkansas.

"Affinities and Differences. — This species in some of its features resem-
bles Phillipsia rcemeri WoWer (Ueber die Trilobiten Steinkohlenformatioti
des Ural, PI. ii. Fig. 17), especially in the markings of the tail, which
shows seven pleunt ornamented by a single node at the fulcral joint,
but it difters in form and especially in the marking of tlie axial lobe, so
much so that it could not be placed under ]VI611er's species. There is
also a resemblance of this species with Phillipsia {Griffithides) scitula
Meek and Worthen, from the Illinois Coal Measures. It has the same
number of rings in the axis of the tail, and the same characteristic
pleurae and ornamentation, but the Arkansas species difters greatly in
size and also in the number of pleurae, seven instead of six. The axis
is not as wide as in Griffithides scitula and not distinctly flattened on
each side. The limb, although moderately wide and smooth, is not
depressed or nearly flat, but convex. Secondly, the ornunicntation of

1896.] -"'^ [Smith.

the axis is entirely different, so much so that it would not warrant its
reference to the Illinois species.

"It is doubtful in our present state of knowledge whether PhilUpsia
( Griffithides) scitula M. and W. should not be referred to the older name
of PhilUpsia cliftonensis Shumard, from the Upper Coal Measures,
Clifton Park, Kansas, described from a pygidium. Dr. Shumard says
that the axis has from thirteen to fourteen subgranulose rings and seven
side segments. A thorough study of all these allied sj^ecies may neces-
sitate their reference to the older name ; but for the present it would be
advisable to give the Arkansas species a new name on account of the
ornamentation of its tail."

Class Arachnoidea.
Order XipJwsura.

Genus undetermined. Prestwichia '?

In the Lower Coal Measures of White county, Arkansas, 9 N., 4 W.,
section 6, was found the mould of a part of the body of a crustacean
that seems to belong to the family of the Hemiaspidw, and yet differs
from all known genera of this family in being armed with two rows of
spines instead of only one.

Too little of the body is known for a generic description.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXY. 152. 2 I. PRINTED DEC. 17, 1896.

Smith ]

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EXPLANATION OF PLATES.*
Plate XVI

Fig. 1. Gi'strioccras mnrian urn Verneul 200

1 a. Side view.

1 h. Kear view.

Fig. 2. G. marinnum, artificial cast, magnified twice.

2 (I.. Front view.

2 5. Side view.

Fig. o. G. marianum, largest specimen.
8 n. Side view.

3 &. Cross section ofwhorL
Fig. 4. G. marianum, artificial cast.

Fig. 5. a, b, e. G. 'marinnum, showing the development of the sutures.

Plate XVII.

Fig. 1. Gastrioceras cicelsum Meek 2G0

1 a. Side view.

1 b. Cross section of whorl.

1 c. Sutures.

Plate XVIII.

Fig. 1. Gastrioceras globulosum Meek and Worthen 258

1 a. Side view of small specimen.

1 b. Front view of small specimen.
Fig. 2. G. globulosum, artificial cast from a mould.

2 a. Side view.
2 b. Front view.

Fig. ;J. G. globulosum, sutures, enlarged twice.
Fig. 4. G. globulosum, cast showing surface markings.
Fig. 5. G. globulosum, small glohose specimen doubtfully referred to
this species.
5 (t. Front view.

5 b. Side view.

Fig. G. G. globulosum, small specimen showing the low flattened whorl.

6 a. Side view.
6 b. Front view,

Plate XIX.

Fig. 1. Paralegoceras iowense Meek and Worthen 263

1 a. Side view, partly restored.
lb. Front view.

Fig. 2. P. iowense, inner whorl taken out of the large specimen shown
in Fig. 1.

2 a. Side view.

2 b. Front view.

♦Where not otherwise stated the figures are all natural size.

Smith.J ^^* [Oct. 2,

Fig. 3. P. iowense, sutures.

3 a. Sutures taken from the inner wliorl of 25 millimeters

diameter.
3 b. Sutures on the outer Avhorl.
Fig. 4. Glyphioceras diadema Goklfuss, showing development of the
sutures (after Branco, Palceontographka, Vol. xxvii, PI.
ix, Fig. 1).

4 a. First suture.

4 b. Second suture.

4 c. Third suture.

4 d. At 1.25 millimetres diameter.

4 e. At 2.25 millimetres.
4/. Adult.

Fig. 5. Tornoceras retrorsum v. Buch (after Branco).

5 a. First suture.

5 b. Second suture.

5 c. At 1.75 millimetres diameter.

5 d. At 2.50 millimetres.

5 e. At 10 millimetres, adult.

Plate XX.

Fig. 1. Gastrioceras, sp. indet 2(52

1 a. Side view of a composite artificial cast, from three speci-
mens.
1 b. Side view of a septate fragment.
1 c. Cross section of whorl.

1 d. Sutures.

Fig. 2. Pronorites, sp 270

2 a. Side view of septate fragment.
2 b. Cross section of whorl.

2 c. Sutures.

Plate XXI.

Fig. 1. Endolohus missouviensis Swallow 252

1. Side view of large specimen.
Fig. 2. Endolobns missouriensis Swallow.

2 «. Side view of small specimen.

2 b. Rear view of small specimen.

2 c. Front view of small specimen, twice enlarged
Fig. 3. Endolobus missotii'iensis Swallow.

3 a. Dorsal view, shewing internal lobe
3 6. Concave side of chamber.

3 c. Convex side of chamber.
3 d. Chamber, from the side.

1896.] ^y*^ ISinilh.

Plate XXII.

Fig. 1 . Conocardium aliforme Sowerby 347

1 a. Side view, natural size.

16. Side view of anotlier specimen, twice enlarged.
Fig. 2. Conocardium aliforme Sowerby.

3 a. Another specimen, from aliove.

2 b. From front,

3 c. From side.

Fig. 3, Schizodus cuneatus Meelv 245

3 a. Side view.

3 b. Front view.

Fig. 4. Schizodus wheelcri Swallow 246

Fig. o. Phillipsia cliftonensis Shumard 370

5 a. From above, twice enlarged.

5 b. Side view, twice enlarged.
Fig. 6. Phillipsia {Griffithidcs) ornata Vogdes, twice enlarged 371

Plate XXIII.

Gastrioceras branneri, sp. nov., J. P. Smith 257

Fig. 1. Side view.

Fig. 2. Front view.

Fig. 3. Rear view.

Fig. 4. Cross section.

Fig. 5. Sutures of adult, twice enlarged.

Fig. 6. Sutures at diameter 33 millimetres, twice enlarged.
Pronorites prmpermictis Karpiusky (to show the young stages. After
Karpinsky, Ammonecn d.Artinsk-Stufe, PI. i. Fig. 3 e, f,g).

Fig. 7. First two sutures.

Fig. 8. Embryo-chamber.
Pronorites cyclolobus Phillips (Geol. Yorkshire, Vol. ii, PL xx, Fig. 42).

Fig. 9. Sutures, twuce enlarged.

Plate XXIY.

Pronorites cyclolobus Phillips (variety arkansiensis J. P. Smith) .... 267
Fig. 1. Side view, Arkansas specimen.
Fig. 2. Rear view, Arkansas specimen.
Fig. 3. Front view, Arkansas specimen.
Fig. 4. Sutures, Arkansas specimen.
Fig. 5. Side view of Ural Mountains specimen (after Karpinsky, Am-

moneen d. Artinsk- Stiife, PI. i, Fig. 4 a, b).
Fig. 6. (After Karpinsky, Ammoneen d. Artiiisk-Stufe, PI. i. Fig, An.)
Fig, 7. (xifter Karpinsky, Ammoneen d. Artinsk-Stufe, PI. i. Fig. 4 m,)
Fig, 8, (After Karpinsky, Ammoneen d. Artinsk-Stufe, PL i, Fig. 4 e, /. )
Fig. 9. Showing development of the sutures, from the Ibergiceras to
the Pronorites stage, after Karpinsky (PL i, Fig. 4 g-l).

^86 [Oct. 2,

Stated Meeting, October ;?, 1896.

The President, Mr. Fraley, in tlie Cliair.

Present, 13 members.

]\[inutes of meeting of September 18 read and ap})roved.
The following correspondence was submitted :
Letters of acknowledgment from the Geological Survey,
Ottawa, Canada (150) ; Laval University, Quebec, Canada
(150, 151) ; University of Toronto, Canadian Institute, To-
ronto, Canada (151) ; Historical and Scientific Society, Win-
nipeg, Man. (150) ; Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Me. (150,
151) ; Society Natural History, Portland, Me. (150, 151) :
New Hampshire Historical Society, Concord (150, 151) ;
Prof. C. H. Hitchcock, Hanover, N. H. (150) ; Hon. E. J.
Phelps, Burlington, Vt. (150) ; Athemeum (150), State
Librarian (150, 151), Massachusetts Historical Society (150,
151), Public Library (150, 151), Massachusetts Institute Tech-
nology (150), Boston Society Natural History (151), Mr. Stephen
P. Sharpies (150), Boston Mass.; Museum Comparative Zoology
(150), Prof. Alpheus Hyatt (150), Prof. F. W. Putnam, (150,
151), Mr. Robert N. Toppan (150, 151), Dr. Justin Winsor,
Cambridge, Mass. (150, 151); Free Public Library, New
Bedford, Mass. (151) ; Essex Institute, Prof. E. S. Morse,
Salem, Mass. (150, 151); American Antiquarian Society,
"Worcester, Mass. (151) ; Rhode Island Historical Society
(150, 151), Brown University, Providence, P. I. (151) ; Con-
necticut Historical Society, Hartford (150, 151) ; Yale Uni-
versity (150, 151), Prof. William Gibbs (150, 151), Prof.
Arthur W. Wright, New Haven, Conn. (150) ; Mr. James
Hall, Albany, N. Y. (150, 151); Buffalo Librarj^ Society
Natural Sciences, Buffalo, N. Y. (150, 151) ; Prof. Edward
North, Clinton, N. Y. (150), Profs. J. M. Hart (150, 151),
B. G. Wilder, Ithaca, N. Y. (151); American Geographical
Society (151), New York Academy Science (151), New York
Hospital Library (150, 151), American Museum Natural
History (150, 151\ New York Historical Society (Lji)),

1896.1

287

Meteorological Observatory (loO), Drs. J. A, Allen (151),
Daniel Draper (151), Prof. J. J. Stevenson, New York, N. Y.
(150, 151) ; Vassar Brothers' Institute, Pouglikeepsie, N. Y.
(150, 151) ; Geological Society of America (150) ; Academy
of Science, ' Eochester, N. Y. (151) ; Prof. William Pitt Ma-
son, Troy, N. Y. (150, 151) ; United States Military Acad-
emy, West Point, N. Y. (151) ; Free Public Library, Jersey
City, N. J. (150, 151) ; New Jersey Historical Society,
Newark (151) ; Dr. W. Henry Green, Princeton, N. J. (151)
Dr. C. B. Dudley, Altoona, Pa. (150) ; Prof. T. M. Drown
Soutli Bethlehem, Pa. (151) ; Dr. C. F. Hines, Carhsle, Pa
(150) ; Prof. Martin H. Boyei, Coopersburg, Pa. (150, 151)
American Academy of Medicine, Profs. J. W. Moore
Thomas C. Porter, Easton, Pa. (150, 151) ; Mr. Andrew S
McCreath, Harrisburg, Pa. (150) ; Mr. John Fulton, Johns
town. Pa. (150, 151) ; Linnean Society, Lancaster, Pa. (150
151) ; College of Pharmacy (151), Franklin Institute (151)
Mercantile Library (151), Engineers' Club (150), Pennsyl-
vania Hospital (150), Numismatic and Antiquarian Society
(150, 151), Wagner Free Institute (150, 151), Academy
Natural Sciences (150, 151), Library Company of Philadel-
phia (150, 151), College of Physicians (150, 151), Historical
Society of Pennsylvania (150, 151), Messrs. John Ashhurst,
Jr. (150, 151), E. Meade Bache (150, 151), Henry C. Baird
(150), Clarence S. Bement (150), Cadwalader Biddle (151),
John H. Brinton (150), Arthur E. Brown (150), Joel Cook
(150), Edward D. Cope (150), Charles H. Cramp (151),
Samuel Dickson (150), Patterson DuBois (151), Jacob B.
Eckfeldt (151), George F. Edmunds (150, 151), Ed. A. Foggo
(150, 151), Persifor Frazer (151), Phihp C. Garrett (150), F.
A. Genth, Jr. (150, 151), A. W. Goodspeed (151), H. D.
Gregory (150, 151), H. V. Hilprecht (151), George H. Horn
(151), Edwin J. Houston (151), Francis Jordan, Jr. (150), W.
W. Keen (150), J. P. Lesley (150, 151), Morris Longstreth
(150), Benjamin Smith Lyman (150, 151), James T. Mitchell
(150, 151), J. Cheston Morris (150), Charles A. Ohver (150,
151), C. M. Pierce (150), William Pepper (151), Franldin

288

[Oct.

Piatt (150, 151), Theodore D. Rand (151), Julius F. Sachse
(151), Samuel P. Sadtler (150), Charles Schaffer (150), Cole-
man Sellers (150), F. D. Stone (150, 151), ^Y. P. Tatham
(151), H. Clay Trumbull (151), Wilham li. Wahl (151),
Talcott AYilhams (150, 151), Joseph M. Wilson (151), Theo-
dore G. Wormley (150), EUis Yarnall (151), Philadelphia,
Pa.; Prof. John F. Carll, Pleasantville, Pa. (150, 151); Mr.
Heber S. Thompson, Pottsville, Pa. (151) ; Rev. Fred. A.
Muhlenberg, Reading, Pa. (150, 151) ; Lackawanna Insti-
tute, Scranton, Pa. (150, 151) ; Mr. Thomas S. Blair,
Tyrone, Pa. (150) ; Dr. Horace Howard Furness, Walling-
ford. Pa. (151) ; Dr. John Curwen, Warren, Pa. (150, 151) ;
Philosophical Society, AYest Chester, Pa. (150, 151) ; Wyom-
ing Historical-Geological Society, Wilkes-Barre, Pa. (150) ;
United States Naval Institute, Annapolis, Md. (150) ; Mary-
land Institute (150, 151), Mar^dand Historical Society (150,
151), Enoch Pratt Free Library (150, 151), Prof. William H.
Welch, Baltimore, Md. (151) ; Smithsonian Institution (-loS
pks.), United States Naval Observatory (150), United States
Department Agriculture (150), Profs. S. F. Emmons, Charles
A. Schott, AVashington, D. C. (150) ; Journal United States
Artillery, Fort Monroe, Va. (151) ; Leander McCormick
Observatory (150), University of Virginia (150, 151), Prof.
J. W. Mailet, University of Virginia (150, 151) ; South
Carolina College, Columbia (151) ; Georgia Historical Soci-
ety, Savannah (150) ; Cincinnati Observatory (150, 151),
University of Cincinnati (150), Society Natural History,
Cincinnati, O. (150) ; Ohio State Archaeological and Histori-
cal Society, Columbus, 0. (150, 151) ; Denison Scientific Asso-
ciation, Granville, 0. (150) ; Athena3um Librarv, Columbia,
Tenn. (151) ; Geological Survey of Missouri, Jeiferson City
(151) ; Michigan State Library, Lansing (151) ; Wisconsin
State Historical Society (150, 151), Academy Sciences, etc.
(150), University of Wisconsin, Madison (151); Field Co-
lumbian Museum (150, 151), Western Society of Engineers,
Chicago, 111. (151) ; Academy Natural Sciences, Davenport,
la. (151) ; State Historical Society of Iowa, Iowa City

1896.]

289

(151) ; American Arcliseological and Asiatic Association,
Nevada, la. (151) ; Kansas University Quarterly, Lawrence
(150) ; Wasliburn College Library (150, 151), Academy of
Science, Topeka, Kans. (150) ; University of California,
Berkeley (150, 151) ; Lick Observatory, Mt. Hamilton, Cal.
(150) ; Free Public Library (150), Academy of Sciences
(150), Historical Society (150), Dr. George Davidson, San
Francisco, Cal. (150) ; Prof. J. C. Branner, Stanford Univer-
sity, Cal. (150) ; Central Meteorological Observatory (150),
Observatorio Astron. de Tacubaya (150), Scientific Society,
"Antonio Alzate " Mexico, Mex. (150); Meteorological
Observatory, Xalapa, Mex. (150) : Bisk op Crescendo Carrillo,
Merida, Yucatan (150) ; Agricultural Experimental Stations,
Kingston, R. I. (150), Newark, Del. (151), Raleigh, N. C.
(150), Agricultural College, Mich. (151), Lexington, Ky.
(151), Knoxville, Tenn. (150, 151), Manhattan, Kans. (151),
Lincoln, Neb. (150, 151), Laramie, Wyo. (150), Tucson, Ariz.
(150, 151), Fargo, N. Dak. (151).

Accessions to the library were reported from the Magyar
Tudom. Akad., Budapest, Hungary; Physikalisch-Technische
Reichsanstalt, Berlin, Prussia ; Direzione Generale della
Statistica, Rome, Italy ; Royal Society of Canada, Montreal ;
Scientific Alliance, New York, N. Y. ; Pennsylvania Hos-
pital, Pennsylvania State Board of Health, Philadelphia ;
Lackawanna Institute of History and Science, Scranton, Pa. ;
United States Naval Observatory, Washington, D. C.

The committee appointed to examine the paper on the
" Fossils of the Coal Measures of Arkansas," by J. P. Snuth,
reported in favor of its ])ublication and the Society by vote
so ordered.

The following paper was read and referred to the Secreta-
ries for action : ' ' On the Second Abdominal Segment in a
few Libellulida>," by Martha Freeman Goddard.

Prof. Cope then made some comments on a recent paper,
" On the Evolution of the Teeth of Mammalia," by Flor-
entino Ameirhino.

290

[Oct. 2, 1896.

Pending nominations 18;3'2, 1884, 1857, 1858, 1859, 1360,
1861, and new nominations 1862 and 1368 were read.

Mr. Price, from the Hall Committee, reported the comple-
tion of the furnishing of the adjoining room.

The Librarian reported that we were now in possession of
a complete catalogue of all the publications of the Society
now in stock.

Dr. Hays moved that the Librarian be authorized to pur-
chase at a reasonable price any odd numbers to fill deficien-
cies in the above list. Adopted.

Dr. Pepper from the Committee on Special Meetings,
reported the program for that to be held November 6.

The rough minutes were then read and approved, and the
Society was adjourned by the President.

him the communication, description, or model, except the officer to
wliom it shall be entrusted ; nor sliall such officer part with the same
out of his custody, without a special order of the Society for that pur-
pose.

6. The Society, having previously referred the several communica-
ticJis from candidates for the premium, then depending, to the consid-
eration of the twelve counsellors and other officers of the Society, and
having received their report thereon, shall, at one of their stated meet^
ings in the month of December, annually, after the expiration of this
current year (of the time and place, together with the particular occa-
sion of which meeting due notice shall be previously given, by public
advertisement) proceed to final adjudication of the said premium ; and,
after due consideration had, a vote shall first betaken on this question,
viz. : AYhether any of the communications then under inspection be
worthy of the proposed premium ? If this question be determined in
the negative, the whole business shall be deferred till another year;
but if in the affirmative, the Society shall proceed to determine by
ballot, given by the members at large, the discovery, invention or im-
provement most useful and worthy ; and that discovery, invention, or
improvement which shall be found to have a majority of concurring
votes in its favor shall be successful; and then, and not till then, the
sealed letter accompanying the crowned performance shall be opened,
and the name of the author announced as the person entitled to tht
said premium.

7. No member of the Society who is a candidate for the premiuoL
then depending, or who hath not previously declared to the Society,
that he has considered and weighed, according to the best of his judg-
ment, the comparative merits of the several claims then under consid-
eration, shall sit in judgment, or give his vote in awarding the said pre-
mium.

8. A full account of the crowned subject shall be published by the So-
ciety, as soon as may be after the adjudication, either in a separate pub-
lication, or in the next succeeding volume of their Transactions, or iu
both.

9. The unsuccessful performances shall remain under consideration,
and their authors be considered as candidates for the premium for five
years next succeeding the time of their presentment ; except such per-
formances as their authors may, in the meantime, think fit to withdraw.
And the Society shall annually publish an abstract of the titles, object,
or subject matter of the communications, so under consideration ; such
only excepted as the Society shall think not worthy of public notice.

10. The letters containing the names of authors whose performances
shall be rejected, or which shall be found unsuccessful after a trial of
five years, shall be burnt before the Society , without breaking the seals.

jl. In case there should be a failure, in any year, of any communi-
cation worthy of the proposed premium, there will then be two pr«-
miums to be awarded the next year. But no accumulation of premiums

shall entitle the author to more than one premium for any one discov-
ery, invention or improvement.

12. The premium shall cwisist of an oval plate of solid standard gold
of the value of ten guineas. On one side thereof shall be neatly en-
graved a short Latin motto suited to the occasion, together with the
words: " The Premium of John Hyacinth de Magellan, of London,
established in the year 1786 ;" and on the other side of the plate shall be
engraved these words: "Awarded by the A. P."S. for the discovery

of A.D. ." And the seal of the Society shall be annexed

to the medal by a ribbon passing through a small hole at the lower
edge thereof.

Section 2. The Magellanic fund of two hundred guineas shall be
considered as ten hundred and fifty dollars, and shall be invested sepa-
rately from the other funds belonging to or under the care of the So-
ciety, and a separate and distinct account of it shall be kept by the
treasurer.

The said fund shall be credited with the sum of one hundred dollars,
10 represent the two premiums for which the Society is now liable.

The treasurer shall credit the said fund with the interest received on
the investment thereof, and, if any surplus of said interest shall remain
after providing for the premiums which may then be demandable, said
surplus shall be used by the Society for making publication of the
terms of the said premium, and for such purposes as may be authorized
by its charter and laws.

The treasurer shall, at the first stated meeting of the Society in the
month of December annually, make a report of the state of said fund
and of the investment thereof.

IW Members who bave not as yet sent their photographs
to the Society will confer a favor by so doing- ; cabinet size
preferred.

Ilt^~ Members will please communicate any change of address or inac-
curacy in name.

J^" A few sets of the Society's Transactions, New Series, 1818 to 1893,
XVIII vols., 4to, can be obtained from the Librarian. Price $90.00.

PEOCE EDINGS

S'- P 1 13S7 OF THE

AMEmCA:N^ PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,
HELD AT PHILADELPHIA, FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

Vol. XXXV. ^%Ht December, 1896. No. 153.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE

Stated Meeting, October 16, 1S96 391

Stated Meetiny, November 6, 1896 294

Stated Meeting, November 20, 1896 296

New Physical Phenomena of the X-Ray (with a cut). By Charles
Lester Arnold, A.M., M.B 298

Stated Meeting, December 4, 1896 302

On Genesis xi. 1-9 as a Poetic Fragment. By J. Clieston Morris,
M.D 305

Stated Meeting, December 18, 1896 307

Glimpses of Borneo. By William Henry Furness, 3d, M.D 309

A Brief Report of a Journey up the Rejang River in Borneo. By
H. M. Miller, 3I.D 321

Exploration of Ancient Key Dwellers' Remains on the Gulf Coast
of Florida (with eleven plates). By Frank Hamilton Cusldng . . 329

Discussion. By D. G. Brinton, M.D., Prof. F. W. Putnam and
F. H. Gushing 433

philadelphia :

The American Philosophical Society,

104 South Fifth Street,

1897.

It is requested that all correspondence be addressed

To THE Secretaries of the

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,
104 South Fifth Street,

Philadelphia, U. S. A.

Members will please communicate to the Secretaries any
inaccuracy in name or address as given on the wrapper of this
number.

It is requested that the receipt of this number of the
Proceedings be acknowledged to the Secretaries.

Members who have not as yet sent their photographs to the
Society will confer a favor by so doing ; cabinet size preferred.

Oct. 16, 1»96.]

^^^ 1 1397
291

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

Vol. XXXV. December, 1896. No. 153.

Stated Meeting, October 16, 1896.

Vice-President Dr. Pepper in the Chair.

Present, 30 members.

Mr. Frank L. Gushing, a newly elected member, was
introduced and took his seat.

Minntes of meeting, October 2, read and adopted.

Correspondence was submitted as follows :
' A letter from the Society of Colonial Wars inviting us to
participate in a memorial meeting to Dr. G. Brown Goode was
referred to the President with power to appoint the Com-
mittee.

Letter of envoy from the Facultt^ des Sciences, Marseilles,
France,

Letters of acknowledgment from Major Richard C. Temple,
Port Blair, Andaman Islands (148, 14:9) ; Linnean Soc. of
N. S. Wales, Sydney (148, 149) ; R. Society of Victoria,
Melbourne (92) ; Observatoire, Athens, Greece (143, 146-
149) ; Geographical Society, Tokyo, Japan (148, 149) ; Soc.
pro Fauna Flora Fennica (149), Dr. Otto Donner, Helsingfors,
Finland (148, 149) ; Physico-Math. Society, Kasan, Russia
(148, 149) ; Profs. Serge Nikitin, John Pomialowsky, St.
Petersburg, Russia (148, 149); Acad. R. des Scien-es,
Amsterdam, Netherlands (147-149, and Trans., xviii, 2, 3);
Soc. R. de Geographic, Antwerp, Belgium (149) ; I. R.
Accad. degli Agiati, Rovereto, Austria (149) ; Profs. F.

FROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 153. 2 K. PRINTED APRIL 20, 1897.

^^^ [Oct. IC,

Muller (14:9, 150), E. Siiess (149). J. Szombatliy, Yienna,
Austria (150) ; Dr. Albin AYeisbach, Freiberg, Saxonj
(149) ; Yerein f. Yaterland. ISTaturkunde, Wiirttemberg,
Stuttgart (143, 146-149, and Trans. ^ xviii, 2); Osservatorio,
Torino, Italia (149) ; Prince Eoland Bonaparte, Paris, France
(149) ; Universit}^ Library, Dr. C. A. M. Fennell, Cambridge,
Eng. (150) ; Eoyal Society {Trans., xviii, 3), Yictoria Insti-
tute, Geol. Society, R. Astron. Soc, R. Meteorological
Society, Linnean Society, Societ}^ of Antiquaries, Messrs. C.
J. Dannefeldt, William Huggins, Charles G. Leland, Sir
James Paget, London, Eng. (150) ; Geological Society, Liter-
ary and Phil. Society, Manchester, Eng. (150) ; Eadcliffe
Observatory (Trans., xviii, 3); Prof. J. Legge, Oxford, Eng.
(150) ; E. Geological Society of Cornwall, Penzance, Eng.
(150) ; Dr. Isaac Roberts, Starlield, Crowborough, Sussex,
Eng. (150) ; Nat. Hist, and Phil. Society, Belfast, Ireland (150) ;
R. Dublin Society, Dublin, Ireland (150) ; Eoj^al Society,
Edinburgh, Scotland (150) ; Geological Society, Philosophical
Society, Glasgow, Scotland (150); Bowdoin College, Bruns-
wick, Me. (142) ; Athenteum, Boston, Mass. (151) ; Museum
Comparative Zoology (151), Profs. G. L. Goodale (151), J. D.
Whitney, Cambridge, Mass. (150) ; Prof. E. S. Morse, Salem,
Mass. (147, 149) ; Prof. Elihu Thomson, Swampscott, Mass.
(151) ; Providence Franklin Society, Providence, R. I. (150,
151); Prof. W. T. Hewett, Ithaca, N. Y. (149); Oneida
Historical Society, Utica, N. Y. (150, 151) ; Mr. M. H. Mess-
chert, Douglassville, Pa. (150, 151) ; Dr. J. H. Brinton (151),
Mrs. Helen Abbott-Michael (150, 151), Mr. Julius F. Sachse
(148), Dr. James Tyson, Philadelphia (150) ; Coast and
Geodetic Survey (151), United States Naval Observatory
(151), United States Geological Survey (150, 151, and Trans.,
xviii, 3), Prof. Charles A. Schott, Washington, D. C. (151),
Historical Society, Savannah, Ga. (151) ; Prof. E. W. Clay-
pole, Akron, O. (151) ; University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati,
O. (151) ; Denison Scientific Association, Granville, O. (151) ;
Lick Observatory, Mt. Hamilton, Cal. (151) ; Historical Soci-
ety, Dr. George Davidson, San Francisco, Cal. (151) ; Prof. J.

1896.] ^'^^

C. Branner, Stanford University, Cal. (151) ; Kansas Univer-
sity Quarterly, Lawrence, Kans. (151) ; Kansas State Histori-
cal Society, Toj)eka (151) ; Colorado Scientific Society;,
Denver (151) ; University of Wyoming, Laramie (151) ;
Museo de la Plata, La Plata, Argentine Republic (149).

Accessions to the Library were reported from the K. Akad.
van Wetenscliappen, Amsterdam, Netherlands ; Yerein f.
Chemnitzer Geschichte, Chemnitz, Saxony; Pbysikal.-Med-
icin. Soc, Erlangen, Bavaria ; Vogtl. Altertumsfors.
Verein, Hohenleuben, Saxony ; Naturwissenschaftliche
A^erein, Regensburg, Bavaria ; Verein f. Vaterland. Natur-
kunde, Stuttgart, Wiirttemberg ; Observatorj", Greenwich,
Eng. ; JSTat. Hist. Society of Northumberland, Durham, etc.,
New Castle-on-Tyne, Eng. ; American Congregational Asso-
ciation, Boston, Mass.; Surgeon-General's Office, Washing-
ton, D. C. ; Public Library, Cincinnati ; Michigan Board of
Agriculture, Lansing; Societe Scientihque du Chili, Santiago.

Announcement of deaths :

Joseph B. Townsend, Philadelphia, October 11, 1896,
set. 75.

Dr. Friederich Miiller, Rostock, Germany.

The stated business of meeting being the election of mem-
bers, Secretaries Frazer and Dubois acted as Tellers.

Nominations 1332, 1334:, 1357 were referred to Council on
motion of Dr. Frazer.

Pending nominations were then spoken to and the ballots
cast.

The Tellers then reported the election of

2297. Harrison Allen, M.D., Philadelphia.

2298. Edson S. Bastin, Philadelphia.

An invitation to the members of this Society to be present
at the opening of the new Museum Hall of the Academy of
Natural Sciences, Tuesday, October 20, at 3 p.m., was read.

The rough minutes were then read, and the Society
adjourned.

294 (Nov. 6,

Stated Meeting^ November 6, IS 90.

President, Mr. Fraley, in the Chair.

Present, 3-i members.

Minutes of meeting, October 16, were read and ajDproved.

Correspondence was submitted as follows :

Acceptance of membership from Harrison Allen, M.D.,
October 23, 1896 ; Edson S. Bastin, A.M., October 24, 1896.

An invitation from the Societd Hongroise de Geographic,
Budapest, to its twenty-fifth anniversary, October 18, 1896.

Communication from the Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires
requesting the supply of certain deficiencies in its set of
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. From
Mechanics' Library, of Altoona, asking for deficiencies.

Letters of envoy from the Geological Survey of India, Cal-
cutta ; Acad, des Sciences, Cracow, Austria ; Gesellschaft z.
Beforderung der gesammten Naturwissenschaften, Marburg,
Prussia ; Central Bureau der Internat. Erdmessung, Potsdam,
Prussia ; E,. Statistical Society, London, Eng.

Letters of acknowledgment from the Asiatic Society of
Japan, Tokyo (148, 149) ; Koyal Society of N. S. Wales,
Sydney (147) ; E. Acad, of Sciences, Stockholm, Sweden
(150) ; K. Danish Geographical Society, Prof. Japetus Steen-
strup, Copenhagen, Denmark (150) ; E. Zool. Society," Natnra
Artis Magistra," Amsterdam, Netherlands (149); Public
Museum, Moscow, Eussia (149) ; Imperial Academy of Sci-
ences, St. Petersburg (150) ; M. Franz Eitt. v. Hauer, Yienna.
Austria (150) ; Naturforscbende Gesellschaft, Bamberg, Ba-
varia (142, 150) ; K. Bibliothek, Berlin, Prussia (150) ; K.
Geodiitisches Institut, Berlin-Potsdam, Prussia (150) ;
Naturwissenschaftl. Verein, Bremen, Germany (150) ; Natur-
wissenschaftl. Gesell. " Isis," Dresden, Saxony (150) ; JSTatur-
forschende Gesell., Em den, Prussia (149) ; Oberhessiche
Gesell. f. Natur- und Ilcilkundc, Giessen, ^Germany (149) ;

1896.]

295

Naturwissenscliaftl. Verein, Kiel, Prussia (150) ; Dr. 0.
Bolitlingk, Prof. J. Victor Carus, Leipzig, Saxony (150) ;
Gesell. zur Beforderung der gesammten Naturwissenschaften,
Marburg, Prussia (142) ; E. Institute Lombardo, Milan, Italy
(148, 149) ; Soc. d' Agriculture et d'Histoire Naturelle, Lyon,
France (147-149) ; Eedaction Cosmos^ Prince Eoland Bona-
parte, Paris, France (150) ; Phil, and Lit. Societj^, Leeds,
Eng. (150) ; The Eoyal Society, Geographical Society,
London, Eng. (150) ; Eoyal Observatory (148, 150, and
Trans. ^ xviii, 3), Prof. James Geikie, Edinburgh, Scotland
(150); State Library, Albany, N". Y. (147-151, and Trans.,
xviii, 3) ; Prof. B. G. Wilder, Ithaca, N. Y. (144) ; Prof.
Lewis M. Haupt (151), Messrs. Philip C. Garrett (151), Wil-
liam W. Jefferis (149-151), Coleman Sellers (151), Joseph
Willcox, Philadelphia (151) ; Historical Society of Southern
California, Los Angeles (150, 151) ; Kansas Academy of
Science, Topeka (151) ; University of Kansas, Lawrence
(148) ; Observatorio Astronomico de Tacubaya, Mexico,
Mex. (151) ; Bishop Crescendo Carrillo, Merida, Yucatan,
(151) ; Agricultural Experiment Stations, New Haven, Conn.,
Ealeigh, N. C. (151).

Accessions to the Library were reported from the E. Geo-
logical Society (Queensland Branch), Brisbane, Queensland ;
Academia Letterarvin, Cracow, Austria ; K. K. Militar.
Geog. Institutes, Vienna, Austria ; Verein f. Erdkunde,
Cassel, Prussia ; Naturwissenschaftl. Gesell. " Isis," Dres-
den, Saxony • Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesell.,
Frankfurt a. M.; Gesell. z. Beforderung der gesammten
JSTaturwissen., Marburg, Prussia ; Soc. Geol. de Normandie,
Havre, France ; Soc. des Science JSTaturelles, La Eochelle,
France ; Soc. d' Agriculture Sciences et Industrie, Lyon,
France ; Soc. des Antiquaires, Soc. de I'Histoire de France,
Ecole Polytechnique, Paris, France.

Mr. Frank H. Gushing then made a communication on the
' ' Eecent ArchsBological Explorations on the Shell Kej^s and
Gulf Coast of Florida," illustrated by numerous specimens,
photograplis and diagrams.

296

[Nov. 20,

Further discussion of the subject was made by Dr. D. G.
Brinton and Prof. F. W. Putnam.

The hour of ten having been passed, the Society was
adjourned.

Stated Meeting, November SO, 1896.

President, Mr. Fraley, in the Chair. ^

Present, -Itt members.

Minutes of meeting, November 6, were read and approved.

Correspondence was submitted as follows :

A letter from Hon. Mayer Sulzberger, accepting the duty
of preparing an obituary notice of the late Joseph B. ToAvn-
send, Esq.

Letters of envoy from the Akad. dcr AVissenschaften,
Vienna, Austria ; Schlesische Gesell. f, Vaterlandische Cul-
tur, Breslau, Prussia ; K. Sachsische Gesell. der Wissen-
schafteu, Leipzig.

Letters of acknowledgment from the Koyal Society of Vic-
toria, Melbourne (148, 149) ; Physico-Math. Society, Kasan,
Eussia (150) ; Library of Marine Ministry, Prof. Serge Niki-
tin, St. Petersburg, Eussia (150) ; K. K. Sternwarto, Prague,
Bohemia (150); K, K. Central- Anstalt f. Meteorologie, etc.,
Dr. Friederich S. Krauss, Vienna, Austria (150) ; Naturfor-
schende Gesell. des Osterlandes, Altenburg, Prussia (150) ;
Gesell. f, Erdkunde, Berlin, Prussia (150) ; K. Siiclis. Mete-
orol. Institut, Chemnitz (150); Verein f. Erdkunde (150),
Mrs. Zelia Nuttall, Dresden, Saxony (147-150) ; Prof. E. W.
Bunsen, Heidelberg, Germany (150) ; K. Sachs. Gesell. d.
Wissenschaften, Leipzig (148-150) ; Verein f. Erdkunde,
Metz, Germany (149) ; K. Stern warte, Munich, Bavaria (150);
Verein f. Vaterlandische Naturkundo in WUrttemborg, Stutt-
gart (150) ; E. Accad. di Scienze, etc., Modena, Italy (149) ;
Acad,- des Sciences et Belles-Lettres, Angers, France (148) ;
Soc. des Sciences Nat. ct Archcol. do la Crease, Gut^ret^

1896.] -^J*

France (l-iS) ; Soc. Geologique (149, 150), Prince Roland
Bonaparte (149), Dr. Edward Pepper, Paris, France (150) ;
Mr. Samnel Timmins, Arley, Coventry, Eng. (150) ; Prof. I.
Legge, Oxford, Eng. (150) ; Gen. H. L. Abbot, Cambridge,
Mass. (151); Geological Society of America, Ptocliester,
N. Y. (161) ; Oneida ^Historical Society, Utica, N. Y. (150) ;
Lackawanna Institute of History and Science, Scranton, Pa.
(122, 135, 139, 141, 142, 145,^ 148) ; Texas Academy of
Science, Austin (151) ; Iowa Masonic Library, Cedar Rapids
(149-151) ; Meteorological Observatory, Xalapa, Mex. (151) ;
Comite Geolog. de Russie (148, 149).

Accessions to the Library were reported from the R. Society
of S. Australia, Adelaide ; Akad. der Wissenschaften,
Vienna, Austria ; Schlesische Gesell. f. Vaterland. Cultur,
Breslau, Prussia ; Naturhist. Gesellschaft, Niirnberg, Bava-
ria ; Prof. G. de Mortellet, Paris, France ; R. Society of An-
tiquaries of Ireland, Dublin ; Royal Society, London, Eng.;
American Academy Arts and Sciences, Boston, Mass.; Dr.
Charles A. Oliver, Philadelphia ; AVyoming Historical and
Geological Society, Wilkesbarre, Pa.; Leander McCormick
Observatory, Charlottesville, Va.; Department of State,
American Anthropological Society, Washington, D. C; Min-
isterio de Fomento, Dr. Nicolas Leon, Mexico, Mex.; Lick
Observatory, Mount Hamilton, Cal.

A copy of the bronze medal issued by the Kings County,
N. Y., Medical Society in commemoration of Dr. Jenner.

Prof. Dr. H. V. Ililprecht made a preliminary and informal
statement concerning his latest researches in early Babylonian
civilization and chronology and exhibited a number of im-
portant antiquities recently acquired by him for the Archaeo-
logical Department of the University of Pennsylvania, during
his stay in Constantinople and Asia Minor. He laid before the
Society the earliest written record from Babylonia so far as
known. This document, according to Prof. Hilprecht, was
written in the sixth millennium B.C. Its ideograms and
phonograms are still hieroglyphs. The only document of a
hitherto unknown South Babylonian king, Engeyal of the

Leonard.] ^9o [Xov. 20,

fifth, millenuium, was next treated. A number of the ex-
tremely rare Kappadohian tablets, of which, more than sixty
have been obtained for the University of Pennsylvania through.
Dr. Hilprecht's efforts during the last four years, a historical
document of the time of King Nabonidus and a marble vase
of King Artaxerxes witli four inscriptions in Persian, Median,
Babylonian and Egyptian languages were likewise exhibited
and partly interpreted.

Dr. Charles L. Leonard then read a paper on a " Xew
Physical Property of the X-Ray."

Dr. Frazer reported that the preparation of the plates for
the reproduction of the signature book would require an addi-
tional appropriation of $80,

On motion of Mr. McKean, the appropriation was made.

Mr. Goodwin then moved that the Secretaries be instructed
to prepare from the plates now made 250 copies, to be sold
only to members at cost, not more than one copy to be pur-
chased b}^ any one member until further orders from the
Society. Carried.

Dr. Morris moved that the Society present to the "Wistar
Institute a bust of Franklin and one of Dr. Wistar, these
being in duplicate. Carried.

The rough minutes were then read, and the Society
adjourned.

New Physical Pheno^nena of the X-Ray.

By Charles Lester Leonard, A.M., M.D.

{Bead before the American Philosophical Society, November 20, 1S96.)

The. pli^ysical plienomena connected with the x-ray arc at present
limited to those announced by their discoverer, Prof. "\Tilhelm Konrad
Rontgen. They are their power to penetrate substances formerly con-
sidered opaque, their chemical action exhibited upon the photographic
film and fluorescent screen, and their power of discharging electrified
bodies whether positively or negativelj^ charged.

The simple experiments which I conducted at the Pepper Laboratory

1896.]

299

[Leonard.

of Clinical Medicine seem to prove that another physical characteristic
of the x-ray is now known.

In heating a double-cathode x-ray tube of the focus type, while it
was energized by an alternating current, the following phenomenon was
noted.

When the alcohol lamp was held at a point midway between the ca-
thodes and at a distance varying from one-half to three inches from the
reflectors, the x-ray, as shown in the fluoroscope, and the fluorescence
within the tube were seemingly extinguished.

This was true in tube A, and in no other tube of the double cathode
focus type.

What was the form of interference which the lamp exerted, and why
did it apply to one tube and not to all of that type ?

These queries led to the following experiments in which I was assisted
bv Mr. Alfred Watch.

Diagram of X-Ray Tubes. Cathode Rays •

X-Rays

Basing our experiments upon the theory, that it was the aqueous
vapor, produced by the combustion of the alcohol, which caused this
phenomenon, we substituted for the alcohol lamp a small piece of filter
paper saturated with water, and obtained the same result. There was
no ettect upon the other tubes, the discharge of x-rays and the
fluorescence remaining unaltered. On approaching the wet paper to
the cathode a streaming of electricity was observed from the paper or
lamp vapor towards the cathode through the wall of the tube and was
observed to diminish in quantity as the paper was carried towards the
point midway between the cathodes and opposite the reflector, and when
it reached this point the x-ray and fluorescence ceased. At all points
outside the tube a grounded wire drew a spark from the burner of the
lamp, or from the moistened paper. This experiment seems to show
that there can be established outside of the x-ray tube a connection
between one cathode and the other capable of modifjdug the effect of
the electrical discharge within the tube.

This was proved by using a piece of wet paper so shaped that it ex-

PROC. AMER. rillLOS. SOC. XXXV. 153. 2li. PRINTED APRIL 20, 1897.

Leonard.] dUU ^^oy_ oq,

tended from cathode to cathode outside the tube. The x-raj-s and
fluorescence were seemingly destroyed in this manner in all forms of
double cathode tubes used with the alternating current.

The form of interference which was first observed was therefore the
establishment of a path for the conduction of the electricity from
cathode to cathode outside the x-ray tube, or in other words the com-
pletion of a short circuit between the cathodes in the induced electric
field outside the tube.

But why was it possible to complete this short circuit, in one tube, bj-
introducing the aqueous vapor at a single point opposite the reflector
and midway between the cathodes, and impossible to do it in any other
tube of the same type? Is there any reasonable theory which will logi-
cally explain this difference '?

A critical examination of two tubes of this type shows that in tube A
the cathodes are in such relation to the planes of the reflector that light,
obeying the law of reflection, and emanating from the cathodes, would
be reflected at such an angle as to leave a wedge-shaped area beneath
the reflectors and between tlie two bundles of rays, free from their in-
terference.

An examination of tube B shows that no such area would be formed,
and that the two bundles of rays Avould be united in the median line.

The fluoroscope shows that this median area is the area of most in-
tense fluorescence, as x-rays enter it from both reflectors.

Suppose the rays obeying the law of reflection within the tube are the
cathode rays, which become the Lenard rays outside the tube.

In tube A they would be reflected from the median line and leave a
field of x-rays free from their interference. We have then here a
purer field of x-rays, which w^ould easily account for the greater
rapidity and sharpness of definition which this tube has exhibited, as
illustrated by the unintensified half-minute exposure negatives of the
hand and other objects, and the six-minutes exposure of the normal
trunk of a five-year-old boy.

Would this supposition account for the absence of a conductive area
midway between the two cathodes, which, when supplied by the aqueous
vapor, results in the extinguishing of the x-ray and fluorescence '? It
would, if we consider the Lenard rays to be capable of conducting
electricity while the x-raj^s are not. Under these conditions the
aqueous vapor between the bundles of Lenard rays, in the case of tube
A, would form the connecting link in the short circuit between the
cathodes. But how about tube B — if this theory is correct, how can avc
explain the difference in the phenomenon observed in it '!

In this tube we saw, that the bundles of reflected Lenard rays occupied
the median field beneath tlie reflectors and were continuous, while llic
areas of non-conduction lay between the cathodes and the bundles of
Lenard rays.

By placing two small ]>i('ces of moistened ])aper in these two non-

1896. J OUi [Leonardo

conductive areas, and tlius supplying the conductor, the theory is
proved to be correct, for the x-rays and fluorescence are seemingly extin-
guished and we have established the short circuit in both tubes through
the medium of the Lenard rays and the aqueous vapor.

The following conclusions may be drawn from these experiments :

1 . From the fact that a short circuit may be established between the
cathodes in an induced electric field outside the tube, by placing an
electrical conductor in certain positions outside the tube, not occupied
by the Lenard rays, but occupied by the x-rays, we may conclude that
the Lenard rays are conductors of electricity, while the x-rays are not.
This would also account for the difl'erence in the action of magnetic
fields upon the cathode or Lenard rays and the x-rays, and, conversely,
that action would confirm the deduction regarding the conductivity and
non-conductivity of the two rays.

This deduction is also compatible with the phenomena observed in the
discharge of electrified bodies by the x-ray, the ultra-violet rays, and
other forms of light rays.

2. From the condition found to be present in tube A, that is, the
presence of an area which is a non-conductor of electricity and is free
from Lenard rays, and yet is the area of most intense x-rays, we may
conclude that the x-ray emanates from the surface of the reflector in
this type of tube, and is not due to the bombardment of the wall of the
tube by the cathode rays, as no cathode rays strike the wall of the tube
in the area from which we find the greatest fluorescence.

Further, from the fact that the x-ray is a non-conductor and is not
influenced by a magnetic field, while the Lenard rays are conductors
and are infiueuced by magnetic fields, it would seem probable that
these two forms of radiant energy difli'er essentially in their character,
the x-ray presenting most of the phenomena chai'acteristic of light,
while the Lenard raj^s present the phenomena of radiant matter.

3. From the difference in the rapidity of the action of the two tubes
on the sensitive film we may conclude, that the presence of Lenard
rays in an x-ray field interferes with the photographic action of the
x-ray : consequently a tube of the greatest efficiency would be one so
constructed, that the Lenard rays would be reflected entirely outside of
the most intense x-ray field.

It would seem probable that the efficiency of the focus type of x-ray
tube is in a measure due to such a reflection of the Lenard rays, as many
of those working with the single cathode focus tube have found, that
the point of greatest intensity of the x-ray is not at the point where
rays of ordinary light would be reflected if they emanated from the
cathode, that is, the point to which the Lenard rays are reflected, but is
at a point perpendicular to the focal point of the cathode rays upon the
platinum reflector.

oOJi [Dec. 4,

Stated Meeting, December 4, 1896.

The President, Mr. Fraley, in the Chair.

Present, 27 members.

Minutes of meeting of November 20 read and approved.-

Correspondence was submitted as follows :

Invitation from the Chicago liistorical Society to attend the
exercises at the opening of its new building, Tuesday,
December 15, 1896.

Letters of envoy from the Yerein f. Schlesisclie Insekten-
kunde, Breslau, Prussia ; Soc. Italiana delle Scienze, Bome ;
Department of State, Washington, D. C; Prof E. W. Clay-
pole, Akron, O. ; Observatorio Astronumico, Cordoba, Pe-
publica Argentina.

Letters of acknowledgment from Mr. Samuel Davenport,
Adelaide, S. Australia (14:8, 149) ; Observatoire phys. Cen-
tral de Russie, St. Petersburg (150) ; Societas pro fauna flora
fennica. Dr. Otto Donner, Helsingfors, Finland (150) ; Univer-
sitats-Biblioteket, Lund, Sweden (150) ; Musee Teyler, Har-
lem, Holland (150, 151) ; Prof. Edward Suess, Vienna, Austria
(150) ; Redaction der Naturwissenschafllichen Wochen-
schrift (150), Bot. Verein der Prov. Brandenburg (l-lo. 146,
148), Prof. A. Bastian, Berlin, Prussia (150) ; Phys.-Tech-
nische Reichsanstalt, Charlottenburg, Prussia (150) ; Natur-
forscheude Gesell., Emdeu, Prussia (150) ; Soc. Phys.-Medica,
Erlangen, Bavaria (150) ; Verein f. Geog. u. Statistik, Frank-
furt a. M., Germany (150); Oberhessische Gesell. f. Natur-
und Heilkunde, Giessen, Germany (150) ; Verein f.
Erdkunde, Metz, Germany (148) ; Philosophical Soc, Cam-
bridge, Eng. (148, 146-150, and Trans., N. S., xviii, 2 and 3);
American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Mass. (151) ; Soc.
Cientifica, "Autonit) Al/ate," 01)s. Mcteorol. Magnet. Central,

1896.]

303

Mexico, Mex. (lol) ; Obs. Meteorol. Magnet. Central, Xalapa,
Mex. (151) ; Soc. Cientifica Argentina, Buenos Aires (148,
149).

Accessions to the library were reported from the R. Society
of N. S. Wales, ',^Sydney, Australia ; Bot. Yerein der Prov.
Brandenburg, Berlin, Prussia ; K. Sachs. Verein f. Alter-
thiimer, Dresden ; Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg, Prussia ;
Yerein f. Erdkunde, Metz, Germany ; K. Geod. Instituts,
Potsdam, Prussia ; R. Institiito Lombard©, Milan, Italy ; Soc.
Italiana delle Scienze, Rome ; R. Acad. Ciencias y Artes,
Barcelona, Spain ; Philosophical and Literary Society, Leeds,
Eng.; Literary and Philosophical Society, Manchester, Eng.;
American Oriental Society, New Haven, Conn.; American
Museum Natural History, New York, N. Y.; Capt. H. H.
Bellas, Germantown, Phila.; Board of Trustees of Drexel
Institute, Mr. F. J. Dreer, Dr. Frederick D. Stone, Philadel-
phia ; Acad. Mex. de Ciencias Exactes Fis. y Nat., Obs.
Meteorol. y Yulcano del Seminario de Colima, Mexico, Mex.;
Obs. Nacional Argentino, Buenos Aires.

Photograph was received for the Society's Album from
Prof. E. W. Claypole, Akron, O.

Mr. F. D. Stone read an obituary notice of William John
Potts.

The following deaths were announced :

Sir Benjamin Ward Richardson, London, Eng., November
21, 1896, get. 68.

Dr. Benjamin Apthorp Gould, Cambridge, Mass., Novem-
ber 27, 1896, get. 72.

Dr. Y^illiam Pepper exhibited a collection of Mexican pre-
historic objects of terra-cotta, obtained by him on his recent
visit to the city of Mexico. They comprised a series of
miniature clay heads from Teotihuacan, embracing a great
variety of types, which were classified by him, for the purpose
of exhibition, in accordance with the scheme published by a
member of the Society, Mrs. Zelia Nuttall,* in 1886. He

* "The Terracotta Heads of Teoti7iuacaii," Ainerican Journal of
Archceologi/, Vol. ii, Nos. 2 and 3.

^^^ [Dec. 4,

■exliibited iu connection witli tlieni some painted clay heads
for small images from Canton, China, from the Museum of
Archasology and PahTeontolog)' of the University of Pennsjd-
vania, pointing out the striking analogy between the Mexican
heads and those froin China. The latter
are mounted upon bodies of perishable
material — of plaited rattan — which is gilded
and painted in brilliant colors. They
represent personages of the theatre, the
emj^eror, ministers, generals, fairies, etc.
; ^T^SM ii The heads are attached to a neck consist-
ing of plaited bamljoo in the form of a
tube, and have a variety of ornamental head dresses of various
materials. Among the Mexican heads shown was one re-
presenting a man with a beard, of much strength and
beauty of design. The features were apparently those
of a European. The general object of the exhibition was
to illustrate a parallel usage with that indicated by Mrs.
Nuttall in reference to the Mexican heads, and to pro-
voke a discussion of the extremely interesting questions
that underlie them. In addition. Dr. Pepper exhibited
some very perfect and fragile objects of terra-cotta from
Vera Cruz, of a uniformly fine light clay ; comprising among
others a craw fish and a cup (censer?) with a tall conical
cover.

Dr. Brinton expressed the view that these were votive
■offerings representing symbolic burial.

Dr. Allen referred to the figures as a representation of life
form in art.

Dr. J. Cheston Morris made a commanication " On Gene-
sis xi. 1-9 as a Poetic Fragment."

Pending nominations 1332, 133-1, 1357, 1358, 1362, 1363,
and new nominations 1364 and 1365 were read.

The report of the Treasurer was then read and referred to
the Finance Committee for examination and report.

Kough minutes were then read and approved, and the
Society was adjourned.

1896.] ^05 [Morris.

On Oenesis xi. 1-0 as a Poetic Fragment.
By J. Chesion Morris, M.D

(Read before the American PhilosopMcal Society, December 4, ISDG.)

It was with great interest and pleasure that I listened to Dr. Hil-
precht's account of his explorations and discoveries recently at Nippur,
and to his lucid statement of his views as to the Sumerian and Accadian
races and their civilization, and of what he has learned of their history.
Especially I regard as important what he had to say of "the land of
Shinar " or Sungir. On March 6, 1891, I communicated to the Society
some notes on Hebrew Phonetics, accompanied with a transliteration in
accordance with them of Genesis x, rendering "Shinar" by "Xnor, "
V. 10 — and am still disposed to adhere to the clue which ,1 think may
thus be found to the further elucidation of the history and possibly of
the migrations of the ancient peoples. When we read of the building
of Babel in the land of Shinar (Genesis xi) by a people that "had
bricks for stones and slime (bitumen) had they for mortar," we may
well think of a race inhabiting an extensive plain or prairie such as that
lying between the Euphrates and Tigris, and building in a different
manner from that familiar to the collator of the account, who was proba-
bly of a different race — perhaps one of the Semites. His religion too was
different, for he speaks of a conference among the gods whom he wor-
shipped, ending with "let us go down and overthrow the tower." A
little examination of this account will, I think, show that it is in the
form of a Hebrew poem, as is also that of the creation in Genesis i. If
so, this account may be that of a victory by a Semite race ascribed to
the act of their protecting deity, and the subjugation and dispersion of
these lowland people.* Did they, or some of them, migrate to Egypt
and found an empire there — building with bricks as they had done in
Shinar? Were they the, people whose remains were recently described
at a meeting of this Society by Mrs. Stevenson as having been discov-
ered by Prof. Petrie ? And eventually having been driven thence by
the Hamites whom they had temporarily displaced, did they again
migrate to the southwest and inhabit the country which to-day we call
Senaar ? In the Septuagint this is the transliteration given of 1J?Jty.
Nor is this inconsistent with the softening which must occur in peoples
of other races of the guttural-nasal vowel ngain.

I may remark that in the cabinet of the Society are four wooden locks
made by the negroes of St. Domingo a hundred years ago. On showing
these some time ago to Dr. Hilprecht he remarked to me, " Why those
are just such as every Arab sheik has to-day on his treasure-chest or
■on the door of his house in the valley of the Euphrates." I had no

* For migrations of the brick-builders see McCausland's Builders of Babel, London, 1871.

Morris.] ^^^ [Dec. 4,

doubt then, that the negroes had learned to make them from their Arab
captors and masters in Central Africa and had brought the art with
them to the West Indies. But may it not be that their ancestors had
brought the art with them from the plains of Babylonia, having migrated
thence ages ago, as I have surmised above ? If so we ought to be able
to trace among the industries, languages and traditions of Central Africa
some remnants of this early civilization in the plain of Babylon.
I translate from the Septuagint version of Gen. xi. 1-9 as follows :

And all the earth was (of) one lip,

And one utterance to all.
And it happened, as they moved from the east.

They found a plain in the land of Shinar.

And they dwelt there ;

And a man said to his neighbor,
Come, let us make bricks.

And let us burn them with fire.

And the bricks were to them for stone,
And the asphalt was to them for mortar.

And they said. Come let us build ourselves a city.

And a tower whose top shall be to heaven ;
And let us make ourselves a name,

Before we be scattered on the face of all the earth

And Jehovah descended to see the city

And the tower which the sons of men builded.
And Jehovah said. Behold the race is one.

And there is one lip to all ;
And this have they begun to do,

And now, nothing will fail them
Whatever they may plan to do.

Come, and descending, let us confuse their tongue

That they hear not each one the utterance of his neighbor.

And Jehovah scattered them thence over the face of all the earth,

And they ceased building tlie city and the tower.
Therefore its name was called Confusion,

Because there Jehovah confused the lips of all the earth.
And thence Jehovah scattered them

On the face of all the earth. ^

1896.] 'j'-'*

Stated Meeting^ December 18^ 1806.
Vice-President, Dr. Pepper, in the Cliair.
Present, 3-i members.

On motion the regular order of business was suspended and
Drs. W. H. Furness and Hiller gave an account of their re-
cent journey in Borneo and the Loo-Choo Islands.

Minutes of December 4 read and approved.

Correspondence was submitted as follows :

Letter from the President of the Geological Society of
Washington, requesting the cooperation of this Society with
the Pasteur Monument Committee of the United States in
collecting subscriptions for the erection of a monument at
Paris, to Pasteur.

Letter from the Observatorio Meteorl. y Astron., San
Salvador, C. A., announcing the death of its Director, Dr.
Don Alberto Sanchez.

Circular letter from M. Julian Aparicio, announcing his
appointment to succeed Dr. Don Alberto Sanchez as Director
of the Observatorio Meteorl. y Astron., San Salvador, C. A.

Letter of resignation from Mr. E. A. Barber, West Chester,
Pa., December 9, 1896, Resignation accepted.

Letters of acknowledgment {Trans. ^ N. S., xix, 1), from
the Public Library, Boston, Mass.; American Antiquarian
Society, Worcester, Mass.; Yale University, New Haven,
Conn.; Buffalo Library, Buffalo, N. Y.; Historical Society,
New York, N. Y.; Academy Natural Sciences, University
of Pennsylvania, Historical Society, Philadelphia ; State
Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison ; Kansas Academy
of Science, Topeka.

Letters of acknowledgment of Proceedings from the
Naturf. Gesellschaffc, Dorpat, Russia (149) ; Tashkent Obser-
vatory, Tashkent, Russia (150) ; R. Zool. Society, " Natura
Artis Magistra," Amsterdam, Netherlands (150, 151);
Colonial Museum, Haarlem, Holland (150, 151) ; K. K.
Naturhist. Hofmuseum, Vienna, Austria (150) ; K. Leop.

PKOC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 153. 2 M. PRINTED APRIL 20, 1897.

*^^0 [Dec. 18,

Carol. Akad. cler Naturforsclier, Halle a. S. (150) ; Dr. Paul
Hejse, Munich, Bavaria (150) ; Prof. Paolo Montegazza,
Florence. Italy (147) ; Soc. Geologique de jSTormandie,
Havre, France (150) ; Soc. Fran^aise de Physique, Soc.
Philologique, Comte de Charencey, Paris, France (150) ; E.
Acad, de Ciencias y Artes, Barcelona, Spain (143, 145-149);
Academy of Sciences, New York, N. Y. (136) ; Dr. Charles
Schaffer, Philadelphia (151).

Accessions to the Library were reported from the Exhibi-
tion Trustees, Melbourne, Australia ; Acad. Sciences,
Cracow, Austria ; K. P. Geodat. Institutes, Berlin ; Yerein
f. Erdkunde, Halle a. S., Prussia ; K. Sachs. Meteorl. Insti-
tut, Chemnitz ; K. B. Akad. der Wissenschaften, Munich,
Bavaria ; Soc. de Physique, Paris, France ; Literary and
Philosophical Society, Manchester, Eng.; Mr. Edward
"Waldo Emerson, Cambridge, Mass.; American Museum
Natural History, New York, N. Y.; Yassar Brothers' Insti-
tute, Poughkeepsie, N. Y.; American Academy Political
and Social Science, First Unitarian Church, Philadelphia ;
Pennsylvania State College ; Columbian LTniversity, Wash-
ington, D. C; Colorado College Scientific Society, Colorado
Springs ; Institute of Jamaica, Kingston.

The Wistar Institute acknowledges the gifts of busts of
Dr. Franklin and Dr. Caspar Wistar.

The President announced by letter that he had appointed
Mr. F. H. Cushing, Dr. Thomas N. Gill and Dr. D. G. Briu-
ton, to represent this Society at a meeting to be held in
Washington in, memory of G. Brown Goode.

A letter from Mr. Cassell gives the following information :
Benjamin Kittenhouse, brother of David, died August 31,
1825, Ninth street above Yine, in this city, and was buried
September 2, in St. James' Cemetery, at Evansburg, Mont-
gomery county, Pa.

The Committee appointed to arrange for the quarterly
meetings at which subjects of broad philosophic interest
were to be discussed made a report of their doings for the
year.

1896.] 'Jv)y [Furness.

The Finance Committee made report that they had
examined the Treasurer's accounts, and found them correct.
The appropriations for the coming year were recommended,
and on motion approved bj the Society.

The pending nominations were then read and spoken to,
and the ballots cast.

New nominations 1364 to 1369 were then read.

Mr. ]^rice then offered a resolution directing the printing of
the ballots for the election to be held January 1.

The Tellers then reported that :

2299. William Francis Magee, Princeton, N. J.;

2300. a. Albert Lewis, Philadelphia ;

2301. Benjamin W. Frazier, Bethlehem, Pa.,
had been elected to membership.

The rough minutes were then read and the Society
adjourned.

GUmj)ses of Borneo.

By William Henry Furness, 3rd, 31. D.

{Read before The American Philosophical Society, December IS, 1896.)

The island of Borneo, lying directly under the Equator, is the second
in size in the world (if we exclude Australia, to which, I believe, is gen-
erally given the dignity of being called a continent), Papua, or, as it is
now called, New Guinea, being the largest, with an area of 306,000 square
miles, while Borneo has an area of 286,000 square miles, or about that of
France. Along the coast, and indeed for many miles inland, the country
is flat and marshy, covered with a dense tangle of undergrowth, made up
of thorny palms, ferns, and creepers of all sorts, including the beautiful
variegated Nepenthes, or pitcher plant ; above this undergrowth,
which is dense to a height of fifteen or twenty feet, rise lofty, straight
Camphor, Gutta, Durian and Tapang trees, whose foliage, at least from
a distance, is hardly distinguishable from the common trees of our own
woods and forests ; perhaps the only features which distinguish the Bor-
nean jungle, seen at a distance, from our ordinary forests are the top-
most tufts of the Rattan palm, which is a creeper and forms a crown
on the tree top, whereof the unexpanded central leaf creates the sus-
picion that the indefatigable lightning-rod agent had paid a visit

^10

Furness.J ^-^^ [Dec. 18,

to the primeval forest. Palms as a rule do not enter into the landscape ;
being of low growth, they are hidden by the lofty trees. Toward the
centre of the island there is a broken range of mountains and of high
hills running from North to South, the longest diameter of the island ; of
these mountains, according to our present knowledge, Kina Balu in the
North is the highest, and is 13,680 ft. high, but not snow-capped. Other
mountains in the chain vary from 3000 to 10,000 ft. in height.

It is in this central range of highlands and mountains that all the
numerous rivers rise and form the highways and by-ways of the island,
rendering it traversable in almost every direction.

The government of the island is divided between the Dutch in the
South and East, The British North Borneo Company in the North, the
small Sultanate of Brunei on the west coast, and below this the inde-
pendent territory of Sarawak, governed by Eajah Brooke, in whose ter-
ritory the greater part of my time was spent.

In almost every book on Borneo the people are included under the name
of Dyaks, either Sea-D3faks or Land-Dyaks. This is an error. There
are many distinct tribes or possibly races, scattered throughout the hills
and on the rivers of Borneo ; they speak a dift'erent language, and have
different customs of burial, of marriage, of naming children, of boat build-
ing, etc., etc. Some show a decidedly Chinese influence, while others
are clearly of the Malay type and have adopted the Mohammedan relig-
ion in a somewhat modified form ; others again are nomadic, and, in ap-
pearance, are stronger and slightly taller than the Dyaks, and are not
Head-hunters, which is another custom erroneously attributed to all the
inhabitants of Borneo.

Borneo is a subject so large that to give a reallj' clear idea of all the in-
tricacies of the manners and customs of its people would occupy far more
time than one short evening's talk. Let me rather recount to you what
it will be probably impossible to find in books.

Dr. Hiller and myself had the rare opportunity, through the kindness
of Mr. Charles Hose, one of the Rajah's most energetic Residents,
of spending five weeks among the natives, in the household of Tamabu-
lan, one of the most powerful chiefs of the Kayans and Kenniahs, on
the river Baram.

Tliis chief had come down the Baram about two hundred and fifty
miles, with a hundred of his men, more or less, to attend a Meeting of
Peace and Reconciliation with the Dyaks and other tribes living on the
Baram. The Rajah talked to them all most impressively on the evils
attending constant warfare, and at the end of his speech, given in Ma-
lay— the court language — Tamabulau was the first to step forward and
heartily shake hands with the Rajah and express his willingness to do
all he could to maintain the peace ; which was duly ratified on the mor-
row by the slaughter of a pig and the examination of tlie omens as inter-
preted from the colorations of its liver ; yet this same Tamabulan only
three years ago was one of the most rebellious up-river chiefs and

1896.] ^^J-J- [Fumess.

had goue on the war-path, without the sanction of the Rajah, and had
taken heads, and had barely refrained from killing Mr. Hose who had
gone up to put a stop to his marauding.

He is a man of about forty-five, well built, but not muscular in ap-
pearance, about five feet six inches tall, his face is broad, the cheek-
bones somewhat high, the eyes wide apart — owing perhaps to his hav-
ing his eyebrows shaved, they appear very wide apart ; his lips are
thin and his mouth large but well shaped, and when he smiles it
reveals two rows of regular but blackened teeth. His ears, according to
the custom of his people, are pierced in the lobes, and by means of a
copper ring, inserted in early childhood, are so elongated that the lobe
almost touches the shoulder ; his ears are also perforated in the upper
part to permit the insertion of a wild cat's tooth ornamented ; this is, how-
ever, only inserted for full dress ; on ordinary occasions he wears therein
a plug of wood about half an inch in diameter. These looped and perfo-
rated ears serve, in the absence of clothes, the purpose of pockets, and
are used to carry cigarettes or even boxes of matches. His hair is
straight and black, shaved in a straight line from his temples round his
head, but allowed to grow long at the back ; it is not unlike a
Chinaman's queue unbraided. The skin of the Kayans and Kenuiahs,
two closely allied tribes, is not yellow, but somewhat darker than a
Chinaman's, and they have none of the characteristics of either the thick-
lipped African negro nor the bushy, krinklj^ hair of the Papuans, nor
have they the almond eyes of the Mongolians.

As for costume, on ordinary occasions they wear nothing but a loin
cloth either of bark fibre or of red or white cotton, bought from the
Chinese traders in the Bazaar (the Malay name for a trading post).
On their heads they wear a close-fitting pointed cap made of thin strips
of rattan (or rotan, as they call it) or bamboo dyed red and black and
woven into pretty checkered patterns ; when they are exposed to the
blazing sun they often exchange this skull cap for a broad flat disc made
of dried palm leaves and tied to their head.

I describe Tamabulan thus somewhat at length because he is a full-
blooded and typical Kenuiah, and as he is, so are most of his people.
They almost universally depilate the hairs of the face, and only occasion-
ally are mustaches or beards to be seen ; when they are allowed to
grow they are more than likely to be restricted to one side of the face, in
charming irregularity.

When the peace meeting was over, and the pigs' livers had determined
omens propitiously (I think that Tamabulan in his inmost heart thought
that the whole thing was foolish and unnecessary, but then the Dyaks
were impressed and he was conscious that in any event he was able to
overpower them, so on the whole he was well pleased), we returned to
Mr. Hose's house, which is a low one-storied frame building, thatched
with palm leaves and surrounded with a broad veranda, whereon are scat-
tered in confusion, characteristic of a naturalist, all sorts of specimens,

Furness.] diZ [Dec. 18,

snakes, fish, scorpions, and animals in jars of alcohol ; dried turtles,
skulls of wild pigs and of rhinoceroses on the tables and chairs ; orna-
mented war shields and sun hats of the natives decorating the walls. The
house stands in a clearing on a blutf about forty or fifty feet above the
Baram river (pronounced Berrem), which at this point is about 250
yards wide, fairly clear and sleepily sluggish when not disturbed by
freshets.

An inspiriting shout from below, and the rhythmical click of the pad-
dles on the sides of the boats proclaimed to us that the Father of the
Moon (which is the signification of Tamabulan) and his men had come
up from the landing at the Bazaar and were waiting for us by the river
bank below Mr. Hose's house. Our store of provisions and the few articles
for trading and for ingratiating ourselves with the natives, such as three
or four bolts of cotton cloth, sixty pounds of Java tobacco, some bars
of steel, etc., were soon carried down to the canoe and stored away, and
in the sixty -foot dug-out canoe we were given the vacant space amid-
ships about seven feet long by five feet wide, wherein to spread our
mats and make our abode till the end of the trip. The black hard-wood
paddles glistened in the sunlight for a moment and then sent the water
gurgling and eddying along the sides of the boat as the six men in front
of us and the four in the stern, abaft Tamabulan and his goods and
chattels, gave a shout and pulled out into the stream. There are doubt-
less quite a number of Europeans who have made trips into the interior
of Borneo, without reckoning the Residents of the Dutch and English
companies, but I am sui-e that no American, and probably no European,
has gone further therein than Dr. Hiller and myself or under similar
circumstances. We went up the river as the guests of the Chief to be
present at the ceremonies and feasting to be given in honor of the Nam-
ing of his only son and heir, and during our five weeks there, we livetl
intimately enough with these jungle-people to get thoroughly into their
life and understand their trials and sympathize with them in their joys
and sorrows.

Our canoe, as I mentioned before, was about sixty feet long and about
five feet wide amid-ships, hewn out of a single log, but deepened con-
siderably by the addition of planks along the sides bound on with rotans
and caulked, thus giving about six inches additional free board. The
men while paddling sit cross-legged on a flooring of bamboo strips
tied together and placed over thwarts about two-thirds up the side
of the boat. They seem to be able to keep up an almost mechanical
stroke from daylight till dark without showing the least fatigue, aud
this, too, on two meals a day, consisting mainly of rice and a little dried
fish.

Toward dusk of the first day we halted at a sloping sand bank en-
closed on three sides by a thick hedge of wild sugar-cane, full of myste-
rious rustlings, and stretching far over the Ioav ground to the beginning
of the jungle. The other boats of our party, numbering eight, were

1896.] di-ii [Furness.

already tied up to the shore, and the brown-skinned men in their scarlet
waist-cloths were bustling about gathering fire-wood and building cranes,
whereon to hang their little pots of rice. Soon a row of fires started and
the short twilight of the tropics deepened into darlv, and the dancing
tires cast giant shadows on the gray-green leaves of the wild sugar-cane
and lit up the intent faces of the natives with their glistening eyes and
brass-studded teeth as they squatted beside the fires and stirred their pots
of rice. When the evening meal was ended and they had smoked their
long cigarettes of Java tobacco, rolled in a piece of dried wild banana
leaf, the moon came up and the embers of the fire were scattered. To be-
come more intimate with them we entered into contests in broad jumping,
high jumping and tugs of war, and, alas for me, I was indiscreet enough
to turn a hand spring for them and also walked on my hands. (Ever after
I was introduced by Tamabulan to his friends with a complimentary re-
mark that I could walk on my hands and turn over, and be it on muddy
bank or hard floor I was always obliged to repeat the performance. ) Then
the chief retired to his boat for the night, and it was a general signal for
the breaking up of the entertainment. Grass mats were brought out from
the boats and spread on the sand, whereon the men flung themselves
for the night in the soft light of the tropical moon, and were soon lulled
to sleep by the constant drone and chirp of nocturnal insects. Early
the next morning we awoke and saw, by the light of the setting moon,
the men shaking out their mats and making preparations for starting off
again. We were soon under way once more, and between waking and
sleeping we were conscious of the click of the paddles and an occasional
shout from Tamabulan ordering his men to paddle faster.

To give in detail all the long days of our trip up the river, and our visits
to the different houses, would be wearisome to you, as, even now and
then, I must confess, it somewhat was to us. I will abbreviate by say-
ing that there were many hard times. Three men died, of a disease
prevalent even here, the Grippe, which then seemed to be epidemic on
the Baram river. Unfortunately these deaths were attributed to our
presence, and a council was held and we were requested to return,
but having already come so far, we begged to be allowed to go
on. We distributed tobacco and medicine and held large clinics in
our boat for the treatment of an inflammatory disease of the eyes,
which was probably due to constant bathing in the muddy river and
to not closing the eyes when under the water. The rains descended
and the floods came, and for five days we were tied up to the bank, unable
to proceed on account of the force of the current and the immense logs
which were constantly floating down stream. Then the birds, who are
the guides and guardians of these people, were harangued and threat-
ened, and, at one time, an attempt was made to fool them. The whole
party pulled up to the bank and disembarked with their spears and
parangs, and made quite a circuit through the jungle, so as to make the
birds think that they were not going home but were on an ordinary

Furness.] Ol^ [Dec ^^^

hunting expedition. On another occasion, Dr. Hiller and myself
were spriulvled witli water thrown on us from a sticlv cut into sliavings
at the end and held on the blade of a parang. Finally, we began the
ascent of the Pata river, one of the large tributaries of the Baram, and,
after three daj^s of hard boating over rapids which necessitated our dis-
embarking twice and carrying our boat and all our belongings overland
for a short distance, we arrived within one turn of the river from Tama-
bulan's house. Here a short halt for final purification was made, and
an arch about five feet high, built of branches, was erected on the
beach. Beneath this arch a fire was made, and then Tamabulan, hold-
ing a young chicken, which he vi'aved and brushed over all parts of the
arch, addressed the evil spirits which had been following us and forbade
them to follow us further through the fire. The chicken was then killed
and its blood sprinkled over the archway and in the fire, and, led by
Tamabulan, the whole croM'd filed under the arch, and as they stepped
over the fire each one spit in it and immediately took his place in the
boats. A half hour more brought us to the huge log which served for
a landing along the shore below the house, 900 feet long, of Tamabulan.
The houses of the tribes who live on rivers are always built on high
ground above the banks so that they are out of danger from the frequent
freshets which occur during the rainy season, and also that they may ob-
serve the approach of enemies or friends coming down or ascending the
river ; to get into the houses you have to walk up a log about ten inches
in diameter, notched so as to form rough steps. Let me here briefly de-
scribe the tribal and household life of the Kenniahs and Kayans, which,
in almost every respect, are similar The inmates of a "long-house " are
a collection of about fifty or sixty families banded together for mutual
protection and support, and since there must be a centre to every circle
one among them is selected as chief, either an old man skilled in war
or one rich in worldly goods, which are estimated by the number of
heads he owns (these are not marketable but bring good luck), and also by
the number of brass gongs and cannons which pass for money ; this wealth
may be accumulated by successful raids, or by sales of rotan or gutta to
the Chinese traders in the bazaar ; one of the Baram chiefs has become
rich by the possession of a cave wherein the swallows that build edible
nests abound. Sometimes the government of a household is hereditary.
All the minor details of the conduct of the house are controlled by the
Orang Tuah, or the Orang Kaya (the old man or the 7'ie7i man), as the case
may be ; but the aftairs of the tribe, such as the advisability of their going
on the war-path, etc., are left to the Penghulu, who is responsible only
to the Rajah or to his officers. There are but five Penghulus in the Baram
district, but there are as many Orang Kayas and Orang Tuahs as there
are houses. The long-houses are in point of fact small villages built in
a straight line, on high piles, for protection and elevation above the
damp ground. Tambulan's is about 350 paces long and rests on piles
about fifteen feet high made of magnificent trunks of the Billian tree,

1896.] oi-b [Fumess.

Otherwise known as Iron-w^ood ; some of these posts are at least eigh-
teen inches in diameter stripped of their bark. To enter the house you
must ascend, as I have said, by a notched log worn smooth by the passage
of many bare feet, and slippery from the constant wetting of heavy dews
"and frequent rains ; there is no railing. At the top of this rude ladder
you enter, under the eaves of the house, the long, wide, general living-
room, or street, where most of the life goes on, and where there is a con-
stant haze of smoke and a smell which is a mixture of wet dog and musty
garret. The floors of Tamabulan's house are famous, in that they are
made of unusually large hewn planks of Billian, some of them being five
feet wide, placed rather loosely over the cross beams underneath ; quite
a number of the ordinary houses have floorings made of flat strips of the
bark of the Nibong Palm.

No nails are used in the construction of the houses, the joists being
either notched to fit each other, and then pegged, or bound with rotan ;
the roofing is either composed of small shingles of Billian tied in place,
or it is made of a thatch of palm leaves ; here and there are trap doors
in the roof which can be raised by poles to admit more light and air.
The eaves extend down to within four feet of the floor and from them to
the floor is built a grating of poles laid lengthwise. This space admits light
and air throughout the length of the house. Along this opening in several
places are platforms raised about eighteen inches and covered with mats
made of woven grasses or strips of rattan. On these the men sit and talk
or form interested groups round one of their companions skilled in play-
ing on the Kaluri (one of their most musical instruments, constructed on
the principle of the bag-pipe, except that a long-necked gourd takes the
place of the dog-skin bag). These verandas or streets are not cheerful
places, except close to the opening, where there is plenty of light ; the
eaves come down so low that a few feet away from the opening it is rather
dark and the beams of the house and the floor are so smoked that all the
light is lost in the high roof, where hang hundreds of long bunches of
ripening bananas and dusty old rattan traps, like long round baskets, for
catching fish, small dug-out canoes warped out of shape, and numerous
other native articles, stowed away, doubtless, with the same idea that
many an American housekeeper has that they will be useful to some one
some day, but that day never arrives and they occupy their place in the
order of things as "dust catchers." Oiiposite to the open ventilation-
space is a straight partition running the whole length of the house and
dividing the private familj- rooms from the general thoroughfare ; the
openings into the rooms are about twenty feet apart and are about three
feet six inches high by two feet wide, at a distance of two feet from the
floor ; to enter you must step over this threshold two feet or more high
and the door is pulled to wath a weight The object of this high thresh-
old is to keep the young children in, and to keep the ubiquitous dog
out, neither of which purposes is attended with success.

The living-rooms are even more dingy and smoky than the public pas-

PROC. AMER. I'HILOS. SOC. XXXY. 153. 2 N. PRINTED APRIL 20, 1897.

Fumess.] dlD |-j)ec. is,

sage-way. On entering Tamabulan's room I was always in fear
lest in the darkness I should tread on a baby or a puppy or slip down
through the flooring. Once inside the room, however, and over near the
light, everything was all right, and Bulan, the eldest child of
Tamahulan, and from whom the chief takes his name, (in that country
the child is father of the man in cognomen) received us with all the
dignity befitting her station, for in point of birth she was a full-blooded
princess, although she did only wear one scant garment extending from
her hips to a little below her knee, and even this garment was split down
one side. She was certainly a most dignified girl, possibly about
eighteen, with a mild gentle look in her eyes which she opened and
shut with an impressive solemnity ; her teeth of course were blackened,
but well shaped and regular ; her hair was glossy black, parted in the
middle and brought down low over her forehead and kept in place by a
fillet of plaited rotan around her head ; her eyebrows had either been
shaved or depilated. The only blot upon her beauty was one of her
ears ; her over-ambitious parents had put in too heavy weights when she
was young, and, alas, one of her beautiful ear lobes had given way ; it
had been patched, but the patch showed plainly and an ugly lump re-
sulted. Indeed, how true in all climes is it that 11 faut souffrir pour
etre belle. I showed Her Highness, Princess Bulan, some pictures of Amer-
ican women in Harper's Weekly, which I had brought from Baram to
while away the hours in the boat, and she laughed much at the funny
custom of squeezing in waists, which I was obliged to tell her was done
by means of steel bands laced tightly about them. This seemed in-
comprehensible to her, and such sufi'ering intolerable. In every picture
I had to tell her which were the women when only the head and
shoulders were shown ; there seemed to be no difference to her in the
faces except of course where either beard or mustache marked the men.
The room in which the Tamabulan family lived was much like all the
rest ; it was large and square with three small closet-like rooms parti-
tioned off ; these were the sleeping apartments for the young girls and
for Tamabulan and his two Avives, and the third was for his slave and his
family ; they were not neat little rooms with warm tropical breezes
wafting in the delicate odors of orchids from the jungle, but black little
cubby holes, with nothing but a mat for a bed and the small smoking
coal-oil lamp made of tin, or a lump of damar gum sputtering and smok-
ing on a scooped-out stone, for a light. Bulan 's room was pathetic in
that she had made an attempt at making it a little more dainty by fasten-
ing a piece of bright calico upon the wall to relieve the monotony of the
darkened wood ; she had also arranged some pretty black and yellow
bead-work baskets in one corner ; these were her wealth. In the corner
between Tamabulan's room and that of his slave was the fireplace,
merely a flat cake of clay over a few stones laid down on the flooring.
There was no chimney and the smoke had to find its way up to the roof
or out of the window in the back wall of the house, where there was not

1896.] Oi-i [Furness.

the continuous opening between the eaves and the floor as at the front
of the house, but where it was boarded up and light and air were admit-
ted eitlier through small windows or through the trap doors in the roof.
From most of the rooms there was also a door and a flight of steps, or
rather a notched log, leading down to the rice storehouses behind the
house, where the women were occupied every morning pounding the
husks oft' of the rice and winnowing the chafi". In all of the Kayan houses
the rice, or paddi, as they call it, is pounded in the house, but the fine
flying chafi" is not only irritating to the nostrils but sometimes produces
an itching eruption on the skin, so Tamabulan very wisely has all this
work done out of doors. Everywhere in the house roam most persist-
ently ravenous dogs of the most mongrel type ; no one seems to like
them and a chance is never neglected to thump them or hit them with a
stick. We were warned beforehand by Mr. Hose to tie our boots up to
the rafters at night lest the dogs sliould eat them. What their true use
is I never could find out. The men told me they were for hunting, but
I never saw them taken out in the jungle nor did they appear to have any
master in particular. Beneath the house where the boats, not in actual
use, are stored, pigs forage for any stray scraps of food which may
drop through the flooring above ; and at the back of the house where
the paddi is beaten out was always a flock of chickens, kept partly for
food and partly for sacrifice ; thus in most of the surroundings there is
an element of farm life.

While we were off on a visit of five days to a Kayan chief on the
Apoh river, Tamabulan had a cozy little room partitioned ofl" for us,
arkd when we returned he led us up to it with pride and told us that he had
made the door to fasten, so that the children could not annoy us, but
even as he spoke there was a line of beady little eyes peering at us
through a crack, and we thought of the small boys -who lift the canvas
of the circus tent. The small boys were our chief friends, and head of
them all, although not by any means the oldest, was the rascally little
Adom. There was no feasting, there was no mourning, in fact no inci-
dent of interest, complete witliout the face of Adorn peering from his
perch on a rafter or beaming out from among the stack of long bamboo
water jugs standing in a rack in the corner. Like the mongoose, in
Kipling's Jungle Book, his motto seemed to be : " Run and find out ! "

Let me finish by giving you an account of one day as a specimen of
all days spent beneath the hospitable roof of Tamabulan. Would that I
could only give it to jow with all the distinctness that the mere recount-
ing brings out in my mind !

We a-\voke with the first crow of the cock, which breaks the silence of
the night and dies away in the jungle without the far-oflf response from
neighboring farms, to w^hich we are accustomed in the country here
at home. Then a dog rouses up, yawns and stretches and shakes off
the ashes of the fireplace where it had been sleeping and begins the daily
round of quarrels witli its companions. Then the daylight gradually

Furness.i *^J-" [Dec. 18,

creeps in and a door slams with a bang at the far end of the house,
where the poorer and hard-working people live, and a woman with a
bundle of bamboo water vessels slung on her back hurries along to the
stairway down to the river. She looks just the same as when she went
to sleep. Her dress is the same and her hair is in a disordered tangle,
and as she walks her feet come down heavily on the warped planks
and make them rattle, no doubt to Avake the lazy men, who sleep on
and let tlie women make the fire and get the water while they snooze.
Soon she comes back, her hair dripping and glossy and little drops of
water still clinging to her skin. By this time there is quite a procession
of women going down to bathe and get the cooking water from the
river, and there is a slamming of doors and a few wails from the children,
and laments from the dogs when they get a thump from a warrior who
wakes to find that he has been sleeping with his face close to the
dog's mangey back. Then the men who have been sleeping on the
raised platform in front of the long slatted window, unroll them-
selves from their shroud-like coverings of cotton cloth, once white,
and a little hum of conversation springs up, possibly a comparison
of dreams, the interpretation of which, as in all uneducated classes,
has great bearing on their daily life. The mother who comes out with
her babies in her arms, or sitting astride of her hips, knows nothing
of our custom of caressing with a kiss, but in her maternal bursts of affec-
tion she buries her face in the neck of the child and draws in a long
breath through her nostrils ; in fact, she smells it. In their language the
verbs to smell and to kiss are the same. Then down she goes to the
river and takes the morning bath with her child in her arms, some-
times holding it by the hands and letting it kick out its legs like a frog
— the first lessons in swimming. One by one the men straggle off to
bathe in the river and never miss the opportunity^ of telling us that they
were going to bathe, and when they returned they were also most punc-
tilious in telling us that they had bathed. With all this bathing, how-
ever, they are not a clean people. Soap is unknown to them and they
never use hot water, consequently their skins have not the soft velvety
appearance that constant bathiug usually produces. We gave some of
the girls cakes of Pears' soap, but they ate them.

After bathing there is a lull in the activity of the house, while
the married women and young girls cook the morning meal of boiled
rice and dried salted fish. (By the way, their method of obtaining
salt is, perhaps, peculiar. They burn the stalk of the Nipa palm, which
grows in salt or brackish water, and, by soaking the ashes and allowing
them to settle, they get a very coarse and dirty quality of salt, of which
they are very fond.) In eating they use neither plate nor chop-
sticks ; but, like the Malays, they eat with their fingers, cramming
their mouths as full as they can at one time and then taking a pinch of
the finely crumbled dried salt fish. Tliey do not eat from one common
dish as do the Chinese, but each person lias his allotted share piled upon

1896.] •jU [Furness.

a thick sheet of the inner bark of a tree (I think it was tlie tough inner
layers of the stalk of a banana), and his portion of fisli is placed on
another smaller leaf, or if the family is of the " Four Hundred " they
may have a pressed glass bowl. The daily meals in the houses (there
are usually only two meals a day) are somewhat private affairs, but they
always informed us when they were going to eat, probably so that we
should not pay them a visit at that time. They likewise always left us
to ourselves Avhen we ate. We carried with us a Chinese cook.

After breakfast there were always parties of men and women setting
out for the clearings where the rice was planted, and armed with a
billiong (^the adze-Jike axe,. which they use) and their parang, and their
spear, the men go down and get the boat ready, and the women follow
after with the paddles, and hampers to bring back bananas or bunches
of tender young fern fronds, which they make into a stew. Then the
house settles down to the ordinary tasks of weaving cloth or pounding
the husks off the paddi by the women, and sharpening spears or deco-
rating parangs by the men industriously inclined ; but the latter are rare.
They usually spend their time in silly chatter witli their companions or
merely sit and think, aided l)y long draughts of smoke drawn deep
into their lungs from the strong Java tobacco cigarettes, which they roll
for themselves out of banana leaves. Men, women, and children all smoke
tobacco, which they grow for themselves, in part, and in part bring
from a bazaar far down the river. The boys, ever ready for sport, we
used to arm with butterfly nets and send them out in search of insects
of all kinds. They knew their haunts much better than we did, and
chasing butterflies in the tropics is not the best fun in the world. We
much preferred to sit in the shade of the house and fold the insects,
when caught, in paper and pack them away in our tins.

Morning wore into afternoon, and then we would sit on the river bank
and watch from a high blufl' the young girls taking their bath and recrea-
tion. Here let me say a word in favor of their modesty. We never saw
the faintest conscious immodesty. We used to sit lost in admiration at
their skill in swimming. It was a sort of game of tag they were always
playing, only, instead of one chasing all, all chased one, and this one
would get off some little distance from the crowd and then suddenlj'-
disappear under water. Then the chase began. All swam as fast as
they could to the spot where she had vanished, some swimming with
a rapid overhand stroke, while others swam entirely under the water.
Then, possibly still in front of them, possibly far behind them, up
bobbed the girl who was " it," shaking the water from her eyes and giv-
ing a shout of derision at her pursuers. Down she went again and the
chase was renewed, all under water, so long, sometimes, that the sur-
face of the river became perfectly smooth, and no one would have im-
agined that in another moment it would be again bubbling up and
dashed into spray by a crowd of laughing, shouting, black-haired savage
girls. (We never saw the boys play in the water.) Back and forth,

Furness.] ^^-^^ [Dec. 18,

up and down, they splashed from one side of the river to the other, un-
til one of the men called to them from the house to stop their sport lest
they rouse a, sleeping crocodile. This put an end to the fun. Another
thing, which was quite new to us, was the way in which they could play
a sort of tune by splashing their hands in the water and flapping their
arms to their sides. They stood in a group, and by sinking their hands
back downward in the water and then clapping them above the water
and slapping their elbows to their sides, they produced a series of differ-
ent sounds, like that of a large stone dropping into a deep pool, with a
rhythm that was perfect and very pleasing.

Afternoon deepened into dusk, and the workers from the fields came
home and trudged wearily up the bank and disappeared through the
little doorways. Small flickering lamps were lit here and there, and the
fire on the hearth, where our Chinese cook was preparing our rice and
tinned meats, disseminated a cheery glow and a smell of frying ham
throughout the long corridor, and I am sure that if the ghastly row of
human skulls above our fireplace had had chops to lick they would have
licked them. At night, according to Tamabulan's orders, no women are
allowed out in the public thoroughfare. So if we wanted social life we
went round visiting in the evening. A girl named Sara seemed to be
the belle of the house, but why I do not know, unless it was her powers
•of conversation, which, being foreigners, we could barely appreciate. She
•certainly was not pretty. We much preferred the society of Mujan and
her sister Lishun, who always had a good store of cigarettes, and whose
stock of Burok, or home-brewed arrack, was above reproach. Mujan
gave me her ear-rings before I left, and in return I gave her a cake of
soap and a piece of yellow cloth to tie round her head.

Then the household quiets down for sleep, and we secluded ourselves
in our little pen and, stretched out on our mats, dozed off, scarcely realiz-
ing that we were in the heart of the Bornean j.ungle in the house of a
band of savage head-hunters.

Thus the days passed, and the day of our departure was hastened
somewhat by the unexpected change of a festival into a funeral, by the
sudden death of a young married woman. Unfortunately this death
was also attributed to our presence, and had it not been for the staunch
friendship of Tamabulan and some of his men our heads would now be
decorating the fireside of a Kayan long-house. "We did not know until
a while after, when we saw Tamabulan again, what great danger we
had been in that night. However, "All's well that ends well," and
by the time we were ready to start on our return we were again in good
favor, and after a hearty hand-shake all round we bade farewell to dear
old Tamabulan and pushed out into the river amid waving of big hats
and white cloths, and the long drawn " Tabe, Tuan, Tabe " followed
after us and echoed in the juugle, even after we had rounded the turn
and lost sis;ht of our Bornean friends for ever.

189G.] oAl [Hiller.

A Brief Report of a Journey up the Rejang Ricer in Borneo.

By H. M. Hiller, M.D.

{Read before The American Philosophical Society, December IS, 1S9G.)

The Rejang is the largest river in the north and west side of Borneo
— if not of the entire island. Rising in the unknown mountains called
Apoh Byang, it falls in rapids and torrents until the Belaga adds its
waters ; from here it courses a level table land until the cliffs above the
mouth of the Balleh are reached and it channels its way through, or
dashes over the rocks in a series of rapids and cascades. The stream,
from this point influenced by the tide, finds its sluggish way to the sea,
confined by low jungle-covered banks, which farther on degenerate into
mangrove swamp — and hedges of nipa palms, whose frond-like leaves
reach often a height of thirty feet. The general course of the river is
from east to west, and, roughly estimating, it is about 270 miles to Belaga
— beyond which the distances have not been computed. At Sibu the
mile-wide channel breaks into a delta whose mouths extend along the
■coast for fifty mdes. Foreign timber ships enter the deep waters of the
delta, while trading schooners and vessels of light draught ascend to
Sibu and even to Kappit, a distance of 150 miles — beyond the latter
place onljr canoes are possible and these ascend often with great difli-
culty, but away in the mountains the Malay and Chinese trader venture
in their small canoes.

Sibu is the second town of importance in the province of Sarawak.
Consisting of a Malay village, a Chinese bazaar, a fort and the homes of
the officers, it guards the upper river from inroads from the sea.
Kanowit and Song are unimportant trading stations. Kappit has the
added dignity of a wooden stockade, and protects the people between
the falls and the delta from the maurauding excursions of the hill tribes.
While the detached fortress at Belaga ineffectually keeps the peace be-
tween the warlike mountain tribes whose houses extend as far as the
river's source.

Between the strongholds are the habitations of Dyaks, Kanowits,
Tanjongs, Punans, Kayans and other tribes, their houses being built
close to the bank of the stream that acts as a highway. Almost every
tributary stream is a branch-road leading back to some settlement where
the natives have gone in search of virgin jungle wherein they make
•clearings for their rice fields.

Crocodiles infest the muddj' banks and terrorize the natives, whose
efforts at cleanliness are often rudely ended by the sudden rush of the
treacherous animal. Deer, wild pig and wild cattle roam the jungle
almost undisturbed, for the natives are farmers rather than hunters and
the duties of rice cultivation and the gathering of gutta and rattans
leave little time for the chase. Yet the presence of many dogs, the

Hiller.] ^^2 [Dec. 18,

antlers of deer and the horns of cattle decorating their houses, testify to
an occasional hunting excursion.

Their methods of cultivation are crude, and often before the planting-
season arrives they find their store of rice is ended ; then they must
seelt in the jungle for their food ; roots, ferns, fruits and any stray animal
or bird that crosses their path fall to the blow -gun or spear and finds the
way to their cooking pots. But rice is the all-important food, and to
secure a full supply all their best eftbrts are given. Preparatory festi-
vals are arranged, field sites are selected and the omen-birds are con-
sulted, for all the tribes are more or less influenced 1)j' the omens ; birds,
animals and snakes being the chief objects consulted. In fact,
scarcely anything of importance is undertaken without first consulting
the birds and they abide by their decision no matter what the cost.
Half-cleared fields are abandoned, a completed new house is deserted,
or a war expedition even is turned back, if some insignificant bird
whistles, or a frog is seen at some especial time or place. The subject
is intricate, deep and absorbing, and shapes their lives as much as any re-
ligion could. But when favorable omens are once secured the clearing of
forests goes rapidly forward and the heavy laj^er of ashes obtained bj'
firing the brushwood and logs acts as a splendid and ready fertilizer.
A new field is cleared each year and the old one left to return to jungle
again. The grain is planted amongst the stumps and half-burned logs
and under the influence of the warm moist climate soon springs into a
rich harvest. Yet it is a long and weary way from the planting to the
granary, for the beasts and birds levy their tribute and the insects often
destroy the remainder and the poor cultivator enters upon a season of
starvation, or of debt to the traders, who import rice from .Java. For-
tunately the sago palm grows throughout the island, and though a poor
food still helps to sustain life until the return of the planting season.

One planting season a Kayan chieftain conceived the brilliant idea of
planting biscuits. He prepared an exceptional field, secured good
omens, strewed Huntly and Palmer's best brand in among the stumps
and then marveled that the rare and novel grain did not spring into
abundant harvest.

The festivals preparatory to the harvest and following it are usually
the occasions for great revelry. All the neighbors come in their boats
for fifty and sixty miles, or even further ; great quantities of rice-spirit
(arrack) having been preparing for a month or more. Huge piles of
rice are cooked and many pigs are slaughtered. They eat and drink,
then have a series of dances, then eat and drink again ; by this time
some of the men usually require sleep, so they crawl to one side of the
veranda or street, while dancing, drinking and feasting continue.

I remember three old men dancing together after many others had
succumbed ; shaking a brush in front of them with one hand, a naked
parang (or sword) in the other, they brushed out the spirits from all the
dark corners and hewed and hacked their imaginary forms. I often

1S96.] o2o [Hiller.

wondered if it was an orthodox dance, or a mild form of delirium
tremens. When they are performing their rites and omens they sug-
gest insanity to us. It was at the same feast we saw Dyak women in
all their best clothes — gaudy, cheap silk or satin sarongs ; a brass
cutrass, polished for the occasion, which confined their supple waists and
extended over their hips ; wonderful caps of rattan frame-work covered
with beads which branched in all directions, resembling rare insects.
One belle, in addition, wore a wide piece of cloth falling from her neck
down her back to her heels— a modified Wateau plait — and the bottom
was hung with a lot of old brass bells that banged and jangled against
her bare heels at every step. But with all this play they do not forget
the birds, and we helped fill the baskets with food which were later
hung near the new clearings and the birds come and feed thereon and
feel more kindly to the tillers.

In the lower Rejang the Dyaks have become successful farmers,
primarily because the soil is more fertile than in the mountains and
also because the government forts protect them from the neighboring
warlike tribes.

Below Belaga they can plant their paddi or gather their gutta with-
out fear, while above this fort at no time are they ever safe, and they
always carry their weapons and keep on their guard lest thej^ be mas-
sacred by the marauding bands from over the Dutch border Also in
traveling they have the same advantage — where the river is influenced
by the tide you see single small canoes going to and fro, while in the
upper waters lliey go in parties of five or six large boats for mutual pro-
tection, and also for mutual aid in ascending the rapids ; for it often re-
quires their united eftorts to haul a boat around a cascade.

You may ascend as far as Kappit in the small government steamers
that occasionally go up to the fort for jungle produce, i. e., gutta and
rattan. Here j'ou must secure a canoe and a crew of ten or a dozen men ;
Tanjongs or Kayans are best. In a few hours you pass the mouth of
the Balleh, and a short distance above this enter the swift rapids
where paddles are useless. Poles are substituted to push the boat over
the shallows, while some of the men wade in the stream or walk along
the bank pulling at the long rattan which serves as a painter.

This method of progression fails when the falls of the Rejang are
reached — a series of small waterfalls with intervening rapids down
which the waters rush with irresistible force. Great black rocks or huge
wooded islands stand in midstream around the bases of which the water
swirls and eddies. Long buttresses resembling walls of masonry thrust
themselves almost across the stream and the pent-up current rushes around
the end as through a broken dam — or again the rocks rising like a wall
form an effectual barrier over which the water tumbles in a number
of small cascades. Around these obstructions, or over them, the boats

FROO. AMEK. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 153. 2o. PRINTED, MAY 25, 1897.

Hiller.] «^'^'* [Dec. 18,

must be lianled, for they are too heavy to be carried. This labor takes
a day at least and often two are consumed before tranquil water permits
of the use of the paddle. It requires about two days to traverse the
table-land that reaches as far as Dian's house, and nothing breaks the
monotony of low jungle-lined shore save an occasional hawk or mon-
key, nor the intense quiet of the day save the regular click clack of the
paddles against the boat's side as they fall in the measured stroke.

When the second rapids are reached, the scenery improves ; the low
hills are backed by higher hills, and along the reaches of the river the
mountains in the interior raise their purple peaks many thousand feet
against the sky, rocky banks succeed the low muddy shores and habita-
tions become more frequent. But the ascent becomes more and more diffi-
cult, and every mile brings its rapids or small cascade, nor is there any im-
provement the fiirther one ascends, and before the last houses are reached
the canoes must be abandoned, yet the way still leads up the bed of the
stream. The descent, on the other hand, can be accomplished in one-
third the time — Avliere you ascended onlj^ by the utmost exertion, haul-
ing by rattans, poling or even clinging on with the hands to the stones
and branches, you can shoot down at a terrific gait. A steersman stand-
in g in the stern and one in the prow guide the boat in and out among
the rocks — avoiding the cliff's against whose bases the current seems sure
to drive them, or holding the canoe straight as it leaps the small cas-
cades. Few sports are more exhilarating, though many are less dan-
gerous, and the " r-i-p " a jagged rock makes when the boat plunges on
it, is not the most musical sound in the world, even to an old boatman,
and it is almost certain death to be upset on the rapids.

We secured eleven Kayans to take us from Kappit to Belaga — all young
men ranging from fifteen to twenty years old, yet from their life-long
experience on the river they were skillful boatmen. We had in addi-
tion one child of seven or eight years old, for you seldom see a boat
without these nimble and useful assistants. They act as servants to all,
in fetching and carrying and are never treated as children, but are made
to do a man's part, to suffer and endure as far as their youtli and
strength will allow. Yet they are not abused, and one and all assist or
help them the moment they get into difficulties. The eldest of the
party usually acts as head man, deciding on the camping ground, urging
the men on to work when they grow lazy or sleepy, and calling them
back into stroke when the paddles fail to fall in time. There is usually
a wag, who keeps them all merry and often relieves the tedium of the
long afternoons by reciting deeds of valor, anecdotes or even jests, while
at the end of each line the otliers join in a chorus and for the time
fatigue is forgotten and the paddles fall in rhythm.

There are others who say but little, yet who move to the prow and
stern as steersmen when the dangerous places are reached. Some are

189fi.] ^^5 [Hiller,

friendly, lending a hand at fire making, wood gathering or fastening
the boats, while others look out for themselves alone. You soon come
to know them all — their names, Lejau, Blari, Deng, Terluat and Leshon ;
their peculiarities, and their worth, and the fact of their being untaught
savages, negligent of dress, careless of life, be it yours or theirs, fades,
and they enter into j'our life, as did your early playmates or your
college friends. One youth soon attracted our attention, on account of
his happ}^ disposition and his utter unselfishness, and we could always
recognize him by his red flannel jacket cut in the Eton style, the abbre-
viated skirt of that time-honored garment being still further reduced so
that it fell but a short distance below his shoulders. We were a party
of half a dozen boats, in one of which were some Punans suffering from
malaria. The Eton boy constituted himself nurse and cook for them,
though they were utter strangers. Our own cook was a Chinaman, and
all day he suffered from teasing at Deng's hands, yet when camping
time arrived the celestial found his wood collected and fire already
started by his never-tiring friend.

If possible we camped near a house, and in the evening we would visit
the head man and make a small exchange of presents, usually a chicken
on his part and some Java tobacco on ours, but more often sundown
found us tied up to a bank, if possible near a small brook. In no time a
dozen small fires Avould be blazing over which each man's small pot of
rice was suspeudec", each person squatting near by tending his fire and
waiting for the pot to boil ; even the child had his individual pot, while
the Chinaman usually required two or three for his more elaborate
efforts. We usually sat apart on a log or stone watching them, listening
to their chatter, to the vesper songs of the birds, the good-night of the
argus pheasant, or the fluttering of the jungle fowl as it flew into the
trees to roost. I heard also the awakening of the night chorus of cicades,
frogs and birds while watching the sunset in all its golden splendor. As
the twilight deepened into night the colors faded and the stars came out
like lights in the sky, and the southern cross hung high over the trees.
The Malay trader spread his mats and facing Stamboul muttered his
prayers as the sun went down. The Kayau child early curled up in the
boat to sleep, and one by one the boatmen wrapped themselves in their
thin cotton sarongs and stretching ovat on the stony bank slept the sleep
of tired men. The river added its gentle murmur to the night chorus,
and ever and anon the "night-jar" raised its plaintive notes to tell
that it kept its vigil while the jungle slept.

Beyond Belaga it was considered dangerous to venture on account of
the war between two great rival tribes, but finding a friendly chief re-
turning home we took advantage of the occasion and accompanied him.
A day's journey we came to the long-house of a former king, now
practically deserted because of the planting season, and the men and

Hiller.] ^^^ [Dec. IS,

women were then living in temporary houses near their distant fields.
Even the king's apartments were vacant, for with the changes war and
disease ever bring, no heir is left and another dynasty has ended. In
front of his door a great slab from the tapang tree indicates his former
dias. Quaint, characteristic, Kayan carvings decorate the empty dwell-
ing and the dogs now go in and out without hindrance or molestation.

Oyang Usa's house was the farthest point reached on the Rejang, per-
haps 300 miles from the sea, and in the distance the blue mountains
mark the foot hills of the range where the river takes its source. Xo
white man has 3'et visited the spot .

As we descended the river we fell in Avith some of the warriors return-
ing, and in course of time elicited some facts concerning the recent ex-
pedition ; tales that rivaled the Indian stories of our childhood. They
showed us their trophies, their plunder and their fast drying heads, and
lastly with a petition for food they produced a two-year-old captive
child whose mouth watered as hungry children's do, when we offered it
a bit of food. We floated down the river side by side for several hours,
and before we left that baby had a generous half of our stores at its
command.

Captives, however, stand second in rank among the spoils of Avar ; a
dried and charred head perhaps yielding to no other object, especially
when at the feasting and drinking that folloAvs the return of an expedi-
tion the women take down the heads from over the fireplace and, danc-
ing up and down the A'eranda, hey sing of the courage of the successful
and taunt those who from want of skill or valor returned empty-
handed. Then too they often get quantities of mats, of old Chinese
jars, by which they set great store, of Aveapons of all sorts, and occasion-
ally a rare find in the shape of a string of dingy beads

These curious old glass beads have fictitious A^alues in their eyes, a
single small bead called by them a " Lukut Sekali " may cost as much
as a slave, or if you ask the price of a necklace it goes beyond their
powers of computation, and the person after thinking for a while will
usually saj^ it is Avorth more than a long-house. They are supposed to
be Venetian beads, brought to the east by Mohammedan traders and sold
by the Malays and Chinese to the Kayans. The Chinese have tried in
vain to counterfeit these beads as Avell as the old jars, but the Kayan is
an antiquarian of no mean skill in the matter of glass and porcelain and
the Celestial has not yet succeeded.

On this same expedition some of the Dyaks found the " safe de-
posit" of a friendly chief, but thinking it the hiding place of their
enemies they raided it. At the request of the government they returned
the property to the owners, and on this occasion we saAv for the first time
the "tebuku " or memory knots common to many untaught people. In
this instance a bundle of rattan strips tied in knots recording the various

1896.] 327 [Hiller.

gongs, spears, sliields, mats, etc., were strung together in a hopeless
tangle, but when the chief, squatting on his mat before the officer,
gradually untangled the various pieces, each knot recalled a definite
object to him, and he detailed the hundred or more articles without once
faltering.

The Punans are an interesting people and differ in many respects from
their neighbors. Many travelers consider them the aborigines of Borneo.
They are mostlj^ strong, lithe and active, even distancing the strongest
Kayan or Kenniah in traversing the jungle. They are nomads, living
but a few days in one place, making a shelter that cannot be called a
house and abandoning it as soon as jungle produce or game proves scarce,
for they are hunters and not farmers, and in this respect they differ from
almost all the other tribes. To them also is attributed the first use of the
blow-gun and poisoned arrows, and thej^ still can excel the other races,
who have adopted this effective weapon. A piece of tough wood about
seven or eight feet long is drilled by means of an iron rod so that a per-
fectly straight tube is made having a diameter of about half an inch. If
there should be any curve an iron spear head of the proper weight is
bound on one end by means of rattans so that the weight springs the
shaft into a perfect line, and they now have a spear and blow-gun com-
bined. The dart of about one foot in length is made from the tough
nibong palm and another palm furnishes the pith with which the head
of the dart is finished, it being just a shade smaller than the calibre of
the tube. The sharpened end of the dart is then dipped in the inspissated
juice of the upas-tree, and one of the most deadly and at the same time
silent weapons is prepared for use. A short quick puft" and a man at
seventy -five yards distance feels a prick in his side, he plucks the dart
away or plays idly and foolishly with the broken shaft, gradually
his motions become more and more incoordinate and he falls to the
ground unconscious, and a few convulsive movements ends his career.

They are no less adept in the use of the spear or the parang, as they
call their substitute for a sword, than their rivals. Yet sickness, famine
and war are rapidly thinning their ranks, and unless they are fostered
by the government it will be but a few years until the nomad Punau
is forgotten.

They are the only people in Borneo who practice polyandry. The
Ukits are a similar tribe and can be distinguished by the singular shield-
shaped breast tattooing. They, too, live in a very primitive dwelling,
usually built against the buttress of a big tree, which scarcely keeps
them dry during the rains.

The story of Bululuk Sabon's misfortunes will give you an idea of how
uncertain and dangei-ous life can be in a Kayan house near the border.
Bululuk was a small man, but gained great credit among the people
and eventuallj^ became their chief. When Mr. Lowe suddenly appeared

Hiller.] 328 [Dec. 18,

in the head-waters of the Rejaug, he shamed the people because their
houses were poor. So Sabon built a new one that strangers might
admire. That was many years ago, and Mr. Lowe's visit remains the
first and last, but the house decorated with carvings and having hewn
board floors still stands expectant. In the meantime, while many of the
men and their chief were away down the river, the Kenniahs came over
and killed all the old and verj^ young who could not escape into the
jungle. Seven doors remained closed thereafter. Not satisfied with
this success they came a second time. His wife, his mother and his child
fell in the night attack, and he, with his ten-year old daughter Liban,
made his escape. A few more doors were rendered useless after this
depletion. Gathering all the fighting men he could command he joined
hands with the Dj'aks in their recent raid and endeavored to wipe out
the score. When we saw him again returning to his almost deserted
house his little daughter accompanied him. He was very poor ; must
even sell his best blow-gun to obtain food. But nothing daunted, he
was going back to tend his rice fields, and, if by any chance he found an
opportunity, he would take a few more Kenniah heads to avenge his
people.

By contrast the life in a Dj-ak's house, or in a Malay village, may be
as tranquil as in our own country, and there the petty annoyances of
every-day life assume as large proportions as do the struggles for exist-
ence at the sources of the rivers. They feast and dance and make merrj^,
while Bululuk Sabon keeps watch and ward over his half-emptied house.

If we dared prophesy as to the future of the Rejang's people, we should
say, that in proportion as the sturdy hill people dwindle away, the more
fortunately situated coast tribes would bear their advancing civilization
towards the mountains, and as the country becomes more and more set-
tled, when tribal wars are ended, and a better knowledge of rice culture
prevails, the}' should become a prosperous people.

1896.] oZJ [Gushing.

Exploration of Ancient Key Binellers' Bemains on the Oalf Coast of

Florida.

Plates XXV— XXXV.

By Frank Hamilton CusMng.

{Read before the American Philosophical Society, November G, 1S9G. )
Introductory.

Early in the spring of 1895, Captain W. B. Collier, of Key Marco,
southwestern Florida, found, while digging garden-muck from one of
the little mangrove-swamps (Section 14, Plate XXXI) that occur, like
filled-up coves, among the low-lying shell-banks surrounding his shore-
island home, several ancient wooden articles and some pieces of netted
cordage. He did not recognize as of artificial origin the first found of these
objects — so softened were they hy decay, so like the water-soaked frag-
ments of rotten timber and rootlets everywliere encountered in the
muck. But the twine-like appearance of some of the seeming root-
strands that clung to his digging tools, and the discovery, a little later,
of a beautifully shaped and highly polished ladle or cup made from
the larger portion of a whelk-, or conch-shell, led him to believe that
the strands were actual cordage, and that a noticeably curious block of
wood, which had been sliced through by his spade and cast aside, was
really an article fashioned by man.

A few days later, Mr. Charles Wilkins, of Rochester, N. Y., chanced
to sail down that way from the little winter resort of Naples, some
fifteen miles north of Key Marco, to seek for tarpon, and thus to hear
of this find.

Another guest at Naples, a traveler of wide experience and an accom-
plished scholar withal, Lieutenant-Colonel C. D. Durnford, of the Brit-
ish Army, had organized, a few days previously, an amateur expedition
to explore an ancient canal and several small burial mounds near by.
In this expedition, Mr. Wilkins had joined. He was therefore much
interested in what he heard at Marco, and passed a day in digging
there on his own account. He found close to the place that had been
opened by Captain Collier and his men, other remains, including por-
tions of two wooden cups — one of them somewhat charred — another
shell ladle, several pierced conch tool-heads, and a fairly well-preserved
animal figure-head of carved wood. When told by him of these finds.
Colonel Durnford, accompanied by his courageous wife, immediately
set forth for Marco. He had two small excavations made (in Sections
32, 33, Plate XXXI) as close to those that had previously been made
as was possible — for these holes were now flooded with water. Therein,
he found a piece of rope, more netting, fragments of gourd-shell, a
couple of well-worked little blocks, and a tray of wood, some pegs
fastened together with string, two billets, what he regarded as reni-
nants of a "fish-bone necklace," and a neatly pierced bivalve shell.

Gushing.] ^^" [Nov. 6,

His antiquarian curiosity regarding these things was thoroughly aroused .
But believing them to be the remains possibly of some old-time wreck-
age, or more probably of some casual deposit made by ancient fisher-
men and never recovered, and finding work in] the water-soaked, foul-
smelling muck most diflicult to pursue, he discontinued his researches
on the second day. In order, however, to ascertain whether the relics
he had secured and in part brought away were historic or prehistoric —
that is of the Spanish or of a purely aboriginal period^ — he called at the
Museum of the University of Pennsylvania, when passing through
Philadelphia some weeks later, to see the Curator of the American Sec-
tion of the Archaeological Department, Mr. Henry C. Mercer, whom he
had met in southern Europe a year or two previously. Mr. Mercer was
absent, but it chanced that during the same hour I, too, called at the
Museum to pay a brief visit to my friend there, the Director, Mr. Stew-
art Culin. Thus I was so fortunate as to hear Colonel Durnford's
account of the finds. I was also privileged to accompany the President of
the Department, Dr. William Pepper (for I was at the time on sick-leave
and under his care), when, in response to a courteous note of invita-
tion, he called on Colonel and Mrs. Durnford, at the Bellevue Hotel.
With him I saw some of the Marco relics, the piece of rope, the tray
and one of the worked blocks or billets of wood. I observed that the
rope had been slightly charred at one point, and that the billet was an
unfinished object. This, with Colonel Durnford's remarkably clear
memoranda and description of the place whence these relics had been
derived, led me to infer that it, the place, was not of an isolated charac-
ter. The relics themselves were indubitably Indian and pre-Colum-
bian. To me they evidenced remote aboriginal occupation, residence
that is of the actual site in which they had been found, rather than of
merely the neighboring shell-banks. I believed, indeed, that their con-
dition and their occurrence beneath the peaty deposits of muck might
even betoken some such phase of life in southern Florida as that of the
Ancient Lake Dwellers of Switzerland, or of the Pile and Platform
Builders of the Gulf of Maracaibo or the Bayous of the Orinoco in
Venezuela.

I, therefore, did not hesitate to assure Dr. Pepper and Col. Durnford
of my opinion that the find to which he had drawn our attention would,,
if fully enough followed up, lead to the most important archaeological
discovery yet made on any of our coasts. Dr. Pepper also attached great
significance to the find. He straightway expressed the wish, indeed, that
in the interest of the Department he represented, a reconnaissance of the
place, as well as of the surrounding region, might immediately be under-
taken, with a view to still further explorations another year, in case my
conclusions as to the typical nature of the field were thcrcb_v borne out.
As Mr. Mercer was loath to leave other and pressing work, I eagerly
volunteered — liealth being equal and consent of my Director in the
Bureau of American Ethnology, Major J. W. Powell, being granted — to

1896.] ^^1 [Gushing,

undertake such a reconnaissance. With that rare public spiritedness,
instant foresight and promptitude for which he is so distinguished,
your honored Vice-President, Dr. Pepper, fortliwith provided funds
and otherwise arranged for this preliminary survey by me.

Thus, and through the kind offices of the late Hamilton Disston, Esq.,
and Col. J. M. Kreamer and their associates, I succeeded in securing, from
the Clyde Steamship Company and from those courteous gentlemen of
Jacksonville, Col. J. K. Leslie and Major Joseph H. Durkee, passes all
the way from New York to Jacksonville, and, by way of the St. John's
river to Sanford, and thence by rail diagonally down through the pine
lands and the tropic lowlands of Florida, and found myself, within less
than a fortnight, at the little town of Punta Grorda, near the mouth of
Pease river, a deep tidal inlet, on the gulfward side of that State.

First Hecoxnaissance.

Description of the Ancient Keys or Artificial Shell Islands.

I was not much delaj'ed in securing two men and a little fishing sloop,
such as it was, and in sailing forth one glorious evening late in May,
with intent to explore as many as possible of the islands and capes of
Charlotte harbor, Pine Island Sound, Caloosa Bay and the lower more
open coast as far as Marco, some ninety miles away to the southward.

The bright waters of these connected bays and sounds formed a far-
reaching and anon wide-spreading, shallow inland sea. It was hemmed
in to the westward by a chain of long, narrow, nearly straight, palmetto
and forest-clad reefs or islands, just visible on the horizon ; but, as I
later learned, all of sand, save only for occasional capes or promontories
of shell that here and there jutted forth into the wide mangrove swamps
that everywhere closely invested their inner shores. The shores of the
opposite mainland and of Pine Island too — which, intervening, hid
them for miles — were even more widely skirted by these tangled tidal
swamps.

All around, and apparently all over the many islets that darkly dotted
the shimmering expanse of this shoreland sea — somewhat as is shown in
Plate XXVI — grew also, straightway from the tide-line upward, these
clustering deep green mangroves, so closely and evenly that they seemed,
when seen from afar, like gigantic clumps of box in some inundated
olden garden. They grew so loftily, too, that from the level of the
channel near even the largest islets, naught of their inner contours
could be seen.

The astonishment I felt, then, on penetrating into the interior of the
very first encountered of these thicket-bound islets, may be better im-
agined than described, when, after wading ankle deep in the slimy and
muddy shoals, and then alternately clambering and floundering for a
long distance among the wide-reaching interlocked roots of the man-
groves— held hip-high above the green weedy tide-wash by myriad

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 153. 2 P. PRINTED MAY 25, 1897,

Cushiug.] «^^-' [Nov. G,

ruddy fingers, bended like the legs of centipedes — I dimly beheld, in the
sombre depths of this sunless jungle of the waters, a long, nearly
straight, but ruinous embankment of piled-up conch-shells. Beyond it
were to be seen — as in the illustration given on Plate XXVII, — other
banks, less high, not always regular, but forming a maze of distinct en-
closures of various sizes and outlines, nearlj^ all of them open a little at
either end or at opposite sides, as if for outlet and inlet.

Threading this zone of boggy bins, and leading in toward a more
central point, were here and there open ways like channels. They
were formed by parallel ridges of shells, increasing in height toward the
interior, until at last they merged into a steep, somewhat extended
bench, also of shells, and flat on the top like a platform. Here, of
course, at the foot of the platform, the channel ended, in a slightly
broadened cove like a landing place ; but a graded depression or patii-
way ascended from it and crossed this bench or platform, leading to,
and in turn climbing, over, or rather through, another and higher plat-
form a slight distance beyond. In places off to the side on either hand
were still more of these platforms, rising terrace-like, but very irregu-
larly, from the enclosures below to the foundations of great, level-top-
ped mounds, which, like worn-out, elongated and truncated pyramids,
loftily and imposingly crowned the whole, some of them to a height of
nearly thirty feet above the encircling sea.

All this was not by any means plain at first. Except for mere patches
a few feet in width, here and there along the steepest slopes, these ele-
vations, and especially the terraces and platforms above the first series,
were almost completely shrouded from view under net only a stunted
forest of mulberry, papaya, mastich, iron-wood, button-wood, laurel,
live oak and other gnarly kinds of trees, mostly evergreen, and all over-
run and bound fast together from top to bottom by leafy, tough and
thorny vines, and thong-like clinging creepers, but also by a rank tan-
gle below, of grasses, weeds, brambles, cacti, bristling Spanish bayo-
nets and huge spike-leaved century plants, their tall sere flower stalks
of former years standing bare and aslant, like spars of storm-beached
shipping above this tumultuous sea of verdure.

The utmost heights were, in places, freer ; but even there, grew weeds
and creepers and bushes, not a few, and overtopping them all, some of
the most fantastic of trees — the trees par excellence of the heights of
these ancient keys, the so-called gumbo limbos or West Indian birches —
bare, skinny, livid, monstrous and crooked of limb, and, compared with
surrounding growth, gigantic. To the topmost branches of these weird-
looking trees, brilliant red grosbeaks came and went as I climbed. Long
ere I saw them, I could hear them trilling, in plaintive flute-like strains,
to mates in far-away trees, perhaps on other groups of mounds — whence
at least answers like faint echoes of these nearer songs came lonesomely
calling back as though across void hollows.

The bare patches along the ascents to the mounds were, like the

1896.] OOO [Gushing.

ridges below, built up wholly of shells, great conch-shells chiefl}% black-
ened by exposure for ages ; and ringing like thin potsherds when dis-
turbed even by the light feet of the raccoons and little dusky brown rab-
bits that now and then scuttled across them from covert to covert and
that seemed to be, with the ever-present grosbeaks above, and with
many lizards and some few rattlesnakes and other reptiles below, the
principal dwellers on these lonely keys — if swarming insects may be left
unnamed !

But everywhere else it was necessary to cut and tear the way step by
step. "Wherever thus revealed, the surface below, like the bare spaces
themselves, proved to be also of shells, smaller or much broken on the
levels and gentler slopes, and mingled with scant black mold on the
wider terraces, as though these had been formed with a view to cultiva-
tion and supplied with soil from the rich muck beds below. Here also
occurred occasional potsherds and manj'^ worn valves of gigantic clams
and whorls of huge univalves that appeared to have been used as hoes
and picks or other digging tools, and this again suggested the idea that
at least the wider terraces — many of which proved to be not level, but
filled with basin -shaped depressions or bordered by retaining walls — had
been used as garden plats, some, perhaps, as drainage basins. But the
margins of these, whether raised or not, and the edges of even the lesser
terraces, the sides of the graded ways leading up to or through them,
and especially the slopes of the greater mounds, were all of unmixed
shell, in which, as on the barren patches, enormous nearly equal-sized
whelks or conch-shells prevailed.

Such various features, seen one by one, impressed me more and more
forcibly, as indicating general design — a structural origin of at least the
enormous accumulations of shell I was so slowly and painfully travers-
ing, if not, indeed, of the entire key or islet. Still, my mind was not,
perhaps, wholly disabused of the prevalent opinion that these and like
accumulations on capes of the neighboring mainland were primarily stu-
pendous shell heaps, chiefly the undistributed refuse remaining from ages
of intermittent al)original occupation, until I had scaled the topmost of
the platforms. Then I could see that the vast pile on which I stood,
and of which the terraces I had climbed were, in a sense, irregular stages,
formed in reality a single, prodigious elbow-shaped foundation, crowned
at its bend by a definite group of lofty, narrow and elongated mounds,
that stretched fan-like across its summit like the thumb and four fingers
of a mighty outspread hand. Beyond, moreover, were other great
foundations, bearing aloft still other groups of mounds, their declivities
thicklj' overgrown, but their summits betokened by the bare branches
of gumbo limbos, whence had come, no doubt, the lone-sounding songs
of the grosbeaks. Thej' stood, these other foundations, like the sun-
dered ramparts of some vast and ruined fortress along one side and across
the farther end of a deep open space or quadrangular court more than
an acre in extent, level and as closely covered with mangroves and

dishing.] ^'J J= [Nov. 6,

otlier tidal growths at the bottom as were the outer swamps. It was
apparent that this had actually been a central court of some kind, had
probably been formed as an open lagoon by the gradual upbuilding on
attollike reefs or shoals around deeper water, of these foundations or
ramparts as I have called them, from even below tide level to their pres-
ent imposing height. At anj^ rate they were divided from one another
by deep narrow gaps that appeared as though left open between them
to serve as channels, and that still, although filled now with peaty depos-
its and rank vegetation, communicated w^ith the outer swamps, and, in
some cases, extended, between parallel banks of shell like those alreadj"
described, quite through the surrounding enclosures or lesser outer
courts, to what had evidently been, ere the universal sand shoals had
formed and mangrove swamps had grown, the open sea.

The elevation I had ascended, stood at the northern end and formed
one corner of this great inner court, the slope to which from the base
of the mounds was unbroken by terraces, and sheer. But like the steep-
est ascents outside, it was composed of large weather-darkened conch-
shells and was comparatively bare of vegetation. Directly down the
middle of this wide incliu'e led, from between the two first mounds, a
broad sunken pathway, very deep here near the summit, as was the
opposite and similarly graded way I had in part followed up, but gradu-
ally diminishing in depth as it approached the bottom, in such manner
as to render much gentler the descent to the edge of the swamp. Here
numerous pierced busycon shells lay strewn about and others could be
seen protruding from the marginal muck. A glance sufficed to show that
they had all been designed for tool heads, hafted similarly, but used for
quite various purposes. The long columnellse of some w^ere battered as
if they had once been employed as hammers or picks, while others were
sharpened to chisel or gouge-like points and edges. Here, too, sherds of
pottery were much more abundant than even on the upper terraces.
This struck me as especially significant, and I ventured forth a little way
over the yielding quagmire and dug between the sprawling mangrove
fingers as deeply as I could with only a stick, into the water-soaked muck.
Similarly w^orked shells and sherds of pottery, intermingled with char-
coal and bones, were thus revealed. These w^ere surprisingly fresh, not
as though washed into the place fi'om above, but as though they had
fallen and lodged where I found them, and had been covered with water
ever since.

I suddenly realized that the place, although a central rather than a
marginal court or filled-up bayou, was nevertheless similar in general
character to the one Col. Durnford had described, and that thus soon my
conclusions relative to the typical nature of the Collier deposit, were,
in a measure, borne out. Here at least had been a w^ater-court, around
the margins of which, it would seem, places of abode whence these
remains had been derived — houses rather than landings — had clustered,
ere it became choked Avith debris and vegetal growth ; or else it Avas a

1896.] OOb [Cashing.

veritable haven of ancient wharves and pile-dwellings, safe alike from
tidal wave and hurricane within these gigantic ramparts of shell, where,
through the channel gateways to the sea, canoes might readily come
and go.

It occurred to me, as I made my way thrcmgh one of these now filled-
up channels, that the enclosures they passed were probably other courts
— marginal, but artificial bayous, some of them no doubt like the one at
Key Marco — and that perhaps the largest of them had not only been in-
habited also, but that some were representative of incipient stages in the
formation of platforms or terraces, and within these, as the key was thus
extended, of other such inner courts as the one I have here described. It
seemed reasonable to expect that the islets visible in numbers farther on,
which my skipper described as almost exactly like this, would reallj^ prove
to be not only shell kej^s, that is, of artificial origin, but also, that in them
I would find the essential structural features of this one, as such, repeated.

Possessed by this idea, I became doubly anxious to proceed with the
explorations, and forthwith returned to the boat and sailed down to a
point about midway between the northern and southern ends of Pine
Island, which lay some two and a half miles off to the eastward. There
stood, near where we anchored, upon rough and barnacle-encrusted
stilts or piles, two dilapidated platforms, placed end to end, but at an
angle to one another. Upon these were perched a couple of old and
weather-beaten huts which had been formerly used, I was told, as
fishermen's stations.

As evening fell and the tiile went down, there appeared with startling
suddenness, black, in the foam of the receding waters, — much as in
the illustration on Plate XXVI, — the scattered crags of two or three
series of parallel and concentric oyster reefs or bars. Some of them
reached directlj^ toward us from close to the old fishing stations,
while others extended off" to the right, semi-circularly around ns,
in a long succession of level, broken masses, thus enclosing quite
half an acre of deeper water, at the entrance of which we lay. It was
in the shallows, between the widest of these bars, at the corner or blunt
angle formed by the two main lines of the reefs, that the platforms
stood. Hither now flocked hundreds of cormorants and pelicans, fol-
lowed by a few cranes and curlews and by many gulls — these continu-
ally on the wing. But the cormorants and pelicans settled on the plat-
forms and along the uniform inner edges of the reefs in close ranks.
They seemed to have come hither from the neighboring bird-kej^s or man-
grove rookeries, — where they nested in common by thousands, — simply
to rest and dress their plumage ; until, out in the channel appeared, swiftly
rushing in toward the shoals, an enormous school of fish, fleeing noisily
before several puffing porpoises and two or three monster sharks, whose,
sharp dorsal fins cut the water swiftly hither and thither in the wake of
their affrighted prey. Then of a sudden the cormorants and many of
the pelicans took wing, joined forces behind the on-coming fugitive hosts

Gushing.] ^^t) [Xov. 6,

of the sea, and diving down in a great semi-circle, beat the waves with
their wings as though in play, until, as they closed in rapidly toward the
reefs, the sound made by them and the now wildly leaping lish was as
that of an approaching storm. Thus thousands of the smaller fish were
driven in beyond reach of the sharks and porpoises over the shoals and
into the bayous formed by the succession of reefs, and there cormorants
and pelicans alike made short work of securing their evening meals.
The cormorants flew off singly or in swift irregular companies, but the
pelicans marched more deliberately awaj'', in orderly and single aereal
files, so to say, behind heavy-winged, gray-headed old leaders, evenly,
just over the line of the waves, to their tree-built island homes.

I have dwelt on this singular behavior of the birds because, in con-
nection with the observations of the day, and with the picture formed
by the concentric reefs, the lagoon they encircled, the old half-ruined pile-
houses standing above them out there in the midst of the waters, and
the distant dark-green islands — which I now knew had been the homes
of sea-dwelling men centuries before — disappearing beyond in the dusk,
it all suggested to me in a vivid and impressive manner how the ancient
builders of the key I had only this afternoon reconnoitred had probably
l)egun their citadel of the sea and why there, so far away from the shore,
they had elected to make so laboriously their homes ; why they had
from the beginning kept free within their reef-raised sea-walls of shell,
the central half-natural lagoons or lake-courts, where the first few of
their stilted houses had doubtless been planted, and why ever, as their
hand-made island extended, they had kept it surrounded Avith the many
channeled enclosures, Tlie key had been, so to say, the rookery, the chan-
nels and lesser enclosures the fish-drives and fish-pools of these human
pelicans ! Like the pelicans, like even the modern fishermen, they had
at first merely resorted to low outlying reefs in these shallow seas as
fishing grounds, but ere long had built stations there, little shelters,
probably, on narrow platforms held up by clumsy piles, but similar
somewhat to the huts that stood here before me. The shells of the mol-
lusks they had gathered for food had naturally been cast down beside
these lengthy platforms, until they formed long ridges that broke the
force of the waves when storms swept by. Thus, I fancied, these first
builders of the keys had been taught liow to construct with special pur-
pose sea-walls of gathered shells, how to extend the arms of the reefs,
and to make other and better bayous or fish-pounds within them by form-
ing successive enclosures, ever keeping free channels throughout for the
driving in of the fish and the passage of their canoes. And when the in-
nermost of the enclosures became choked by drift and other debris thej'
had filled them with shell stutf and mud from the surrounding sea, and
so of some had made drainage-basins to catch rain for diinking water,
and of others, in time, little garden plats or fields.

Thus it was that the erstwhile stations had become better and better
fitted as places of longer abode ; and yet others of the enclosures or

1896.] <^«^' [Gushing.

courts farthest in had become filled, and were in turn wrought into
basins and gardens to replace the first that had been made ; for these
were now covered over and piled higher to form wide benches where-
upon the long mounds or foundations might be erected. Finally, aloft
on these greater elevations strong citadels of refuge alike from foe and
hurricane; storehouses, dwellingsof chiefs or leaders, and assembly-places
and temples had been builded, when at last these old people of the sea
came to abide there continually. This to me appeared to have been the
history in brief of the first development of such a phase of life as the an-
cient key I had examined that afternoon still plainly represented ; nor
did I find reason later to greatly modify these views. On the contrary,
of the many other shell keys that I examined during the following few
days, all still further illustrated, and some seemed strikingly to confirm,
even the most fanciful of these visions.

This was especially true of three ke,ys which I explored the next day.
The first was known as Josselyn's Key. It had been cleared and culti-
vated as a fruit and vegetable garden many years before, but was now
abandoned and desolate and again overrun by brambles and weeds and
vines, with some few massive gumbo limbos and rubber trees standing
on its heights. The feature of special interest in this key was its cen-
tral court, which, while comparatively small — less than half an acre in
extent — was remarkably regular. Five very high and steep, mound-
capped elevations, sharply divided by deep, straight channels, that led
forth from the court divergingly toward the sea, formed its western side
and southern end, while its opposite side and end were formed by two
extensive platforms, also. exceedingly steep within, and nearly as high
as the elevations, and divided from these and from each other by
straight canals that led forth in northwardly directions, far out through
the mangrove-covered enclosures down toward which the platforms
were terraced.

The court was very deep and so regular that it resembled the cellar of
an enormous elongated square house. It was marshy and overgrown
by cane-brakes, tall grasses, and green-barked willows. Near the
mouth of the principal canal, leading forth from the southeastern corner
of this court, and still invaded, as were two or three others of the canals,
by high-tide water, my skipper and I dug a deep square hole. The exca-
vation rapidly filled with water ; not, however, before we had found in
the yielding muck a shapely plummet or pendant of coral-stone and
two others of shell, many sherds of pottery, worked bones, charcoal,
and, more significant than all, a pierced conch-shell, still containing a
portion of its rotten wooden handle. Again here, the relics were more
abundant than on the heights above, and the structural nature of the
entire key was abundantly evident.

From this place it was somewhat more than a mile, still east-south-
eastwardly, to the second islet, which was known as Demorey's Key.
It also had been cleared to a limited extent, by the man whose name it

Cashing.] ^^" [Nov. 6,

bore, but, like the first, had long been abandoned and was even more
overgrown by vine-smothered trees and brambles — among them many
pitiful limes and a few pomegranates run wild, but still faithfully bear-
ing fruit — so that here, too, the knife was constantly requisite.

It was in some respects the most remarkable key encountered during
the entire reconnaissance. Its elevations formed — as maj^ be seen by ref-
erence to plan and elevation on Plate XXVIII, — an elongated curve five
hundred yards in length, the northward extension of which was nearly
straight, the southward extension bending around like a hook to the
southeast and east, and embracing within its ample circuit a wide
swamp thickly overgrown Avith high mangroves, which also narrowly
fringed the outer shore, so that the whole key, when seen from the
water, presented the appearance of a trim round or oval, and thickly
wooded island. Tlie lower end or point of this key consisted of an
imposingly massive and symmetrical sea wall, of conch-shells chiefly,
ten or twelve feet high, and as level and' broad on top as a turnpike.
This wall had evidently once encircled the entire lower bend of the kej',
but was now merged in the second and third of a series of broad, com-
paratively level terraces, that rose one above the other within it, from a
little terminal muck-court, westwardly to the central and widest, although
not highest, elevation of the key, at the commencement of its northward
extension. Occupying a point midway along the inner curve of this
elevation, that is, directly up from the mangrove swamp it encircled on
the one hand, and from the terraces outside on the other, stood a lofty
group of five elongated mounds. These mounds were divided from the
embracing terraces by a long, deep, and very regularly graded way,
which led, in straight sections corresponding to the inner margins of the
first three successive terraces, up from a canal formed by shell banks or
ridges in the swamp, to the highest of the terraces — the one forming the
wide central elevation. Another and much steeper and shorter graded
way led up from yet another parallel canal farther within the swamp, to
between the two highest mounds, down from them again, and joined
this longer graded way near the point of its ascent to the high central
terrace. This foundation, for it proved to be such, arose very steeply
from the here sharply curved edge of the mangrove swamp, to an almost
uniform height of about twenty -three feet ; was from twelve to fourteen
yards wide, and thence sloped more gentlj^ toward the outer or western
shores. The northern extension of the key was occupied by two or tliree
elevated and comparatively inconsiderable mounds, beyond which it was
terraced off toward the extreme point, as was the lower point — though
less regularly — to a short, similar sea-wall extension eastwardly, that
partly enclosed, not a muck-court, but a low, bordered garden-plat, con-
taining two or three round sinks or basins.

The most remarkable feature of this key was a flat, elongated bench,
or truncated pyramid, that crowned the middle elevation. I discovered
ihis merely by accident. In order to gain a general idea of the key,

1896.] o6v [Gushing.

which was almost as much overgrown with luxuriant and forbidding
vegetation as had been the wilder key first explored, I climbed high up
among the skinny and crooked limbs of a gigantic gumbo limbo that
grew directly from the inner edge of this elevation. Luckily, great fes-
toons of tough vines clung to the lower limbs of this tree, for in shifting
my position I slipped and fell, and was caught by these vines, to the sal-
vation of my bones probably, since by the force of the fall some of the
vines were torn away, revealing the inner side of this platform and the
fact that it was almost vertically faced up with conch-shells ; their
larger, truncated and spiral ends, laid outward and in courses so regular,
that the effect was as of a mural mosaic of volutes. I hastily tore away
more of the vines, and found that this faced-up edge of the platform
extended many feet in either direction from the old gumbo limbo. I
may say here, that on occasion of two later visits I cleared the facade
of this primitive example of shell architecture still more ; was enabled,
indeed, when I last visited the place — since I was then accompanied by
a considerable force of workmen — to entirely expose its inner side
and its southern end. Thus was revealed — even more completely than
is shown in Plate XXIX, — a parallelogrammic and level platform,
some three and a half feet high and twelve yards in width, by nearly
thrice as many in length. It was approached from the inner side by a
graded way that led obliquely along the curved ascent up from the man-
grove swamp, to a little step-like, subsidiary platform half as high and
some twelve feet square, which joined it at right angles, just beyond
the point shown at the extreme right of the picture here given. The top
of this lesser step, and the approaches to either side of it, were paved
with very large, uniform-sized clam-shells, laid convex sides upward, and
as closely and regularly as tiles. The lower or southern end of the main
platform was rounded at the corners, and rounded also on either side of
the sunken ascent midway, in which the longer of the graded ways I have
described terminated. Contemplating the regularity of this work, its
central position, and its evident importance as indicated by the several
graded ways leading to it from distant points, I could not doubt that it
had formed the foundation of an imposing temple-structure, and this
idea was further carried out by the presence at its northern end of two
small, but quite prominent altar-like mounds.

Descending from the end of the platform down along the main
graded way — the one which divided the terraces from the central group
of high mounds — I found that at more than one point, the sides of this
deep, regular path, had also been faced up with conch-shells, though
none of the courses were now, to any extent, in place.

At the foot of the inner and parallel sided, sunken or graded way —
the one descending from between two of the great central mounds — I
caused an excavation to be made between the two straight banks or ridges
of shell that extended thence far out into the mangrove swamp, in order
to ascertain whether this supposed canal had really been such ; that is,

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 153. 2 Q. PRINTED JUNE 2, 1897.

Cushin,?.] «j40 [Xov. 6,

an open way or channel to tlie sea for canoes. It became evident that
it had been this, for we were able to excavate through vegetal muck
and other accumulated debris to a depth of more than four feet, although
mucli inconvenienced hj intlowing water. I thus found that the shell-
banks had not only been built up with a considerable degree of regular-
ity, but that, well defined as these ridges were, the portions of them visi-
ble above the muck wei'e merely their crests. The excavation was made
near what may thus be regarded as having formed the original landing,
and in it we found a considerable number of quite well-preserved relics,
similar to those I had found in the court on Josselyn's key. Another
excavation made near the termination of the two embankments, how-
ever, revealed fewer artificial remains, other than blackened and water-
worn sherds of pottery. But I found that here also, the artificial banks
or walls, so to call them, had been built up with equal regularity, almost
vertically, from a depth of between four and five feet. In extending
this excavation, an interesting feature of the original foundations of
these outworks was revealed. It consisted of a kind of shell breccia
formed of the first layers of shells that had been placed there — that
Avere composed of conchs, some of which had been' driven or wedged,
smaller ends first, into the original reef or bar, and had apparentl}" been
further solidified by a filling or packing in of tough clay-like marl, now
so indurated that shell, sherds of pottery, and here and there bits of bone
and charcoal formed, with it, a solid mass well progressed toward fossili-
zation. Indeed, wheu large fragments of this time-hardened cement were
pried up and broken open, the shell, sherds of pottery and bones con-
tained in them appeared already like fossils. I found by making yet other
excavations in the contiguous and almost untraceable courts or enclos-
ures, that they, too, had been built up from an equal depth, as though to
serve rather as fish-pounds than as breakwaters or as courts to the quays
and houses, for the crests of these enclosures so slightly protruded above
the surface of the muck and weedy carpeting of the mangrove swamp in
Avhich they occurred, that I had at first quite fiiiled to observe them. Thus
it appeared that this half-enclosed swamp, no less than the swamps sur-
rounding the first key I had examined, contained similar sorts of enclo-
sures, only these had been lower originally, or else had since been more
filled in with muck, vegetal growth and tide-wash. The low-bordered
terrace or garden plot, the margin of which faced this swamp within
the northern end of the key, was wide and comparatively level, except
that in one or two places toward the slopes of the terraces next above it,
there occurred in it the circular lioles I have mentioned as basins, one
of which looked almost like a well. The like of these I later encountered
on many others of the keys, and they seemed to be catch-basins for rain or
places for water storage, artificial (.'cnotes, as it were, like the spring-holes
or sink-holes on the mainland aud in Yucatan. Moreover, the surround-
ing plot, like the terraces at the lower end of tlie ke3^ and like those I
had found on the first island I had explored, was scantily supplied with

1396.] 0±L [Gushing.

black soil intermixed with the shells, and here I observed that although
relics of other sorts were comparatively rare, fish-bones formed a con-
siderable proportion of this soil, as though fish or the refuse of fi.sh had
been used here for fertilizing purposes. All these observations, taken in
connection with the liighh' finished condition of the crowning platform,
of the beautifully paved approaches to it, of the walls or sides of the
long-graded path, and of the terminal sea-walls themselves, clearly
demonstrated the artificial origin of not only such portions of the key as
stood above low-tide level, but also, the highly structural character of the
whole work — as I now considered it to be, — of the island in its entirety.

Visible from Demorey's key, a mile and a half or two miles away in a
northeasterly direction, stood a promontory, island-like in appearance,
on account of its relative boldness. Learning from mj' sailor that it was
reallj^ on Pine Island, and that there also were extensive shell accumu-
lations, and that in the depths of the pine lands beyond were other and
larger mounds of quite ditferent character, I paid a hasty visit to the
place.

It was known as Battey's Landing, although the "landing " had to be
approached by wading a long way, for the tide was low. And as we
neared it we were greeted by the barking of a small colony of hounds and
other dogs. A. solitary man appeared, who occupied one of two small
huts that stood some way up from the shore. His name was Kirk, and he
was most hospitable and helpful to me. He and his partner. Captain
Rhodes, Avorked the place as a vegetable farm, and were now again most
profitably cultivating its ancient gardens. However, I soon saw that it
had once been like the outer islets — an artificial key — but so much closer
in-shore, even originally, that it had become connected with the main
part of Pine Island bj' extensive sand flats, still so low as to be washed
by high tides. The foundations, mounds, courts, graded ways and canals
here were greater, and some of them even more regular, than any I had
yet seen. On the hither or seaward side many enclosures, overgrown
of course by mangroves, flanked wide benches or garden platforms,
through or over which led paths, mostly obliterated by cultivation
now. The same sorts of channel-ways as occurred on the outer keys
led up to the same sorts of terraces and great foundations, with their cor-
onets of gigantic mounds. The inner or central courts were enormous.
Nearly level with the swamps on the one hand, and with the sand flats
on the other, these muck-beds were sufficiently extensive to serve (hav-
ing been cleared and drained as far as possible) as rich and ample gar-
dens ; and they were framed in, so to say, by quadrangles formed bj'
great shell structures which, foundation terraces, summit-mounds and
all, towered above them to a height of more than sixty feet.

There were no fewer than nine of these greater foundations, and
within or among them no fewer than five large, more or less rectangular
courts ; and, beyond all, to the southward, was a long series of lesser
benches, courts and enclosures, merging oft" into scarce visible frag-

Gushing.] 64:Z [Nov. 6,

merits in the white, bare stretches of sand flats. Suffice it, if I say, that
this settlement had an average width of a quarter of a mile, and extended
along the shore of Pine Island — that is from north to south — more than
three-quarters of a mile ; that its high-built portions alone, including of
course, the five water courts, covered an area of not less than seven tj'-
five or eighty acres. The inner courts were all, except one, furnished
with outlets that had originally opened through short canals into the strait
that had separated the key from the main island. The single exception
referred to was notable. The midmost of these inner courts, which was
too low to be made use of as a garden, and was therefore still overgrown
with enormous mangrove, button-wood and other trees, was, or had been,
connected with the sea by a canal that led into it between two long,
very high shell elevations, which flanked it on either side of the western
end. From the opposite end of the court another canal led directly
eastward into the pine lands. JSTot to pause with a further account of this
greatest, except one, of all the monuments of the ancient key builders on
the Florida coast, save to say that in the court of the canals I found the
finest and best preserved relics I had j^et discovered, I will only describe
this landward canal and the gigantic mounds and other inland works to
which it led. It extended in a straight line almost due eastwardly across
the sand flats, that were, at this point, very narrow, and heavily over-
grown with canebrakes and high grasses ; while beyond, palmettos and
yuccas covered the entire plain far into the pine-lands. It was uniformly
al)out thirty feet wide, and though of course now much tilled, especi-
ally between the shell-made levees that crossed the flats, it still main-
tained an even depth of between five and six feet. A few yards beyond
where it entered the higher level of the pine lands, there was a little
outlet from its southern side, which led straight to what had been an
enormous artificial pond or oval lake, that was still so boggy I could
not traverse it. From the opposite end of this lake, in turn, led for
nearly a quarter of a mile further, in a generally southeastern direction,
but not in a straight line, another and lesser canal. It terminated in
another artificial lake, that extended east and west, and in the middle of
this stood, crosswise, a gigantic and shapely mound. This mound
was oval in outline, fifty-eight feet high, some three hundred and
seventy-five feet in length and a little more than one hundred and fifty
feet in the width at its base. A graded way wound around it spirally
from the southern base to the summit, which was comparatively narrow,
but long and level like the tops of the shell mounds on the keys. As-
cending this mound, I found that it had been built up of sand and thin
strata of sea-shells alternately, and that to the presence of these strata
of shells had been due, probably, the remarkable preservation of its
form. Potsherds of fine quality, chalky remains of human bones,
broken shell ladles — their bottoms significantly punctured — all demon -
tnitud the fact that this mound, which obviously had been used as the
foundation of a temple structure, had also served as a place of burial.

1896.] d4d [Gushing.

Due northeast from it, half a mile farther in, might be seen another
and even larger mound, double, not single-crested, like this The great
canal, a branch of which opened mto the encircling lake of this mound
also, led on directly past it, and could be plainly traced, even from this
distance, through the palmetto-covered plain beyond. Again, in a
southwest direction, not quite so far away, I could discern among the
scattered pines a hummock, comparatively low and small, but regular
and overgrown thickly with palmettos and brambles. It, too, proved
to be a mound, mostly of shell, but probably built for burial purposes,
yet furnished like these two larger ones, with a contiguous lake or pond
hole, from which also led a slight canal to the near-by sand flats,
lieturning to the greater canal and following it out to the point of its
connection with the lake of the double mound, I found that the eastern
end of this lake was large, rather square than round, and that it formed
really a water-court fronting the mound and more or less surrounded
originally with embankments — of sand chiefly — but like the characteristic
shell embankments of the keys in form, as if, indeed, made purposely to
resemble them. From this excavated lake-court, a graded way had also
once led up the eastern side of the double mound, its terminus forming,
in fact, the saddle between its two summits — that reached an altitude of
more than sixty-three feet. In all these regards it exactly resembled one of
the great shell foundations — crowning mounds and all — of the outer keys,
and I could not but be impressed with the apparent significance of this, es-
pecially as I found by slight excavation that the mound had been com-
posed, like the other, of shell strata in part, and that it was erected verit-
ably as a foundation, since there was no evidence that it had been used to
any great extent as a burial place. Moreover, the great canal, turning a
little to the southeast, led on again in a straight line into the interior. I
followed it for more than a mile, and, although it lessened in width, it
was distinctly traceable still beyond, and I was told that it extended
quite across the island to similar works and shell elevations on the
other side. I later learned that the canal and mounds on Naples Island
were not unlike these, although smaller, and that equally gigantic
works occurred far up the great rivers of the coast, as far up the Caloo-
sahatchee, for instance, as Lake Okeechobee and the Everglades. Every- 1
where, too, these inland works resembled, with their surroundings — |
embankments, court or bayou-like lakes, canals, graded ways, etc — the|
works of the keys. And I have been led to infer that they actually rep-
resent the first stage of a later and inland phase of key-dweller modes of
building, and furnish a hint that, perhaps not only other inland mounds
of Florida, but also the great and regular mounds and other earth-works
occurring in the lowlands of our Southern and Middle Western States,
and celebrated as the remains of the so-called mound-builders, may like-
wise also be traced, if not to this beginning, at least to a similar begin-
ning in some seashore and marshland environment, I shall therefore
recur to the subject specifically in later paragraphs.

dishing.] Otti [Nov. 6,

Immediately after completing this examination of what I regarded as
one of the most recent and highly developed works of the ancient key-
builders, I proceeded down the Sound to St. James City, at the south-
ern end of Pine Island. Fortunately I bore friendly letters of introduc-
tion from Colonel J. M. Kreamer, of Pliiladelphia, to Captain E.White-
side, the principal resident of the little city. He welcomed me most
hospitably, and extended to me whatever help it was possible for him
to give.

Curiously enough, the three or four places next examined by me after
my arrival at St. James City, were as illustrative of the heyinriirKjs of
the key-dweller modes of life as had been the remains I had last ex-
plored, of their later development.

At the extreme southeastern point of Pine Island occurred the first of
these. It consisted chiefly of a single long and, throughout the lower
portions of its course, double-crested shell embankment, from four to
nine feet high. I was at once struck by the fact that this great shell
ridge, which was more than thirty -five hundred feet in length, was made
up in parts, or comparatively short, straight sections, placed end to end,
so that its general contour was more or less polygonal, for it partially
encircled a wide mangrove swamp on its inner or landward side, within
which could be faintly seen here and there low shell-bank enclosures
such as I have so frequently described heretofore. I have said that this
shell ridge was in some places doiible, or rather double-crested. These
double or parallel crests along its summit were here and there still so
sharp that they distinctly appeared to have been formed by deposition
from above. This suggested to me that in the beginning, a series of
straight, narrow platforms or scaffolds had been erected end to end
over the curved outlying reef here, and that shells — perhaps mere refuse
at first, precisely as I had imagined when looking at the old Fishing
Station, above — had been cast down along either side of these platforms
until a nucleus of the ridge was thus formed. At two points,
however, the works had I)een widened and more regularly built up, as
though at these points the beginnings of characteristic terraces and of at
least one foundation had been made. But nowhere else was there evi-
dence that this ancient structure had progressed much beyond its earliest,
its fishiug-station-stage of construction. It appeared to me that ere it
had been possible for the ancient builders to carry their work here
further towards making a permanent home, some hurricane or great
tidal wave had overwhelmed them, or had so far destroyed their station
or incipient settlement as to render its further completion undesirable
or impossible ; and that thus we had preserved to us in this place an
evidence of their modes of beginning such stations or settlements.
Again, at the opposite or southwestern point or corner of Pine Island
had stood another great shell ridge, higher, wider, generally curved
also, and a little further progressed towards formation as a i)ernia-
nent settlement ; for at its upper end there remained evidence tliat it

1S96.] ^"i«^ [dishing.

had possessed narrow terraces aud two or three considerable founda-
tions. The greater portion of this work, however, liad been removed
by Captain Whiteside — at a cost of more tlian ten tliousand dollars — for
use in the construction of a boulevard around the end of the island and
of crossroads through the marshy space it enclosed. Miles of shell-
road — the most beautiful in southwestern Florida — had thus been made,
yet still the shell material of this one old-time beginning merely, of a
key, had not thereby been wholly exhausted. Few relics, other than a
couple of skeletons and numerous shreds of pottery and fragments of
bx'oken shell tools, had been encountered during the demolition of the
structure ; yet it was plain that it had been built on low encircling
reefs up from the very level of the water as had all the others.

Another work, quite similar to this, but still undisturbed, was found
by me straight across Carlos Bay, — as the body of water to the south and
west of Pine Island and at the mouth of the Caloosahatchee river was
called — on one of the inner marginal reefs of Sanybel Island, the lower
end of which formed here a great loop around the bay aud entrance re-
ferred to. At this point the ancient key -builders had succeeded in progress-
ing a stage or two further in the construction of one of their settlements
ere they had been, evidently in like manner as at the other places, over-
whelmed by some catastrophe. Such portions of the work as were
left — for some part of it had been destroyed and washed away by suc-
cessive storms — formed more of an enclosure of mangrove swamp than
did either of those last described. It had been considerably widened
and built up, at its middle, and again towards its western end. Well-
defined canals led in from among shell-bank enclosures within the man-
grove swamp to both of these built-up points, the westernmost termina-
ting in a diminutive inner court. At both pomts, too, the foundations of
mound-terraces had been begun. Digging in towards the middle of one
of these incipient terraces from the outer shore line, I encountered not
only numerous relics, but also large, flat fragments of breccia-like
cement. Further up, on the more level portion of this tei'race, I found
that the cement was continuous over a considerable space, but that the
bed thus formed abruptly ended along a line parallel with the western
edge or end of the elevation. At almost regular intervals along this
line occurred holes in the compact substratum of shell., formed by the
decaying of stout posts that had been set therein — as was shown by lin-
gering traces of rotten wood that occurred in each. Thus it appeared
that this flat bed of cement had once formed a thin vertical wall, or
rather the plastering of a timber-supported wall, probably the end of
some large building which had crowned the terrace, and that had fallen
in under the stress of some storm or as a result of other accident.

To ascertain whether the w^orks here were, like the outworks of
Demorey's key, originally founded upon a shallow or submerged reef,
I caused a trench several feet long to be excavated down to between
eighteen inches and two feet below mean tide-level. I thus ascertained

Gushing.] ^"^^ [Nov. 6,

that here, as on Demorey's key, the whole structure had, indeed, been
built up on a shoal or reef; a solid foundation of very large conch-shells
having first been driven into the original reef, but not apparently here
reinforced with clay -marl; smaller shells of many kinds having then, in
turn, been piled on this, and that finally — as shown by the talus of uni-
form-sized conclis around the base of the terrace — the outer and inner
faces of the whole elevation had been covered over or faced up with
courses of these beautiful shells. The examination of the mere begin-
ning of a station or a settlement at the southern end of Pine Island, then
of this further advanced remnant of ancient work, demonstrated to me
the correctness of the inference I ventured, prematurely perhaps, to
mention in an earlier portion of this paper. The finding here, also, of what
was almost unmistakably the outer coating or plastering of a temple or
some other kind of large building upon one of the flat terraces or mounds,
such as I have so often described as found on the upper keys in more
perfected condition, seemed also to indicate as unmistakably that these
mounds, wherever found, had been designed as the foundations of such
buildings of a more or less permanent and probably public or tribal
character.

A long, very low sand-spit, comparatively narrow, and covered with
mangroves, extended in a direction parallel with the curved inner shores
of Sanybel Island, from very near the end of this ancient settlement to
almost the end of the island itself. This low- bar, joined by another that
put out from the oppositely curved shore of the island, enclosed a round
body of water known as Ellis' Bay. I heard that Captain Ellis, the
long-time resident of the place, had found near his quaint palmetto huts
on its southern shore, a few days previously, some human bones. I
visited his place. I would fain describe it in all its picturesqueness, —
the thatched houses irregularly set on the low flat stretch of sand, amid
clumps of native palmettos and luxuriant groves of lime, orange, and
other tropical fruit trees ; but can only pause to make due acknowledg-
ment of his whole-souled courtesy and helpfulness during the prosecu-
tion of my hasty excavations there. Behind his little assemblage of huts,
the land rose gradually to a considerable height, consisting almost whollj'
of sea sand, that had been drifted over from the opposite beaches of the
gulf. This sand drift had in the course of centuries quite buried a low but
extensive ancient shell settlement. A drainage canal, that had recently
been dug by settlers living farther up the island, revealed to me the pre-
viously unsuspected presence of this settlement, and the fact that it, like
all the others I have described, had been built up originally from reefs
or shoals. From it, a sort of causeway of conch-shells had once led out
towards a nearly round, enclosed space, closer to the present shore, and
oft" to the westward side of Ellis' place. This enclosure was now, of
course, filled with boggy muck and overgrown ; l)ut it surrounded a
somewhat extensive, low mound, composed in part of shells and in part
of black soil. The mound (or hammock, as such mounds in lowlands

1896.] «J4:^ [Cushiug.

are universally called in that section of tlie country) was under cultiva-
tion as a vegetable and fruit garden ; and it was in the attempt to re-
move from it the roots of a large stump, that Captain Ellis had made the
find of human bones I had heard of. In excavating near by, I discov-
ered that the whole heap was permeated, so to say, with broken human
remains ; large bones and small, many of which had been split or shat-
tered, mingled with skulls, some few fortunately still entire, although
very fragile. I succeeded in securing eleven of these skulls before leav-
ing. Few relics of any other sort, save now and then punctured shell
ladles, were encountered ; but it was perfectly obvious that the place had
been a true bone-heap, established on a slight artificial elevation in the
midst of an ancient enclosed pond or water court, and it was also evi-
dent that the human remains therein deposited, had been dismem-
bered before burial, for ceremonial purposes probably — had been even
broken up in some cases. I later learned that this place was typical of
the ossuaries or lake-enclosed cemetries almost invariably found on the
ancient keys, and came to look upon these curious little mortuary lakes
or water courts, with their overfilled central islets, as having been thus
framed and fashioned to be, as it were, miniature Keys or Shell Settle-
ments of the Dead Key Dwellers buried therein.

I believe I have now described sufiiciently typical examples of the
-ancient artificial shell islands — or, as I like better to call them, " Keys " —
of these inland seas of the southwestern coast of Florida.

Ere passing on to the scene of our long continued and more thorough
examination of one of the most ancient and characteristic of these, how-
ever, it may be well for me to mention that there were, in Charlotte
Harbor, Pine Island Sound, Caloosa Entrance and Matlatcha Bay alone,
more than seventy -five of them. Forty of this number were gigantic,
the rest were representative of various stages in the construction of such
villages of the reefs. No doubt a more searching exploration of these
waters, and of the wide and forbidding mangrove swamps on contiguous
shores of Sanybel, and of others of the outer islands, and of Pine
Island, as well as of the mainland itself, would reveal manj^ others ; but
the amount of work represented even by the number I have already
named is so enormous and astounding, that it cannot be realized or
appreciated by means of mere spoken description or statement.

Beyond the incurving lower point of Sanybel Island, it was necessary
to make the rest of my journey through the open Gulf ; not that another
series of narrower inland seas did not lie within similar narrow, sandy
islands, but because I could not pause to examine their islet-studded
reaches. I stopped at oulj^ two places on ray way to Kej' Marco, which
was still between fortj' and forty-five miles further to the southward. One
was at Mound Key or Johnson's Key, as it was variously called. I make
mention of mj" visit to the place principally because of its great extent.
It consisted of a long series of enormous elevations crowned by imposing
mounds that reached an average altitude of over sixty feet. They were

PKOC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 153. 2 R. PRINTED JUNE 2, 1897.

Gushing] d4o [Xov. 6.

interspersed with deep inner courts, and widely surrounded with en-
closures tliat were threaded by broad, far-reaching canals, so that this
one key included an area of quite two hundred acres, within which area
may be reckoned only such surface as had been actually reclaimed by
the ancient key builders from this inland or shore-land sea. I was told
by Mrs. Johnson, wife of the owner of the place, to whom good Mrs. Ellis
had kindly given me a characteristic letter of introduction, that burial
mounds, not unlike the one on the Ellis place, but larger, occurred in the
depths of the wide mangrove swamps that lay below towards the main-
land, and that here on the heights, many Spanish relics had been found —
Venetian beads, scraps of sheet copper, small ornaments of gold and
silver, and a copper-gilt locket. She showed me this. It contained a
faded portrait, and a still more faded letter, written on yellow parchment,
apparently from some Spanish Grandee of about two hundred years ago
to a resident colonist of that time.

Whether these relics indicated tliat here the ancient key dwellers or
their mixed descendants had lingered on into early historic times, and
that the Mission that these things betokened, had been established among
them, or among alien successors, could not, of course, be determined ;
but around the lower courts, and on the old garden terraces, I found
abundant specimens of shell and coarse pottery, characteristic of the key
dwellers proper who had ancientlj" built this island, and since returning
I have carefully examined an interesting series of both kinds of relics
gathered here by your fellow-member. Mr. Joseph Wilcox, Avhich offer
even better evidence of this, and are now I am happy to say preserved
in the University museum.

I made only a brief stop at Na^jles City. Captain Large of that
place, to whom I bore a letter of introduction, received me most
courteously, and showed me, nearby, the mouth of the ancient canal, of
which I had already heard from Col. Durnford. Except that it once
opened in directly from the Gulf and had evidently been designed as a
canoe pass across the island, it was in many respects like the one I had
examined on Pine Island, although deeper and at the same time nar-
rower. I was told by. Captain Large that like mounds, too, occurred
near its outlet on the farther side, and that it ter;ninated in front of
some ancient shell works out in the inner bay beyond, similar, I judged,
to those at Battey's Landing.

From Naples City the sail to Marco was short ; fen- squalls were rising
out over the Gulf, making its opalescent waters tumultuous and mag-
nificent, but to my sailors, terrible, driving us now and anon furiously
fast through the rising billows, what though our sails were reefed low.
Big Marco Pass opened tortuously between two islands of sand ; the
northern one narrow, long and straight, backed by mangrove swamps ;
the southern one broad, generally flat but undulating, and covered with
tall, lank grasses, scattered, scrubby trees, and stately palmettos. The
mangrove swamps, sundered by numerous inlets on tiie one side, this

ISre.] OttJ [dishing.

wide, straight-edged sandy island on the other, bordered tlie inlet that
led straight eastward a mile or more to the majestic cocoannt grove that
fronted Collier's Bay and Key Marco. I will not describe the key
greatly in detail, for an admirable contour map of it, made with great
care by Mr. Wells M. Sawyer, artist of the expedition I later conducted
to the place, is furnished herewith. The key, like Battey's Landing,
like Johnson's key, and many other places of the kind, was now more
or less connected with contiguous land ; yet obviously, when built and
occupied, it had stood out in the open waters. It was not even yet
joined to Caxunbas Island, at the northwestern angle of which it stood,
save by a wide and long mangrove swamp that was still washed daily
by high tide. As may be seen by the plan, — on Plate XXX, —
a number of long, straight and narrow canals, terminating in little
court-like landings and short graded ways, stretched in from the
Avestern side, the lower end of which was enclosed and extended
by a massive, level-topped sea-wall, now used as a wagon road,
reaching nearly a quarter of a mile into the mangrove swamps, and
indicating that w'hen it was Imilt, this had been the stormward side,
which it had therefore been necessary to protect. There were
other indications that the extensive sand bank or island which now
fronted the key across Collier's Bay on this gulf-w^ard side, as Avell
as the long reaches of mangrove swamp to the southAvard, had all
been formed, in the main, since the date of its occupancy. This Avas
notably the case Avith many other keys in the neighborhood of Key Marco,
which keys formed, with the intermediate mangrove islets, — mere seg-
regated sections of swamp they appeared, scarcely rising above the tide
level, — the northernmost of the great archipelago of the Ten Thousand
Islands. Explorations among these border islands, within a radius of
from fifteen to twenty miles around Key Marco, demonstrated the fact
that on an average about one in every five of them was an ancient
shell settlement or key proper like Marco and the others already
described, and that the loAv-lying intermediate islets had mostly been
formed on shoals caused by drift, around and betAveen these obstructions
built by man, smce the time of their occupation. Again, around each
one of these more southerly shell keys or settlements, the fringe of the
mangrove SAvamps Avas far deeper, or wider, than around the more
northerly keys, indicating that a much greater time had elapsed since
their abandonment ; time enough for the formation of many miles of
sand bank, and the growth thereon of the mangrove sAvamps around
and batween them. Marco inlet, or the eastAvard and southward exten-
sion of Big Marco Pass, formed to the northeast and east of Key Marco
a comparatiA^ely wide, deep bay. The edge of the key along this bay
had evidently been worn aAvay to some extent, so that its eastern face
afforded in places sectional views of its structure that told the same
story with regard to this key that my excavations had told with regard
to Demorey's and the little keys in the neighborhood of St. James City ;

Cusliiiig.] ^50 [Nov. 6,

namely, that although far more extensive and quite loftj-, this, no less
than they, had been built from the very sea level upward. Two or
three straight, deep and regular canals led in from this side also, one in par-
ticular, directly through the loftier terraces here, to the central eleva-
tion of the place. This reached a height of only eighteen or nineteen
feet, yet it was still remarkably regular, nearly parallelogrammic, flat-
topped, and upon its level summit stood— in place, probably, of the
ancient temple that once surmounted it (for there occurred here, as on
the pyramid-platform of Demorey's key, an altar-like mound near the
northern end) — the house now occupied by Captain Cuthbert, part owner,
Avith Captain Collier, of Key Marco. A graded way descended slant-
ingly across the lower end of this eminence, into what had first been a
central court, like the one on Josselyn's key. This, however, had in
course of time been filled purposely, and the canal that had led straight
into it from the south had been filled in too, so as to form a prolongation
of the graded way down to the edge of the great court or muck-filled
bayou that was embraced within the two lateral and southern extensions
of the key. In the southeastern portion of these broad flat canal-
seamed extensions, might be seen still two or three remarkably regular
and deep circular tanks or (jenotes, as I have called them, whence straight
sunken ways led up to the easternmost of the series of broad foundations
and mounds that, with other filled-in garden courts between, flanked the
central eminence or temple-pj'ramid on either side. Just inside of the
sea wall that protected the southwestern edge of the key occurred the
little triangular muck-court which had been dug into first by Captain
Collier, Mr. Wilkins, and Colonel Durnford.

I was most courteously received by Captain Collier ; both he and his
neighbor. Captain Cuthbert, gave me entire freedom to explore where-
soever I would, and in whatsoever manner. As may be seen by the
accompanying plan of the "Court of the Pile Dwellers," (thus I later
named this place) I caused an excavation to be made to one side of and
just beyond those that had been made by the gentlemen mentioned
(see plan, Plate XXXI, Sections 84, 44). A single day's work in this
boggy, mangrove-covered, water-soaked, muck and peat bed, revealed
not only other such relics as I had found in the keys above, but a con-
siderable number of well-preserved objects of wood, including more
of the kind I had seen in Colonel Durnford's possession, and, what
was especially significant, the remains of short piles, of slight timbers,
of a long, beautifully finished spruce-wood spar, of charcoal, and
fragments of indurated material that had once formed the heat-
hardened plaster of hearths. There were also small masses of much
decayed thatch, apparently for house-roofing or siding, I judged, and
not a few unfinished objects, to say nothing of abundant refuse of
meals. All which indicated that my inference in regard to the na-
ture of this place as an actual site of former residence was as tenable
as had been the more general conclusion that it was not a solitary

ISOfi.] OO-L [Cuf5hing.

example of its kind. Key Marco, water-courts, canals, elevations,
central mounds, cistern holes, garden terraces and all, was, that is,
but another such as were tlie keys further north. I scarcely paused
in this preliminary reconnaissance to do more than determine this
most significant point, but prosecuted the excavation only during a
portion of the following day, then packed vip my already considerable
collection, and securing permission from Captain Collier, to bring men
and more thoroughly excavate the place another year, returned to St.
James City.

There, with Captain Whiteside's ready help, I secured the services of
an intelligent and interested Scotchman, Alexander Montgomery by
name, and of Johnny Smith, an active and bright young pilot of the place.
With them, I reexamined and excavated to some extent, in the keys I
had already seen, and in some others around Pine Island ; finding only
more and more reason to regard them as of such kind as I have already
described.

The rainy season had set in. The heat was excessive, although it was
only early June. The mosquitoes and sand flies swarmed forth from the
mangroves in such clouds that wherever we dug, except on one or two
of the comparatively barren and lofty keys, it was necessary for us to
build smudge-fires all around us and bi'eathe their pungent smoke in
order to be free from these irritating creatures. I mention this, not be-
cause I was forced to abandon work thereby, but since it offered one
more explanation — an important one, it seemed to me — of the causes
that had led to the building and occupation of these ancient keys so far
out in the shallow but open waters, where, ere the mangroves grew,
men were comparatively free from these pests of life in southern Florida

These additional explorations quite convinced me that in those yet
unnumbered tropic islands lay a vast, comparatively new and very
promising field for archaeological research, and with this thought and
its warrant in the way of collections, I hastened back to Philadelphia
and made report to Doctor Pepper.

Organization of the Pepper-Hearst Archaeological
Expedition.

I am happy to say that Dr. Pepper, with the ready aid of several of
his friends and associates, immediately planned to fit out under my di-
rection, during the following winter, an expedition for the more com-
plete exploration of this interesting region. At a meeting held soon
after my return, Mr. Jacob Disston generously volunteered not only to
make a contribution — as did several other Associates of the Archa:ologi-
cal Department of the University, whom I would fain mention — but,
also, to turn over for our use his schooner, the Silver Spray, belong-
ing to a fleet of sponging vessels at Tarpon Springs, some twenty -five
miles north of Tampa, on the west coast of Florida. Almost as speedily.

dishing.] dO-j [Soy. 6,

too, Major J. W. Powell, Director of the Bureau of American Ethuologj-,
provisionallj^ granted me leave, and promise of official recognition and
assistance in the conduct of this proposed expedition in the joint interest
of the Bureau itself, and of the Department of Archteology of the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania.

Funds were placed at my disposal by Dr. Pepper late in November,
1896, and happily I was able to secure the volunteer services of Mr.
AVells M. Sawj^er, to be Artist and Photographer of the expedition ; of
Mr. Irving Sayford, of Harrisburg, to be its Field Secretary ; and, for a
small salary, of Mr. Carl F. W. Bergmann, previously trained as a
Preparator of Collections, in the United States National Museum.

The Clyde Line Steamship Company again laid us under obligation
by furnishing passes for all of these gentlemen, from New York City to
Jacksonville and Sanford. They left Washington on the fourth day
of December. Two daj's later, Mrs. Cushing and I left overland, and
joined them at Jacksonville. Without delay we proceeded thence via
Sanford, to Tarpon Springs.

Explorations in the Region ok Takpon Springes.

Unfortunately I found that the Silver Spray had but recently been
sent away on another sponging cruise, and that I could not expect her
return for some time. Anxious as I was to proceed with the explora-
tion of the shores and keys further to the southward, nevertheless, it
became necessarj"-, in order that time be not lost, to prosecute investiga-
tions in the less novel, but still, archseologically rich fields around Tar-
pon Springs and in the region of the x\nclote river, — ^upon a bayou of
which this beautiful little winter resort was situated.

Since Mr. Clarence B. Moore, of this city, has for a number of years
conducted, with rare skill and great success, explorations among mounds
and the ancient camp sites of other more easterly portions of Florida
and since the collections he has gathered there, more or less resem-
ble those that we were able to gather in the burial mounds and camp
sites of the Tarpon Springs region, and have been admirably illus-
trated to the world in his various monographs, I will, in this paper,
pass over the results of our explorations there very lightly.

We met helpful friends at Tarpon Springs. Messrs. Cheyney and
Marvin assigned to us comfortable quarters in one of their hotel cot-
tages and subsequentlj' aided us in many ways ; and it was my especial
good fortune to meet Mr. Leander T. Satibrd, adopted son of the
founder of Tarpon Springs, and to be conducted bj' him, on the very
day of our arrival, to an ancient burial mound lying at the foot of the
village, on land belonging to the Satford Estates. This little mound
was low and apparently unimportant, for it had been superficially hon-
eycombed by relic hunters ; yet a few scattered fragments of bone,
associated with mortuary potsherds, indicated to nu' not onlj' that it iiad
been extraordinarily rich in l)urials, l)ut, also, that in its depths many of

18%.] ^'^O [Gushing.

the interments still remained undisturbed. Accordingly I forthwith
engaged workmen to excavate it systematically and thoroughly — a labor
that occupied several weeks. During its progress, however, we encoun-
tered the remains of more than six hundred skeletons. These, with
notable exceptions — probably those of chiefs and head men — had been
dismembered previouslj^ to interment, but were distributed in distinct
groups that I regarded as communal or totemic and phratral, and of
exceeding interest ; for they seemed to indicate that the burial-mound
had been regarded by its builders as a tribal settlement, a sort of "Little
City of their Dead," and that if so, it might be looked on as still, in a
measure, representing the distribution and relations of the clans and
phratries in an actual village or tribal settlement of these people when
living. Moreover, in the minor disposition of the skeletons that had
not been scattered, but had been buried in packs, or else entire and
extended, in sherd-lined graves or wooden cists within and around each
of these groups, it seemed possible to still trace somewhat of the relative
ranks of individuals in these groups, and not a few of the social customs
and religious beliefs of the ancient builders. This possibility was still
further borne out by the fact that with the skeletal remains were associ-
ated, in ditiering ways, many superb examples of pottery and sacrificial
potsherds, and numerous stone, shell and bone iitensils, weapons, and
ornaments. That the SafFord mound was tj'pical was conclusively
shown when we were permitted hj Captain Hope, of Anclote, to exca-
vate a similar, although larger and higher mound, on land of his at
Finley Hammock, some nine miles to the northwestward of Tarpon
Springs, and when we found there also, abundant similar interments
and relics of like kinds, similarly distributed.

Of all the art remains we recovered from these two mounds, none
possessed greater interest than the pottery. Considerable numbers of
unusual forms were found, including terra-cotta drums, tall, very ornate
cups or vases, and small flat -bottomed bowls, decorated by means of
etched and carved lines, some of these carved designs being maskoidal
in character, and obviously derived, as were the stamped and otherwise
wrought surface designs on countless sherds in the collection, from
woodenware forms and designs. By far the most interesting class of
this pottery was, however, such of it as had been decorated by puncta-
tion— literally by tattooing — not merely, I judged, in imitation of tat-
tooed totemic designs on the persons of those who had made and used
it, — but in an effort to veritably transfer or reproduce these designs ;
so that in studying them I recognized much in regard to the totemic
organization, and still more in relation to the mythic concepts of their
makers. I also perceived in these significances and designs, some of
Avhich correlated perfectly with those shown on the paintings of Florida
Indians given me by my lamented friend, the late Doctor G. Brown
Goode, and reproduced from water colors made by the Limner of Lau-
donnier's Expedition to Florida more than three hundred years ago —

Gushing.] tJ^* [Nov. 6,

the first clear evidence thus far known to us, of that kind of personifica-
tion-transfer by means of tattoo or paint, with which primitive artists
seem ever to have sought to animate tlieir own particular utensils — food
and water vessels especially — and to thus relate them personally to
themselves. And I can safely say that a prolonged study of these col-
lections, so strikingly and unusually suggestive in this respect, would
throw more light upon primitive decorations, as being in the nature of
symbolic investures, not primarily of artistic and aesthetic expression,
than any others yet, so far as I am aware, gathered.

There was a feature in connection with these Tarpon Springs and
Anclote burial-mounds, that was more specifically significant to me. All
of them were surrounded by what at first appeared to be moats. Exca-
vation made it evident, however, that in case of at least the Saft'ord and
Hope mounds, these encircling depressions were rather the borders of
artificial basins, which had been not only purposely, but also most
laboriously, hollowed out, and in the midst of which, it was clear,
the mounds had been built, not at once, but in stages, corresponding to
successive periods of interment ; for they were distinctly stratified, and
moreover the remains in the lowermost stratum occurred at a depth
greater than that of the muck-filled bottoms of the moat-like depressions
surrounding them. This lake-mound kind of burial seemed to indicate
survival of key -dweller modes of burial — hence its specific significance
to me. That is, I looked upon it as probably being a later, an inland
form of bone deposition in an enclosed water-, or lake-court — here imi-
tative, no doubt — such as I had examined at Ellis' Place on Sanybel
Island. Moreover, the "Hammocks" or inland shell-heaps or camp-
sites, associated with these burial-mounds of the Tarpon Springs and
Anclote region likewise possessed key-dweller features ; in the earth-
works, graded w^ays, artificial lakes or pond-holes, and canals usually
contained within or around them ; as though these, in turn, were survi-
vals of or were copied from key-dweller modes of settlement — the works
of successors or descendants of the key dwellers following out here in
the marshes of the mainland, their characteristic — and erstwhile neces-
sary— modes of building and settlement in the shallow seas. From all
this and from evidence of similar survival in art shown abundantly by
the collections we gathered from these mounds and camp-sites of the
northerly Gulf region, I believed that a bridge, alike in time and in art
and cultural development, might be established between the pristine
key dwellers of the South, as exemplified by their great sliell structures,
fish courts, mound terraces, and works in wood and shell, and the liis-
toric mound-building Indians not only of northern Florida, but also, pos-
sibly even of our nearer Southern States — as pictured by the early
chroniclers — who describe them as having been settled in lowland
villages clustering around mounds or pyramids of earth that were sur-
mounted by temples and otlicr public buildings, approached by canoe
channels and graded ways, provided with fish-ponds or lakes, and with
temples of the dead sequestered in nearby deep Ibrests or swamps.

1896.] OOb [Gushing.

The Cruise to the Ten Thousand Islands and Preliminary
Operations at Key Marco.

The Silver Spray was tardy iu returning, and, withal, had to be over-
hauled. Thus it was not until late in February that we were able to
fully equip her and get under way for the southern keys — explorations in
which had been from the beginning, the main object of the Expedition.
We were provided with provisions for two months, and with a working
outfit which, although the best I could purchase on the west coast of
Florida, would have proven all too inadequate but for the kindness of
friends before mentioned, and in particular, of a resident of your city
and member of your University Archieological Association, Mrs Richard
Levis, who, with her friend, Mrs. George Inness, was passing the winter
in her charming place at Tarpon Springs, and who insisted on adding
needed supplies to our limited store, and little comforts to our else
rather barren cabins. We had reason enough to be grateful to them
during our long continued stay in the more inaccessible waters of the
farther South.

In addition to Mrs. Gushing, myself, and Messrs. Sawyer, Say ford and
Bergmann, my crew consisted of Antonio Gomez, Sailing-Master ;
Thomas Brady, Mate ; Alfred Hudson, Robert Clark and Frank Barnes,
Sailors and Excavators ; George Gause, Chief Excavator ; George
Hudson (colored). Cook; George Dorsett (colored), Steward; and I
later employed John Calhoun continuously, and other workmen, from
time to time, to assist .in the excavations. I make mention of the names
of these men in order to express appreciation of the faithful and patient
manner iu which they performed their duties and assisted me throughout
many trying days of labor in the water-soaked, foul-smelling muck and
peat beds of Marco and neighboring keys. My acknowledgments are
especially due to Gause, young Hudson, and Clark, who continually
worked in the muck holes side by side with Mr. Bergmann and myself,
and to whose painstaking care and attention it is due that many a fragile
treasure was saved from destruction.

Tlie voyage from Tarpon Springs to Marco, including a stop at Pine
Island for mail and for taking in of fuel and water, occupied less than
three days, and as there was a steady Gulf breeze and the tides were
unusually high, we were able to make the difficult pass into Marco Inlet
without hindrance. There, just to the northeast of the key, we
anchored at a sufficient distance off shore to protect us measurably from
the mosquitoes, and there our little craft rode at anchor during the two
months occupied in the excavations and in my various expeditions to
surrounding keys — for these were made in a liglit-draught, double-
sailed sharpie, that had been fitted up and generously turned over for
our use by Mr. Cheney.

Immediately on arriving at Key Marco, I made arrangements with
Captain Collier whereby, in return for saving such muck as we should

PROC. AMEH. PHIL08. SOC. XXXV. 158. 3 S. PRINTED JUNE 5, 1897.

Cushi-ng.] dob [Nov. 6,

turn over in our excavations, I would be permitted to retain all objects
discovered, and if desirable, to exploit the little triangular " Court of the
Pile Dwellers" from border to border. It lay, as I have said, close
alongside the sea-wall at the southwestern edge of the key and just
below a succession of shell benches, themselves formerly abandoned
and filled-up courts of a similar character. The side opposite the sea-
wall, that is on the east, was formed by an extended ridge — scarcely
less high than the sea-wall itself, and likewise composed of well-com-
pacted shells. Around the upper end, and down the outer side of this
ridge, led— as indicated in plan, Plate XXXI — an inlet canal, bordered
by similar ridges beyond, and joined by an outlet canal at the lower
end — that continued through various low-banked enclosures in the man-
grove swamps toward the south, quite down to the terminus of the sea-
wall itself.

The entire court was thickly overgrown with mangrove trees, under-
neath which also thickly grew, to a uniform height of six or eight inches,
bright green aquatic weeds and mangrove shoots. Since the interior of
this artificial and filled-up bayou was still not above the level of the
surrounding tide-swept mangrove swamps through which the canals led,
it lay almost continually under water, and its excavation looked at first
to be almost impossible, and at best a most formidable undertaking. It
would be necessary to cut away and uproot the mangroves and in some
way to remove the water that filled to overflowing the excavations which
had formerly been made, and thus covered the entire court. To begin, I
had a few of the trees cleared away fi'om the outer and southwesterly cor-
ner, and opposite my old excavation in sections 34, 44, had a trench cut
through the sea-wall to as great a depth as possible without letting water
in from the bay outside. I then had a long trough of ship planks con-
structed and placed on stakes driven deep into the muck bed, so that one
end rested over the excavation and the other, lower end, in the mouth of
the sluice-way through the sea-wall. Then laying heavy planks over the
boggy surface to furnish foothold for the men, I set them at work baling
out the old excavation with buckets. It was at first like trying to bale
out the sea itself, for water flowed in as fast as taken out ; but after two or
three hours of steady work, it began to lower, not only in the excavation,
but over the entire court, and toward evening it became possible to even
begin the extension of this original excavation in the direction of the
cleared corner of the court. On the following morning, however, there
was almost as much water in the excavation thus enlarged, and else-
where, as on the previous day ; but it was much sooner disposed of by
baling and by the banking up of the place last excavated, and I soon
found that by thus proceeding each morning for a couple of liours more
or less, the water could be kept sufficiently low to enable us, working in
sections, or bins as it were (roughly corresponding to tliose sliown in the
plan), to excavate the entire place. Yet, even thus, mucii of our search
in the lower depths had to be made merely by feeling with the fingers.

1896.] ODi [Gushing.

I deem it unnecessary to give further details of our operations, save to
say that three or four of us worked side by side in eacli section, digging
inch by incli, and foot by foot, horizontally through the muck and rich
lower strata, standing or crouching the while in puddles of mud and
water ; and as tims went on we were pestered morning and evening by
swarms and clouds of mosquitoes and sand-flies, and during the midhours
of the day, tormented by the fierce tropic sun heat, pouring down, even
thus early in the season into this little shut-up hollow among the breath-
less mangroves. After the first day's work, however, I was left no longer
in doubt as to the unique outcome of our excavations, or as to the desir-
ability of searching through the entire contents of the court, howsoever
difficult the task might prove to be ; for relics not only of the kind already
described, but of new and even more interesting varieties, began at once
to be found, and continued to be found increasingly as we went on day
after day, throughout the entire five weeks of our work in this one little
place. I may be permitted to add that never in all my life, despite the
sutt'e rings this labor involved, was I so fascinated with or interested in
anything so much, as in the finds thus daily revealed. Partaking of my
enthusiasm, the men, too, soon became so absorbed that they actually
hated to see the sun go down and to thus be compelled to abandon their
work even until the coming of another da}'.

As the northwesterly half of the court became cleared of its contents,
and the bottom was thus more and more revealed, we found that it was
generally concave, or perh ips I may say, tray-shaped; that is, compara-
tively shallow at the sides — not more than from eighteen inches to three
feet deep — but throughout the middle and thence toward the mouths of
the two canals, from four and-a-half to five-and-a-half feet deep.
Extending along the bottom, in toward this central deeper portion, from
both the southwesterly and northwesterly margins at about equidistant
intervals of twenty feet, were several straight, low benches or tongues,
of compacted shell and tough clay-marl (shown in plan,Plate XXXI), from
twenty-five to thirty feet long and ft-om eight to twelve feet wide, level
on top and built to a height gradually increasing from a few inches,
where they joined the boundary banks, to nearly two feet at their rounded
ends, so as to form low, originally submerged, slightly inclining piers, as
it were. Along the opposite or eastcn side was a similar, although con-
tinuous bench, uniformly some fifteen feet wide from its rounded upper
end just below the mouth of the inlet canal, to a point about thirty feet
below, whence it gradually narrowed to a width of less than eight feet
at its lower end near the mouth of the outlet canal. Finally, across the
extreme upper end or corner of the court, that is just to the left of and
above the mouth of the same inlet canal, extended a like, although slightly
wider and shorter bench. Thus the whole central portion of the court,
as well as the spaces between the tongues or benches, liad been left
open and deep, as if for the free passage of canoes. Along the sides and
around the ends of these in-reaching benches of shell and clay, occur-

Cnshiiig.] Obo I ^^y 6_

red numerous piles ot various lengths, all, however, comparatively short,
blunt-pointed at their lower ends, and either squared or else rudely
notched at their upper ends — some of them slantingly bored down the
sides — and there occurred also many stakes and timbers ; as though these
benches had been built to serve actuality as piers or the foundations for
long, pile-supported quays or scatfolds ; upon which, I concluded — from
the character of many lesser remains that we continually found — had
been constructed, side by side all around the court, comparatively long,
narrow, and low, thatched and latticed houses. At any rate it was over
and around these benches that the principal finds, inclusive of numerous
household articles, were made.

The surface deposit throughout the entire court consisted of a stratum
of spongy black or dark brown muck, permeated by both rotting and
living rootlets. It was, as shown in section on Plate XXXI, thin at the
margins, but eighteen or twenty inches thick throughout the middle.
Below this was a somewhat thicker stratum of brownish gray peaty marl,
soft, tremulous, exceedingly foul-smelling, and rich in the best preserved
relics we discovered. This stratum directly overlaid and surrounded the
benches I have described. Finally underneath it, between the benches
and throughout the middle of the court, was a less well-defined laj'cr of
less peaty marl, intermixed with shells and other debris, and also with
abundant ancient remains — which, indeed, we continued to encounter
even in the underlying, comparatively firm shell and claj'-marl bottom.
This, however, although nearly a foot and a half thick, we could not
venture to excavate, since the slightest opening made through it into
the sandy reef below let in a steady stream of water from the sea.

The objects found by us in these deposits were in various conditions
of preservation, from such as looked fresh and almost new, to such as
could scarcely be traced through or distinguished from the briny peat
mire in which they were embedded. They consisted of wood, cordage
and like perishable materials associated with implements and ornaments
of more enduring substances, such as shell, bone and horn — for only a
few shaped of stone were encountered during the entire search.

Articles of wood far outnumbered all others. I was astounded to soon
find that many of these had been painted with black, white, gray-blue,
and brownish-red pigments ; and that while the wood itself was so
decayed and soft that in many cases it was ditflcult to distinguish the
fibre of even large objects of it, either by sight or by touch, from the
muck and peat in which they were unequally distributed, but now more
or le«s integrated ; yet when discoverable in time to be cautiously uncov-
ered and washed off" by the splashing or trickling of water over them
from a sponge, their for.ns appeared not 'only almost perfect, but also
deceptively well preserved, so that I at first thought we might, Avith
sufficient care, recover nearly all of them uninjured. This was especi-
ally true of such as had been decorated with the pigments ; for owing to
the presence in these pigments of a gum-like and comparatively insolu-

1896.] Ob.f [OuShing.

ble sizing, the coatings of color were often relatively better preserved
than the woodj^ substance they covered, and enabled us the more readily
to distinguish the outlines of these painted objects— when else some had
been partially destroyed or altogether missed — and also enabled us to take
them up on broad, flat shovels, and to more deliberately divest them of
the muck and peat that so closely cliiug to them.

Some of the things thus recovered could be preserved by very slow
drying, but it soon became evident that by far the greater number of
them could not be kept intact. No matter how perfect they were at first,
they warped, shrunk, split, and even checked across the grain, like old
charcoal, or else were utterly disintegrated on being exposed to the light
and air if only for a few hours. Thus, despite the fact that after remov-
ing the surface muck from the sections, we dug only with little hand-
trowels and flexible-pronged garden claws — and, as I have said before,
with our fingers — yet fully twenty-five per cent, of these ancient articles
in wood and other vegetal material were destroyed in the search ; and
again, of those found and removed, not more than one-half retained
their original forms unaltered for more than a few days.

Unique to archfieology as these things were, it was distressing to feel
that even by merely exposing and inspecting them, we were dooming so
many of them to destruction, and to think that of such as we could tem-
porarily recover only the half could be preserved as permanent examples
of primitive art.

I sought by every means at our disposal to remedy these difficulties,
but I soon found that the time thus required, and the cost of additional
preservatives — if such could, indeed, be found, for ordinary glue, shellac,
and silicate of soda, proved to be comparatively inefficient — would
increase the cost of our operations considerably beyond my original
estimates upon which appropriation had been made.

In this extremity I wrote to Major Powell, asking for suggestions as to
methods for preserving our finds, and at the same time to Doctor Pepper,
urging an additional appropriation. I was loath to do this, being well
aware that the funds at the disposal of the Department he represented
were already overtaxed by the many explorations progressing under his
direction in other parts of the world. My relief of mind may be better
imagined than described, when I say that as speedily as the mails could
bring a letter from Doctor Pepper, he assured me that my operations
looking toward the proper completion of our excavations and preserva-
tion of our collections Avould be supported to the extent required. It
was not until afterward that I learned how a friend whom to know is to
honor and revere, a friend to education and scientific research and
human need wherever found, Mrs. Phebe A. Hearst, had, as a member
of the Department of Archteology and Palaeontology, come to our res-
cue. The gratification I feel in announcing the augmented success of
our researches, thenceforward, is enhanced by the thought that I may
here say how much this success was due to her instant recognition of the
promise and significance of our finds.

dishing.] dbO [Xov. 6,

Whilst I was still awaiting replj' from my Director, Major J. W.
Powell, and wonclering as to the possible outcome of our undertakings —
as to whether the extent of the field we had opened could, wilh such rel-
atively imperfect results as I then looked for, be sufficiently represented to
the scientific world to command due recognition of its significance eth-
nographically, I was happily honored by au unannounced visit from
Major Powell himself. Instead of replying to my letter, he had imme-
diately set out to visit us, in order to aid personally and on the spot in
devising means for the preservation, if not of the collections, at least of
a full and adequate record of our finds and discoveries. I had, there-
fore, the combined pleasure and advantage of exhibiting to him, alike
the field of my observations and the results of our researches therein,
and of gaining from him the approval of his trusted judgment as to not
only these results, but also as to the methods whereby they had been
achieved.

At this time, however, the season of rain and excessive heat had set
in, rendering it certain that the days of the expedition in that section
were numbered. Therefore after carefully inspecting our collections.
Key Marco, and other typical shell settlements in that portion of the
Ten Thousand Islands, Major Powell urgently counseled me to confine
operations thenceforward to the completion of excavations in this one
little court of the pile dwellers, and therewith to close for the season a
work which he again assured me was of unusual architologic significance
and capable, he believed, of indefinite extension.

Thus aided and encouraged by my superiors, I persisted, notwithstand-
ing the more or less destructive nature of our researches, if only in order
that we might secure the fullest possible data. Fortunately we were in
the end able not only to enlarge and complete our collections of photo-
graphic records, sketches, surveys and other field memoranda, but also
to secure and bring away, in measurably good condition, more than a
thousand of these precious examples of prehistoric art in perishable
materials, not to mention many hundreds of examples in more durable
substances such as shell, bone and horn.

I must further state that the various ancient artifacts we found in the
muck, occurred at unequal depths and in all sorts of positions and rela-
tions. There were a few groups of utensils, for example, that obviously
belonged together, like mortar cups and pestles, and sets of tools that
were still associated ; and there were also some few bundles or packs of
ceremonial objects, apparently, which when found still remained almost
intact; that is, their wrappings of reed matting, or neat swathings of
flag or palmetto leaves still, looked fresh, actually green, in some cases;
but on close examination they proved always to be pulpy with decay
and impossible of removal. These packs and assemblages or bunches of
related things, however, did not present the appearance of deliberate
deposition. They looked as though they had fallen and sunken where
we found them — some being upside down — as though they had been

1896.] obi [Cushiug.

hanging, or else lying, tucked away in the houses or on the scaffolds
above, and had been washed out from or off of them into the water
alongside and below, had become water-logged and had gradually been
covered by mud and other debris and by the vegetal and other deposits
w^e found them in.

By far the greater number of objects were, however, promiscuously
scattered — although, as I have said, more abundant between and around
the ends or along the edges of the low, submerged benches I have
described, than elsewhere. Not a few of them — and this was especially
the case w^ith long and originally more or less fragile articles like spear-
shafts and stays — appeared to have been broken in falling. Occasionally
we found fragments separated by considerable distance which, when
brought together, fitted perfectly. Not a few of the piles were thus
broken, and many of the lesser timbers ; while larger timbers, like the
comparatively gigantic sill, which lay along the edge of the northern
bench (in sections 29, 39, 40), were absolutely intact. They were ex-
cellent examples of primitive joinery ; yet so soft and pulpy, as a rule,
that on account of their great size and weight, we were unable to bring
them away, or even, without destroying, to disturb them. Some of the
broad, flc.t, notched staves — which I judged from considerations later
offered had been used as symbolic ancestral tablets, probably attached to
the gables of houses, or set up in altars — were lying on their edges;
while flat boards sometimes stood on end, and other long, slender articles,
stood slantingly upward, the lowermost ends or edges firmly stuck in
the clay-marl of the bottom. This was the case, for example, with the
beautifully shaped and pointed paddle which we found near the mouth
of the upper or inlet canal. Its sharp point was slantingly and deeply
embedded in the mud, while its long handle reached obliquely up nearly
to the surface of the muck, and was there, as may be seen by examina-
tion of the specimen itself (or of Fig. 8, in Plate XXXII), burned oft
slantingly on a line that must have corresponded to the original level of
the water, for at this point other charred specimens occurred, as though
here fire had added its destructiveness to the storm that demolished the
buildings or scaffolds from which all these things seemed to have fallen.

From the fact that many of the objects lay suspended, as it were, in
the mud above the bottom, I judged that when these remains w^ere
thrown down into the little water court, the spaces between the house-
benches and around the borders of the quays at least, must have been
already choked up somewhat with debris or refuse and slime or mud ;
for out in the middle of the court where the deep open space occurred
throughout the channel between the two canals, little was found in the
way of art remains, except such as lay directly upon, or very near to, the
bottom.

It may be seen that by a study of the distribution of these remains it
was easy to determine what had been the original average depth of the
water within the court, or at any rate, its depth at the time when these

Gushing.] OO^ [Xov. 6,

things found their way into it, and to determine also many other fea-
tures of the place, interesting as details and important too, as substanti-
ating various inferences I have ventured to give above. But as a careful
study of the collections themselves repeats to a great extent this story
of our field observations, I will make haste to present a descriptive
account of the various classes of these.

Anciekt Artifacts from the Court of the Pile Dwellers.

Piles, Timbers, etc. — None of the piles found by us exceeded six and
a half feet in length. Indeed, the greater number of them were less
than three and a half feet long. These shorter piles were nearly always
made of palmetto wood, were not round, but broad, or somewhat flat-
tened, although the edges were rounded. They were tapered toward the
bottom and bluntly pointed, rudely squared or hollowed out at the tops
as though to support round, horizontal timbers ; and they were bored or
notched slantingly here and there through the edges, as though for the
reception of rounded braces or cross-stays of poles or saplings, abundant
pieces of which were found. Some of the piles were worn at the points
or lower ends, as though they had rested upon, but had not been driven
into, the solid shell and clay-marl benches. They had apparently, on
the contrary, been quite rigidly fastened to the horizontal timbers or
frameworks of the quays or scatfolds they held up — by means of the staj'^-
sticks — like pegs or pointed feet, so that as long as the water remained
low, they would support these house scaffolds above it, as well as if
driven into the benches, but when the waters rose, the entire structures
would also slightly rise, or at any rate not be violently wrenched from
their supports, as would inevitably have been the case had these been
firmly fixed below. The longer piles were, on the contrary, round.
They were somewhat smaller, quite smoothly finished, and had been, if
one might judge by their more pointed and yet roughened or frayed
appearance at both ends, actualh' driven into the bottom. It therefore
appeared to me that they had been made so as to be thus driven into
the edges of the benches at either side of the peg-supported platforms,
in order to keep these from swerving in case an unusual rise in the
waters caused them to float. There were other pieces equally long, but
broken off near their points. They w^ere slightly grooved .at the upper
ends and tied around with thick, well-twisted ropes or cabies made of
cypress bark and palmetto fibre, as though they had served as mooring-
posts, probably for the further securing of the ends of the partially
movable platforms — else they had not been so violently wrenched as to
break them at the points — for some of them were more than four inches
in diameter, and were made of tough mangrove and buttonwood or iron-
wood. The side-posts or stay-stakes were, on the contrary, of spruce
or pine, and were, as I have said, finished to a nicety, as though to
offer no resistance to the rise and fall of the big, partially floating quays
between them. Around the great log or sill of cypress, mentioned as.

189o.] 363 [Cashing.

lying along the edge of the northern bench (it was uniformly nine
inches in diameter, fourteen feet eleven inches in length, carefully
shaved to shape and finished evidently with shark-tooth blades and shell
scrapers, and was moreover, like the piles, socketed and notched or
bored along its sides) were many of these piles, both short and long;
and overlying the sill, as well as on either side of it, I found abundant
broken timbers, poles, and traces of wattled cane matting as well as
quantities of interlaced or latticed saplings — laths evidently, for they
seemed to have been plastered with a clay and ash cement — and quantities
also of yellow marsh-grass thatch, some of it alluringly fresh, other
portions burnt to black masses of cinder. Here and elsewhere along
the edges of the benches occurred fire-hardened cement or mud hearth-
plastering, mingled with ashes and charcoal — which indeed occurred
more or less abundantly everywhere, together with refuse, consisting
not only of broken and sometimes scorched animal bones and shells,
but also of tlie charred remains of vegetable and fruit foods. Among
these remains and the more artificial objects that were associated with
them we continually encountered incipient or unfinished pieces —
blocked-out trays or toy canoes, untrimmed adze and axe handles,
uncompleted tablets, etc., and all this evidenced to me that the place
was indeed a site of former daily occupation.

Furniture, etc. — Here and there were found curious wooden seats —
more or less like ancient Antillean stools, as may be seen in Fig.
7, PI. XXXIV — flat slabs of wood from a foot to more than
two feet in length, slightly liollowed on top from end to end
as well as from side to side, with rounded bottoms and substan-
tial, prong-like pairs of feet near either end, from two to three
inches long. Some of these stools had the feet level ; others, so spread
and beveled that they would exactly fit the hollow bottoms of canoes.
Others still were smaller than those I have mentioned, so diminutive, in
fact, that they could have served no purpose else, it seemed to me,
than that of head-rests or pillow-supports. We found, indeed, although
we were unable to preserve any of them, examples of what might have
been the pillows used in connection witli these rests. They were taper-
ingly cylindrical, made of fine rushes, and showed a continuous four-ply
plat, so that, like cassava strainers, they were flexible and compressible,
yet springy, and they had probably been filled with Florida moss or
deer hair, which filling had, however, long since disappeared save for a
mushy residuum. Portions of mats, some thick, as though for use as rugs,
others enveloping various objects, and others still of shredded bark in
strips so thin and flat and closely platted that they might well have
served as sails, were frequently discovered. Yet except for masses of
the peat or mud upon which tlie remains of this matting lay and which
therefore when dry showed traces of its beautifully and variously formed
plies, naught of them could be preserved. It was obvious, however,
that the peoples who had inhabited the court understood well, not only
platting, but weaving and basketry-making too.

PROC. AMER. PHII.OS. SOC. XXXV. 153. 2 T. PRINTED JUNE 5, 1897.

Cashing ] OO^ [Xov. 6,

Pottery andUtensils. — A few examples of pottery were discovered lying
always on or near the bottom, and with one exception invariably broken.
All of these vessels, notwithstanding the fact that some of them had their
rims more or less decorated, showed evidence of having been used as
cooking bowls or pots. Associated with them were household utensils —
spoons made from bivalves, ladles made from the greater halves of hol-
lowed-out well-grown conch shells ; and cups, bowls, trays and mortars
of wood. These latter were in greatest variety and abundance. They
ranged in size from little hemispherical bowls or cups two and a half or
three inches in diameter, to great cypress tubs more than two feet in
depth, tapering, flat-bottomed, and correspondingly wide at the tops.
The smaller mortar-cups were marvels of beauty and finish as a rule,
and lying near them and sometimes even within them, were still found
their appropriate pestles or crushers — as is shown in Fig. 5, PI.
XXXIY. The smaller mortars and pestles, like the one illustrated,
seemed to have been personal property, as though they had belonged to
individuals and had been used in the crushing of berries and tubers,
and perhaps cunti-root ; as well as in other ways, that is, in the service,
rather than merely in the general preparation, of food.

The trays were also very numerous and exceedingly interesting ;
comparatively shallow, oval in outline and varying from a length of six
and a half or seven inches and a width of four or five inches, to a length
of not less than five feet and a width of quite two feet. The ends of
these trays were narrowed and truncated to form handles, the upper
faces of which were usually decorated with neatly cut-in disc like or
semilunar figures or depressions. Looking at the whole series of them
secured by us — no fewer than thirty in all — I was impressed with their
general resemblance to canoes, their almost obvious derivation from such,
as though through a sort of technologic inheritance they had descended
from the vessels which had brought not only the first food, and the first
supplies of water, to these outlying keys, but also the first dwellers
thereon as well.

Navigating Apparatus and Fishing Gear. — This inference was
strengthened by the discovery here and there of actual toy canoes.
That they had been designed as toys was evident from the fact that
some were not only well finished, but considerably worn by use.
There were six or seven of these, and while they generally con-
formed to a single type, that is the dugout, they ditfered very materially
in detail. Three of them were comparatively tiat-bottomed. One, about
five inches in length by two in breadth of beam and an inch in depth,
was shaped precisely like a neat punt or flat -bottomed row boat — Fig. 7,
PI. XXXII. Both ends were somewhat squared, but the stern was wider
than the prow, and above the stern was a little protuberance, indicating
that such had been used in guiding, and perhaps as well in sculling, little
light draught vessels like this, obviously designed, my sailors thought, for
the navigation of shallow streams, inlets, bayous, and tlie ciuials. An-

189G.] oho [Gushing.

Other of these flat-bottomed little toy boats was much sharper and higher
at the stem and stern, had very low gunwales, and was generally narrower
in proportion to its length, and enlarged would have been admirably
adapted to swift tidal currents, or to the running of low breakers. Yet
another looked like a clumsy craft for the bearing over shoals of heavy
loads or burdens. It was comparatively wide, and its ends also quite
broad. All except one of these, I observed, were decorated at one
end or both, with the same sort of semilunar or disc-like devices, that
were observable on the trays — as may be seen by an examination of
Fig, 6, PI. XXXII. Two others of the toy canoes (one of which
is here figured as just referred to) were not more than three inches broad
by nearly two feet in length, gracefully and slenderly formed, tapered
cleanly toward the forward ends, which were high and very narrow, yet
square at the sterns, which were also high. We found them almost in
juxtaposition near the midmost of the western benches. Little sticks
and slight shreds of twisted bark were lying aci'oss them and indicated
to me that they had once been lashed together, and, as a more finished
and broken spar-like shaft lay near bj% I was inclined to believe that
they represented the sea-going craft of the ancient people here ; that the
vessels in which these people had navigated the high seas had been made
double — of canoes lashed together, catamaran fashion — and propelled not
only with paddles, but also, perhaps, by means of sails, made probably
from the thin two-ply kind of bark matting I have before described, of
which there were abundant traces near the midchannel, associated with
cordage and with a beautifully regular, much worn and polished spar.
At any rate, the natives of these South Florida seas and of the West
Indies are mentioned by early writers as having navigated fearlessly
in their cypress canoes; as having sometimes crossed the Gulf itself,
and as having used in these long cruises sails of some simple sort.
Jonathan Dickinson, in his quaint volume entitled God's Protecting Prom-
dence Man's Surest Help and Defence, etc. — one of the first books pub-
lished in this city, by the way — narrates how, just two hundred years
ago, he and his companion voyagers were shipwrecked on the Florida
Gulf shore. He clearly describes such a double canoe as we found the
toy remains of, when he tells how a Cacique, into whose hands they fell,
went to wrest back the plunder that had been taken from them by
earlier captors. The Cacique — to quote the author freely — came home in
great state He was nearly nude and triumphantly painted red, and
sitting cross-legged on their ship's chest, that stood on a platform midway
over tico canoes lashed together with -poles. He maintained a fierce ex-
pression of countenance and looked neither to the left nor to the right,
but merely exclaimed " wow " when they greeted him from the shore ;
and, after landing, proceeded — the author adds rather ruefully — to ap-
propriate the contents of the chest to himself.

Two tackle-blocks, real prehistoric pulleys, that we found, may have
pertained to such canoes as these. Each was three inches long, oval,

Gushing.] *^t)b [Xov. 6,

one side rounded, the other cut in at the edges, or rabbetted so to say.
Tlie tenon-like portion was gouged out midway, transversely pierced,
and furnished with a smooth peg or pivot over which the cordage
turned. I have already mentioned the finding of a paddle near the
mouth of the inlet canal — which is shown in Fig. 8, PI. XXXIL
It was neatly shaped, the handle round and lengthy, although
burned off at the end, and the blade also long, leaf-shaped, and
tapered to a sharp point, convex or beveled on one side, flat or
slightly spooned or concave on the other. The splintered gunwales
and a portion of the prow of a long, light cypress-wood canoe, and
various fragments of a large but clumsier boat of some soft spongy
kind of wood — gumbo-limbo, probably — were found down toward the
middle of the court. Not far from the remams of these I came across an
ingenious anchor. It consisted of a bunch of large triton-shells roughly
pierced and lashed together with tightly twisted cords of bark and fibre
so that the long, spike-like ends stood out radiatingly, like the points of
a star. They had all been packed full of sand and cement, so as to
render them, thus bunched, sufficiently heavy to hold a good-sized boat.
Near the lower edge of the eastern bench lay another anchor. It was
made of flat, heart-shaped stones, similarl}^ perforated and so tied and
cemented together with fibre and a kind of red vegetable gum and sand,
that the points stood out radiatingly in precisely the same manner. Yet
another anchor was formed from a single boulder of coraline limestone
a foot in diameter. Partly by nature, more by art, it was shaped to re-
semble the head of a porpoise perforated for attachment at the eye-
sockets. Balers made from large conch shells crushed in at one side,
or of wood, shovel shaped, or else scoop shaped, with handles turned in,
were abundant ; as were also nets of tough fibre, both coarse and fine,
knitted quite as is the common netting of our own fisherman to-day, in
form of fine-meshed, square dip-nets, and of coarse-meshed, compara-
tively large and long gill-nets To the lower edges of these, sinkers
made from thick, roughly perforated umboidal bivalves, tied together in
bunches, or else from chipped and notched fragments of heavy clam
shells, were attached, while to the upper edges, floats made from gourds,
held in place by fine net-lashings, or else from long sticks or square-
ended blocks, were fastened. Around the avenues of the court I was
interested to find netting of coarser cordage weighted with unusually
large-sized or else heavily bunched sinkers of shell, and supplied at the
upper edges with long, delicately tapered gumbo-limbo float-pegs, those
of each set equal in size, each peg thereof partially split at the larger end,
so as to clamp double half-turns or ingeniously knotted hitches of the
neatly twisted edges-cords with which all were made fast to the nets.
Now these float pegs, of which many sets were secured, varying from
three and a half to eight inches in length of pegs, were so placed on
the nets, that in consequence of their tapering forms they would turn
against the current of the tide whichever way it flowed, and would con-

189G.] obt [Cushing.

tinuously bob up and clown on the ripples, however slight these were, in
such manner as to frighten the fish that liacl been driven, or had passed
over them at high tide, when, as the tide lowered, they naturally tried
to follow it. In connection with these nets we found riven stays, usu-
ally of cypress or pine, such as might have been used in holding them
upright. Hence I inferred that they had been stretched across the chan-
nels not only of the actual water courts of residence, like this, but, prob-
ably also, of the surrounding fish-pounds ; and if so, that the supply of
fresh fish must always have been abundant with the ancient inhabitants,
both near at hand in these enclosures, as well as even among the quays
•of the actual residence courts.

We found four or five fish-hooks. The shanks or stems of these were
about three inches long, shaped much like those of our own, but made
from the conveniently curved main branches of the forked twigs of some
tough springy kind of wood. These were cut oft' at the forks in such
manner as to leave a portion of the stems to serve as butts, which were
girdled and notched in, so that the sharp, barbed points of deer bone,
which were about half as long as the shanks and leaned in toward
them, could be firmly attached with sinew and black rubber-gum ce-
ment. Tlie stems were neatly tapered toward the upper ends, which
terminated in slight knobs, and to these, lines — so fine that only traces
of them could be recovered — were tied by half-hitches, like the turns of
a bow string. Little plug-shaped fioats of gunibo-limbo wood, and
sinkers made from the short thick columella; of turbinella shells — not
shaped and polished like the highly finished plummet-shaped pendants
we secured in great numbei's, but with the whorls merely battered off —
seemed to have been used with these hooks and lines. That they were
designed for deep-sea fishing was indicated by the occurrence of flat
reels or spools shaped precisely like fine-toothed combs divested of their
inner teeth. There were also shuttles or skein-holders of hard wood,
six or seven inches long, with wide semicircular crotches at the ends.
But these may have served in connection with a double kind of barb,
made from two notched or hooked crochet-like points or prongs of deer
bone, that we found attached with fibre cords to a concave round-ended
plate, an inch wide and three inches long, made from the pearly nacre
of a pinna shell. Since several of these shining, ovoid plates were pro-
cured, I regarded them as possibly "baiting-spoons," and this one with
the barbed contrivance, as some kind of trolling gear, though it may, as
the sailors thought, have been a "pair of grains," or maj^ like the
hook proper, have been used for deep-sea fishing. Aside from these
few articles, no other fishing tackle for use in the open waters was
found ; barbed harpoons being conspicuously absent. This led to the
supposition that the ancient inhabitants had depended chiefly upon the
pounds and water courts, whence wath their nets they could at any time
have readily drawn greater numbers of the fish for their supply.

Tools and Implements. — The working parts of the various instruments

Gushing.] ^^O [Xov. 6,

of handicraft that we found were not of stone, but almost exclusively
of hard organic substances — shell, bone, horn, and teeth — principally
those of sharks — with their various kinds of wooden appurtenances or
haftings, sometimes intact, sometimes merely indicated by the presence
of fragments or traces — distinct enough, but too often wholly un-
recoverable. In most cases these diverse parts were still in their origi-
nal relation to one another, although, as a rule, the lashings by which
they had been bound together — having consisted, as could plainly be
seen by impressions left even in the surrounding mud, of rawhide
thongs^ or of twisted sinew or fishgut — had wholly dissolved, or else re-
mained merely as a dubious sort of gelatinous mass or slime. Such bind-
ings had, however, in many instances been reinforced with cements of
one kind or another — a sticky red substance, the stain only of which
remained — or else rubber-gum, asphaltum, or a combination of rosin and
beeswax and rubber, which still endured and retained perfect impres-
sions of the fastening cords, whether coarse thongs or finely twisted
threads.

We exercised great caution in keeping related parts together, and
succeeded thus in recovering quite a number of examples of eacli of the
many types most characteristic of the technical arts of the keys.

Large clam shells, deeplj' worn at the backs, as well as sho^^ing
much use at the edges, seemed to have served both as scrapers and as
digging implements or hoes ; for some of them had been hafted by
clamping curved sticks over the hinge and over the point at the apex or
umbo — where it showed wear— precisely in such manner as LeMoine
seems to have attempted to show in his representation — published in
De Bry and other early works — of Indians planting corn.

Picks, hammers, adzes and gouges made from almost entire conch
shells were found, handles and all, in relatively perfect condition and
in considerable numbers. As may be seen by reference to the accom-
panying illustration, Fig. 1, PI. XXXII, the conch-shell heads of these
tools were most ingeniously hafted. The wlioii was usually battered
away on the side toward the mouth, so as to expose the columella. The
lip was roundly notched or pierced, and the back whorl also perforated
oppositely. Thus the stick or handle could be driven into these perfora-
tions, past the columella in such manner that it was sprung or clamped
firmly into place. Nevertheless it was usually further secured with raw-
hide thongs — now mere jelly — passed through one or two additional per-
forations in the head, and around both the stick and the columella. The
spike-like ends of the columelhe were so shai>ed as to form eitlier long,
sharp-pointed picks, fiat, small-faced hammers or battering tools, adzes
with very narrow bits, or gouges. The edges of tlie gouges were wider
than those of the other tools, more of the wings of the shells having
been left on the ends of the columelhe and these half-hollow points hav-
ing been simply ground oft' obliquely. I made a tool of this description,
which worked admirablv on the hardest wood I could get ; and retained

1896.] 'J^') [Gushing.

its edge amazingly well. Several very ingenious hacking tools or broad-
axes had been made merely from the lips and portions of the outer
or body-whorls of these conchs. They were simply notched at the ends
so as to receive correspondingly grooved or notched sticks which were
bound to their inner sides with thongs passed around the ends and over
the backs. The wide, curved, natural edge of the lips, had then been
neatly sharpened. Among the blocked-out pieces of wood so frequently
found were examples of the work done not only with these hollow
hacking tools, but also with the chisel- and gouge-pointed implements
I have described, as was clearly shown by the results of my experiments.
In addition to these cutting tools, celts, or rather celt-shaped, but curved
adze-blades, two of them in connection with their handles — which were
made from forked branches, one limb cut short and shouldered to receive
the blade, the other left long, to serve as the handle — were also recov-
ered. True celts were found too, made from the heavy columellas ot
triton shells. One of them was accompanied Ly a pierced handle, the
most elaborately decorated object of its kind thus far found in our coun-
try. It was superbly carved from end to end with curved volute-like
decorations, concentric circles, ovals, and overpliced as well as parallel
lines, regularly divided by en circling bands, as though derived from ornate
lashings; while the head or extreme end was notched around for the
attachment of plumes or tassels, and the opposite or handle-end furnished
with an eyelet to facilitate suspension. Numbers of carving adzes, as was
plainly indicated by marks of their work on both finished and unfin-
ished objects, were also secured, quite in their entiiety. Each consisted
of a curved or crozier-shaped handle of hardwood about a foot in length,
sharply crooked toward the head, which consisted of a perfectly fitted,
carved, polished and socketed section of deer horn. The socket at the
point of this deer-horn head was deep, transverse, and so shaped as to
receive and retain measurably well, little blades made either from bits
of shell, the sharp ventral valves of oysters — of which kind numerous
worn-out examples were gathered — or sometimes, from very large shark
or alligator teeth. These peculiar little hand-adzes— that resembled
some of those one maj' see pictured in the figures of mask-carvers in
Central American and Mexican codices —seem to have been, judged from
the work performed with them, among the most perfect implements
possessed by the inhabitants. That they were favorite tools also, was
shown by the fact that many of them were elaborately carved. All had
eyes, mostly protuberant, just above the sockets, and one, for example,
was slightly crooked from side to side, and shaped to represent a fouged
serpent ; another had carved near its head, a surprisingly realistic horned-
deer's head, and yet another was surmounted by the figure of a gopher
or rodent gnawing at a stick— see Fig. 2, PI. XXXII ; and in these
forms I did not fail to recognize the association that was attempted, by
this sort of decoration between the carvings, and the functions of
these biting or gnawing implements, so to call them.

Gushing.] '^^^ [Nov. 6,

Of course scrapers and shavers of various kinds abounded. Some, of
larsje, finely-ribbed, serrated bivalves — varieties of pectunculus — were
perforated at the apices, in order that a loop might be attached to them
to facilitate handling. Others were made from the valves of tide-water
unios, or sun-clams, so called, and showed no other art than that of hav-
ing been keenly sharpened at the edges, and of the wear which had re-
sulted from use. The most elaborate objects of this kind were, however,
certain tlat-hinged bivalves or area shells, about three and a half or four
inches long. The umboidal apices of these had been broken away and
strips of bark, and in at least one case, broad straps of a kind of
leather, had been so passed back and forth through the apertures,
and platted along the hinges or straight backs, as to afford excel-
lent grasp. All of them were cienulate at the edges and some of them
were double, that is, made of two shells tightly tied together, one inside
of the other, in such manner that a double edge was thereby secured.
Several draw-knives made from split leg-bones of the deer sharpened to
beveled edges from the inside; some ingenious shaving-knives, made
from the outer marginal whorls of the true conchs — the thick indented
or toothed lips of which formed their backs or handles, the thin but
strong whorl-walls being sharpened to keen straight edges — completed
the list of scraping and planing tools.

Cutting and carving knives of shark's teeth, varying in size from tiny
straight points to curved blades nearly an inch in length and in width
of base, were found by hundreds. Some were associated with their
handles. These were of two classes. The greater number of th.em
consisted of shafts from five to seven inches in length b}' not more than
half or three-quarters of an inch in diameter at their thickest portions.
Some were slightly curved, others straight, some pointed, others squared
at the smaller ends. All were furnished with nocks at the lower ends—
which were also a little tapered — for the reception of the hollow bases
of the tooth-blades that had been lashed to them and cemented with
black gum. Not a few of these doubly-tapered little handles were mar-
vels of finish, highly polished, and some of them were carved or incised
with involuted circlets or kwa-like decorations, or else with straight or
spiral-rayed rosettes and concentric circles, at the upper ends, as though
these had been used as stamps in the finishing of certain kinds of work.
The other class of handles was much more various, and was designed for
receiving one or more of the shark-tooth blades, not at the extremities,
but at the sides of the ends, some transversely, others laterally. They
were nearly all carved ; a few of them most elaborately ; and they
ranged in length from the width of the palm of the hand to five or six
inches, being adapted for use not only as carvers, but also, probably —
such as had single crossblades — as finishing adzes.

Everywhere on the least finished surfaces of completed carvings, and
on incipient works, not only in wood, but also in bonC and horn, could
be seen distinctive marks left bv the finelv serrated edges of these more

1896.] d71 [Cushing.

than half-natural carving tools. As soon as we had discovered a few of
them I secured fresh teeth and experimentally made knives and cutters
of the various kinds I have described. I found these diminutive shark-
tooth blades — the one edge of each outwardly, the other inwardly,
3urv'ed — by far the most effective primitive carving tools I had ever
learned of, and therein perceived one of the principal causes of the pre-
eminence of the ancient key dwellers in the wood carver's art, so con-
stantly evidenced in our collections. There were girdling tools or saws
— made froan the sharp, flat-toothed lower jaws of king-fishes — into the
hollow ends of which curved jaw-bones, the crudest of little handles had
been thrust and tied through neat lateral perforations ; but these also had
formed admirable tools, and I found not a few examples of work done
with them, in the shape of round billets that had been severed by them
and spirally haggled in such a way as to plainly illustrate the origin of
one of the most frequent decorations we found on carved wood works,
the spiral rosette just referred to. There were minute little bodkin-
shaped chisels of bone and shell, complete in themselves ; and there
were, of course, numerous awls and the like, made from bone, horn and
fish spines. Rasps of very small, much worn and evidently most highly
prized fragments of coral sandstone, as well as a few strips of carefully
rolled-up shark skin, told the story of how the harder tools had been
edged, and the polished wood-, and bone-work finished, here.

Weapons. — It was significant that no bows were discovered in any por-
tion of the court, but of atlatlsor throwing sticks, both fragmentary and
entire, four or five examples were found. Two of the most perfect of
these were also the most characteristic, since one was double-holed, the
other single-holed. The first — which is shown in Fig. 4, PI. XXXII —
was some eighteen inches in length, delicate, slender, slightly curved
and originally, quite springy. It was fitted with a short spur at the
smaller end and was unequally spread or flanged at the larger or grasp-
ing end. The shaft-groove terminated in an ornamental device, whence
a slighter crease led quite to the end of the handle, and the whole imple-
ment was delicately carved and engraved with edge-lines and when first
taken from the muck exhibited a high polish and beautiful rosewood
color. The other — shown in Fig. 3, PI. XXXII — was somewhat longer,
slightly thicker, wider shafted, more curved, and, as I have said before,
furnished with only a single finger-hole. At the smaller end was
a diminutive but very perfect carving of a rabbit, in the act of thump-
ing, so placed that his erect tail formed the propelling-spur. This instru-
ment also was fitted with a short shaft-groove and was carved and deco-
rated with edge and side lines, and the handle-end was beautifully
curved down and rounded so as to form a volute or rolled knob, giv-
ing it a striking resemblance to the ornate forms of the atlatl of Cen-
tral America ; a resemblance that also applied somewhat to the double-
holed specimen, and to various of the fragmentarj^ spear-throwers.
Arrows about four feet in length, perfectly uniform, pointed with hard

PROC. AMER. PHIL08. SOC. XXXV. 153. 2 U. PRINTED .JULY 7, 1897.

Gushing.] ^ ♦ ^ [Nov. 6,

wood, the shafts iiuide either of a softer and lighter kind of wood or of
cane, were found. The nocks of these were relatively large. This sug-
gested that certain curved and shapely clubs, or rather wooden sabres
— for they were armed along one edge with keen shark-teeth —
might have been used not only for striking, but also for flinging
such nocked spears or throwing-arrows. Each of these singular and
superbly finished weapons was about three feet long. The handle or
grip was straight ; thence the blade or shaft was gently curved down-
ward and upward again to the end, which was obliquely truncated
below, but terminated above in a creased or slightly bifurcated, spir-
ally curved knob or volute like the end of a violin, and still more
like the lower articulation of a human femur, — as may be seen by refer-
ence to Fig. 5, PI. XXXII, — which the whole weapon resembled in gen-
eral outline so strikingly that I was inclined to regard the type it repre-
sented as remotely derived from clubs originally made in imitation of
thigh-bones. The handle was broader at the back than below, but neatly
rounded, and the extreme end delicatelj' flared to insure grasp. At
both shank and butt of this grip, oblong holes had been bored obliquely
through one side of the back for the attachment of a braided or twisted
hand-loop or guard-cord, to still further secure hold. The back of the
shaft, too, was wide, and sharp along the lateral edges, from both of
which it was hollowed obliquely to the middle, the shallow V-shaped
trough or groove thus formed I'eaching from the hilt to the turned-up
end, where it terminated in a little semi-circular, sharp-edged cusp or
spur in the central furrow at the base of the knob. The converging
sides of the shaft were likewise evenly and sharply creased or fluted
from the shank of the grip to the gracefully turned volutes at the
sides of the knob. The blade proper, or lower edge, was comparatively
thin, like a continuous slightly grooved tongue or an old-fashioned
skate blade — save that it was obliquely square, not rounded, at the end.
It was transversely pierced at regular intervals by semicircular perfora-
tions— twelve in all — beneath each of which the groove was deepened
at two points to accommodate the blunt bifurcate roots of the large
hooked teeth of the tiger- or "Man-Eater"- shark, with which the
sabre was set ; so that, like the teeth of a saw, they would all turn one
way, namely, toward the handle, as can be seen by reference to the en-
larged sketch of one at the end of the figure. Finely twisted cords of
sinew had been threaded regularly back and forth through these per-
forations and alternately over the wings of the shark teeth, so as to
neatly bind each in its socket; and these lashings were reinforced with
abundant black rubber-gum — to which their preservation was due.

Now the little cusp or sharp-edged spur at the end of the back-groove
was so deeply placed in the crease of the knob that it could have served
no practical purpose in a striking weapon. Yet, it was .so shaped as to
exactly fit the nock of a spear, and since by means of the guard cord,
the handle could be grasped not only for striking, but, by sliifling or

1896.] did [Cashing.

reversing the hold, for hurling as well, I inferred that possibly the
instrument had been used in part as an atlatl, in part as a kind of single-
edged maquahuitl or blade-set sabre. It was, at any rate, a most formid-
able weapon and a superb example of primitive workmanship and inge-
nuity. There were other weapons somewhat like these. But they were
only eight or nine inches in length, and were neither knobbed nor
creased. They were, however, perforated at the backs for hand cords,
and socketed below for six, instead of twelve teeth — set somewhat more
closely together — and must have formed vicious slashers or rippers.
Then there were certain split bear- and wolf-jaws — neatly cut off so as
to leave the canines and two cuspids standing — which, from traces
of cement on their bases and sides, appeared to have been similarly
attached to curved clubs.

War clubs proper, that is, of wood only, were found in considerable
variety. The most common form was that of the short, knobbed blud-
geon. Another was nearly three feet long, the handle rounded, tapered,
and furnished at the end with an eyelet for the wrist cord. The blade was
llattish, widening to about three inches at the head, and it was laterally
beveled from both sides to form blunt edges and was notched or roundly
serrated, precisely as are some forms of Fijian and Caroline Island clubs.
The type was obviously derived from some preexisting kind of blade-
set weapon. This was also true, in another way, of the most remarkable
form of club we discovered. It was not quite two feet in length, and made
of some dark-colored tine-grained kind of hard, heavy wood, exquisitely
fashioned and finished. The handle was also round and tapering, the head
tiattened, symmetrically flaring and sharp-edged, the end square or but
slightly curved, and terminating in a grooved knob or boss, to which tas-
sel-cords had been attached. Just below the flaring head was a double
blade, that is, a semilunar, sharp-edged projection on either side, giving
the weapon the appearance of a double-edged battle-axe set in a broad-
ended club, as indicated in outline a of Fig. 3, PI. XXXV. This
specimen was of especial interest, as it was the only weapon of
its kind found, up to that time, in the United States; but was
absolutely identical in outline with the so-called batons represented in
the hands of warrior-figures delineated on the shell gorgets and copper
plates found in the southern and central Mississippi mounds — as may
be seen in the figure just referred to. It not only recalled these, but
also typical double-bladed battle-axes or clubs of South and Central
American peoples, from which type I regarded its form, although wholly
of wood, as a derivative.

I must not fail to mention dirks or stilettos, made from the foreleg
bones of deer, the grip ends flat, the blades conforming in curvature to
the original lines of the bones from which they were made. One of
them was exquisitely and conventionally carved at the hilt-end to repre-
sent the head of a buzzard or vulture, the which was no doubt held to
be one of the gods of death by these primitive key-dwellers. There

Gushing.] <^ * "* [Nov. 6,

were also striking- and thrusting-weapons of slender make and of wood,
save that they were sometimes tipped with deer horn or beautifully
fashioned spurs of bone, but they were so fragmentary that I have thus
far been unable to determine their exact natures.

Personal Ornaments and Paraphernalia. — Numerous objects of per-
sonal investure and adornment were collected. Aside from shell beads,
pendants and gorgets, of kinds found usually in other southern relic
sites, there were buttons, cord-knobs of large oliva-shells, and many
little conical wooden plugs that had obviously formed the cores of tas-
sels ; sliding-beads, of elaborately carved deer horn — for double cords —
and one superb little brooch, scarcely more than an inch in width, made
of hard wood, in representation of an angle-fish, the round spots on its
back inlaid with minute discs of tortoise shell, the bauds of the diminu-
tive tail delicately and realistically incised, and the mouth, and a longi-
tudinal eyelet as delicately incut into the lower side. There were very
large labrets of wood for the lower lips, the shanks and insertions of which
were small, and placed near one edge, so that the outer disc which had
been coated with varnish or brilliant thin laminae of tortoise shell, would
hang low over the chin. There were lip-pins too ; and ear buttons,
plates, spikes and plugs. The ear buttons were chiefly of wood, and were
of special interest — the most elaborate articles of jewelry we found. They
were shaped like huge cuff buttons — some, two inches in diameter, re-
sembling the so-called spool-shaped copper bosses or ear ornaments of the
mound builders (see d and Fig. 3, PI. XXXV). But a few of these were
made in parts, so that the rear disc could be, by a partial turn, slipped
off from the shank, to facilitate insertion into the slits of the ear lobe. The
front discs were rimmed with white shell rings, within which were nar-
rower circlets of tortoise shell, and within these, in turn, little round,
very dark and slightly protuberant wooden bosses or plugs, covered with
gum or varnish and highly polished, so that the whole front of the button
exactly resembled a huge round, gleaming eyeball. Indeed, this resem-
blance was so striking that both Mr. Sawyer and I independently recog-
nized the likeness of these curious decorations to the glaring eyes of the
tarpons, sharks, and other sea monsters of the surrounding waters ; and as
the buttons were associated with more or less warlike paraphernalia, I
hazarded the opinion that they were actually designed to represent the
eyes of such monsters — to be worn as the fierce, destructive, searching
and terrorizing eyes, the "Seeing Ears," so to say, of the warriors. This
was indicated by the eye-like forms of many of the other ear buttons we
found — some having been overlaid in front with highly polished con-
cavo-convex white shell discs, perforated at the centres as if to repre-
sent eye pupils, — as in/, of the figure last referred to.

There were still other ear buttons, however, elaborately decorated with
involuted figures, or circles divided equally by sinusoid lines, designs
that were greatly favored by the ancient artists of these kays. The
origin of these figures, both painted, as on the buttons — in contrasting

' 1896.] 375 [Gushing.

blue and white — and incised, as on discs, stamps, or the ends of han-
dles, became perfectly evident to me as derived from the " navel
marks," or central involutes on the worked ends of univalvular shells ;
brt probably here, as in the Orient, they had already acquired the sig-
nificance of the human navel, and were thus mystic symbols of "the mid-
dle," to be worn by priestly Commanders of the warriors. That the ear
buttons proper were badges, was indicated by the finding of larger num-
bers of common ear plugs ; round, and slightly rounded also at either end,
but grooved or rather hollowed around the middles. Although beauti-
fully fashioned, they had been finished with shark-tooth surface-hatch-
ing, in order to facilitate coating them with brilliant varnishes or pig-
ments. The largest of them may have been used as stretchers for ordi-
nary wear ; but the smaller and shorter of them were probably for ordi-
nary use, or use by women, and had taken the place of like, but more
primitive ornaments made from the vertebrae of sharks. Indeed a few
of these earlier forms made of vertebrae, were actually found.

I could not quite determine what had been the use of certain
highly ornate flat wooden discs. They were too thin to have
been serviceable as ear' plugs, or as labrets. But from the fact
that they were so exquisitely incised with rosettes, or elaborately
involuted, obliquely hatched designs, and other figures — the two
faces difl^erent in each case — and that they corresponded in size to
the ear buttons and plugs, I came to regard them as stamps used in
impressing the gum-like pigments with which so many of these orna-
ments had been quite thickly coated, as also, perhaps, in the ornamen-
tation or stamping of other articles and materials now decomposed. Very
long and beautifully finished, curved plates of shell had been used
probably as ear ornaments or spikes, also ; since they exactly resembled
those depicted as worn transversely thrust through the ears, in some of
Le Moyne's drawings, of which representations I had never previously
understood the nature ; and many of the plummet-shaped pendants I
have before referred to, must have been used after the manner remarked
on in some of the old writers, as ear weights or stretchers, and some,
being very long, not only thuswise, but also as ear spikes for wear after
the manner of using the plates just described. While certain crude ex-
amples of these curious pendants had been used apparentlj'' as wattling
bobbets, still others, better shaped, had as certainly served as dress or gir-
dle pendants. On one of them, made from fine gray coral stone — in form
like a minute, narrow-necked, pointed flask — the attachments were so
completely preserved that the delicate cords, intricately and decora-
tively interlaced to and fro from the groove cord surrounding the neatly
turned rim, to the central knot over its small flat head, were still perfectly
visible, the whole having been coated with shining black gum or varnish.
I may add, however, that some of the cruder and heavier of these shell,
coral, and coral-stone plummets, must have served purely practical ends.
Not a few had almost unquestionably been used, as I have said, as wat-

Gushing.] Oil) [Nov. 6,

tling weights and netting bobbetts, their hurried finisli, their adaptabil-
ity to such uses and their numbers and the uniformity of many of tliem,
all indicated this. Others, no doubt, had served as fish-line weights.
Still, several of the more elaborate of them were not only decorated, but
were so beautifully shaped and so highly polished that they could have
been employed only as combined stretchers and ornaments or as insig-
nia of a highly valued kind.

The remains of fringes and of elaborate tassels, made from finely spun
cords of the cotton-tree down — dyed, in one case green, in another
yellow — betokened high skill in such decorative employment of cord-
age. The remains, too, of what I regarded as bark head-dresses quite
similar to those of Northwest Coast Indians, were found. Associated
witli these, as well as independently, were numbers of hairpins, some
made of ivory, some of bone, to which beautiful, long flexible strips of
polished tortoise shell — that, alas, I could not preserve in their en-
tirety— had been attached. One pin had been carved at the upper end
with the representation of a rattlesnake's tail, precisely like those of
Cheyenne warriors ; another, with a long conical knob grooved or
hollowed for the attachment of plume cords. Collections of giant sea-
crab claws, still mottled with the red, brown, orange, yellow and
black colors of life, looked as though they had been used as fringe-
rattles and -ornaments combined, for the decoration of kilts. At all
events their resemblance to the pendants shown as attached to the loin-
clotli of a man, in one of the early paintings of Florida Indians pre-
served in the British Museum, was perfect. Here and there, bunches
of long, delicate, semi-translucent fish-spines indicated use either as
necklaces or wristlets ; but geuerall}^ such collection were strung out
in a way that led me to regard them as pike-, or shaft-barbs.

Certain delicate plates of pinna-shell, and others of tortoise-shell,
square — though in some cases longer than broad — were pierced to facili-
tate attachment, and appeared to have been used as dress ornaments.
Still other similar plates of these various materials, as well as smaller,
shaped pieces of diff'ering forms, seemed to have been inlaid, for they
were worn only on one side, the outer, and a few retained traces of black
gum on the backs or unworn sides.

Considerable collections or sets of somewhat more uniform tortoise-
I)one and pinna-shell plates, from an inch and a lialf to nearly three
inches square, were found closely bunched together, in two or three
separate places. None of them were perforated. Moreover, nearly all
were worn smooth on both faces, and especially around the edges, as
though by much handling. Hence it appeared that they had not been
used as dress ornaments, or for inlaying or overlaying. One charac-
teristic was notew<)rth3^ In each collection, or set, which consisted of
from twenty or more to forty or more pieces, a small i)roportion were
distinguished from the others by difterence in length or in material or
in surface treatment. In one lot of between forty and tiftv tortoise-bone

1896.J ^ ^ * [Cushing.

plates, for example, there were four or five plates of pinna-shell, while
on one of the tortoise-bone plates themselves were circularly incised the
dolphin-like figures of two porpoises "wheeling" in the water — one
?bove, the other below the medial suture of the bone, the line of which
evidently represented the rippling surface of the water, for the figure
above it was spiritedly depicted " blowing " — that is, with mouth open —
the one below it, with mouth closed, as though holding the breath. Now
from the fact that these differences were very marked in each set, and
that many of the tcrtoise-bone plates of each, whether still covered with
traces of the original epiderm or not, were so cut from the carapace at
the intersections of the sutures, as to include portions of from one to six
nearly equal -sized segments, I judged that possibly these sets of the
plates, at least, had been used in sacred games, or perhaps in processes
of divination — for abundant evidence that the tortoise and turtle were
here — as in the Orient, and elsewhere in America, — held sacred, occurred
with our finds in other parts of the court.

It will be observed that suggestions as to quite diverse uses of both
the plummet-shaped objects and these plates, have been offered. In
some cases these diverse uses of single types were perfectlj^ manifest,
but in others merely inferential. Let me repeat that there was fre-
quently (and this was especially true of personal paraphernalia) evi-
dence as to quite varied use of identical forms. It is always difficult to
determine as specific, the purpose of a primitive art-form, for the high
degree of diff'erentiation characteristic of modern art was not developed
generally in primitive art. It is particularly difficult to distinguish be-
tween tlie purely ceremonial and the more or less ornamental in
such personal paraphernalia as I have been describing. To a certain
extent all personal adornments, so called, of early peoples, are cere-
monial or sacred, since the most rare and beautiful objec*s are like to be
regarded by them as also the most effective charms or medicine
potencies, if only because of their rarity, their substances and tlieir colors.

As typical of primitive ornament proper I may mention the beads and
pendants and certain of the gorgets of shell which we discovered.
While it is true that even such objects were probably, as with other
primitive peoples, supposed to be sacred, — for instance, on account of
their substance and white color, because related by appearance to the
shell-like white foam of the blue sea, and to the light or white splendor
of day in the blue sky — the fact that they w^ere found indiscriminatelj'
associated with other remains indicated equally indiscriminate use — use,
that is, as ornaments more or less in our acceptation of the term. The
commonness of the material of which they were made caused them to be
prized less on account of their nature and beauty, than on account of the
labor they represented. This is also indicated by the fact that their forms
(wrought in species of shell here more commsn tlian elsewhere on the
gulf coast), are nevertheless very widely distributed throughout other
portions of Florida and all the Southern and Central Mississippi States;

Gushing.] <^ ^ ^ [Nov. 6,

a fact which argues that they, like tlie wampum of other regions, were
used as tlie media of trade, or the basis of definite exchange valuation,
as well as, in case of the more elaborate of them, in the solemnization
of treaties. But by far the greater number of the articles of personal
adornment described in preceding paragraphs, were more than this.
They were found not indiscriminately, but definitely associated with other
ceremonial remains. They may therefore be regarded as having been es-
pecially sacred, used as amulets, and in many cases, as at the same time
badges of office, liirthright, or priestlj' rank. Certainly this may be
judged true of such as had been given distinctive forms, for semblance
or form is to the primitive-minded man, the most significant character
of any thing. The ear buttons already described illustrate this, as
well as certain of the gorgets. These were about three inches in diam-
eter, discoidal, and each cut out from the labrum of a pyrula or conch,
to represent a broad circle enclosing a cross. Above the end of the
upper arm of this cross, four holes were drilled (instead of one), for sus-
pension. The margin of the inner side was. moreover, scored with
definite numbers of notches. Thus it was plain that to the primitive
nature worshipers who made and used such gorgets the circle repre-
sented the horizon surrounding the world and its four quarters — typified
by the cross as well as the four holes or points — the notches in its rim,
the score of sacred days in the four seasons pertaining to the four quar-
ters thus symbolized ; and that this kind of ornament, if we may still
call it such, was the combined cosmical and calendaric badge, probably
of the priest who officiated in, and kept tally of, the ceremonials, and
ceremonial days, of the successive seasons.

Miscellaneous Ceremonial Appliances ; Sacred and Sym-
bolical Objects ; Carvings and Paintings.

Less difficulty attended the determination of other than the strictly
personal appliances of ceremonology which we found : and again, many
articles of both these classes, the meaning of which might have been
problematical had we found them dissociated, were readily enough
recognized when found together. This was particularly the case with
a heterogeneous collection of things I discovered close under the
sea wall, at the extreme western edge of the court. I regarded its
contents as having constituted the outfit of a "Medicine man," or
Shamanistic priest. It is true that it contained several articles of a
purely practical nature. There were two or three conch-shell bailers;
one or two picks or battering tools of conch-shell, of a kind already
described; and a hammer of a sort not in frequentlj' found elsewhere.
It was made from a large triton-shell by removing the labrum or two
first larger whorls, from the columella, and leaving this to serve as the
handle, while the remaining four or five smaller or apical whorls were
left to serve as the head. There were also several hollow shaving-
blades or rounding-planes, made from the serrate-edged dental i)lates or

1896.] OiJ [Cushmg.

mandibles of the logger-head turtle, and some shell chisels and cutters
of various other sorts.

For the rest, however, this curious assemblage of things both nat-
ixral and artificial, were, judged by their unquestionable relationship
to one another, certainly sacred, or fetishistic. No other purpose could
be assigned to several natural but extremely irregular pearls; pecu-
liarlv shaped, minute pebbles and concretions ; water-worn fragments of
coral exhibiting singular markings, such as regular lines of star-like or
radiate dots ; more than twenty distinct species of small, univalvular
«liells, and half as many of small bivalves — all quite as fresh as thougli
but recently gathered. These were mingled with oliva-shell buttons
and pendants, and pairs of sun-shells (solenidse), two of which had been
•externally coated with a bright yellow pigment, and others of which
had once been painted, inside, with symbolic figures or devices in black,
although the lines of these figures could now no longer be distinctly
traced. There were a number of interesting remains of terrestrial ani-
mals. One was the skull of an opossum. It had been carefully cleaned,
and cut ofl' at the occiput, and to the base thus formed, the under jaw had
been attached frontwardly at right angles, in such manner that the
object could be set upright. The whole had been covered with thick,
white pigment, and on this background lines in black, representative of
the face marks or features of the living animal, as conventionally
<;onceived, had been painted, doubtless to make it fetishistically "alive
and potent " again. Another skull, that of the marten or weasel,
occurred in this little museum of a primitive scientist ; and since we
know that both the opossum and the weasel were favorite "mystery
animals" of Indian Shamans elsewhere, little doubt remains as to the
character of the collection they belonged to. But there were other more
artificial objects, yet of a kindred kind. There were kilt-rattles, made
from peculiarly mottled claw shells of both the small sea-crab and the
great king-crab ; and a set of brilliant colored scallop shells, and
another set of larger pecten shells, all in each set perforated, obviouslj'
for mounting together on a hoop, to serve as castanets, precisely as are
similar shells among the Shamans of the far-away Northwest coast.
There was still another kind of rattle — duplicated elsewhere — made
from the entire shell or carapace of a "gopher," or land-tortoise, the
•dorsal portion of which was very regularlj^ and neatly drilled, to aid
the emission of sound. As though to show us that the original owner
of this collection was not only a sacred song-man and soothsayer or
prophet, but also a doctor, there were, in addition, a beautiful little
sucking tube made from the wing-bone of a pelican or crane, and near
at hand a sharp scarifying lancet of fish bone set in a little wooden
liandle, of precisely the kind described by old writers as used by the
Southern Indians in blood letting and ceremonial skin-scratching.

In addition to these and other objects largely of natural, or of only
partially artificial origin, there were a number of highly artificial things.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 153. 2 V. PRINTED JULY 7, 1897.

Cushing.] OoO [Nov. 6.

Most interesting of these and conclusively significant of the nature of the
find, was what I regarded as a set of " Black-Drink " appliances. It con-
sisted of a gourd, the long stem of which had been perforated at the end
and sides ; of a tall wooden cup or vase — brewing-churn and drinking-
drum, in one ; of a toasting tray of black earthenware punctured around
the rim to facilitate handling when hot, and of a fragmentary, but
nearly complete, sooty boiling-bowl or liemispherical fire-pot, also of
black earthenware. Near by were two beautifully finished conch-shell
ladles or drinking cups, both rather smaller and more highly finished
than others found in different parts of the court. The larger one was
still stained a deep reddish brown color inside, as though it had been
long used for some dark fluid like coflee, and uncleansed, or too deeply
stained for cleansing.

Now by reference to Laudonnier's relation of Ribault's and his own
efforts to colonize Florida, some three hundred years ago, and especially
by reference to Jonathan Dickenson's narrative of his reception by the
self-same "Cassekey " — who, it will be remembered, later despoiled him
and his party — one can see that these things quite undoubtedly pertained,
as I have intimated, to the brewing and ceremonial serving of the
sacred Cassine or ' Black-Drink" so famous among all Southern
Indians ; for they correspond in a general way quite remarkably to those
described by this author, so much so, that I do not hesitate to quote his
account at length. He says :

"The Indians were seated as aforesaid, the Cassekey at the upper end
of them, and the range of cabins was filled with men, women and
children, beholding us. At length we heard a woman or two cry,
according to their manner, and that very sorrowfully .... which
occasioned some of us to think that something extraordinary was to
be done to us ; we also heard a strange sort of a noise, which was not
unlike the noise made by a man, but we could not understand what,
nor where it was ; for sometimes it sounded to be in one part of the
liouse, sometimes in another, to which we had an ear. And indeed
our ears and eyes could perceive or hear nothing but what was strange
and dismal, and death seemed to surround us ; but time discovered
this noise to us — the occasion of it was thus : In one part of this house,,
where a fire was kept, was an Indian man, having a pot on the fire,
wherein he was making a drink of a shrub (which we understood
afterwards by the Spaniards, is called Casseena) boiling the said leaves,
after they had parched them in a pot ; then with a gourd, having a
long neck, and at the top of it a small hole, which the top of one's
finger could cover, and at the side of it a round hole of two inches diame-
ter. They take the liquor out of the pot, and \m\ it into a deep round
l)owl, which being almost filled, contains nigh three gallons : with this
gourd they l)re\v the liquor, and make it froth very mucli ; it looks of a
deep brown color. In the brewing of this liquor was this noise made,
which we tliought strange ; for the pressing of the gourd gently down
into tlie liquor, and the air wliich it contained, being forced out of the
little hole at the top, occasioned a sound, and according to the time and
motion given, would be various. Tins drink wlien made and cool to
sup, was in a siiell first carried to the Cassekey, who threw part of it on
the ground, and the rest he drank up, and then would make a loud hem ^
and afterwards tlie cup passed to the rest of the Cassekey's associates.

1896.] ^"1 [Gushing.

as aforesaid ; but no other man, woman or child must touch or taste of
this sort of drink ; of wliich they sat sipping, chattering, and smoking
tobacco, or some other herb instead thereof, for tlie most part of the
day."

A much fuller account of this solemn ceremonial, of the making and
administering of the "Black-Drink," as well as of its meaning at almost
every stage, is given in the admirable annals of William Bartram — a
former and honored member of this Society — whose works are, indeed,
the source of more definite information regarding the Southern Indians
than those of any other one of our earlier authorities on the natives of
northerly Florida and contiguous States.

Three other objects in the curious lot of sacerdotal things I have been
describing were especially typical ; for closelj^ related, but varied
forms of them were found at several other points throughout the area
we excavated. One was a small, square, paddle-like tablet, about six
inches long, three inches wide, and five-eighths of an inch thick. At one
end, presumably the lower, was a sort of tenon ; that is, the board was
squai'ely cut in from either side to the middle, where a projection about
an inch wide and a little more than an inch long was left, as though
either for insertion into a mortice, or to facilitate attachment to some-
thing else, otherwise. A much larger tablet or board, an inch thick and
six or seven inches wide, by nearly two feet in length, also tenoned in
like manner at the lower end, lay on edge near by. Along the middle
of one face of this tablet, two elongated figures were cleanly cut in or
outlined, end to end, figures that seemed to represent shafts with round
terminal knobs — indicated by circles — the sides of the shafts being
slightly incurved, so that the figures as a whole greatly resembled the
conventional delineations of thigh bones as seen in the art-works of
other primitive peoples — in, for example, the codices, and on the monu
ments, of Central America. Another tablet of this sort, somewhat
wider, longer, and more carefully finished by the shaving down of its
surfaces with shark-tooth blades, showed likewise along the middle of
one face similar devices, carved, however, in relief, as though to repre-
sent a pair of thigh bones laid lengthwise and end to end upon, or
rather, set into the centre of one side of the board.

Near the first described of these curious objects which I regarded as
probably mortuary, was another tablet, evidently of related character ;
but it was much more elaborate. The lower portion was tenoned
and in general outline otherwise resembled the tablets I have de-
scribed ; but above this portion, midway from end to end, it was
squarely notched in at either side, and above the stem thus formed,
extended, in turn, a shovel-shaped head, or nose, so to call it, as may be
better perceived by reference to Fig. 2, PI. XXXIV, which represents
the most perfect of these objects that we found. The specimen in question
was between three and four feet long, although less than a foot in
width. The lower portion was not more than an inch in thickness, and
was uniformly flat, the upper portion — head or nose, as I have called

Cushing.J 60 Ji [Nov. 6,

it — was convex on one side, flat on the otlier. Wlien I found this
object I encountered the somewhat rounded shovel-shaped end first,
and thought that I had found a paddle. Following it up by feel-
ing with my fingers along the edges, I became assured that this was so,
when I struck the notched-in portions at the stem which connected
it with the lower or flatter and squarer portion. Then when the
shoulders of this in turn were touched, I supposed it to be a double sort
of paddle. I discovered my mistake only when the entire object was
revealed. These curious tablets, tenoned at the lower ends, notched in
midwaj^ and terminating in long shovel-shaped extensions beyond the
necks thus formed, were represented by no fewer than ten or twelve ex-
amples besides the one described. They were found quite generally
distributed throughout the court. But they varied in size from a foot in
length by. three inches in width, to nearly five feet in length, by more
than a foot in width. The most elaborate of them all was the one
already referred to, and shown in PL XXXIV, for it, like the first speci-
men found, had been decorated with paint (as at one time probably had
been all of the others). Upon the head or shovel-shaped portion were
two eye-like circles surrounding central dots. At the extreme end was
a rectangular line enclosing lesser marginal lines, as though to repre-
sent conventionally a mouth enclosing nostrils or teeth or other details.
The body or lower and flatter portion was painted from the shoulders
downward toward the tail-like tenon with a double-lined triangular
figure, and there were three broad transverse black bands leading out
from this toward either edge. On the obverse or flat under surface of
the tablet were painted equidistantly, in a line, four black circles enclos-
ing white centres, exactly corresi)onding to other figures of the sort
found on various objects in the collections, and from their connection,
regarded by me as word-signs, or sj'mbols of the four regions.

That these curious tablets were symbolical — even if designed for
attachment to other more utilitarian things — was indicated by the
fact that various similar objects, too small for use otherwise than as
batons or amulets, were found. Several of these were of wood, but one
of them was of fine-grained stone (Fig. 3, PI. XXXIV), and all were ex-
quisitely finished. Those of wood were not more than eight inches in
length by three inches in width ; and they were most elaborately decor-
ated by incised circles or lenticular designs on the upper convex sides —
still more clearly representing eyes — and by zigzag lines around the
upper margins as clearly representing mouths, teeth, etc., and on the same
side of the lower portions or bodies, by either triangular or concentric
circular figures ; while on the obverse or flat side of one of them was
beautifully incised and painted the figure of a Wheeling Dolphin or Por-
poise, one of tlie most perfect drawings in the collection. Tlie little
object in stone (disproportionately illustrated in Fig. 3. PI. XXXIV) was
only two inches in length by a little more than an inch in width. It
was wrought from very fine dioritic stone, and as may be seen l)y tht>

1896.] ^OO [Gushing.

illustration was so decorated with incised lines as to generally resemble
the comparatively gigantic wooden object of the same general kind
shown above it. The very slight tenon-like projection at the lower end
of it was, however, grooved, as if for attachment by a cord. Plaiulj%
therefore, it was designed for suspension, and no doubt constituted an
amulet representative of the larger kind of object. The moderatelj^
small, highly finished wooden figures of this kind, seemed also to have
been used more as portable paraphernalia — as batons or badges in dramatic
or dance ceremonials perhaps — than for jiermanent setting up or attach-
ment. That this may have been the case was indicated by the finding
of a "head-tablet" of the kind. It was fifteen inches in length by about
eight inches in width, although wider at the somewhat rounded top than
at the bottom. On the flatter, or what I have called the under side of the
lower portion or end, this tablet was hollowed to exactly fit the forehead, or
back of the head, while on the more convex side, it was figured by means
of painted lines, almost precisely as were the upper surftices of the small
wooden batons or minature carved tablets. My conclusion relative to its
character as a "head-tablet " was based, not only upon the fact that it was
thus hollowed as though to fit the head, but also upon the comparison of
its general outlines and those represented on its painted surface, with the
outlines and delineations on certain objects represented on the head-
dresses of human figures etched on shell gorgets found in the ancient
mounds of the Mississippi Valley.

I admit that the significance of not only the smaller, but also of the
larger of these remarkable tablets must remain more or less enigmat-
ical ; yet, judged by their general resemblance to the gable-ornaments
upon the sacred houses and the houses of the dead of various Poly-
nesian peoples, and to corresponding sheet-copper objects of the
northwest coast, as well as to their obvious connection with the
tablets found by us, on which conventional representations of thigh
bones occurred, I was led to believe that at least all of the larger of
them were ancestral emblems ; that the smaller and more liighly finished
of them were, therefore, for ceremonial use, perhaps, in dramatic dances
of the ancestry, in which also such head-tablets as the one I have described
were used ; and that such amulets as the little one of stone here fig-
ured, were likewise similarly representative. It may be, however, that
while there is no question as to the symbolic and ceremonial nature of all
these things — as is indicated by the like conventional devices upon them
all, — nevertheless, the larger of them may have been used in other ways ;
as, for example, on the prows of canoes, or at the ends of small mortu-
ary structures — chests or the like — or they may have been set up to form
portions of altars. But in any one of these uses they might well have
served quite such a symbolic purpose as I have suggested ; for they were
obviously more or less animistic and totemic, and it is for this reason that
I have provisionally named the larger of them "Ancestral Tablets,"
and look upon the smaller of them as having been used either as amu^

■Cushing.] dol [Nov. 6,

lets or to otherwise represent such tablets in the paraphernalia of sacred
ancestral ceremonials. I may add that I believe it will yet be possible,
by the experimental reproduction and use of these forms, to determine
more definitely what the originals, the most mysterious of our finds, were
designed for.

In addition to the head tablet I have spoken of, various thin, painted
slats of wood were found in two or three places. They were so related
to one another in each case, that it was evident they had also formed
portions of ceremonial head-dresses, for they had been arranged fan-wise
as shown by cordage, traces of which could still be seen at their bases.
Besides these, other slats and parts of other kinds of head-dresses, bark
tassels, wands — one in the form of a beautifully shaped spear, and others
in the form of staffs — were found ; many of them plainly indicating the
practice of mimetically reproducing useful forms, and especially weapons,
for ceremonial appliance.

Perhaps the most significant object of a sacred or ceremonial nature,
however, was a thin board of yellowish wood, a little more than sixteen
inches in length, by eight and a half inches in wddth, which I found
standing slantingly upward near the central western shell-bench (Sec-
tion 22). On slowly removing the peatj^ muck from its surface, I dis-
covered that an elaborate figure of a crested bird was painted upon one
side of it, in black, white, and blue pigments, as outlined in Fig. 1, PI.
XXXIV. Although conventionally treated, this figure was at once
recognizable as representing either the jay or the king-fisher, or perhaps
a mythologic bird-being designed to typify both. There were certain
nice touches of an especially symbolic nature in portions of this pictorial
figure (and the same may also be said of various other figures illustrated
in the plates), the nicety of which is not sufficiently shown in the draw-
ings, that were unfortunately made from very imperfect prints of our
photographs. It will be observed, however, not only that considerable
knowledge of perspective was possessed by the primitive artist who
made this painting, but also that he attempted to show the deific character
of the bird he here represented by placing upon the broad black paint -
band beneath his talons (probably symbolic of a key), the characteris-
tic animal of the keys, the raccoon ; by placing the symbol or insignia of
his dominion over the water — in form of a double-bladed paddle — upright
under his dextral wing ; and to show his dominion over the four quarters of
the sea and island world thus typified, by placing the four circles or
word-signs, as if issuing from his mouth, — for in the original, a fine line
connects this series of circlets with his throat, and is further continued
downward from his mouth toward the heart, — as is so often the case with
similar representations of mythologic beings in the art of correspondingly
developed primitive peoples.

On exhibiting this painting to that learned student of American lingu-
istics. Dr. Albert S. Gatchet, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, and
.stating to him that I regarded it as that of the crested jay, or of the king-

1895.] ^C^O [Gushing.

fisher, lie called my attention to the fact that among the Maskokian tribes
of Georgia, and of contiguous southern regions, the name of a leader
among the recognized warriors signified "He of the Rising Crest," and
that this name was also that of the jay whose crest is seen to rise when he
Is wrathful or fighting. I am therefore convinced that this figure, so often
found in the south and in other parts of Florida (and usually identified
as that of the ivory-billed woodpecker), really represented the bird-god
of war of these ancient people of the keys, his dominion over the water
being signified, as 1 have suggested, by his double-bladed paddle ; his
dominion over the four quarters of the world, by the four word-signs
represented as falling from his open mouth — for these circular signs, as
we have seen before, were not only drilled in the margin of gorgets
symbolic of the four quarters, but were also inscribed upon some of the
tablets I have called " Ancestral."

Other, smaller, thin painted boards were found, but it was evident
that they were lids or other portions of boxes, — some of which, indeed,
we found nearly complete. One of these lids was not more than seven
inches in length, by four inches in width. Upon one side of it was
drawn, in even, fine lines of black (as approximately shown in Fig. 6, PI.
XXXIV), the representation of a horned crocodile. Again, in this as in
the painted tablet, may be seen a clear indication of a knowledge of per-
spective in drawing, on the part of the primitive artists who designed it.
This is apparent in the treatment of the legs, of the serrated tail, and of the
vanishing scales both at the back and under the belly of the figure. Such
knowledge of deUnative art in the rovnd — remarkable with a people so
primitive — was, I believe, derived by them from their still more remark-
able facility in relief work, in wood carving ; and this, in turn, originated,
I think, in their possession of those admirable carving-tools of shark teeth
that I have previously described The little lid in question was found
still in connection with the ends and with one side of a jewel-box, in
which had been placed several precious things, among them, two sets of
ear buttons and choice, carved wooden and shell discs. It was enfolded
within decayed matting containing a bundle or pack, in which were also
nine ceremonial adzes, a pair of painted shells, a knife with animistically
carved handle, and other articles — all evidently sacred, or for use in the
making of sacred objects. The little figure of the crocodile painted on
this lid, was of interest in another waj^ Being horned, it at once
called to mind the "horned alligators," described by Bartram and
others, as painted upon the great public buildings of the Creeks or Mas-
kokian Indians of the States just north of Florida. Upon another box-
lid or tablet was painted in outline, a graceful and realistic figure of a
doe, and along the middles of the ingeniously rabbetted sides and ends of
these boxes — whether large or small — were invariably painted double
lines, represented as tied with figure-of-eight knots, midway, or else
fastened with clasps of oliva shell — as though to mythically join these
parts of the boxes and secure their contents.

Gushing.] ^'OO • ysov. 6,

The painted shells I have referred to as contained in the pack just de-
scribed, were those of a species of Solenidte, or the radiatingly banded
bivalves that are locally known in that portion of Florida as ' ' sun-shells. ' '
Each pair of them was closed and neatly wrapped about with strips of
palmetto leaves that were still green in color, but which of course imme-
diately decomposed on exposure to the air. On opening this pair of them,
I found that in one of the lids or valves, the left one, was a bold, conven-
tional painting, in black lines, of an outspread hand. The central creases
of the palm were represented as descending divergingly from between
the first and middle fingers, to the base. This was also characteristic of
the hands in another much more elaborately painted shell of the kind,
that was found by Mr. George Gause within four or five feet of the bird-
painting or altar-tablet. As may be seen by reference to Fig. 4, PI.
XXXIV, this painting represented a man, nearly nude, with outspread
hands, masked (as indicated by the pointed, mouthless face), and wearing
a head-dress consisting of a frontlet with four radiating lines — presumably
symbolic of the four quarters — represented thereon, and with three banded
plumes or hairpins divergingly standing up from it. The palm-lines
in the open hands of this figure were drawn in precisely the same manner
as were those in the hand painting of the pair of shells found with the cere-
monial pack, and the thumbs were similarly crooked down. Upon the
wrists, and also just below the knees, were reticulate lines, evidently de-
signed to represent plaited wristlets and leg-bands. Otherwise, as I have
said, the figure was nude. It was not until our excavations were well ad-
vanced beyond the middle sections of the court of the pile dwellers, that
these singular painted sliells were discovered, since they were closed
when found as were those in the collections that I found under the sea wall
at the southwestern margin of the court. Throughout the richer portions
of the court which we had already passed over, we had quite generally
encountered these closed sun-shells, so many of them, in fact, that we
had usually thrown them aside ; since we had regarded them as intrusive,
as probably the remains of living species that had found their way into
the court after its abandonment. Hence I have no doubt that we missed
many treasures of this kind of symbolic painting From the small num-
ber of specimens we recovered, it is ditficult to surmise what could have
been the purpose of these painted shells. There is of course no doubt
that they were ceremonial or sacred, but whether they were used in
Shamanistic processes of divination or not, it is measurably certain that
they were regarded as potent fetiches or amulets, for in the one that con-
tained the painting of the outspread hand that I myself found and opened,
a substance, whicli I regarded as decayed seaweed, had apparently been
placed to symbolize, in connection with the figurative hand, creative
potencj'^ ; for alg<« and the green slime of the sea is regarded by many
primitive peoples as earth-seed or world-substance. Unfortunately I did
not see the other shell until after it had been opened by Messrs. Gause and
Bergmann ; but hearing their cheers over tiie discovery, I ran immediately

1!^%.] *^"< [Cusliing.

to the spot, and had the good fortune to rescue it before attempt had
been made to wash it out. For although, as has since been ascertained,
the paint employed in its delineation was made from a quite permanent,
gummy substance (probably rubber), yet when first found it was almost
fluid, like that on many others of the paintings.

When I exhibited this specimen and the drawing of the open hand to
Mr. Clarence Moore, whose interest in these finds has been from first to
last so gratifying, he kindly called my attention to a concavo-con-
vex or shell-like plaque of stone, found in a mound in southern Illinois,
in which an almost identical figure of an open hand was incised. In a
shell disc discovered in Georgia, there is, I have also recentlj'' learned,
an etched delineation of an open hand containing an eye-like figure ;
and I am therefore the more inclined to regard the sort of shell paint-
ings we found as not only in a high degree symbolic and sacred, but also
as typical, and I also incline to believe that they were, moreover, the
earlier forms of the etched or graven figures of the kind just descilbed
as found in the more northerly mounds.

As evidenced by the exquisite finish and ornamental designs of so
many of the implements weapons and utensils I have described, the
ancient key dwellers excelled especially in the art of wood-carving.
While their arts in painting were also of an unusually highly developed
character, — as the work of a primitive people — their artistic ability in
relief-work was preeminently so. This was further illustrated in a lit
tie wooden doll, representing a round-faced woman wearing a sort of
cloak or square tunic, that was found near the southernmost shell-bench
along the western side of the court, in Section 15. Near this little figure
was a superbly carved and finished statuette in dark-colored, close-grained
wood, of a mountain-lion or panther god — an outline sketch of which is
given in Fig. 1, PI. XXXV. Nothing thus far found in America so
vividly calls to mind the best art of the ancient Egyptians or Assyrians,
as does this little statuette of the Lion-God, in which it was evidently
intended to represent a manlike being in the guise of a panther.
Although it IS barely six inches in height, its dignity of pose may fairlj^
be termed "heroic," and its conventional lines are to the last degree
masterly. While the head and features — ears, ej^es, nostrils and mouth —
are most realistically treated, it is observable that not onlj' the legs and
feet, but also even the paws, which rest so stoutly upon the thiglis or
knees of the sitting or squatting figure, are cut oflT, unfinished ; bereft, as
it were, of their talons. And this, I would note, is quite in accordance
with the spirit of primitive sacerdotal art generally — in which it was ever
sought CO fashion the form of a God or Powerful Being in such wise that
while its aspect or spirit might be startlingly shown forth, the powers
associated with its living form might be so far curtailed, by the in-
completion of some of its more harmful or destructive members, as to
render its use for the ceremonial incarnation of the God at times, safe,
no matter what his mood might chance, at such times, to be.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 153 2 W PRINTED AUGUST 3, 1807.

Cushing.] *^*^*5 |-Xov. G,

Masks and Figureheads.

To me, the remains that were most significant of all discovered bj' us in
the depths of the muck, were the carved and painted wooden masks
and animal figureheads. The masks were exceptionality well modeled,
usually in realistic representation of human features, and were life-
size ; hollowed to fit the face, and provided at either side, both above
and below, with string-holes for attachment thereto. Some of them
were also bored at intervals along the top, for the insertion of feathers or
other ornaments, and others were accompanied by thick, gleaming
white conch-shell eyes (as in Fig. 2, PI. XXXIII) that could be inserted
or removed at will, and which were concave — like the hollowed and
polished eye-pupils in the carving of the mountain-lion god — to in-
crease their gleam. Of these masks we found fourteen or fifteen fairly
well-preserved sitecimens, besides numerous others which were so
decayed that, although not lost to study, they could not be recovered.
The animal figureheads, as I have called them, were somewhat sm-aller
than the heads of the creatures they represented. Nearly all of them
were formed in parts ; that is, the head and face of each was carved
from a single block ; while the ears and other accessor}^ parts, and, in
case of the representation of birds, the wings, were formed from sepa-
rate pieces. Among these animal figureheads were those of the snouted
leather-back turtle, the alligator, the pelican, the fish-hawk and the owl ;
the wolf, the wild-cat, the bear and the deer. But curiously enough, the
human masks and these animal figureheads were associated in the finds,
and b}^ a study of the conventional decorations or painted designs upon
them, they were found to be also very closely related symbolically, as
though for use together in dramaturgic dances or ceremonials. On one
or two occasions I found the masks and figureheads actually bunched, just
as they would have been had they thus pertained to a single ceremonial
and had been put away when not in use, tied or suspended together.
In case of the animal figureheads the movable parts, such as the ears,
wings, legs, etc., had in some instances been laid beside the representa
tions of the faces and heads and wrapi)ed up with them. We found two
of these figureheads — those of the wolf and deer — thus carefully wrapped
in bark matting, but we could neither preserve this wiapping, nor the
strips of palmetto leaves or flags that formed an inner swathing around
them. The occurrence of these animal figureheads in juxtaposition
to the human masks which had so evidently been used ceremo-
nially in connection with them, was most fortunate ; for it enabled
me to recognize, in several instances, the true meaning of the face-
paint designs on the human masks thus associated with these animal
figures. I cannot attempt to fully describe the entire series, but must
content myself with reference only to a few of the more typical of them.

Near the northernnuist shell bench, in Section 20 of the plan shown
on PI. XXXI, was found, carefully bundled up. as I liave said, the

18<JU.] "*^.' [Gushing.

remarkable figurehead of a wolf with tlie jaws distended, separate ears,
and conventional, flat, scroll-shaped shoulder- or leg-pieces, designed for
attachment thereto with cordage, as shown in Fig. 1, PI. XXXIII. A short
distance from this specimen was found the beautifullj' featured man-mask
sketched in Fig. 2 of the same plate. Now both of tliese specimens had
been painted with black, white, and blue designs, whicli unfortunately
cannot be shown with sufficient clearness in the uucolored sketches.
When I observed that the designs on the human mask represented,
albeit conventionally, the general features and lines of the wolf figure-
head associated with it, I was no longer at loss to understand the con-
nection of the two. It will be observed that on the ear-pieces of the
wolf figurehead, are two well-defined and sharp-pointed dark areas repre-
senting the openings of the erect ears, and that correspondingly, above
the eyebrows of the mask itself, similarly pointed black areas are painted,
while the tusked open mouth of the wolf figurehead is also represented by
jagged, or zigzag lines on the mask, extending across the cheeks upward
to the corners of the mouth, apparently to symbolize the gnashing teeth
of the Avolf ; and even the conventionally represented shoulders and feet
of the springing wolf figurehead are drawn in clean white lines over the
entire middle of the face of this mask. It was therefore evident to me,
that these painted lines upon the human mask were designed, really, to
represent the aspect and features and even the characteristic action or
spring, of the wolf. Hence I looked upon these two painted carvings as
having been used in a dramaturgic- or dance-ceremonial of these ancient
people, in which it was sought to symbolize successively the different
aspects or incarnations of the same animal-god, namely the wolf-god,
— that is, his animal aspect, and his human aspect.

Xow tliis association of the animal figureheads with themasks jire-
senting their human counterparts was not exceptional. In another por-
tion of the court the rather diminutive but exquisitely carved head, breast
and shoitlders (with separate parts representative of the outspread wings,
near by) of a pelican, was found, and in connection with this, a full-sized
human mask of wood, also. Upon the forehead, cheeks, and lower portion
of the face of this mask, was painted in white over the general black
background, the full outline (observed from above) of a flying pelican, as
ma J' be better seen tlian imagined by a comparison of Figs. 3 and 4, in PI.
XXXIII — especiallj' if I explain that the under lip and chin of this man-
pelican mask was quaintly pouted and protruded to represent the pouch
of the pelican — in a manner that does not show in the full-face drawing.

The remarkable and elaborately carved and painted figurehead of the
leather-back turtle ; the large figurehead or mask-like carving represen-
tative of a bear — its face also elaborately painted — and others of the ani-
mal figureheads which we found, were likewise paired or associated with
their human presentmentations or counterparts — that is, human masks
painted with practically the same face-designs as occitrred on these
animal figures.

Gushing.] dJO [Xov. (5,

The symbolic unity, or general similarity of painted designs on the
masks with human features to the face paintings or markings on the very
realistic animal figureheads grouped or associated with them, gave me a
new insight into the meaning of mask painting in general, and into the
meaning also of even simple face painting as practiced so widely among
primitive peoples, especially among such as use masks in their dances or
other sacred and dramatic ceremonials. That the interpretations I shall
presently venture to ofler may seem less far-fetched than otherwise they
might seem, I will explain a little more fully, the tendency peoples of
this kind have, toward reproducing, in their face- paintings or upon their
masks, the characteristic marks or features of animal faces. I cannot bet-
ter do this than by making a few statements regarding the philosophvof
form I was taught whilst living with some veiy primitive-minded people —
the Zuni Indians— some years ago. Since they observe that life is never
manifest save in some sort of form, they argue that no form is without
some sort of life, and since they further observe that each particular kind
of life is manifest in some particular kind of form, they argue that form
strictly conditions life — its powers and other characteristics. Naturally,
therefore, they accord to forms (or rather to semblances) even of inani-
mate things, such potencies as they see manifested in the forms of the ani-
mate beings these things most resemble externally or otherwise. Let me
illustrate this. They connect the wave-, or ripple-like scales of fishes with
their ability to live and float in the wave-fretted waters ; they believe it is
chiefly because of the cloud-like down under or between the feathers of
a soaring bird that he is able so lightly to fly among the similai', flufty or
downy clouds — for these of themselves like the mist of living breath,
ever float without efli"ort. To such a people, of course, form, semblance,
aspect, is therefore all important ; and they naturally think that by re-
producing a given form or appearance which of itself gives rise to a cer-
tain eft'ect, they may again and unerringly produce, or help to reproduce
the same etfect, with the form of their own making.

This sort of reasoning about analogy between form and function, be-
tween creatures and the phenomena that resemble their operations, be-
tween animals and things, is only touched upon here — ^just sufficiently to
indicate how a people thus reasoning further reason that as the lives,
conditions and powers of animals difler as do their forms, so the speci-
fic traits or characters of animals differ according as do their differing as-
pects, especially according as do the expressions of their countenances ;
and finally, that since the facial expression of each kind of animal is un-
varying in all members of the species, and the corresponding trait or
character of each is equally unvarying, they reason that expression con-
trols, rather than that it is the result of, character or disposition — so far
at least as these animals are concerned. It follows that they believe the
changes in the expression of a man's face to be similarly eff"ective. They
observe that liis face is far more mobile than is that of any animal, and
lience believe that lie is more capable of changing ; that according as his

ISyo.] ^»*-L [dishing.

mood changes, his face changes ; and thej' reason that vice versa accord-
ing as his face is clianged liis mood must necessarily change. Further,
they believe that not only according as his face changes so does his
mood change, but also that his traits or his entire character may, for the
time being be changed, by wholly altering, with paint or other marking,
with mask or other disguise, the entire expression of his countenance or
aspect. Just as a wrathful warrior, with glaring eye and drawn mouth,
and alert or deliant attitude, resembles to some extent a mountain lion
or a panther at bay, so by the painting upon his face and upon other
portions of his person of the characteristic markings of the panther, he
may be made to assume still more fully the nature of the panther.

Xow when we reflect that the peoples who reason thus are also in a
totemic phase of development sociologically — largely because they do
reason thus — that they are inclined, each according to his tutelary deity
or the totem of his clan, to emulate the animal (or supposedly living
plant or thing) that is his clan totem, in both behavior and appearance
so far as possible — in order to become so far as possible incarnated with
his spirit — we find one of the many reasons he has for painting his
face with the aspect, or face marks, of some special animal. Moreover, in
this reasoning may be found a primal explanation for his supposition
that by putting on a mask he can more utterly change for the time
being ; can even change his totem or relationship ; can become, to quote
rom the Zunis, "That which he thirsts to become," or "Desirously
needs to become, what tho' a God," strictly according to the expres-
sion (and name) or aspect, of the mask he makes and marks and puts on.
Thereby, it is believed that so far as he resembles in facial aspect or ex-
pression one kind of being or animal or another kind of being or ani-
mal, he will become that being or animal, or at least, be possessed by its
spirit.

Nothing short of a full treatise on this primitive philosophy of analogy,
and the relation thereto of maskology or disguise by costuming, paint-
ing, tattooing, bodily distortion or mutilation and the like, as a means
of becoming actually incarnated with the spirits of ancestors, mythic
beings, and animals, or totem gods, would fully explain the significance
of the bunched animal figureheads and animistically painted human
masks that we found. I may add, however, that one can see how far
reaching was this primitive conception of the life-potency of form, or
expression, by examining any sorts of ancient vessels that are decorated
with maskoids or diminutive representations of human or semihuman
countenances. Almost always these maskoids — whether found on
mound-builder vessel, Central American jar, ancient Peruvian vase, or
even Etruscan urn — are characteristic, according to the style of expres-
sion they represent, of some particular kind or use of the vessel they oc-
cur on. They have often, indeed, been described as grotesques, carica-
tures and the like, usually without any farther explanation ; yet the ab-
sence of a humorous conception or intent in their portrayal is demon-

Gushing.] ^'^^ [Nov. (i,

strated by the fact that if we study the relation of tlie primitive vessels
ou which they occur to other things, with wliich, for example, they are
sometimes found, we shall speedily discover that each curious mask
upon such vessel is but the exaggerated expression of a character or
being it was sought to associate in some waj^ — as by fixing its potency —
Avith the "being" and purpose, of the pot itself, and this is especially
true of vessels designed for ceremonial use.

A strikingly perfect example of the kind of animal carving I have
earlier characterized, was the figurehead of a deer, which Gause and I
found near the edge of the northernmost of the shell benches along the
western border of the court (in Sec. 22, PI. XXXI) It was lying, in a
V ery natural position, on its side. Thus seen in the midst of the dark
muck, its light-hued painted lines vividly revealed by contrast, its large,
deep brown eyes wide open and lifelike — for the pupils were formed of
polished, cleverly inserted discs of tortoise shell — it was the most win-
some and beautiful figure of the head or face of a doe or deer that I have
ever seen, albeit so conventionally treated. The illustration of this fig-
urehead shown in No. 2 of Plate XXXV, by no means does justice to
the graceful lines of the original carving, or to the fineness of the painted
decorations thereon, for the view is too directly full-faced. The ear-
pieces had been attached to the back of the head by means of cords pass-
ing over pegs thrust through them and then through bifurcated holes at
the points of attachment to the head-piece, in such manner that they could
be used as pulleys for the realistic working of these parts ; and the un
painted edge, as well as peg-holes all around the rearward portion of
the head, plainly indicated that the skin of a deer or some flexible sub-
stitute therefor, had been also .attached to it, the more perfectly to dis-
guise the actor who no doubt endeavored in this disguise to personate
the character of the deer-god or dawu-god, the primal incarnation of
which this figure was evidently designed to represent.

A mask of purely human form was also found not far away. It had
evidently been associated with the figurehead in such ceremonials as I
have referred to. At any rate, like the figurehead itself, it had over the
eyebrows a crescent-shaped mark — which seems, by the way, to have
been the forehead-symbol of all sorts of game-animals amongst these
people, as betokened b}- its presence on the forehead of the rabbit carv-
ing and of other similar animal carvings. It also had the tapered, sharp-
pointed white marks or patches along either side of the nose above the
nostrils, observable on the snout of the deer head, and the four sets of
three lines radiatingly painted around the eyes to represent winkers.
This latter characteristic in the eye-painting of the deer figurehead, is
very noteworthy ; for it would seem that it was intended to symbolize, by
means of the four sets of three lines, not merely the eyelashes of the
deer, but also rays, of the "eye of day" or the sun. This I infer the
more unhesitatingly because, according to the accounts given by more
than one earlj' writer on Florida, the deer must have been regarded

18<m;.] dJO [Cushiug.

among some of the Floridiaii tribes as one of the gods of day or of the
dawn — as indeed is both the antelope and the deer among tlie Zunis.
In such event they symbolized — ^just as do similar sets of radiating lines
around paintings of the Zuni sun-god — the four sets of the sun's rays
that are supposed to correspond to the four quarters of the world, as well
as to the four sets of three months in the corresponding four seasons of
the year over which the sun god is believed to have dominion — since he
creates all the days thereof.

Not only were the human masks associated with their animal counter-
parts, but sometimes two or more of the human masks were found in
one such group. In two or three instances we found multiple sets of
them. In such case they were superimposed, as though they had been tied
or wrapped, one inside, of the other, and thus hung up or laid away, and
had fallen so gently into the water-court that their relation to one
another had not been disturbed therebJ^ A notable example of this
kind was found in the association of two masks — one lying directly over
the other, the faces of both turned upward — that lay not far away from
the turtle-figurehead that I have already described. The painted lines
on the lowermost of these masks were indicative that it was designed to
represent the man-turtle or man-turtle god ; whilst the lines upon the
superimposed mask seemed, from their general resemblance to the face
marks painted upon the bear-figurehead I have also described, to indi-
cate that they were designed to represenc the same sort of human pre-
sentmentation of the bear. I am at loss to account for this singular
consociation of the two masks — the turtle-man mask and the bear-man
mask — unless by supposing that the ancient people who made them,
regarded the somewhat sluggish turtle as the "bear of the sea," and the
bear, whose movements are also awkward, as one of his "brother-
turtles of the laud," or that they otherwise mythically related them.

We found several human masks by themselves. One was clearly,
from the length of its sharp nose and the painted lines upon its fea-
tures, designed to represent the cormorant ; another, from the oblique
or twisted form of its mouth, its nose awry, and its spiral or twisted
face-marks or bands, as plainly represented the sun-fish or some other
slant-faced fish. I regarded a third one of these masks as that of the man-
bat-god. It was of especial interest, not only on account of its associa-
tions, but also on account of its general resemblance to the face of the
bat-god of night conventionally depicted so frequently on Central
American monuments. Still another mask was of ecpial interest, for it
represented unmistakably, in a half-human, half-animal style, the fea-
tures of the wild-cat ; and the curiously doubled paint lines with which
its cheeks were streaked downwardly below the eyes, although strictly
regular and conventional, were singularly suggestive of the actual face-
markings of the wild-cat, and thus enable us to understand the signifi-
cance of like lines that are incised upon certain purely human-faced
figures characteristic of many of the maskoidal pipes from mounds of
the Ohio and Mississippi valleys.

Cusliing.] 6J± l^j^-oy, G,

I would once more call attention to the association in qrovps or sets, of
the animal figureheads and especially of the masks, as affording still fur-
ther proof of similarity, if not identity, in key-dweller art and mound -
builder art, and as thus affording also a satisfactory explanation of cer-
tain points observable in delineations I have so often heretofore referred
to as occurring upon the shell gorgets and copper-plates of the ancient
mounds of Georgia and other Southern States. Almost always, in these
delineations of the mythic human figure, it may be observed that while
upon the face, a mask is plainly portrayed, yet, in one or other of the
hands is as distinctly represented another mask — not a head, as has fre-
quently been supposed, — and I am therefore inclined to believe that, as
with the key dwellers, so with these peoples of the mounds, dramas
representative of the transformation of gods from animal into human
form, and from one human character into another human character,
were probably attempted in their sacred dances.

Such a figure of the mound plates as I have described is shoM'n in No.
3, PL XXXV, of the accompanying illustrations. It is drawn from one
of the celebrated copper-plates of the " Etowah Mound '' of Georgia,
and I have reproduced it here (from one of Prof William H. Holme's
superb drawings) not only to illustrate this statement regarding the
probable ceremonology of duplicated masks in both cases, but also to
illustrate various other points of close similarity between the art remains
of the two peoples. The so-called baton, held in the right hand of the
figure in this plate, may be seen to correspond veiy closel}^ to the
war-club which we discovered in the court of the pile dwellers, and
which is outlined in front thereof ("a," of the same figure). It may be
seen, too, that the winged god here portrayed wears not only a beaked
mask, but also a necklace of oval beads, and an elongated pendant
depending therefrom, like those we so frequently found ; an ear button,
also exactly like those we found (shown in "d" of the same figure) :
that around the wrists, arms and legs of this primitive portrait are rep-
resented reticulate or plaited bands, as around the wrists and legs of
tlie figure painted in the sacred shell I have described ("b " and "c ") ;
and that finally, this character bears in his left hand a mask, the face
lines and ear plug of which as closely resemble those that we actually
found (as shown in "e " and "f " of the figure) in the court of the pile
dwellers.

General Conclusions.

In reference to the general significance of tliese observations and
finds in southwestern Florida, I must necessarily be brief since this
paper has already reached a length that was not, when I began, con-
templated.

As to the origin of the key-dAveller phase of existence, it was, I think,
so much infiuenccd bv certain coastal conditions, that a few words on

18'jr.] OVO [Cubhing.

the physiograpliy of the Lower Gulf section of Florida which best
exemplifies them, will not be amiss.

Tlie whole coast, even from as far north as Tarpon Springs to the
extreme end of the Peninsula, is low^ and sandy ; the highest natural
land rarely rising more than a few feet above high-tide level, and
the loftiest dunes nowhere reaching an altitude of over fifty feet.
Geologically, Florida, Prof. W J McGee tells me, is an extension of the
lowland zone — made up of later mezozoic and cenozoic deposits — fring-
ing our Atlantic and Gulf coasts, and, as one of your Secretaries, Dr.
Persifor Frazer, also states, reappearing in several of the Antillean
islands. Especially do the prevailing formations of Florida resemble
those of the Peninsula of Yucatan. They are of very pervioi;s limestone,
and from above the region of Charlotte Harbor southw^ardly, are inter-
spersed with phosphatic beds, also of organic origin. But whether indu-
rated,as are the lowermost, or less solid as are the more superficial, these
formations are, like the overljang soil, excessively sandy. Hence they
are not only pervious, but also, very soluble in the acids of fresh surface-
or rain-water. One of the consequences of this is, that areas of varying
extent and in lines generally parallel with the courses of the open rivers
and inlets of the country, and of their tributaries, are subject to under-
mining by these corrosive processes ; have fallen in, forming first deep
lakes, then, as these in time have become filled, morasses, in the central
lagoons of which, thi-ough the peculiar habits of alligators and other
aquatic creatures, circular mud-banks have been thrown up, becom-
ing cypress islets, and, finally, the foundations of hammocks, or
marsh-keys like those of the Anclote region — built there by man in
later ages. Everywhere, too, along the lines of narrower subterra-
nean rivers formed by more restricted dissolving aw^ay of the under-
lying formations, series of perfectly round, hopper-shaped sinks
occur, seemingly fathomless, containing pellucid or deep green water,
and reminding one measurably, not only of the round, artificial drainage
basins of the keys, but also of the more natural (and in some ways
identical) (jenotes or ancient well-caves of Yucatan and other portions of
Central America.

Not to enter as fully as I ought into a discussion of the physiographj-
of this inner portion of the coast — so suited to settlement by a people
like the key dwellers, when they came inland — I may say that the con-
ditions described render the whole region peculiarly unstable. This
has been especially true of the actual coast. Everywhere it is indented
by such tidal inlets as the Manatee and Pease, or their sluggish inland
extensions called rivers, like those of Anclote, and those that put out
from the north and east of Charlotte Harbor, and those wiiich every-
where radiate sinuously in the same general directions, from the great
indentation or bay that contains the Ten Thousand Islands. In a land
so broken and low as this, the hurricane has wrought continuous change
of shore-line, and 'tis but natural, too, that its coast should be skirted

PROC. AMEK PHII.OS. SOC. XXXV. 153. 2 X. PRINTED AUGUST 3, 1897.

Cushing.] Oif\) [Sov. G,

b}' wide reefs, paralleled by long-reaching, sea-enclosing, narrow, tide-
and wind-heaped sand-islands such as already described ; and that all its
hither sliores should be nearly tide-low, traversed by forbidding
marshes, and fringed by almost impenetrable swamps of cypress and
mangroves. Even the mouths of its creeks, rivers and inlets, are shift-
ing and treacherous, and are also filled with shoals, almost if not quite
exposed, at low tide. As a consequence, approach, even in light craft, is
— save in special places sundered by many miles of unnavigable shal-
lows— wellnigh impossible. I regard this feature as having had a pre-
ponderating influence in causing the ancient key dwellers — whether
they were derived from the mainland or whether, as I have reason to
think, they were alien comers to these shores from some distant region
over the sea, — to locate as they did, out in the midst of the open
waters.

Again, no waters in the world so teem with food-producing animals
— mollusks, fishes, Crustacea and turtles — as do these waters of the
lower Florida Gulf-coast. Yet to a people dwelling inland — save in
sucli favored, far-sundered sections of the country as I haA^e mentioned —
this abundance would be all but valueless, in consequence of the diffi-
culty of shoreland navigation. What more natural, then, than, as I have
endeavored to picture in earlier chapters of this paper, that these peo-
ples should have followed the example of the pelican and cormorant, and
located their stations for food-winning, and finally their dwelling-
places tliemselves, out in the midst of the navigable, but still uot too
deep, shoreland seas'.' That they did so, ages and ages ago, is unques-
tionable. That the structures which they reared, more or less modified,
in many cases, the further distribution of .shoals, sand reefs, tidal
swamps and the lowlier of the fringing islands themselves, is also un-
(luestionable — as I might proceed to sIioav by entering into a discussion
of the results of my investigations of certain of the keys that, although
once free islets, are now connected with the capes of the outer islands ;
and of certain others that have, in fact, been almost buried in sand-drift,
as was the Ellis Settlement. But suffice it if I say that not onlj' have
wide stretches of sandy shoals drifted up between all the humanly con-
structed reefs of the olden time that lie near the land — especially those
to the south — but also, that wide mangrove swamps have grown up
around them, as among the Ten Thousand Islands, evidencing the vast
antiquity of the earliest key-building and key -builders here.

There are, however, other evidences of great antiquity, more directly
of interest to us as anthropologists. One of these evidences is manifest
in the character of the art displayed on all of the more finished objects
we found in the keys ; for this was of a highly, and at the same time dis-
tinctively conventional kind. Now I scarcely need state of primitive art-
forms, that wherever they have obviously originated and have become
highly conventionalized in, and yet are still recognizably characteristic of,
a peculiar region — to the degree to which those of this art were character-

1896.] 0.)4 [Cushing.

istic of the environment we found them in, thej' are the product of a
very slow growth. Certainly, while this art of the keys may not have
been, nay, was not, altogether of a strictly local origin, it was in the
main, of a kind whicli one might expect to find developing or developed
in such an environment. Everywhere, for example, evidence of the
influence of shell, shark-tooth, and other sea-produced materials — used
as implements in the working of wood, bone and horn, and of shell
itself — could, as I have shown, be traced here ; and had jilainly, as I
have also shown, given rise to special ornaments on particular parts of
things thus made. But the point of interest is, that these ornaments were
not only conventional, but that they had already become conventionally
speciiiUzed ; were, many of them, indeed, so highly conventionalized and
thus so specialized, that except for the completeness of our series, they
could not have been traced to their simple, incidental origin in the kinds
of tools used, modes of working employed, and materials worked. I
have said that this kind of conventionalization in art and localization
of decorations, is of exceedingly slow growth. This is because genera-
tions, if not ages, are required for the radical modification of a single
specialized ornament on any particular part of a specialized tool or
implement, weapon or ceremonial appliance, among primitive peoples ;
owing to such peculiar conceptions of the meaning and potency of form
as I have already discussed in its relation to ceremonial objects, and will
presently again refer to as particularly relating to things practically used.
By way of a single example, I may instance the circular obvolute, or
navel ornament (as I have called it), in its relation to the ends of the hard-
wood handles of certain classes of tools in the collection. I have referred
to this as having been derived directly from the double spiral or obvo-
lute observable on the cut-otf apices or ends of conch- or busycon-shells
and other univalvular shells. I have also suggested that the use of
kingfish jaws and shark-tooth knives in girdling sticks, bj'^ a process of
cutting around and around the sticks always in the same direction, with-
these sharp, yet jagged tools, produced, as shown by many specimens in
the collection, rough, spiral rosettes at the ends of the sticks. Now
when the sticks were severed in the same way, but first from one side
then the other, the figures produced at the ends of them strikingly
resembled the involuted spirals at the ends of the worked shells. Thus,
although the figure when associated with purely ceremonial objects
doubtless signified the "navel" or "middle "—as earlier suggested — yet
it came to be associated also with the ends of the handles of tools the
working parts of which were made of the columelUe of shells on the
ends of which it naturally occurred. Thus, for mythic reasons, the figure
was doubtless considered not only appropriate, but even essential to the
handle, no less than to the shell armature of such a tool, in order to
harmonize its parts, to give potency or etfectiveness to it as a whole.
So too, with the radiate or rosette figures found on the ends of very
small liandles made from saplings. It was observed that when suitable

lushing.] O.fo [Nov. 6,

saplings were cut off squarely and sufficiently smoothed, little clieck-
lines, such as one may see on the sawed-off end of a seasoned stick,
always appeared, radiating from the heart toward, but not quite to, the
circumference of the severed segment. Thus the figure came to be exag-
gerated decoratively, and associated with the end of another special kind
of working tool and, for like mythic reasons, was retained. The steps
by which these originally half-natural or accidental markings became
developed as decorations, then localized on special tool-handles, and
then so characteristic of special types of tools as to be laboriously repro-
duced even in other material than wood — like the horn and bone some-
times substituted therefor— could only have been taken very slowly.

Still more confidently may this be affirmed of the art displayed on
objects less evidently of local origin, for they illustrated an equally
slow and much longer continued process in the development of conven-
tional art, that of survival — as on the box -tablets described ; which,
being no longer held together with double cords or strands lashed
around them and tied over their middles with square- or reef-knots
(double figure of eight knots) had come to be secured with gum and
pegs, yet must still be mythically tied with pfdnted strands and knots in
imitation of the "good old way." In this connection I would ag:.in
refer to the superb celt-handle, the decorations on which were so very
highly conventionalized and so modified by the introduction of shell-
volute figures and of certain eye-marks derived from knots (the one
kind of figure being generic on the shell tool handles just referred to,
the other on the crooked adze handles, as shown in Fig. 2. Plate XXXII),
that it was with difficulty the main lines and bands on the shaft and
head could be recognized at all, as survivals of the wrappings or bind-
ings on simpler and earlier forms of this kind of instrument.

If these forms of decorations on tools, and their association with spe-
cial parts thereof — whether of extraneous or of autochonous origin, pos-
sessed as they were, of so high a degree of conventionalization — were
of great age in development, this must to a much greater extent have
been the case with the yet higher degree of conventionalization shown
in the representation of face and bod}" marks on animal carvings and
paintings in the collection. In the first place, these marks on, for in-
stance, the faces of the figureheads, were not irregular, as they are seen
to be on the faces of the natural animals they represented. While the
forms of these figureheads were realistic to a degree, the painted or incised
fiice marks were remarkably conventional, regular, and almost perfectly
symmetrical. That is, stripes were represented as clean bands, patches
or spots as neat circles or figures, sometimes elaborated into highly or-
nate curved devices. Yet as a whole, these painted or incised face mark-
ings were so distributed and contrasted as to look startlingly natural
when seen at a distance. To give an idea of the great degree of conven-
tionalization thus attested, I have only to state that this kind of highly
artificial and ornate representation of the face markings of animals be-

1896.] ^'^'♦' [Gushing.

tokens an attempt on the part of the primitive artist to repre.sent tlie
ideals, the perfect ancestral types or spiritual archetypes, of the animals
portrayed — for it is supposed, as is told in the numberless beast-tales of his
people, that the present animals, descendants of these great and perfect
ancestors, have been changed by their own deeds, their disobedience of
the gods, their strifes and what not, and that thus their countenances are
distorted or besmirched, and fixed so in token of their rashness or mis-
fortunes in creation time. So this kind of conventionalization represents
myth, as well as art ; both, developing and interacting uninterruptedly
throughout a very long period of progress in a given organic environ-
ment. If this be true of the style of the art, it is doubly true of its sym-
bolic specialization. For it has been seen that in case of the figures of
timid creatures — game-animals, like the figurehead of the deer, the carv-
ings of the rabbit and other creatures of the kind — all were character-
ized by a crescent-shaped device on their foreheads. Thus, this conven-
tional mark was not merely that of an individual representative of the
species, but it was, so to say, a generic mark, representative of several
species of the same general kind. This is further shown by the fact
that another special kind of marking was equally characteristic of animals
of prey — of the wildcat, the panther, the bear and llieir kind. In the carv-
ings of each one of these fierce creatures, the outlines of the eyes were not
only sharply pointed in front but in each case terminated behind in three
sharp triangular lines or marks pointing backwardly, and giving to the
face of the animal figure a peculiarly crafty, yet sinister look. That this
too was a generic mark, is still further indicated by the fact that it oc-
curred also upon one of the human masks corresponding to the figure-
head of one of these fierce creatures. Now in this generic kind of mark-
ing we have not only a still higher art development, but also a very
much higher mythic development betokened, since it indicates that these
ancient peoples regarded the game-animals as of one great family or de-
scent, and the prej'^-animals as of another great class or lienage, and that
they w'ere thus, in a way, naturalists of no mean order.

The interest of the significance of this particular sign of the eye as
pertaining to or symbolizing prey-beings, is enhanced greatly by the
further fact that upon many of the exquisitely finished and highly con-
ventionalized carvings of the heads of these kinds of beasts (and of the
faces of warriors or men wearing masks animistically corresponding to
them as well) that are found so frequently in the mounds of the Missis-
sippi Valley, of Tennessee and even of Ohio, precisely the same conven-
tional marking or barbing of the eye — as though it were set in the figure of
a. stemmed and barbed arrow-point to make it "piercing" — is observable.
Thus, through a study of the conventional treatment of such figures here
in the keys of lower Florida, we not only arrive at an understanding of a
new meaning of these figures or lines around the eyes of maskoids and
head-carvings found in the far away north (namely, that they represent
animals of prey or their human counterparts), but we also see that the same

Cushing.] 400 [Nov. 6,

art was, iii these wiclelj^ separnted regions, so identical in tliis particular,
that we cannot but assign to it a single cultural origin. That is, we
must look upon it as having originated in one or the other, the northern
or the southern portion of the area throughout which it was so generally
distributed ; as having spread from that single centre in the one or the
other direction. Now the bulk of evidence at hand favors the belief that
the place of origin of the peculiarities I have noted, was here in the far
south ; probably, among the keys.

Be this for the moment as it may, the enormous distance to which
these characteristic art forms had spread after long-continued and full
development, must have required a still more enormous length of
time. This is a further and a much more impressive indication of the ver}'
great antiquity of the art in question. For the spread of special art
forms in definite relation to particular implements or figures is, among
primitive peoples, not so frequent or facile as is usually supposed ; and
when in rare cases it does occur, it is effected with exceeding slowness.
We may account for the spread of arts among primitive peoples in two
ways ; first, by barter and intercourse, conquest and adoption ; or,
second, by actual derivation or descent , that is, by actual spreading to
a greater or lesser extent, of the people among whom the art prevails
and originated. While we may hold that, in the wide diffusion of arts
common alike to the keys and the mounds, both of these causes acted to
some extent, still, if we consider a little further the way in which arts
spread among primitive peoples — why slowly — we can, I think, arrive
at a more definite understanding of the question as to which of the two
causes above stated was the more active, and as to whether the art
traveled from the Gulf northward, or from the north southward. First,
then, the mere fact that early peoples attribute to distinctive forms par-
ticular existences and potencies, indicates that one people Avould be
slow to adopt unchanged from another, an unaccustomed form, even of
so simple a thing as an implement, and especially as a weapon or a cere-
monial object; since the unaccustomed form of the first would be sup-
posed by them to render it inefficient ; of the second, unsafe ; and of
the third, diabolical ; while all would be held to be unsuited, because unre-
lated to themselves. It must be constantly borne in mind that these
ancient theorists believed their implements and weapons and amulets to
1)e alive, and felt that the powers of these things were not only
strengthened, but were also restricted to or rendered safe for, special
uses, as well as made to be related to their makers, hy their forms or by
the decorations or figures placed upon them, especially when these were
highly symbolic. It is for this reason more than any other, tliat primi-
tive peoples cling so to forms, and are so chary of borrowing new
forms of implements or weapons, etc. When they do borrow the
fashions of such things, they proceed at once to cover or invest them
with the peculiar decorative or symbolic devices that they are accus-
tomed to associate with tlie same kinds of thiniis in time-honored use

189G.] 4U1 [Cushins.

among themselves. It is chiefly due to this tendency that we have kept
inviolate for us everywhere in the primitive world, signs on the relics we
find, of what have been termed cultural areas or areas of art character-
ization. And so, while the extensive and long-continued intercourse in
the barter of the far-southern peoples of Florida and the keys, with
more northern peoples (which is so positively indicated by the occur-
rence in the northern mounds, of gorgets, etc. — not only derived from
species, found nowhere else than in these Gulf regions, but also treated
in precisely the same conventional manner), will account for much in
this spread of identical art forms, nevertheless it does not, I am inclined
to think, explain the whole. To say for the moment nothing further of
the great variety of art forms which almost certainly took their origin
in the region of the keys or in some other Gulf region where a life of
similar kind was naturally or necessarilj' followed, and which are also
found throughout the mound area, I maj^ call attention to a single
point among many — the evidence afl:brded by the tempering-material of
pottery. Almost always, the pottery of sea-dwelling peoples, in regions
where clays of such kind as require tempering occur, is tempered with
calcined and crushed shell. In an article on "The Germ of Shoreland
Pottery" (printed in the Memoirs of the International Congress of
Anthropology, pp. 217-234, Chicago, The Schulte Publishing Com-
pany, 1894), I have endeavored to show why this is so, and was at first
naturally, if not inevitably so. Now, wherever the art forms I am dis-
cussing are found in the mounds, even at far inland points, the potteries
of these same mounds are commonly tempered with shell, notwithstand-
ing the fact that in the more inland and northerly regions of the mounds
such kind of tempering had to be supplied, at great labor, from fresh-
water species of mollusks.

There are, however, various additional reasons, it seems to me, for sup-
posing that this art spread northwardlj- from a southern sea-environment
— not so much by barter, as by actual movement landwardly and north-
wardly, of the culture and to some extent of the peoples themselves of
these southern sea-land regions. One of these reasons rests in the very
broad distinction that we may make between the sea-shell art of the
mounds and the sea-shell art of other and more northerly regions, equallj'
as far inland from the sea. There, objects made from sea shells are abun-
dant, it is true, but thej^ are in general, obviouslj- of a more purely decora-
tive or valuative, than of a symbolic character. This was the case, for
example, with the famous wampum of New England and the Middle
Atlantic States, prized for the high value of the far-derived material of
which it was made, more than for its supposed sacred or ancestral quali-
ties ; whereas, the greater number of the shell cups, gorgets, and other
shell articles found in the mound region proper, retained the identical
pristine symbolic character and association they naturally had on the
.seashore. Now it is not easy to see how this could have been the case
had the peoples of the mounds originated, or rather had their culture,

Ciishing.] 4UZ [Nov. li,

customs and art originated, in the nortliern or inland region, and pro-
ceeded thence to the sea.

I would again mention the wide prevalence in the keys, of the distinct-
ively conventional treatment of carved and incised work, — whether on
shell, bone, or stone, — illustrated by so many specimens in our collection,
in connection with its almost equally "wide prevalence on figures found
in the mounds ; which art-vogue was, it would seem, more at home in the
keys — more in accordance with a seaside environment that appears 1o
have originated these conventional forms and modes of treatment — than
in the lands of the north. The identity of costume represented, too,
in the case of the painted shell as compared with incised shell gorgets
and embossed copper-plates of Tennessee and Georgia, is obvious, as
may be seen by reference to the single illustration herewith furnished
in PI. XXXV, Fig. 3.

It is significant that the forms, as well as the surface decorations of
the potteries which we found somewhat inland, in the more northerly
region of Tarpon Springs and of the Anclote (and this applies also to
shoreland-like examples of pottery that I have seen from the still fur-
ther interior and more northerly portions of Florida, and even from
western Georgia) were in many ways distinctive!}' and indisputably
derived from precisely such gourd- and woodenware and shell-shaped
vessels and utensils as we found in the keys. It was thus obviously the
pottery of a people who had been accustomed to use gourd-shells and
wood, more than clay, for the making of their vessels, and not only so,
but to use wooden vessels that had been made with cutting implements
of shark-teeth and shell. This Avas clearly evidenced in the hachured
surfaces of so many of the vessels ; in the reticulated surfaces of others
of them — which represented the end grainings of wood— and in the
fine, convoluted or concentric, stamped or incised designs obviously
derived from curly-grained wood or paddles made thereof, which char-
acterized the surface decoration of so much more of this pottery. When
we add to this the fact that here in the North and in the interior, the
points of many blades of flint were made not only in the usual lanceolate
or leaf-shaped form, but also in the asymmetrical form of shark's teeth,
and that now and then even exquisitely polished stone adzes were
formed as obviously in imitation of naturally curved shell adzes — such
as were constantly found in the keys — it is perfectly evident that the
peoples who built up, in the marshlands here, the hammocks, and built
near them the little lake-encircled mounds, were originally a people of
tlie sea, not of the mainland, were a people who had once lived as the
key dwellers-lived, on island mounds in the sea or its shoals, here using
such implements as their ancestors had there used, and carrying ances-
tral ideas of habitation and of utensils down from generation to genera-
tion, and so, slowly up into the land.

The theory I have ventured toadvance heretofore, in regard to tlu- rela-
tion of kev builduiir in the sea to mound buildinii' on the hmd stron!::;'iV

1896.] ^^^ [Gushing.

supports the evidence just adduced as afforded by the correspondence of
these potteries and other art remains from mounds in the North, to tlie art
types of the keys in the South. No other theory of the origin of mound
building in general, thus far advanced, especially of mound building
as it was practiced in the Mississippi and Ohio regions and all through
the Southern States, accounts, it seems to me, so satisfactorily or so
directly and simply, for the origin of this remarkable practice. We
have seen how, for many reasons, it was necessary for the kej' dwellers to
build their niouud-like homes or islands, out in the seas. Thus were they
near their chief source of food supply ; thus were they freed from the
almost insupportable pest of mosquitoes and other insects of the sub-
tropic marshy mainland ;* thus were safe from any human enemies they
might chance to have ; and building as they did, special mounds upon
these shell islands of theirs for the foundation of special kinds of struc-
tures— temples, storehouses or public buildings, places of resort in dan-
ger— they were not only protected from the terrific hurricanes and tidal
waves that sometimes swept the Gulf seas, but also, I conceive, they de-
veloped the habit of erecting great mounds for special structures of this
kind to such extent, that it became fixed ; so customary traditionally, that
whithersoever they or rather their descendants went thereafter, they con-
tinued the practice as an essential tribal regulation. At least we find evi-
dence enough in nearly all the old historic records from the Sixteenth to
the Eighteenth century, that generally the Southern Indians (especially
the Maskokean Indians and Nachez) Avere still building mounds of pre-
cisely this kind, that is, for the temples of their Priests and for the
dwellings and assembly places of their Mikos, "Suns" or King-like
Chieftains. Again, along with the development of key and mound
building for the living, in the sea, and later in tide marshes or lowlands,
we have seen that there was also developed, through ancestralism, the
habit of building somewhat similar places for the tribal dead. This
also was practiced in the interior, as shown by prehistoric monuments ;
by the early tribes of the Southern States, as equally indicated bj'

* Soon after my return from Florida, last spring. Dr. O. T. Mason, of the United States
National Museum, kindly called my attention to the following passage, on page 291 of
The History of the Cnribby Islands, rendered into English by John Davides, in 1666, from
an earlier work by Rochefort. I quote it here in full, as it so unexpectedly confirmed
my previous inference relative to the only really important influence of the mosquito as
a factor in human progress, that I have ever learned of. Speaking of the Caribbeans, he
says :

" Their habitations are somewhat near one to another, and disposed at certain dis-
tances, after the manner of a village ; and for the most part they plant themselves upon
some little ascent, that so they may have better air and secure themselves against those
pestilent flies which we have elsewhere called Mesqidlos and Maringoins, which are
extremely troublesome, and whereof the stinging is dangerous in those parts where
there is but little wind stirring. The same reason it is that obliges the Floridians,
beyond the Bay of Carlos and Tortugnes, to lodge themselves for the most part at the
entrance of the sea, in huts built on piles or pillars."

I would add that the last clause is especially significant in connection with our dis-
coveries in the "Courts of theJPile Dwellers."— F. H. C.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 153. 2 Y. PRINTED AUGUST 9, 1897.

Cushiiig.] 4U-± |-Xoy. 6,

narratives of the first explorers. Thus, especially throughout the
mound-building area — primarily in the lowlands of the Mississippi and
tributary rivers, then on higher land along these, and finally on the ter-
races, and even the plateaus of rivers in the still fai'ther north — we find
almost always these two kinds of mounds associated ; that is, so-called
"Temple" and "Domicilary" mounds, and the tumulae of the dead or
"Burial mounds ;" and I believe that wherever these two kinds of
mounds are found thus associated (as they were naturally and necessa-
rily associated in the keys, and as we have seen that they were associa-
ted historically in the Southern States) the evidence is that they were
the works of peoples who were either themselves derived from the
southern sea islands, or who derived thence their culture, and, if so, a
portion at least, of their ancestral population.

• Observable facts in regard to mound building of this kind the world
over, support this theory of its origin in sea environments. Since the
subject is so important, I may enlarge upon it by calling attention to the
fact that everywhere, the principal builders of mounds, barrows and tum-
uliB, have ever been maritime peoples, or at least peoples living along
great rivers of the sea. Such were the heroic seafaring Greeks of
Homer's time, the roving Vikings of Scandinavia. In fact everywhere
— and this applies especially in countries famed for the size and extent
of their prehistoric shell heaps — the story is much the same ; that old
peoples of the sea seem ever to have sought to lift themselves or their
dead above the tide and flood ; to build, as it were, islands even on high
land, wheresoever, in the course of ages, they happen to have here and
there penetrated into the interior, or else to build foundations like to
the refuse heaps of their ancestry, for the priests and other revered per-
sonages among their living.

As bearing intimately upon this question in its relation to such ancient
remains of our own land, and particularly to the earlier historic Indians
of the Southern States (who, as I have said before, were builders of
mounds for the support of their public structures), I may here refer to
the remarkable statements contained in some of the early writings,
regarding others of their characteristics.

It has been seen again and again, that surrounding all the ancient
keys, were shell-bank enclosures approached by canals that had, pre-
sumably, been used as fish-pounds or -preserves. It goes far toward
establishing my theory of the derivation from the key dwellers, or from
peoples living practically their life, of some at least of these Southern
mound-building peoples, when we read in the narrative of the expedition
dition of Don Hernando de Soto amongst these same peoples (lo35(-lo41),
presented by the Knight of Elvas to the Spanish King and Council of tlie
Indies, that " On Wednesday, the nineteenth day of June, the Governor
entered Pacaha, and took quarters in the town where the Cacique was
accustomed to reside. It was enclosed and very large. In the towers
and the palisade were many loopholes. There was much dry maize, and

189C.] 40o [Cushins,'.

the new was in great quantity throughout tlie fields. At the distance of
half a league to a league off were large towns, all of them surrounded
with stockades. Where the Governor stayed was a great lake near to
the enclosure, and the water entered a ditch that wellnigh went round
the town. From the River Grande to the lake was a canal, through
which the fish came into it, and where the chief kept them for his eating
and pastime. With nets that were found in the place, as many were
taken as need required ; and however much might be the casting there
were never any lack of them."

Now since the very origin of key building was directly related, in all
probability, to the improving of natural, then the making of artificial
bayous to serve as fish-pounds ; to the building of fishing stations near
by, and resultantly, to the construction of shell settlements in place
thereof, we cannot reasonably suppose that the key builders derived
all this from the mainland, but rather that the dwellers in the interior
here spoken of by an eye-witness, had derived their practice of making
such fish canals and preserves, from them or from ancestors like them.*

If, then, the key-dweller and Southern seashore and flood-laud phase
of life and art was, as is here indicated, the originative, the earlier
phase, and the mound-builder phase was the later or to some extent
inherited phase, it does not follow that the mound builders acquired
their art and culture from the particv,lar key dwellers the remains of

* To state my opinion clearly in reference to this question of the relation of the mound
builders to the particular key builders the remains of whom we investigated, I may say
that I do not believe this relation to have been necessarily direct, however much it may
seem to have been so. The remarkable correspondence in the art characteristics of the
mound remains proper, when compared with those exhibited in objects of our collec-
tions from the keys of the farther south, signifies to my mind, primarily, that the art
displayed in objects from the inland mounds was inherited or derived from key-dwel-
lingor sea-dwelling methods of technique and art treatment. This (leaving out all other
questions) is indicated by numerous examples of mound art. I need mention only two or
three. One is exemplified in the double-bladed battle-axe type of war club, figured in PI.
XXXV (3, a). The club of this type that we discovered at Marco was wholly of wood,
yet it was evidently, as I have hitherto stated, a survival of the double, semi-circularly
bladed war-axe of an earlier time. But it was, nevertheless, a practical, not merely a
ceremonial, weapon. Now such a weapon is represented on the embossed copper plates
and is engraved repeatedly on the shell gorgets of the mounds, as held in the hands of
purely ceremonial figures. It is also sometimes found represented ( among mound-remains,
but not among those of the keys) in the shape of small amulets wrought of shell or stone.
Again, a single nearly full-sized specimen, made wholly of stone, rather than of wood, (it
is beautifully fashioned from light colored flint by chipping and battering, then grind-
ing and polishing) has been very recently secured, I understand, by that fine authority
on mound archteology, General Gates P. Thruston, President of the Tennessee Historical
Society of Nashville, Tenn. All of these mound forms of the weapon, however, are
strictly ceremonial ; that is to say they are not directly originative forms, but forms of
the weapon inherited and ancestrally venerated, that is, derived from some older form
still adapted to practical use— as was the specimen we recovered from Marco. The same
may be said of the shapely carving in green-stone, of a nearly full-sized, hafted celt —
found in a sepulchral mound in the Cumberland Valley near Nashville, Tenn., some
years since, by Prof. Joseph Jones— the correspondence of which as a type form, to
the actual celt, found by us at Key Marco, is almost exact, save in merely decorative
details of the handle.

Gushing.] 4UO [Xov. 6,

whom- we investigated. It is simply au indication, I tliinli, that they
derived it from like sea-dwelling people — very probably related to such
key dwellers, and who possibly had their home farther up the Gulf.
Not only are thei'e at present other keys extending, interruptedly, from
Tampa to the northwestern extremity of Florida, but between that
point and the Delta of the Mississippi is also another very considerable
group of islets which I regard as keys — ^judged by their distribution on
the map. Whether they are actual shell keys, or not, remains to be
determined. But the formations of tlie lower Mississippi are late Quater-
nary. Thus, in comparatively recent times, geologically speaking, we
may assume that the area they cover was a northwardly extension of
the Gulf, and that for ages later, conditions like those presented by
the southern marshy shorelands into which the key dwellers seem to have
ultimately penetrated must have prevailed, even unto comparatively
recent times, authropologicallj^ or historically speaking. The coast
farther down was shoal, and fringed with islets — some, possibly, artificial.
Thus the whole region was still suited to such modes of life as I have
referred to, even well on toward modern times. And so, from this point
of view, the Gulf shore and its borderlands to the north and the north-
east, no less than farther down, seems to have been as much an area of
cJiaracterization as that of the keys we examined certainly was — of the
southern and farther northern mound-builder culture. Therefore my
claim is, that the best and most primitive, that is, originative illustra-
tion of this that we have, is to be found in these key-dweller remains.
I must not be understood, however, as claiming that the mound-
builder phase of culture pertained wholly to descendants of the key
dwellers or even of sea peoples like them. Cultures belong less, prima-
rily, to distinct peoples than to distinct environments. An environment
and the essential conditions of human existence therein, makes indeed,
not only a culture, but goes far toward making a race ; that is, toward
moulding or unifying, racial traits, in whatever kind of man or kinds
of men come into it and there remain for a sufficient length of time.*

I believe the relationship of the key dwellers to other Southern
Indians and to the more ancient mound builders, both in the South and
in the farther North, may, however, be regarded, as indicating more
than merely parallel development; that this relationship maybe consid-
ered as having been actual, and accultural, as well as primarily environ-
mental ; for the whole region of the mounds, Miiich generally corre-
sponded to the great flood-plain regions of the Mississippi and its mighty
tributaries — and in this was not unlike the shorelands of the Gulf —

* If one but glimpse at the natives of like low sea-lands, of let us say, Borneo, Papua,
Southeastern Asia and certain Polynesian regions, he will see how close a parallelism
in arts— and probably, too, even in institutions and religion— obtains between the key
dwellers as indicated by their art remains, and these peoples not in any wise related to
them. He will see that merely by a similar condition of natural surroundings, these
parallelisms have lieen wrought to a point that is, in many details of the products of
these wide-sundered peoples, no less than astounding.

407

[Gushing.

possessed throughout, also, much else in common, particularly in the
matter of biotic characteristics, plant and animal life as they pre-
vailed in at least the marshy borders and immediately contiguous
lands. Such characteristics, since so intimately associated with sub-
sistence and art activities, are of course the most potent of factors in
giving direction to the movements and developments of primitive peo-
ples,— especially when combined with generally like physical conditions
throughout a given area, — and go far in themselves toward making thus,
a distinctively etfinicarea. Let me offer an example of this : In its way,
the arid region of our tarther Southwest, is more distinctive than is the
region of the Southern seas and great contiguous rivers and flood-plains.
That is, it is a region the climatic conditions of which are so homoge-
neous and so pronounced throughout, and the flora and fauna of which
are therefore so uniform, that it has been potent to mould into or toward
a common condition and type, and a common state of mind, too, nearly
all the peoples who have ever entered it and therein dwelt long
enough. In the centuries of a far-off time, it presently made of little
bands wandering and seeking refuge in its desolate wastes — seeking
throughout them for water and seeds — petty agriculturists. It forced
them as they throve apace, to permanent occupancy, then to cultiva-
tion of, these far-sundered watering-places ; then, later, through conten-
tions over these places and possessions, with other comers or with one
another, to occupancy of and building in the cliffs, for defense. Thus
out of such hard conditions was born the famous Clift" Dweller, his
architecture, and his culture. It was my good fortune, years ago, to first
definitely relate the Zuiii Pueblo Indians, linguistically and traditiou-
all}% with these ancient denizens of the cliffs, and to ascertain posi-
tively, and announce in various publications (especially of the Bureau
of Ethnology) that the architecture of these and other Pueblo Indians
was almost wholly, as they were themselves in part, derived from that
of older cliff dwellers. But it seems that the Northerly cliff dwellers
were the first in this long succession, as the Zuiiis were (to the extent
to which they were descended from them) their earliest successors.
Yet as the ancestors of other Pueblo peoples penetrated into that con-
straining region, they too, under the potent influence of the same
environment — probably more than by the example of these earlier
predecessors who had been wrought upon thereby — adopted, one after
another, a precisely similar mode of living and building. It is only
eight or nine hundred years since the Navajo and Apache Indians
gradually descended from their far-northern homes into this desert
region. The Navajo Indians are not Pueblos, but it is sufficiently evi-
dent from facts relating to them given in the- splendid treatises of
Dr. Washington Matthews, that they were, especially along the line of
their sociologic and religious development and the art thereto pertain-
ing, rapidly becoming moulded, by accultural and environmental condi-
tions combined, to the Pueblo condition of mind and life ; and had their

Gushing.] ' 4Uo [Nov. 6,

course of development thus, not been cut short by the coming of the
Spaniard with his present to them of flocks and herds that made nomads
of them again, tliese already half-settled peoples would have become
more settled and would have gone on developing precisely as older
pojiulations had there developed, the more rapidly because acquiring
liberally from these older populations. Thus in the course of a simi-
lar period, or perhaps even in less lime, they would no doubt have
become Pueblos among the Pueblos.

Now I cannot but look upon the mound-building phase of life as, like
the Pueblo-building phase, something that was influenced in a similar
manner ; and so, while I have no doubt that the ancient mound
builders represented, as do the various modern Pueblos, several dis-
tinct stocks of men, still I believe that all owed their culture and their
mound-building proclivities to the original common influence of sea-
shore or key-builder life, and that each successive wave of peoples who
penetrated the mound area from elsewhere, acquired the practice by the
combined influences of the area to mucli of which it was so eminently
suited, and of the peoples who had therein already become fixed in it.

In like manner as the art of the mound builders seems to have been
related to that of the key builders, so certain forms found by us in the
keys appeared, as heretofore intimated, to have been inherited from,
or directly affiliated to, that of the farther south — of the Antilles, and
even of South America. I need only refer to the labret and ear button,
the latter of which, although common enough in the mounds, was still
more prevalent in the keys, and was a peculiarly southern object of
adornment, having prevailed universally throughout northern South
America, and, indeed, throughout meridian America generally. This
is true also of both forms of the atlatl found by us. They were not
only South American as well as Central American in type, but on them
were repeated even the decorative details of Yucatecan forms. In the
pointed and spooned paddle ; in the celt which, with its counterpart in
stone from the Cumberland (and in little amulets from other portions of
the mound area) which corresponded strictly with celts found throughout
the greater and lesser Antilles ; and finally, in the remarkable war club
I have described in a former page, this afliliation of art-types was even
more strikingly apparent. For, as I would repeat anew, this form
of war club, at least, could scarcely have been other than a survival of
a double, semicircular bladed hatchet that is peculiarly a South Amer-
ican type, as were war clubs like it — and also derived from it — in both
South and in some portions of Central America.

When it is reflected that a not mconsiderable number of other forms
found by us in the court of the pile dwellers were, as were those that
I have so particularly referred to, almost too minutely identical with
like southern forms to admit of wholly independent origin (although
there is every probability that they had developed, even if elsewhere, yet
in a generally similar kind of environment), and when this fact is con-

1S96.] 409 [Gushing.

sidered in connection with the trend from south nortliwardly past tlie
keys, of tlie main current of tlie Caribbean sea (as sliown in PI. XXV)
and Avitli tlie usual course of the great but intermittent Gulf hurricanes, it
seems to me highly probable that not from the mainland, but from the
sea, not from the north, but from the far south, the primitive or earliest
key dwellers, whoever they were, came or were wafted in the begin-
ning. While it is true that only a few years after the discovery by Co-
lumbus, the earliest voyagers to the Gulf of Maracaibo found peoples liv-
ing there (as some few of them still live) in pile-supported houses out in
the midst of the shallow waters, and hence named the country Venezuela
or "Little Venice," and while it is also true that this current of the
Caribbean Sea thence takes up and is thence reinforced by the current
of the mighty Orinoco, still I do not believe that the derivation of these
foreign arts of the key dwellers, or of the key dwellers themselves, may
be traced quite so directly as that. I believe, rather, that here and there
all through the waters washing the shores of lands southward from
Florida — of Cuba, of Yucatan, of northern South America — we shall
shortly find, unless the maps deceive me, evidence of a former very wide
distribution in that direction of the key-dweller phase of life, and it has
seemed to me that as the key dwellers of Florida may have l)orrowed
from these older and more wideh' distributed peoples of their kind (who
were probably more of South American than of North American extrac-
tion) so other peoples along that lengthy way, may also probably have
derived many of their characteristics, and some small proportion of their
populations perhaps. A study, for instance, of the ruined cities of Yu-
catan and some other portions of Central America, makes it clear that
although the Mayas and other peoples who built them had advanced to
a remarkable stage of barbaric civilization, and were possessed of a very
highly developed architecture, yet they were at most, only highly, ad-
vantageously developed and elaborated, mound builders. The fact, now
well known, that they entered Yucatan with arts nearly perfected and
were themselves correspondingly advanced in culture when they came
thither from the sea (as they claimed), seems to bear out the supposition
that they owed their habits of high foundation building, their many arts
almost perfected from the beginning of their occupancy, and to some
extent their OAvn origin, to a key-dwelling phase of existence.*

*I am not alone in thus having found a decided correspondence between the arts of
the ancient Floridians and other Southern Indians and those of ancient Yucatan. Other
observers, in particular Dr. Daniel G. Brinton, Profs. F. W. Putnam, William H. Holmes,
Frederick Starr and Dr. Cyrus Thomas, have noted umistakable similarities between the
arts of Yucatan and Mexico, and those of the mound builders of the Gulf States. I think
it has been held that these arts traveled overland in some way along the far-reaching
western and northern Gulf shores from south northward. As I have already stated,
however, arts, and especially ceremonial and decorative art forms, do not readily travel
from one tribe to another, are not easily adopted by one primitive people from another,
unless both peoples are in a very similar grade of cultural development or share a com-
mon environment in which these arts are natural and at home. Moreover, it is to be
reflected that not only arts, but also peoples (in sufficient numbers to impress their culture

Gushing.] "^J-^ [Nov. 6,

The foregoing more or less speculative conclusions have been offered
tentatively, not as final, but for whatever value they maj' possess as
suggestions. After all, the collections and observations under consider-
ation are equally interesting whether these suggestions be true or not,
or only in part true. Quite aside from all this, the large proportion of ob-
jects in perishable material, recovered by us, renders our collections from
the keys unique in one respect at least ; serves to illustrate how very little,
after all, of the art of a Stone Age people (or in this case Shell Age
people) is really represented by the remains that are commonly found
on the camp sites and in the burial places of such peoples. Had my
collections and observations been confined to the shell, bone, horn, pot-
tery and other specimens in comparatively enduring materials found on
the keys, the art that they represent would have seemed exceedingly
crude, almost below the average of Stone Age art generally, here in
America. As it was, however, the carved and painted works in wood
alone, in these collections, served of themselves to indicate that here
were the remains of a people not only well advanced toward barbaric
civilization, but of a people with a very ancient and distinctive culture,
whose relations with other peoples may, through these same rare speci-
mens of their arts — that alone by immersion in the water courts were

or arts upon others) travel very slowly by land — impeded as they are in their course if it
he long, by tribe after tribe, and danger after danger. But both arts and peoples travel
with the utmost facility by sea. Therefore, it must have been, if not by slower deriva-
tion through the key dwellers, then by a wholesale sort of intercourse by sea, that these
arts of the civilized peoples of Central America came to be so liberally represented
among the remains— especially certain ceremonial and decorative remains— of the In-
dians of our Southern States, if, indeed, they came from so far south northward and
were not, as I incline to think, distributed or inherited from some common centre.

In this connection I will mention also, that Prof. Holmes has found probable traces of
Caribbean art in Florida. By an examination of the collections gathered by ourselves
as compared with those made by Mr. Clarence Moore throughout the eastern half of the
State, however, I find that these Caribbean art forms are less characteristic of our collec-
tions than of those from the easterly portion of the State, and even from the Atlantic
side of southern Georgia. While the art characteristics I am speaking of, chiefly
exhibited in the involuted and concentric surface decoration of paddled pottery, may
be accounted for as having originated independently both among the Caribbeans and
here throughout Floridian areas— from the graining of the wood of the paddles them-
selves, or of worn-out wooden vessels in Imitation of which this pottery was no doubt
at first made— still, there is a large degree of probability that the Caribs had more or
less impressed thei'- art, and even tliemselvcs, upon a portion of the native population
of Florida, long before the discovery. This probability is rendered the greater by the
linguistic correspondences which Dr. Albert S. Gatchet has clearly traced between the
languages of the aborigines of eastern Florida, the Timuquanans, and the Caribs. How-
ever, these Carib influences seem to have come into Florida, not by a westerly way, but
from the south and the east, possibly through the Lucayos or Bahamas Islands, the
inhabitants of which were williin historic times, as is well attested by the earliest writers,
in continual intercourse with the natives of the Florida Peninsula. Such truces of Antil-
lean art as are found in tlie region of the ancient key dwellers and further north on
the western, or Gulf coast, seem to be rather more ancient than the date of Caribbean
occupation, even of the West Indian Islands themselves, that is, they seem to be far
more Arawak than Caribbean, and this again coincides with the idea of a very far
outhern origin (in the beginning) of these peoples of the keys.

1896.] 411 [Cushiug.

preserved to lis — be studied in many ways witli unusually satisfactory
results.

Another feature of these collections, of equal, if not of greater inter-
est, is the fact that they represent a Shell Age phase of human develop-
ment and culture. Their art is not only an art of the sea, but it is an art
of shells and teeth, an art for which the sea supplied nearly all the
working parts of tools, the land only some of the materials worked upon.
A study of these tools of shell and teeth furnishes us with an instruc-
tive lesson as to the ingenuity of primitive man, as to his capability of
meeting needs with help of what would at first seem to be impossible,
or but very indifterent, means ; and as to the eftect of this on derived art
in general. The lesson is suggestive. It would seem to indicate that
not here alone, or in those more extended regions of subtropic and
tropic America which I have mentioned as possibly the homes of like
key-dwelling peoples, but that in many further parts of the world — of
the Old World as well as of the New World — such a phase of develop-
ment may well have been passed through by whole peoples who
later became stone-using peoples ; yet whose earlier art of the sea had
in like manner influenced the art of their later conditions, of their
inland descendants and those who came into continual contact with them
— just as this art seems to have influenced that of the mound builders
and as a similar art — possessing no less striking marks of the sea, seems
to have influenced early men in southern and eastern Asia — like tlie
aboriginal Siamese and Cambodians, Coreans, Chinese and Japa-
nese. Nearer parallels yet, may be found among living peoples, as
before stated, those of Borneo and Papua and other parts of the Eastern
Archipelago, of the Caroline Islands and other parts of Polynesia. The
further question is therefore suggested — whether perhaps, in some por-
tions of the world (man having in all probability made the very begin-
ning of his development as a tool-maker upon the food-abounding sea-
shore of some tropic land) whether in the phase of life here exemplified
among the keys, we may not (despite its far higher development), find
some intimation of the remotest of human beginnings in the use of tools
and weapons as made of sea-produced and other organic materials. At
any rate, since returning from Florida and studying such sea-land remains
as I could find in various museums, and in one case studying them in the
actual field (on the coast of Maine, this last summer), I have found that
teeth and shells, wherever suitable kinds of these natural tools of the
animals themselves could be secured, have played a far more important
part, even in the arts of peoples who had abundance of excellent material
for stone implements at hand, than has hitherto been realized.

There is no subject in the range of anthropological study, and this
especially applies to the study of prehistoric anthropology, which can
take rank above the subject of ethnographic origins. By this I mean,
for the moment, neither the relations, nor the migrations of peoples, pri-
marily, but the study of peculiar arts, institutions, and other cultural

PROC. AMER. THILOS. SOC. XXXV. 153. 2 Z. PRINTED AUGUST 9, 1897.

Cashing.] 41 .Z [Nov. 6,

characteristics, as influenced by given or specific phj'siographic areas.
As aftbrding a concrete example of this kind, of the interrelation of man
and a particular kind of environment, I know of few cases in which the
evidences are so direct and pronounced and I may add, unmistakable,
as they are in the peculiar art remains which we discovered in this not
less peculiar region of the keys.

I have presented not a few illustrations of this influence as giving rise
to key building, and some phases of the life itself of the people who built
the keys. Yet in closing I wish once more to recur to the subject. In
a preceding note, and in former writings (published in periodicals and
in the Reports of the Bureau of Ethnology, on the Zuiii Indians, and the
ancient Cliff" Dwellers, and the development of Pueblo culture in general),
I have shown how the desert of our great southwest and the necessity
for overcoming there, the difficulties of existence in an arid waste, may
account for the high development towards civilization of the peoples
who for a long time dwelt there. It is, indeed, safe for us to infer from
these and later studies, especially those of Prof. W J McGee, that the
very beginnings of true civilization, in the matter, for example, of agri-
culture, must ever have been made in desert environments more or
less like these, more or less, also, in the same manner.

Well, so in other ways it was, in the wild region of sea, the great
sea-waste wherein the ancient key dwellers reclaimed and built their
homes. It was as truly a desert, not of the dry land, but of the waters,
and likewise it both foi'ced and fostered, rapid and high development of
the peoples who entered it and elected or w^ere driven to abide in it.
That the island homes of these peoples, the shell keys, might be built,
and in the ample water courts thereof a constant supply of fish be pro-
vided, it w^as even more necessary, after such beginnings as I have pic-
tured on a former page, for men to unite in each single enterprise ; the
which led directly, not only to increased communality,but also to a higher,
and in this case, an effective degree of organization. The arid deserts
have led men like the Pueblos to continued agricultural effort wherein
it was necessary for them to closely unite in the watering or irrigating
of the soil ; and concomitantly it has led them to a high degree of archi-
tectural development in not only granary-, and house- construction itself,
but also in protective building, fortification, against those who, tempted
by the ample stores thus garnered, sought to rob them ; and finally, it
has led, through these two causes for united effort, to high communal
organization and high sociologk and sacerdotal government. But the
men of the desert sea wastes, here among the keys, were beset by dan-
gers far greater than those of human foemen, necessitating far more
arduous communal eff'ort in the construction of places, rather than
houses, of harbors and storm defenses, rather than fortified dwellings ;
and the construction of these places under such difficulty and stress, led
to far more highly concerted action and therefore developed necessarily
not only sociologic organization nearly as high, but perforce a far higher
executive governmental organization.

413

[Gushing

The development of the key dwellers in this direction, is attested by
every key ruin — little or great — built so long ago, yet enduring the
storms that have since played havoc with the mainland ; is mutely yet even
more eloquently attested by every great group of the shell mounds on
these keys built for the chief's houses and temples ; by every lengthy
canal built from materials of slow and laborious accumulation from the
depths of the sea. Therefore, to my mind, there can be no question that
the executive, rather than the social side of government was developed
among these ancient key dwellers to an almost disproportionate degree ;
to a degree which led not only to the establishment among them of
totemic priests and headmen, as among the Pueblos, but to more than
this — to the development of a favored class, and of chieftains even in
civil life little short of regal in power and tenure of office.

A curious side of their life may be seen to have almost unavoidably
helped toward such a development. "With agricultural peoples of the
desert, beginnings are almost always made normally, — in the totemic or
purely clanal condition of development. Thus the lands, the garnered
stores and the very houses, belong primarily to the women, and there-
fore the existence among them of men of a highlj' privileged class — as, of
any directly hereditary line of chieftains — is rarel}-, if ever, fostered. On
land, it was not until bj^the domestication of animals and the wandering
pastoral mode of life this involved was adopted, that formal patriarchal
or gentile organizations replaced mother right in property and the matri-
archal or clanal organization of society and government — since only then
did property come to be held by the men. For it was not until men held
all-important possessions that the}' took the lead, and by ever-increasing
competition in these, ushered in the growth of privileged classes, the
establishment of direct heredity, and so, of lines of patriarchal elders,
headmen or chieftains. But it may be seen that here on the keys the
case was different from the very outset. The one most important pos-
session of the key dwellers was the canoe. This was essentially a man's
possession. Thus what on land was effected by the possession (by the
men), of herds and beasts of burden, was here in the sea effected by that
of an inanimate (but supposedly animate) vehicle of burden, the
canoe. While the women stayed at home in the houses of the safe
and isolated keys, the men continually went forth over the surround-
ing waters in these canoes that were owned by themselves. Being
the possessors of property so important to the lives of the whole people,
here where the plan of social organization was still, no doubt, at
least traditionally totemic, it must nevertheless have become to a
limited extent patriarchal — virtually so, as far as the ruling class of men
was concerned. This property-right of the men, in canoes that were so
directly related to the public works which fostered the executive func-
tion in government, then, helped, I take it, toward the establishment of
king-like chieftainships ; and the main point of this seeming digression is,
that it was due to this kind of life and development originally, and to

CnshiDg.] 4:14: [Nov. 6,

inheritance therefrom, that all the great southern tribes encountered by
De Soto and his successors, were ruled over by the most powerful chiefs
we know of, outside of Mexico, Peru and Central America, anywhere
on this continent ; namely, the Mikos or King-chiefs, who had actual
power of life and death over nearly all — save members of the priest-
hood— among their subjects, and were held to be of divine descent.

This abnormally high development in government, indicated by
great public works on the keys and among the mounds, and in a meas-
ure by historic records, is, as we have seen, paralleled in the arts of the
keys, for in them we found, along with an exceedingly high growth of
the conventional side of art, an artistic freedom on the aesthetic side
that I have not seen equaled in any of the primitive remains of this con-
tinent, elsewhere, save alone perhaps, in those of Central America.
This gives good ground for another generalization ; that while the
desert of the land, with its scant vegetation andscanter animal life, leads
naturally, yet through the technique involved, to formal conventional
art, the desert of the sea, teeming with growth and quick with animal
life in untold variety, beauty and abundance, leads as in this case,
and for like reasons, not to formal, but to highly realistic convention-
alization. In the one art, that of the land desert, may be found
abundant textile and basketry forms of decoration. There, life seems
to have been held so dearly that only in angular or geometric style, or
by means of pure symbols rather than by direct representation, were
animistic qualities attributed to things made ; so that above any other
ai"t, the art of the arid desert may be called attributive art. But here in
the sea wastes, where life so abounded, X\\g forms, alike of animals and of
men, were lavishly, most realistically and gracefully represented, and the
commonest tools were shaped over with quite unmistakable life-marks
and other added features, and were thus, while conventionally, withal
realistically and fearlessly invested, with their animistic and specialistic
powers. So, in contrast to the art of the inland desert, this of the sea
may be called an art of investure. It seems to me that now possessing
as we do examples of these opposite extremes of art (for museums are
filled with the one extreme) there is scarcely a primitive kind of art,
ancient or modern, which cannot be measurably interpreled l)y com-
parative study of the one kind (the conventional and attributive) and
the other kind so clearly illustrated by our collection (the realistic and
the conventionally investive). In this, then, as in its exemplification
of man's direct relationship in cultural and even perhaps in racial devel-
opment, to his environment, our study of the ancient kej' remains, takes
its place in the general study of the Science of Man.

I have only to add that the combined archasological data and collec-
tions which we gathered from the ancient keys, were together so com-
plete (happily because so many perishable objects were preserved intact
and in their proper relations) tliat tliey might be called, what though so
very ancient, almost literally etlinological, rather than arclueological

189G.] 4 1 0 [Gushing.

collections. The specimens themselves are now sadly warped and
shriveled. But happily some of them can be fairly restored by treat-
ment with preservatives ; and happily also, our photographs, drawings
and paintings, and casts, made in the field, are almost equal for studj-
to what the originals were when found. Thus, after tlie original series is
arranged and exhibited here in the Museum of the University of Pennsyl-
vania, and after a duplicate but representative series is displayed in the
National Museum at Washington, further comparative study of them
will be possible, and through this study the ancient key dwellers as
a people, the story even of their modes of daily life, will become known
to us so fully as to make it almost like unto one which might be told
of a living people. And were it possible now, I would fain present
a picture of tlus olden life on our shores — so remotely pre-Cohimbian
and so truly primitive — since I am sure that with the materials at hand
it could even now be made more perfect and detailed than any relating
to a period equally remote, that has thus far been possible. Certainly
it could be so made when aided, not only l)y comparative study of
the works of such peoples as, let us say the Arawaks of Brazil and
the Orinoco, but also, of the early historic records. Still, I shall
have to content myself — and perhaps it is just as well, since this
will give time for carrying the details of such study much further —
with presenting a picture of the kind in the final, fully and amply illus-
trated volume of the Pepper-Hearst Expedition, which Major Powell
has so liberly consented — as a joint work of the Bureau of American
Ethnology of the Smithsonian Institution, and the Department of
Archaeology and Palaeontology of the University of Pennsylvania — to
publish.

Gushing,] 4ib |Xov. 6,

DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF PLATES XXV-XXXV.

WITH EXPLANATIONS OF FIGURES,
AND TEXT REFERENCES.

Plate XXV.

The outline map, shown on Plate XXV, is reproduced from the latest
Government Hydrographic Surveys, and indicates the location of Tar-
pon Springs, — the northernmost point on the Gulf coast of Florida (see
pp. 351 to 354, inclusive), explored by the Pepper-Hearst expedition of
1896 ; also the location of Key Marco and of the contiguous archipelago
of the Ten Thousand Islands, — which probably contains not fewer than
fifteen hundred ancient key-dweller settlements or artificial shell islets.

It is designed especially to illustrate the relation (discussed on pp.
408, 409 and 410 in the text) of the Currents of the Caribbean Sea
to the principal island clusters or settlements of the ancient key-
builders, as probably bearing, to some extent on their remote origin.
The series of arrows represented as leading past the gulf of Maracaibo,
in South America, thence through the strait between Yucatan and west-
ern Cuba, and thence in turn, to the keys and islands of southwestern
Florida, defines the current, which is regarded as having been influen-
tial in peopling these areas of the keys with wanderers — probably of
Arawak extraction, via the region of the Orinoco in South America.

Again, the series of arrows represented as passing northwardly along
the outer or Atlantic side of both the Lesser and Greater Antilles, and
thence to the Lucayo or Bahama Islands, defines the current w^hich is
regarded as the possible line of comparatively recent Caribbean deriva-
tion, as evidenced by various art remains in eastern Florida and
Georgia, which are referred to, in the footnote on page 410, as discov-
ered by Prof. Wm. H. Holmes.

2896.1 417 [Gushing.

Plate XXVI.

The view presented on Plate XXVI illustrates the appearance
of certain shoals and islets to the eastward of Key Marco, in the
northwesterly edge of the Ten Thousand Islands. It admirably exhib-
its the form of an original oyster-bar or coral-reef, as defined by
the lines of foam caused by the rapidly retreating tide. It will be
observed that these lines enclose a central space of deep water (between
the two black masses of reef-crags already exposed), and that these
foam lines extend off laterally, forming an irregular, atoll-like, or
semicircular enclosure, that greatly resembles the outline or plan of a
true, built up or artificial key, or shell settlement.

For this and other reasons — discussed at length on pp. 335 to 837,
inclusive, and incidentally elsewhere in the text — it is supposed that the
earliest key-builders made the beginnings of their great shell structures
or islands (such as are mapped on Plates XXVIII and XXX) upon reefs
and shoals like these.

The appearance, seen from a distance, of these shell islets or keys, when
overgrown and surrounded by mangroves, as nearly all of them are,
is quite well shown toward the left, and also at the extreme right, of
the picture.

■Cashing.] 4io ] Nov. 6,

Plate XXVII.

The photograph reproduced on Plate XXVII, was taken from the
southern sea-wall of Cayo del Oso, or Bear Key (visible in the leftward
distance of the view on the preceding Plate, — XXVI). The outlying por-
tions of this key had been burned over, on the hither side, and although
the inner portions were not typically lofty or extensive, nevertheless the
marginal structures of the keys in general, — as described on pp. 331 to 350,
inclusive — were here exceptionallj^ Avell revealed. Hence, this view was
chosen from among manj- more impressive scenes, as best illustrating the
surrounding enclosures and other details of such keys : First, of the sea-
walls, outwardly fringed by mangroves (both seen to the left of the pic-
ture) ; of a small fish-pound or water-court with its little outlet-canal
seen beyond the second ridge of the foreground) ; and of a larger, partly
filled water-court (seen between the third ridge and the western sea-wall
— its canal leading off among the trees and bushes to the right). Unfor-
tunately the heights of this key are hidden, or are at best but slightly
indicated — in the shrubberj" at the extreme right background of the
view — giving an impression of flatness that is not characteristic.

1896.] 41 J [Gushing.

Plate XXVIII.

In the plan and elevation of Demorey's key presented on Plate
XXVIII (described at length on pp. 338 to 341, inclusive), one of the
most perfectly preserved, and probably most recent, of the ancient
shell settlements or artificial islands of Charlotte Harbor. and neigh-
boring waters is outlined.

The upper sketch-map, although not sufficiently detailed, was drawn
from a careful survey laboriouslj'' made by myself, and gives a fairly
accurate general idea of the terminal terraces, the two inner canals, the
principal graded way, the central group of mounds and pyramids, and
the great crowning terrace — with its subsidiary platform of approach —
as in part illustrated in the succeeding Plate, — XXIX. Unfortunately,
however, neither the sea-wall extensions, the nearly submerged en-
closures within the swamps, nor the drainage- and garden-basins — or
"Spring holes," locally so-called — in the northern benches or low plat-
forms, could be properly shown on this scale.

The subjoined elevation was redrawn from an imperfect sketch of my
own taken from the top of a tree, necessarily inside the key, and hence
it gives a view-point that does not quite coincide with the more correct
orientation of the map above. Nor does it correspond in scale — of details,
— hence the central group of mounds appears too far to the right, and the
altar-mounds at the end of the crowning terrace are unduly exaggerated
in both height and length. Nevertheless, the general contour of the
elevations here shown will serve to suggest, in a measure, their striking
similarity to mound-groups in the Mississippi and tributary Valleys,
and to the terrace-, or platform-builded foundation-structures of ancient
Central American cities, referred to in the concluding paragraphs of the
text, on pp. 108, 109.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 153. 3 A, PRINTED AUG. 10, 1897.

Gushing.] 4:JU [Nov. 6,

Plate XXIX.

The view of the rounded corner and a portion of the side at the south-
eastern end of the. shell-faced platform on the crowning terrace or
elongated pyramid-mound of Demorey's Key, Pine Island Sound, given
in Plate XXIX, does not, unfortunately, include the subsidiary" platform
of approach at the farther end. As related on pp. 338 and 339, the vegeta-
tion covering this and nearly all other portions of the kej% was so rank,
that but for an accident, the character of the shell work of this terrace
would not have been even suspected. Hence too, the tessellated pave-
ment of clamshells along the lines of approach to the side platform and
toward the end of the main work, were exposed only here and there, at
great labor, and therefore do not appear in the picture. It will be ob-
served however, that the apices of many of the shells in the facing of the
terrace, are crushed in. It was found that as this ancient facade was built
up, the conches were laid in place — the whorls of each course all turned
one way — and that finally all were hammered into place more firmly, until
the whole facing was thereby made even. It was thus that the points or
spires of some of the shells were broken in as shown. I later learned
that this mode of building was resorted to not only in such facings of
the heights, but also in the laying of tlie foundations of the keys on the
submerged reefs.

1^96.] 4-j1 [Gushing.

Plate XXX.

The contour lines in the Topographic map of Key Marco (represented
on Plate XXX, and described on pp. 349, 850, of the text), by means of
which Mr. Sawyer has indicated, with the utmost fidelity and accuracy,
the minutest features of that remarkable and gigantic structure, nec-
essarily have to be reproduced here in one color. Therefore, the sig-
nificant difl^erence between elevations and depressions above and below
the mean or higli tide level are not clearly apparent. For example, the
circles and parallel lines in the extreme southeastern portion of the
map, represent deep round wells or basins, and almost equally deep
canals and graded ways leading to and from them : while the quite sim-
ilar, although more numerous, lines at 13', 14' and 18', in the easterly cen-
tral portion of the map, indicate mounds and other heights above the
mean, corresponding, in foot-measure, to these several figures.

The long, narrow water-court or fish-pound — at the northern end —
still slightly open to the sea through its short canal ; the three larger
courts — respectively twenty, thirty, and fifty feet wide — down on the
western side, and the larger triangular "Court of the Pile Dwellers "
excavated by us and shown more fully in the plan on Plate XXXI, are
all indicated by flat shading, and are marked with mangrove signs.

It will be noted that above and toward the left of this court, are two
similar courts, that had been filled nearly up to their marginal rims,
probably to form gardens or platforms ; and that to the right, the very
large bayou at the southern end of the key was already being reclaimed
for the formation of additional courts or enclosures, by the extension of
the shell works down toward the terminal eastern sea wall. Excava-
tions revealed the fact that in places the borders of this bayou were
already occupied by dwellings like those of the courts, at the time of
the abandonment of the place.

The eastern edge of the key was worn away by the sea. The termini
of canals similar to those on the northwestern edge, as well as the gen-
eral oval outline of other portions of the key, indicated that it originally
extended a little more than two hundred feet out in this direction, and
that it probably here also contained water-courts, fish-pounds and other
features, like those lower down on the opposite margin. It also indicated
that at the time of abandonment, the place of the extensive mangrove
swamp to the southward, was open water, and that the main tidal cur-
rent between the key and Caximbas island further to the south, fiowed
past this easterly portion. It is remarkable that Key Marco is excep-
tional in having thus been somewhat demolished ; for of more than a
hundred keys examined by me, first and last, only this and five others
had been disturbed by the countless storms that have, throughout un-
numbered centuries, swept those regions and changed, on every hand, all
other sections of the coast. During the ages that must have elapsed
since these gigantic structures were piled up, they have stood unscathed,
the stress of tidal wave, and flood and storm ; and they were, in early
historic days, as is abundantly attested by old writers, used as places of
refuge in times of inundation, by Indians, as, indeed, they have continued
to be used ever since, even by modern settlers.

4.90

Gushing.] i— — [Nov. 6,

Plate XXXI.

Little more need be said of tlie Plan and Section of the " Court of the
Pile Dwellers" at Key Marco, shown on Plate XXXI, than has already
been remarked in the text (on pp. 350, 356, and succeeding pages, and
again in the explanations of figui'es, that follow).

The section below this plan corresponds to an east and west line
througli the court from above section 1, to above section 70 ; and the
heavy black border-line around the margins of the court, represents accu
rately the area cleanly excavated by us. The locations of preliminary
excavations by Collier, Wilkins, Durnfordand myself, in sections 14, 23,
83, 33, 34 and 44 ; those of the shell house-piers and -benches, and those
of structural finds and of the inlet- and outlet-canals, are significantly
indicated by the dotted enclosures, legends, and graphic figures.

I89C.] 4^d [Gushing.

Platp: XXXII.

Only a few typical examples of more than two hundred fairly well
preserved tools and weapons recovered by us from the court of the Pile
Dwellers, could here be figured.

Fig. 1. Kepresents a hafted busycon-, or couch-shell gouge or adze —
such as described on p. 368. The length of the handle, which was of
buttonwood, was fifteen inches ; of the shell head or armature, seven
inches. This particular specimen was found by Gause, close to the
edge of the shell bench, — in section 21 (Plate XXXI).

Fig. 2. Represents the handle of a carving-adze of hard, dark wood,
like madeira in appearance. It and others of its kind are described on
p. 369 of the text. The length of its handle, from end to crook, was
twelve inches ; of the head, from the crook down to the insertion of the
socketed blade-receptacle of deer horn, five and a fraction inches ; and of
this ingenious bit-holder, three inches. It was found with eight other
similarly crooked and socketed adze-handles — all contained in a cere-
monial pack, — in section 40 (Plate XXXI).

Fig. 3. Represents a superb, single-hole atlatl, described with others,
on pp. 371 and 372. It is, by an oversight, figured upside doAvn in this il-
lustration— the tail of the rabbit-carving at the end, having been skilfully
adapted to form the propelling spur of this remarkable throwing-appa-
ratus. Its length was nineteen inches, and it was made from fine,
springy hard wood — like rose wood in appearance — probably the heart
portion of the so-called iron-wood of the region. It was found, associ-
ated with the plugged and hollowed or "footed " shaftment of an elabo-
rate cane throwing-spear, — in section 62 (Plate XXXI).

Fig. 4. Represents a double-holed atlatl or spear- thrower. It is de-
scribed, with the preceding specimen, on pp. 371, 372 of the text, and
like it, consisted of dark, red-brown, flexible wood. It was sixteen
inches in length, and was found, — in section 29 (Plate XXXI).

Fig. 5. Represents roughly, one of the singular and highly finished
hard-wood sabre-clubs armed with shark teeth, which are described on
pp. 372, 373 of the text. They were from twenty-four to thirty inches in
length, and probably, like the war-clubs of the Zuiii Indians, corre-
sponded to the length of arm, or of thigh from hip to knee, of those who
made and used them. The specimen here figured was found by Mr.
Bergmann, — in section 11 (Plate XXXI).

Fig. 6. Represents a toy canoe, of cypress wood, nineteen and three-
quarter inches in length. As described on p. 365 of the text, it was
found with another of like proportions — to which it had been attached,
probably in imitation of sea-going catamaran-canoes of the ancient key
dwellers, by means of cross-stays, — by Gause and Clark, — in section 26
(Plate XXXI).

Fig. 7. Represents a little flat-bottomed toy canoe, (such as described
on p. 364) of the kind supposed to have been used in canals, bayous, and
other shoal waters. It was found by myself, — in section 7 (Plate XXXI).

Fig. 8. Represents a paddle of hard wood, the end of handle burned off
as described on pp. 361, 366. It was found by Gause, sticking slantingly
up through the muck, in the mouth of the inlet-canal, — in section
48 (Plate XXXI).

Cushing.l *— '^ 'Not. 6.

Plate XXXIII.

Of the many animal figureheads, and actually, as well as decoratively,
associated human masks discovered in the Court of the Pile Dwellers,
those of the wolf and wolf-man, and of the pelican and pelican-man
only, Avere chosen for illustration here, not because they were the most
striking or perfect examples of the kind recovered, but because they
illustrate more completely than others, the singular relations and mean-
ings of these peculiar objects of art — as I have endeavored to explain them
in the text, on pp. 388 to 394, inclusive.

Fig. 1. Represents very perfectly, the wolf figurehead, as it appears
w^hen the parts are put together as the relations of the perforations and
cord fragments therein indicate they were originally joined. When this
figvirehead was found, — by Gause and myself, in section 30, Plate XXXI
— the ear-pieces were back to back, and were thrust through the hollow
head-piece and open mouth ; and the conventional, scroll-like shoulder
and leg-pieces, were laid together in like manner, and were neatly bound,
with strips of palmetto, or flag-leaf — still green in color — to the side of the
head. This head-piece was six and one-half inches in length ; the spread
of the jaws, five and seven-eighth inches; the ear-pieces, six inches in
length, and the leg and shoulder-pieces, four and six-eighths inches long.
Happih^ Mr. Sawyer was able to make an excellent water-color sketch of
the specimen before it was disturbed, and another after it was put to-
gether and was still bright with the moisture of its centuries of im-
mersion and preservation.

Fig. 3. Represents the human featured mask associated with this wolf
figure-head. It is less perfectly shown in the sketch, since the details of
its paint decoration do not, in mere black and white, show as plainlj^ as
could be desired, and hence the really unmistakable correspondence be-
tween these color-designs (in black, brown, gray-blue and white),
and the general aspect and face-markings of the animal-head, is not so
pronounced as in the original. But the black ear-marks over the eyes, the
black, indented stripe under and around the nostrils, the scroll like out-
lines of the shoulder-pieces (in white lines over all the other markings
in the middle of the face), and the zigzag lines representative of the
gnashing teeth or tusked jaws of the wolf (across the cheeks toward the
mouth of the mask), will at once, however, be recognized.

This mask was nine inches in length, by six inches in width, and was
found in the same section, (30), not only with the wolf figurehead, but
also near other masks and figureheads.

Fig. 3. Represents, on a-greatly reduced scale, the pelican figurehead, —
found by Gause and Hudson, in section 40. This extraordinarily grace-

1896.] 4J0 [Gushing.

ful, and realistically painted carving, was four and one-half inches high,
by three inches in width of shoulders ; it was much under natural size of
the bird it represented, but it was surprisingly life-like, what though so
beautifully and conventionally idealized as a figure of the head and front
of the pelican. Near it were thin slats, admirably cut and painted to
represent the wings of the bird ; and they were pierced, as were the incut
shoulders of the figurehead itself, for attachment thereto. The mask (fig.
4) found near this figurehead and the other painted carvings mentioned,
was nine and one-eighth inches high, and five and one-quarter inches
broad. It was vinquestionably designed to represent the human, or man-
god counterpart of this bird ; for not only, was the chin protruded and
the under lip pouted to symbolize the pouch of the pelican, but also, the
rear and tail of the body (painted in white on the chm), the trailing legs
(in gray-blue and 'white lines, descending from the nostrils around the
corners of the mouth), the wings and shoulders, (in dappled white over
the cheeks), and the huge bald head (in white on the forehead of the
mask), were all most distinctly suggested. Moreover, on the upper
edge of the mask (at the terminal point of the bird head painted on the
forehead), were perforations, indicating that either an actual beak, or
an appendage representative thereof, had been attached. With this in
mind, if the mask be reversed and a comparison of the design on it be
made with the figurehead, or with the imagined form of a flying peli-
can seen from above, the almost ludicrous resemblance of the design to
its supposed original will readily enough be seen.

Cushing.J ^^jD ry^ov. 6,

Plate XXXIV.

Fig. 1, in Plate XXXIV, represents a tablet of rivean cypress wood,
sliaved with shark-tooth blades to a uniform thickness of less than half
an inch, — the characteristic marks of this work being visible all over the
iinpainted portions of both sides of the board. It was found by myself,
standing slantingly upright — in section 21 (Plate XXXI), the painted
side fortunately protected by its obliciue position. It was marvelously
fresh when first uncovered, — the wood, of a bright yellowish-brown
color, and the painting vivid and clear. It is sixteen and a half inches
in length by eight and a half inches in width, and was slightly concavo-
convex from side to side. Upon the hollow side is painted the figure of
a crested bird, with four circlets falling from his mouth. A black bar,
and over it the outlines, in white, of an animal, is represented as under
the talons ; and a long, double-pointed object, — probably a double-
bladed paddle, — as borne aloft under the right wing of the figure.

The drawing here shown was made from a very obscure photo-
graphic print, and does not, therefore, adequately show some of the
minutest, yet most significant details visible in either the original or in
the fine full sized painting made by Mr. Sawyer when the specimen was
freshly taken up from the muck. In the first place, the bands and spacer
of white on the figure, enclosed very significant zones of clear light blue,
— on the crest, neck, body and wings. They do not show here, but
they made it possible to identify this primitive bird painting as
that of the jay, or else of the king fisher, or more probably still,
of a crested mythic bird or bird-god combining attributes of both.*

*,In reference to certain scarred or crest-marked skulls found by us in the burial mound
at Tarpon Springs, I wrote the Chief Ethnologist of the Bureau of American Ethnology,
Prof. W J McGee, as follows :

" , It is a well-known fact that certain classes of men among the Southern

tribes, — notably those of the Maskokian confederacy, the Creeks especially,— wore the
hair in erect crests, cropped and narrow in front, broadening rearwardly to the back of
the head, where it was allowed to grow to the normal length, and whence it depended
in each case, either naturally like a tail, or bound about with fur or stuffs, to form the so-
called scalp-lock. The researches of Gatschet make it evident that this was the special
hair-dress of the Warrior-class (see portrait of Tomochichi, a Yamasee war-chief, in Url-
sperger, vol. i). He finds that in the Creek language, Tas-sa (HiehitiTds-si), signifies alike
' jay or king-fisher ' ( ' crested bird ' ) and ' hair-crest ;' while Ttis-si ka-ya signifies 'Warrior ;
(lit., 'crest standing up'— that is, 'he of the erectile crest'). From other sources it
appears that as the jay was regarded as more powerful in resisting even birds of prey
than were any otlier birds of his kind, —as was also the king-fisher, so nearly resembling
him, more powerful than other birds of his kind, — because of their shrill and startling
cries and their habits of erecting their hair-like crests when alarmed in defending, or
■wrathful in offending their kind. Wherefore, the crest of the jay and of the male king-

1896.] 4-1 4 [Gushing.

In the second place, all of the main outlines of this primitive painting,
— the crest, neck, breast, shoulder, and oblique end of the tail, were
delicately spaced, so as to produce the eflfect of double outlining and
so as to enhance botli the beauty and the perspective of the figure. The
centres of the circlets falling from the open beak were filled with-
pigment — originally blue, white, and probably red, — and a tongue-like
line of white extended from the moutli to the circlets and was oppositely
continued in black, into the throat of the figure — enabling me to identify
it as the heart-line, and these circlets as "living," or "sounding"
breaths or Avords — symbolizing the "commands of the four quarters."
The animal represented under the talons of the bird figure, had a long
and faintly ringed tail, which extended nearly to the lower paddle-
blade, and enabled me to identify it, in turn, as a picture of the
raccoon — all as more fully described on pp. 384 and 385 of tlie text.

Fig. 2 represents one of those mysterious objects described on pp.
382 to 385 inclusive, as "altar-", or "ancestral-tablets." It was painted
on botli sides, — in black and white on the side here shown, and with
four round marks of white enclosed and dotted in black, centrally and
equidistantly disposed along the other side. It was made of light wood,
— pine or cypress, — was two feet three and a half inches high, ten inches
,wide, flat, and an incli thick below the shoulders, and nearly three inches
thick in the middle of convex shovel-shaped head or nose. It seems to-
be the highly conventionalized representation, as does the little amulet
of coral lime-stone below (Fig. 3, which is barely two inches long, by
one and a quarter inches wide), of some kind of monster of the deep —
like the alligator, or cayman or American crocodile.

Fig. 4 represents the painted valve of a pair of sun-shells described on
pp. 886 and 387 ; and compared as to details on pp. 393, 394 and 402, as
well as in Plate XXXV, with corresponding mound builder delineations.
They were found tightly closed together, and near some symbolic head-
slats, on which a bird-god (like tlie one just described) had been painted,.
— in section 30 (Plate XXXI), by Messrs. Gause and Bergmann.

Fig. 6 represents a beautifi;l little pestle and bowl of mastich-wood
found together as here shown, although tilted over — in section 40 — by
Alfred Hudson. The pestle was six and a half inches high ; the bowl,
three and a quarter inches in diameter. Both were handsomely polished
and were reticularly decorated with incised lines, so delicate as to al-
most escape detection.

fisher,— who were probably bird-gods of war,— came to be imitated (reproduced, so far as
possible) in the head-dress (or aspect) of the Warrior— the Wrathful Defender of his Peo-
ple and their Homes."

I quote this passage, which was later substantially published in the ^Iwimcan Anthro-
pologist (vol. X, pp. 17 and 18), because I think it throws light on the meaning of the
tablet here described and figured, not only as being really a painting of the Bird-God of
War of the ancient key dwellers, but also, because of its apparent bearing on probable
historic or derivative connections of the Southern Indians with a key dweller people or
ancestry.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 153. 3 B. PRINTED AUG. 10, 1897.

C'ushing.J 4-;0 [Nov. 6,

Fig. G represents a little jewel-box lid or bottom, of hard, dark brown
wood, eight inches in length, by four in width. The ends were rabbetted
and drilled for attachment (with sinew and black gum, traces of which
remained), to the ends of the box, and the ends themselves were in jux-
taposition. Each end was four inches long and of corresponding width,
and painted lengthwise on the outside, with double mythic tie-cords and
shell-clasp figures. The bottom and the other parts were missing, save
for fragments. With these fragments, however, were some of the
most superb ear jewels and plugs, shell beads and pearls, among all
our findings. Curiously enough, the remarkable outline of a horned
crocodile, painted on this little lid as here shown, occured on the inside,
and this plainly indicates the sacred nature of the box and its contents.
It is of interest to note that the horned crocodile (or alligator) was seen
by William Bartram, painted on the facades of the great sacred houses
of the Creek Indians, when he visited their chief towns more than a
hundred years ago.

This specimen was found by Hudson and myself, with the ceremonial
pack and painted shell descilbed on pp. 385, 386, — in section 40 (Plate
XXXI).

Fig. 7 represents a stool— described, with others of its kind, on p.
363. It is seventeen inches in length, between six and seven inches in
width, and at one end, five, at the other end, six inches high. It was
blocked out with shell adzes — as shown by traces of hacking still visible
on its under side, then finished with shark tooth knives, — from a piece
of hard, yellowish wood, probably buttonwood. It was found by
Clark, — in section 31.

I would call attention to the fact that it is sloped, or higher at one
end than at the other. This indicates that it was designed for use ((stride,
so to say, as is also indicated in other, even unsloped specimens, bj'
the slant of the pegs or feet, which adapted some of these stools for use in
canoes, lengthwise, but not crosswise. It is well known that the Antil-
leans, whose stools, while far more elaborate than those we found, were
not unlike them in style, had a fashion of sitting astride or lengthwise
of them. While this may, with many other points, signify connection,
it far more certainly signifies that this curious way of sitting was
established by the use of long stools in narrow canoes, and possibly
also, by use of the sitting-hammock.

429

fCushing

Plate XXXV.

The first figure here given, represents the statuette of a panther or
mountain lion-god. It is six inclies in height by two and a half inches
in length of base, from heel to knee-bend. It is carved from an exceed-
ingly hard knot, or gnarled block of fine, dark-brown wood, and had
either been saturated with some kind of varnish, or more probably had
been frequently anointed with the fat of slain animals or victims.
To this, doubtless, its remarkable preservation is due ; for it is still rela-
tively heavier, harder, and less shrunken by drying, than any other
specimen of like material in the collection.

This extraordinary object of art is generally described on p. 387, and is
referred to elsewhere in the text ; but I would again call attention to
the fact that while the head and body are not only delicately fashioned
and finished, even to the extent of polishing, the legs and the ends of the
paws, although smoothed outside, are simply shaped, and, — as though
purposely — left unfinished ; and the spaces below the tail — which is con-
ventionally laid along the back after the manner of Z,uni carvings of
the same sort of animal-god — and the spaces between the legs, still show
the characteristic marks of the fine-edged shark-tooth-blade with which
the figure was carved.

I found this gem of our art collections — on a happy day — at a depth of ■
not more than twenty inches, just between the overlying muck and the
middle stratum of peat-marl, near tlie edge of the shell-bench — in section
15. Not far away were found, a large stool, a decayed mask, portions
of a short wooden stave, and of symbolic ear-buttons ; a sheaf of about
tw^o dozen throwing arrows, and other remains of w^arrior- and hunter-
paraphernalia and accoutrements. This afibrds convincing evidence
that the statuette was a fetish or god of war or the hunt, like its clum-
sier stone analogues in Zuni land.

Fig. 2 represents the finest and most perfectly preserved example of
combined carving and painting, that we found — unless the figurehead
of a great sea turtle and its companion masks, referred to on p. 89, be
exempted. In form, or mere contour, it portrayed with startling fidelity
and delicacy, the head of a young deer or doe, a little under life-size ;
that is, in length, from back of head to muzzle, seven and a half inches;
in breadth across the forehead, five and a half inches. The view, as
stated in the text, on p. 392, where the significance of this figurehead is
discussed at large, — was an unfortunate choice for illustration, since it
is in full front, instead of in profile or a three-quarter aspect. Certain
points not noted in the text should be referred to here. Not only were
the ears, the bases of which were hollow, or tubular— and as already

Gushing.] ^^^ [Nov. 6.

Stated transfixed with pegs to facilitate attachment by means of cords
passed through bifurcate lioles at tlie back edge of the headpiece, — but
they were also relatively large, and were fluted, and their tips were
curved as in nature, only more regularly ; and they were painted inside
with a creamy pink-white pigment to represent their translucency ; and
the black hair-tufts at the back were neatly represented by short, dou-
ble black streaks of paint, laid on lengthwise and close together. On the
crown of the head were two slight, flat protuberances, with central peg-
holes, for the attachment of small antlers, probably imitative, for thej'
had disappeared, as actual horns would not have done.

The slime of the tortoise-shell eyes still remained in place, and the
combined bees-wax and rubber-gum cement with which they had been
secured was still intact when the specimen was found. The whites
of the eyes had consisted of some very bright gum-like substance, and
the front corners or creases of the eyes had been filled with black
gum and varnish, highly polished, so that, save for the four conven-
tional sets of equidistantly radiating winker-marks, they gave a sur-
prisingly life-like, realistic and timid or appealing, yet winsome ex-
pression, to the whole face. The muzzle, nostrils, and especially the
exquisitely modeled and painted chin and lower jaAv, were so delicately
idealized that it was evident the primitive artist who fashioned this
masterpiece, loved, Avith both ardor and reverence, the animal he was
portraying.

The face-markings were perfectly symmetrical. Those in wliite are
sufficiently shown in the drawing. The cheeks or jowls were gray-blue,
merging upwardly into black, and the two central and lateral bands over
the forehead were divided by a deep black band, and were themselves of
a deeper blue. The face, below the forehead-crescent, and between and
to either side of the white nose-marks, was painted a dull black ; while
tlie nozzle was covered with an intensely black and gleaming varnish,
and the nostrils, which were outlined in black, were deeply cut in and
partially filled with a thick dead black substance, to make them appear
still deeper.

I need only add that all the face-marks were not only delicately out-
lined with black, but were edged with fine, regular hair-marks ; and that
like marks, as well as minute stipplings, covered all the blue, and lighter
black areas of the face and sides, while along, and to the rear, of the
upper lip, the hair-warts were represented by neat, oval and regularly
disposed, thick or protuberant dots of black gum or varnish.

Although so much of the line-painting on this figure was as fine as
though made with a camers-hair brush, it was evident, as on other
painted specimens, that points and spatulaj of some kind — probably of
■wood — as well as brushes of human hair, had been employed in much of
the work; for the paint was mixed thickly with gum-sizing, — such as we
found many lumps of, in several shells filled with both the black kind,
and with the less permanent white and blue kinds of pigment.,

Fortunately, we secured an excellent photograph of this splendid

1896,] 431 [Cushing.

specimen, in situ ; and fortunately, also, it was immediately yielded to
Mrs. Cushing's care. For she placed it, with a few other choice speci-
mens, in a protected corner of our cabin, turning it and them, carefully,
tlaily, so that they dried so evenly and slowly that they neither warped
nor checked — only grew smaller in the process.

Fig. 3, — a, b, c, d, e, and f. The illustration here oflfersd has been so
fully referred to in various portions of the text, especially on pp. 393,
394 and 402, that little need be added.

While the central figure represents the art of the Georgia mound
builders, the marginal figures (of warclub, a — described on p. 373) ; of
plait-bound wrist-band and leg-band (b, c, — both painted in ventral
valve of a sun-shell, described on pp. 386, 387 and illustrated in Fig. 4,
Plate XXXIV) ; of large, inlaid, eye-like ear-button (d, — described on
pp. 374, 375) ; and of mask and ear-plug (/, — respectively described
on p. 375 and pp. 388 et seq.), are taken from objects and art specimens
found by us in the Court of the Pile Dwellers, at Key Marco. The corre-
spondence between them and the details and paraphernalia of the
Georgia figure, is sufficiently apparent at a glance.

It is desirable, however, to indicate several other points of correspon-
dence which might have been as clearly shown, given more ample scope
of illustration. In fact, our finds in the keys, — carefully observed in
their relations to one another, — actually furnish a nearly complete com-
mentary or explanation, of almost everything portrayed in connection
with this remarkable delineation of the ancient mound builders so
skilfully rendered and accurately reproduced in Prof. Holme's drawing
here given.

To begin with, the war-club we found was practical — a war-club for
use ; while the baton-like war-club held in the hand of the figure was
ceremonial and decorative. Nevertheless, our specimen, like the one in
the figure, was furnished with a knob at the end, grooved for the attach-
ment ot a tassel, precisely like the other one, conventionally shown in
this figure ; that is, the cord of attachment had been furnished, not with
two, but with one, slidiug-bead (similar beads of both shell and deer-
horn were frequently found by us). The node below these beads had
been formed by enwrapping a little conical plug of wood lengthwise
and then around — in a manner quite familiar to our grandmothers, and
shown clearly in the figure before us — and the fringe of the tassel had
been made of combined yellow, and green, very finely twisted, sea island
cotton cordage.

I liave already commented upon the beads of the necklace worn in
this figure. The pendant hanging therefrom, represents a typical form
found in all the more northerly of the Florida Keys. It is made from the
columnella and a portion of the spire of the busycon-conch-shell so com-
mon there. These large-headed, pin-like pendants, were not only used
as such, on necklaces, but were also favorite ear-spikes and -pendants
combined. When worn as ear-spikes, they were thrust through the

Gushing.] 4d-) [Nov. G,

ears so that the polished conical plate formed from tlie spire of the shell,
showed like a convex disc, in front.

The central portion of such a head-frontlet as is shown turned side-
wise over the forehead of this tigure, was found by me between sections
20 and 29, near the fine figurehead of an osprey or fish liawk. It con-
sisted, not of four, but of six, slender yellow wooden slats, shaved as
thin as cardboard, and lying side by side, — in which position relative
to one another, they had been secured by fine threads, alternately
woven over and under the slats, precisely as seems to be indicated in
this primitive delineation. The slats that I found, however, had been
figured over with black paint (and probably other colors), but the de-
sign could no longer be made out.

One other feature in this figure deserves interpretation in the light of
our finds — the representations of hair on various parts of it. On such
of our specimens as exhibited hair painting, the mode of representation
was precisely such as that exhibited around, (1) the pointed flap at the
hip of the figure ; (2) on the cross-marked, semicircular band at the back
of the head, as well as, (3) in the centre of the object that stands
slantingly up therefrom ; and finally, (4) on the tail-like tassel stiffly de-
pending from the back of the head, as well as (5) over the crest of the
hand-mask held below. All this makes it clear that (1) the flap in ques-
tion, was that of a beaded and otherwise decorated girdle-pouch of fur ;
that the semicircular band (2) was a hair-crest, while the object (3)
slanting up from it, was an elaborate hair-knot, attached to either side of
which was a thin semicircular plate, — in this case, probablj*, of mica : for
among the keys, silmilar, curious plates, were made either of gleaming
pinna shell, or of rubbed down, and highly polished pecten shells ;
while in ancient Shawnee mounds, identical forms have been found,
made, however, from the palmate portions of elk horns, and furnished
with teeth or narrow combs, unmistakably to facilitate insertion into the
hair. Finally (4) the dark tassel is simply a plaited scalp-lock or queue,
the end cut oft' squarely, and the hair standing out, therefore, like the
bristles of a much spread brush.

Yet other details in this and kindred figures of mound builder art, could
be explained equally well by comparisons with our finds as observed in
situ, but enough has been said, I trust, to render quite conclusive the
close and actual relation, if not the identity, of our key-dweller art, with
typical examples like this, of mound builder art — such relation as I have
not hesitated to suggest in the text.

Discussion".
Dr. Brintox :

Mr. President .-—After the brilliant demonstration of discoveries in
an entirely new field of American archeology, to which we have been
privileged to listen this evening, all that I could add is a discussion as
to the probabilities of the builders of those remarkable remains being
known or unknown to us. I shall review, briefly, the history, so far
as we know it, and the ethnography, so far as we know it, of the locali-
ties in which these were found.

Columbus, in his first three voyages, did not hear of the Northern
continent. He struck the Bahamas ; he was in Cuba ; he heard of the
Southern continent ; he heard of Yucatan ; but he did not hear, appa-
rently, of Florida. His last voyages were made from what he had
learned from the Indians of Cuba as to where the mainland was situ-
ated. He went toward the south, as you know, and toward the west.
He did not go toward the north. So far as we know the first informa-
tion which was derived by the Spanish settlers of Cuba and the Antilles
— their first information of the Northern continent — came somewhat
later. It was probably twenty years afterward that they first made
their expedition to discover what is now known as Florida.

The earliest exploration, which was that made by Ponce de Leon,,
he was distinctly led to make, according to the information we derive
from his contemporaries, by reports of the Indians of Cuba. He went
very nearly to this spot which has been shown on the map this evening
and journeyed northward. What led him, according to the statements,
was not only the thirst for gold but a nol)ler idea, the discovery of the
fountain, the river, of perpetual life. It is a common belief, among
the North American and South American Indians, that somewhere or
other there is that fountain or stream. It can be explained by their
general theory of mythology. No doubt it was shared by the Indians
of Cuba ; no doubt he heard of that, and it led him, therefore, in part,,
to make his expedition. He carried it out with unfortunate results, so
we have never been able to profit by the discovery in the sense in which
he intended it. That was about 1512 to 1520 — two expeditions which
were sent out by him or under his charge. "We have no very full-
reports of them, although we have some accounts.

On the other hand, we have abundant information of the expedition
which was headed by Hernando de Soto, who reached the Florida shore
in 1540. He landed also on the west coast of Florida, and probably in
Tampa Bay ; most likely near the present town of Tampa. "We learn
from the accounts of that expedition that he discovered there tribes who
were accustomed to build just such mounds as have been described to
you this evening. Those mounds are still in existence, and, so far as
we can locate the mound-builders, they were precisely where he
pointed them out. The historians of his expedition say, "The natives

Briuton.] 4o4: [Xov. 6,

l)uilded their houses on mounds made with hand for strength," as mili-
tary positions, and in order to raise them above the waters which some-
times invaded them. We have, therefore, a distinct statement, which
'Cannot be controverted, that at that time tliose people were accustomed
to build just such structures as those which have been mentioned to
you to-night.

From that time on the sources of our information are rather abundant.
There was a Spaniard (one of many who had been wrecked on the
Florida reefs) by name d'Escalante Fontaneda, who had been captured
by the Indians and remained with them six or eight years, about 1552 to
1560. He lived to write an account of his explorations there. He said
lie had traveled all over the peninsula of fair Florida, and adds that he
"had bathed in every river that he had come to, hoping that it would
be the one to confer upon him perpetual life." He regretted to add
that he had not found it, otherwise we should have had him here to-
night.

He says of the people there dwelling that they " live in a condition
of comparative simplicitj', but are great warriors and fine archers." He
adds that they were divided into a certain series of village communi-
ties ; and he mentions one in particular where he stayed the longest
time, about the locality described by Mr. dishing. He gives us the
name of the chief of the country, Caloosa ; he tells us also that that
had been a kingdom for many generations, and furnishes a few particu-
lars as to the genealogy of the king ; among others, the name of his
father (Sequene) and the names of his ancestors. We have, therefore,
rather strong evidence from this that the people who constructed these
mounds belonged to a race who continued to live there for some time
after the first discovery of the country.

From that time on Florida becomes a known country. In 1502, the
Protestants, who had been sent out by Admiral Coligny, settled in the
vicinity of the lower St. Johns, not far from St. Augustine. They
remained there five years ; wrote several very excellent books about
it (which we still have, fortunately) ; when they were dispossessed
and mostly massacred by the Spaniards who came in 1567. The Span-
iards made a permanent settlement.

The French had gone far up the St. .Johns River, probably to Lake
Okeechobee. The Spaniards explored it quite thoroughly and their
priests immediately began to study the languages and write books in
them and instruct their converts in religion. We have not all those
books, but we have several of them, so that we know something about
the native tongues of Florida at that time.

I need scarcely pursue this branch of the subject further than to say
that it was probably nearly a century before a Christian (Catholic)
church was founded directly in the locality which has been described
to-night. It was probal)ly about 1660 or 1666 that the Bishop estab-
lished a permanent priest there. He did not. however, have sufficient

1S96.] 4dO [BriiUOD.

means to extead liis parochial duties very far ; so that a chieftain of this
very tribe went over to the Bishop of Havana in 1668 and asked for an
additional priest. We have the record of that journey. He sent over
with this messenger a written description of what he wanted, not writ-
ten in the Spanish nor in Latin letters, but in characters which they
were accustomed to use, somewhat similar, probably, to those four
speech-words which Mr. Gushing has shown us to-night on one of these
illustrations, some form of hieroglyph.

Now, liow can we get at the evidence as to who these people were?
We found, in the first place, the earliest discoverers meeting with tribes
who lived upon mounds made in the manner described. They arp not
depicted in full ; but the fact tliat they were mound-builders and
mound-dwellers leads us to suppose that they might have extended to
the Florida keys and also the Ten Thousand Islands on the southwes-
tern coast. We have, I take it, the means to a solution through our
linguistic studies. Hernando d'Escalante Fontaneda (the Spaniard
whom I spoke of, who lived between 1550 to 1560 some five or six
years in this very locality) has left us in his memoir some fifty or sixty
names of the native towns, villages, chiefs and peoples. They have
been very carefully examined by Mr. Buckingham Smith, with the aid
of Mr. Pitchlyn (a native Choctaw), and they have, I consider, been
practically identified by him as belonging to the Choctaw group of dia-
lects. He has, it appears to me, sufficiently shown this. I will give
you two examples out of a number Fontaneda tells us that one of the
villages was called Cuchij'aga, which he translated "The Town of
Weeping." Now Mr. Pitchlyn says this means in Choctaw literally,
" Where we are going to weep." He gives us the name of the king,
Caloosa. There is no doubt that is a Choctaw word. Fontaneda says
that it means brave, or fierce, or cruel ; Pitchlyn says Caloosa means
"the brave black man," "the brave dark-colored man," dark or black
being also the symbol for bravery, boldness, ferocity. We have, there-
fore, these two words, the meanings of which are given by Fontaneda,
and which Pitchlyn says are good Choctaw to-day. I take it, there-
fore, that there is a very strong supposition that the inhabitants of south-
western Florida spoke a Choctaw dialect.

It is somewhat remarkable that we do not find any French or any
Spanish early accounts, giving traces of the Choctaw in the vicinity of
the lower St. Johns. That region was populated by an entirely differ-
ent linguistic stock and people, the Timucuas. Their language has no
similarity to any other, either in the Northern or Southern continent. It
is absolutely extinct and was a century ago ; but we have, fortunately,
one grammar and a confessional in it, which have been lately published
by the diligence of several eminent French scholars. We do not find
the Timuquanan words on the west coast of Florida, except in the
vicinity of Cedar Keys considerably to the north of the localit}- spoken
of to-night.

PROC. AMEI5. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 153. 3c. PRINTED AUGUST 10, 1897.

Briiiton.] 4db [Xov. 6,

Mr. Cusliiug has poiutecl out a similarity between tlie cultural ele-
ments discovered there and those in the vicinity of the Etowah mounds,
where the particular design he showed upon the screen has been taken
from. We know that the Etowah mounds were distinctly in the Choc-
taw country. I believe, therefore, that from the cultural side of the
question we have evidence enough to say that the main dialect of south-
ern Florida at the time of the discovery was Choctaw.

At the same time I desire to Ijriug forward some evidence to show
that it was not exclusively Choctaw culture. Our very eminent Ameri-
can archaeologist. Prof. Holmes, has made a study of pottery throughout
western Florida, in which he has shown that the decorations of that
pottery are peculiar in character and have manj' similarities to what he
calls the " Antillean culture," or the culture of the Great Antilles —
Cuba and so forth. In conversation with him, however, he tells me
that all the specimens on which he bases this are superficial finds ; in
other words, they lay upon the top of the mounds and village sites and
are not ancient. He believes, therefore, that the influence of that cul-
ture arrived at a comparatively late period. The explanation of that I
believe we can obtain from this same good old Spaniard, Fontaneda.
He tells us in his memoir that the natives of Cuba used to come across
the Gulf Stream and land in Florida in search of the fountain of life ;
and that they came finallj' in such numbers, that the king, Caloosa, or
his father, Sequene, assigned to them a particular village in which thej'
should live, telling them that it was useless to pursue that quest anj^
further. No doubt he had looked for it himself, with disappointing re-
sults, and therefore he assigned to them a particular locality on one of
these islands, and told them to live there. In all likelihood they
brought with them some touches of Antillean culture, which explains
the decorative designs of Prof. Holmes.

It is not likelj^ that we can find any trace there of true South Ameri-
can culture. The only people who occupied the Great Antilles and the
Bahamas and all the northern portion of the West Indies, were the
Arawaks. There has been some question of Caribbean decorative de-
signs ; but the Caribs never extended their permanent settlements even
to the island of Cuba. They were known there and Columbus first
lieard of them there, but they came merely as pirates ; they plundered
the shores and carried off women. These Caribs came rather late to
the northern shores of South America. They have been traced in the
last ten years in a manner which, I believe, is completely satisfactoiy to
American scholars. They never constructed a single permanent village
on any part of the North American continent ; never anywhere north
of the Isthmus of Panama ; never in Florida or along the gulf. If so,
we have no evidence of it whatever ; it has perished utterly. As to the
Mayas, Colum1)us distinctly heard of the Mayas in Cuba; his attention
was called to them by tlfc fact that the Cubans had wax, which they
did not make from their native bees. It was the discovery of that wax
in Cuba which led him to inquire and to ascertain that it came from the

1896.J '*<J * rBrinton.

Mayas at Yucatan. We know therefore that commerce between
them once existed ; and no doubt many elements of culture passed over
from Yucatan to the western portion of Cuba. We cannot trace it now
on account of the total destruction of the Cubans at an early period ;
and also because investigations have not been carefully made there for
archaeological purposes ; but we know the facts ; we know that the
Mayas did extend to Cuba, though they had no permanent settlements
there. The native languages in Florida — there are really only two so
far as the original names are concerned — were the Choctaw and the
Timuquanan. In the Antilles, in the Bahamas, and in the whole coast
of South America from the mouth of the Orinoco eastward to the mouth
of the Amazon, the country was covered exclusively by Arawak vil-
lages. They migrated from the south to the north. We can trace
them back to the highlands of Bolivia, where their ancestral stock still
remains. Their historj^ can be followed linguistically and culturallj'
from the central crestline of South America coming northward. They
reached the West India Islands, probably, at no great time anterior to
their discovery. It might have been 500 years, or 1000. We have not
found on these islands any signs of culture, other than distinctly Arawak
or Antillean in character.

It would appear, therefore, from these various lines of argument — his-
toric, cultural and linguistic — that we can discern a distinct develop-
ment, local in character, ethnic in its traits, of a North American cul-
ture. There are, to be sure, many strange points of similarity between
that and the Central American and South American culture ; but, as has
been said by an eminent American archfeologist, "Wherever j-ou find
the American Indian, you find him tarred with the same stick." He is
always developing under ethnic conditions towards a culture which is
similar everywhere. That is shown in many instances where we come
to study out an J' Indian development. Take this one of masks ; if we
compare the general character of those masks with those which we find
elsewhere (still preserved in actual use) we find a similarity in the
traits of them all. American culture is in one sense everywhere the
same. It is everywhere the same in its origin and in its lines of develop-
ment, although they are deeply influenced by ethnic and local pecu-
liarities.

I do not think the culture which has been exhibited here to-night —
strange and remarkable and most instructive as it is — has any pecu-
liarities which are in themselves broadly distinct from those in the
Choctaw district of northern Georgia and in the mounds there. Her-
nando de Soto, when about 1540 he made that exploration, found an
extremely high state of native civilization throughout northern
Georgia. He passed through that region where we find now the
Etowah mounds ; he found people there who knew something about the
use of gold and silver and who were in what we might call a copper
age ; and he encountered a people so highly developed that the his-
torians who accompanied him all expressed their admiration at it. The

Putnam.] 4do [I^ov. fi.

remains which have been discovered since confirm those reports ; so I
believe that the culture described this evening, which is eminently a
maritime culture, has developed from the same centre, though in its own
direction, and has many analogies to the culture which Hernando de
Soto found some distance north of it.

We have a record — very unsafe to follow — composed about 1650 to
1658 by an Englishman, written in Latin, translated in French and
published in Rochefort's History of the Antilles, where the writer
says that a general art culture existed from the Appalachean country
southward ; and he tells us, as Prof. Mason has pointed out, of dwellings
built on piles in the lower portion of Florida. I have not myself ex-
amined the original since I saw Prof. Mason's quotation some months
ago ; but I think it very likelj^ that pile dwellings are found anywhere
among native tribes where it is convenient to make them. "VVe meet
them throughout Borneo and Maracaybo ; and to this day the Semi-
noles, who live in southern Florida, build their houses often on piles
in the bayous. It is one of those natural and necessary methods of
construction which we will find under certain geographic conditions
wherever they are discovered. This is my contribution to this most
interesting study — entirely novel and extremely valuable — to which we
have had the privilege of listening.

Prof. Putnam :

It is seldom that an archaeologist has the opportunity of examining a
collection of objects of so much scientific importance as those on exhibi-
tion here to-night ; and it is certain that a thorough study of all the re-
sults of this exploration, carried on by Mr. Gushing, under the auspices
of the University of Pennsjlvania, will add largely to our knowledge of
American archteology.

Dr. Brinton has expressed the opinion that the people represented by
this collection were very likely of the same stock as those in other parts
of Florida and Georgia. I fully agree with him on this point, because
the culture we have here is of the same type as that known to have ex-
isted in other parts of Florida, and in Georgia, and I may saj" that it is
similar to that still farther north, as far up as the Ohio valley.

What I consider the most important point in Mr. Cushing's discoveries
is that he was able to bring out of this muck deposit on the Florida
Keys a large number of objects which by being buried in the muck were
preserved ; whereas the same objects if buried in a sand mound or lost
in a shell heap would have perished. It is important to note that the
objects in this collection, made of imperishable material, such as stone,
bone and shell, are of the same character as those already known from
other parts of Florida. Thus it seems to me that Mr. Cushing's dis-
covery instead of indicating a new culture, has thrown a powerful
light \\\m\\, and greatly extended our know ledge of, the old culture of
Florida.

The (question we are all asking is, Wiiere did tliis jteople originate :'

1S96.] 4oj [Putnam.

Mr. Cusliing is inclined to believe that they came from South America.
I understand that would be your idea (turning to Mr. Gushing), that
these were the Arawaks or the Caribs, and that they came up from South
America ?

Mr. Cu.shing (answering) : Yes.

Prof. Putnam (continuing) : Dr. Brinton is rather inclined to say
that they did not come from there.

Dr. Brinton : Because there is no linguistic evidence to that effect.

Prof. Putnam : And also that the culture is somewhat different from
either the Arawak or the Caribbean. It seems to me that it certainly is
a difierent culture. And now there is another point that M^e must con-
sider. Mr. Cushing's collection includes a large number of human
skulls which T have had the pleasure of seeing in the museum to-
day. I am much interested to note that these skulls are of the same
type as those found in tlie sand mounds of Florida. The first of this
type that I ever saw came from the sand mounds around Cedar
Keys and were brought to notice by the late Prof. Jeffries Wyman.
Mr. Clarence B. Moore has found this type in the sand mounds of east-
ern Florida. The same general type has been found througliout north-
ern Florida, Georgia, Alabama, and througli the region extending
towards the Cumberland valley in Tennessee ; also westward through
tlie Pueblo region and in Central America. It is the general brachy-
cephalic skull ; not only brachycephalic, but decidedly rounded, with
more or less artificial flattening of the frontal and occipital regions. I
have regarded this type of skull as belonging to the southern and south-
western peoples of North America. I believe that this type of skull is
the type of the people who first settled, so far as we know, in Cen-
tral America and on the shores of Peru and northern Soutli America ;
that in all probability this people extended eastward, coming across the
Isthmus through the Central American region and extending along the
Gulf of Mexico and over into Florida, and finally, judging from the
evidence tliat Mr. Gushing has presented to-night, being driven onto
these keys. In fact I should consider it probable that the line of migra-
tion was directly opposite to the one which has been suggested. That
is, I believe it more likely that tliis was a people wlio, having had an
early home in the Central American region, extended around the Gulf to
Florida, rather than a people who came from South America to the
Florida Keys and then spread into Florida and westward.

For a number of years Mr. Clarence B. Moore lias been engaged in
exploring the sand mounds of Florida. He has found a large number of
objects of the same character as many of these upon the table. He has
not found any wooden carvings ; I tliink he has not found anythin"
made of wood except a few very small pieces with copper attached ; but
nearly all the bone implements, many of the bone ornaments, and many
of the shell implements which are upon the table are almost identical
with those found in tlie sand mounds on the eastern coast of Florida.
Thus we find the same culture, so far as the bone and shell objects can

Putnam.] 44U [Xov. 6,

determiue the question, which existed here on the southwestern coast of
Florida, extending northward up the eastern coast.

The wooden objects in this collection are very remarkable ; and the
fact that wooden vessels took the place of pottery is an important one, as
it seems to indicate that the people w^ere forced to use wood instead of
pottery from the abundance of the former and the absence of clay to
make the latter. These masks I consider the most marvelous archao-
logical evidence that has ever been brought out. Never before have we
been able to dig up masks and to read the story that they tell as Mr.
Gushing has read it to us to-night. We know that the people of to-day
in Central America use masks very similar to these ; and I believe that
the people of South America have somewhat similar masks. We know
that many of our Indian tribes have masks .of very similar character.
This form of mask having the characteristics of the bird, or some animal,
represented over the face is so common to-daj" in Alaska and other parts
of the northwest coast, that it is actually startling to an ethnologist to
see these masks, dug up in Florida, showing the same character of art.
The interi^retatiou that Mr. Gushing has given to this idea of ex-
pressing the animal upon the human face and of making the Bird God,
or the Wolf God, is the same as that worked out by Dr. Franz Boas ;
and this we know to be true from actual evidence of the Indians them-
selves.

I can only add that Avhen I read Mr. Cushing's first statement of this
very interesting discovery, I did not know what to make of it. It
seemed to me almost beyond belief that so much of importance could have
been found down there in Florida, where so many had been working.
From his statement and from the photographs which he lias shown us
to-night I am satisfied that he has entered upon a very rich field, and
one of the utmost importance to the archfeology of North America. I
sincerely hope that his work will be continued, that he will have an op-
portunity to return to this place, and, if possible, to work for several years
about these keys. This whole subject should be investigated in a thor-
ough manner, that we may understand still more of this people who built
these peculiar and wonderful shell structures. We do not begin to ap-
preciate the probable antiquity of this people until w^e stop to consider
that these Florida keys could not have supported a very large ])opu-
lation, and that it must have taken an immense amount of time and
millions upon millions of conch shells to make these great mounds,
upon which the dwellings of the people were probably erected. Mr.
Gushing states that this people must have lived upon these keys many
centuries (I am inclined to say many thousand j'ears) ago.

There has been presented to us to-night one of the most important
archaeological papers that I have ever listened to ; and certainly the ob-
jects illustrating the paper are of extraordinary interest.

I sincerely congratulate Mr. Gushing, as well as the University and all
connected with this expedition, on the imjiortaiit results of his lal)ors.

1896.] 441 [Gushing.

Mr. Gushing : If I maybe permitted, Mr. President, to follow an ad-
dress, already so long, with a few remarks in reply to the most in-
teresting discussion with which Dr. Brinton and Dr. Putnam have at
cace honored me and added greatly to the value of my communication,
I shall much esteem the privilege.

The President : — The Society will be pleased, I am sure, to listen to
further remarks from Mr. Gushing.

Mr. Gushing : — First, then, in reference to Dr. Brinton's part in the
discussion, let me say tliatit was quite impossible for me to undertake to
review, much less to dwell upon, the nvimerous historic references
to early natives in Florida, that seem — as I am well aware — to have
pertained to the waning days of a people who were either the actual
key dwellers — as I have called them — or were certainly inheritors,
in great part, of their culture. Gould I have done this, Dr. Brinton
would have perceived that my belief fully, — almost more than fully —
accorded with his own, regarding the affiliations of these people with
later and historic peoples. I would add, relative generally to the early
inhabitants of western, southern-central and southwestern Florida,
that from archoeologic evidence alone, one can scarcely doubt they were,
at the time of the discovery, chiefly Maskokians (or of the stock to which
not only the Muskhogees, but also the Ghoctaws or Ghahtas, the
Hitchiti and other tribes of the Greek Gonfederacy, of the Southern
States, belonged, — as, if I remember aright, Dr. Brinton long ago
pointed out in one of liis published works. And since I regard these
Southern mound-building Indians as having inherited their mound-
building habits and much of their culture otherwise, quite directly from
key dwellers, I of course believe, with him, that the key dwellers them-
selves may be looked upon as having been, during the later centuries of
their existence, not only American Indians, but North American Indians,
and thus, in a racial sense, by no means a new people.

After all, the chief significance of these discoveries and finds of ours
in the keys of southwestern Florida is to be found, as I have said before,
in the unique illustration they afford of a peculiar local development in
culture and art as influenced by, or related to, a peculiar environment ;
and in this, while they may not pertain to a new or hitherto unknown
people, they certainly do reveal either a new phase of human culture, or
else an old culture in an entirely new light.

Nevertheless, I wish to explain a little more explicitly, quite exactly
where I stand with regard to these ancient key dwellers of mine — as to
who they were more remotely, as to what may have been their origin !
It is true I do not believe — and I do not think I have anywhere stated
the belief — that they were a neic people, or even that theirs was wholly
a new culture. I admit that there have appeared various articles in
which the most extravagant announcements have been made relative
to my Florida discoveries, — such announcements as I would not for a
moment have encouraged the statement of; and even in what I myself

Gushing.] 442 [Nov. 6,

have written for the press, I cannot be held responsible for "head-
ings" or " editorial leaders, " — much less for comments thereon in the
press at large.

But I would repeat that I think a close study of many objects in our
collection reveals decided trace of survival in art-types of a kind which
cannot be accounted for as well otherwise, as by supposing it to have
been derived, inherited remotely, I should say, from farther southern
regions — from South America, in all probability'. In my spoken address
I did little more than touch upon this important point, in order merely
to bring it before you in the proper connection, and I may not have
stated clearly enough that I did not think the key dwellers themselves,
or as a people, were wholly South American. I think, however, that
they may have been such in the very beginning ; that a South American
people, or that an intermediate sea-dwelling people derived thence, and
coming at last on the currents of the Caribbean Sea, to the region of these
keys — as indicated by my map — initiated, in this region, the practice of
the key building of which I found so many evidences. I have already
referred to the pointed paddle we found, which is both South, and
Central American, in type ; to the absence of bows, and the presence
of atlatls, which are likewise at home in those remoter regions,
more so than in these : and to the type of war club which prevails
down there, and of which, in particular, I would, even at the risk
of repetition, say a little more in this special connection. Let me
exhibit to you the actual specimen we found. It is, as I was at consid-
erable pains to show you, Maskokian in tj'pe, of the southern mounds ;
or, as Dr. Brintou has assured you, Choctaw, which is practically the
same thing. But the specimen I hold in mj- hand is an actual weapon,
not merely ceremonial, as were those of the Southern Indians, and it is
distinctively South American in type. It is not, save in semblance,
such as its parents were. It is wholly of wood, yet it does not represent
survival from a club of wood alone. It represents, if I am not mis-
taken, survival from a form of weapon like the double-bladed battle axe,
peculiar, originally, to South America — a form derived from a type of
stone-bladed implement nowhere represented in North America. I
here refer to the sliort, broad, and round-bitted, flat-backed celt-
blade, sharply notched at the sides near the butt, — not grooved as are
the axe blades of the United States, — which anciently prevailed all
through the Bolivian Highlands, in Peru, Ecuador and along the upper
reaches of the Amazon, and thence spread, no doubt, not only north-
wardly into the Isthmus, but also northeastwardly down the Amazon
and the Orinoco. These blades were set oppositeh', not into, but
a^(7t«8nhe sides of their club-like handles, and were attached thereto
by means of criss-cross bindings alternately passing through the right
notch of one blade, obliquelj' across the handle, and tlirough the left
notch of the other blade, then through the right notch of the second
blade, again across the ojiiiosite side of the liandlc, and tiirough the left

1S96.] 44j [Gushing.

notch of the first l)lade, in such wise that a weapon exactly resembling
this one, in general outline, was produced. From such a form of weapon
the double, semicircular bladed battle-axe of copper or bronze which pre-
vailed at the time of the Conquest in both Peru and Isthmean, or Meridian
America, appears also to have been derived ; as well as the form of club
I have described and here shown to have been almost as characteristic
of the kej^s (and, ceremonially, or still further derivatively, even of the
southern mounds) as it was originatively, of the country of its nativity,
namely. South America.

Much of like import may be said of the plaited leg-bands represented
on the human figure painted in the shell I have exhibited and described.
These bands are drawn as passing around, — not the ankles, as at first
sight appears, — but around the legs, just below the knees and above the
calves ; and we know^ that both the Arawaks and the Caribs had the
curious practice of tightly bandaging the legs in this fashion, in order,
it is alleged, to enlarge the calves ; but whether this is so or not, we see
that the practice was typically South American ; and I may add that it
prevailed noM'here in Northern America except apparently here among
the keys and in the mound region, and that in this last, it was evidently
a survival ; for it may be seen that the mound plates, such as I have
shown you by illustration, represent figures wearing not only wristlets
and leg-bands, as in this painting, — and as worn by the South American
and Antillean Indians,— but also, armlets or bands above the elbows,
and anklets or bands heloio the calves, as worn bj' so many central North
American Indians, when first encountered.

Now I have mentioned these comparatively inconspicuous characteris-
tics, not simply because they are the only evidences that might be ad-
duced in support of my supposition, but because they are the readiest
at hand and the most easily illustrated, of many such evidences.

I have not been unmindful of the fact that Prof. Holmes pointed out,
some years ago, an apparent Caribbean element in the decoration of cer-
tain ancient Floridian potteries, and although I surely referred to the
subject in the course of my address, I evidently did not make its signifi-
cance as clear as I trust my published notes will render it. Meanw^liile
we are certainly off of debatable ground when we study or consider the
collections of pottery made by vis in the northerly portion of the State,
— at Tarpon Springs, — or those made by Mr. Clarence Moore in easterly
portions of the State (as compared, in various ways, with the collections
of corresponding wooden-ware vessels gathered by us from the southern
keys) in reference to their relationship to primitive art-technique and
symbolism ; as influenced by, and inherited from, a given environment.

The forms of these terra-cotta vessels, and particularly the decorations
upon many of them, were eloquent of at least one thing. — that their
types had originated among a people who had once, — ignorant of pot-
tery-making,— made their vessels of shells, of simple gourds, and of
wood ; and that those primitive vessels of theirs had been more or less

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXV. 153. 3d. PRINTED AUGUST 10, 1897.

Gushing.] 441 [Xov. 6,

like unto these, their later vessels in clay. For, by critically examin-
ing the peculiarly involuted and concentric designs on so many of them,
such as were recognized by Prof. Holmes as analogous to Caribbean
decorations, I find that they were undoubtedly derived from the natural
markings of the curly- or crooked-grained wood of which these ancient
peoples had earlier made their principal vessels — that is, before they
became makers of pottery vessels at all.

Again, what lends plausibility to this supposition, is the fact that in
much of the pottery under consideration the surface-decoration resem-
bles a hachuring — so to call it, — the origin of which is as unmistakably
traceable to the surface markings of wooden objects carved with shark-
tooth blades ; and is simply the reproductive or imitative perpetuation,
in clay materials, of such markings as were unavoidable in vessels thus
made of the wood materials that preceded the use of, and served as the
models for, these vessels so differently made of potter}^ materials. All
this would, to my mind, indicate that these forms of decoration, — An-
tillean as well as Floridian — owed their origin to a similar condition and
environment, — and thus very probably were derived from some com-
mon source.

I failed, it now appears, to consider sufficiently these and many other
points which have been so appropriately brought forward and empha-
sized by Dr. Putnam as well as by Dr. Brinton, because, as I early
stated, it seemed necessary for me, in order the better to exhibit and
explain the large number of lantern slides (there were sixty-seven of
them) to abandon my manuscript notes. From the scientific stand-
point I ought not, in justice to my subject, to have done this, and I now
regret that I did ; for in the outline or syllabus of the address which I
furnished to both Dr. Brinton and Dr. Putnam these points were at
least indicated ; and in my manuscript, as will appear when it is fully
published, nearly all of them were fairly set forth.

If, then, you will permit me to restate my conclusions on one or two
only, of the more general of these points, which seem to me to include
or imply so many of the others, I will not detain you longer.

I cannot express too strongly my belief that there was a large " 3Iusk-
hogian " (or Maskokian) element among the ancient inhabitants of
western Florida — so large, in fact, that I think we may justifiably map
the whole western half of Florida, to as far south as the very end of
the peninsula, as Maskokian. Now the Maskokians were mound build-
ers, and therefore, according to my theory, must long have been dwel-
lers in the land. Whether they had themselves come from the South,
or whether they came thither from the North, or whether, as has seemed
to me more probable, they resulted from an intermingling here of stocks
from both directions, these questions still remain, I think, to be deter-
mined principally by further archteologic researches of precisely the
kind of wliich I have given you some account this evening, — although
much more extended, for I have but entered the borderland, as it were, of

1896.] 44o [Gushing.

au enormously large and fertile field. But I must reiterate that in the
keys, in the essential features thereof, and in the principal structures
thereon, we have prefigured, as it were, the mound-groups and their
outworks — those built not only by the Maskokians and other historic
Indians, but also by the prehistoric so-called mound builders them-
selves ; and since the keys thus represent a kind of mound building
that was absolutely essential, while to account for the almost equally
laborious earth-mound works, practical necessity cannot be conceived of
as a primary cause, I have claimed, not that the mound builders were
as a whole derived from the particular key dwellers I have been describ-
ing, but that mound building as practiced by them, was derived from an
analogous sea-, or shore-land environment. And thus, too, I have ven-
tured to suggest that the resemblance between the mound-groups of
our own land, and the foundation-groups of ancient Central American
cities — the plans of the principal structures of which are so strikingly
like even the plans of the earlier key structures — may indicate that
these, no less than the mound-groups themselves, were developed (with
much else in ancient Central American culture) from an original sea
environment of the same kind. So, the main point of all I have
brought forward in relation to our discoveries and collections as repre-
sentative of the ancient sea dwellers, is this : That for the study of
beginnings, alike of the sort just named, and in technology and art,
they are exceedingly suggestive and in some respects quite sufficiently
conclusive.

In thanking the distinguished gentlemen who have so honored me
with their discussion and in thanking the members of this Society for
their patient attention throughout, I wish once more to acknowledge my
profound appreciation of the aid and encouragement I have received
from your distinguished Vice-President, Dr. William Pepper ; my
gratitude also to Mrs. Phebe A. Hearst, and to other members of the
Board of Managers of the Archteological Association of the University
of Pennsylvania, who made possible the investigations of which I have
given you account this evening. Had t\\ej not thus come forward, I
had personally missed an opportunity of enriching my experience in
American archreology and ethnology that I have come to feel I could ill
have afforded to spare.

[Since the remainder of this discussion consisted chiefly of a detailed
description (occup}'ing nearly half an hour) of the specimens and illus-
trations displayed in the Hall of the Society, I have not hesitated to
incorporate the substance of the stenographic notes of it that were
kindly furnished me by the Secretaries of the American Philosophica.
Society, in the body of the published address.

In justice as well to my two distinguished critics, as to myself, how-
ever, I must repeat that in the off-hand address which alone they
discussed, I may not have made — probably did not make — a number

Ciwhing.] 44b [Mov. 6,

of the points they consider, as clear from my side as they were in
my written notes, and as I trust they now are in the fuller text.
Hence, it is not only appropriate, but seems to me a duty, to here furnish
comments on three or four of these.

Regarding Dr. Brinton's reference to the mounds on Tanij^a Bay, I
find, from the notes of the discussion, that I did not give the subject suf-
ficient attention. I should have stated more fully, that the mounds which
have been identified, as those discovered by De Soto, were of iirecisely
the kind I have described as occurring on Pine Island. That is, they are
not true keys, for they are situated on the mainland, and they are com-
posed of earth and shell combined, as were all the mounds near the gulf
coast of Florida that I have described as probably the works of the
descendants or successors of the kej^ dwellers proper. True typical
shell keys, no fewer than five of them, occur along the Manatee, below
the opposite' or southward side of Tampa Bay, but these are quite cer-
tainly not the mounds referred to as occupied at the time of De Soto.
They are either islands, or contiguous to islands. Nevertheless one of
them was apparently connected with a later series of earth-works which
seem to have been subsidiary, like those of Pine Island, Xaples and the
Caloosahatchee region. It was in the region of these latter, and of the
Okeechobee, that the renowned Chief Sequene and his successors, rulers
over the Caloosas, held sway, and it was principally among these peo-
ple— far inland, and more than a hundi'ed miles northeastwardly from
the Key Marco region, that Fontaneda seems to have lived. That the
particular peoples mentioned by him were not the same as the key
dwellers proper — certainly not the same in period and degree of develop-
ment— may be inferred from the single fact that they were, as Dr. Brin-
ton quotes, "fine archers ; " whereas, I have shown that the true key
dwellers were not possessed of the bow at r.ll, but used atlatls and
throwing arrows instead, and were not unacquainted, apparently, with
the blow gun, — both, I may remark, distinctively South American types
of weapon. That they derived these and other things already de-
scribed, from the Arawaks of a period suflficiently remote to allow time
for their domestication — so to say — in this region, still seems to me
probable.

While there is much to indicate the comparatively recent introduction
into both the Antilles and Florida of the Caribbean element, it seems to
me almost certain that if, as is generally affirmed, the Arawaks were the
true aborigines of the Greater Antilles, then thej' must have reached
those islands much more anciently than Dr. Brintou is inclined to allow,
— for some of the cave remains already found there give positive indica-
tion of high antiquit,y. Again authorities disagree as to the linguistic
evidence of Antillean — Carib and Arawak — connection with the natives
of southern Florida. An impartial examination of published and unpub-
lished vocabularies convinces me that there is quite as much to prove
such connection as has been ])rought fcn-ward 1o i)rove Maskokian con-

1896.] **' [Cushiug.

nection, the number of correspondences between the Arawak and the
Timucua and between the Timucua and Maskoki, being, for example,
about equal, and quite as readily explicable in both cases on the score
of acculturation or borrowing, as on that of descent. It is for this reason
that I have regarded archieologic evidence on this question of connec-
tions, as equal to, and in some waj's superior to, linguistic evidence ; and
a combination of tlie two kinds of testimony as superior to either. Wlien,
for instance, we find that the same word in both Carib and Timucua sig-
nifiesnotonly "Fish-pond" butalso " Vegetable garden," and when we
consider this in connection with the evidence I discovered on all the
ancient keys, of the actual filling in offish-ponds or enclosures to form
of them vegetable gardens, it seems to me we have quite strong indica-
tion of a wide-spread practice, commonly derived, by all these peoples.

If the linguistic evidence relative to connections either toward the
north or toward the south, of the ancient key dwellers, is thus far so
scant as to be inconclusive, this is to a certain extent also the case with
the evidence afforded by the human remains we collected. In justice
to Dr. Putnam I must state here that the series of skulls in my collec-
tions, examined by him, were not the key-dweller skulls. They were
skulls derived from the Anclote region, and like those he mentions as
previously collected by Dr. Wyman and Mr. Clarence Moore, were
exhumed from sand mounds. The true key-dweller skulls found by us
in the muck beds at Marco and in the bone pit on Sanybel Island, num-
ber only thirteen, but they are pronounced to be, by Dr. Harrison
Allen, who is studying them preparatory to full publication, uniformly
distinct from those of more northerly and easterly parts of Florida. In
the first place, the occipital foramime of these remarkable skulls are
abnormally large and remain open in even the most mature of them, — a
characteristic seen in only one cranium of our northern series. In the
second place, a curious feature of all these key-dweller skulls is that in
no case is the occiput flattened. Finally, they are found to be more
nearly of the Antillean type, judged, it is true, by only one or two
specimens of the latter examined by Dr. Allen, than of the northern
Indian type.

In connection with this, it is significant that the skulls of two dogs, in
our collections from the muck, were commented upon by the late Prof.
Edward D. Cope, as apparently, almost certainly, skulls of the species
of dog common in Incan times to the Peruvian and Bolivian Highlands.

Likewise in justice to Dr. Putnam, I must again state here that while
there icas pottery not only on the terraces, but also in the muck depos-
its, of the keys, even of the southernmost keys I examined ; still, the
specimens I exhibited before the Society — three in number — so closely
resembled the wooden objects of the same general kind, also exhibited
and in greater number, that they may well have been mistaken for
vessels of wood unless particularly dwelt upon. It is a curious fact
that of all the pottery discovered by us actually in the muck deposit of

•Cushiug.] 44o [Xov. 6, 1896.

Key Marco, only tray-shaped vessels, aad either shallow, or hemispheri-
■cal and deep, sooty, cooking-, or heating-bowls of black earthenware,
were found. Nearly all, as was to be expected, were crushed ; yet
from among the numerous sherds carefully saved in lots, Mr. Bergmann
and I have succeeded in bringing together the parts of not fewer than
fifteen examples, of various sizes ; and we hope to restore yet others.
One small, shallow bowl, a fragment of which I exhibited to the Society,
has happily been almost completely restored. It contains a quite
thick mass of black rubber gum — intermixed with crushed shell and
other substance — of precisely the kind that was used for cement and
paint material as described in the text. Other and larger examples con-
tain almost equally thick coatings of partly charred food, inside, and
like all the rest, incrustations of soot, outside.

No relics found by us in the muck so completely evidenced the use of
the water courts in which the deposits occurred, as places of actual
residence, as did these fire-vessels.

Only a single ornamental fragment was found. This was the conven-
tional figurehead of a crested bird, quite such as is found on many of
the traylike bowls of earthenware from the ancient mounds of the
Mississippi valley. But it had been drilled and reshaped, to some ex-
tent, to serve as a weight or pendant. On the contiguous heights, how-
ever, and on the heights of nearly all the keys, especially towards the
North, I collected many examples of more elaborate, more decorative
and varied potter3% much of it so distinct, in truth, from the potterj' of
the muck, that I was somewhat puzzled to explain it as the work of the
same people, at least in the same period of their development ; and,
indeed, it may be that in part this pottery of the heights is later, and
even perliaps represents to some degree the work of later peoples.

I can only add here more deliberately than was possible, of course, in
my spoken address, an expression of my continued appreciation of the
kindly comments with which Dr. Brinton favored me, and with which
Dr. Putnam both opened and closed his discussion,]

NDEX TO VOLUME XXXV.

Page.

AckQOwledgments of election 68

Aparicio, Julian, appointment as Director of Observatorio Meteorol. y Astrou., San

Salvador 307

Appropriation for signature book 298

Argon, tube containing, exhibited 36

Bailey, L. H., Factors of Organic Evolution 76,88,110,113

Barber, E. A., Resignation of 307

Berlin, Georges, presented 74

Bertkau, Philipp, death of 15

Biddle, Craig, representative at the Sesqui-centennial of Princeton University .... 76

Bonvvill, W. G. A., photograph 71

Brinton, D. G., remarks on identification of the Libyans with the Neolithic tribes . . 67

Resolution on papers by non-members 68

Obituary, Henry Hazlehurst 75

Factors of Organic Evolution 77, 111

Representative to the International Congress of Geologists, St. Petersburg . . . 200

Representative at meeting in memory of G. Brown Goode 308

Vocabulary of the Xoanama Dialect of the Choco Stock 202

Remarks on Remains of Ancient Key Dwellers on the Gulf Coast of Florida. . . 433

Carbutt, on RiJntgen ray 12, 33

Cassell, Mr., Benjamin Rittenhouse 308

Catalogue of Stock ... 290

■Chicago Historical Society, invitation from 302

Clarkf, Thomas, photograph .5

Committee on Finance 309

On Library, appropriation for 76

On the Elegibility of a Candidate and Electors 3, 5, 11

On the Fossils of the Coal Measures of Arkansas 201

On Hilprechfs Paper 5, 10

On Premiums 15

On Quarterly Meetings 15, 16, 308

On Messr.s. Bitter and Smith's Paper 37

( )n Special Meetings 16, 39, 75, 290

Committees, Standing, appointed 5

-Conklin, E. G., Factors of Organic Evolution 76,78

■Cope, E. D.. On Certain Types of Saurians 3

Obituary, J. A. Ryder 5

On the Structure of Heads of Certain Cetaceans 11

Remarks on tablet from Nippur 71

Investigation of the remains found at Port Kennedy 15

Pleistocene 75

Marine Miocene Fauna 118

Second Contribution to the History of the Cotylosauria 122

Sixth Contribution to the Knowledge of the Marine Miocene Fauna of North

America 139

On the Evolution of the Teeth of Mammalia 2s9

■Curators, report on :Mr. Meehan's letter 11

Report on collections of coins and medals. 71

Ou.shing, F. H., introduced 291

Remains of Ancient Key Dwellers on the Gulf Coast of Florida 295,329,441

Representative at meeting in memory of G. Brown Goode 308

450

Page.

Doremus, C. A, Ou Identification of Colored Inks by Absorption Spectra 71

Election of Officers 1

Electric Storage Battery Renting Co., thanks tendered to 12

Factors of Organic Evolution, Cope, E. D 70, 77

Conklin, E. G 76, 78

Bailey, L. H 76, 88, 110, 113

Brinton, D. G 77, 111

Farr, M. S., Osteology of the White River Horses 118, 147

Foggo, A. E., photograph 10

Frazer, Persifor, motion • 5, 12

Representative of A. P. S. to International Congress of Geologists, St.

Petersburg 201

Symbols made by the phonographic stylus 202

Furness, W.H., 3rd, Journey in Borneo and Loo-Choo Islands 307

Glimpses of Borneo 309

Furnishing North Room 290

Gill, Thomas N., representative at meeting in memory of G. Brown Goode 308

Goddard, Martha Freeman, The Second Abdominal Segment m a Few Libellulidse . 205

Goode, G. Brown, memorial meeting 291, 308

Good Friday . 68

Goodspeed, A. W., on the ROntgeu ray 12, 17

Goodwin, Harold, motion, signature book 298

Green, Dr., motion 11

Resolution of inquiry 67

Hazlehnrst, Henry, obituary 75

Hiller, H. M., Journey in Borneo and Loo-Clioo Islands 307

A Brief Report of a Journey up the Rejang River in Borneo 321

Hilprecht, H. V., on old Babylonian inscriptions 5

Researches in Babylonian civilization and chronology 297

Horn, G. H., nominated for Librarian 2

Elected Librarian .>

Difficulties of reporting unwritten dialects 202

Houston, E. J., remarks on Rontgeu ray 12, 2-1

Ingham, W. A., motion 3

International Congress of Geologists, St. Petersburg 200,201

Jenner, Dr., copy of bronze medal in commemoration of 297

Joly Process of Color Photography 118, 119

Kelvin, Lord, Semi-centennial Jubilee 68, 76

Laws, amendment considered 6

Leonard, Charles L., New Physical Property of the X-Ray . 298

Librarian authorized to purchase odd numbers to fill deficiencies in the Society's

publications 290

Librarian nominated 2

Elected 5

Lyman, B. S., nominated for Librarian .... 2

Meehan, Thomas, letter offering to take in hand the labeling the South American

plants belonging to the A. P. S 3,5

Meetings, 1896, adjourned, February 28 13

Special, appointed 15, 16, 308

Stated, January 3 . . . 1

January 17 3

February, 7 6

February 21 12

March 6 36

March 20 65

April 10 68

April 17 74

451

Pape,

Meetings, 1896, Stated, May 1 76

May 15 115

September, 4 193

September 18 . . : 200

October 2 286

October 16. . '. 291

November 6 294

December 4 302

December 18 307

Members elected :

A. E. Kennelly 16

W. P. Mason 16

• H. C. McCook 16

H. Pettit 16

E. S. Dana 118

C. H. Henderson 119

C. S. Minot 119

L. H. Bailey 119

W. H. Welch 119

M. I. Pupin 119

T. A. Edison 119

E. C. Pickering 119

F. H. Gushing 119

T. M. Prudden 119

J. Trowbridge 119

N. Tesla 119

A. W. Writfht 119

H. A. Rowland 119

A. W. Goodspeed 119

Harrison Allen 293

E. Bastin . , 293

W. F. Magie 309

G. A. Lewis 309

B. W. Frazier 309

Membership, acceptance of:

M. I. Pupin 193

N. Tesla 193

T. A. Edison 193

A. W. Goodspeed , 193

C. H. Henderson 193

H. A. Rowland 193

W. H. Welch 193

C. S. Minot 193

J. Trowbridge 193

E. C. Pickering 193

E. 8. Dana 193

A. W. Wright 193

L. H. Bailey . 193

Harrison Allen 294

E. S. Bastin 294

Members deceased :

H. Hazlehurst 5

W. H. Furness 11

H. Reed 16

O. J. Wister 16

Hon. William Strong 71

J. B. L6on Say 76

452

Members deceased : Page.

E. Curtius 199

G. A. Daubr6e 199

A. Hovelacque 199

W. R. Grove 199

J Prestwich 200

J. D. Whitney 200

L. A. Scott 200

H. D. Wireman 200

H. A. Newton 200

G. B. Goode 202

J. B. Townsend 293

F. Miiller 293

B. W. Richardson . • 303

B. A. Gould 303

Minot, I. S., letter 76

Morehouse, G. R., obituary L. A. Scott 201

Morris, J. C, motion 5, 298

On Genesis xi. 1-9 as a Poetic Fragment 305

Remarks on shadow pictures 37

Representarive of A. P. S. at Semi-centennial Jubilee of Lord Kelvin 76

Miiseo Nacional de Buenos Aires requesting deficiencies 294

Museum Hall of Academy of Natural Sciences, invitation to the opening of 293

Nominations 3, 5, 11, 15, 38, 67, 71, 76, 77, 200, 202, 290, 293, 309

Obituaries ordered :

Henry Hazlehurst, by D. G. Brinton 11

W. J. Potts, by F. D. Stone 11

W. H. Furuess. by J. G. Rosengarten 16

G. A. DaubrtSe, by J. P. Lesley 201

L. A. Scott, by G. R. Morehouse 201

Obituaries read :

J. A. Ryder 5

W. H. Furness 67

Henry Phillips, Jr 118

Ortman, A. E., Natural Selection and Separation 118, 175

Papers by non-members 118

Papers presented for publication by J. B. Smith and W. McKnight Ritter 16

Pasteur, monument to 307

Patterson, R. M., portrait 118

Pepper, Ed w.. Eucalyptus in Algeria and Txmisia 37,39

Pepper, William, remarks on Rontgeii ray . . 12, 34

Mexican antiquities . . 303

Prehistoricobjectsof terra-cotta 303

Petut, Henry, presented 36

Phillips Henry, Jr., obituary 118

Pnotographs :

Thomas Clarke 5

E. A. Foggo 10

W. G. A. Bonwill 71

P. Topinard 199

E W. Claypole . ■ . ., 303

Relics found in Egypt 118

Portrait, R. M. Patterson ilS

Eli K. Price 37

Potts, W. J., obituary of. 303

I'rice, Eli K., portrait of 37

Price, J. Sergeant, motion 5

Resolution, printing ballots 309

453

Page.

Princeton University, Semi-centennial 76

Putnam, P. W., Remarks on Remains of Ancient Key Dwellers on the Gulf Coast of

Florida 438

Representatives at memorial to G. Brown Goode 303

Rittenhouse, Benjamin, death and burial 308

Robb, on Rontgen ray 12, 32

Rontgen ray, remarks by A. VV. Goodspeed 17

E. J. Houston ... 24

Julius P. Sachse 28

John Carbutt 33

William Pepper 34

Jos Wharton 12, 31

Prof Robb 12, 32

Rosengarten, J. G., obituary, W. H. Furness 67

Ryder, J. A., obituary of 5

Rykatchew, M., letter 193

Sachse, J. P., presented two pictures 10

On Kontgen ray 12, 28

Joly Process of Color Photography 118, 119

Sanchez, Don Alberto, death of 307

Sharp, Benjamin, letter from 6

Signature book 118, 298

Smith. G. H., letter 6

Smith, J. P., Marine Fossils of the Coal Measures of Arkansas 200,213

Smyth, A. H., obituary, Henry Phillips, Jr , 118

Soci6t6 Imp. Russe de Geogi-aphie, St. Petersburg, invitation from 3

Soci6t6 Physico MathSmatique de Kasan, invitation from 193

Society of Colonial Wars, invitation from 291

Society Hougroise de Geographic, Budapest, invitation from 294

Stevenson, Mrs. Cornelius, on the remains of the foreigners discovered in Eg^ypt by

Mr. Plinders-Petrie 56

On the recent discovery in Egypt of non-Egyptian remains 67

Stone, F. D., obituary of WilUam J. Potts 303

Sulzberger, Hon. Mayer, to prepare obituary notice of Joseph B. Townsend 296

Tovvnsend, Joseph B., obituary notice of, to be prepared 296

University of Gla^-gow, letter . 68

University of Princeton, invitation 68

University of Virginia, request 3

Wharton, Jos , on Rontgen ray 12, 31

Wistar Institute, acknowledgment of busts 308

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PROCEEDINGS AM. PHIL. SOC.

VOL. XXXV, No. 150, PLATE 1,

PICTURE TAKEN DURING THE DEMONSTRATION OF THE RONTGEN RAYS AT THE
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1^

Location of Ancient Shell Settlements of Key Marco and the Ten Thousand Islands on the Gidf Coast of Florida,
in relation to Currents of the Caribbean Sea.

PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. SOC.

VOL. XXXV, No. 153, PLATE XXVIIL

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Plan and Elevation of Ancient Shell Island or Settlement of
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VOL. XXXV, No. 153, PLATE XXX.

r-^^x -x^i v:'V^°'-"^-'-^

THE PtPPEH-HEAHST EXPEDITION.

THE ANCIENT SHELL SETTLEMENT

KEY MARCO

Topographic Map of Key Marco, showing Sea- wall, Water-courts, Canals, Cenotes or
Round Reservoirs, Garden-terraces and Central Mounds.

No, 153. Plate mi.

Plan U)id Heclioii of the " CuHit uf the File DiceUers," at Key Minco, shoiring Locatiuiis of E.ccavittiuns niid FituJf!

ProMedings ftmer. Ptiilos. Soc,

Ti/pes of Implements and Weapons ; Toy Canoes and Paddle.

Animal Figure-heads with correspondingly Painted Human Masks.

Proceedings ker, Ptiilos, Soc,

Types of Sacred Pahited Tnhlefs and f^hell, and of Utensils

Proceeiiings ker, Philos, Soc,

Ti/cMji/^.S^

StatueUe of the. Lion or Panther-God : FhjKre-heud of Deer : eoiiip<ir'iso)L of Ken T)ireUer
Types of Ceremonial Paraphernalia, etc., with Delineations on Ancient Copper Plate
from the Etowah Mound of Georqia.

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