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HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

LIBRARY

OF THE

MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.

L-

^

A^^V ^l^^i^v\^^^'

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA

FOR

PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

VOL. XXXVI.
JANUARY TO DECEMBER, 1897.

PHILADELPHIA :
THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

-^1897

^

O"^ iv^

JUN 2 1897

PKOCEEDINGS

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA, FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

Vol. XXXVI. January, 1897. No. 154.

Stated Meeting^ January 1, 1897.

The President, Mr. Fraley, in tlie Cliair.

Present, 16 members.

Correspondence Avas submitted and letters of acknowledg-
ment presented.

Letters of acceptance of membership were received from
Prof. W. F. Magie, Princeton, N. J.; Mr. G. Albert Lewis,
Philadelphia ; Prof. B. W. Frazier, South Bethlehem, Pa.

The death was announced of Gen. John Meredith Eead,
Paris, France ; born Feb. 21, 1837 ; died, Dec. 27, 1896, ^t. 59.

The Judges and Tellers of the annual election reported the
following officers elected for the ensuing year.

President.

Frederick Fraley.

Vice- Presidents.

E. Otis Kendall, J. P. Lesley, William Pepper.

Secretaries.

George H. Horn, Persifor Frazer, I. Minis Hays,

Frederick Prime.

Curators.

J. ChestonMorris, Benjamin S. Lyman, Henry Pettit.

Treasurer.

J. Sergeant Price.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI. 154. A. PRINTED APRIL 5, 1897.

^ MINUTES. f Jan. 15,

Councilors.

George E. Morehouse, William C. Cattcll, William P. Tat-

ham, Patterson DiiBois.

Mr. Ingham proposed an amendment to the LaAVS to be
considered at the next meeting.

And the Society was adjourned by the President.

Stated Meeting^ January 15^ 1897.

Vice-President, Dr. Pepper, in the Chair.

Present, 36 members.

The nsual correspondence was submitted with the letters of
envoy and of acknowledgment.

Accessions to the Library were reported.

The following Eeport was read on the part of the Henry M.
Phillips Prize Essay Fund Committee :

The Henry M. Phillips Prize Essay Fund Committee respectfully re-
port, that they have found discrepancies existing between the published
minutes of the Society of December 7 and 21, 1888, establishing the
"Rules and Regulations" in reference to the Henry M. Phillips Prize
Essay Fund, and other copies of the same printed in authorized form
by the Society, one of these discrepancies presenting a serious embarrass-
ment and hindrance to the ett'ective administration of the Fund. They
also find that an incorrect copy of said Rules and Regulations has been
improperly included amongst the Laws of the Society in certain pam-
phlets called "Laws and Regulations of the Society," printed in 1890
and 1894.

They therefore recommend that the Society adopt the following reso-
lutions ;

1. Resolved, That the Rules and Regulations adopted for the manage-
ment of the Henry M. Phillips Prize Essay Fund as set forth in the cir-
cular officially issued by the Committee May 1, 1893, and published in
No. 148, Proceedings of the Society, Jul}^ 1895, pages 174 and 175, are
hereby established and adopted, viz. :

First. The Prize Endowment Fund shall be called the "Henry M.
Phillips Prize Essay Fund."

Second. The money constituting the Endowment Fund, viz., five
thousand dollars, shall be invested by the Society in such securities as

1897.1 MINUTES. 3

may be recognized by the laws of Pennsylvania as proper for the invest-
ment of trust funds, and the evidences of such investment shall be made
in the name of the Society as Trustee of the Henry M. Phillips Prize
Essay Fund.

Third. The income arising from such investment shall be appropri-
ated as follows :

(a) To making public advertisement of the prize, and the sum or
amount in United States gold coin, and the terms on which it shall be
awarded.

(6) To the payment of such prize or prizes as may from time to time
be awarded by the Society for the best essay of real merit on the Science
and Philosophy of Jurisprudence, and to the preparation of the certificate
to be granted to the author of any successful essay.

Fourth. Competitors for the prize shall affix to their essays some motto
or name (not the proper name of the author, however), and when the
essay is forwarded to the Society, it shall be accompanied by a sealed
envelope containing within the proper name of the author, and, on the
outside thereof, the motto or name adopted for the essay.

Fifth. At a stated meeting of the Society, in pursuance of the adver-
tisement, all essays received up to that time shall be referred to a Com-
mittee of Judges, to consist of five persons, who shall be selected by the
Society from nomination of ten persons made by the Standing Committee
on the Henry M. Phillips Prize Essay Fund.

SixtJi. All essays may be written in English, French, German, Dutch,
Italian, Spanish or Latin ; but, if in any language except English, must
be accompanied by an English translation of the same.

Seventh. No treatise or essay shall be entitled to compete for the prize
that has been already published or printed, or for which the author has re-
ceived already any prize, or profit, or honor, of any nature whatsoever.
Eighth. All essays must be clearly and leg ibli/ written, and on one side
of the paper only.

Ninth. The literary property of such essays shall be in their authors
subject to the right of the Society to publish the crowned essay in its.
Transactions or Proceedings.

Tenth. A Standing Committee, to consist of five members appointed
by the President, and ex, officio the President and the Treasurer of the
Society, shall continue in office during the pleasure of the Society, and
any vacancies that may occur in said Committee shall be filled by new
appointment by the President.

Eleventh. The said Committee shall have charge of all matters con-
nected with the management of this endowment and the investment of
the same, and shall make such general rules for publishing the terms
upon which said prize shall be competed for, and the amount of the said
prize, and if it shall deem it expedient, designate the subjects for com-
peting essays. It shall report annually to tlie Society, on the first Fri-
day in December, all its transactions, with an account of the investment,
of the Prize Fund, and of the income and expenditures thereof.

4: MINUTES. [Jan. 15,

2. Resolved, That any and all Rules and Regulations relating to the
Henry M. Phillips Prize Essay Fund which appear in the printed min-
utes of the meetings of the American Philosophical Society of December
7 and 21, 1888, or other dates, be, and they are hereby, repealed so far
as they are inconsistent with the Rules and Regulations herein contained.

The report was accepted and ordered to be spread upon the
minates, and the resolutions appended were adopted.

It was moved that the Secretary cast a ballot for Dr. G. H.
Horn as Librarian for the year 1897. Adopted.

The Secretary reported the ballot cast, and Dr. Horn was
declared unanimously elected Librarian for the ensuing year.

Mr. Price moved that Dr. Hays be elected Librarian pro tem.^
to perform the duties of the office until the return of the
Librarian. Unanimously adopted.

A paper by Samuel H. Scudder, entitled " The Species of
the Grenus Melanoplus, ' ' was read by title and referred to the
Secretaries for action.

Mr. Mercer then read a paper on ' ' The Fossil Sloth of the
Big Bone Cave, Tennessee," which Prof. Cope and Mr, Cush-
ing discussed.

Dr. Frazer presented a "Eeport of a recent visit to the
Black Hills of South Dakota."

Mr. G. T. Bispham offered the following :

Resolved, That a committee consisting of Hon. George F. Edmunds,
W. P. Tatham, Esq., W. A. Ingham, Esq., Samuel Dickson, Esq., and
Richard L Ashhurst, Esq , be appointed to consider and report whether
any, and, if any, what amendments or alterations should be made in
the laws of the Society.

Unanimously adopted.

Dr. Frazer moved that Mr. Ingham's proposed amendment
to the Laws be referred to that committee. Seconded by Mr.
Ingham, and unanimously adopted.

Prof. Cope moved that the President be authorized to
appoint the Standing Committees for the current year, and
that, with the view of increasing the interest of the mem-
bership in the work of the Society, it be respectfully sug-

1897.] THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS. 5

gested, as far as is possible, not to duplicate the liolding of
official positions. Unanimously adopted.

The death of the followino- members was announced :

Dr. Theodore G. Wormley, of Philadelphia, on January 3,
1897, ^t. 71 years.

Dr. William Henry Pancoast, of Philadelphia, on January
0, 1897, ^t. 61 years.

The Society was then adjourned by the presiding officer.

THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS.

BY SAMUEL H. SCUDDER.

{Read January 15, 1S97.)

In a memoir to be published by the United States National
Museum I have described in detail all the species of Melanoplus
known to me, whether new or old. As, however, some delay has
occurred in the printing of that paper, I am permitted to give here
a table for the determination of all the species and their distribution
into series, following it with such portion of the synonymy (given
in detail in the memoir referred to) as will enable one to understand
the latest determinations made after careful study with abundant
material.

The genus, it should be said, is characteristically American, and
is widely disseminated. Some confusion has resulted in former
times by not recognizing the dimorphism which occurs in this and
the allied genera in the length of the organs of flight, a subject dis-
cussed at some length in my detailed memoir, where also will be
found remarks on their geographical distribution.

Although the prime division in the table separates the macrop-
terous and brachyterous species, the same series and sometimes the
same species may appear under both divisions, and the final
arrangement of series following the table is independent of this dis-
tinction.

I have given the name of furcula to the processes of the last dorsal
segment of the male abdomen. '

THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS. [Jan. ir>,

Table of the Species of Melajioplus.

A^. Tegmina conspicuously shorter than the abdomen, often no
longer than pronotum ; furcula almost always developed feebly,
generally no longer than the last dorsal segment from which it
arises.

b'^. Cerci of male expanding and bullate from the base outward,
abruptly tapering and bent inward at tip ; subgenital plate of
male abruptly elevated apically (Lakinus series).

<r\ Interspace between mesosternal lobes of male nearly twice
as long as broad ;^ of female, fully half as broad again as

' long marculenUis.

c^. Interspace between mesosternal lobes of male distinctly less
than twice as long as broad ; of female, barely broader or not
broader than long.

d^. Hind femora heavily fasciate above and on the outer

face ; hind tibiae blue throughout lakinus.

(P. Hind femora with feeble signs of bifasciation above only,

if at all; hind tibiae pale red, apically infuscated . ..sonorce.

b'^. Cerci of male tapering in the basal half, usually from the very

base, sometimes throughout, usually laminate ; subgenital plate of

male of variable elevation apically.

c^. Cerci of male beyond the middle either equal or tapering,
sometimes simply styliform throughout, the tip usually more or
less pointed, but sometimes broad or truncate f metasternal
lobes of male attingent or subattingent.

d^. Cerci of male very broad and short, not more than twice
as long as the middle breadth, broadly rounded at apex
^ (Flabellifer series).

e^. Tegmina about half as long as the abdomen and much
longer than the pronotum ; cerci of male not longitudi-
nally sulcate apically.
/\ Interspace between mesosternal lobes of male twice
as broad posteriorly as anteriorly, the inner margins of

1 This interval is of various shapes in different species of Melanoplus, cunei-
form, clepsydra! or rectangular, but for the purposes of this table the middle
breadth is always taken.

2 The cerci are faintly enlarged apically in M. ineridionalis and M. walshii,
which come under this division. See also the note under the alternate category.

1897.] THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELAXOPLUS. i

the lobes regularly divergent ; of female longer than

broad ; cerci of male but little longer than broad

discolor.
/'. Interspace between mesosternal lobes of male of
nearly equal breadth in front and behind, the inner
margins of the lobes convex ; of female, transverse ;
cerci of male nearly twice as long as broad .... simplex,
e^. Tegmina shorter than the pronotum ; cerci of male

deeply sulcate longitudinally at apex and incurved

rileyanus.
d-. Cerci of male more elongate, at least twice, generally
much more than twice, as long as middle breadth, ordinarily
more or less acuminate at apex.

e^. Cerci of male irregularly tapering, or scarcely tapering
at all, compressed, in no sense styliform.
/\ Subgenital plate of male short and broad, its apical
breadth equal to or surpassing the length of its lateral
margin.^
g^. Cerci of male long and very slender, in the middle
not one-half the width of the frontal costa; last dorsal
segment of male with a pair of strongly oblique sub-
median sulci outside the furcula ;'^ submedian plate
not apically elevated (Aridus series).

/?.\ Hind margin of pronotum truncato-emarginate ;
disk of metazona fully twice as broad as long ; teg-
mina relatively slender, widely distant.

/ \ Disk of prozona coarsely and uniformly punc-
tate ; cerci of male apically enlarged and in-

feriorly acuminate at apex humphreysii.

i'\ Disk of prozona coarsely punctate only along
anterior margin ; cerci of male apically equal,

rounded at tip nitidiis.

h'. Hind margin of pronotum obtusangulate but sub-

1 Care should be taken not to include in the apical breadth any part of the
membranous integument connecting it with the preceding ventral segment. For
simplicity's sake, the length of the plate is here considered its extent parallel to
the lateral margin (or that margin itself) as seen from the side ; its breadth what
would be its length along the ventral line were it regarded as one of the abdomi-
nal segments.

2 This has not been seen, but is only inferred in AT. humphreysii.

THE SPECIES OF THE GEXUS MELANOPLUS. [Jan. 15,

truncate ; disk of metazona less than twice as broad
as long ; tegmina relatively broad, approximate, at

least in the male aridus.

g'. Cerci of male long and broad throughout, sub-
equal, broader than the frontal costa ; last dorsal seg-
ment of male with no oblique sulci outside the fur-
cula; subgenital plate elevated apically (Indigens

series) indigens.

^^ Cerci of male short, or not very long, and broad
or moderately slender, in the middle nearly as broad
as, if not broader than, the frontal costa; last dorsal
segment of male with no oblique sulci outside the
furcula ; subgenital plate not elevated apically (Man-
cus series).

/i^. Prozona, at least in male, much longer than

broad, the disk of the whole pronotum more than

twice as long as the middle breadth, the median

^ carina percurrent, equal ; interval between meso-

sternal lobes of male twice as long as broad

scudderi.
H\ Prozona, even in male, transverse, subquadrate
or slightly longitudinal, the disk of the whole pro-
notum less than twice as long as middle breadth,
the median carina often subobsolete between the
sulci ; interspace between the mesosternal lobes of
male not more than half as long again as broad.
/^. Cerci of male rather stout, subequal.
y\ Abdomen of male strongly recurved ; forks
of furcula divergent, distinctly longer than the
last dorsal segment ; subgenital plate with no

apical tubercle gillettei.

j"^. Abdomen of male scarcely recurved ; forks
of furcula parallel, minute, hardly as long as
the last dorsal segment; subgenital plate with

a slight apical tubercle artemtsice.

P. Cerci of male rather slender, especially on
apical half, of unequal width.
y\ Tegmina shorter than the pronotum,
broadly rounded or subangulate at apex; cerci
of male long and rather slender, nearly straight
as seen laterally mancus.

1897.] THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS. 9*

7'. Tegmina as long as or longer than the pro-
notum, apically acuminate ; cerci of male short
and not very slender, rather strongly bent-
arcuate, as seen laterally cancri^

p. Subgenital plate of male distinctly narrower than
long, often narrowing apically.
g^. Cerci of male tapering but little, generally rather
stout, or if slender then tapering almost not at all in
apical half, which is never less than half as broad as
the base and is blunt-tipped, rarely, as in M. ju-
vencus, angulate below.

h^. Interval between mesosternal lobes of male at
least half as long again as broad, sometimes fully
twice as long; hind tibiae usually blue or green
(Dawsoni series).

P. Cerci of male apically turned sharply inward

at right angles or even less reflexus.

P. Cerci of male straight or gently incurved,

sometimes curved more strongly at apex, but not

bent abruptly at right angles.

y^ Lateral margins of subgenital plate of male,

as seen from above, regularly convergent nearly

to the tip ; furcula developed only as slightly

swollen lobes ?nertdwnalis.

f\ Lateral margins of subgenital plate of male,
as seen from above, basally subparallel, apically
rather broadly rounded ; furcula developed as
a pair of projecting spines or fingers.

k^. Tegmina much shorter than the prono-
tum, widely separated ; interval between
mesosternal lobes of female distinctly trans-
verse, as broad as the lobes; subgenital
plate of male with distinct though minute

apical tubercle mi it tarts.

Jr. Tegmina longer than the pronotum,
overlapping ; interspace between mesoster-
nal lobes of female quadrate ; subgenital
plate of male with minute apical tubercle or
none.

/^ Subgenital plate of male not pyra-

10 THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS. [Jan. 15,

midal, nor elevated apically except by a
minute apical tubercle ; furcula minute,
overlying the supraanal plate by a less
distance than the length of the last dorsal
segment ; cerci of male bent roundly in-
wards at the apex nigrescens.

/■". Subgenital plate of malesubpyramidal,
broadly and roundly elevated at apex ;
furcula well developed, reaching middle
of supraanal plate ; cerci very feebly in-
curved apically dawsoni.

Ji-. Interval between mesosternal lobes of male
subquadrate, often gradually widening posteriorly ;
hind tibiae usually red (Rusticus series).

/\ Apical margin of subgenital plate of male

more or less elevated or tuberculate, or both,

generally well rounded, as seen from above,

never transverse.

y\ Tegmina attingent or overlapping ; cerci

of male apically rounded ; furcula distinctly

developed ; subgenital plate relatively long,

subequal in breadth.

k^. Interspace between the eyes of male
broader than the first antennal joint ; cerci
of male with arcuate upper margin ; subgen-
ital plate apically elevated to a greater or
less degree, but never conspicuously.

/\ Prosternal spine transverse, apically
truncate or subtruncate ; interspace be-
tween mesosternal lobes of female slightly
transverse; subgenital plate of male mod-
erately narrow jnonfanus.

P. Prosternal spine subconical, bluntly
pointed ; interspace between mesosternal
lobes of female broadly transverse, some-
times as broad as the lobes.

w\ Interspace between mesosternal
lobes of female narrower than the lobes ;
cerci of male subequal throughout.
n^. Prozona but little longer than the

1897. I THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELAXOPLUS. 11

metazona ; hind tibiae uniform in
color beyond the patellar spot ; teg-
mina transversely convex, so that the
dorsal and lateral fields are not dis-
tinguished from each other by any
angle; costal margin of same regu-
larly arcuate washingtonianus .

fP'. Prozona much longer than the
metazona ; hind tibiae with a broad
pallid subbasal annulation; dorsal
and lateral fields of tegmina set in
distinct planes ; costal margin of

same angulato-arcuate walshii,

TTL-. Interspace between mesosternal
lobes of female fully as broad as the
lobes ; cerci of male scarcely half so
broad in the apical half as at base ....

altitiidinum.
E-. Interspace between the eyes of male no
broader than the first antennal joint ; anal
cerci of male with nearly straight upper
margin ; subgenital plate not apically eleva-
ted though furnished with a backv/ard
directed tubercle formed by the angulation

of the margin gracilipes.

p. Tegmina lateral, widely separated ; cerci
of male apically truncate ; furcula obsolescent ;
subgenital plate relatively short, of unequal

breadth geniculatus,

P. Apical margin of subgenital plate of male
neither elevated nor tuberculate, the margins, as
seen from above, apically transverse. . , .rusticus.
g^. Cerci of male tapering distinctly and abruptly,
the apical less or almost less, generally very much
less, than half as broad as the basal portion, and more
or less acuminate (Borckii series).

/i^. Subgenital plate of male more or less elevated
posteriorly, but with no distinct apical tubercle.
P. Posterior margin of pronotum not mesially
emarginate; tegmina attingent or approximate.

12 THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS. [Jan. 15,

y\ Interspace between mesosternal lobes of
female strongly transverse ; lateral carinae of
pronotum rounded so as to be subobsolete ;
postocular piceous band generally distinct,

complete, percurrent pacificus.

f. Interspace between mesosternal lobes of
female subquadrate or feebly transverse ; lateral
carinae of pronotum distinct ; postocular
piceous band generally obsolete or wholly
wanting, and even when distinct wholly con-
fined to the prozona borckii.

P. Posterior margin of pronotum mesially emar-
ginate ; tegmina distinct, lateral,
y^ Color testaceous with feeble or no postocular

dark belt ienuipennis.

J^. Color dark fuscous, with distinct and
broad postocular band, at least in the male. . .

7?iissio7iujn.
h\ Subgenital plate of male distinctly tuberculate
at tip.

/\ Tegmina more or less widely separated, rarely
attingent ; interspace between mesosternal lobes
of male twice or nearly twice as long again as

broad ; cerci not finely acuminate at tip

fuscipes.
P. Tegmina attingent ; interspace between meso-
sternal lobes of male only slightly longer than
broad ; cerci tapering, rather regular, subfalcate,

finely acuminate at tip.. scitulus.

e". Cerci of male feebly compressed, substyliform, taper-
ing almost uniformly throughout, apically acuminate
(Puer series).
/\ Tegmina attingent ; subgenital plate of male short
and broad, its apical breadth surpassing the length of its

lateral margin, not elevated apically .flabellatiis.

f'\ Tegmina distant ; subgenital plate of male distinctly

narrower than long, elevated apically puer.

P. Cerci of male more or less expanded apically, so as to be
broader at some point beyond the middle than at the middle,

1897.] THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS. 13

spatulate or subspatulate ;^ metasternal lobes of male sepa-
rated by a variable interval.

d^. Interspace between mesosternal lobes of male quadrate
or subquadrate, rarely half as long again as broad (J/.
ampiectens); metasternal lobes of male of variable width.
e^. Subgenital plate of male distinctly narrower than long,
often narrowing apically.
/^ Lateral margins of subgenital plate of male apically
meeting more or less acutely, and here furnished with a
conical erect tubercle (Inornatus series).
g^. Interspace between mesosternal lobes of female
slightly longer than broad ', anal cerci of male broadly
expanded apically ; apical tubercle of subgenital plate

of male blunt inornatus.

g^. Interspace between mesosternal lobes of female
distinctly transverse f anal cerci of male very feebly
expanded apically ) apical tubercle of subgenital plate
acute.

h^. Hind femora fasciate ; apical half of male cerci
moderately broad, the narrowest part more than
half as broad as the base ; lobes of furcula short.. . .

viridipes.
/^^ Hind femora not fasciate ; apical half of male
cerci very slender, the narrowest part not more
than a third as broad as the base ; lobes of furcula

long decorus.

/'. Lateral margins of subgenital plate of male meeting
with a rounded curve which, if apically elevated, does
not form a conical tubercle (Fasciatus series).

g^. Cerci of male strongly incurved and conspicuously
enlarged apically.

h^. Cerci of male very slender, in the middle not
one-third as broad as at base, the apical lobe feebly
bifid ; furcula developed as slender spines about a
fourth the length of the supraanal plate . . attenuaius.
h\ Cerci of male stout, in the middle more than

1 The cerci are barely enlarged apically in AI. viridipes, which comes under
this division. See also the note under the alternate category.

2 The female of M, decorus is not known.

14 THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS. [Jan. 15,

half as broad as at base, the apical lobe single ;

furcula developed as mere denticulations

ampleciens.
g^. Cerci of male at most gently if at all incurved, and
feebly if at all enlarged apically,

h}-. Metasternal lobes of male subattingent ; tegmina
shorter than the pronotum ; anal cerci of male
straight as seen laterally, or slightly upcurved api-
cally.

/\ Cerci of male rounded at tip ; furcula scarcely
protruding beyond the hind margin of the last
dorsal segment ; apical margin of the subgenital
plate slightly elevated above the lateral margins.
y\ Supraanal plate of male suddenly con-
tracted before the tip ; anal cerci regularly
incurved throughout ; subgenital plate very

broad at base saltator.

y\ Supraanal plate of male regularly triangu-
lar ; anal cerci slightly twisted as well as
incurved ; subgenital plate narrow at base ....

rotundipennis,
P. Cerci of male truncate at tip; lobes of furcula
long; apical margin of subgenital plate in no

way elevated above the lateral margins

obovatipennis.
h^. Metasternal lobes of male only approximate ;
tegmina as long as or much longer than the prono-
tum ; anal cerci of male slightly decurved apically^
or at least inferiorly angulate at apex.

P. Tegmina not much longer than the pro-
notum ; cerci of male delicate, tapering con-
siderably in apical half; subgenital plate only
slightly elevated posteriorly, no broader there

than at base Juvenciis.

P. Tegmina more than half as long as the ab-
domen ; cerci of male coarse and stout, tapering
but little in basal half; subgenital plate strongly

elevated posteriorly and there very broad

fasciatus.
<fl Subgenital plate of male short and broad, its apical

1897.J THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS. 15

breadth equal to or surpassing the length of its lateral mar-
gin (Alleni series).
/\ Tegmina twice as long as pronotum ; cerci of male
relatively long and narrow, fully three times as long as

broad alleni.

f'\ Tegmina of about the length of the pronotum ;
cerci of male broad and relatively short, not more than

twice as long as broad snowii.

d'\ Interspace between mesosternal lobes of male nearly or
quite twice, sometimes more than twice, as long as broad ;
metasternal lobes of male attingent or subattingent.

e^. Subgenital plate of male short and broad, its apical
breadth equal to or surpassing the length of its lateral
margin fTexanus series).
/\ Tegmina widely separated, lateral ; interspace be-
tween mesosternal lobes of male more than twice as
long as broad ; furcula consisting of a pair of excep-
tionally broad and short plates dumicola.

/^ Tegmina subattingent, attingent or overlapping ; in-
terspace between mesosternal lobes of male less, generally
much less, than twice as long as broad ; furcula consist-
ing of a pair of approximate pointed denticulations.
g^. Subgenital plate of male ending in a conical

tubercle variabilis.

g"^. Subgenital plate of male with no pointed tubercle.
h}. Lobes of furcula longer than broad ; extremity
of subgenital plate of male elevated, but not notice-
ably recurved ; interspace between mesosternal
lobes of male hardly more than half as long again
as broad.

/\ Apex of male cerci angulate below. . .lepidus.
i'\ Apex of male cerci equally rounded above

and below blatchleyi.

h"^. Lobes of furcula broader than long ; extremity
of subgenital plate of male elevated and consider-
ably recurved ; interspace between mesosternal
lobes of male nearly or quite twice as long as

broad texanus.

e\ Subgenital plate of male distinctly narrower than long,
often narrowing apically (Plebejus series).

16 THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS. [Jan. 15,

/\ Hind margin of pronotum distinctly though ob-
tusely angulate ; interspace between mesosternal lobes
of female at least half as long again as broad ; apical
portion of anal cerci of male distinctly and sharply sul-

cate exteriorly plebejiis.

/'-. Hind margin of pronotum rarely angulate, some-
times emarginate ; interspace between mesosternal lobes
of female (where known) subquadrate ; apical portion
of anal cerci of male exteriorly tumid or plane.
g^. Posterior margin of pronotum distinctly emar-
ginate in the middle ; tegmina widely separated ;
cerci of male elongate, surpassing supraanal plate;
subgenital plate broader at base than apically, its
apical margin regularly rounded and even . . .gi-acilis.
g\ Posterior margin of pronotum obtusely angulate
or rounded truncate, with at most but feeblest sign of
any emargination ; tegmina attingent or overlapping;
cerci of male relatively brief, not surpassing the
supraanal plate ; subgenital plate not broader at base
than apically, its apical margin angulate or tubercu-
late.

h^. Tegmina shorter than pronotum ; posterior
margin of pronotum rounded truncate, with feeblest
signs of mesial emargination; cerci of male curved
slightly upward ; subgenital plate ending in a blunt

rather coarse tubercle inops.

/^^ Tegmina longer than pronotum ; posterior mar-
gin of pronotum distinctly though very obtusely
angulate ; cerci of male curved feebly downward ;
subgenital plate ending in a delicate pointed

tubercle marginatus.

A'\ Tegmina nearly or quite as long as or longer than the abdomen ;
furcula usually well-developed, generally at least a quarter as long as
the supraanal plate, but sometimes obsolete.

^\ Cerci of male rapidly expanding from the base towards the
middle, as a whole broad and short, flabellate, rarely twice as
long as broad, not expanded apically (Flabellifer series).

<:\ Cerci of male twice as broad in broadest as in narrowest
portion.

1897.] THE SPECIES OF THE GEXUS MELAXOPLUS. 17

d^. Subgenital plate of male with a distinct though minute

independent ^ apical tubercle occidentalis.

d\ Subgenital plate of male with only an obscure trace of

an apical tubercle cuneatus.

c^. Cerci of male with no striking inequality in breadth

flabellifer.
b'. Cerci of male tapering from the very base towards the mid-
dle, rarely equal in basal portion,-^ generally long and slender,
and rarely as little as twice as long as broad.

r\ Cerci of male beyond the middle either equal or tapering,
the tip usually slender or acuminate, never bifurcate/

d^. Furcula of male developed as large flattened lobes about
half as long as the supraanal plate and exceptionally broad,
but apically narrowed by the considerable excision of their
inner side ; subgenital plate not elevated apically above the
lateral margins (Bowditchi series).

<?\ Body, tegmina and legs almost wholly green, the hind
femora not banded.
y ^ Sides of disk of prozona with a distinct narrow yellow
stripe extending to the upper margin of the eyes ; pas-
sage of the disk of pronotum into the lateral lobes more
gradual than in the alternate category ; hind tibiae

green ; antennae apically infuscated herbaceus.

/-. Disk of pronotum and summit of head uniform in
coloration, the forming passing into the lateral lobes
with a more distinct angle than in the alternate cate-
gory; hind tibiae blue; antennae uniform., .flavescens.
e^. Body, tegmina and legs brown or testaceous, the hind
femora generally banded with dark colors.
f^. Forks of the male furcula more or less obliquely or
transversely truncate at tip and given an oppositely
hooked appearance by the rounded excision of the
inner margin ; hind femora generally distinctly banded.
g\ Highly variegated, the lateral lobes of pronotum
conspicuously marked with an unequal bright flavous

' That is, not formed by the culmination of the more or less pyramidal form of
the subgenital plate.

"^ In rare instances it expands slightly from the extreme base, but is then
greatly expanded apically.

3 In M. ater it enlarges feebly apically.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SCO. XXXYI. 154. B. PRINTED APRIL 5, 1897.

18 THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS. [Jan. 15,

Stripe next the lateral carinae ; male cerci very feebly

expanded and externally sulcate apically pictus.

g^. Rather uniform in coloring, the lateral lobes with
no bright stripe ; male cerci in no way expanded
apically and tumid rather than sulcate externally.
h^. Lateral lobes of prozona with a broad and
usually distinct piceous band above ; tegmina gen-
erally distinctly flecked along the middle line. . . .

bowdiichi.
h?. Lateral lobes of prozona with a narrow or no
distinct band above; tegmina very obscurely

flecked, if at all, along the middle line

flavidus.
/^ Forks of the male furcula rounded symmetrically at
tip, the inner margin scarcely more excised than the
outer, so that the forks are straight and not oppositely
hooked ; bands of hind femora scarcely perceptible . . .

elongatiis.
d'~. Furcula of male variously developed, rarely at all unusu-
ally broad and flattened, and then either not apically emar-
ginate on the inner side, or the subgenital plate is consider-
ably elevated apically, or both.

/?\ Subgenital plate of male almost or quite as broad as
the marginal length, its apical margin generally notched ;
cerci broad and nearly equally broad throughout (except
sometimes narrowed by the oblique excision of the lower
side of the apical half), the basal half scarcely tapering,
the whole rarely more than twice and never thrice as
long as the middle breadth (except in a few cases and
then the apical margin of the subgenital plate is mesially
notched), very broadly rounded at apex.
f^. Apical margin of subgenital plate of male not mesi-
ally notched ; mesosternum of male variable.
g^. Apical margin of subgenital plate of male but
slightly elevated above the lateral margins and mod-
erately prolonged posteriorly; mesosternum of male
in front of lobes flat (Glaucipes series).

h^. Prozona of male longer than its posterior
breadth ; lateral carinae more pronounced on pro-
zona than on metazona ; interspace between meso-

1897.]

THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS. 19

Sternal lobes of male twice as long as broad ; hind

tibiae blue glaucipes.

H\ Prozona of male transverse; lateral carinse
more pronounced on metazona than on prozona ;
interspace between mesosternal lobes of male sub-
quadrate ; hind tibiae red kennicottii,

g^. Apical margin of subgenital plate of male con-
spicuously elevated above the lateral margins and
greatly prolonged posteriorly ; metasternum of male
in front of lobes with a central swelling, forming a
blunt tubercle (Utahensis series).

h}. Apical margin of subgenital plate of male en-
tire / lobes of furcula not exceptionally broad ;
subgenital plate greatly but not excessively pro-
longed.

/\ Interspace between mesosternal lobes of male
more than twice as long as broad ; of female a
little longer than broad ; male cerci more than
twice as long as broad , apical margin of subgen-
ital plate, as seen from behind, subtruncate. . . .

bruneri.
i'. Interspace between mesosternal lobes of male
much less than twice as long as broad ; of female
transverse ; male cerci less than twice as long as
broad ; apical margin of subgenital plate, as

seen from behind, rounded excelsus.

/^^ Apical margin of subgenital plate of male
deeply notched on either side of the middle ; lobes,
of furcula exceptionally broad, subequal through-
out ; subgenital plate excessively prolonged

utahetisis..
f\ Apical margin of subgenital plate of male mesially
notched (Spretus series).
^\ Tegmina extending beyond hind femora, if at all,,
by not more than the length of the pronotum, gener-
ally by much less than that ; prozona of male quad-
rate or very feebly transverse ; cerci of male gener^
ally almost or quite twice as long as broad.

lit is occasionally fissured mesially (perhaps in drying), but not properly-
notched or bilobed.

20 THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS. [Jan. 15,

h>. Cerci of male regularly subfalciform, by both
margins being uniformly and distinctly curved
rather than bent, and more than twice as long as

median breadth alaskanus.

h . Cerci of male nearly straight as viewed later-
ally, or slightly bent upward in apical half, rather
than curved.

/\ Cerci of male distinctly more than twice as
long as median breadth, the apical half subequal
but narrower than the basal half.
J \ Hind tibiae normally pale glaucous ; when
red, pale red.

k^. Larger, robust ; median carina usually
as distinct between the sulci as on the ante-
rior portion of the prozona affinis.

k^. Smaller, slender ; median carina usually
obsolete or subobsolete between the sulci . .

iftterjnedms.

J'. Hind tibiae bright red bilitiiratus.

P. Cerci of male not more than twice as long
as median breadth, the apical half not only nar-
rower than the basal half, but itself tapering
throughout, obliquely truncate beneath ; hind
tibiae usually red.*
y\ Tegmina brief, not nearly reaching the
tips of the hind femora ; apical margin of

subgenital plate of male greatly elevated

defecius.
y^ Tegmina reaching, generally considerably
surpassing, the tips of the hind femora ; apical
margin of subgenital plate of male moderately

elevated atlanis.

g-. Tegmina extending beyond hind femora by the
length of the pronotum or nearly as much, often by
the length of head and pronotum combined ; pro-
zona of male generally strongly transverse ; cerci of

male not more than half as long again as broad

spretus.
<?^ Breadth of subgenital plate of male variable but gen-
erally narrower than long, its apical margin usually entire ;

1897.] THE SPECIES OP^ THE GEXUS MELANOPLUS. 21

cerci rarely less than four times as long as middle breadth
(when less, at least three times as long, and then the
apical margin ol the subgenital plate is entire), generally-
slender, excepting sometimes at extreme apex when there
is great disparity in width between the apical and basal
halves, the basal half generally tapering considerably, the
apical half often much narrower than the basal, rarely
showing any excision of the lower margin, the apex nar-
rowly rounded or bluntly pointed.
/\ Subgenital plate of male as broad or nearly as broad
at apex as at base, generally elevated apically and often
notched (generally narrowly) ; cerci usually narrowing
but little on basal half, the apical half equal and sym-
metrical, bluntly rounded (rarely truncate or angulate)
apically.
^^ Apical margin of subgenital plate of male
notched with greater or less distinctness ; cerci
slender, narrower than the frontal costa, subequal,
straight or only gently incurved (Devastator series).
h}. Small species, with tegmina not surpassing
the hind femora in either sex; interspace be-
tween mesosternal lobes of male distinctly less
than twice as broad as long.

/\ Cerci of male narrowed rather than broadened
apically.
y\ External surface of male cerci apically
dimpled ; furcula with the tapering portion
relatively broad, distinctly flattened, almost
reaching the middle of the supraanal plate.
k}-. Prozona of male longitudinal ; fingers of
furcula parallel ; cerci bent inwards api-
cally diminuius.

k\ Prozona of male quadrate ; fingers of
furcula divergent ; cerci gently incurved

throughout consanguineus.

j'\ External surface of male cerci sulcate
through apical third or more ; furcula with the
tapering portion very slender, not flattened,
not nearly reaching the middle of the supra-
anal plate sierranus.

22 THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS. [Jan. 15,

/^ Cerci of male feebly enlarged apically rather

than narrowed ater.

1^. Medium-sized species with tegmina almost
always surpassing the hind femora in the male and
usually in both sexes ; interspace between meso-
sternal lobes of male fully twice, generally more
than twice, as long as broad.

^\ Tegmina more or less, generally distinctly
and profusely, maculate,
y^. Lateral lobes of prozona with a generally
distinct black band, rarely broken and then

by no conspicuous pale oblique stripe

devastator.
y^ Lateral lobes of prozona with a distinct
black band, always broken by a conspicuous

more or less arcuate oblique pale stripe

virgatus.

P. Tegmina immaculate or with the feeblest

possible signs of maculation.

j^. Whole body including tegmina very light

colored, having a bleached appearance with

no dark markings, except (and very rarely)

dusky clouds on hind femora uniformis.

y\ Whole body including tegmina moderately
dark, the lateral lobes with a darker stripe and
the hind femora distinctly though not conspic-
uously bifasciate angelicus.

^. Apical margin of subgenital plate of male entire ;
cerci either broad (broader than the frontal costa
or fully as broad as it) and subequal, or else very
inequal, taperirtg rapidly at the base and generally
arcuate ; hind tibiae usually red.

i^\ Supraanal plate of male regularly triangular
with straight margins ; subgenital plate with a
postmarginal tubercle at ajDex (Impudicus series) . .

impudicus.
h^. Supraanal plate of male with the sides more or
less irregular or sinuate by lateral compression, or
by the depression of the apical half of the plate ;
subgenital plate with no postmarginal tubercle.

1897.] THE SPECIES OF THE GENTS MELAXOPLUS. 23

though sometimes with the margin itself apically
thickened.

/\ Interspace between mesosternal lobes of male

distinctly longer, generally much longer than

broad, and much narrower than the lobes ; meta-

sternal lobes attingent or subattingent in the

male (Dawsoni series).

y\ Subgenital plate of male broad, at least as

broad as long ; cerci incurved feebly and

gently, cr not at all ; hind tibiae red . .dawsoni.

j\ Subgenital plate of male rather narrow,

narrower than long, although short ; cerci

abruptly incurved apically ; hind tibiae yellow.

J^. Tegmina only attaining the tip of the hind

femora \ supraanal plate of male suddenly

depressed in apical half; furcula slightly

developed, shorter than last dorsal segment.

gladstoni.
k^. Tegmina considerably surpassing the tip
of the hind femora ; supraanal plate of male
not apically depressed ; furcula well devel-
oped, about one-third as long as the supra-
anal plate palmeri.

P. Interspace between mesosternal lobes of male
quadrate, almost or a little transverse and but
little narrower than the lobes ; metasternal lobes
of male only approximate (Fasciatus series).
y\ Cerci of male no slenderer or hardly
slenderer on apical than on basal half, far sur-
passing the supraanal plate ; furcula very slight,
not so long as last dorsal segment. . .fasciatus.
j"'. Cerci much slenderer on apical than on
basal half, shorter than the supraanal plate ;
furcula long and slender, reaching the middle

of the supraanal plate borealis.

f-. Subgenital plate of male conspicuously narrower at
apex than at base Cgenerally only half as wide), rarely at
all elevated at apex above the lateral margins and never
notched ;^ cerci always distinctly narrowing on basal

1 Except in M. jnonticola, where it is very broadly and shallowly notched by
the tubercular elevation of the extremities of the apical margin.

24: THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS. [Jan. 15,

half, the upper angle of the apex prolonged and often

subacuminate (Femur-rubrum series).

^. Distal half of male cerci much less than half as

broad as the extreme base ; interspace between meso-

sternal lobes of male nearly or quite twice as long as

broad ; tegmina usually surpassing the hind femora.

/i^. Pronotum marked above with light carina!

streaks on a dark ground ; tegmina dark olivaceous

green plumbeus.

h^. Pronotum uniform in coloring above ; tegmina
dark fuscous.

V-. Furcula not reaching or scarcely reaching the
middle of the supraanal plate. . . .femur-rubrutn.
i"^. Furcula extending considerably beyond the

middle of the supraanal plate propifiquus.

g"^. Distal half of male cerci distinctly more than half
as broad as the extreme base ; interspace between
mesosternal lobes of male scarcely if at all longer
than broad ; tegmina usually falling far short of the
tips of the hind femora.

h}. Apical margin of subgenital plate not elevated
where it joins the lateral margins, so that it is

straight as seen from behind extremus.

h^. Apical margin of subgenital plate elevated tO'
form a tubercle where it joins the lateral margins,.
so that it is broadly notched as seen from behind . .

monticola.
c^. Cerci of male more or less expanded apically, so as to be
broader at some point beyond the middle than at the middle,
spatulate or subspatulate or apically bifurcate.

//^ Cerci of male simply spatulate or subspatulate, at most
moderately broad, apically entire and no broader than at
base ; furcula always developed as distinct denticulations,
generally as long or very long ones.

<?\ Furcula of male long and prominent, the projecting
portion much longer than the last dorsal segment from
which it springs, generally more than a third as long as-
the supraanal plate.
/\ Subgenital plate of male only moderately broad at
apex, distinctly narrower than long, never in the least

1897.] THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELAXOPLUS. 25

notched and rarely, and then but slightly, elevated api-
cally; furcula rarely (and then but little) less, usually
more, than half as long as the supraanal plate ; hind
tibiae green or blue, rarely (^M. complanaiipes) reddish
yellow (Cinereus series).
^^ Furcula of male only moderately broad at base,
tapering uniformly, not more than half as long as the
supraanal plate ; cerci uniformly incurved through-
out, not nearly reaching the tip of the supraanal
plate ; the latter abruptly and strongly contracted
shortly before its tip.

A\ Prozona of male quadrate or transverse ; apical
margin of subgenital plate of male, as seen from

above, well rounded bispinosus.

If. Prozona of male a little longer than its basal
breadth ; apical margin of subgenital plate of male,
as seen from above, rounded-angulate. Jerminalis.
g'\ Furcula of male unusually broad at base, usually
tapering unequally, the narrowing beginning beyond
the base and leaving a portion of the apex equal and
very slender, the whole considerably more than half
the length of the supraanal plate ; cerci bent sud-
denly inward before the tip and at the tipreassuming,
at least in part, the original course, reaching the tip
of the supraanal plate; the latter with no abrupt
preapical constriction.

k^. The distal twist of the male cerci conspicuous
and involving the apical half of the same.

P. Furcula of male narrowing uniformly or
almost uniformly throughout ; hind margin of
pronotum very obtusangulate ; disk of pronotum
dotted obscurely if at all with fuscous, .cyanipes.
i'\ Furcula of male with a considerable part of
the apical portion equal and very slender; hind
margin of pronotum only a little obtusangulate ;
disk of pronotum generally distinctly dotted

with fuscous cinereus.

h^. The distal twist of the male cerci inconspicu-
ous, involving only the extreme tip.

/\ Tegmina long and very slender, far surpass-

26 THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS. [Jan. 15,

ing the hind femora, without distinct spots ;
hind femora strongly compressed ; hind tibiae

reddish yellow complanatipes.

{-. Tegmina of normal width and but little sur-
passing the hind femora, maculate along the dis-
coidal area; hind femora normal; hind tibiae

glaucous canofitcus.

fK Subgenital plate of male very broad apically, nearly
or quite as broad as long, apically generally notched
though very feebly ; furcula rarely, and then but little,
more than a third the length of the supraanal plate ;
hind tibiae usually red, but sometimes blue or green
(Angustipennis series).
g^. Hind tibiae red.

h)-. Prozona of male subquadrate ; tegmina very
slender, subequal, scarcely expanded on the costa ;
furcula of male with straight subparallel forks. . . .

comptus.
Jr. Prozona of male distinctly longitudinal, much
longer than its basal breadth ; tegmina of ordinary
breadth and costal expansion, tapering ; furcula of

male with arcuate, strongly divergent forks

coccineipes.
g"^. Hind tibiae glaucous.

Ji)-. Furcula of male not more than a third as long
as the supraanal plate ; tegmina lightly maculate

or immaculate angustipennis .

Ii\ Furcula of male more than a third as long as
the supraanal plate ; tegmina usually heavily macu-
late impiger.

e\ Furcula of male slight, the projecting portion not

longer or scarcely longer than the last dorsal segment from

•which it springs.

/^ Subgenital plate of male broad, throughout broader

than the extreme base of the cerci ; apical portion of

supraanal plate suddenly depressed just beyond the

middle ; cerci moderately broad, not much narrowed in

the middle, more or less suddenly bent inward near tip,

exteriorly sulcate at apex (Packardii series).

g^. Interspace between mesosternal lobes of male
nearly or quite twice as long as broad.

1S97.] THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS. 27

h\ Median carina of pronotum obsolete or almost
obsolete on the prozona, distinct but low on the
metazona ; extremity of male cerci nearly plane or
merely depressed within the margin exteriorly ;
forks of furcula conspicuously divergent.

i*. Prozona ordinarily with a broad median dark
stripe, made more conspicuous by the much
brighter colors on either side, or else light
brownish testaceous ; antennae of male but little
more than three-fourths as long as the hind fe-
mora ; hind tibite blue or red .packardii.

/-'. Prozona with uniform dingy coloring on
disk ; antennae of male almost as long as the

hind femora ; hind tibiae red .fixdus.

Jr. Median carina of pronotum tolerably distinct

on the prozona, at least anteriorly ; distinct and

moderately high on the metazona; extremity of

male cerci deeply sulcate exteriorly or else tumid ;

forks of furcula parallel or only slightly divergent.

/\ Larger species ; narrowest part of interspace

between mesosternal lobes of male narrower

than the narrowest part of frontal costa ; sides

of head and prozona rarely with any black band ;

interspace between mesosternal lobes of female

strongly transverse; hind femora red beneath;

hind tibiae stout corpulenius.

p. Smaller species ; narrowest part of interspace
between mesosternal lobes of male equal to the
narrowest part of frontal costa; sides of head
and prozona with a black band ; interspace be-
tween mesosternal lobes of female subquadrate ;
hind femora yellow beneath ; hind tibi^ slender.

conspersus.
g"^. Interspace between mesosternal lobes of male

subquadrate covipadus.

/■'. Subgenital plate of male very narrow and narrower
apically than the extreme base of the cerci ; supraanal
plate on the same general plane throughout; cerci
slender and much narrowed in the middle, gradually
incurved, exteriorly tumid at apex (Plebejus series).

28 THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS. [Jan. 15,

g^. Siibgenital plate of male, as seen from above,

apically angulate and tuberculate marginatus,

g"^. Subgenital plate of male, as seen from above,

apically well rounded and simple paroxyoides.

d"^. Cerci of male apically bifurcate, or with an inferior
submedian process or abrupt angulation, or else expanded
so as to be distinctly, generally much, broader apically than
at the extreme base ; furcula wanting or minute, rarely {M.
arizonce) a fourth as long as the supraanal plate.

e^. Size smaller or medium ; cerci of male always bifur-
cate or with an inferior submedian process or angulation ;
supraanal plate pretty regularly triangular with straight or
feebly convex lateral margins ; furcula usually distinctly
developed, rarely {M. collinus) wanting ; prosternal spine
usually short (Collinus series).
/\ Lower fork of bifurcation of male cerci much longer
than the upper ; apical margin of subgenital plate nar-
rowly, abruptly and considerably elevated.
g^. Small species; interspace between mesosternal
lobes of male more than twice as long as broad ; of
female quadrate ; median portion of male cerci cylin-
drical, not compressed alpinus.

g"^. Very small species ; interspace between mesoster-
nal lobes of male half as long again as broad ; of
female transverse ; median portion of male cerci com-
pressed infantilis.

f^. Upper fork of bifurcation of male cerci longer than

the lower, which is sometimes merely an inferior median

or postmedian process ; apical margin of subgenital

plate elevated, if at all, only broadly, gradually and a

little.

^\ Furcula of male distinctly present ; apical margin

of subgenital plate distinctly elevated more or less

above the lateral margins.

h)-. Furcula of male consisting of slender spines,
longer than the last dorsal segment ; base of lateral
margins of subgenital plate incurved.

/ \ Furcula of male less than a fourth as long as
the supraanal plate ; apical half of cerci bent
upward from the basal course.

1897.] THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELAXOPLUS. 29

y\ Prozona of male subquadrate ; supraanal
plate with the apical and basal portions in the
same plane ; subgenital plate of equal or sub-
equal breadth beyond the middle minor,

j"\ Prozona of male distinctly longitudinal;
subgenital plate with the apical portion ele-
vated above the median ; subgenital plate dis-
tinctly narrowing beyond the middle . confusus
i'^. Furcula of male half as long as the supraanal
plate ; anal cerci incurved, but otherwise straight.

arizonce.
h^. Furcula of male consisting of brief triangular
lobes ; base of lateral margins of subgenital plate
not incurved.

/^. Interspace between mesosternal lobes of male
twice as long as broad ; upper fork of cerci
scarcely bent upward above the trend of the
basal stem.
y\ Upper fork of male cerci much shorter
than the stem ; subgenital plate shorter thdn

broad keeleri.

j'\ Upper fork of male cerci nearly as long as
the stem ; subgenital plate of equal length and

breadth deleior.

P. Interspace between mesosternal lobes of male
scarcely longer than broad ; upper fork of cerci

bent distinctly upward luridus.

g'~. Furcula of male absent ; apical margin of subgenital
plate not elevated above the lateral margins . collinus.
£-. Size medium or large ; cerci of male rarely bifurcate or
with an inferior process (and then the insect is of large
size, which it never is in the alternate category, and the
supraanal plate is distinctly shield-shaped, the apical half
tapering with much greater rapidity than the basal; or the
furcula is absent ; or the interspace between the mesoster-
nal lobes of the male is three times as long as broad,
-which it never is in the alternate category) ; supraanal
plate of variable shape ; furcula either absent or very min-
utely developed ; prosternal spine usually long.

/\ Interspace between mesosternal lobes of male nearly,

30 THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS.

[Jan. 15.

fully, or much more than twice as long as broad ; of
female generally longer than broad, rarely quadrate ;
prosternal spine generally long ; tegmina usually clear,
or with a marked distinction in color between the
dorsal and lateral areas, or with the angle between the
two marked by a conspicuous light colored stripe ; head
less prominent and with less prominent eyes than in the
alternate category, the front margin of the pronotum in
no way flaring to receive the head.

g^. Furcula of male entirely absent, or present only
as a minute point or bead ; hind tibiae generally
yellow, but sometimes red fRobustus series).

h^. Tegmina fully equal to or surpassing the hind
femora; hind tibias yellow.

/^ Cerci of male boot-shaped, the foot as long
as the leg, the apical margin deeply emarginate
below ; markings of the outer face of hind femora
so run together as to be more longitudinal than

transverse differentialis.

i"^. Cerci of male apically expanded only a little
more above than below ; the apical margin regu-
larly or almost regularly convex; markings of
outer face of hind femora transverse. . . .robustus.
h'\ Tegmina somewhat abbreviated, not reaching
the extremity of the hind femora ; hind tibiae red
or reddish yellow.

/\ Apical margin of male cerci convex or angu-

lato-convex.

y^ Tegmina distinctly and considerably

spotted with fuscous on the lateral field ; cerci

of male nearly equal on proximal half, the

apical margin convex viola.

y ^ Tegmina almost uniformly fuscous on lateral
field ; cerci of male distinctly tapering on
proximal half, the apical margin broadly

angulate clypeatus.

P. Male cerci apically forked, the apical border

being deeply emarginate furcatus.

g"^. Furcula of male distinctly present, though always
very small, angulate, the angle rarely produced ; hind

1897.]

THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS. 81

tibiae never yellow, usually red, rarely purplish and
yellow^at tip (Bivittatus series).

h^. Interspace between mesosternal lobes of male
distinctly more than twice as long as broad ; pro-
notum with conspicuous light colored lateral stripes
on the disk, their outer margin at the position of
lateral carin?e.

i^. Cerci of niale very much more expanded
apically above than below, the apical border
slightly emarginate below.

y\ Hind tibi?e clear red throughout

femoraius.
yi Hind tibiae purplish basally, yellow (rarely

reddish) apically bivittatus.

/-. Cerci of male apically expanded but little
more above than below, the apical border con-
vex, with no emargination below tho??iasi.

Jr. Interspace between mesosternal lobes of male
a little less than twice as long as broad ; pronotum
unicolorous on disk, any lateral stripes being con-
fined to the position of lateral carin?e.

/\ Prozona of male feebly longitudinal; apical
margin of subgenital plate considerably elevated
and truncate ; furcula formed of apically rectan-

gulate lobes yarrowii.

/^ Prozona of male distinctly longitudinal; api-
cal margin of subgenital plate considerably pro-
longed and subtuberculate ; furcula formed of

rounded lobes with a slight prolongation

olivaceus.
/'-. Interspace between mesosternal lobes of male sub-
quadrate ; of female transverse ; prosternal spine short ;
tegmina maculate with roundish fuscous spots ; eyes of
male and head prominent, the front margin of the pro-
notum flaring to receive the head (Punctulatus series).
g\ Of large size ; furcula present as a pair of very
small denticulations; apical margin of male cerci
broadly convex, feebly emarginate on the lower half. .

arboreus.
^^ Of medium size ; furcula wanting ; apical margin

32 THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS. [Jan. 15,

of male cerci angulato-convex with no inferior
emargination punctulatus.

Lakinus series. This contains three species which range from
southwestern Nebraska and Colorado to central Mexico. Marcu-
lentus and sonorce are new species, the former named by Bruner ;
lakinus was described by me in 1879.

Flabellifer series. The six species belonging here are evenly
divided between macropterous and brachypterous forms ; they are
fomid only west of the Mississippi, and mainly in the Cordilleran
region. They are occidentalis Thom. {vatiolosiis Scudd.), cuneaius
Brun. MS., flabellifer Scudd., discolor Scudd., simplex sp. nov.,
and rileyanus McNeill MS.

Bowditchi series. Here belong six species found almost altogether
in the southwest ; only one occurs a short distance east of the Mis-
sissippi. The species are herbaceus Brun., flavescens sp. nov.,
pictus Brun. MS., bowditchi Scudd., flavidus Scudd. {cenchri
McNeill), and elongatus sp. nov.

Glaucipes series. Two species only belong here : glaucipes
Scudd., from Texas and northern Mexico, and kennicottii Scudd.,
which ranges from Montana to Alaska.

Utahensis series. The three species belonging here are found
mainly in the Cordilleran region from latitude 38° northward ;
they are bruneri sp. nov., excelsus sp. nov., and utahensis
Brun. MS.

Spretus series. There are seven species in this series which range
widely, some of them occurring in every part of the United States
except the southernmost Atlantic States and most of California, and
extending far north as well as to central Mexico. The species are
alaska?ius sp. nov., affinis Brun. MS., intermedins Brun. MS.,
bilituratus Walk., defectus sp. nov., atlajiis Riley, and spretus
Uhler.

Devastator series. The species are eight in number and almost
exclusively confined to California ; it is the characteristic group of
the Pacific Coast. They are diminutus sp. nov., consanguineus
sp. nov., sierranus sp. nov., ater^y^. nov., devastator Scudd. {aflinis
Coq.) occurring in four forms, virgatus McNeill MS., uniforinis
sp. nov. , and angelicus sp. nov.

Impudicus series. There is but a single species, impudicus
sp. nov., found in the southern States east of the Mississippi.

Aridus series. Here belong three species found in Arizona,

1897.] THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS MELANOPLUS. 83

Lower California and the proximate part of Mexico. They are
hit mphreysit Thom., aridus ScudcL, and nitidus sp. nov.

Indigens series. Contains a single Idaho species, indigens sp.
nov.

Mancus series. The five species belonging here are brachypterous,
but have a wide range, though most of them are separately local.
They are scudderi Uhl. {unicolor Thorn.), giUetiei sp. nov., arte-
viisice Brun. MS., mancus Sm.ith, and cancri s\>. nov.

Dawsoni series. A somewhat heterogeneous group with both
macropterous and brachypterous species and one dimorphic. They
are seven in number and occur almost wholly in the great interior
region between the Mississippi and the Rocky mountains, and extend
from Alberta to central Mexico. They are reflexus sp. nov., meridion-
alis sp. nov., militaris sp. nov., uigrescens Scudd. {zimmennamii
Sauss.?), daii'soni '^Q.w^^., {iellustris Scudd., ahditiini Dodge), g/ad-
stoni Brun. MS., and /^/;;/<?r/ sp. nov.

Rusticus series. Seven species belong to this group, ranging
from Washington, South Dakota and Michigan to southern Cali-
fornia, Texas and Mexico, though, excepting in Montana, no two
species have yet been found in any one State. They are montanus
Thom., washiiigtonianus Brun., walshii sp. nov., aliitiidi?iu7n
Scudd. {7narshaliii Scudd., sanguinipes Brun. MS.), gracilipes
McNeill MS., geniculatus sp. nov., and I'listicus Stal.

Borckii series. The six species grouped here are brachypterous
and are mainly confined to the Pacific coast from Washington to
California, but one species occurs also in Idaho and Wyoming, and
another is known only from San Luis Potosi, Mex. They are as
follows: pacificus Scudd., boi'ckii '^\^2\, ienuipamis McNeill MS.,
missiotmm sp. wov., fuscipes McNeill MS., and sciiulus sp. nov.

Puer series. Contains only two species from Texas and Florida,
flabellaius Scudd., and/2^<fr Scudd.

Inornatus series. Three species belong here, found one in
Mexico, another in North Carolina and the third in Illinois and
Indiana. They are inortiaius McNeill MS., viridipes Walsh MS.
{j)i}'idicnis Walsh MS., viiddulus McNeill), and dccoj-us sp. nov.

Fasciatus series. This group is not very homogeneous, apart
from its containing both brachypterous and macropterous forms.
There are eight species and their range is not very concordant; one
comes from the extreme north (barren grounds) of Labrador and
from Greenland ; two from Florida only ; another from Oregon and

PROC. AMEK. PHI LOS. SOC. XXX VI. 154. C. PRINTED APRIL 20, 1897.

84 THE SPECIES OF THE GEXUS MELAXOPLUS. [Jan. 15,

Washington; others occur in Kentucky, North Carolina, Indiana
and Texas, while the last ranges across the continent from New-
foundland and New Jersey in the east to Oregon and Washington in
the west, and centrally from the Saskatchewan to Colorado. They
are: attenuaiits sp. nov., amplectens sp. nov., saltator sp. nov.,
rotiitidipennis Scudd., obovaiipejinis Blatchl. {longicornis Sauss.?),
juvencus sp. uov., fascial us Barnst. {borealis Scudd., rectus Scudd.,
curtus Scudd.), and borealis Fieb. {seplentrionalis Sauss.).

AUeni series. Two species are known, alleni sp. nov., from Iowa
and Dakota, and snoiaii s^. nov., from New Mexico.

Femur-rubrum series. A dominant and homogeneous group with
five species spread over the continent from Atlantic to Pacific, from
central Labrador to central Florida, and from the McKenzie river
to Texas and central Mexico. No other series has quite so wide an
area of distribution. The species are the following : plumbeus
Dodge, femur-rubrum DeGeer {erylhropus Gmel., sanguinolentus
Prov., devorator Scudd., ////^r/^/' Scudd. ), propinquus McNeill MS.,
extremus Walk. {Junius Dodge, parvus Prov., leucosloma Kirby ?),
and itwnlicola Brun. MS.

Cinereus series. Six species are with one exception found only
in the extreme southwestern States, but that exception (the typi-
cal species) extends the range to Idaho, western Nebraska and
Louisiana. The species are: bispinosus sp. nov., ierminalis sp.
nov., cyanipes Brun. MS., cinereus Scudd., complanalipes sp. nov.,
and canonicus sp. nov.

Angustipennis series. The four species occur from Iowa to
Utah and from Montana and Manitoba to Texas, though one
ranges east to Ontario. They are comptus sp. nov., coccineipes
sp. nov., angustipennis Dodge, and impiger sp. nov.

Packardii series. The five species are all found west of the
Mississippi from British Columbia and Assiniboia to Central
Mexico, but occur in California only in the north. They are
packardii Scudd. {fasciatus Scudd.), foedus Scudd., corpulentus
Brun. MS., co?tspersus sp. nov., and compactus Brun. MS.

Texan us series. This group also contains five species, all oc-
curring west of the Mississippi, except one found in the upper
Mississippi region. They are dumicola Scudd., variabilis Brun.
MS., lepidus sp. nov., blatchleyi s^i. nov. {occidentalis Brun., viola
Blatchl.), and texanus Scudd.

Plebejus series. The five species are distributed among brachyp-

1897.] THE SPECIES OF THE GEXUS M KLA Xi )PLUS. 35

terous and macropterous forms, one being dimorphic. They are
widely separated geographically, one ranging from Dakota to Ken-
tucky, while the others are found respectively in Florida, Texas
and California. They d^x^plebejus Stal. {^ pupceformis Scudd. ), gracilis
Brun. {tninutipennis Thom.), i?iops sp. nov., fnargivaius Scudd., and
paroxyoidfs sp. nov.

Collinus series. An extensive group, with nine species ranging
over the entire United States excepting Alaska and California.
They are alpinus Brun. MS., /;^/^w//7/i' Scudd., w/z/^r Scudd., con-
fusus s^. nov., anzona Scudd., keeleri^\\ov^. {icnebrosus Scudd.),
deleter Scudd., luridus Dodge, and collinus Scudd.

Robustus series. Five large species occurring in the southern
half of the United States, but hardly known east of the Alle-
ghenies. They are differentialis Uhl., robustus Scudd. {ponderosus
Scudd. ),///';r^//^j- sp. nov., viola Thom. (affiliatus Uhl. MS.), and
clypeatus Scudd.

Bivittatus series. Five heavy-bodied species belong here, and
together they cover nearly the entire continent and include two
of the commonest kinds. They species are : femoratus Burm.
(^flavovittatus Harr. , milberti 'ievv., edax Sauss., hudsonium Barnst.
MS.), bivittatus Say, thomasi Brun. MS., yarrozuii Thom., and
olivaceus Brun. MS.

Punctulatus series. Two species are known, arboreus sp. nov.,
from the southwest, and punctulatus Scudd. {griseus Thom., helluo
Scudd.), from a large part of the country east of the Rocky moun-
tains.

36

THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BONE CAVE, TEXN. [Jan. 15,

THE FINDING OF THE REMAINS OF THE FOSSH.
SLOTH AT BIG BONE CAVE, TEN-
NESSEE, IN 1896.

By Henry C. Mercer.

{Read January 15, 1897.)

The fossil sloth bones found in Big Bone cave, Tennessee, illus-
trate an investigation at one of the points of contact between
paleontology and archaeology. They explain an effort made during
the last several years by the Department of Archasology and Paleon-
tology of the University of Pennsylvania to settle the question of
man's antiquity in North America through a study of the associa-

FlG. I. — Big Bone cave, at the head of Beech cove, one mile from the left bank of
Caney Fork river, and one mile above the mouth of Dry Branch, Van Buren county,
Tennessee. On the west slope of the Cumberland table-land, about 1000 feet above
the sea. Site of the discovery of the remains of the fossil sloth with attached cartilage.

tion of human with animal remains in caves. Turning away, for a
time, from mounds, village sites and buried cities, we have sought

1897.] THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BOXE CAVE, TEXX. 37

the help of the naturalist^ in a systematic attempt to penetrate the
crust of recent earth under foot, to trace man through a mixture
of the familiar vestiges of such animals as the deer, the bison,
the bear, the beaver, the muskrat and the wolf, still existing in
the American forest, and to follow him down into that older world
layer next below called the Pleistocene. There we have endeavored
to find, if possible, his bones still associated with the remains of
the extinct mastodon, the mammoth, the tapir, the giant beaver and
the fossil sloth.

Much remains to be done over a wide territory, before the evi-
dence of American caves, for or against man's geological antiquity,
can be adequately collected or reasonably summed up. But already
in the territory examined in the eastern United States and Central
America, some landmarks seem to have been established in the pre-
Columbian darkness.

Here are five vertebrae (three dorsal and two lumbar), a rib, a heel
bone (calcaneum), an astragalus, four vertebral plates (epiphyses)
and one epiphysis of a humerus, pertaining to an animal whose
name and history belong to the records of this Society, since the
first remains of the creature ever found in North America were
presented here by Thomas Jefferson on March lo, 1797. Struck
by the size of its formidable claws then shown, Jefferson' gave
it the name Megaloiiyx (great claw), afterwards adopted by
Cuvier. And I have hunted up at the Academy of Natural Sciences,
for comparison with my specimens, this other set of bones, the very
ones then exhibited by Jefferson, two of the lower limb (radius and
ulna), several of the foot (metacarpal), with a couple of claws, and
show them again here one hundred years later, where I wish to note
the fact that certain of them have been gnawed, like my specimens,
by rodents, though all are heavier than the latter, and much older
in appearance.

^My grateful thanks are herewith returned to Prof. Cope for his identification
of the bones of the extinct sloth here referred to ; to Mr. S. N. Rhodes for identifi-
cation of the hair, quills and refuse of smaller animals ; while our study of the lay-
ers, and the removal of characteristic portions of the earth in small bags would
have signified less if Dr. Harrison Allen had not named for us the bats ; Mr. John-
son, of the Wagner Institute, an insect ; Prof. Heilprin and Mr. Vaux, specimens of
clay and a limestone fossil, and Messrs. Thomas Meehan and Stewardson Brown,
of the Academy of Natural Sciences, the remains of plants which one by one came to
light at home after the specimen bags were opened and their contents studied in
the daylight.

2 See Transact, of Am. Philos. Sjc, 1799, Vol. iv, p. 246.

88 THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BONE CAVE, TENN". [Jan.

Found by saltpetre diggers, buried a foot or more below the sur-
face in the floor earth of Cromers' cave, Green Briar county. West
Virginia, Jefferson's specimens were apparently only a few of a
greater series. Col. John Stewart and a Mr. Hopkins, of New-
York, saved these here shown. Another bone got to Cuvier in
France ; the rest were lost. But from that time to this fragments
of the skeleton of the gigantic extinct sloth, claws, limbs, a skull
or two, teeth and vertebrae, came to light, sometimes in caves, some-
times in alluvial deposits, as the century passed. Several bones were
found with mastodon remains mired in the soft saline earth around the
springs at Big Bone Lick, Ky.; others in a conglomeration of the
bones of extinct animals at Natchez, Miss., where a whole skull was
rescued, or in the river alluvium at Memphis, Tenn.; others in White
cave, Ky., in Adams county. Miss., and in a cave in northern
Alabama, from which a well-preserved series was sent by Mr. Tuomey
to the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia. Southern
Louisiana must have been well-colonized by the animals whose re-
mains, together with the bones of the fossil horse and mastodon, are
thickly bedded at the bottom of the rock-salt diggings at Petit
Anse, where the creatures probably came to lick salt,^ and the
Pennsylvanian forest must have abounded with them from twenty to
thirty millenniums ago, judging from the great number of crushed
skulls, claws and bones, that I have exhumed from the fossil bone-
bearing chasm at Pt. Kennedy along with the sabre-toothed tiger,
the mastodon and fossil horse.

Jefferson, with no tooth to judge by, supposed the ''great
claw," as he called it, to be a kind of lion such as Hawkins, Har-
riot, Willoughby, Claibourne and other old explorers said they had
seen or heard of in the American woods, and he quoted the tales
of later Virginian hunters, describing a terrible roaring, and the
devouring of a horse, by a great carnivore, which (as in the case of
the mammoth) he argued might still exist in the western wilderness
then unexplored. But Dr. Caspar Wistar - and then Cuvier estab-
lished the analogy of the Cromers' cave bones with the modern
sloth of South America. And when no such living carnivore as
Jefferson had fancied was ever found, and when the remains discovered
later appeared continually in association with extinct animals, the
gigantic sloth soon came to be regarded as a characteristic represen-

1 Joseph F. Joor, M.D., in American N^attifalist ior AprW, 1895.
"^Proc. Am. Phllos. Soc, Vol. vi, 526, 1799."]

1897.] THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BONE CAVE, TENX. 39

tative of a category of tapirs, peccaries, horses and mastodons,
which had flourished in the time called Pleistocene, at an epoch
one geological degree back of the present, or, according to the last
of several geological time estimates, about 30,000 years ago.

Here, then, to return to the particular specimens presented by me,
(See Figs. 5-14 and 19) are bones which, from the point of view
of anthropology, might be presumed to be very ancient, older than
the pyramids of Egypt or the oldest inscribed brick yet found in
Babylonia, but which, it must be confessed, appear quite modern. I
removed them with my own hands out of the floor earth of Big Bone
cave, Van Buren county, Tenn., in last May (1896), while conduct-
ing thither an expedition for the Department of American and Prehis-
toric Arch?eology of the University of Pennsylvania.^ Strange
to say many have articular cartilage clinging to them. Most have
been gnawed by small rodents while still retaining their juices, and
for these reasons and because, as we shall see later, they form part
of a set of bones doubtless of one and the same animal, obtained
from Big Bone cave first in 1835, next in 1884, and now last by
me in 1896, they may be classed as pertaining to the most modern -
looking if not the most interesting series of remains of the extinct
animal ever found in the United States. In this case, since the
position and the association of the other specimens alluded to
of 1835 ^^^ T884, previously found in the same cave by farmers,
were not observed, the bones here shown constitute the only
remains of this Big Bone cave animal, whose relation to surround-
ing facts bearing upon their age has been studied so as to furnish
some reasonable conclusion as to how and when the creature got
into the cave, and whether or not it was a contemporary of the
Indian in the Southern mountains.

In the first place, it should be said, that the bones did not come
from a human culture layer, nor from a den of large carnivora.
Neither were they found at a site where the cave explorer would have
chosen to dig, but rather at a spot where all the conditions of explo-
ration seemed unfavorable. They were rescued from one of the sub-
terranean galleries at the last moment after the whole cave had been
rifled for saltpetre.

About one mile from the left bank of Caney Fork river, and

^ I take pleasure in returning tlie thanks of the Departmant and of myself to our
Vice-President Dr. William Pepper, who alone defrayed the expenses of this expedi-
tion.

40 THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BONE CAVE, TENN. [Jan. 15,

one mile above the mouth of a confluent called Dry Branch, in Van
Buren county, Tenn., probably looo feet above the sea, Big Bone
cave opens from the carboniferous limestone upon the head of the
"Beech cove," one of the secluded ravines called "coves" that
furrow the western slope of the Cumberland table land. Though
600 feet, more or less, and a broken reach of country intervened
between the cavern and the high cool region above, its general near-
ness to the plateau^ and its elevation promised well for the explorer.
Subterranean deposits washed away, or disturbed by water, during
the supposed invasion of the lower country by post-glacial floods,
might well have escaped destruction in a cave lying as high as this,
while the chance of unearthing abundant or ancient mammalian
remains was increased, if we were to suppose that animals in great
numbers had gathered in the vicinity, or that man, if he ex-
isted, had sought refuge upon the plateau during a general inunda-
tion.

But the configuration of the cave, at its entrance, disappointed
us. By all past experience, the gloomy hole (see Fig. i) over-
shadowed with large " tulip trees " was too wet and steep for savage
shelter. Water dripped from the low arch forty-two feet wide and
only six feet high. The down-washing of rain from the hill above
had choked the vault with loose stones, and disturbed any deposit
of earth that may ever have existed within sight of the outer world.
Just where we had expected to discover evidence of value, at the
point where caves are usually richest in significant remains, there
was no work for shovel and pickaxe. To our surprise, the point of
interest in Big Bone cave lay far beyond the reach of daylight. It

1 The Cumberland table-land, a flat-topped continuation of the AUeghenies
with sandstone top set on limestone base, extending from northeast to south-
west across the entire State of Tennessee, comprises, according to Prof. Safford,
5100 square miles, or one-eighth of the State. Rising 1000 feet above the valley
of Tennessee and 2000 feet above the sea, its eastern edge forms a generally straight
line, while its western escarpment is notched and scalloped by deep "coves"
and valleys, where erosion has laid bare the underlying stratum of " mountain "
(carboniferous) limestone upon which the plateau is founded. At almost all
points on both sides, the surface suddenly breaks off in sandstone bluffs or
cliffs from twenty to two hundred feet in height, giving generally a sharp and promi-
nent margin or brow to the plateau. The carboniferous sandstone surface of the high
region, overspread with a sandy, coarse and sterile soil, is often flat for miles. Then
again it is rolling and diversified with hills and shallow valleys. In the northeastern
part there are high ridges containing many beds of coal, which may be regarded as
mountains on a table-land. See Elementary Geology of Tennessee, by J. M. Safford,
Nashville, p. 32.

1897.] THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT IHG BONE CAVE, TENN. ^1

was only found after turning to the right from the main tunnel
and following a small bifurcating passage for 900 feet.

As we groped onward, the cave became dry, and the candles re-
vealed a line of clay stains waist high upon the narrow walls, mark-
ing the limit of nitrous earth previously excavated along the entire
length of the gallery. Without the superfluous assertions of our
guide, James Priest, and the land owner, Mr. G. B. Johnson, we
might have inferred that we had entered one of the numerous
Appalachian caves, where the floor accumulations, because they
contained saltpetre, had been removed by gunpowder makers at
times of need in the wars of 1776, 1812 or 1863.^

Laden with pickaxe and shovels, baskets, instruments, candles
and provisions, now crouching where the roof lowered, now clam-
bering upon a log across an intersecting crevice, eight or nine feet
deep, we followed the lead of Priest, until directly on the footway
a spot was reached where, in the utter darkness, beyond the range
of the continued baitings of men, and probably of large animals,
at a point where no human culture layer, under ordinary circum-
stances, could have been formed, these remarkable bones of the
sloth and all other sloth bones, known to have been previously
removed from the cave, were found. Elsewhere the evidence of
the relation of animals and men to the cavern, whatever its charac-
ter, had been destroyed.

1 Judging by the wall stains, from one to three feet of this floor earth had been
removed throughout the nine hundred feet of the passage observed, and the large
pile of leached earth, just under the entering arch of the cave, the still greater ram-
part outside and several similar heaps at other points in the neighborhood, where
water for leaching was convenient, testified that the numerous " petre diggers " of the
war of 1812 (about three hundred in number, said Mr. Johnson) and their successors
of the Rebellion, had done a formidable amount of work underground. Many
thDusands of sacks, full of the pungent earth, had been carried upon their backs by
way of devious passages, with many tedious twists and leanings, crawls and squirms
from the eternal darkness to daylight. To leach the earth you place it (according to
Mr. Johnson) in a wooden funnel-shaped hopper, with a drip orifice at the bottom.
After pouring on water, an equal mass of which the dry earth absorbs, the hopper at
length begms to drip and continues to drain off a pungent liquid caught in a vat.
Having " seeped " for several days, the drops loose their taste, proving that the earth
has lost its strength, or is, in other words, leached. Then the treatment of the liquor
begins. This is poured through a similar hopper full of wood ashes and drips not, as
before, clear, but now darkened with impregnated lye. Boiled down after this to half
its volume in kettles, the liquor thickens, and, when allowed to cool, at once hardens
throughout suddenly into beautiful cyrstals of pure saltpetre, when it is ready for
sale. Such is the process familiar to the memory of many of the wild-looking moun-
tain men, whose subterranean labor, unfortunately for archneology, has destroyed the
interesting evidence once furnished by many of the care floors in eastern Tennessee.

42 THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BONE CAVE, TENIs\ [Jan. 15,

The record of these bones is, therefore, very different from that
of animal remains dug out of the rock shelters of Europe, or from
that of specimens derived from any layer of caked human rubbish
where savages have been wont to take subterranean refuge. Men
certainly did not bring them into the cave. Frost iiad never
reached them. Neither would change of temperature have affected
them where they appeared to have rested in the dry earth in an un-
changeably cool air since the time of their deposition.

Let us describe this place. The roof has expanded over several
branching alcoves, partitioned head high by screens of eroded rock.
Mysterious crevices in the ceiling rise above us beyond the reach of
candle light. There are no stalactites and we feel no trace of damp-
ness. The severe outside heat of the Southern spring has been re-
duced to a dry and cool subterranean temperature of fifty-five degrees
Fahrenheit. Where a flanking screen narrows the gallery to a width
of three and four feet, the earth is soft and mealy under foot and
covers the whole floor, rising in a cloud of dust when disturbed by
a kick. This floor deposit proves on examination to consist of a
noxious and volatile mantle of dry, loose excrements, mixed with
vegetable remains, covering up and spoiling by its intermixture the
nitrous earth resting in lumps beneath it, and thus sufficiently
explaining why, as far as saltpetre digging was concerned, that part
of the cave had never been disturbed.

To further examine this floor, later to search the surrounding
alcoves, and to discover upon several ledges shoulder high a series
of ancient water-made holes, large as stove-pipes, down which nuts,
leaves, grass and dung had slid, was to explain the existence of the
rubbish at that point. The spot had long been and probably was
still a den of busy cave rats, who with porcupines, reaching the
gallery not by the outer cave entrance but by the air holes described,
had brought thither tlieir vegetable food and trophies from the outer
world. Though none of the conspicuous nests of dry grasses and
moss loosely interwoven, such as I had previously observed lying on
the floor of a rat cave on the New river in Virginia, were seen,
several wads of moss, found later in the rubbish, seemed to indicate
that the Neotoma magister had nested there at some time before the
visitation of the cavern by saltpetre diggers. Once again let us say
that we were directly upon the cave path, where back and forth
over the dusty manure all footsteps of all saltpetre hunters, all
white men, all Indians, choosing to penetrate deeper into the

1897.1 THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT JUG l^OXE CAVE, TEXN. 43

cave, must needs have passed. Their trarapling liad draggled the
surface, kicking earth into it from other areas, or dropping " petre
dirt" upon it from bags. Moreover charred pieces of resinous
pine, Pinus 7nitis ; twigs of hazel, Cory/us atncricana, and frag-
ments of burnt cane, Arundifiaj'ia iecta, strewed the surface, repre-
senting doubtless the remains of the torches of such white nitre
hunters as had not had lamps or candles, and, we may reasonably
suppose, of the Indians who had preceded them (see Fig. 2). The
appearance of this surface film then, which I have called

LAYER I

{2 to J inches thick),

thus disturbed for two or three inches, and scattered with lumps
of nitrous earth and with these burnt sticks, was sufficient to
demonstrate that human beings had visited the cave if no further
proof of the fact had existed. Over and above the certainty that
white men had long passed and repassed the spot, and that many of
the torch ends, and particularly the pieces of pitch pine (which sug-
gested the splitting agency of iron tools), might be referred to them,
it seemed reasonable to suppose that some at least of the
pieces of charred cane (resembling fragments of Arundinaria
found by us mingled with aboriginal bones in the sepulchral chasm
at Lookout cave) had been cast away at the spot by Indians.

Our party of four, Mr. G. B. Johnson, James Priest, my assis-
tant, Joseph Mussleman, and myself, had stopped, and Priest, our
guide, holding down his candle, pointed to a hollow caused by dig-
ging in the mass of dry manure, where he about 1884, while filling
several bags full of the "fertilizer," as he called it, for his garden,
and later Mr. Johnson himself on a similar errand, had found sev-
eral vertebrae, ribs, the pelvis and the skull with teeth of a large
animal (the extinct sloth), which, after remaining for some time
at the house of Mr. Johnson, had been sent to Nashville and sold.^
For this reason, and as well testified by the letters to me of Prof. J.
M. Safford, State Geologist of Tennessee, who first advised my ex-
ploring the cave, let it be said in parenthesis that without doubt
the sloth skull now in the possession of Prof. Safford, at Nashville,
and which I have been unfortunately unable to obtain from
him for comparative study, is the skull thus found by Priest,

1 By a Mr. A. J. Denton, as Mr. Johnson informed me.

44

'HE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIO BONE CAVE, TENN. [Jan. 15,

KlG. 2 (x Jo). — :Specinieiis of the cave rubbish,
fragments of cave clay and coproHtes ; 3, of porcu-
pine, Erethizon dorsatus ; 4, of cave rat, Neotoma
magister, and the cast-away ends of torches resting
on the surface of the cave floor (Layer i), above
the spot where the sloth bones were unearthed; i,
Arundinaria tecta; 2, charred splinters of pitch
pine, Finns mitis, and seven charred twigs of hazel,
Corylus americana.

and because this skull
and the other bones be-
longing to Prof. Saf-
ford, corresponding to
those described as found
by Priest and Johnson
at this place also show-
cartilage, and further
because the evidence
indicates that there was
only one sloth at this
point, with no reason
shown why there should
have been more than
one, and because it ap-
peared that no other
spot adapted for the
discovery of fossil
bones had existed at
the entrance of the
cave, for these reasons,
I believe that the Nash-
ville bones and my set
go together as parts of
one animal ; and fur-
iher, as first suggested
by Prof. Safford and
now shown by my ex-
amination, let me add
tJTat still another and a
third set of sloth bones,
belonging to the Acad-
emy of Natural Sciences
of Philadelphia, here-
with shown (see Fig. 3
for one of them), found
by a farmer in the cave
and described by Dr.
Harlan in 1835, also
showing cartilage

1897.] THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT IVIG BONE CAVE, TENN.

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46 THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BONE CAVE, TENN. [Jan. 15,

equally fresh in appearance and referable to a young animal
(because of the loose epiphyses) may well be believed to constitute
skeletal portions of the same individual.^

These subsequently arrived at conclusions, however, did not con-
cern us when first pausing in the candle light, we placed our tools
and baskets upon the ground to listen to the account of Priest. Our
hope of finding more bones depended upon the chance that he had
not dug up the whole floor and that other remains, resting beyond the
limit of his digging, had escaped him and remained to reward our
search.

Down through the manure and nitrous earth resting beneath it,
from nine in the morning till five in the afternoon, beginning
where the consistency of the deposit showed that Priest and other
diggers had left off, we worked in the dim candle light, until our
hunting had accomplished its object, and until the walls of our
trench revealed the facts herewith described, and first that of a se-
quence in time marked by the layers that had accumulated upon
the foothold, and of which two epoch-denoting divisions confront-
ed us. They consisted of (below and older) a water-deposited nitrous
clay, resting upon the bottom rock, standing for a time when the
cave was wet, and (above and later) the manure previously re-
ferred to, testifying to an epoch when the cave was dry, and to
the latter division with its subdivisions described as Layers i, 2 and

^ Dr. Richard Harlan (see Medical and Physical Researches, hy Richard Harlan,
Philadelphia, 1835, p. 321) describes the set at the Academy of Natural Sciences in
1835, He speaks of and partially figures " two claws of the fore feet, a radius, a
humerus, a scapula, one rib and several remnants, an os calcis, a tibia, a portion
of the femur, one lumbar and four dorsal vertebrae, the portion of a molar tooth, to-
gether with several epiphyses, the bones of a young animal imperfectly formed at the
extremities." Distinctly noting the cartilage on several of the specimens, he calls par-
ticular attention to the nail on one claw (see Fig. 3 ). According to him , they were ob-
tained by Mr. Dorfeuille (proprietor of the Cincinnati Musem) from a Mr. Clifford
of Kentucky, bought from Dorfeuille by Mr. J. Price Wetherill, and presented by the
latter to the Academy of Natural Sciences. Harlan had in another paper referred
to these bones as coming from White cave, Kentucky, and after repeating the state-
ment here corrects it at the last moment with a footnote which says, *' According to
the recent observations of Dr. Troost, these bones were derived from the Big Rone
cave, Tennessee." My guides' Priest and Johnson had heard of the discovery of
other sloth bones at the cave in the early part of the century, and for the reasons
above given I have no doubt that the nitre diggers (of 1812 probably) found them at
the site of the other discoveries, and that Clifford obtained them through intermedi-
aries. Interesting details of this first discovery would probably appear in Dr. Troost's
communication to Dr. Harlan if it could be found.

1897.] THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BONK CAVE, TKNX. i7

Fig. 4.— Diagram showing a vertical section of the gallery in Big Bone cave where
the sloth bones were found. Layer i (2-3 inches), disturbed surface rubbish with
charred torch ends. Layer 2 (2 to 2^ feet), dry loose rat excrement, animal and
vegetable remains, etc., with sloth bones. Layer 3 (i foot), crusted lower portion of
rat excrement and vegetable remains formed before the advent of the sloth bones.
Layer 4 (of undetermined depth), loose pieces of nitrous clay, dry and hard, mixed
with manure. The disturbance resulting in the intrusion of torch ends and other
objects into the deposit as far as Layer 4, caused by burrowing rats, is seen against the
left cave wall.

48

THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BONE CAVE, TENN. [Jan. 15,

3, and hence to the later time belong the sloth bones here shown.
One after another they were found in the dry manure, which, lying
invariably under Layer i above described, I have called

LAYER 2.

{^2 to 2\ feet thick. See Fig. 4.)

As we worked forward through this layer with shovel, hands
and trowel to where it thinned out and the saltpetre earth now
removed had formed the foothold beyond it, we found it to
consist almost entirely of well-preserved, dry excrements of the
cave rat, Neotoina magisier, which, intermixed in lesser quan-
tity with coprolites of porcupines, Erethizon do7^satus, formed the
conspicuous ingredients of the mass. In consistency like a bin

Fig. 5 (x >4 ). — First bone found (in Layer 2, depth.about 18 inches), epiphysis
or unknitted end of the humerus of a young sloth, Megalonyx. Photographed,
resting upon the characteristic rubbish of Layer 2 found around it. i. Bat's
]?L\S', Adelonycteris fusca. 2. Hickory nut and fragment gnawed by rodent,
Hicoria glabra. 3. Excrement of large mammal, possibly sloth. 4. Felted
hair of bats, rats and porcupines mixed with a woolly fur, possibly belonging to
the sloth itself. 5. Bones of the bat, Adelonycteris fusca. The background
is composed of a mass of dry coprolites of cave rats, brown dusty earth, and
fragments of hard cave clay, " petre dirt."

THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BOXE CAVE, TENX.

49

of oats, the deposit answered every disturbance with a cloud of pun-
gent dust. Nuts, sticks, fur and moss were easily seen in it by
candle light, but more minute search in the cave and a subsequent
study of the speci-

mens preserved,
revealed at vari-
ous points,

the
seeds, grass, bark,
leaves, hair and
small botanical
fragments de-
scribed later. In
the midst of this
interesting rub-
bish, often in
contact with
seeds, nuts and
hair, appeared the
twelve sloth bones
here shown, pro-
truding from the
vertical side of the
trench at depths
of from eight to
fourteen inches.

No fear of break-
ing them, hard,
dry and strong as
they were, and I
question whether
they needed the
dose of hardening
solution which all
but four of them

have since received, and which has somewhat discolored them. In
the dusty dimness we saw the cartilage, marked the signs of rodent
gnawing,^ and numbered each bone with India ink as it came out.

1 The bone gnawing of rodents, done with tlieir incisor teeth, often characteristic of
bones found by me in American caves, differs greatly from the traces of mastication
of the larger carnivoras. The latter, as dogs for instance, working sideways with

PROC. AMER. rniLOS. 80C. XXXVI. 154. D. PRINTED APRIL 21, 1897

Fig. 6 (.x %). — The second bone found (in Layer 2,
depth I foots inches). Dorsal vertebra. A minute fragment
of attached cartilage is not visible in the photograph.
The marks of gnawing are upon the opposite side of the
specimen.

50

THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BOXE CAVE, TENX. [Jan. 15,

The first bone found (See Fig, 5) was an epiphysis of a humerus.
Then came a well-preserved vertebra No. 2 (see Fig. 6), found at a
depth of one foot eight inches below the surface and one foot from
the right wall of the cave. The small coprolites touched it on all
sides. Just above it lay a small twig of wood, and close to it sev-
eral bones of bats, described later, while both above and below it
we noticed wads of fine hair. The deposit was exceedingly dry, and
its removal filled the cave with suffocating dust clouds. Immediately
in contact with bone No. 2, as we worked horizontally into the bank,
lay bones Nos. 3, 3^ and 4, two unseparated vertebrae with a loose

epiphysis resting
between tliem (see
Figs. 7 and 8),
directly under
which we found
two gnawed hick-
ory nuts and an
acorn.

As we advanced
vertically into the
manure, another
vertebra, the fifth
bone found (see
Fig. 9), bone No.
6, the heel bone
(calcaneum) (see
Fig. 10), and bone
No. 7 (the astra-
galus), (see Fig.
11), were revealed
lying but a few
inches apart.
With deep interest
I removed them.
Just below the
fifth bone, at
which point the

Fig. 7 (x 3/2)-— Third bone found (in Layer 2, depth
20 inches). Dorsal vertebra. Signs of rodent gnawing not
shown in photograph. Cartilage is seen attached to the
base of the right projection.

their sharp canines and edged molars, dent the bones, or tear their corners irregularly,
while the rodents furrow the points of vantage neatly, with numerous unmistakable
parallel grooves, resembling the work of a coarse file held evenly.

1897

THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG EOXE CAVE, TEXN

51

deposit had hardened considerably (Layer 3) and was mixed with
fine pieces of saltpetre earth, another acorn was found, and still
another under the astragalus.

On that day,
May 6, 1S96,
at 3.15 in the
a fternoon,
with the wind
blowing from
t h e north, a
slight draught
of air wafted
the currents of
dust inward as
we worked,
while, to testify
to the open
c o m m u n i -
cation of that
part of the gal-
lery and the
outer world by
means of the
roof holes, a
small cricket
appeared,
crawling upon
the disturbed
earth as we
worked at the
third bone.

A consider-
a b 1 y gnawed
rib fragment,
(see Fig. 17),

was followed by a loose epiphysis (see Figs. 12 and 13) and a final
vertebra, the tenth bone found (see Fig. 14), lay against the rock
wall on the right, not much more tlian eight inches below the
surface, where, close to the top of the deposit and still against
the wall, the wads of hair were best preserved. Here also

Fig. 8 (x ^-2 ). — Tlie fourth bone found (in Laver 2, depth 20
inches). Dorsal vertebra and its loose epiphysis (unknitted
plate), illustrating, because not yet ossified together, the unde-
veloped backbone of a young animal. The photograph fails
show the signs of rodent gnawing and the bits of cartilage
attached to the bone below the orifice.

o'i

THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BONE CAVE, TENN. [Jan. 15.

were found a gnawed butternut, several pieces of grass, several small

bat bones
and dung as
usual. The
position of
these latter
objects close
to the wall
caused us to
suspect that
they had slid
down from
the surface,
just as close
to the left
side twigs
of leaves
had proba-
bly been in-
truded i n
the rat holes.
But the ob-
jects found
at or below
the position
of the other
bones we re-
garded as of
equal age
with them,
and as truly

Fig. 9 (x y^ ). — The fifth bone found (in Layer 2, depth about 14
inches). Dorsal vertebra. The signs of rodents gnawing, clearly
visible in the original, show faintly on the left projection. The
cartilage shows indistinctly in the illustration on the upper surface
of the left circular plate below the large orifice.

indicative of the nature of the layer.

Our observation of the position of all the bones showed that they
were not (with the exception of the two vertebra and epiphysis
(Figs. 7 and 8) in skeletal order : several epiphyses were loose ; the
calcaneum (heel bone) lay close to the vertebrae; the single rib
found was broken and turned. Unquestionably the bones had
been dragged and twisted out of place (inferentially by the
gnawing rats or the porcupines) since their deposition. Some

THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BOXE CAVE, TEXX.

58

Fig. io (x y^ ). — The sixth hone found (in Layer 2, depth about i foot). Calcaneum (heel bone)
of the extinct sloth Megalonyx. The cartilage (of a bright red toning into yellow in the origi-
nal) rests as a thick film, considerably cracked, on the left articular face. Marks of rodent
gnawing are shown around the lower circumference.

:^

Fig. II (x -/i). — The seventh bone found (in Layer 2, depth about i foot). An
astragalus (joint or hinge bone of foot). A layer of cartilage (yellowish red in the
original) covers the round face and protrudes in brittle flakes from the hollow.

5i THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BONE CAVE, TENN. [Jan. 15.

Fig. 12 (X % ). — The ninth bone found (in Layer 2, depth about i foot). Two
vertebral epiphyses indicating, because unwelded upon the larger bone, a young
animal. The cartilage is plainly seen above the break.

Fig. 13 (x %).— The ninth bone found (in Layer 2,
depth about i foot). Fragment of the vertebral epiph-
ysis shown in Fig. 12. The attached cartilage is
plamly seen. The color of the latter in the original is
semi-translucent red.

may have been car-
ried away to hid-
den crannies through
burrows noted later
communicating with
the rubbish.

Long before we
had pulled the last
bone out of the dust,
our attention was at-
tracted to the lower
or older portion of
the manure, which,
owing to its peculiar
consistency, I have
called

ZA YER 3.
{i foot thick.)
In it we observed no porcupine quills or tufts of fur, and for the rea-
son below stated suspected that this lower subdivision of the dry ex-

1897.

THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BONE CAVE, TEXX,

00

crement had become hardened and caked together just under the
bones, into what it seemed reasonable to suppose had constituted the
foothold of the cavern when the extinct animal appeared. Objects
found in it, therefore, a further series of nuts, seeds, twigs, leaves,
bat jaws, and fur described below, together with the dry carcass of
the window fly, were to be reasonably regarded as older than the
sloth.

How may we
better account for
the character and
position of this
crust, than by
supposing that it
represented that
portion of the
once lower floor
where the carcass
of the animal had
for a time rested
and into which
the juices had fil-
tered, caking to-
gether the copro-
lites during the
consumption o f
the flesh by rats
and porcupines ?

This not im-
probable suspi-
cion was strength-
ened when we
considered the
number of bones
found at the spot,
not simply the
twelve exhumed
by us, but those

previously excavated by Priest and Johnson, now in Prof. Saf-
ford's possession, and we may add the eighteen other remarkable
cartilaginous specimens, presumably from the same spot, at the

Fig. 14 (x Yz ). — The tenth bone found (in Layer 2, depth
about 8 inches). Dorsal vertebra more wasted than most of the
other specimens. Discolored by a preservative preparation
applied since its excavation. The signs of rodent gnawing
are not shown in the photograph.

56 THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BONE CAVE, TENN. [Jan. 15,

Academy of Natural Sciences. If the whole combined series
fails to duplicate or contradict the construction of a single fossil
sloth skeleton, then all, because all indicate a young animal, and
because all show cartilage as no other sloth bones elsewhere
found have yet done, can be reasonably referred to the same indi-
vidual animal. Many other bones, originally near or upon the
surface, may have been removed by Indians or carried away by salt-
petre diggers and lost. Rats may have made off with others. And,
notwithstanding the fact that the sets belonging to the Academy
and Prof. Safford, together with my specimens, may fail to recon-
struct the animal's skeleton, the three sets together include enough
bones to indicate that the creature had once lain there in the
flesh. Because the tooth marks seem to refer to the work never of
carnivora, but always of rodents, less to the efforts of large than
of small animals not strong enough to have carried a skull
such as Priest found, or a scapula like that at the Academy,
from any other resting place in the cave, it seems reasonable to
suppose that the bones reached their position by the most natural
of agencies : that the sloth, lost or overcome by sickness in the dark-
ness, had lain down to die at the place in question.

Reasonably doubting that it had shambled into the cave after the
helpless club-footed manner of the modern Ai or Unau, shall we
speculate further and imagine that the animal, less clumsy and slug-
gish than its modern South American relatives and presumably her-
bivorous from the structure of its teeth, was attracted to the spot by
the smell of grass and leaves, brought thither by porcupines and rats ?
If not, we must believe that its choice of a deathbed in the only rat
den in that part of the cave was a coincidence. But, however the
position of the bones is to be accounted for, let us believe that if the
carcass lay upon the manure, the number of visiting omnivorous
rodents increased until the process of devouring the flesh had been
succeeded by the gnawing of the bones.

If these suggestions explain how the bones came to be where
we found them, we next ask. How old are they ? When
did they reach their position ? An inquiry above all de-
pending upon the study of the objects dug out of the earth
with them. These are to be divided into three classes : First,
objects of later age than the bones, or of doubtful antiquity ;
second, objects as old as the bones, and third, objects older than
the bones. To the first class belong the torch ends of cane.

THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BOXE CAVE, TEXX.

Ot

Arundinaria tecta, hazel ; fragments of clay, coprolites, and bits of
charcoal, mentioned above, as belonging to Layer i, and, second,
objects artificially intruded into Layer 2.

Objects of Later Age Than the Bones, or of Doubtful
Antiquity.

The hoarding habit of the underground rat had helped our inves-
tigation at Big Bone cave, but his burrowing perplexed and vexed
us, confronting us with one of the dangers that often threaten exact
observation in caves. The slowly formed accumulation of dry ex-
crement had been undermined and disturbed by the tunneling of
its makers against the right and left walls, where several rat holes
were revealed by a variation in the texture of the neighboring
layer. Pushed and wadded into these burrows (see Fig. 15) we

FlC. 15 (x Yo ). — Specimens of displaced rubbish found stuffed into and filling the rat
holes. I, 2 and 3. Burnt sticks, pieces of charred cane, Arundinaria tecta, and charred
hazel twig, Corylus americana, representing the ends of burnt-out torches cast away by
white men or Indians, often found at a greater depth in the layer than the sloth bones,
having been intruded into the burrows from the surface by small animals.

o8

THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BONE CAVE, TENN. [Jan. 15,

found a bunch of moss, Hypnum ; ten twigs from three to eight inches
long, charred at the ends and evidently the remnants of torches,
used by Indians or white men, of the hazel, Corylus americana ; five
fragments, one of them charred and three inches long, of resinous
yellow pine, Finns mitis ; a fragment of charred cane stalk, Arun-
dinaria macrosperma^ and another twig about eight inches long, not
burned, of the cane, Ariindinaria tecta ; a gnawed pig nut, Hicoria
glabra, and a shellbark, Hicoria ovata ; a piece of hickory nut,
Hicoria minima ; a chokecherry stone, Priinus virginiana Linn.; a
piece of hazel nut, Cory/us americana ; a fragment of an acorn of the
pin oak, Quercus palustris, and three pieces of winged seeds of the
blue ash, Fraxinus quadrafigiilata, besides a piece of bark, prob-
ably hazel, and fragments of unidentified grass and bark. Besides
these botanical specimens kindly identified (with all others referred
to in this paper) by Mr. Stewardson Brown, of the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Mr, S. N. Rhoads, and Dr. Har-
rison Allen, of the Academy, have further settled the identity of
twenty quills of the porcupine, Erethizon dorsatus, with its numerous

excrements, (See
Fig, i6) and a
piece of hair,
which had found
their way info
the holes, be-
sides the upper
jaw with por-
tions of the skull
of a bat, Vesperti-
lio gryphus ; and
a lower and up-
per jaw, with
teeth and cartil-
age attached, of

a larger bat, Adelonycteris fusca. More excrements of porcupine
seemed to have worked into the choked -up holes than were observed
in the undisturbed portion of the layer, while with them was found
a fragment of the brain case of a large mammal, smaller, according
to Mr. Rhoads, than an adult bear. If this small specimen,
not an inch in length, cannot be regarded as a portion of the
remains of the Megalonyx, it represents the only trace of any

Fig. i6 (actual size). — Quills of the porcupine, Erethizo7i
dorsatus, found with other intruded rubbish at various depths
in the rat holes. No signs of the porcupine were found in
the lower part of the manure (called Layer 3). Coprolites
of cave rats and pieces of clay form the background.

1897.] THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT mCr ]K)NE CAVE, TEXN. 59

Other large animal that we, or our guides previously, were able to
find at the spot. But the objects found in the rat holes could not
reasonably be associated with the bones. Though positively testi-
fying to the presence of men as well as of animals in the cave, the
charred torch sticks and other articles had been transported from
their original position in the manure; and while it was certain that
objects found in the superficial Layer i (including the torch ends,
see Fig. 2), were more modern than the sloth bones, the rat-hole
specimens had lost their true time relation to the sloth. If not all
intruded downward from above, and so presumably more modern
than the bones, the collective age of all the specimens was doubt-
ful and offered no evidence of the contemporaneity of man and
the Megalonyx.

On the other hand, no sign of disturbance was presented by the
texture or contents of the middle portion of Layer 2. There the
objects found at various points, and particularly close to the bones,
seemed fairly to be regarded as ingredients of the deposit. Un-
doubtedly they represented plants and animals in existence at the
time the bones had been deposited.

As we dug on with shovel, hands and trowels, narrowly observing
that part of the manure (in many cases preserved by us in bags)
lying in immediate contact with the bones, our work revealed by
reasonable inference a series of

Objects as Old as the Bones.

In the handfuls of refuse removed from close proximity to the
sloth bones and preserved in bags were found, as identified by Mr.
Rhoads (see Fig. 23), numerous tufts of the fur (also found in the
rat holes), a comparatively large excrement quite unlike the other
coprolites in size and shape, attributed by Mr. Rhoads to an her-
bivorous animal (see Fig. 17 object 8 and Fig. 5 object 3). Of the
common coprolites previously mentioned, the larger and scarcer ones
containing fine shining particles of undigested hulls and skins of
nuts, showed that the porcupine {^ErcthizoJi dorsatus), guided by
other senses than sight, had been continually present during the
formation of Layer 2. So testified a hair from the back of one of
these animals (Fig. 17 object 16).

Eight beautifully preserved minute jaws and several little bones
were identified by Dr. Harrison Allen as the remains of two kinds
of still existing bats, Adclonycteris fusca (see Fig. 17 objects 17)

60

THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BONE CAVE, TENN

[Jan. 15,

and the smaller Vesperiilio gryphus.

Unfossilized and fresh look-

FlG. 17 (x Vo). — Eighth
bone found (Layer 2, depth
about one foot). A rib show-
ing signs of rodent gnawing
along its edges. A part has
been broken off at either end,
and the specimen appears
to have been much dragged
through the refuse. Its color
is light brownish yellow. No
cartilage was attached to it.
The rubbish of Layer 2 forms
the background. Noticeable
ingredients of the layer are
ranged on either side of the
bone. I and 14. A felted
mixture of rodent hair with
woolly fur, possibly of sloth.
2. B3.X]2c^, Adelonycterisfus-
ca. 3. Beech nut, Fagus amer-
icana. 4. Winged seeds of
blue ash, Fraxinus quadran-
qulata. 5. Acorns of red oak,
Quercus rubra. 6. Acorn cup
of Spanish oak, Quercus digi-
tata , sunflower, Helianthus an-
imus and alder, Alnus incana,
seeds. 7. Hickory nuts, Hic-
oria minima. 8. Coprolite ot
arge animal, possibly Mega-
onyx. 9. Gnawed shellbark,
Ilicotia ovata. 10. Twigs,
II. Fragments of skein of
maize silk, Zeamaiz, excluded
from the evidence for reasons
given in the footnote to page
63. 12. Gnawed hickory nut.
13. Another coprolite of large
animal. 15. Jaw with teeth ol
cave rat, Neotoma magister.
16. Porcupine hair, Erethizon
dorsatus. 17. Bat jaw and
bones, Adelonycieris fusca,
with twigs of dogwood, Cornus
aKeniifolia, just below. 18.
Hazelnut, Corylusamericana.

ing, the bones, according to Dr. Allen, represent individuals which

1897.]

THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG ]iOXE CAVE. TEXN

HI

Fig. i8 (actual size). — Speci-
men of Layer 2. An acorn cup
of the pin oak, Quercus palus-
tris, and a gnawed mocker nut,
Hicoria alba, rest upon frag-
ments of cave clay and a mass
of drv rat manure.

butter nut.

had fluttered througli the congenial blackness of the gallery in
geologically recent times, though we ad-
mit that the species referred to are an-
cient and probably existed at the epoch
called post-glacial.

In the very close neighborhood of the
bones, as further identified by Mr. Stew-
ardson Brown, we found fragments of
the acorns of the red oak, Quercus rubra
Linn. (Fig. 17 object 5), and of the
white oak, Quercus alba Linn.: an
acorn cup of the pin oak, Quercus
palusiris Duke (see Fig. 18); half
of a nut gnawed by rodents of the
thick-shelled, small-kerneled mocker
nut, Hicoria alba Linn., Br., (see Fig.
18) several gnawed nuts of shellbark,
Hicoria ovata Mill, Br., and the gnawed nut of the
Juglans cinerea Linn. With these lay
several fragments of winged seeds of
blue ash, Fraxiuus quadrangulata Mich,
(see Fig. 19 and Fig. 17 object 4) ; two
seeds of the horn beam, Fraxiuus caro-
liniana Walt.; a piece of bark of the
chokecherry ; a seed of the gum Nyssa
sylvatica ; two small twigs of dogwood,
Cor mis aliernifolia Linn.; fourteen lit-
tle fragments of sticks and leaves and
several pieces of bark undetermined,
together with two wild cherry stones,
Prunus pennsylvanica Linn. ; while re-
corded as exactly under one of the sloth ^^"g^^ ^^^^" °^ ^^^ ^'"^ '^'^^'

, ,,1 1 ,- 1 , 1 Fraxinus quadrangulata, and in-

bones we pulled out a seed of the alder, ^j^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^

AhlUS incana Linn, (see Fig. 20), and red oak. Quercus rubra, rests a

another of the horn beam, Ca7-pinus \i&^c\in\x'i,Fagusamericana.l\\&%&

caroliniana Walt., with a nut of the ^^"^^ ''^'^ unearthed near the
, , . large bones and had probably

beech, ragus a?nericaua bweet (riff, k r, 1.-^ M,f \^*r. ti.^ oo„o f^V

' o V o been brought mto the cave lor

19 '• food or nest building by the cave

There was no reason for doubting rat, Neotoma viaglster.
that these objects had reached their position at or about the time of

Fig. 19 (actual size).— Rat ex-
crement, clay and vegetable rub-
bish characteristic of Layer 2.
Against two fragments of the

62

THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BONE CAVE, TENN. [Jan. 15

the deposition of the sloth bones. Many of the nuts had been
gnawed by cave rats (see Fig. 17 object 9), Neotoma magister, and
the same agile pilfering animal, helped possibly by the porcupine,
had doubtless dragged in by way of the roof holes, whether for
nest building, for food, or in pursuance of its eccentric hoarding
habits, many of the other objects scattered at various points in
Layer 2. In this mass of excrements of the cave rat, which, dry as
they were, were crushed with some difficulty between the thumb
and finger, together with the lesser porcupine coprolites, we found a
hair from the back of the porcupine and a portion of the right side
of the upper jaw with molar teeth of the cave rat (see Fig. 17 ob-
jects 16 and 15). Scattered irregularly through the layer, as identi-
fied by Mr. Thomas Meehan and Mr. Brown, lay an acorn cup of
the Spanish oak, Qiiercus digitata (Marsh) Sud. (see Fig. 20);

two fragments of acorns of the
pin oak, Quei^cus palustris; a seed of
the horn beam, Carpinus caroliniana
Walt.; and fragments of seed of the
blue ash, Fraxinus quadrangidata Mx.;
a fragment of hickory nut, Hicoria
minima /of hazel nut, Corylus amer-
icana, Walt, (see Fig. 17 object 18),
and of beech nut, Fagus americana
Sweet (see Fig. 19); a valve of the
hop horn beam, Ostrya virginica
Willd.; an awn of wild rye or lyme
grass, Elymus Linn.; and a piece of
the stipe of common brake, probably
Ptcris aquelina Linn. With these were
two seeds of the blue ash, Fraxinus
qiiadrangulata, others of thehorn beam,
Caj'pinus caroliniana (see Fig. 21),
alder, Alnus incana (see Fig. 20),
beech, Fagus americana, and gum,
Nyssa sylvatica (see Fig. 21), two
wild cherry stonts, Pru?tus pennsylvani-
cus, a piece of chokecherry bark, twigs
of dog wood, Cornus alternifolia, frag-
ments of sticks (see Fig. 17 object
10) and leaves, and, according ro Prof.

Fig. 20 (actual size). — Chaiacter-
istic portion of the rubbish of Layer

2. Coprolites of the cave rat and
pieces of dry clay form the back-
ground. The vegetable remains
carried into the cave by rats and
porcupines w^ere found buried in
the undisturbed layer near the
sloth bones. i. Acorn cup of
Spanish oak, Quercus digitata.

3. Two seeds of the alder, Alnus
incana, and, 2. Seed of the sun-
flower, Helianthus annuus, a plant
supposed by botanists to have
been transplanted by Indians from
South America or the trans-Missis-
sippi plains. Omitted from the
evidence for reasons given below.

1897.]

THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIO BONE CAVE, TKXX.

(>::^

Heilprin, one of the bead-like stem segments of a crinoid character

istic of the carboniferous lime-

stone of the cave walls.

Judged by this botanical asso-
ciation, the age of the sloth re-
mains was that of the flora of
the surrounding hills, and that
had not changed since seeds,
nuts and bones came together.
These specimens of well-known
trees and plants common to the
forest of eastern North America
still flourished upon the moun-
tain above us.

But over and above the gen-
eral significance of this fact, two

objects discovered — the fur and
the large coprolite had a particu-
lar bearing upon the investiga-
tion.^

Fk;. 21 (actual size). — Ob-
jects which were imbedded in
the cave earth about the time
that the sloth bones reached
their position, i. Gnawed
seed of the gum Nyssa sylva-
iica, and 2, gnawed seeds of the
hornbeam, Carpinus carolinl-
ana, found in the unhardened
later part of the manure (Layer
2) around the resting place ot
the sloth. Cave rat coprolites
and characteristic ingredients of
Layer 2 in the background.

L,

1 Not in the underground darkness,
but seven months later, during the exam-
ination of the contents of two muslin
bags, brought from the cave, labeled
Layers 2 and 3, and finally placed in
glass jars, I found (as identified by Mr.
Brown) two fragments of maize silk, Zea
mais, (see Fig. 17 object 11, and Fig.
22 object 2), and a seed of the sunflower,
Helianthus annuus, (see Fig, 20 object
2). If unquestionably bedded as deeply
in the undisturbed deposit as the sloth
bones, these specimens might well have
testified to the existence of an aborig-
inal cornfield or sunflower plantation
rifled by cave rats on the hill above, or
in other words (if with recent investiga-
tors we suppose maize to have been in-
digenous to southern Mexico, the sunflower to South America or the trans-Missis-
sippi plains, and disseminated North and East by Indians), to the contemporaneity
of the red ma'n with the sloth. But as several ears of corn in the husk came from
Tennessee in contact with the specimen bags, there is a chance that skeins of the
former, clinging to the outside of the muslin bags may have fallen into the glass jars,,
when the latter were filled from the bags— while a mischance in the process of afiix-

FlG. 22 (actual size). — Objects which
reached their position in the cave earth
before the advent of the sloth bones.
I. Jaw and bone of the bat, Vespertilio
gryphus. 3. Hair of the cave rat, Neo-
toma mngister, and 2. Skein of maize
silk, Zea mais, excluded from the evi-
dence for reasons given in the footnote.

64

Fig. 23 (actual size).— Mass of felted
hair of rodents, together with a fine
wool belonging possibly to the extinct
sloth, found scattered through Layer 2,
and often near the large bones. On
this lies a jaw from the same layer of
the bat, Adelonycterisfusca. The back-
ground shows the mass of rat manure
and clay fragments characteristic of
Layer 2.

Sometimes close to the bones,
and generally scattered through
ihe whole mass of manure in
Layer 2, felted like tufts of carpet
dust in an unswept room, lay
wads of hair or fur (see Fig. 23,
Fig. 5 object 4 and Fig. 17 object
14), exceedingly fine, slightly
crinkled, with a reddish brown
color, pos'^ibly due to contact
with the cave earth. To what
animal shall we attribute them?
Certain fine bits may, according
to Mr. Rhoads, be referred to
the bat and a few straight hairs
to the rat or porcui)ine. But

as none of the rat fur has this
crinkle, and as the under fur of the porcupine, according to
Mr. Rhoads, is coarser than these specimens and always straight,
this crinkled cave wool is attributable to neither animal. Shall we
suppose it to be the under fur of the buffalo, or of any of the ani-
mals of the outer forest carried down into the cave in predominant
quantity by rats? Is it sloth fur, and if so, why its extreme fine-
ness? Where are the large, limp hairs, flattened in appearance and
grayish white in color, characteristic of the living sloths ? Shall we
fancy the fossil sloth fine-furred as a seal? Yet if this discovered
fur, which in all reason is contemporary with the sloth bones, be
not sloth fur, what became of the sloth fur if the animal, as we
suppose, perished here?

Leaving the significance of the fur in doubt, we are left to account
for the comparatively large excrement of a herbiverous animal, like-
wise found in Layer 2, and altogether too large for the porcupine or
cave rat (see Fig. 17 object 8 and Fig. 5 object 3). Because
no other trace of a herbiverous animal of the size indicated
was observed at the spot, and because of the herbiverous character
of the sloth itself, it has seemed to Mr. Rhoads and myself possible
to refer it, modern as it looks, to the latter mammal rather than to

ing labels makes it doubtful whether the sunflower seed belongs to Layer 2, or came
from a rat -hole. For these reasons, I abandon the hope of positive demonstration
involved in the presence of the sunflower (used by Indians for food and oil, and o f
maize, his favorite plant) , that sloth and Indian were contemporaries at Big Bone cave.

1897.] THE FOSSTT. SLOTH AT ]ilG J^ONK CAVE. TKXX. Of)

the exceptional presence of any other grass-eating creature at tliat
part of the cave. On the other hand, it appears small for the great
sloth, while its unbroken contours infer that it must have been
transported when dry and hard if we are to ascribe it to the deer or
any animal of the outer forest, and suppose that the hoarding rat
carried it down the roof holes into the cave.

In the compact lower portion of the manure called Layer 3, form-
ing, as before described, a crust suggestive of an older floor immedi-
ately under the bones, we found what by a reasonable inference
were regarded as

Objects Older Than the Bones.

Here in the dense mass of rat excrement, rested a lower jaw of the
bat, Adelonycteris fiisca (see Fig. 25 object 7), as to which, in
completing the list of bat remains found in the cave, Dr. Allen says
that the bats here described seem larger than our common eastern
forms, though no marked variation in bats has been observed since
the Pleistocene.^ Not far from this, and as kindly identified by
Mr. C. M. Johnson, of the Wagner Institute, lay a well-preserved
dry carcass of the small " window "fly (see Fig. 24), common in
the United States, first described in America by Say, in 1828, as a
new species, Scenopinus pallipes, but afterwards recognized as iden-
tical with the European Scenopinus fenesartlis
Linn., the window-haunting adult insect of the
so-called carpet worm. Entomologists have
left us in doubt as to its life and habits, but
we may suppose that its food quest led it so
far under ground as a consumer either of
decayed wood, of dried wooly or animal matter
(like carpets under which its thin larvc^ are
often found), or according to Willaston, of the
minute tinidce, or the true wool-devouring ^^^'- ^4 (actual size).
moths, psocidcE, who would have attended the . , „ „

_ ^ window fly, Scenopinus

decomposition of animal skins and furs at the /enestralis Linn., em-
spot. However the fly's visit to the subterra- bedded in the cave
nean darkness is to be accounted for, there can ^^^^^ before the sloth

1 T.^i J 1 X ^1 . •. J .1 1 ^1 bones reached their

be little doubt that it came down through the

^ position.

roof holes like the cricket above mentioned,

^ Of the few fossil bats found in America, Lund discovered four species of
Vampyrus, one species of Molossus and one species of Peropteryx in Pleistocene
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI. 154. E. PRINTED APRIL 26, 1897.

66

THE FOSSIL SLOTir AT BIG JiONE CAVE, TENN. [Jan. 15,

while its position at this depth in the cave refuse would testify to its
presence in America before the coming of Columbus, were entomolo-
gists not sufficiently sure that it had not followed the white discov-
erers in their ships across the Atlantic.

Near by were found bedded in Layer 3 small pieces of bark, nuts,
grass, twigs, and plant fibre unidentified, pieces of horn beam seed,
Cai'pinus caroliniana (see Fig. 25 object 5); a seed of the blue ash,
Fraxinus quadraiignlaia ; two shellbarks, Hicoria ovata, and four
fragments well gnawed by rodents ; a gnawed bitternut, Hicoria
minima, showing orifices for extracting the kernel made by a small
rodent ; and six pieces of the acorn of the pin oak, Quercus
palusiris (for all of which see Fig. 25). Judging by the absence

Fig. 25 (actual size). -^Objects which reached their position in the cave earth
before the advent of the sloth bones, i. Shellbarks, Hicoria ovata. 2. BitternHt,
Hicoria mifiima, gnawed by rodents. 3. Acorn of pin oak, Quercus palusiris.
4. Fragment of seed of blue ash, Fraxitius quadrangulata. 5 and 6. Nut and seed
of the hornbeam, Carpinus caroliniana. 7. Lower jaw and bone of the bat, Ade-
lonycteris fusca. The background consists of the characteristic ingredients of
Layer 3.

Brazilian caves ; and Marsh gives two species oi Nyctetestes and one of Nyctetheriuni
from the Eocene of the United States (see Catal. de Mamiferes, Tronsaert, Paris, 1879,
extr. Rev. et Mag. de ZooL, 1878).

TITK FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BONE CAVE, TEXX.

67

of quills, hairs and coprolites, the porcupine had not visited the
cave during the formation of Layer 3. Neither were we able to
find in the latter layer the wads of fine fur so characteristic of Layer
2 above it, but if these were specimens of sloth fur, their absence
is what we might have expected since the fur of the sloth could not
well have been scattered over a lower depth than the resting place
of its carcass. The absence of these ingredients, these differences
in character, together with its position, were sufficient to assign an
older date to the lower layer, whether its crusted consistency was
due to the infiltration of animal matter or not. According to the
order of formation of the different refuse, the lower layer preceded the
upper, and the gnawed nuts, the seeds, the fly preserving intact its
delicate wings, comparatively modern as they seemed, had reached
their position before the deposition of the bones.

Faint from continual inhalation of the noxious dust, we had lost
the energy to excavate to its bottom, the last and lowest layer,

LA YER 4,
{Depth unknown.)
a mass of fine water-laid clay, broken in lumps ranging in size from
six inches to a quarter of an inch in
diameter (see Fig. 26), covering
the whole floor of the gallery and
evidently the equivalent of the ni-
trous earth which had been else-
where removed. By their lami-
nated structure the lumps gave
evidence of their aqueous deposi-
tion, while hard as they now were
they dissolved immediately on im-
mersion in water. Some pieces
showed an irregular texture as of
the caking together of various par-
tially hardened muds, while others,
in the opinion of Mr. George Vaux,
Jr., revealed small fragments (irre-
ducible by boiling in water), of
adulterated carbonate of lime, prob-
ably aragonite. After digging sev-
eral holes in the mass to learn that
the manure had infiltrated downwards for at least two feet through

Fig. 26 (actual size). — Characteris-
tic specimens (of Layer 4) under the
sloth bones. Photograph of angu-
lar fragments of dry cave clay, " petre
dirt," between which rat coprolites
are seen. The fragments grew larger
and were less mixed with manure as
the excavation went deeper, but the
bottom of this lowermost layer was
not reached. .

68 THE FOSSIL SLOa^II AT ma BONK CAVE, TENN. [Jan. 15,

its interstices, we abandoned it where the configuration of the cave
walls, widening as we went down into a crevice of unknown depth
(see Fig. 4), rendered further work under the circumstances hopeless.
We left with the reasonable inference that a depth of five, ten or fif-
teen feet would have laid bare the whole bottom, as it had been laid
bare elsewhere in the gallery. Doubtless the process of drying,
which succeeded the deposition of the layer by water, had broken
it into lumps, between which the upper refuse, as remarked before,
had penetrated, thus adulterating it without obscuring the fact that
in its true constitution, for the eighteen inches examined, it con-
tained no trace of man or animals.

Allowing the dust to settle for the last time, we turned away from
the mysterious spot, and, threading our way wearily through the
chilly gallery, came with sudden shock upon the dazzling glow and
severe heat of a southern evening. With difficulty we toiled home-
ward, resting often in the warm woods.

At the last remaining point of significance we had examined layers
which probably present all the evidence that will ever be collected
as to the antiquity of the fossil sloth of Big Bone cave.

Let paleontology enlighten us as to the probable character and
habits of this animal which we must reasonably regard as one of
the common inhabitants of the American forest in Pleistocene
times. Comparing the large vertebrae, the skull, the proportion-
ately shorter claws and stouter limbs with the skeletons of the existing
South American sloths, as here shown (thanks to the kindness of
Dr. H. C. Chapman), we may well disbelieve that this animal hung,
like the latter, back downward for days upon a single bough, or
lagged in one tree or grove until moss formed upon its fur.
How shall we imagine the creature, weighing from twelve to sixteen
hundred pounds, moving from tree top to tree top in any known
North American forest, when on the blowing of wind, according to
the saying in Brazil, sloths travel. On the contrary, as the contin-
ual falling of so large an animal by the breaking of boughs is not
to be imagined, we must deny the creature a strictly arboreal life,
rather supposing, with Prof. Cope, that the boughs came down to the
sloth than that the sloth went up to the boughs. In place of
moss-covered clumps of motionless fur not easily distinguished
from leaves, that a keen eye recognizes in South American
tree tops, we fancy animals inhabiting the earth and proclaim-
ing their presence by the crash of saplings and outlying boughs,

1897.] THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT ]5IG BONE CAVE, TENN. 69

as, rising upon their hind legs or climbing to the forks of heavy
trunks, they tear their fodder to the ground.

If they despised water, like the Ai and Unau, they licked salt, as
their fossil bones bedded in the Petit Anse salt pit in Louisiana
and the mire of Big Bone Lick testify. As terrestrial animals
continually on the defensive against the foes of the forest, probably
little less active than bears, the great sloths would hardly have
rolled helplessly upon their backs when attacked like the Unau, or
yielded up their dinner with a melancholy drone. On the contrary,
though we must imagine them inoffensive and by no means agres-
sive enemies of animals or man, the thrust of the powerful arm, and
scratch with the claws that brought down saplings, might well have
defended them against powerful and active foes.

A categorical demonstration that this individual animal was a
contemporary of the geologically recent Indian in Tennessee must
be abandoned. But the reasonable inference of such association
remains. Though the human handiwork, in the form of charcoal and
torch refuse (except the rat-hole specimens), lay really on the surface
(Layer i), from six inches to one foot above any sloth bone found ;
we may justly be satisfied with the recent significance, broadly
regarded, of the whole record, and with the absence of plants and
smaller animals of any extinct or positively ancient form.

Gradually a thin sprinkling of rat excrement upon the clay floor
had thickened into a dry dense mass. Before the deposit had
reached a depth of two feet, the sloth had appeared and perished,
and while the duration of this manure-making process, which
finally, rising round the bones, covered them to a depth of one foot
or eighteen inches, cannot be safely guessed at in terms of centuries,
there can be no doubt that it is geologically recent, and that its
construction which preceded and followed the deposition of the
sloth bones is continued by the visits of existing cave rats at the
present day. The manure formed, the leaves, nuts, grass and seeds
found their way in, without the interruption of any important in-
terval of time or geological event changing the topography of the
cavern. The roof holes had probably remained open continuously.
The subterranean temperature of fifty-five degrees Fahrenheit, with
an extreme dryness, had probably persisted. The same flora had con-
tinued to flourish upon the mountain. The same visiting animals
had continued to find the same plant food, while the same bat
species had sailed in from the open entrance.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI. 154. F. PRINTED APRIL 2G, 1897.

70 THE FOSSIL SLOTH AT BIG BONE CAVE, TENN. [Jan. 5,

Had these bones lain within reach of the percolating chloride of
lime, this mineral filling the cavities vacated by animal matter
might have hardened them as cave bones are often hardened, but
lying where we found them we may well doubt whether they ever
would have fossilized. Under such circumstances, let us believe
that a nut, a seed, a leaf, or even a fly, would preserve the fresh-
ness of its structure for a long time, and hence that the interestmg
remains found with the bones may not be so modern as they seem.
With this reservation, and without attempting to deal definitely
with dates, it seems safe to class the evidence not only as geologi-
cally but as historically recent. Not more ancient in appearance,
not more brittle than the bones of animals found by me in the In-
dian midden-heaps of several caves, the position of the bones in the
upper and later part of the rubbish, their gnawed condition, and
their association, as described above, offer nowhere a suggestion of
great antiquity. Separated from all association with the remains of
other Pleistocene animals, they fail to lend the color of antiquity to
the situation. On the contrary, like the peccary bones found at
Durham cave,^ like the remains of tapir and mylodon discovered in
Lookout cavern,'^ they seem modernized by their surroundings.
Let us infer that we have found a species which, long surviving its
day and earlier relationship, had become an anomaly ; that we
have modernized the fossil sloth, if we have not definitely increased
the antiquity of the Indian hunter, whose first coming the animal
doubtless witnessed in the woods of Tennessee.

1 An exploration of Durham cave by H. C. Mercer. Publications of University of
Pennsylvania, Vol. vi. Ginn & Co., Boston, 1897.

2 Bulletin distributed by the Department of American and Prehistoric Archaeology
at the University of Pennsylvania. January, 1894.

1897.] XEW PALEOZOIC VEKTEBRATA. Vl

ON NEW PALEOZOIC VERTEBRATA FROM ILLINOIS,
OHIO AND PENNSYLVANIA.

{Plates I-III.)

BY E. D. COPE.

{Read February 5, 1897.)

The following pages contain descriptions of new and little-known
species of Fishes and Batrachia from the Catskill and Coal Measure
epochs. These are based on specimens which are for the most part
contained in the private collection of Mr. R. D. Lacoe, of Pitts-
ton, Pa. Mr. Lacoe's collection is in this field, and in that of the
fossil plants of the region in question, one of the best in existence.
I have already described and figured from it the remarkable (?) Eu-
ryptoid, Mycterops ordinatus^^ from the Coal Measures of Cannelton,
Beaver county, Pa., and the Holonenia riigosa of Claypole from the
Catskill of Bradford county.' In the present collection I report
the first Batrachian remains found in the Pennsylvania Coal Meas-
ures and describe a new genus of Stegocephali from Cannelton
(Ctenerpeton). I also note the occurrence of Glyptolepis in the
United States for the first time, and by it extend the range of the
Catskill fishes in Wyoming county, Pennsylvania.

The occurrence of a large species of Coelacanthus in the Mazon
Creek, 111., deposit is also shown by specimens in this collection.

PISCES.

HOLOPTYCHIUS SERRULATUS Sp. nOV., PI. II, Fig. I.

That the more distinct species of Holoptychius can be distin-
guished by their scales is the opinion of those palceichythologists
who have studied them. The variety of such scales which is found
in the Catskill beds of Pennsylvania and New York is considerable,

iCope, American Naturalist, i886, p. 1029, PI. XV, Fig. 3.
^Proceeds. Avier. Philos. Soc, 1892, p. 223, Plate VII, Fig. 2.

72 KEW PALEOZOIC VERTEBKATA. [Feb. 5,

and I have endeavored to identify among them the species of
authors. The H. granulatus of Newberry appears to be based on an
inferior side of a scale of some species, whose true characters will
remain unknown until the superior face is discovered. The follow-
ing species seem to be well founded, and to differ as follows :

I. Basal part of scale smooth.

a. Ridges entirely broken up into tubercles

H. tuberculatus Newb.
aa. Ridges partially broken into tubercles . Z^. gigajiteus Ag.
aa. Ridges not broken into tubercles.

Ridges moderate, inosculating, no intermediate tubercles

H. nobilissimus Ag.
Ridges moderate, inosculating, small tubercles between the ridges

proximally H. dewalkei Loh.

Ridges moderate, not or little inosculating \ no tubercles

H. americanus Leidy.
Ridges moderate, parallel, no tubercles, small.. ZT. radiatus Newb.
Ridges very wide with fine grooves H. hallii Newb.

II. Basal part of scale with rows of tubercles.

Ridges subparallel ; tubercles it\N, in a small tract ; size small ....

H. flemingii Ag.
Ridges coarse, inosculating, 25-30 ; tubercles less numerous, in

25-30 rows ; large H. i?iflexus Loh.

Ridges fine, inosculating little, 40 ; tubercles more numerous, in

about 40 rows ] large H. serrulaius Cope.

III. Basal part of scale with coarse radiating ridges.

Distal ridges coarse, numerous, interrupted, passing gradually into
the rather fine, proximal ridges which are not cut by cross
ridges ; large H. filosiis Cope.

IV. Basal part of scale with fine radiating and concentric ridges
(Glyptolepis). Size smaller.

Distal ridges coarse, few, closely placed, without lines between ; no
radiating lines of tubercles H. latus Cope.

Distal ridges coarse, more numerous, closely placed, without lines
between; proximal radiating lines of tubercles, forming a fan.

H. flabellatits Cope.

Distal ridges fine, with thread lines between, proximal radiating
lines of tubercles H. leptopterus Ag.

1897. J NEW PALEOZOIC VERTEBRATA. 73

These species are distributed as follows :

Europe. N. America.

H. nobilissimus. H. a77iericanus.

H. giganteus. H. gtga?iteus.

H. dewalkei. H. tuber cidatus,

H. flemingii. H. radiatus.

H. inflexus. H. hallii.

H. leptopterus. H. serrulatus.

H. paucidens, H. filosus.

H. flabellatus.

H. latiis.

H. quebecensis.

The H. nobilissimus, H. giganteus and H. flemingii are described
by Agassiz in the Poissons Fossiles. The H. tuberculatus, H. amtr-
icanus, H. radiatus, H. hallii and H. giganteus are described by
Newberry in The Paleozoic Fishes of N. America. The H. dewalkei,
H. inflexus and H. flemingii are described by Lohest in the Ann.
de la Soc. Geol. de Belgigue, t. xv, 1888. I described the H.fllosus
in the Proceeds. Amer. Philos. Soc, 1892, p. 228. I now give de-
scriptions of the H. serrulatus, i\\Q H. latus,^2in& the H. flabellatus.

The Holoptychius seri^ulatus is based on a nearly perfect scale on
a piece of brown argillaceous sandstone, from Mansfield, Tioga
county. Pa., probably of Catskill age, although the color is rather
unusual. The scale is represented by a very clean cast, of which a
mould is figured in PI. II, Fig. 2. The species is one of the
large forms of the genus, the entire scale measuring about two
inches in vertical diameter. In characters this scale is of the H.
flemingii type, but the dimensions far exceed those of that species,
resembling in this respect the H. inflexus of Lohest. It differs
from that species in the more numerous, finer and less inosculating
ridges of the exposed part, and in the larger batch of tubercles con-
sisting of more numerous series, as pointed out in the analytical
table. The distal ridges become more prominent near the centre
of the scale, and terminate in some elevated portions which may be
cut off from the remainder of the ridges, one or two of them
becoming tubercles. The tubercles of the proximal part of the
scale are sharply defined cones, which increase in size as the series
radiate from the centre towards the proximal border of the scale.
The tract of tubercles extends over the entire base of the coarse
ridges, and not over a part of them only as in the H. inflexus and is

74 NEW PALEOZOIC VERTEBKATA. [Feb. 5,

half as wide or more, than the width of the tract of coarse ridges.

In this character and in the finer and less inosculating coarse ridges

it differs from the H. inflexiis.

Measurements. mm.

Vertical diameter of scale 46

Longitudinal diameter of distal ridged area 22

'' " *' proximal tubercular area. . . 11

Five coarse ridges in 5

Five rows of tubercles at base of tract in 4

Seven tubercles in. 5

From the collection of Mr. R. D. Lacoe.

HoLOPTYCHius LATUS, sp. nov. PL II, Fig. 2.

Represented by the two scales from the greenish clay rock of
Factory ville, Pa., said to be of Catskill age. The species prob-
ably belongs to the section Glyptolepis Ag., and is the first one
found in this country. The distal part of the scale presents eight
coarse ridges, which are separated by grooves narrower than them-
selves, and which do not inosculate. One of them appears to be
interrupted. The central part of the scale is smooth, being only
interrupted by the tube of the lateral line. The circumference
from one side of the tract of coarse ridges to the other presents
a wide band, which is primarily sculptured by fine ridges which
radiate to the margin, and which are cut by concentric ridges of
different degrees of coarseness, but which are coarser than the radi-
ating lines. These characters are more exactly defined by the fol-
lowing :

Measurements. mm.

Vertical diameter of scale 20

Transverse diameter of scale 17

Three distal coarse ridges 3

Seven proximal concentric ridges 3

Width of border of concentric ridges 6

Eight radiating ridges in i

The scales of this species differ from all those hitherto described
in the coarseness and small number of the distal ridges. Their par-
allel course distinguishes them from some species, and their failure
to reach the center of the scale separates them from others. In size

1S97.] XEW PALEOZOIC VEKTEBRATA. 75

the type of the H. latus is smaller than the full-sized scales of the
European species thus far described.

HOLOPTYCHIUS FLABELLATUS, Sp. ROV. PI. II, Fig. 3.

Established on a nearly perfect scale from a green clay lamina
from the supposed Catskill of the '* Narrows " at Coxton, near
Pittston, Pa. The scale is in perfect preservation, the finest details
of the delicate sculpture being exactly preserved.

In the coarseness and parallelism of the distal ridges the scale
represents those of the H. latus, rather than the H. leptopterus.
In form the scale is longer than deep, and oval in outline, while
that of the H. latus is as deep as long, and is rounded quadrate.
Whether this difference depends on the position of the scale is not
yet determinable. The border of the scale from one side of the
distal ridges to the other, is occupied by a broad band which is
marked by concentric grooves separated by wider convex inter-
spaces. From the proximal end of the coarse distal ridges radiates
a perfectly symmetrical fan of twenty-one ridges, each composed of
a series of small tubercles, which increase in size to the end of the
series. This fan measures half the long diameter of the scale
between the coarse ridges and the proximal border. The entire'
surface, except that occupied by the coarse ridges, is sculptured by
delicate line ridges and grooves of equal width, from the coarse
ridges to the circumference, as in the H. pUcatilis. The coarse
ridges are twelve in number, and two of them are bifurcate. They
are parallel in direction.

Measurements. mji.

Vertical diameter of scale 11

Long diameter of scale 14

Three distal coarse ridges 2

Seven proximal concentric ridges 1.25

Width of border of concentric ridges 3

Eleven radiating ridges in i

From the collection of Mr. R. D. Lacoe.

Sagenodus occidentalis Newb. Rhizodus occide?italis Newberry.
Report of the Geological Survey of Illinois, Vol. ii, 1866, p.
19, Fig. 2.

Three species of Sagenodus have been distinguished by scales

76 NEW PALEOZOIC VEKTEBKATA. [Feb. 5,

from the Carbonic system of Ohio and Illinois by Newberry, viz.:
S. occidentalis and S. reiiculatiis from the concretions of the Coal
Measures of Mazon Creek, Illinois, and S. quadratus from the Coal
Measures of Linton, Ohio. The collection of Mr. Lacoe contains
twenty-two scales with their reverses in clay concretions from Mazon
Creek, and I have recognized the two species described by New-
berry from this locality in nine of them. The remaining thirteen
belong to several other species which differ widely in the size, form,
and sculpture of the scales, no less than six species being apparently
represented. Within the limits of these there is considerable varia-
tion, largely dependent on the part of the body from which the
scale has been derived. They all present a more or less reticulate
or tessellate structure, and a sculpture of very fine, closely placed
lines, which radiate to the free border, the latter sometimes forming
the only sculpture near the latter. This tessellate structure resem-
bles that of the existing genus Osteoglossum, and its Eocene repre-
sentative Dapedoglossus Cope. Dr. A. S. Woodward refers ( Catal.
Fishes B. M.) Newberry's species to the Dipnoans genus Sageno-
dus, and the species described below may be ultimately so referred.
However, no teeth of Dipnoans have been found thus far in the
Mazon Creek beds, while scales are abundant. The reference then
remains uncertain, and the species should be determined for iden-
tification of the bed at other localities.

The species of the Lacoe collection differ as follows :

I. Concentric lines conspicuous ; tessellation and radii not con-
spicuous.

Scales medium to large ; subround S. occidentalis Newb.

II. Concentric lines fewer, marginal ; tesselation conspicuous,
radiating from a center.
Scales medium to large, acuminate distad ; tessellation very fine. . .

S. foliaius, sp. nov.
Scales small to medium, elongate, subacuminate ; tessellation elon-
gate without regular radii or concentric ridges ; center at

extremity S. reticulatiis Newb.

Scales medium to large, parallelogrammic ; tessellation radiating,
radii and concentric ridges extending to free edge ; center at

end S. conchiopsis, sp. nov.

Scales very large, elongate, tessellation confined to center, from which
. issue numerous well-spaced radii , ^. lacovianus, sp. nov.

1897.] NEW PALEOZOIC VERTEBRATA. 77

Scales medium, truncate ; tessellation coarse, diamond-shaped,

quincuncial -5". quinciinciatus, sp. nov.

Scales medium, truncate ; tessellation coarser parallelogrammic ....

S. broivnicB, sp. nov.

III. No concentric lines or center ; a border of fine radii.
Very large, elongate, tessellation very fine .... .5". magister, sp. nov.

IV. No concentric lines or radii ; tessellation extending to pos-
terior border.

Scales deep, smaller ; center submedian ; tessellation of medium
coarseness S. gicrleianus, sp. nov.

Of the S. occide?iialis there are three scales (Figs. 1-2, 19-20-
99), which agree well with the descriptions of Newberry. They
evidently belong to a large species very distinct from the others
here enumerated. I have not identified the S. quadratics Newb.
found at Linton, O., in the Mazon Creek specimens. One scale
presents a broadly truncate posterior margin, and it is even slightly
concave. The size is rather large, appropriately to the S. quadratus,
and the sculpture is strongly marked. I suspect that it is a scale
from near the shoulder-girdle, and of entirely exceptional form.
Newberry's type is incompletely preserved and described, and it
will be necessary to secure other specimens from Linton in order
for its full characterization.

Sagenodus foliatus, sp. nov. PI. I, Fig. i.

Founded on two scales in excellent preservation. These differ

from those of all the other species here described in their elongate

oval form, with subacuminate distal border. The proximal border

is strongly convex. The sculpture consists, first, of a wide border

of very fine radii, crossed by rather distant concentric lines ;

second, of a narrower band of coarser but rather close radii ; and

thirdly, of a rather large area of fine reticulations, of which the

center marks the proximal fourth of the length of the scale. The

marginal band is marked by a reticulation much coarser than that of

the center.

Measuremenis. mm.

Diameters of scale ^1 , . '." ' *

( longitudinal 39

Three tesserae of area i

Width of marginal band 6.5

Type No. F. 9 and 10, Lacoe's collection ; Cotypes F. 53, 54.

78 NEW PALEOZOIC VEKTEBRATA. [Feb. 5,

Sagenodus reticulatus Newberry, Geol. Sur. of Illinois, iv, 1870,
p. 349, PI- ni, Fig. 9.

PL I, Figs. 2, 3.

I refer four scales to this species ; one of them differing some-
what from the other three, a difference which may be due to differ-
ence of position. The characters in which all agree, are the very
elongate form, with medium to large size, and the coarse and rather
homogeneous tesselation, in which the areas partake of the elongate
form of the scale. The distal border is narrowly rounded and is
marked by a border of fine longitudinal striae, which are not inter-
rupted by concentric lines or reticulations. The single scale
referred to has a lobe of the distal margin which projects beyond
the remaining portion, but which has the sculpture identical with
that of the latter. The proximal end is rounded in all and is
marked in two of the scales by a few coarse radii. Three of them
are further characterized by the presence of an oblique groove
near one of the long margins. In two of them this groove cuts off
a lanceolate area, passing from one long margin to the distal bor-
der, which is unsymmetrical by reason of its presence ; in the scale
above mentioned very much so. The center is near the proximal
extremity, and is not conspicuously marked. It is possible that the
grooved scales belong to the lateral line, but if so, the latter must
be very irregular. The diversity in the grooves leads me to suspect,
however, that all of them do not belong to the lateral line. This
is a large species.

Measurements. mm.

T^. XT ^ • 1 X (vertical 10

Diameters No. i (groove incomplete) -, , . ,. , ^
^^ ^ ^ (longitudinal . 36

Four tesserse transversely measured in. ... , 3

T-.. XT ^ I . , (vertical 14

Diameters No. 2 (complete with groove) \y . ,• ,

Three tesserae (transversely measured) in 2

Nos. F. 175, 176; 57, 58; F. 55, 56; F. 59, 60; Lacoe collec-
tion.

Prof. Newberry, at the place above cited, includes in this species
two scales of different form from those here described, and from
the one which he represents at Fig. 9. I should have preferred to
have retained his name for the species, to which these two scales

1897.] NEW PALEOZOIC VERTEBRATA. 79

belong, were it not for the fact that he states in his description that
the S. rcticidatus is characterized by the elongated form. '' This is
best shown," he says, 'Mn some of the smaller specimens, which
are more than twice as long as broad, and spatulate in outline."
The two scales represented in Figs. 13, 14, belong probably to my
S. quinamciatus ; No. 13 is, however, larger than any scale of it
which I have seen.

Sagenodus conchiolepis, sp. nov. PI. I, Fig. 4.

Two scales of peculiar form represent this large species. They

are parallelogrammic in outline, the extremities being about equally

wide and equally moderately convex. There are two features of

the sculpture which are conspicuous ; first, the presence of minute

striae, both radiating and concentric, and second, the extension of

the tessellate area to the edge of the scale, without border of striae

only as in the last species. The ^. conchiolepis differs also from

the S. reticulatus in that the terminal boundaries of the area, are

also concentric, giving a characteristic appearance. The sculpture,

as in the S. reticulatus, radiates from near the proximal end, which

is not marked by radii.

Measurements. mm.

■r>,. ^ T^T (vertical at middle 20

Diameters No. i - .

(longitudinal 42

Tesserae, width 5 to 1.5

T^- X AT ( vertical i -^

Diameters No. 2 - ^

(longitudinal 29

Type F. 15, 16; Cotype F. 17, 18; Lacoe collection.

Sagenodus lacovianus, sp. nov. PI. I, Fig. 5.

A well-preserved scale indicates another species larger than the
S. conchiolepis, and one which resembles more the .S". reticulatus.
The scale is an elongate oval with strongly convex extremities.
Although one edge is damaged enough remains to show its parallel-
ism to the opposite edge. The sculpture is also peculiar. The usual
fine radiating lines are present, but there are no concentric lines,
either fine or coarse, excepting a coarse one which is one- sixth the
length from the distal border, and runs quite close to the long
border. The areas are confined to a central tract, which extends
from the proximal border over two-fifths the length from it. The
space between the concentric ridge and the lateral borders is also

80 NEW PALEOZOIC VERTEBRATA. [Feb. 5,

segmented. The remainder of the surface is marked by rather close
lines, which radiate from the reticulate center to the borders, and
which are rarely connected by cross lines. A coarse groove enters
proximad at one-third the width and extends across the scale
towards the long margin without reaching it. This reminds of the
groove in the S. j-eticulatus.

Measuremefits. MM.

Diameters of scale 3^^^

C longitudinal 57

Five interradial spaces, transversely measured, in ... . 4
Nos. F. 47 and F. 48, Lacoe collection.

The only species with which it is necessary to compare this one
is the S. reticidaius. The latter is without the radiating lines seen
in this species, and the scales are more contracted distally ; there
is also no distinct center. The size is less, but that may be indi-
vidual.

Dedicated to Mr. R. D. Lacoe, to whom science is indebted for
the very fine collections he has made, and to the liberality with
which he has furnished them to students for research.

Sagenodu^ quincunciatus, sp. nov. Rhizodus reticulatus New-
berry, Geol. Sur. of Illinois, iv, PL III, Figs. 13, 14.
PI. I, Fig. 6.

Represented by six scales, two of them in mutual relation.
Size moderate; form wide, one extremity broadly truncate, the
other narrowed oval. No concentric lines (an exception noted
later) crossing the very fine radii. Reticulation coarse, quincun-
cial, areas diamond-shaped, the radial septa only continuing to the
truncate or distal margin ; the areas continued and becoming finer
to the proximal or narrowed margin. No distinct center, unless
the large tessellated area be considered as such. The areas are
coarser towards the long margins. There are some lines parallel
with the latter, which turn inwards parallel with the truncate border
and then cease. In one of the scales these lines continue inwards
50 far as to constitute parts of concentric lines.

Measurements. mm.

Diameters of scale \

( longitudinal 28

Width of areas, from 5 to . 75

1897.] NEW PALEOZOIC VERTEBRATA. 81

Three of the scales are smaller than the one measured. Type F.
39, 40 ; Cotypes 6^, 64; 43, 44; 67, 68; 23, 24.

This species is figured very imperfectly by Newberry as above
cited. His Fig. 13 presents a larger scale than any of this species
which I have seen.

Sagenodus BROWNI.E, sp. nov. PI. I, Fig. 7.

Represented by a single scale in excellent preservation. It
approaches the form of those of the S. quincunciatus , but has a
widely different sculpture. Scales as deep as long with truncate
undulate free margin, and broadly rounded proximal margin.
Minute longitudinal and no concentric stri^. Coarser sculpture,
consisting of subparallel lines which radiate from a short transverse
line near the proximal end to the proximal and distal margins,
which are connected by transverse lines, which are not continuous
with each other and hence not concentric. It follows that the
areas are parallelogrammic. The cross-lines disappear near the dis-
tal margin, leaving only the radiating sutures.

This scale is wider in relation to its length than any of the species
except S. occidentalis and S. gurleianus, and is more broadly rounded
proximally, and more undulate distally than its ally, the .S". qidn-
cunciatus. The areation is coarser than in any other species and
of a unique pattern.

Measurements, MM.

Diameters of scale J '

[ longitudinal 21

Three areas measured transversely in 3

Type No. F. 13, 14.

Sagenodus magister, sp. nov. PL I, Fig. 8.

Founded on two scales which exceed in dimensions those of any
of the species here described. They differ somewhat in form, one
being slightly truncate at both extremities, while the other is more
regularly rounded. I regard the former as the type, but suspect
that they belong to the same species, as the sculpture agrees closely.

There is the usual minute longitudinal striation ; besides, there
are no concentric lines, but a fine and irregular areolation extend-
ing over the entire surface, except in the type specimen for a short
distance at the distal margin ; in the other some of the coarse radii

82 • NEW PALEOZOIC VERTEBRATA. [Feb. 5,

■extend to the margin. There are coarse radii at the proximal mar-
gin in the type ; in the other this edge is broken away. In both
there is a very coarse areation along the long borders.

Measurements. mm.

Diameters of type I ^^'•"<=^' 3^

C longitudinal 60

Diameters of areas from 5 to i

Diameters of F. 7 ( ^'=«''==^' 36 •

C longitudinal 62

Type No. F. 5, 6; Cotype F. 7, S.

Sagenodus gurleianus, sp. nov. PL I, Fig. 9.

This peculiar species is represented by a single scale. It is at
least as deep as long, and the entire surface is covered with reticu-
lations. The character of the sculpture is such that I cannot orient
the borders of the scale. Its general outline is that of a very
obtuse-angled equilateral spherical triangle. Along one of the bor-
ders the areation is more minute than along the other two, where
it is rather coarse. In a large central tract the areation is interme-
diate, but as it is centrally placed, it does not aid in the orienta-
tion of the scale, as to the anterior and posterior borders ; while
the disposition of the areas indicates which is the vertical, and
which the longitudinal diameter. There are apparently none of
the fine longitudinal striae usual in this genus, and there are a few
concentric ones near the margin with coarse areas. The areolar
septa are not regular except a few which are subradial to one of the
subhorizontal margins.

Measurements. mm.

-p.. , r 1 (vertical 18

Diameters of scale . . . . A

(transverse 17.5

Coarser areas , 75

Finer areas 2

Type F. 21, 22. Lacoe collection.

This species is dedicated to Mr. W. F. C. Gurley, State Geolo-
gist of Illinois, to whom I am under much obligation for the oppor-
tunity of examining important material.

1897.1 NEW PALEOZOIC VERTEBRATA. 83

BATRACHIA.

Ctenerpeton alveolatum, gen. et sp. nov. PI. Ill, Fig. i.

C/iar. gen. — Limbs present ; neural spines and chevrons of
caudal vertebrae fan-shaped. Ribs present, not alate. Abdomen
protected by dermal scuta in series, which form chevrons directed
forwards, which terminate on each side of the belly in a series of
prominent, elongate and flattened scuta, which form a ledge or
shelf on each side.

This genus is founded on a specimen on a block of coal shale
which is so broken that the head is wanting, and no thoracic plates
are preserved, although a considerable part of the right fore limb is
present. A trace of bones of a hind limb appears, and it is prob-
•able that these members were present, but of small size. The
affinities of Ctenerpeton are with Oestocephalus, Ptyonius and Uro-
cordylus, as indicated by the characteristic caudal vertebrae. It
differs from the first two in the robust scales which protect the
belly, and from all three in the presence of an external series of
longer flat scales, which form a prominent border, perhaps more or
less free, on each side. These resemble the closely placed teeth of
a coarse comb, and give the name to the genus. I have not
observed this character in any other genus of Stegocephalia.

Char, specif. — Each abdominal dermosseous rod consisting of
three segments; the median, which forms the angle of the chevron,
the intermediate, which is long and slender, and the marginal,
which differs in form from the others. It is wider at the base, and
is curved gently backwards, terminating in a gradually contracted
obtuse apex. It is marked with delicate grooves which run out on
the posterior margin, and on the extremity. The anterior edge is
slightly overlapped by the posterior edge of the plate immediately
preceding. The anterior plates of the external series are short and
obtuse. The posterior edge of the rods of the median and inter-
mediate series is impressed by a single series of small pits like the
shallow alveoli of closely placed small teeth. The neural fans
of the caudal vertebrae are considerably wider than the haemal
fans, and are divided nearly to the base by a shallow groove,
which is not present on the h^mal fan. The fans are of about the
same length, and about twice as long as the body of a vertebra.
The marginal portion is marked with ten or a dozen short longitu-
.dinal grooves, which cut the truncate edge.

84: NEW PALEOZOIC VERTEBRATA. [Feb. 5,

The ulna or radius is short, and there is no indication of osseous
carpus. The digits are long and slender, and parts of four are pre-
served. The first and second phalanges are slender, subequal, and
a little shorter than the metacarpal. The species had a short leg
and a long foot. The only trace of posterior limb is a bone (per-
haps both bones) of the leg. This is quite short, and in appropri-
ate proportion to the fore leg, but the piece is too obscure for posi-
tive determination.

The general proportions are salamandrine with indications of the
long tail which characterizes the group of which Urocordylus Hux.
is the type.

Measurements. mm.

•

Width of belly at middle 28

Length of median rod of ventral armature 6

'' '< intermediate rod of ventral armature 6

Width '^ '' '' '' " .... I

Length " external " '' '' 9

Width " " " " " 2

Length '' (?) ulna 6.5

" " metacarpal 5

*' " phalange i 3

<« <' " ii 2.5

" (?) tibia 5-5

" " a caudal vertebra, body 4.5

** '' '^ " neural spine 8

" '' *^ " haemal spine 7

From the Coal Measures of Cannelton, Pa. ; from the collection
of Mr. R. D. Lacoe.

This interesting batrachian is about the size of the Oestocephalus
remexj but it appears to have had a lateral crest on each side bor-
dering the abdomen, which is wanting in that and all other forms
of the subclass Stegocephalia known to me. The lateral rod-plates
of the abdominal armature look as though they were in life closely
invested by the integument, or even projecting more or less from it.
The forms of the abdominal rods and their alveoli are different
from anything in the order known thus far.

1897.] NEW PALEOZOIC VERTEBRATA. 85

Ceraterpeton tenuicorne Cope, Report of the Geological Survey
of Ohio, *'II. Paleontology," 1874, p. 372, PL XLII, Fig. 2
(by error on plate C. recticorne).

PL III, Fig. 2.

A partially preserved specimen of this species occurs in Mr.
Lacoe's collection. It includes not only the head but the vertebral
column as far as the caudal series exclusive, in bad preservation ;
part of the thoracic buckler and the greater part of the right hind
leg and foot. As this species has been thus far known from a skull
only, this specimen is very useful.

The^late is so split that the greater part of the surface of the
skull is concealed in one of the slabs. On one of them, however,
the presence of rows of fossae is evident on the dentary and
squamosal bones. The latter are convex outwards as in the type.
The horns are placed wide apart and differ from those of the type in
being a little incurved to the acute apex. The lateral pectoral shield
exhibits a sculpture of radiating lines of small fossae. There are
small equal teeth on the premaxillary bone. The orbits are in the
anterior half of the skull, and the nostrils and pineal foramen are
distinct. The posterior foot is nearly equal in length to the leg,
and the slender digits are four and probably five in number.

The accompanying measurements give a good idea of the pro-
portions of this species.

Measurements. mm^

Length of head to occiput, about 16

Greatest width of head 20

Length of horn from base 7-

^* " skull to line connecting posterior border

of orbits 8

*' orbit 3

Interorbital width 3.5:

Length of vertebral column to femur ^^

" '' femur 5.5,

" " lower leg 3

'' '' second digit (not complete) 7

" '^ metatarsal of do 2-

" '^ phalange i *' i.5

** " phalange ii ^' 1.5

PROG. AMEE. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI. 154. G. PRINTED MAY 18, 1897.

NEW PALEOZOIC VERTEBRATA. [Feb. 5,

This is the smallest species of the genus. It differs besides from
the C. ptmctoUneatum in the smoothness and acuteness of its horns,
and in the weaker sculpture, where visible. It has the orbits more
anterior and the horns shorter than in the still larger C. divarica-
tmn.^ The specimen shows that in this species, and probably in
the others referred by me to this genus, both limbs are present ;
that the thoracic buckler and ribs are present, and that the spines
of the vertebrae, though wide, are not sculptured. The digits are
long and were probably connected by a natatory web. The block
on which the specimen lies, contains several scales of fishes of the
genus Coelacanthus. From Cannelton, Pa., Mr. R. D. Lacoe.

Sauropleura latithorax, sp. nov. PL III, Fig. 4.

Represented by the anterior half of the animal, with the skull,
on a block of coal shale from Linton, Ohio. The superior aspect
of the ventral armature and of the thoracic shields is displayed,
with the superior surface of the skull. The vertebral column is
therefore wanting, but a number of ribs are preserved, as are also
parts of both anterior limbs. Hind limbs wanting.

In the characters of its ventral armature, ribs and extremities,
this species agrees with the type of the genus Sauropleura, S. digi-
tata Cope. In the character of the skull, thoracic and ventral
armature, and limbs it agrees with the genus Colosteus Cope. It is
probable that the latter name must be regarded as a synonym of
Sauropleura (as I have suggested in the paleontology of the Geol.
Survey of Ohio, 1874, p. 406), although further material will be
necessary to determine this point positively. < In any case it may be
assumed that Sauropleura had a thoracic armature from marks on
the original specimen, and this is the only character in which it
was supposed to differ from Colosteus, where it is present.

The ventral armature consists of longitudinal series of short
scales, which series form chevrons directed forwards. The median
scales are rounded in front on the superior side, viewed from above.
The thoracic shields are rather wide for their length. The inter-
clavicle (? praesternum) is rounded posteriorly, with a regularly
oval outline, and the width is subequal for a distance anteriorly
equal to the width. Each of the clavicles is as wide as the inter-
clavicle posteriorly. The anterior extremities of all are concealed in
the matrix, and the sculpture cannot be made out, as only the supe-

iCope,

1897.] NEW PALEOZOIC VERTEBRATA. 87

rior surface is visible. The interclavicle displays a low median
longitudinal keel upwards.

The tympanic notch of the skull is feeble if present ; it is quite
possibly absent, as in the genus Acheloma. The muzzle is broadly
rounded. The orbits are rather large, and the posterior borders
fall a little behind the line which divides the length of the skull
into two equal parts. The frontal is excluded from the supraorbital
border by the large postfrontal. The postorbital is a longitudinal
oval, acuminating to a point posteriorly. The cranial bones are
honeycombed with fossae, which are considerably wider than the
diameter of the intervening ridges. The fossae are generally elon-
gate in a direction radial from the centre of the bone to which
they belong. There is a long tooth near the extremity of the den-
tary bone. ^Most of the remaining teeth are concealed, but some
very small ones on the premaxillary and maxillary bones are visible,
and parts of some larger maxillary teeth appear below the posterior
part of the orbit. The bases of the teeth are coarsely incised
grooved, /. e., the surface is inflected.

The legs are robust and the digits rather slender. The only
ungual phalange preserved is slender, acute, and slightly curved,
like that of many lizards. The humerus is robust and considerably
expanded at the extremities. The ulna and radius are of usual pro-
portions, and about three-fifths the length of the humerus. The
metacarpals and phalanges are slender. No osseous carpus. Four
digits are preserved ; whether there is another cannot be ascer-
tained. The ribs are long, rather slender, and not alate.

Measurements. mm.

Length of skull to occipital condyles 46

" '' " *' " table, posterior border. 35

Width '' ^' at angles of mandible '^d

Length '' *' from posterior border to orbit (axial) 26

"■ " orbit 15

Width '' '' II

"■ "■ interorbital space 17

Length *' long mandibular tooth 6

Width " interclavicle above 23

^'' *' clavicle above (greatest) 19

Five abdominal scales in oblique line 10

Length of humerus 20

88 NEW PALEOZOIC VERTEBRATA. [Feb. 5,

Measu7'einc7its. MM.

Length of ulna 1 1

'' *^ first finger, total 15.5

" '' *' metacarpal 6.5

** " '' phalange i 5

" " '' claw 4

The inequality of the lengths of the teeth with long ones anteri-
orly and medially, is what is seen in the type of Colosteus, C. scutel-
latiis Newb., and in Anisodexis Cope. The lower jaw of the spe-
cies from Linton which I called A. efichodus is not longer than that
of the present species, if as long; but it is much more robust, and
the elongate teeth are much longer, relatively and absolutely. It
may belong to the same genus. As compared with the Sauropleura
(^Colosteus) scutellata, this species differs in having a median
V-shaped series of abdominal scales, and in the more slender digits.
From the two other species referred to Colosteus, on the strength
of thoracic scuta, this species differs, in the rounded posterior out-
line. In those species {C. foveatus and C. pauciradiahis) the pos-
terior borders are sharply convergent to an obtuse angle. As
compared with Sauropleura digiiata Cope, this species has relatively
a much shorter forearm. In that species the ulna is five-sixths the
length of the humerus, and the digits are less slender than in the
S. latithorax.

From the collection of Mr. R. D. Lacoe, to whom I owe the
opportunity of studying the unique specimen.

REPTILIA.

IsODECTES PUNCTULATUS Copc, American Naturalist, 1896, p. 303 >
Tuditanus punctulatus , Trans. Amer. F kilos. Soc, 1874; Geo I.
Survey of Ohio, ii, 1874, p. 392, PI. xxxiv. Fig. r {Tuditanus
longipes in explanation, by error).

PL III, Fig. 3.

A collection from Linton, Jefferson county, Ohio, obtained from.
Mr. Samuel Houston, contains the greater part of the skeleton of
what I suppose is this species. The head, scapular arch and one
fore limb are lost. The remainder agrees very well with the typical
specimen which was obtained by Dr. Newberry from the same
locality and horizon.

1897.] NEW PALEOZOIC VEKTEBRATA. 89

There are eighteen dorsal and twenty-three caudal vertebrae,
and parts or wholes of twenty-two dorsal and three caudal ribs,
preserved. The vertebral bodies are amphiplatyan or amphicoelous,
but which, is not readily determined. Where the centra are split,
an indication of notochordal canal is visible, but the impression
may be that of the external right face of the centrum, and not that
of the cast of that canal. Most of the centra expose the left side,
displaying low and contracted neural spines on the lumbar region,
and none on the dorsal. There are two sizes of caudal centra, a
longer and a shorter. Where these occur in pairs they might be
supposed to be the halves of a divided centrum, such as occur in
the Lacertilia, but several of them are single, and in place. No
trace of chevrons is to be seen. The ribs are slender, not alate,
and recurved. The caudal ribs are shorter and more strongly
recurved. The sacrum and pelvis are too much obscured for
description.

The posterior limbs and feet are the most interesting part of this
specimen. The femur is moderate, with expanded extremities, the
distal divided by a popliteal groove. The tibia has the usual tri-
angular head and contracted distal end, and has a straight shaft.
The fibula is slightly curved, the interosseous border being strongly
concave, and the distal end is oblique, and is wider than the proxi-
mal. The tarsus includes but two elements in the proximal series,
of which the internal (intermedium all or in part) articulates with
both tibia and fibula. The fibulare is a little the larger, and has a
longer distal articular border. Distad of these there are six ele-
ments, one opposite each metatarsal, except the fifth, which has
two. If we call the internal No. i, and the external No. 6, they
are arranged in the order of size as follows, beginning with the
smallest, 6-3-1-5-2-4. No. i is considerably proximad of the
others, as is the case with some existing salamanders. No. 3 is
separated from contact with the proximal elements, by the large
No. 2, which thus has the position of centrale carpi ^ but which
gives attachment to the second metacarpal. The subdiscoid No. 4
articulates with both astragalus and calcaneum, but most extensively
with the calcaneum. This tarsus is quite regular, and every bone
is in place. That of the opposite side is turned over on the leg,
and the astragalus is missing.

The posterior digits are long and slender, and of various lengths,
although the metatarsals are of subequal length. The first and

/

90 NEW PALEOZOIC VERTEBRATA. [Feb. 5,

fifth digits are the only ones with all the phalanges preserved.
These number two and four respectively, with a possible doubt as
to the first digit. The other toes are represented by the following
numbers of phalanges : second, 3; third, 3; fourth, 5. Enough
remains of the manus to show that there were at least four digits,
composed of segments rather shorter than those of the pes. Three
carpals remain, perhaps centrale, and c. i and ii ; c. i is proximad
to c. ii, and on the inner side of the centrale.

As a result it appears that the tarsus is very different from that of
the Pelycosauria. How nearly it approximates the other Cotylo-
sauria it will be my object to show shortly. It is primitive and
only lacks identity with the batrachian tarsus in the absence or
fusion of the tibiale.

Measurements. mm.

Length of specimen 128

Expanse of ribs 18

Length of rib, on curve 14

*' *' centrum of fifth vertebra anterior to sacrum 4

Depth " do, with arch 4

Length *^ femur 15

Distal width of do 4

Length of tibia 7

Width "■ head of do 3

*' " distal end of fibula 3.5

'* " tarsus 6

Length " metatarsal iv 4.5

'' *' phalange i of digit iv 4

II II (( ii " *^ . -21;

(( (( {( jjj (C i( ^ -

** *' digit V, with metatarsal 16

" " median caudal vertebra ... 3

This specimen is of importance as pertaining to the oldest known
reptile, and the only one which has been thus far positively identi-
fied from the Coal Measures. I announced this identification in
the American Naturalist, 1896, p. 303.

1897.] NEW PALEOZOIC VERTEBRATA. 91

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate L

Scales ofSagenodus from the Coal Measures of Mazon Creek,
Illinois, natural size.

Fig. I. S.foltattcs Co'^Q XjT^Q', 2-3. S. reticulatus ^Qwh.] 4. S.
conchiolepis Co^Q type; 5. S. lacovianus Cope type; 6. 6". quin-
cunciaius Cope type; 7. 6". brownice Cope type; 8. S. magister
Cope type; 9. S. gurleianus Cope type.

Plate II.

Figs. 1-3. Scales of Holoptychius, nat. size, except Fig. 2X2.
Fig. I. H. serrulatus Cope type ; 2. H. latus Cope type; 3. H.
flabellaius Cope type.

Fig. 4. Sauropleura latithorax Cope type, natural size.

Plate III.

Fig. I. Ctenerpeton foveolatum Cope, from below, natural size;
2. Cer aterpeton te7tidcorne Co'^e, from above, natural size; 3. Iso-
dectes punctulatus Cope, natural size.

[The Secretaries deem it proper to state that when the proofs of the plates of
this paper were taken to Prof. Cope he was too ill to examine them, and owing
to his subsequent death they have been compelled to print the plates as drawn,
without the benefit of his correction.]

92 MINUTES. [Feb. 5,

Stated Meeting^ February 5, 1897.

Vice-President, Dr. Pepper, in tlie Chair.

Present, twenty -five members.

A letter was received from Prof. Goldwin Smith, resigning
membership in the Society. The resignation was accepted.

The Standing Committees for the coming year, as ap-
pointed by the President, under resolution of the Society,
were then announced as follows :

Finance. — William P. Tatham, William V. McKean,
Philip C. Garrett.

Hall. — J, Sergeant Price, William A. Ingham, Joseph M.
Wilson.

Publication. — Daniel G. Brinton, George li. Horn, Persifor
Frazer, I. Minis Hays, Frederick Prime.

Library. — Edwin J. Houston, Frederick Prime, AVilliam H.
Greene, Albert H. Smyth, Thomas Hewson Bache.

Michaux Legacy. — Thomas Meehan, William M. Tilghman,
Angelo Heilprin, William Powell Wilson, Arthur E. Brown.

Henry M. Phillips Prize Essay Fund. — William Y. Mc-
Kean, Craig Biddle, Joseph C. Fraley, C. Stuart Patterson,
Maj^er Sulzberger, the President, the Treasurer.

Programme. — William Pepper, Persifor Frazer, William
A. Ingham, Joseph C. Fraley, I. Minis Hays.

The death was announced of Horatio Hale, of Clinton,
Ont., December 29, 1896.

Prof. E. D. Cope presented a paper on " New Paleozoic
Yertebrata from Illinois, Ohio and Pennsylvania," which was
read by title.

The following papers constitute the discussion prepared for
this meeting by those invited to present the various aspects
of the subject selected, viz., " The Origin and Chemical Com-
position of Petroleum."

Prof. Sadtler read a paper on ' ' The Genesis and Chemical
Relations of Petroleum and Natural Gas."

1897.

PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS. 93

Prof. Peckliam, of Ann Arbor, read a paper on " The
Nature and Origin of Petroleum."

A communication from Mr. David T. Da)^-was read, en-
titled "A Suggestion as to the Origin of Pennsylvania Petro-
leum.''

The Secretary read by title two papers by Prof. Phillips on
" The Genesis of Natural Gas and Petroleum," and on " The
Occurrence of Petroleum in the Cavities of Fossils."

Prof. Mabery then presented his views on the composition
of Petroleum.

Eemarks in discussion were then made by Dr. Sadtler, Mr.
Wharton, Prof. Mabery and Prof. Peckham, and Prof. Ma-
bery closed the discussion with a warm recognition of Dr.
Sadtler's and Prof. Peckham's work.

THE GENESIS AND CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF PETRO-
LEUM AND NATURAL GAS.

BY SAMUEL P. SADTLER, PH.D.

{Read February 5, 1897.)

Of natural products in the mineral kingdom, few have excited
the interest of geologists and chemists in the same degree as what
in the broad sense we call bitumen. Occurring as it does in solid,
liquid and gaseous condition in almost all parts of the world, and
in amount varying from the slight bituminous impregnation of
shales, limestones, sandstones, and other rocks to the great petro-
leum deposits which are now worked in this country and Russia, it
has furnished ever-new and interesting material for scientific study
and discussion.

This widespread occurrence and the varied forms under which it
is brought to our attention would be quite sufficient to explain its
interest from a geological point of view, but when we add to this
that in its main forms of production, petroleum and natural gas,
chemists find represented those simplest forms of organic compounds,
the hydrocarbons, we have an additional element of interest.

94 PETROLEUM AND NATUEAL GAS. [Feb. 5,

Cinder these circumstances, it would be hard for the scientific
student to refrain from theorizing as to the origin and conditions of
formation and storage in nature of this great class of products. And
if these theories already possessed interest in the earlier half of this
century, might we not suppose that the great economic value which
petroleum and natural gas have attained in the last few decades
would add greatly to this? The question has indeed become a
very large one, and the mass of literature pertaining thereto has
already become so great that it would be impossible in the brief
limit of time assigned me to cover it even in outline. Leaving
therefore the broad subject of natural bitumens, it has been thought
well to take for such discussion, as time allows, the narrower ques-
tion of ^* the origin and chemical character of petroleum." And
as the Society is honored this evening by the presence of several
gentlemen who are known by contributions already made to this
question, and have consented to favor us with papers specially pre-
pared for this occasion, I shall merely state in brief outline the
several well-known theories that have been advanced from time to
time, and add an account of some experimental results that I have
myself obtained which I think will have a bearing upon some of the
views now held.

The theories as to the origin of petroleum may be divided broadly
into those which attribute it to Inorganic Sources and those which
consider it to be derived from Organic Sources. Under the first of
these heads, we may again distinguish between the theories which
consider it merely as a natural emanation and those which attribute
it to the result of definite chemical reactions.

The first suggestion of the emanation theory for the origin of
petroleum seems to have come from Alexander von Humboldt, who
in 1804, in describing the petroleum springs in the Bay of Cumaux
on the Venezuelan coast, throws out the suggestion that '^ the petro-
leum is the product of a distillation from great depths and issues
from the primitive rocks, beneath which the forces of all volcanic
action lie." Rozet (1835), Prott (1846), Parran (1854), and
There (1872), in writing upon the asphalt and petroleum occur-
rences in France, all seemed inclined to connect these formations
with volcanic, or at least igneous and eruptive, agencies.

Somewhat similar was the theory advanced by the French geolo-
gist Coquand, who, because of the association of mud volcanoes with
the occurrence of petroleum in Sicily, the Apennines, the peninsula

1897.] PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS. 95

of Taman and the plains of Roumania, concluded that mud vol-
canoes produced petroleum and other forms of bitumen by convert-
ing marsh-gas into more condensed hydrocarbons. This deriva-
tion of liquid and even solid bitumens like ozokerite from marsh-
gas as an original source was also advanced as a theory by Grabow-
ski, who has made special studies on Galician ozokerite.

The simplest of the emanation theories, however, is that of the
Russian geologist Sokoloff, who believes that petroleum is a cosmic
product, formed in the crust of the earth as bitumens are formed in
meteorites and comets by direct union of the elements hydrogen
and carbon. According to this theory, the liquid and solid bitu-
mens represent successive stages in the condensation and oxidation
of simpler gaseous hydrocarbons.

These emanation hypotheses do not find much acceptance at
present. The connection between the petroleum occurrence and
volcanic activity or hot springs seems to be far from general, and
may indeed be classed as local and fortuitous; the oil does not
issue from the earth at any higher temperature than that of the sur-
face, as it might be expected to if connected with deep-seated vol-
canic or cosmic activity ; and lastly, the most abundant oil deposits
are not located in the regions where upheaval and fracture of the
earth's crust show most strongly.

More interest perhaps has been awakened by the theories of inor-
ganic origin which involve definite chemical reactions. Foremost
among these was that of Berthelot, who, in 1866, advanced the
theory that the interior of the earth contained free alkali metals,
and that these, when acted upon by carbonic acid or an earthy
carbonate at high temperatures, would form acetylides or carbides of
the alkali metals which decompose with water to form hydrocarbons
analogous to those found in petroleum. If, then, water contain-
ing carbonic acid gas were to reach these metallic masses by
infiltration and act upon them at high heat and under pressure^
both liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons would result. The produc-
tion of metallic carbides as a product of the electric furnace, and
their ready decomposition for the production of acetylene gas, now
carried out on a commercial scale, has added new interest to this
theory of Berthelot's.

This line of hypothesis was farther developed by Byasson in 1871,
who obtained petroleum-like products by the action of steam and
carbonic acid gas upon iron and its sulphide at a high tempera-

^6 PETKOLEUM AND NATUKAL GAS. [Feb. 5,

ture. Cloez, in 1877, also obtained petroleum-like hydrocarbons
by the action of dilute acids, and even of boiling water, upon the
carbides of iron such as exist in spiegeleisen. In the paper of the
Russian chemist Mendelejeff, however, published also in 1877, this
theory is most fully elaborated. The existence of metallic carbides
in the depths of the earth he considers likely from the fact that
similar carbides are found in meteorites, and that metallic iron may
occur in large deposits in the interior of the earth he considers
possible, because the mean specific gravity of the earth, 5.5, is
notably higher than that of ordinary rock material. If, then, water
be supposed to have infiltrated through fissures in the earth's crust,
we have the conditions shown by experiment as capable of yielding
petroleum-like hydrocarbons. The same steam which, acting upon
the metal or metallic carbide, was capable of forming the petroleum,
could also force its vapors when formed through the fissures until
on cooling they condensed and were absorbed in strata capable of
holding them in liquid form. The eminent geologist Abich, who
had made a study of the Caucasian oil field, also joined in the
acceptance of this theory of Mendelejeff, and it may be said to be
the one of the inorganic theories that has found the most general
indorsement.

The great preponderance of belief is, however, at the present
time against this or any other theory based upon purely inorganic
materials or reactions. The entire absence of petroleum from the
archaic formations, from which traces of fossil life are also absent,
and the occurrence of the petroleum in sedimentary formations
which have been free from any volcanic or metamorphic disturb-
ance, go to render these emanation theories improbable. The fact,
moreover, that while the hydrocarbons of petroleum show a range
of temperature of condensation from 0° to 300°, which would
necessarily distribute them in different strata if they rose from the
interior in vapor form, we find them all, from the highest to the
lowest, admixed in one and the same oil-bearing formation, also
speaks against the probability of the theories stated above.

Turning now to the theories of the organic origin of petroleum,
we note first the belief that it comes essentially from vegetable
sources. Thus Prof. Lesquereux considered that the Pennsylvania
oil was formed from the remains of marine algae, because the Devo-
nian shales which accompany the oil formation contain an abund-
ance of fossil fucoids. It is pointed out, however, by Hofer and

1897.] PETROLEUM AXD NATURAL GAS. 97

Other critics of this theory that in many localities fucoid remains
are abundant without a trace of bituminous products accompanying
them.

E. W. Binney having observed petroleum oozing from a decom-
posing bed of peat in England, which had been covered in with
sand, considered that it came from a decomposition of the peat out
of access of air. However, it has been pointed out that this was
an isolated observation, and that in many other peat bogs similarly
covered no evidence of petroleum has been found.

Wall and Kruger, after studying the asphalt occurrence in the
island of Trinidad, proposed the theory that asphalt and petroleum
were formed by the decomposition of woody fibre, of which they
found abundant traces in the asphalt deposits. A later observer,
Rupert Jones, however, on extracting Trinidad asphalt with hot
turpentine found animal remains so clearly that a derivation from
these is at least as probable.

We may mention also the earlier views of Reichenbach, who
viewed petroleum as formed by a destructive distillation of vegeta-
ble remains simultaneously with the formation of the coal deposits,
but in answer to this it is only necessary to note that the petroleum
and the coal do not occur together in the majority of instances and
that petroleum differs essentially in chemical composition from
either wood-tar or coal-tar as ordinarily obtained.

The eminent French geologist, Daubree, also found a vegetable
origin for petroleum. He says that '* it appears not to be a simple
product of dry distillation, but to have been formed with the con-
current action of water and perhaps under pressure." He adduces
in support of his view the fact that by the action of superheated
steam upon wood he had obtained both liquid and gaseous products
analogous to petroleum.

The belief in the animal origin of petroleum has had advocates
equally as positive and persistent. In this country, J. D. Whitney,
the former State Geologist of California, and T. Sterry Hunt, who
was well acquainted with both the Canadian and Pennsylvania oil
fields, were its chief advocates. The latter has produced many
strong illustrations in his study of Canadian formations of his view
that fossiliferous limestones, the remains in which are mainly if not
exclusively of animal origin, were the original beds in which the
petroleum was formed.

In Europe, the most prominent advocates of the animal origin of

^8 PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS. [Feb. 5,

petroleum have been Hofer and Engler. The former of these
writers in his work, Das Erdoel und seine Verwandten, published
in 1888, summarizes the arguments for believing petroleum to be of
animal origin as follows :

1. We find petroleum in original deposits with animal remains,
but not or with only the smallest traces of vegetable remains, as for
-example in the fish shales of Carpathia and the limestones of Can-
ada studied by T. Sterry Hunt.

2. Shales which, on account of their high per cent, of bitumen,
are adapted for the production of oil or paraffine, are also rich in
animal and poor or entirely void of vegetable remains, as for
example the bituminous shales of the Lias formation in Swabia and
Steierdorf (Banat). The copper-bearing shales of Mansfield, which
contain as high as twenty-two per cent, of bituminous matter, also
carry an abundance of animal remains, but only very rarely any
vegetable remains.

3. Rocks which are rich in vegetable remains as a rule are not
bituminous, but they become so if animal remains accompany the
other.

4. By the decomposition of animal remains it is possible to form
hydrocarbons analogous to those of petroleum oils.

5. O. Fraas observed petroleum oozing from a coral bank on the
borders of the Red Sea, where it could only have had an animal
origin.

The fact that origin from animal remains makes it necessary to
account for the nitrogen, is met by the fact that most asphalts and
bitumens, including petroleum, do contain nitrogen. That they do
not contain more is explained, according to Hofer, by the circum-
stance that the nitrogen is lost in volatile compounds like ammonia.
Of course animal remains are found in many formations that do not
contain bitumen or petroleum, but the conditions may have been
unfavorable for its accumulation and retention in these cases. The
actual formation of petroleum-like compounds from animal pro-
ducts had been carried out experimentally some years before
Hofer' s publication, by our countrymen, Warren and Storer, who
distilled the lime soap of menhaden (fish) oil, and obtained mem-
bers of the methane, ethylene and benzene series of hydrocarbons,
such as are found in petroleum.

However, Hofer' s theory was taken up as the suggestion for
experimental study by Engler, of Carlsruhe, and at his hands it

1897.] PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS. 99

has received a more definite statement. Engler distilled 490
kilos, of menhaden oil at a temperature beginning at 320° C.
under a pressure of ten atmospheres, and increasing to 400°
under a pressure of four atmospheres. He obtained about sixty
per cent, of an oil distillate of 0.815 specific gravity. Thirty-
seven per cent, of the distillate was taken out by shaking with
sulphuric acid, indicating unsaturated hydrocarbons, while the
remainder yielded, on fractional distillation, pentane, hexane,
normal and secondary hexane, normal octane and nonane. A
burning oil fraction was separated, and in his latest experiments
solid paraffine was also obtained from the heavier portions. Prof.
Engler gave a resume of his experimental results at the World's
Fair Congress of Chemists, in Chicago, in August, 1893, and I had
the pleasure of hearing it and examining his specimens at that time.
In consequence of this work of Engler, which he extended later to
lard oil as well as to menhaden oil, and to artificial tri-oleines as
well, the belief in the animal origin of petroleum has become quite
the prevalent one.

Let us, however, take up for a moment the idea of the joint ani-
mal and vegetable source. This joint origin was advocated first of
all by Prof. J. P. Lesley, the Director of the Second Geological
Survey of Pennsylvania, and an honored Vice-President of this
Society. He believes that ''it is in some way connected with the
vastly abundant accumulations of Paleozoic sea weeds, the marks of
which are so infinitely numerous in the rocks, and with the infini-
tude of coralloid sea animals, the skeletons of which make up a
large part of the limestone formations which lie several thousand
feet beneath the Venango oil-sand group. ' ' The same view was held
by the late C. A. Ashburner, of the Pennsylvania Geological Survey.

Prof. Edward Orton, of the Ohio Survey, summarizes his views
in the following postulates: (i) Petroleum is derived from organic
matter; (2) Petroleum of the Pennsylvania type is derived from
the organic matter of the bituminous shales and is probably of vege-
table origin ; (3) Petroleum of the Canada type is derived from
limestones and is probably of animal origin.

Prof. Peckham, in his report on Petroleum for the Census of
1880, also makes a distinction in the origin of different classes of
petroleums. He divides all bitumens into four classes :

I. Those bitumens that form asphaltum and do not contain par-
affine.

100 PETROLEUM AXD NATURAL GAS.

[Feb. 5,

2. Those bitumens that do not form asphaltum and contain par-
affine.

3. Those bitumens that form asphaltum and contain paraffine.

4. Solid bitumens that were originally solid when cold or at
ordinary temperatures.

'* The first class includes the bitumens of California and Texas,
doubtless indigenous in the shales from which they issue. The
exceedingly unstable character of these petroleums, considered in
connection with the amount of nitrogen that they contain and
the vast accumulation of animal remains in the strata from which
they issue, together with the fact that the fresh oil soon becomes
filled with the larvae of insects to such an extent that pools of
petroleum become pools of maggots, all lend support to the theory
that the oils are of animal origin.

''The second class of petroleums include those of New York,.
Pennsylvania, Ohio and West Virginia. These oils are undoubtedly
distillates and of vegetable origin. The proof of the statement
seems overwhelming."

Leaving the question of origin for the present with this rapid
survey of the views of the more prominent writers on the subject,
and reserving for the end of this paper the mention of some few
experimental results of my own which bear on it, I will briefly
allude to the other question of the conditions of formation of the
bitumen or petroleum. Here of course we practically leave the
theories of inorganic origin to one side and assume that its source
is organic. Was it formed where it is now found in situ or is it a
distillate from lower-lying formations ?

As already stated, Sterry Hunt believed that the fossiliferous lime-
stones were the source of the Canadian oil, and he also strenuously
insisted that they were formed in this same formation and did not
come into it from an outside source. This view of the production
of the petroleum i?i situ is also in the main supported by Profs.
Lesley and Orton, although both seem to admit that under some
circumstances a modified distillation takes place. The latter says :
*' Different fields have different sources. We can accept without
inconsistency the adventitious origin of the oil in Pennsylvania
sandstones and its indigenous origin in the shales of California or ia
the limestones of Canada, Kentucky or Ohio." On the other hand,.
Profs. Newberry and Peckham have advocated the theory that the
oils of New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Ohio at least

1897.] PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS. 101

were products of a slow fractional distillation. Prof. Newberry
speaks of black Devonian shales as the source of supply in this pro-
cess, while Prof. Peckham takes in both beds of shale and limestone
containing fucoids and animal remains as subjected to the distilla-
tion process.

In concluding, I have a small contribution to offer to the experi-
mental data which bear upon the question of possible origin, and
upon which we can theorize as to conditions of formation.

Engler, as already mentioned, distilled menhaden oil under
pressure, and afterwards extended his experiments to lard oil and
artificial oleins. From his results he is led to believe in the
exclusively animal origin of petroleum. I have found that linseed
oil, and presumably the other vegetable seed oils, may be made to
yield similar products, and have even obtained solid paraffine from
this source. While it has long been known that inflammable vapors
are given off when linseed oil is boiled for varnish making and
similar purposes, very little attempt has been made to collect and
study the composition of these vapors. Schaedler, in his exhaustive
work on the vegetable and animal oils, simply makes the statement
that small quantities of hydrocarbons are present in the vapors
resulting from this destructive distillation.

Finding that in one case that came under my attention linseed
oil was being boiled for varnish making under pressure, and that
considerable quantities of a liquid distillate were being condensed
in the dome of the large still and returned to the body of the oil,
I arranged for the collection of these condensed vapors and col-
lected them for examination.

At first the odor of acrolein was very pronounced and powerful,
showing that the glycerine of the glycerides composing the oil was
being decomposed ; later the odor was more that of a cracked
petroleum oil, showing that the linoleic and other acids of the oil
were undergoing decomposition. The raw distillate collected after
this acrolein odor had nearly disappeared, I found had a specific
gravity of 0.860 and had changed so thoroughly from the original
linseed oil that it showed a saponification equivalent of only 1.09,
indicating that it was mainly a neutral oil and presumably made up
largely of hydrocarbons. I might say here that I examined the
linseed oil which was used in this test. It was a clear " old pro-
cess " oil, of specific gravity 0.929, and showed a saponification
equivalent of 183, which is normal for linseed oil.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXYI. 154. 11. PRINTED MAT 21, 1897.

102 PETKOLEUM AND NATUKAL GAS. [Feb. 5,

The distillate above referred to was then redistilled from a small
iron retort and two fractions collected, leaving a residue in the
retort which had the appearance and odor of a reduced petroleum
oil or residuum, such as is used in the. manufacture of vaseline and
similar products.

The two fractions were found to resemble what are known as
paraffine oils in considerable degree, showing the characteristic
fluorescence of these. They were given a partial treatment with
sulphuric acid and the results are shown. From a portion of one of
these fractions, on chilling in a freezing mixture, scale paraffine was
also separated, of which a sample is shown. Of course the frac-
tions must be obtained on a sufficiently large scale to admit of
thorough purifying before the character of the hydrocarbons can be
studied. At present they contain impurities such as aldehyde-like
and possibly ketone products. They reduce ammoniacal silver solu-
tions and indicate thus the presence of these impurities.

These results, which of course are only preliminary, are sufficient
to show that we have hydrocarbon oils analogous to the natural
petroleum or mineral oils formed when linseed oil is distilled under
pressure. It is difficult then to see how we can avoid widening
Engler's theory so as to include the vegetable seed oils as probable
additional sources of petroleum. Moreover, I see no reason, if
lard oil will yield the results which Engler has obtained, to doubt
that vegetable oleins like olive oil and its class may also be found
to be capable of the same changes.

We are thus brought from an experimental point of view to come
to the acceptance of the theory of the joint animal and vegetable
origin of petroleum that the majority of geologists have settled
upon as according best with their study of its local occurrence.

1897.1 NATURE AND ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM. 103

ON THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM.,

BY S, F. PECKHAM.

{Read Fehruary 5, 1S97.)

Concerning the nature and origin of petroleum, I think we may-
say, after forty years of study and discussion, that we have not yet
learned its alphabet with certainty. As petroleum is one of the
forms of bitumen, in the line from natural gas to asphaltum, I do
not think it has an origin independently of the other forms, and I
shall therefore discuss the origin of bitumens together, as including
petroleum.

Since I indulged my '' Retrospect," ^ two years ago last summer,
two works have appeared which notably discuss the origin of bitu-
mens, and I have in the course of my investigation of asphaltums
and California petroleum, during the same period, noted a number
of facts that bear upon the solution of this problem. In closing
the ''Retrospect" that I wrote while in southern California, and
which was in part a reply to criticisms made by our friend. Prof.
Orton, I remarked that I did not consider it necessary to represent
in terms of Fahrenheit's thermometer the temperature at which any
given specimen of petroleum was produced nor to produce the coke
that resulted from the distillation. On reading over the paper since
it appeared in print, I have feared that perhaps it had impressed
some readers as dogmatic or as begging the question. It is some-
times difficult to express deep convictions with enthusiasm and not
at the same time appear dogmatic. The Devonian shales, where
they outcrop at Erie, Pa., have not apparently been subjected to
alteration ] yet, a number of wells drilled into them, have yielded
an oil somewhat dense and of a bright green color. I believe that
that oil was a product of distillation at a low temperature and under
comparatively little pressure, the heat required being generated
spontaneously within the shales. In Ventura county, southern
California, metamorphism, that has resulted from sOme sort of
action that has generated heat, has left masses of originally highly
bituminous shale not only void of volatile matter but void of
carbon as well. The expulsion of carbon is complete. The tem-
perature must have been adequate, be the source of heat whatever

^ Am. Jour. Science (3), xlviii, 389 ; Nov., 1894.

104 NATURE AND ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM. [Feb. 5,

it may, yet there is no coke and no evidence that the temperature
approached that of a brick kihi, nor such a temperature as in the
ordinary processes of technology is found necessary to produce
similar changes within periods of time upon which such processes
are contingent. It was in the midst of such phenomena as I have
just described and in the light of these facts that I then asserted
that we cannot '' reason from the processes of technology, bounded
as they are by time and space, to the infinity of nature which it is
impossible to imitate;" meaning that such reasoning cannot be
applied to details.

A book was published in 1895, of which the eminent Swiss geol-
ogist, M. August Jaccard, was the author. The fact that it was a
posthumous work leads one to pass lightly over mere blemishes of
manner and style, and to note only those errors of judgment which
led the author to erroneous conclusions. The book manifests a wide
range of reading within the limits of publications in the French
language, which has made it necessary that the author should con-
fine himself to translations of the many memoirs that have appeared
by English and American authors, and while the notices of such
authors are frequently inadequate, few, if any, are omitted. M.
Jaccard passes in review all of the different theories that have been
proposed as a possible explanation of the phenomena observed in
relation to the occurrence of bitumens in the Upper Valley of the
Rhone, and discards all of those that regard bitumen as resulting from
any cause or causes other than the alteration of animal remains by
a special process of bituminization that has converted the organic
matter directly into bitumen. He says, *' distillation is an hypoth-
esis absolutely destitute of proof" (p. no), and, referring to the
views of MM. Daubrae, Lartet and Coquand, he says further that
*' Their error consists in the fact of having confounded the forma-
tion of bitumen with the phenomena of its appearance {reappari-
tion) at the surface which is posterior to it."

M. Jaccard then proceeds to set forth a system of nomenclature
of his own and says, *'It is in vain to wish to attempt a rational
and systematic classification of natural hydrocarbons, solid and
liquid and gaseous. It is in vain to set forth the multiplicity of
names that have been applied to them by different authors. The
expressions naphtha, petroleum, maltha, glutinous, viscous or solid
bitumen, asphalt or pisasphalt, etc., are employed concurrently and
without determined reasons. Their state, whether solid, liquid or

1897.J XATURE AXD ORIGIN" OF PETROLEUM. 105

gaseous, often depends upon the temperature at which they are at

the moment when they are observed Petroleum becomes

solid when it has lost its light oils by exposure. They designate
as asphalte a calcareous rock impregnated with bitumen, whilst if it
be mixed with sand or gravel they apply the term petroleum "

(P- 113)-

''In presence of this uncertainty, it has appeared to me prefer-
able to proceed to the study of the deposits by groups, and to adopt
thus a purely methodical system.

'' To this end I have established the four following groups :

'* I. The asphaltic and bituminous deposits.

''2. The bituminous schists.

'' 3. The petroliferous and bituminous deposits.

" 4. The natural combustible gas."

He then proceeds to discuss the subject along these inadequate
and purely artificial lines, which time will not permit me to analyze
in detail. It is sufficient for my purpose to say, that he concludes
that bitumens have been produced in every case by a special decom-
position of animal matter at the points where they are now found.

He thinks that because the bituminous limestones of Seyssel and
Val de Travers are intercalated between beds of barren rock that
the bitumen must have been formed i7i situ. That is by no means
a necessary conclusion. The bitumen in a state of vapor, and
probably accompanied by steam, expanded into the porous beds
laterally, while passing through fissures in the compact and barren
beds. When the Seyssel rock has been exhausted of its bitumen
by chloroform and is examined under a microscope, it is found to
be an amorphous mass of coarse-grained chalk with the finest parti-
cles one ten thousandth to one twenty thousandth of an inch in
thickness — so fine that they pass through fine filter paper.

Any one familiar with the sea-shore has found shells of the com-
mon clam {cardtiivi) filled with sand and saturated with the pro-
ducts of the decomposition of the soft parts of the bivalve dissolved
in water. It is not an infrequent occurrence in regions where bitu-
men is abundant upon sea-coasts to find the shells of such bivalves
filled with sand saturated with bitumen. The carbon contained in
the solid or semi-solid bitumen required to saturate the dry sand
that fills such shells is many times that found in the dried soft parts
of the animal that occupied the shell. Such shells are common on
and near the coasts of southern California. T^I. Jaccard calls atten-

106 NATURE AND ORIGIN" OF PETROLEUM. [Feb. 5,

tion to such shells as occurring in various places, but especially in
the Val de Travers and its neighborhood, and seems to think they
offer convincing proof that the bitumen originated where it is now
found. Such an argument would never occur to one familiar with
the sea-shore. The shells are first filled with sand and then satu-
rated with bitumen, which enters them either as a liquid or hot
vapor. I have seen multitudes of shells filled with bitumen and
mixed with sand, fragments of shells, dirt, and crystallized carbon-
ate of lime, none of which are a part of the animal that occupied
the shell.

The second work to which I refer is the late monumental publi-
cation by Boverton Redwood, on Petroleum. After the most com-
plete and wholly fair as well as the latest i-esunie of all the theories
that have been advanced by the writers of both Europe and Amer-
ica, he sums up as follows :

" From the account given in this section, it will be seen that
there has been an abundance of speculation as to the origin of bitu-
men and that, in regard to some of the theories, a considerable
amount of experimental proof has been forthcoming. Probably,
on the whole, the Hofer-Engler views at present have the largest
number of adherents, and in respect, at any rate, to certain descrip-
tions of petroleum, are the most worthy of acceptance. At the
same time, a careful study of the subject leads to the conclusion
that some petroleum is of vegetable origin, and it therefore follows
that no theory is applicable in all cases."

Engler, like Warren, distilled fish oil and obtained petroleum-
like products. He then distilled dried fish and other animal
remains, and obtained altogether different products.

" Dr. Engler therefore considers that some change in the animal
remains must have taken place in the earth, whereby all nitrogenous
and other matters, save fats, were removed, the petroleum being
formed from this fat alone, by the combined action of pressure and
heat or by pressure only.

"In summing up the evidence as to origin, Hofer expresses the
belief that petroleum is of animal origin, and has been formed
without the action of excessive heat, and observes that it is found
in all strata in which animal remains had been discovered."

Combining these two statements, we arrive at this conclusion as
the Hofer-Engler theory, that bitumens are of animal origin, formed

1897.] NATURE AND ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM. 107

at low temperatures from fats alone by the combined action of
pressure and heat.

Steam is left out of this formula and it is therefore inadequate.
There is no evidence whatever that any portion of the crust of the
earth has ever been subjected to the combined action of heat and
pressure without the presence of steam or hot water, and in my
judgment the steam has been a very potent factor in determining
not only the formation but the transference of bitumens.

I have been many times told that the Turrellite of Texas consists
of a mass of loose shells cemented together with bitumen. As it
had that appearance, I never questioned the statement, until lately
I had occasion to examine a specimen of this mineral. I pulver-
ized some of it and proceeded to analyze it by solvents. I found
that a portion of the mineral matter passed through fine filter paper.
I then digested a piece of it in successive portions of chloroform,
until the chloroform was no longer colored. There remained a
white shell-rock, or coquina, quite firm and strong, very light in
weight, with the cavities of some of the shells partly filled with
crystallized rhomb-spar; together with fragments of shells and
dust. Under the microscope some of the dust was only one twenty
thousandth of an inch in thickness. The shells had been subjected
to the action of hot water after all traces of the soft parts of the
animals had disappeared and a part of the lime had been dissolved
and redeposited in the cavities of the shells and between them,
thus cementing them together ; and this anterior to the entrance
of the bitumen, which must have filled the shell-limestone as a
vapor or in a fluid or semi-fluid condition. When separated from
the shells the bitumen is very pure and uniform in its composition,
containing many times the amount of carbon that existed in the
soft parts of the animals that made the shells > their home. The
porous shell-rock simply aff'orded an adequate receptacle for the
bitumen that was distilled or sublimed into it.

I have lately examined California petroleums more closely than I
ever had before. I have distilled off the lightest portion from some
Wheeler's Canon green oil that I took from the Canon in 1866. I
also distilled about fifty per cent. — the lightest portion — from some
Pico Canon oil that I got from there two years ago. While in Cali-
fornia in the fall of 1894, I distilled from several samples of black
oil, taken from wells in the Sespe and Torrey Canons and near Bards-
dale, about twenty-three per cent, of the lightest portion. The distil-

108 NATURE AND OEIGIN OF PETROLEUM. [Feb. 5,.

lation was conducted in a common tubulated glass retort with a ther-
mometer introduced into the tubulure in such a manner as to indicate
the temperature at which the condensing vapor passed over. This
was the first time I had ever distilled these oils in such an apparatus,
and some of the results observed were exceedingly interesting. The
crude oils contained a little water, as all petroleums do, which came
over with the light distillate, at or below ioo° C. As the boiling
point of the oil and the temperature of the condensing vapor arose,
at i2o°-i4o° C, water again appeared. The two portions of
water distilled over at temperatures separated by at least 30° C.
The last portion appeared, in part, as an emulsion that collected
in white drops upon the neck of the retort, and, gathering, ran
through the condenser to the receiver, where it fell through the
column of oil and collected as water at the bottom of the receiver.
On standing twelve hours, small spots and patches in the neck of the-
retort appeared of a purple color, and a deposit that resembled argol
appeared as a precipitate in small quantity at the point of contact
between the oil and water in the receiver. While an appreciable
amount of this precipitate appeared in the distillate from the black
oil, only a trace was present in the distillates from the oils from the
Pico and Wheeler's Canons. With sulphuric acid, followed by so-
dium hydrate, this precipitate gave a qualitative reaction for one of
the esters of the pyridin bases ; that is to say, dilute sulphuric acid
dissolved a part of it, leaving a purple residue, and from the sul-
phuric acid solution sodium hydrate precipitated white flakes hav-
ing the odor of pyridin. The distillates also gave the usual reac-
tion for these esters in small quantities. Fractionated in a bulb ap-
paratus with beads, the distillate from black oil has yielded " heaps"
corresponding to the boiling points of the benzoles and naphthenes.
This work is still incomplete.

The facts of greatest interest, however, in reference to these oils,
that this latest work has demonstrated, relates to their sulphur
content. An observation that I made many years ago has been
often quoted, that in one instance I distilled a California oil that
contained so much sulphur that the sulphur condensed in the neck,
of the retort. As I remember the experiment, the amount of oil
distilled was about half a litre ; and a button of pure sulphur con-
densed in the neck of the retort at least half a centimeter in diameter.
This oil was from the Canada Larga spring, which issues from strata
containing a large amount of free sulphur. I have never seen an-

1897.1

NATURE AND ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM. 109

Other California oil from which this experiment could be repeated >
and I have long since concluded that the sulphur was in this instance
dissolved in the oil.

While in California a few years ago, I was engaged in distilling
these petroleums in quantities ranging from a few gallons to thou-
sands of barrels. I looked in vain for any evidence that they were
sulphur petfroleums. It was only after I had begun fractioning the
light oils — a work for which I had not the proper appliances in
California — that I began to suspect that there were sulphur com-
pounds present, and at last discovered that, with the thermometer
bulb immersed in the condensing vapor, even at a temperature as
low as 1 00° C, the distillates were decomposed and hydrogen sul-
phide disengaged. This decomposition of the oil was accompanied
by a deposition in the flask of carbon, or a compound so rich in car-
bon that it remained undissolved in either the distillate or residual
oil, and also by condensation of the residual molecule, as indicated
by a continual rise in the boiling point of the oil remaining in the
flask.

These observations have led me to conclude that sulphur as well
as nitrogen plays a part in the changes which are active in the nat-
ural conversion of petroleum, through maltha, into asphaltum.
That the esters exist as acid salts of the basic oils is quite probable ;
that polymerization of the molecules occurs to some extent cannot
be doubted ; that decomposition of the sulphur compounds takes
place very slowly and at comparatively low temperatures with con-
densation of the residual molecules is almost certain ; and that re-
moval of hydrogen in the oil through deoxidation of the sulphates
in the water with which the bitumens are in constant contact, with
substitution of sulphur, may all be accepted as the prime factors of
the problem involved in these changes. The lines of investigation
above indicated have led me to some very interesting work upon
the sulphur content of other bitumens than petroleum, which work
is as yet incomplete.

Closely related to these factors are some observations made dur-
ing my last visit to California. It was noticed that when the oils
conveyed through pipe lines were distilled in summer, the yield of
naphtha was much less than was obtained from the same oils in
winter, although the extremes of temperature were not great.
Upon investigation I found that in October, 1894, the oil, flowing
through the blackened pipes laid upon the surface, was discharged

110 NATURE AXD ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM. [Feb. 5,

into the tanks at a temperature of 90° F. I also found that an oil
fresh from a well, kept in an open vessel at a temperature of about
100° F. for four days, ceased to lose weight and decreased in vol-
ume twenty-five per cent. In another experiment, one litre of oil was
exposed to the sun in a pan placed in a window seat for three days.
The temperature was at no time above 90° F., and over half of the
time was below 70° F. The loss was twenty per cent, by volume, and
the specific gravity changed from 28.5° B to 20.2° B. These re-
sults show that at the surface, natural evaporation is also a potent
factor in the conversion of petroleum into maltha and asphaltum.

I wish to note here several facts of a different order bearing upon
these questions. In 1865-6 the carcasses of several whales were ly-
ing half buried in the sand of the Pacific coast, between Point Con-
ception and Ventura, California. They furnished food for numer-
ous vultures and buzzards, and while the odor was not agreeable, it
was the odor of rancid fat rather than of putrid flesh. During the
summer of 1894 a vast number, weighing many tons, of deep sea
fish, in a dying condition, came ashore upon that same coast for at
least two hundred miles. Many of these fish were of large size, and
among other species was a basking shark, twenty-six feet in length.
An examination by one of the officers of the State Fish Commission
led to the discovery that the gills of these fish were more or less
filled with bitumen, which constantly rises from the bed of the ocean
■off this coast. The destruction of animal life was enormous. The
first gale with a high tide buried nearly all of the fish in the sand
of the beach. Complete skeletons of whales have been repeatedly
discovered in the petroleum-bearing strata of that region, some of
them saturated with bitumen.

One hundred miles due north of this coast, on the other side of
the Coast Ranges, I have examined some of the most extensive
veins of asphaltum yet discovered. They have been traced across the
country continuously for miles and have been mined to a depth of
more than three hundred feet. In chemical composition the asphaltum
bears a specific relation to the petroleums of Ventura county. They
both contain the esters of the pyridin bases. These asphaltum veins
lie on one side of and irregularly parallel with a stratum of sand-
stone, which, like all of the strata of that region, stands nearly
vertical. Along this sandstone stratum bitumen exudes for a long
distance. Against it, and on the other side of it, rests a bed of
infusorial earth, at least 1000 feet in thickness, in some places satu-

1897.] NATURE AND ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM. Ill

rated with bitumen, but for the most part clean and white. These
formations extend across the country, parallel for miles with the
general trend of the Coast Ranges. Enormous springs of maltha,
issuing therefrom at intervals, have produced at several points
flood-plains of asphaltum that fill the small valleys like a glacier,
many feet in depth and square miles in extent. The maltha is in-
variably accompanied with water, and at several points there are
evidences that at some period in the past history of those outflows
the springs that are now cold have been gigantic hot springs of sili-
cated water, similar to those that I believe produced the famous
Pitch Lake of Trinidad.

I went to Trinidad prepared to find abundant evidence of the
direct conversion of wood into bitumen, as described by Wall and
Sawkins. I saw nothing of the kind ; nor could I find any one else
who had. A superstition among the natives ascribes to the black
mangrove the power of secreting bitumen. This shrub grows with
its roots in sea water and often covered with oysters. The move-
ment of the tide, the most nearly eternal phenomenon in nature,
bears the bitumen that rises from the bottom of the sea against the
oyster shells, and their jagged edges gather the floating particles.
The entire deposit of pitch, both within and without the lake,
contains on an average ten per cent, of partially decayed vegeta-
tion, and also an amount, difficult to estimate, of branches, trunks
and stumps of trees, some of the latter of enormous size, much
larger than any now standing in the vicinity. I did not see the
outcrop of the lignite bed to the south of the lake that dips at an
angle that would send it under the lake, as described by Manross,
but I was told by one who had seen it, that this lignite bed, twelve
feet in thickness, contained branches, trunks and stumps of trees
that were in exactly the same condition as those found in the pitch
— that is, they were still wood — not having been changed into lig-
nite, and therefore not capable of being distilled by hot silicated
water into pitch.

The circumstances of my life have brought me into personal con-
tact with deposits of bitumen over a very wide area, and under such
conditions as have afforded me very unusual opportunities for a
careful study of all the phenomena attending the appearance of
bitumen at the surface of the earth ; the result of which has been
to confirm the opinion that I have heretofore expressed, that, in
the majority of instances, bitumens, from natural gas to asphaltum.

112 ORIGIN OF PENNSYLVANIA PETROLEU^E. TFeb. 5,

are, where we now find them, distillates. In making this declara-
tion I do not wish to be understood as calling in question the cor-
rectness of either the observations or opinions of those who have
reached different conclusions.

Perhaps fifty years from now our ghosts may sit here with our
grandchildren and hear them dogmatize concerning the origin of
bitumen. For myself, the longer I study the subject and the wider
my experience becomes, the less I am prepared to assert that any
formula is capable of universal application. I would therefore
suggest, that, as we now find them, bitumens are in some instances
Still where they were originally produced by a process of decompo-
sition of animal remains, that is at present being illustrated on a
small scale in the shallow bays of the Red Sea. Further, that
other deposits contain primary distillates from the vegetable and
animal remains enclosed in geological formations that have been
invaded by heat, steam and pressure in past periods of the earth's
history ; and finally, that in some instances, as we now know them,
bitumens have been transferred and stored by a secondary invasion
of bituminous deposits by heat, steam and pressure. The details
of these various movements await for their expression a vast amount
of chemical and geological research by those who are to come
after us.

A SUGGESTION AS TO THE ORIGIN OF PENNSYL-
VANIA PETROLEUM.

BY DAVID T. DAY,

{Read February 5, IS 97.)

The three general classes of theories as to the origin of petro-
leum are so well known as to call for no especial description. I
refer to (i) the inorganic origin by the action of water on metallic
carbides ; (2) by the slow decomposition of vegetable remains with
insufficient supply of air, with or without simultaneous production
of coal ; and (3) the distillation of the fatty portion of anima
organisms under pressure, in accordance with the discoveries gener-
ally credited to Engler.

It is pleasant, however, to recall attention to the fact, which has
frequently been lost sight of, that Warren and Storer first distilled
petroleum from animal fats years before ; that is by the distillation

1897.] ORIGIX OF PEXXSYLVAXIA PETROLEUM!. 113

of menhaden oil soaps under pressure they made good kerosene and
actually sold the product — an achievement remarkable for the time
at which it was done and gratifying to us as the work of American
investigators and far in advance of any similar work abroad. The
work of the German chemist, Engler, is thus simply confirmatory,
and in extension, of what had been already done in this country.

Concerning these theories of origin, it seems to me extremely
probable that the conditions required for the production of bitu-
mens by inorganic means must have occurred repeatedly in the
earth's crust, and that, therefore, bitumens have been formed by
such means. The evidence of the actual occurrence of bitumens
produced from inorganic sources is not complete, but in addition
to the bitumens occurring in trap rock in eastern New York and
Connecticut, it is well to call attention to the fact that water asso-
ciated with the Trinidad asphaltum has been shown by Mr. Clifford
Richardson to contain significant amounts of boracic acid com-
pounds, which is some evidence of volcanic origin. Again, bitu-
mens occur in the vein quartz of quicksilver deposits in various
parts of the world, and such occurrences are frequent in California.

If we take into consideration the organic life available for yield-
ing petroleum, it seems easier to believe that the supply of oils
found in the Silurian limestones has come from the distillation of
fats associated with animal remains, than that they were derived
from vegetable matter.

On the other hand, general opinion tends to associate the Penn-
sylvania oils with a vegetable source, and it is against this that I
wish to make a few suggestions, based upon the observations of Rev.
John N. MacGonigle, formerly a stratigrapher in the employ of the
Forest Oil Co. Mr. MacGonigle's opinion is that the Pennsylvania
oils were originally contained in the Silurian measures, as are the
Ohio oils, and that a redistillation, accompanied by a transfer to
rocks of the Devonian age, resulted in a change of the character of
the oils.

In his own words, as written to me, ]\Ir. MacGonigle states :

'^ It may be admitted that the marvelous deposits found in the
Trenton and Clinton limestones and widely diffused in the other
limestones and shales of the Silurian period are indigenous. It is
a well-known fact that the series constituting the Silurian age, as
the result of one of nature's wonderful convulsions, sweeps toward
the eastward under the Devonian and Carboniferous areas, forming

114 ORIGIN" OF PENNSYLVANIA PETROLEUM. [Feb. 5,

the floor of the basin in which the measures of these periods were
deposited. The uplift which forms the Appalachian chain occurred
at the close of the Carboniferous period. This was due directly to
heat action. It is, therefore, at least suggested that the petroleums
of Pennsylvania owe their origin to the effect of this heat upon the
underlying limestones and shales of the Silurian age. The theory
is, that the same force which caused the Appalachian chain to
uplift, passing through the limestones and shales of the Silurian age
at a modified temperature, distilled the oil already contained in
these shales and conglomerate sands of the Devonian age,
where it was condensed and filtered and found its home in the open,
porous conglomerates which characterize the Catskill, Portage and
Chemung periods of the Devonian age.

^' There are many reasons why this theory seems to be more satis-
factory, to me, than any of the others. In the first place, the pecu-
liar characteristic of the Silurian oil is its well-known sulphur com-
pound, which for many years presented almost insurmountable
difficulty to the refiner. The low specific gravity is its second
characteristic quality, and a uniform quality marks it everywhere.
In the oils of the Pennsylvania region and the Devonian horizon
we have a range of color from light amber to black, a higher spe-
cific gravity and almost entire freedom from sulphur compounds.

'' In addition to what has been said with reference to the Silurian
period, it may also be added that at its top lies the Corniferous
limestone, which is the source of the petroleum of western Canada.
This limestone has been reached by the drill in Pennsylvania in the
well at Erie and at the Conway well, which, piercing the Venango-
Butler group, reaches the Corniferous limestone. In neither case
was any trace of oil discovered in the Canadian measure. In addi-
tion to the varieties of color and specific gravity, together with the
freedom from sulphur which characterizes the Pennsylvania petro-
leums and indicates the process of filtering, it is also extremely
doubtful whether the measures of the Devonian age and particularly
those in which the Pennsylvania petroleums are deposited, ever con-
tained any life which could have given rise to the petroleum. It is
generally conceded that the great volume of the oil which is found
in the Trenton and Clinton limestones is due to chemical action
upon the organic life of that period. The experience which has
been the result of many years of drilling in Pennsylvania has failed
to discover any evidence of organic life in the period in which the

1897.] ORIGIN OF PENNSYLVANIA PETROLEUM. 115

Pennsylvania measures were deposited that even suggest^a sufficient
source for the great bodies of petroleum which have already been
brought to the surface in that region."

In a communication received from Mr. MacGonigle to-day he
calls attention to the fact that a line drawn from Brady's Bend to
Waynesborough, Pa., will show the eastern limit of profitable oil
pools in that region. East of that line, however, some of the most
prolific gas pools of Pennsylvania have been developed, notably,
Murrysville, Grapeville, Latrobe, etc. This would at least suggest
a side light in favor of the theory above mentioned, showing that
as the area approached the line of greatest upheaval and conse-
quently greatest temperature, the volatile oil (gasj was, without
condensation, retained in its condition as it came up from Silurian
horizons.

I believe that this theory of Mr. MacGonigle is more probable
than any that has been advanced as to the present condition of oil
in Pennsylvania. It does not seem, however, necessary to intro-
duce the idea of any redistillation whatever from the fact that if
sufficient cracks existed in the cover over the Silurian limestones,
the oils would leak through the shales to their present position with-
out the application of any heat, and by experimental work it may
easily be demonstrated that if we saturate a limestone such as the
Trenton limestone with the oils characteristic of that rock and
exert slight pressure upon it, so that it may flow upward through
finely divided clay, it is easy to change it in its color to oils similar
in appearance to the Pennsylvania oils, the oil which first filters
through being lightest in color and the following oils growing
darker. Further, if we examine oils in the new fields of Tennessee
and Kentucky, we find as we go lower that oils which were light in
color at the surface are dark in color when we go through the
shales and find them in the lower limestones. In fact it is possible
to watch the process of filtration from dark oils similar to the Ohio
sulphur-bearing oils to the lighter oils of Pennsylvania found nearer
the surface. The means by which the sulphur has been taken from
the Ohio oil is far more difficult to explain, although the ease by
which sulphur compounds and unsaturated compounds can be re-
moved from petroleum by the use of aluminum chloride points to
the chloride of some metal as a means by Avhich this may have been
accomplished.

116 GENESIS OF NATURAL GAS AND PETROLEUM. [Feb. 5,

ON THE GENESIS OF NATURAL GAS AND
PETROLEUM.

BY FRANCIS C. PHILLIPS.

{Read February 5, 1897.)

If it were possible to demonstrate that the original source of
petroleum and natural gas is to be looked for in the rock strata in
which they are now found to occur, an important advance could be
made towards the establishment of a satisfactory hypothesis to
account for the genesis of these hydrocarbons in nature.

It has often been supposed that the relationship of the hydro-
carbons to the rocks in which they occur is of an intimate kind,
and that the geological record should supply all the data upon
which a conclusion as to the origin of gas and oil is to be based.
It does not necessarily follow, however, that they are products of
Devonian or Silurian time because of their association with certain
sandstones, limestones or shales.

The presence of a gaseous or liquid hydrocarbon in a particular
rock is perhaps due to the fact that the region of this rock, on
account of its open texture, has been one of least resistance to the
movement of a fluid under pressure. It is possible that gas and
petroleum may have invaded the Devonian strata from greater
depths and that their present position is wholly due to the pressure
to which they have at some former period been subjected.

Other circumstances may have been factors in determining their
present location. An abundance of subterranean water may have
caused a transfer to a higher level. Differences of temperature
might involve a partial fractionation or distillation and removal to
distant regions. Hydrocarbons of different character and from
different sources might become mingled and thus intrinsic signs of
different modes of origin be obliterated. In view of these inherent
difficulties, which impede a solution as viewed from the geological
standpoint, the question seems to resolve itself for the present into
a broader but less definite one which might be formulated thus :
What are the chemical processes which, being logically assumed in
connection with known facts of geology, could have produced from
the compounds of carbon and hydrogen in the rocks the vast quan-
tities of bitumen, petroleum and natural gas ?

1897.] GENESIS OF NATURAL GAS AND PETROLEUM. 117

Of the hypotheses proposed many have been based upon pheno-
mena which are more or less local when geologically considered,
even if occurring in terranes of wide extent. One hypothesis
attributes to petroleum and natural gas an origin almost cosmical.

This hypothesis, suggested by Berthelot and afterwards developed
by Mendeleeff {Principles of Chemistry, Vol. i, p. 364), and restated
by this author in 1889, supposes that metallic carbides have been
produced deep in or below the earth's crust, and that these carbides
have been decomposed by steam giving rise to the various hydro-
carbons of oil and gas. Mendeleeff supposes that carbides of the
heavier metals, and among these especially iron, have been mainly
instrumental in the process. The correctness of this hypothesis,
which depends upon so direct an appeal to chemical facts, must be
tested by a consideration of the laws of chemistry in so far as they
bear upon the question.

According to the experiments of Moissan (^Compts Rendus, Vol.
122, p. 1462), a few only of the metals are capable of forming
definite carbides, even at the temperature of the electric arc.
These are chiefly the alkali, alkaline earth and earth metals. Alumi-
num and beryllium are the only metals whose carbides yield a hydro-
carbon of the paraffin series alone (methane) on decomposition by
water. The action of water upon the carbides of the metals of the
alkalies and alkaline earths produces acetylenes. In the case of
the carbides of some heavier metals methane is produced in admix-
ture with free hydrogen and ethylene. The results of this author's
experiments would seem to lead to the conclusion that the carbides
of the earth metals only can be assumed to have participated in
the process of petroleum and gas formation, in accordance with
Mendeleeff's hypothesis, if the chemical composition of natural gas
as found in western Pennsylvania is taken into consideration.

There are few elements known to chemistry whose relationships
towards carbon at high temperatures are better known than iron.
The action of steam upon iron in its pure state and when in com-
bination with carbon is also sufficiently well understood to justify a
criticism of the hypothesis upon chemical grounds. It is a fact of
importance that the product of the action of superheated steam upon
cast iron consists mainly of free hydrogen with small quantities of
hydrocarbons, including olefins, paraffins and others of unsaturated
character.

It may be assumed, but hypothetically, that iron exists in the rocks

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI. 154. I. PRINTED MAY 20, 1897.

118 GENESIS OF NATURAL GAS AND PETROLEUM. [Feb. 5,

in form of a carbide richer in carbon than is producible in the
electric furnace, and therefore resembling the carbides of aluminum
as regards its action upon water. In such case a gas somewhat
similar to natural gas might result. Published analysis of meteoric
iron and of iron found in plutonic rocks do not tend to show, how-
ever, that the iron found in nature ever contains carbon in such
quantity as to lead to the belief that a definite carbide of this metal
exists comparable to the carbides of aluminum, akaline earth, and
alkali metals.

If aluminum carbide and the carbides of related metals are to be
regarded as the source of natural gas, we must look for the occur-
rence of the lighter metals at depths at which the hypothesis of
Mendeleeff would require us to suppose that the heavy metals pre-
dominate. It seems, therefore, probable that a few only of the
metals in form of carbides could have been concerned in the pro-
duction of natural gas, and these are the very metals which on
account of their lightness are supposed by this hypothesis to give
place to those of high specific gravity in regions where the chemical
changes in question have occurred.

On account of its stronger affinity for oxygen, aluminum may be
supposed under all conditions tending towards oxidation to assume
the form of an oxide more readily than iron, and where aluminum
occurs in presence of the heavier metals it will probably precede
these in the order of time in uniting with oxygen. But its oxidation
would remove it from the sphere of action leading to the produc-
tion of hydrocarbons.

The conclusion seems justified that where aluminum occurs in a
metallic state, or as a carbide, below or in the earth's crust, the
heavy metals will also abound and notably iron.

If the chemical composition of natural gas is such as to warrant
the belief that its production was due to the action of steam upon
iron carbide, the hypothesis of Mendeleeff would at once receive
strong support. If, on the other hand, chemical considerations
show that iron cannot have been concerned in the process, the
question then arises. Why has iron carbide been suppressed in the
subterranean reactions giving origin to natural gas ?

The term iron carbide has here been used to signify iron contain-
ing a little carbon, such as cast iron, but not implying a real com-
pound containing iron and carbon in atomic proportions.

Analytical data concerning natural gas drawn from deep-lying

1897.] GENESIS OF NATURAL GAS AND PETROLEUM. 119

Strata must prove of importance in the discussion of the subject.
The hypothesis of Mendeleeff would suggest that if free hydrogen
occurs among the hydrocarbons contained in any geological forma-
tion it must be looked for in those strata which are nearest above
the Archaean rocks, and where protection against loss by diffusion
upward is as nearly as possible assured by great thickness of com-
pact overlying beds.

Believing the composition of natural gas from formations of con-
siderable depth to be a matter of interest, some tests were made
during August, 1896, of natural gas from a well drilled down
through the Trenton limestone at Stevensville, countj of Welland,
Ontario, Canada. This well is twenty-nine hundred feet deep and
stratified formations below its bottom are locally of slight depth,
so that, according to Mr. E. Coste, the engineer for the gas com-
pany, the drill has in the case of this well penetrated to within a
short distance only of the Archaean rocks. Shales sixteen hundred
feet in thickness shut off possible communication between the
Trenton limestone and the upper gas-producing rocks (the Medina
sandstone, Clinton limestone and Niagara limestone), and there
seemed every reason to suppose that the gas was derived exclusively
from very deep-lying measures. The tests were made at the well,
and thus the possibility of errors due to leakage during transporta-
tion of a sample were avoided. The method employed I have
described in the American Chemical Journal {ox 1894, page 258.

Tests were also made at the well by methods which have been
devised for such purposes, and which have been described in the
same volume of the journal named, for acetylene and carbon mon-
oxide. The results of all these trials were negative. Numerous
tests have been made of gas from wells scattered over various parts
of western Pennsylvania which seem to justify the conclusion that
free hydrogen, acetylene and carbon monoxide are not found in the
natural gas of the region.

The absence of free hydrogen in natural gas might be explained
upon the assumption that although originally present, it has, by reason
of its extreme lightness and ready diffusibility passed out through
overlying rock strata and made its way to the upper regions of the
atmosphere. In such case we must suppose that as a result of the
production of free hydrogen in the interior of the earth, the atmos-
phere now contains in its more rarified portion a considerable and
gradually increasing volume of this very light gas.

120 GENESIS OF NATURAL GAS AND PETROLEUM. [Feb. 5,

Mendeleeff's hypothesis implies that the production of natural
gas still continues, there being no reason to suppose that the iron or
other metallic carbides below the earth's surface are exhausted.
Consequently much importance must be attached to the question of
the presence of free hydrogen.

Accepting provisionally the hypothesis of Mendeleeff, it may be
asserted that if natural gas is a contemporaneous product sufficient
time has not yet elapsed for the escape by diffusion of the free
hydrogen through some hundreds or thousands of feet of shales and
limestones. The free hydrogen originally present should still occur
in the gas of different regions and be recognizable by chemical
tests. If, on the other hand, natural gas is a stored product, shut
in for long ages, it might seem possible that comparatively impervi-
ous rock strata would not have sufficed to prevent the escape of
this highly diffusible constituent in the course of time.

No hypothesis regarding the origin of natural gas can be accepted
as satisfactory if it should require the assumption that the chemical
changes involved in the process are such as to lead to the production
of much free hydrogen, unless it can be positively demonstrated
that free hydrogen occurs as a common constituent of the gas which
flows from a drill hole.

The foregoing criticisms have been directed more particularly to
the hypothesis in so far as it relates to natural gas. The author of
the hypothesis has apparently avoided a distinction between natural
gas and petroleum, and to the various hydrocarbons, liquid or
gaseous, he assigns a common origin. It has been common to
consider such compounds as closely related genetically. Yet this
supposition may not have sufficient basis. Mabery {American
Chei?iical Journal, 1896, p. 43) has shown that benzene and its
homologues occur in some of the Ohio and Canadian petroleums.
Lengfeld and O'Neill {American Chemical Journal, 1893, p. 19)
have also discovered members of the same series of hydrocarbons in
petroleum from southern California. Similar observations have
been made by other authors.

The composition of natural gas is such as to suggest that it has
been produced by reactions occurring at low temperature, and there
is reason to suppose that it has not been exposed to temperatures
exceeding 500° C, since the time of its formation, as experiments
demonstrate that at temperatures ranging from this point up to that
of melting gold, its constituents suffer more or less complete dissoci-

1897.] PETROLEU.AE IX THE CAVITIES OF FOSSILS. 121

ation, yielding hydrogen and carbon together with small quantities
of unsaturated hydrocarbons, notably acetylene. On the other
hand, petroleum has been shown by the important researches of
Mabery to contain a series of hydrocarbons which are usually char-
acteristic of reactions at high temperatures. The fact that such
hydrocarbons occur in petroleum, whether in small or large quanti-
ties, is of very great interest and should have due weight in the
selection of any hypothesis proposed to account for its origin. At
present this fact can hardly be considered to furnish evidence either
for or against the views of Mendeleeff in regard to the origin of
natural gas.

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF PETROLEUM IN THE
CAVITIES OF FOSSILS.

BY FRANCIS C. PHILLIPS.

{Bead February 5, IS 97.)

In the study of geological facts bearing upon the history of petro-
leum, much interest has been aroused during recent times by the
discovery of petroleum enclosures in the cavities of fossils in lime-
stone rocks. Such occurrences, observed in many places, and in
deposits of different geological age, from the Silurian onward, have
been regarded as furnishing proof that the genesis of oil is to be
attributed to chemical changes taking place in the tissues of the origi-
nal organism of the fossil, and therefore as strengthening a com-
monly accepted belief that the hydrocarbons contained in the rocks
have originated from animal remains stored in the sediments which
afterwards became consolidated into rock.

The relationship suggested between the petroleum and the fossils
is all the more interesting and important since the oil-bearing sand
rocks of the Devonian age do not, as a rule, contain remains of
animal life, and furnish no satisfactory clues as to the origin of oil
and gas. As tending to confirm the evidence which such facts have
been supposed to furnish, numerous instances have been cited where
hydrocarbons are apparently produced from remains of more recent
animal life, as in coral reefs and in the accumulations of organic
remains buried under marine or fluviatile sediments. In certain

122 PETKOLEUM IX THE CAVITIES OF FOSSILS. [Feb. 5,

districts local accumulations have apparently led to the formation
of petroleum and natural gas, and where evidence of so direct a
character is at hand it has been argued that chemical changes of
similar kind have been concerned in the production of hydrocar-
bons upon a larger scale in the rocks. But the fact most suggestive
of a genetic relationship between the hydrocarbons of the rocks
and the tissues of animal bodies is found in the frequent association
of petroleum and bitumen with fossil remains.

A remarkable instance of this kind has been discovered at Wil-
liamsville, Niagara county, N. Y., by Mr. F. K. Mixer, of Buffalo.
Corals in large masses, constituting a reef of considerable propor-
tions, have been exposed in a limestone quarry at this place. The
structure of the coral is well preserved and its rounded forms are
standing erect as they grew in the original reef. In many parts the
cells contain petroleum in a somewhat thickened or dried condition
and the walls of the fossil seem to be saturated with oil. In other
parts of the reef the cells contain a black substance resembling
pitch or asphaltum, the color of which gives great distinctness to
the delicate white lace-like partitions separating the cells. The
distribution of petroleum and solid bitumen throughout the coral
is somewhat irregular.

In viewing this reef, as it stands exposed in the quarry, various
questions suggest themselves as to the origin of the hydrocarbons.
If these have resulted from the carbon and hydrogen of the bodies
of the polyps, how has it occurred that the organic matters were con-
verted into paraffins instead of undergoing the usual process of oxi-
dation and decay ? The growth of the reef was undoubtedly slow,
as a portion only of the polyps could have been living at any given
time, the greater number of the cells being empty, the quantity of
animal matter available for petroleum production must always have
been small as compared with the total extent of the reef, and being
scattered among separate cells oxidation of the remains of the iso-
lated polyps would have been more likely to occur than their accu-
mulation in masses. There does not seem to be any reason in this
case for supposing that the corals in their living state were buried
under masses of sediment. On the contrary, the limestone extend-
ing around and above the corals indicates a period of quiet and
clear water. It is, therefore, difficult to understand how the soft
tissues of dead coral animals could have been protected against
destructive oxidation.

1897.] PETROLEUM IN THE CAVITIES OF FOSSILS. 123

Pieces of this fossil taken from the quarry are on examination
readily seen to contain an amount of petroleum at least equal in
bulk to the cells of the coral. The solid bitumen occurring in
other parts suffices to nearly fill the cells. These facts would render
it difficult to account for the hydrocarbons on the supposition that
they are due to chemical changes occurring in the tissues of the
original organisms.

Le Bel (^Notice sur les Gisements de petrole a Fccheldronn, Col-
mar, 1885, p. 4) has observed that fossils frequently contain in
their cavities a quantity of petroleum greater than could be pro-
duced from the organic matter of the original animal, even suppos-
ing that this organic matter had been converted wholly into petro-
leum.

Fraas (Jaccard, Le Petrole, 18^^, p. 60), in describing the occur-
rence of petroleum in a coral reef in the Red Sea, refers to the fact
that oil collects in parts of the reef growing in shallow clear water
and states that this oil is so abundant that it has been carried by
Bedouins to Suez, where in 1868 it had become an article of com-
merce. Fraas believes that the oil is being produced by the decom-
position of the organisms of the coral.

If the source of this petroleum is correctly interpreted, its occur-
rence under such conditions can hardly be considered to represent
an isolated case. The reactions which take place during the con-
version of animal remains into petroleum must be typical of
changes occurring elsewhere, and must result normally under given
conditions as to temperature, pressure and oxidizing influences.
Wherever the same conditions exist in other reefs they should give
rise to a similar constant production of petroleum and we should
be justified in speaking of a " petroleum fermentation " coordinate
with other naturally occurring organic changes.

It seems doubtful whether this petroleum can have originated in
the coral where it is found and it is improbable that such an occur-
rence can serve to explain the origin of hydrocarbons in the Silu-
rian fossils. I have been unable to learn that petroleum is found
in the reefs at Bermuda. Dr. W. H. Dall, of the Smithsonian In-
stitution, informs me that no occurrence of petroleum has been
reported in the reefs of the Florida coast. If in the case of the
Silurian coral at Williamsville the process of conversion into hydro-
carbons was rapidly completed after the destruction of the animals,
the oil would have floated to the surface of the water and little

12ri PETROLEUM IN THE CAVITIES OF FOSSILS. [Feb. 5,

would be left to impregnate the calcareous skeleton. If, on the
other hand, the process was continued until the organic matters
were buried under deep sediments and exposure to oxidation had
ceased, then more distinct 'signs of a deposit of sediment over the
entire reef should be looked for.

The conditions for effective oxidation of organic matters are
rendered more complete under water by the presence of bacteria,
and these must have aided greatly in promoting the final change of
the tissues of the dead coral animals into nitrates, ammonia, car-
bon dioxide and water. In stream beds and under sediments the
products of the decay of animal matters are mainly gaseous, and
the contents of the coral cells must have been almost wholly lost in
volatile form before a process of change into petroleum could have
been begun in the much diminished residue of the original organ-
isms.

It is possible that the occurrence of petroleum in the cells of a
modern coral reef may find an explanation in a phenomenon often
observed in the case of natural gas. I have elsewhere (^Journal of
the American Chemical Society, 1895, p. 801) called attention to
the fact that on stirring the gravel which lies at the bottom of many
streams in western Pennsylvania, it is common to find that gas bub-
bles are disengaged, and that such an accumulation of gas may
occur where the stream flows over sandstone, covered by gravel a
few inches only in depth, and where the character of the gravel
renders it unlikely that gas could have originated locally. In such
cases it is probable that the occurrence of gaseous hydrocarbons is
due to an escape to the surface from deep-lying rock strata.

Petroleum escaping from the interstices of a rock might accumu-
late in the cavities and cells of dead corals. A slow oozing of
petroleum from the surface of the ground is a well-known phenom-
enon in various parts of the oil regions.

The occurrence of petroleum in cavities of fossils might be
traced to a former condition of wide distribution of oil throughout
the rock, that is, in a form in which it is known to be present in
limestones and shales in many places. The gradual access of moist-
ure to the pores of a rock so impregnated would tend to cause a
slow displacement of the oil. Water, insufficient to appear in
liquid form upon a surface of fracture, might still suffice, as it grad-
ually saturated the rock under the influence of capillary attraction,
or of pressure, to displace the oil and cause it to accumulate in liquid

1897.] PETROLEUM IN TPIE CAVITIES OF FOSSILS. 125

form in the cavities of fossils or in other open spaces. Moisture in
such quantity as is absorbed by many dense rocks would tend slowly
to remove liquid hydrocarbons, just as it might drive them from
the cells of vegetable tissue. The region of least resistance to the
movement of the oil would be a cavity. The accumulation of oil
in open spaces in fossils would thus result from its displacement
from adjacent, or perhaps distant, parts of the rock by water,
which would tend to produce a retreat of the oil. If thus impelled
by the movement of moisture through the rock the oil would grad-
ually assume the liquid form if it passed into a cavity. The cells of
corals and other open spaces might thus become reservoirs capable
of holding collectively considerable quantities of oil.

It is true that before the original sediment became hardened into
rock, the proportion of water present must have been considerable.
In accordance with a commonly accepted view the process of petro-
leum formation was not completed until long after the sediments
with their enclosed organic matters had been consolidated. The
oil would then have been expelled from the rock, little by little, as
it was being gradually produced. In this case also the movement
of the oil might have led to its being caught in liquid form in cav-
ities, or if it oozed out at the surface of the rock stratum it might
have been absorbed by a more porous rock, or caused by pressure
of water to flow off through sand-rocks of more open texture.
The movement of the oil through the rock, displaced from the
interstices in which it had originally collected, would have been
accelerated as the transition from solid organic tissues to liquid
oil had become advanced.

Water, if present in a rock of fine texture, could not by the
action of capillarity alone be drawn upward so as to collect in
liquid form in a cavity. The same statement is true of petroleum.
But the presence of moisture in the interstices of a rock in which
petroleum is being generated or in which it is stored in minute
pores or spaces might lead to a gradual accumulation of oil from
the bulk of the rock into relatively larger spaces such as the cavities
of fossils.

Jaccard {Le Fetrole, 1895, P- ^34) ^^^^ described the occurrence
of bitumen in the cavities of fossil moUusks in the Val de Travers
in the Jura mountains. Such cases might be regarded as represent-
ing a later stage in a series of changes, the original liquid petroleum
having passed into solid bitumen long after it was accumulated in

126 COMPOSITIOX OF AMERICAN PETROLEUM. [Feb. 5,

cavities, where its solid condition would tend to its permanent pres-
ervation.

The sedimentary limestones contain frequently crystalline calcite
cementing together the grains of amorphous mineral matter.
Changes in temperature, causing unequal expansion of this calcite
in different directions, by reason of the form of its crystals, might
in the course of time modify the process by changing the internal
structure of the rock. The presence of salt in solution and the
solvent action of carbonic acid would no doubt exert an important
influence, although its nature could not be foreseen.

The occurrence of petroleum in the fossil shells of mollusks and
in the cells of corals would then have no more geological signi-
ficance than its occurrence in geodes, or in cavities in rocks, or the
presence of solid bitumen in hollow quartz crystals or in sphalerite,
as all such cases are perhaps attributable to one and the same
source, namely, to its presence formerly in a state of wide distribu-
tion in the pores of the rock.

ON THE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN PETROLEUM.

BY CHARLES F. MABERY.

{Read February 5, 1S97.)

Petroleum is found in Pennsylvania in sandstones of various
formations ; in southern Ohio in the Berea grit and other sands ; in
Ohio in the Trenton limestone ; in Canada in the Corniferous sand-
stone; in California, Texas, Colorado, and other American fields in
shales and sandstone formations, which represent in general the
geological strata in which are the various oil fields in Russia,
Roumania, Germany and Austria, Japan, India, etc. Crude oils show
great variation in their physical properties, such as color, specific
gravity and odor, and differences in their chemical reactions de-
pending on variation in composition.

The first systematic investigation for the purpose of ascertaining
the composition of American petroleum was made by Pelouze and
Cahours, who referred the entire body of crude oil, including paraf-
fine, to the series homologous with marsh gas, CnH2n+2- At about
the same time, 1862, C. M. Warren began a study of Pennsylvania

1897.] COMPOSITIOX OF AMERICAN PETROLEUM. 127

oil, in which he subjected the various refinery distillates to a pro-
longed course of fractional distillations in a special form of regu-
lated condenser which he devised for such distillations. He sepa-
rated distillates at o°, 8°-9°, 30°, 37°, 6i°, 68°, 90°, 98°, ii9°.5,
1 2 7°. 5 and at 150°. 8, of the series CnHgn + i., and of the series
CnHan, members at 174°. 9, 195°. 8, 216°. 2.

In connection with the discovery by synthesis of the hydrocarbons,
hexane and heptane, Schorlemmer, in 1865, separated the hydro-
carbons CgHi^ and C^Hig, boiling at 60° and 90°. After Warren's
results were published, he admitted the others at 38°, 6S° and 98°.
Schorlemmer also separated an octane at 125°. He corrected
the work of Pelouze and Cahours with reference to boiling
points. At about the same time in 1880, Beilstein and Kurbatiff
and Schutzenberger and Jonine undertook an examination of the
Caucasus petroleum, and identified hexahydro-aromatic compounds
at 97° and at 118°. The former chemists also found hexahydroi-
soxylol at 118° in American petroleum. Soon afterward Markowni-
koff separated a long series of the naphthenes at 69°, 97°, 118°. 5,
136°, 162°, 182°, 216°, and several members with higher boiling
points. Markownikoff also found numerous aromatic hydrocarbons
of the series C^H.^.g, and of other series with less hydrogen.

Various examinations of lesser magnitude have been undertaken,
in a more or less superficial manner. Engler showed the presence
in small quantities of mesitylene and other aromatic hydrocarbons
in Pennsylvania petroleum. Among other bodies present in small
amounts are the nitrogen compounds, the oxygen compounds, concern-
ing which there is still some question as to the form in which they
exist in the crude oil. Recently Zaloziecky has attempted to show the
presence of the terpenes, which I recognized by their odor seven
years ago {Proc. Ainer. Acad., Vol.. xxv, 1890). I began the study
of petroleum in 1884, and in 1885, soon after the Trenton limestone
oil was discovered, I undertook to separate the sulphur con-
stituents. The sulphur compounds in Canadian petroleum were
undertaken in 1891, and are still in progress. In 1893, through aid
granted by the C. M. Warren Committee of the American Academy
of Arts and Sciences, the scope of my work was extended to include
broadly the composition of American petroleums with especial
reference to Pennsylvania, Ohio and Canadian crude oils. The
great field for research includes the portions of petroleum with boil-
ing points above 220°, but there are serious difficulties in the way

128 COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN PETROLEUM. [Feb. 5,

of reaching satisfactory results with these bodies. In a paper
recently published in the Proceedings of the American Academy an
account is given of the composition of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Canadian
petroleums below 220°. The series C^Han + s represents the main
body of Pennsylvania and Ohio oils, and of Canadian oil below
195°. Aromatic hydrocarbons of the series C^Hon-e, are present in
considerable quantities.

Careful study of petroleum from different sources with reference
to its occurrence and composition indicates that no precise classifi-
cation of crude oils can be based on these particular features. Ac-
cepting Pennsylvania petroleum as typical in its occurrence as a
sandstone oil, in its composition, and in the fact that it is a low
sulphur oil, even the numerous varieties from different sections and
different strata in the same field present great variations in the pro-
portions of the individual constituents. Such oils as the light amber
variety from the Berea grit sandstone (Mabery & Dunn, Amer.
Chem. Journ., xviii, 1896) in southern Ohio and Virginia show
larger proportions of volatile constituents below 150°, and those dis-
tilling above 250°, but less of the intermediary constituents which
are looked on in refining as the more valuable illuminants. In at-
tempting a classification with reference to the proportion of sulphur
compounds, it appears that the principal components of the typical
Pennsylvania oil form the main body of such oils as those from
Ohio Trenton limestone, and the Canadian Corniferous limestone,
although below 150°, in the limestone oils the proportions of the
hydrocarbons CnHjn + i are relatively smaller and the aromatic hydro-
carbons CnH2n_6 rclativcly larger. These statements are made on the
basis of results recently published (Mabery, Froc. Ajner. Acad.,
xxxii, 131). Study of the higher portions of Pennsylvania petro-
leum above 220° is now in progress for the purpose of separating
without decomposition by distillation in vacuo, with consequent
diminution of boiling points and exclusion of air, the constituents
between 216° and 400°. This work has progressed sufficiently to
show that the aromatic hydrocarbons of the series CnH2n_6, form
only a comparatively small proportion of the distillates at least
within the lower limits of temperature. It should be borne in
mind that nothing is known concerning the principal or the subor-
dinate constituents of American petroleum above 250°, except the
possible presence of certain aromatic hydrocarbons, and these were
recognized in products of ordinary distillation in which there is in-

1897.] COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN PETEOLEUM. 129

variably much decomposition. To illustrate the effect of air at high
temperatures on distillates with high boiling points, in a course of
distillations in vacuo of Russian crude oil, accidentally air was
allowed to enter a still in which distillation was proceeding without
decomposition under a tension of 50 mm. at 250''. As soon as the
air came into contact with the hot vapors, there was a violent ex-
plosion sufficient to send the thermometer out of the still and shatter
it against a brick wall several feet distant. Air let into a still under
similar conditions in which Pennsylvania oil is distilling usually
causes flashes of light, but no explosion. From these observations
it is evident that the advantage of distillation in vacuum depends as
much at least on exclusion of air as on the reduction in temperature.

Definite statements relating to the composition of petroleum from
diff'erent American fields must, at present, be limited to the distil-
lates below 216°. But so far as it is possible to draw conclusions
from data collected there seems to be no possibility of distinction
based on geological occurrence and composition. High percen-
tages of sulphur constituents are usually associated with limestone
formations as the source of occurrence of the crude oils. But study
of the varieties of crude oil from widely different sources leaves no
basis for this distinction. A petroleum from South America occur-
ring in a system of shales and sandstones contained 0.70 per cent,
of sulphur (Mabery and Kittelberger, Proc. Amer. Acad., xxxii,
185). Another variety from Oregon having no connection with a
limestone formation also gave a high percentage, 1.19 per cent of
sulphur. A specimen of petroleum from Japan, now under exam-
ination in this laboratory, gave 0.5 per cent, of sulphur. The im-
mense deposits of petroleum in Roumania occurring in shales and
sandstones are mostly high sulphur oils. No distinction can there-
fore be based on sulphur contents and geological occurrence.

It seems doubtful whether a distinction can be based on specific
gravity and geological occurrence. The Pennsylvania oils differ
from most ethers in their low specific gravity, varying in the main
between 0.80 and 0.82 ; such light oils as the amber variety from
Berea grit sandstone is as low in specific gravity as o. 79 (Mabery
and Dunn, American Chemical Jour?ial, 1896, 11). The limestone
oils are higher, those from the Trenton limestone giving 0.82 to
0.85, and those from the Canadian Corniferous limestone 0.85 to
0.88. But the Russian oil, the South American oil mentioned
above, the Japanese oil, and the Roumanian oil all show a high

130 COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN PETROLEUM. [Feb. 5,

specific gravity. With reference to the proportion of sulphur con-
tents and specific gravity, it seems that all the high sulphur oils
have a high specific gravity.

There is some hope of arriving at a general system of classifica-
tion on the basis of the series of hydrocarbons which constitutes
the main body of the crude oils. While more must be known con-
cerning the composition of the constituents with higher boiling
points before such a distinction can be made with desirable precis-
ion, I have seen sufficient of the behavior of the higher constituents
to believe that such a basis is reasonable. As types of such a classi-
fication I should select on the one hand Pennsylvania oil, and on
the other, Russian oil from the Baku district. The difference in
specific gravity of the crude oils is borne out by the difference in
specific gravity of the corresponding distillates, and individual con-
stituents with the same boiling points. The typical constituents of
Pennsylvania oil, at least below 216°, are members of the series
CnHan + a, but the components of the Russian as defined by the
researches of Markownikow are the naphthenes of the series C^Han.
With reference to the ethylene series CJi,j„ which has seemed to be
accepted by some as constituting the main body of American petro-
leum, so far as my observation has extended, those hydrocarbons
are not contained in any petroleum, at least below 216°, in more
than minute quantities. Results which I have yet to publish show
that these bodies are contained only in small proportions in lime-
stone oils.

A classification of pretroleum from all known sources evidently
demands as its basis conclusive evidence as to the series of hydrocar-
bons of which each is chiefly composed. The methods to be pursued
in reaching this knowledge have been indicated in my examination of
Pennsylvania, Ohio and Canadian oils between 150 and 216 {^Proc.
Amer. Acad., xxxii, 121). That the series CnH2n_^2> constitutes the
chief body of Pennsylvania crude oil below 150° was well established
long ago by independent investigations. Above this point the evi-
dence was less satisfactory. To accept the results of Pelouze and
Cahours which continued the series C^H^^^a through the entire
range of distillates to paraffine, it is necessary to ignore the fact
that American petroleum is not composed exclusively of a single
homologous series of hydrocarbons, but of a mixture of bodies that
require for their separation, not only very prolonged fractional dis-
tillation, but searching and vigorous means of purification.

1897.] COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN PETROLEUM. 131

At the time when the French chemists conducted their investiga-
tions on American petroleum, both Pennsylvania and Canadian
products were to be obtained in the European markets, especially
in France, where Canadian oil seems to have been more easily
obtained at times than Pennsylvania oil. In the papers of Pelouze
and Cahours, allusions are made to American petroleum, and to
Canadian petroleum. Their second paper {Compi. Rend., 56,
505, 1863), begins with the following paragraph: ''Dans un
premier examen que nous avons fait des produits les plus volatils
de I'huile provenant des forages qu'on pratique depuis quelques
annees sur plusieurs points de I'Amerique, et notement au Canada,
nous avons signale I'existener d'un homologue du gaz des marais
dont la composition est representee par le formule Cj-Hi^ = 4 vol.
vap."

With no previous knowledge as to the properties of crude oils from
these different sources it would not be surprising if they were used
indiscriminately. At any rate an examination of the papers of Pe-
louze and Cahours does not reveal the source from which their crude
oil was obtained. But a comparison of their results as to specific
gravity and percentage composition, together with their method of
purification, with the same properties of distillates more thoroughly
purified (Mabery, Inc. cii., p. 171), presents conclusive evidence that
Pelouze and Cahours had in hand, in at least a portion of their work,
distillates from Canadian oil. Furthermore, in some of their distil-
lates showing a higher specific gravity than it is possible to obtain
after suitable purification, even from Canadian petroleum, analytical
values correspond closely to the series CnH.,n_2 ; CuH.^g at i96°-2oo°,
and C13H28 at 2i6°-2i8°. That Canadian crude oil was to be ob-
tained in England at that time is evident from the work of Schor-
lemmer, who demonstrated the presence in oil from Canada of the
aromatic hydrocarbons CnHgn-e-

The series C^Hoq, found by Warren in Pennsylvania petroleum,
has been accepted by some as showing the presence of the ethylene
hydrocarbons, and by others as indicating the naphthenes. That
the naphthenes are excluded below 216° in Pennsylvania oil by the
wide difference in specific gravity has been pointed out (Mabery,
loc. cit., 125). The ethylene hydrocarbons are also excluded by
the want of additive power in these distillates for the halogens.

Indeed, after removal of the aromatic hydrocarbons C^H,,„_6, the
series C^H.^ disappears altogether from distillates within these

132 COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN PETROLEUM. [Feb. 5,

limits, leaving the series CnH.^+g, as representing the main body of
Pennsylvania petroleum within these limits. The individual repre-
sentatives of this series, when properly collected by fractional distil-
lation and purification, include a decane at 163°-! 64°, normal de-
cane at i73°-i74°, undecane at i95°-i96°, and undecane at 214°-
216°. From Canadian petroleum a hydrocarbon collects at 196°-
197° whose percentage composition and molecular weight, as well as
the composition of the monochlor-derivative, corresponds to the
formula CnHaa, and another at 2i4°-2i6°, with the formula C12H24.
The composition of all these hydrocarbons was ascertained by anal-
ysis, molecular weight determinations, analysis of chlorine deriva-
tives, and molecular weights of the chlorine derivatives.

The impression that the higher portions of Pennsylvania oil are
composed of naphthenes was perhaps not wholly without a reasonable
foundation. After finding hexahydroisoxylol in Russian oil Beil-
stein and Kurbatoff identified the same body in Pennsylvania oil.
Since no further attempts were then made to ascertain the composi-
tion of the higher portions, it was natural to infer that the results of
Warren leading to the series C^Han should be best explained by
assuming that his bodies were naphthenes. After the discovery of
thenaphthene series in Russian oil by Markownikoff, this belief was
strengthened by the erroneous assertions of Hoefer and other
anthors of German publications on petroleum that Markownikoff
had established the naphthene series in Pennsylvania oil. A critical
comparison of the specific gravity of Warren's hydrocarbons
with those of Markownikoff without further work would have sug-
gested doubts as to the presence of naphthenes in Pennsylvania oil
at least below 216°.

It has long been an open question with oil men as to whether
Ohio and Canadian petroleum is identical with Pennsylvania oil as
regards the principal constituents. With respect to the portions
distilling between 150° and 216°, this question has now been
answered. The observed differences in the properties of distillates
within these limits before purification concern, as has been shown,
specific gravity and percentage composition. Before purification,
however carefully the distillates have been separated by fractional
distillation, analytical values correspond fairly well with the series
CnHan- After removal of the aromatic hydrocarbons the specific
gravity is much reduced, and in the Pennsylvania distillates it cor-
responds to the specific gravity of the same hydrocarbons synthet-

1897.] COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN PETROLEUM. 133

ically prepared. Similar changes are produced in composition,
the series changing to CuH,n + .i. The series of aromatic hydrocar-
bons is represented in all the oils under consideration by numerous
hydrocarbons, beginning with mesitylene at 163°. The higher
homologues include cumol, pseudocumol, durol, isodurol, cymol,
isocymol, and doubtless other higher members. Larger proportions
of these bodies appear in Ohio than in Pennsylvania petroleum and
still larger proportions in Canadian crude oil. After the most
thorough purification with nitric acid and fuming sulphuric acid the
distillates from Ohio and Canadian petroleum have a slightly higher
specific gravity than the corresponding bodies from Pennsylvania
oil, and the hydrocarbons from Pennsylvania oil show a specific
gravity slightly higher than that of the hydrocarbons synthetically
prepared. Schorlemmer thought that these differences in specific
gravity were due to slight differences in isomerism, but it is quite
possible that these oils contain very small percentages of naphthenes,
especially if those bodies are slowly attacked by reagents, as Mar-
kownikoff observed in products from Russian oil.
' If Pennsylvania petroleum, as typical of this class of crude oils,
is composed within the limits between 150° and 216° of the series
CnH2n+2, the individual hydrocarbons should resemble those pre-
pared by synthetic methods. Unfortunately the structure of the
synthetic hydrocarbons has not been determined in all instances
with desirable precision, although they have been obtained from
different sources. Normal decane boiling at 173° has a specific
gravity 0.7456 at 0°, somewhat lower than the decane I have sepa-
rated from petroleum. The boiling point of the latter body is
1 73°. 5, and the specific gravity at 20°, 0.7486. The decane found
in petroleum boiling at 163° may be diisoamyl since its specific
gravity after the removal of mesitylene is not very different from
that of diisoamyl. Its boiling point is somewhat higher than the
boiling point of diisoamyl assigned by Wurtz. Hendecane from
petroleum agrees fairly well in its properties with normal hendecane
prepared by Krafft from rautenol. The boiling point of petroleum
dodecane is the same as that of normal dodecane from laurinic acid,
although the specific gravity of the petroleum hydrocarbon is some-
what higher than the other.

Since nothing has been done toward defining the butanes in
petroleum except the rather superficial examination of the most vola-
tile distillates in the early days of the petroleum industry, these

PROC. AMER. rilTLOS. SOC. XXXVT. 154. J. PRINTKD MAY 20, 1S07.

134 COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN PETROLEUM. [Feb 5,

portions of the crude oil evidently invited further examination.
The most volatile distillates of Pelouze and Cahours gave with
chlorine a chlorbutyl boiling at 65°-7o°, but nothing further was
done toward identifying the hydrocarbon. Ronalds {London
Chem. Soc, 1865, p. 64) recognized a butane at 0°, but its form was
not determined. Warren collected a distillate at 0°, and another at
8°-9°, which he inferred from analogy was a butane, but no further
examination was made of these distillates. In our examination,
after very prolonged distillation, using freezing mixtures for conden-
sation, no distillate remained between 5° and 20°, thus excluding a
butane at 8°-9°. At 0°, a large quantity of a hydrocarbon was
obtained which gave a chlorbutane boiling at 67°-68°, the boiling
point of isobutyl chloride. By decomposition of the chloride with
alcoholic potassic acetate, an acetate was formed, and from the
acetate an alcohol was obtained boiling at io7°-io8°, which gave the
percentages of carbon and hydrogen required for isobutyl alcohol.
These facts, with the formation of isobutyl sulphide by treating the
chloride with alcohol potassic sulphide, indicate that the hydrocar-
bon collected at 0° was isobutane, but they do not accord with the
properties of butane and isobutane, the former of which, prepared
by Frankland from ethyl iodide, boils at 0°, and the latter, pre-
pared by Butlerow from tertiary butyl alcohol, boils at -17°.
Petroleum butane was prepared several different times from the
most volatile refinery distillates we could procure, and always with
the same results (Mabery and Hudson, Froc. Amer. Acad., xxxii,
1 01). In reviewing the octanes in petroleum, we found one boiling
at 1 1 9°. 5, confirming the statements of Warren, and another
boiling at 124°-! 25°, but no distillate remained above 125°.
From the results of my work recently published, and what I have
now in progress, it can, I think, be stated with confidence that
it is useless to attempt to separate the constituents of petroleum
boiling above 220^ by the ordinary process of distillation, and
whatever results have been published concerning distillates obtained
in this manner shed no light on the constituents of the crude oils.
Of course this is cold sympathy for those who desire to know more
of these higher portions, since there is only one method, fractional
distillation, for such separations, and this method can only be
applied without decomposition by excluding air and reducing the
boiling points. To illustrate its tediousness, early in October, two
assistants started a distillation of 125 liters of Pennsylvania crude

1897.] COMPOSITIOX OF AMERR'AN i'KTlJOliEUM . 185

oil applying a vacuum of above 150°. At present eight distillations
have been made within 2° limits, up to 300° under 50 mm. Many
repetitions within single degree fractions will be necessary to bring
together the individual constituents.

The question is frequently asked whether parafifine is a normal
constituent of the crude oil or is it a product of cracking. The
answer is easy ; parafifine is not obtained by cracking the crude
oil, but it can itself be destroyed by cracking. If paraffine be con-
tained in the crude oil it may be separated by distillation, ])rovided
cracking be not carried far enough to destroy it entirely. The
presence of paraffine seems to be closely connected with the dis-
tinction mentioned between the series CnHsn and the series CnH.,n_|.o.
Higher distillates in vacuo of crude oils containing the series
CnH._,n4_o, so far as I have observed, invariably deposit paraffine.
Those oils consisting below 216° of the series CnHgn deposit no
paraffine even when the highest distillates that can be collected are
cooled to — 20°. It may be interesting to apply this distinction
to those oils that have been care fully studied. With reference to the
appearance of paraffine in distillates, it should be mentioned that it is
observed only in the absence of serious cracking, and that it is easy
in vacuum distillation to recognize the point where cracking begins.
In distilling 125 liters of Pennsylvania crude oil mentioned above for
the purpose of separating the higher constituents, approximately forty
liters of residue above 275° under 50 mm. became nearly solid
from the amount of paraffine deposited. With the hope that more
distillate could be obtained without decomposition, the semi-solid
mass was put back into the still and again distilled under 50 mm.
Approximately two liters were collected in three distillates, none of
which deposited paraffine, and the residue, on cooling, had the con-
sistency of a thick tar, with no indication of paraffine. Paraffine
separates from the higher distillates of Berea grit petroleum, as well
as from all specimens of Ohio and Canadian oils that I have exam-
ined ; but none separated from South American petroleum, from
Oregon petroleum, nor from Russian Baku oil.

Since I began the study of petroleum, twelve years ago, I have
devoted , considerable time to it, especially during the last seven
years. Yet my results barely indicate the enormous field that
awaits investigation in the examination of American petroleum.
There is no field in industrial chemistry that offers greater induce-
ments for fruitful results, both of scientific interest and practical

136 DISCUSSION. [Feb. 5,

advantage, than the study of the portions of petroleum with high
boiling points. There are immeasurably greater inducements for
the establishment of a petroleum laboratory for research on Ameri-
can petroleums than have led to the opening of similar laboratories
abroad. Such a laboratory, established solely for research, with
funds equivalent to twenty thousand dollars a year, and employing
a corps of ten competent research chemists, in five years would add
greatly to the honor of American research, and would establish the
composition of American petroleum. The lines of work that I
have in sight, and have started experimentally, would be sufficient
to occupy the attention of such a body of workers at least during
two years. I should be glad to resign a considerable portion of this
work to such a laboratory, or to any other competent investigators.

Discussion.

Dr. Sadtler : I would like to say that there are one or two
items referred to in Dr. Day's paper that may require a word.
A paper appeared six months ago in a German journal by a gentle-
man named Heusler, in which he reported upon the action of
aluminum chloride on the unsaturated series and perhaps on the
aromatic series of hydrocarbons ; and he claimed that by the heating
of such mixtures with aluminum chloride (of course anhydrous
aluminum chloride is meant), followed by distillation, carefully
excluding moisture, he could readily and completely clear it by
resinifying the unsaturated hydrocarbons and the aromatic hydro-
carbons ; any sulphur compounds could also be resinified ; and he
could then get by rectification absolutely pure hydrocarbons of the
paraffin series.

That seemed to be a remarkable statement and one exciting
attention ; and a second article by the same author followed in the
next number of the journal, in which he theorized a great deal upon
Engler's menhaden oil products, and acknowledged having received
from Engler by personal gift some portions of the distillates which
he had obtained from these distillations of menhaden oil. He
claimed that Engler's oils, when submitted to his treatment with
aluminum chloride, had been purified and finally given the saturated
hydrocarbons in rather small amounts. He then proceeded to
theorize in what might hardly be called careful German style, but

1897.] DISCUSSION. 137

rather a free and unguarded kind of way, having a theory of his own
supplementing that of Engler, his theory being that Engler's distil-
lates in their original conditions were more like the bituminous shale
oils than true petroleum ; and that it needed this after-treatment witli
the aluminum chloride to bring them at all in character to corre-
spond to petroleum oil. He therefore believed — assuming Engler's
theory of the animal origin of oils — that these animal remains had
first of all been subjected to a distillation analogous to that with
bituminous shales ; and that a supplemental reaction with heat
and contact with certain metallic chlorides — like the aluminum
chloride, had transferred them into a secondary product, that is, the
mixed petroleum or rock oil. The thing looked like a very fine
solution of the question, but I have also noticed within the last six
weeks two other articles published in the same journal, in which
other authorities have claimed that this aluminum chloride re-
action is a fallacy : that it does not by any means give a pure
mixture of hydrocarbons belonging to the paraffin series and is
absolutely worthless as a means of purification. It is stated that it
cannot be carried out in the hands of any one except the gentleman
who first published it. Prof. Day alludes to the possibility of
sodium chloride playing an important part in the matter of produc-
ing these hydrocarbons of the Pennsylvania type from sulphur and
oils similar to the Ohio type of oil. I doubt very much whether it
is worth while to bring that in j because the thing seems to be dis-
credited and that part, of course, will have to drop away.

There is something to be said in favor of the question of filtration
that Mr. McGonigle speaks of. As to whether the sulphur could
be eliminated by that or any sodium chloride reaction I doubt ex-
tremely ; and therefore the theory which is presented by Dr. Day
has several quite important breaks in it.

I need hardly make any comment upon the very interesting
papers we have heard, first of Prof. Peckham and afterwards of Prof.
Mabery. I have been acquainted for some time with Prof. Peck-
ham's views with regard to liquid asphaltum and the way in which
the change from petroleum may take place ; and there is an immense
field, doubtless, there, to be opened and studied ; and then of course
the whole thing is modified and very much complicated by the
existence of what he calls hydrates of certain of these organic
acids which are present ; and then the presence of these pyridine
bases also has some modifying effect.

138 DISCUSSION. [Feb. 5,

With regard to the very full statement which we have had from
Prof. Mabery, I need only say that he has accomplished an immense
amount of work; and nobody except those who undertake fractional
distillation will understand anything of the enormous difficulty that
he has had in this work and the amount of labor he has put upon
it ; the results which he has already attained and published are,
in my opinion, far beyond the combined work of the several inves-
tigators who have previously published results on Pennsylvania oil
and American petroleum without specifying its origin, as in the
case of the two or three European investigators.

Mr. Joseph Wharton : I should like to ask whether any gentle-
man here can throw any light as to the physical condition of natural
gas at the low depth at which it is found ; whether it exists as gas at
the depth of 2000 to 3000 feet, or whether it is condensed into a
liquid form at that depth. Is there any one here who has knowledge
upon that point ?

Prof. Mabery: It seems probable that the gas should be lique-
fied under the great pressure to which it is subjected. That the
pressure is enormous we know. It depends somewhat, doubtless,
upon the structure that exists in those lower strata. Some very inter-
esting experiments have been made in studying those strata, and I
think it is probable from what is known that natural gas has existed
in the liquid form.

Mr. Wharton : Does any one know what the critical point of
natural gas is ?

Prof. Mabery : I should say it would depend largely on the
critical point of marsh gas. Liquefaction of this gas takes place
under 180 atmospheres at 11° degrees Centigrade.

Mr. Wharton : Has there been any experiment as to artificial
liquefaction of natural gas ?

Prof. Mabery : Yes; all those gases have been liquefied.
Prof. Peckham : The sulphur in petroleum may be derived from
two different sources : where there is a very small percentage, a
fraction of one per cent., it may be that the sulphur was a constitu-
ent of the original material from which the petroleum was produced ;
but where the sulphur content has arisen to several per cent., as is
often the case in the more dense liquid and solid bitumens, I think
the sulphur has been produced by a reaction between the material
of the bitumen itself, and salts — sulphates — in natural waters. It
seems hardly possible that from any source — any animal or vegeta-

1897.] DISCUSSION. 139

ble source — that as much as seven per cent, of sulphur could become
a constituent of a bitumen ; and I have found that amount in
natural bitumen.

Prof. Mabery : I am much interested in the results Prof.
Sadtler has presented. Although Engler should receive much
credit for obtaining petroleum products by the distillation of men-
haden oil under pressure, it should be remembered that Warren and
Storer demonstrated many years ago that a lime soap formed' from
menhaden oil gives by distillation the petroleum hydrocarbons.
Now Prof. Sadtler has shown that the same products may be
obtained by distillation of vegetable oils under atmospheric pressure.
This overthrows the favorite theory of the German authorities based
on Engler' s results, that petroleum was formed exclusively from
animal remains. The formation of petroleum hydrocarbons from
vegetable oils is extremely interesting, and we should congratulate
ourselves that it has been done so near the early home of the petro-
leum industry.

In the work of Prof. Peckham, I am especially interested just
now, because I have been trying for several years to procure speci-
mens of California oil, to ascertain whether it is composed of the
series CnHsn or the series CnHan + 2. I was recently informed that
ten gallons of this oil is on its way to my laboratory. I examined
an oil from Oregon which I was told resembles the California oil,
and from comparison with small samples of the California products
in my possession, that seems to be the case. The Oregon oil,
and another from South America, contain the series CnHan, but
none of the series CnHan + 2. Pennsylvania, Ohio and Canadian
petroleum give paraffine in abundance. Oils containing the series
CnHan secui to givc uo paraffiuc, so far as I have examined
them.

Prof. Peckham has a great field for investigation in the California
oil, both on account of the large amount of nitrogen compounds,
and the question as to what series of hydrocarbons constitutes the
main body of'the crude oil.

Prof. Peckham : In reference to this matter of paraffine in petro-
leum, there have been two classes of petroleum discovered in Cali-
fornia ; one produced in the neighborhood of San Jose, the other
in the Santa Clara Valley of the South. The great bulk of Califor-
nia petroleum comes from that southern valley ; and so far as I
know no traces of paraffine have ever been obtained from any of

140 DISCUSSION. [Feb. 5,

it in any form— either what are known as the liquid nor the solid
paraffines— not a particle of it has ever been obtained from any of
the petroleum of the southern regions, but from that from the neigh-
borhood of San Jose, scale paraffine has been obtained.

Prof. Mabery : Shale oil does not separate much paraffine ;
even in distillates above 350°.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

BEIB AT PnilADELPlIlA FOR PROIIOTISG I'SEPUl KNOWLEDGE.

«

YoL. XXXYI. ' May, 1897. No. 155.

Stated Meeting, February 19, 1897.
The Treasurer, J. Seegeant Price, in the Chair.

Present, 23 members.

Correspondence was sabmitted and letters of envoy and
accessions to the library were reported.

A bronze medal, commemorative of its Sesqui-centennial,
was presented by Princeton University, for Avhich the thanks
of the Societ}^ were given.

The following deaths of members were announced :

Dr. Henry Hartshorne, of Philadelphia, at Tokio, Japan,
on February 10, 1897, set. 73.

Hon. J. Kandolph Tucker, of Lexington, Ya., on February
13, 1897, ret. 73.

Prof. Henry D. Gregory, of Philadelphia, on Februarv 14,
1897, ait. 77.'

The stated business of the meeting being the election of
members, the nominations were spoken to, and the ballots
cast, Secretaries Hays and Prime acting as Tellers.

Prof Cope presented a " Communication on Some Pale-
ozoic Vertebrata from the Middle States."

A communication was laid before the Society, consisting of
a sketch of an act to be presented to the Legislature of Penn-
sylvania setting apart three areas of -40,000 acres each on the
water sheds of the Delaware, Susquehanna, and Ohio, for a
State Forestry Keservation.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI. 155. K. PRINTED JUNE 15, 1897.

142 MINUTES. [Mar. 5,

Judge Sulzberger moved tliat the American Philosopliical
Society lieartilj approves of the jDurpose to secure State
Forestry Keservations for the Commonwealth and recommends
to the Legislature the passage of the measures necessary to
carr}^ this purpose into effect. Adopted.

The Tellers reported that the following nominees had been
elected to membership : ♦

2302. Morris Jastrow, Philadelphia.

2303. Ferdinand J. Breer, Philadelphia.

230-i. William H. Furness, 3d, M.D., Wallingford, Pa.
2305. Edwin Grrant Conklin, Ph.D., Philadelphia.
23u6. Plorace Howard Furness, Jr., Philadelphia.

2307. H. M. Hiller, M.D., Philadelphia.

2308. John Sartain, Philadelphia.

2309. Henry Trimble, St. David's, Pa.

2310. George W. Biddle, Philadelphia.

2311. Alexander C. Abbott, M.D., Philadelphia.

The meeting was then adjourned by the presiding officer.

Stated Meeting, March o, 1897.

The Vice-President, Dr. Pepper, in the Chair.

Present, 12 members.

Prof. Trimble and Dr. Abbott, newly elected members^
were presented to the Chair, and took their seats.

Acknowledgments of election to membership were received
from Prof. Morris Jastrow, Jr., Mr. Ferdinand. J. Dreer, Prof.
Edwin Grant Conklin, Dr. H. M. Hiller, Prof. Henry Trimble,
Mr. George W. Biddle and Dr. Alexander C. Abbott.

Donations to the Library were reported.

Prof. Arthur W. Goodspeed exhibited some recent radio-
graphs, and made a comparison of them with the work of a
year ago.

Dr. Pepper, Mr. Ingham and Dr. Hays participated in the
discussion following Prof. Goodspeed' s remarks.

1897.] MINUTES. 143

Stated Meeting^ March 19^ IS 97.

Vice-President, Dr. Pepper, in the Chair.

Present, 12 members.

Acknowledgments of election to membership were received
from Mr. John Sartain, Dr. W. H. Furness, 3d, Mr. II. H.
Furness, Jr.

The announcement of the decease of the following mem-
bers was made and obituary notices of them were ordered to
be prepared :

Mr. Arthur Biddle, at Atlantic City, on March 8, ret. 44.

Prof. James J. Sylvester, at London, Eng., on March 15,
tet. 83.

Prof. George Stuart, at Philadelphia, on March 16, tet. 66.

Donations to the Library and Cabinet were announced, and
in connection with the latter. Dr. Morris moved " That Mr.
Patterson's deposit of the Illustrated Catalogue of the Peale
Collection of the Stone Age to be returned on his demand,
be accepted, and that it be placed in charge of the Curators."
Adopted.

Prof. Edwin J. Houston and Dr. A. E. Kennelly read a
paper entitled " The Insulating Medium surrounding a Con-
ductor, the Keal Path of its Current."

Dr. Hays moved that a Committee of five members be
appointed to consider and report upon the advisability of
the Society publishing a Calendar of the Franklin Correspon-
dence in its possession, and if found advisable, to recommend
a plan for such a calendar and its publication. Also to con-
sider and report on the historic relation to the original docu-
ment of the manuscript copy of the Declaration of Indepen-
dence sent by Jefferson to Kichard Henry Lee, and now in
the possession of this Society, and whether its historic im-
portance renders desirable its reproduction by the Society.
Adopted.

Dr. Pepper, Judge Mitchell, Mr. Carson, Mr. Stone and Dr.
Bache were appointed the committee under the above reso-
lution.

144 HOUSTOX, KEXXELLY — THE PATH OF A CURREXT. [Mar. 19,

THE INSULATING MEDIUM SURROUNDING A CON-
DUCTOR THE REAL PATH OF ITS CURRENT.

BY EDWIN J. HOUSTON, PH.D., AND A. E. KENNELLY, SC.D.

{Read March 19, 1897.)

Up to the commencement of the i^resent century our knowledge
of electricity and its action was almost entirely confined to the
phenomena of electric charges and their dissipation by discharge.
The conception of an electric current as a steady condition of dis-
charge had not then been clearly ai^prehended. It was observed
that dissimilar bodies, when placed in contact with, or rubbed
against, each other, manifested electric excitation. It was assumed
that the electric charges thus acquired resided upon the exterior
surfaces of the charged bodies, and that charged bodies evidenced
mutual electric attractions. and repulsions at a distance. The idea
of action at a distance was, therefore, inseparably connected with
early conceptions of electricity and electrical phenomena. Action
at a distance was explained by some on the hypothesis that an elec-
trified body emitted an invisible electric effluvium which acted
upon electrified bodies in its vicinity. It was observed that elec-
tric charges were transmitted through certain bodies called conduc-
tors, and failed to be transmitted' through other bodies called non-
conductors or insulators. In a similar manner the phenomena of
magnetism, as developed up to the commencement of the present
century, pointed to the seeming attraction and repulsion of mag-
netic poles. According to the views then existing, a magnet was a
skeleton of iron or steel for supporting two opposite poles at its
extremities. These poles manifested peculiar properties to which
the intervening skeleton was considered as merely subordinate.
This- magnetic action at a distance, by which the magnetic poles of
the earth were assumed to direct the compass needle, was supposed
by some to be effected through the medium of a magnetic effluvium
emitted from the poles of the magnet. Up to the commencement
of the present century, therefore, electric and magnetic phenomena
were studied apart, and each was accredited with the possibility of
action at a distance, except in so far as some physicists endeavored
to explain such action by the intervention of material electric and
magnetic effluvia. About the commencement of the present cen-

1897.] HOUSTOX, KEXXELLY — THE PATH OF A CURRENT. 145

tiiry, the discovery of the voltaic pile brought to the notice of elec-
tricians the development of an electric current, or a steadily main-
tained discharge. The phenomena produced by the electric current
were apparently so different from those produced by electric charges
that they were at first believed to be essentially distinct. The elec-
tric current could only be produced when a complete conducting
path or circuit was provided, any breach of continuity in the con-
ducting circuit immediately interrupting the current flow. Conse-
quently, it appeared that the electric current passed through the
conductor, usually a metallic wire, in a manner somewhat similar to
that in which a liquid flows through a pipe. Moreover, the electric
current was apparently restricted to the conductor, and could not
pass through the insulating medium surrounding it.

In 1820, not long after the discovery of the voltaic pile. Oersted
announced the first known connection between electricity and mag-
netism. Using the usual language, when a wire, through which an
electric current is flowing, is brought into the neighborhood of a
suspended magnetic needle, the poles of the needle are attracted
and repelled in a manner depending upon the direction of the cur-
rent and its position relatively to the needle. Here an electric
current apparently acted at a distance on the needle ; for, in the
insulating medium, usually the air, in which the magnet was sus-
pended, no electric current could flow, and yet the magnet's poles
could be acted upon at a very considerable distance from the wire
carrying the electric current.

Up to the middle of the present century, therefore, the phenom-
ena of electricity, magnetism and electromagnetic action, suggested
both action at a distance, and that electric currents pass solely
through the mass of a conducting wire independently of the exter-
nal insulating medium. It is true that the idea of action at a dis-
tance was regarded as illogical, and as contrary to the fundamental
principles of dynamics, ever since the days of Newton, but despite
this unwillingness of physicists, the old notions of actions at a dis-
tance continued to be thus passively employed and promulgated,
and, even to-day, they still permeate scientific literature. Another
reason for the retention of the recognizedly erroneous ideas of
action at a distance is to be found in the fact that, up to the middle
of this century, all the mathematical processes adopted for dealing
with the phenomena of electricity, magnetism and electromagnetic
action, tacitly assumed the principles of action at a distance just as

146 HOUSTOX, KEXNELLY — THE PATH OF A CURKENT. [Mar. 19,

the mathematical processes of astronomy at the present time tacitly
assume the same law, without pretending to explain the mechanism by
which such action may be conveyed. Consequently, it was only too
easy for students to imbibe, with the mathematical ideas for study-
ing quantitative electromagnetic facts, the fundamental hypoth-
esis of action at a distance upon which this idea was based. Thus
the mechanical forces existing between charged electrified bodies,
between magnet poles, between electric currents, or between elec-
tric currents and magnets, were all referred to the mutual actions of
elementary portions of imaginary electric or magnetic substances,
each of which exerted an influence proportional to its quantity, and
inversely proportional to the square of its distance from the element
acted on. About the middle of the present century, Faraday first
paved the way for a change in our views on these questions. He
suggested the theory that an electrified body or a magnet did not
emit any material effluvium, but exerted an influence on the invisi-
ble medium in its vicinity ; namely, the universal ether ; that
this influence was of the nature of a stress, and that the ether sur-
rounding an electrified or magnetized substance was in some
manner strained along certain directions which he called lines of
force. Consequently, an electrified body produced lines of electric
force along which the ether was strained, while a magnetized body
similarly produced lines of magnetic force along which the ether
was strained, but in a manner different from electric strain. It was
this strained ether that connected the electrified or magnetized
bodies with bodies in their neighborhood, and permitted attraction
and repulsion to be set up between them without necessitating any
action at a distance.

Clerk Maxwell developed the ideas of ether strains and stresses
mathematically. While retaining the original methods of quanti-
tatively determining the mechanical actions between electric and
magnetic bodies, by summing up the effects of all the elements of
those bodies on each other, in reference to the inverse squares of the
distances, he developed, at considerable length, the action of the
intervening medium, and showed how the strain in such medium
could produce the mechanical effects observed. In the treatment
of this subject he noticed that a disturbance of the electric or mag-
netic condition of the ether was controlled by a formula similar to
that which controls a disturbance in an elastic solid. He was,
therefore, led to believe that electromagnetic disturbances in the

1S97.] HOUSTON, KEXXELLY — THE PATH OF A CURRENT. 147

ether were propagated in all directions like disturbances in an
elastic solid, and were, therefore, transmitted in waves. Maxwell,
therefore, was the discoverer of the probability of electromagnetic
waves in ether. He also suggested that light might be a purely
electromagnetic phenomenon of very high frequency, and adduced
experimental evidence in favor of this belief. The actual existence
of these electromagnetic waves has since been abundantly dem-
onstrated by Hertz and many others. Though invisible to the
unaided eye, electromagnetic waves can be traced by the aid of sen-
sitive electromagnetic apparatus constituting what has not been
inaptly styled the electric eye.

As the result of both the experimental and mathematical work of
the latter half of the present century, especially that of Mr. Oliver
Heaviside, it is now believed that electric currents are transmitted
as electric waves through the ether surrounding a conductor, being
guided by the conductor, but not transmitted through it.

Notwithstanding the fact that the more modern views have been
in existence for upwards of thirty years ; that their truth is practi-
cally undisputed, and that, on the contrary, within the last ten years,
strong experimental evidence has been adduced in their behalf, yet
both the old phraseology and the old methods of treatment are still
almost universally employed even in the modern text-books of the
day.

In view of the preceding facts, the authors consider that a brief
description of the manner in which an electric current is now
believed to be transmitted, may aid in disseminating the more
modern views.

All electric, magnetic or electromagnetic phenomena are now
believed to be referable to two conditions of stress in the ether,
one of which is called electric flux, and the other, ?nagnelic flux.
The exact nature of both is unknown. Though invisible, the
presence of each may be manifested in a variety of ways. So inti-
mately are the electric and magnetic fluxes correlated, that any dis-
turbance in one immediately calls the other into existence. Elec-
tric flux exists between two electric charges. Thus, a positively
charged sphere, situated at rest in a room, radiates streams of elec-
tric flux, towards all parts of the room, along lines called stream lines,
which may be readily mapped out. The ether is strained or dis-
turbed in some manner along these stream lines. So long as the
charge on the insulated body remains at rest, electric flux will per-

148 HOUSTON, KENNELLY — THE PATH OF A CURRENT. [Mar. 19,

meate the air and ether in the room, but there will be no magnetic
flux present, except that due to the earth's magnetism. As soon,
however, as any motion occurs in an electric flux, either by moving
the charge on the body, or by causing it to increase or decrease
in density, the disturbance in electric flux temporarily produces a
magnetic flux; and, generally speaking, any variation or motion of
electric flux produces magnetic flux.

A permanent magnet produces magnetic flux, both in its sub-
stance and in the space surrounding it. So long as the distribu-
tion of magnetic flux remains quiescent, no electric flux is pro-
duced. As soon, however, as any change takes place in the mag-
netic flux, either, by bodily moving the magnet, or by weakening
or strengthening the magnet, electric flux is temporarily produced..
Generally, any variation or motion of magnetic flux produces elec-
tric flux.

Magnetic flux is always circuital, or is distributed in stream lines
which form closed curves, or have reentrant paths. Electric flux,
when established between opposite electric charges, is not circuital,
but terminates at one end in one charge, and at the other end in the
opposite charge. When, however, electric flux is established by
magnetic disturbances in a space free from conductors, it is circuital,
like magnetic flux.

Both electric and magnetic flux possess both direction and
polarity ; that is to say, each is developed along definite stream lines,
and each possesses different properties up and down such stream lines.
An analogy is presented mechanically in a stream of water. Water
in a river flows in stream lines, and is directed in its motion down
stream. In the case of electric flux the polarity is manifested by
what are called positive and negative charges, these charges being
developed where the electric flux terminates. In the case of mag-
netic flux the polarity is manifested by what is called north-seeking
poles and south-seeking poles. These poles are developed where
the magnetic flux terminates on the magnet. For this reason electric
flux is conventionally assumed to leave a positive charge and, to
terminate, on arrival at a conductor, at a corresponding negative
charge. This, while being a purely arbitrary assumption, is, never-
theless, advantageous in fixing ideas. Similarly, magnetic flux is
assumed to issue from a magnet at its north-seeking pole and to
reenter it at its south-seeking pole. This assumption is also purely
arbitrary.

1897.J HOUSTON, KEXNELLY — THE PATH OF A CURRENT. 149

Both electric and magnetic fluxes contain energy. Work must be
charged on the flux to establish it, and this work is liberated when
the flux disappears. The energy in the ether varies as the square of
the flux density, so that if we crowd uniformly twice as much flux
through a given area of cross-section, we quadruple the amount of
energy which resides in that portion of space per cubic inch, or per
cubic centimetre.

The electric transmission of power consists in transferring electric
and magnetic flux to a distance and allowing these fluxes to be ex-
pended in liberating, at the receiving end of the line, the energy
they contain. An electric generator is a machine for producing
electric flux and thus transferring electric energy to the ether. This
electric flux, or energized condition of the ether, is transferred to a
distant point along wires, the ether being deprived of its energy at
the receiving end of the line. The electric flux is there absorbed,
and the work which was expended by the generator is recovered to
a greater or less extent.

The electric flux is transmitted from the generator to the receiver,
through an insulating medium, being guided on its passage by a
pair of conductors, extending all the way from the generator to the
receiver. Such a pair of conductors, with the associated insulating
medium between them, is called an electric circuit. The curious fact
exists that while the old conception of an electric circuit held that
the electric current passed through the conductors, and was retained
in position on those conductors by reason of the insulating medium
surrounding them, the modern view holds, on the contrary, that
the electric current flows through the insulating medium and is held
in position, or guided to its destination, by the two conductors. In
other words, the modern theory completely reverses the relative
functions of the insulator and the conductors in the old theory.

There are three standard types of pairs of conductors, and their
associated, intervening, insulating medium; viz.,

1. An aerial conductor, such as a telegraph wire, supported sensi-
bly parallel to the surface of the ground. Here the wire forms one
conductor, the ground the other conductor, wliile the ether asso-
ciated with the air between them is the medium through which the
electric current flows.

2. Subterranean or submarine conductors separated from the
surrounding conducting earth or water by a uniform layer or coat-
ing of insulating material. Here one conductor is formed by the

150 IIOUSTOX, KEXNELLY — THE PATH OF A CURREXT. [Mar. 19.

interior wire, while the other conductor is the sheath of metal,
liquid or ground, and the medium through which the electric cur-
rent flows is the ether in the insulating coating of rubber, gutta-
percha, paper, etc., with which the interior conductor is invested.

3. A pair of overhead wires supported sensibly parallel to each
other, on suitable insulating supports ; as, for example, a pair of tele-
phone or electric-light conductors. Here the two wires are the con-
ductors, and the medium through which the electric current flows is
the ether in the air between them.

When an electric source is connected to any such pair of conduc-
tors, an electric flux is established in the insulator between them; or,
more correctly speaking, in the ether permeating the insulator. The
density of the electric flux, or the quantity of flux per normal square
centimetre, will depend upon the nature of the insulator, on its
dimensions, and on the electric pressure or voltage of the source.
An increase of voltage is attended by a proportional increase in
the density of the electric flux ; while an increase in the thickness
of the layer of insulating material between the conductors dimin-
ishes the density. Figs, i, 2, 3, are diagrams of the distribution
of electric flux for the three types of circuit mentioned.

\ J- / ^ ^•

tt.ttTtttttttttTttttTTtrTtT ,'' ^^ '^f^ ^^^^

tnttrtffttttTfttntttttTt / / / i J ^^ ^ ^

vsr (^ a-

Fig. I.— Electric Flux Surrounding an Aerial Wire with Ground-Return Circuit.

In Fig. T, AB, represents the aerial wire, and GG, the ground.
The flux stream-lines are represented on the right-hand side in a
plane perpendicular to the wire. These stream lines are arcs of
circles, on the supposition that the ground, GG, is conducting, and
has a level surface, such as might be presented by the surface of
water in a lake. On the left-hand side the flux is represented as

1897.] KOUSTOX, KEXXELLY — THE PATH OF A CURREXT. 151

being distributed in straight lines; /. e., in sections of planes, per-
pendicular to the wire and to the ground. The wire being nega-
tively charged, by convention the flux streams converge towards it.

8 S

ifltHntHittnttittfmtrtttttmT^wnittlitr

Fig. 2. — Electric Flux Permeating Insulator of Cable.

In Fig. 2, CC, is an insulated conductor, usually of copper,
separated from the conducting sheath SSSS, which may be of lead
or other metal, by the cylindrical insulating jacket IIII. Here the
flux is represented as emerging from the wire which is, therefore, re-
garded as positively charged. The density of the flux is greatest
in the vicinity of the interior conductor, and diminishes uniformly
as we proceed towards the sheath. This is represented diagrammatic-
ally by the length of the flux arrows. On the left-hand side the
flux is seen to be distributed in planes perpendicular to the length
of the cable.

■ I

AL

l!!n!liillin|ll!!i;!,.
ir.rT'^i.-'.'Mi' "^

,[UtirtrfninnTninTTnTif

3B

CL

ID

Fig. 3. — Electric Flux Permeating Insulator between Two Parallel Wires.

152 HOUSTOX, KENXELLY THE PATH OF A CURREXT. [Mar. 19.

Fig. 3, represents two parallel wires, AB and CD, the latter posi-
tively and the former negatively charged. Here the flux issues
from the wire CD, and converges upon the wire AB, in curves, which
are all arcs of circles. The flux density is greatest in the neighbor-
hood of each wire and least in the intermediate portions. On the
left-hand side, the longitudinal section shows that the flux is dis-
tributed uniformly in planes perpendicular to the two wires.

The electric flux, which thus permeates the insulating medium, per-
sists as long as the insulation is maintained, even in the absence of
the original electric source. Thus, if a pair of wires be perfectly
insulated from each other, and are charged as represented in Fig. 3,
by connection to an electric source ; then, so far as is known, the
electric flux, which will be developed between them in the insulat-
ing medium, will be indefinitely maintained, although in practice
there is always sufficient leakage to permit the charge to gradually
disappear.

In order to study the electric transmission of power over a cir-
cuit, we may suppose that a pair of perfectly conducting wires exists
extending between two cities. These conductors may be, say, of the
third type; /. e.^ may consist of a pair of parallel wires supported in
air. Let AB and CD, Fig. 4, represent such a pair of conductors

Fig. 4 „E„

-D

Fig. 5 E

A B

_ ^^ liiMO **■ J.

Fig. 6 E

^ A SlA^

Figs. 4-6. — Movement of Electric Flux in Circuit of Perfect Conduction and In-
sulation.

between the terminal stations AC, on the left hand, and BD, on the
right. At the middle of the line E, we may suppose that suitable

1897.1 HOUSTON, KEXXELLY — THE PATH OF A CURREXT. 153

short lengths of each of the two wires; namely, fg and hj, each one
metre long, are insulated from the rest of the system, and elec-
trically charged by a momentary connection to a dynamo or other
•suitable source, to a pressure of say, looo volts. An electric flux
will thus be established between the two short lengths of wire of the
type represented in Fig. 3, and shown in Fig. 4, by the arrows; fg,
being positive, and hj, negative. Strictly speaking, the flux dis-
turbance would not remain in parallel planes at the ends of the
short lengths, but would bulge outwards considerably, from the ends ;
but this peculiarity is of no consequence to what follows, and we
may, therefore, suppose that the simpler geometrical distribution is
preserved. If the metre lengths at E, be perfectly insulated from
-each other, the block of electric flux resident in the ether between
them would be indefinitely maintained at 1000 volts pressure.

Suppose, however, that at some instant of time the discontinuities
existing between the metre lengths of the conductors and the rest of
the system are suddenly bridged over. In other words, the metre-
lengths are connected electrically at both ends to the rest of the
circuit. Then instantly the flux tends to rush towards the ends of
the circuit as represented by the arrows k and 1, in Fig. 5. The
metre block of flux instantly subdivides into two metre blocks,
each under 500 volts pressure, and each with half the original
density and, therefore, one-quarter of the original energy. At the
same time, the moment that the flux commences to run, a magnetic
flux distribution is brought into existence ; for, as we have already
mentioned, a motion of electric flux can never occur without pro-
ducing magnetic flux. While then the metre block of Fig. 5,
divides into two separate metre blocks, moving in opposite direc-
tions, as in Fig. 6, each block becomes invested with magnetic flux
in the manner represented in Fig. 7. Here the curves of magnetic
flux distribution, indicated by arrows, are circles eccentric to the
wires. One-half the energy of each moving block is electric and is
resident in the electric flux, and one-half is magnetic and is resident
in the magnetic flux. It will be observed that the magnetic flux is
so directed as to pass through the loop formed by the two wires, in
planes perpendicular to the wires. Moreover, the curves of mag-
netic flux stream-lines are all perpendicular to the curves of electric
flux stream-lines, which, already shown in Fig. 2, are here repre-
sented by dotted lines. The magnetic flux at each point is due to
the movement of the electric flux through the ether at that point,

154 HOUSTOX, KENNELLY — THE PATH OF A CURRENT. [Mar. 19,

and is not due, as the old theory supposed, to an assumed current
in the wire. The passage of the electric flux over the wires consti-
tutes a momentary electric current, which in this case would have a
strength of roughly two amperes. The velocity with which the flux
blocks move in Fig. 6, is the velocity of light in air ; approximately,
300,000 kilometres per second. If the distance from E, to the ends
of the wires is exactly 300 kilometres each way, the metre blocks of

■■' \-v-^M^-l. ^ /

• ••• ^\ .^■ -.^^-^-J^is, .•'^- •■' "^ .

Fig. 7. — Magnetic Flux Accompanying Moving Electric Flux between Two Par-
allel Wires.

flux will traverse this distance in y^Q-th of a second. The metre
blocks will, therefore, pass by any particular point on the line in
"3o"o"."oTo",oTo^^^ of a second, and the electric current, which this flux
rush constitutes, would, therefore, have this duration at any particu-
lar point.

Fig. 8, represents the metre blocks of flux in the act of arriv-
ing at the termini of the line. The two conductors are open-cir-

1897.] HOUSTON, KP:XXELLY — THE PATH OF A CUREENT. 155

cuited, or insulated, at both ends. The arrows v and v', represent the
direction in which the blocks have arrived, and the curved arrows
mm, and m'm^ represent the direction of magnetic flux which has
been generated by the movement of each block, and which has
been carried bodily along with the moving blocks. If the original
metre block of flux in Fig. 4, represents an amount of energy resi-
dent in electric flux, amounting to say 1000 ergs, then each of the
two metre blocks into which this is divided, assuming no dissipation
of energy, carries with it 500 ergs, 250 in magnetic flux and 250 in
electric flux.

Fig. 8 m m'

giuiiiit^^ ZL^-lMj)

m ni'

F/g.9

^j(Mu7_ _aJMj)

Figs. 8-10. — Reflected Movement of Electric Flux in Circuit of Perfect Conduc-
tion and Insulation,

On arrival at the termini, the flux is compressed into a half metre
at each end, as represented in Fig. 9. The density of electric flux
IS doubled, as represented by the closeness of the arrows. At the
same time the magnetic flux vanishes, while the pressure rises
momentarily from 500 to 1000 volts. There is, therefore, half the
volume of flux with twice the density; and, therefore, four times
the voluminal electric energy, but no magnetic energy. Conse-
ruently, there remains 500 ergs of purely electric energy in each
block.

Fig. 10, represents the conditions of afl'airs immediately after-
wards. Here the blocks expand again into metre lengths and are
reflected from the termini, or move back towards the centre of the
line. The magnetic flux reappears, but in the reversed direction,
as shown by the curved arrows. The electric flux retains its origi-
nal direction from the upper to the lower wire, and the pressure has
fallen from 1000 to 500 volts as before. The current represented

156 IIOUSTOX, KEXXELLY — THE PATH OF A CURRENT. [Mar. 19,

by the flux rush is, therefore, reversed in direction, since the mag-
netic flux, by which it is measured, is reversed, but the electric
potential difference, as measured by the density of electric flux,
remains unaltered. The two metre blocks now rush towards the
centre of the line with the speed of light. They may be consid-
ered as solitary waves of light, that is to say, disturbances traveling
with the velocity of light waves, but not periodic, and leaving the
medium quiescent the moment they pass by.

After the lapse of another ^q^Qpth of a second, the two metre
blocks, which will again arrive at E, the middle of the line, as shown
in Fig. II, where the two arrows v and v', indicate that the blocks
are about to collide. The curved arrows show that the magnetic
flux is oppositely directed in the two blocks, those on the left-hand
side at mm, being directed into the loop, as seen by the observer,
while those on the right-hand side at m^ii^, being directed out of
the loop.

Fig. 11 m mm' dT

C "^ ^^utUJH^ j^w\^ ^ ^Q

m mm' m'

Fig. 12

E

v^^ liiM "^ jj

Fi<ll3 m, mm' m'

-mm/ r^miuii'j ^-^ p

Figs. 11-13. — CoUision^of Electric Flux Waves in Circuit of Perfect Conduction
and Insulation,

In Fig. 12, the metre blocks are represented as having collided;
they have merged together and mutually annulled each other's mag-
netic flux. Consequently, there is no magnetic energy. On the
other hand, the density of electric flux being doubled, there will be
four times the electric energy per cubic centimetre. Consequently,
there are 1000 ergs of electric energy in the single metre block at 1000
volts pressure, just as in the original condition before the start, in
Fig. 5. The two blocks, however, pass completely through each
other, appearing on the opposite sides.

1^97.] HOUSTON, KENNELLY — THE PATH OF A CURRENT. 157

Fig. 13, represents this condition of affairs. Here the two blocks
have passed completely through each other and once more rush out
with the velocity of light towards the ends of the conductors,
which they will reach in the yo^ott^^^ ^^ ^ second. This process of
meeting in the centre, separating, reaching the ends, and being
reflected therefrom, will repeat itself indefinitely in cycles which
take y-^^th of a second to complete, the current direction reversing
at each reflection from the ends. In this case of perpetual motion,
we have assumed that there is no dissipation of electromagnetic
energy, there being no leakage between the two conductors, and
perfect conduction in the two wires.

We have hitherto assumed that the two wires AB and CD, were
open-circuited, that is insulated from each other at their termini.
We now suppose that they are short-circuited; that is directly con-
nected at the termini. Let the metre block of flux be started from
E, the centre of the line, as in Fig. 5. Then, in y^Vo^^"^ ^^ ^ ^^^"
ond, the two metre blocks, into which the original block divides,
will rush over the intervening 300 kilometres, and will reach the
ends of the line as shown in Fig, 14, the arrows v and v^ indicating
the direction in which the blocks have arrived, and the curved arrows
representing the direction of accompanying magnetic flux. In this
case, instead of the electric density being doubled, the electric flux
vanishes completely as soon as the magnetic flux is compressed into
half a metre of length. The magnetic flux is, however, doubled in
density, as represented by the doubled curved arrows of Fig. 15.
Here the energy is all magnetic, and each half- metre block of mag-
netic flux at the ends of the line contains 500 ergs of energy.

hy.x-* ^

4-

jjium'^T — ^ * \mii,

fi^lS nit m'l

A

C

m,

Rg 16

A

m.

m.

f— : Z^

^1

m.

Figs. 14-16. — Reflected Movement of Electric Flux in Circuit of Perfect Conduc-
tion and Insulation, Short-Circuited at Termini.

PEOC. AMER. PHILOS. 800. XXXVI. 155. L. PRINTED JUNE 15, 1897.

158 HOUSTOX, KEXNELLY — THE PATH OF A CURREXT. [Mar. 19,

Fig. 1 6, represents the condition of affairs the moment after the
disappearance of electric flux. Here the electric flux has reap-
peared in the form of the two metre blocks, which take their depart-
ure towards the centre of the line, but now it will be observed, by
the direction of the flux arrows, that the electric flux is reversed in
direction. Consequently, the lower wire has become positive and
the upper wire negative ; or, the 500 volts difference of potential
between the wires is reversed in direction by reflection from the
short circuits at the termini. The magnetic flux possesses its
original direction as shown by the curved arrows. Consequently,
the momentary current, which is constituted at any point along the
line by the flux rush past it, does not change direction when the
pulse comes back reflected.

The two reflected metre flux-blocks rush with the speed of light
towards the centre of the line. The condition of affairs just before
they meet is represented in Fig. 17. The magnetic flux is oppo-
sitely directed in the two blocks. Consequently, when the two
blocks merge, as shown in Fig. 18, the magnetic flux is annulled,
but the electric density is doubled. We have, therefore, in Fig.
18, 1000 ergs of energy in electric flux, situated in a metre block,
but with the opposite direction of potential to that which exists in
the original state of Figs. 4 and 5.

F19. 17

m m m m

m m m' m'

Fi^. 18

Fig. 19

^^ r-w^y ^mttn^ •■>•

'in m m' m'
FlGS. 17-19. — Collision, of Reflected Electric Flux Waves in Circuit of Perfect
Conduction and Insulation Short-Circuited at Termini.

'The two metre blocks then separate out by passing through each

-THE PATH OF A CURRENT. 159

Other as shown in Fig. 19, where the two blocks are seen to be
withdrawing from each other with the speed of light. They again
rush to the termini of the line, where they undergo reflection with
reversal of electric flux and persistence of magnetic flux. This
condition of reflection and collision would continue forever, under
the conditions assumed.

We have hitherto assumed that the insulator insulated perfectly
and the conductor conducted perfectly. Neither of these two con-
ditions is attained in practice. We will first assume that there is
imperfect insulation in the insulator, with perfect conduction in
the wires. For convenience, we may change the type of circuit to
the second ; namely, a cable composed of a central wire and annu-
lar external conducting sheath. This is represented in Fig. 20

f.9

20

A

u—

F^q..

21

c

A

u

= = =

?iq.

22

C

A

C

a,

•.Ul ..">'■ ;

^-< ivUUiuU-.-

'::i^:-

u^ K ^^ "^i ^

Figs. 20-22. — Movement of Electric Flux in Cable of Imperfect Insulation and
Perfect Conduction.

where AB, is the central conductor and CD, CD, the external con-
ducting sheath. Let us suppose that a metre block of flux, at 1000
volts, is, as before, called into existence, and released from the
centre of the line. The flux block immediately starts with the vel-
ocity of light in the ether of that particular insulator, which may
be, perhaps, 200,000 kilometers per second, instead of 300,000 kilo-
meters per second, as in free ether. The block, as before, subdi-

160 HOUSTON, KENNELLY — THE PATH OF A CURRENT. [Mar. 19,

vides into two metre blocks, each with half the density and each
with its attendant magnetic flux, as represented by the straight and
curved arrows of Fig. 21. Instead, however, of pursuing their
paths as sharply defined blocks, the two blocks are subjected to
attenuation by leaving stragglers or remnants along the road, since
the insulator is somewhat leaky. That is to say, the path through
which they pass is strewed with reflected or oppositely directed
electric flux, of reduced density, which immediately turns around
and moves back towards the centre of the line with the velocity of
light in that medium. Consequently, the two metre blocks undergo
a process of decay ; their density is diminished ; their energy is
dissipated in the insulator as heat, and in "supplying the straggling
reversed fluxes ; and the distribution, instead of being in planes
perpendicular to the cable, is bent backwards in a manner which is
exaggerated in Fig. 21. In fact the flux behaves as though it got
entangled in the insulator instead of moving freely through it, and
by reason of the entanglement^ a number of shreds or straggling
particles are detached from the advancing main body. If the leak-
age be sufficiently great, the blocks of flux may be completely dis-
sipated before they arrive at the termini of the line, the degree of
attenuation depending entirely upon the amount of leakage.

Fig. 22, represents the condition of affairs at a later stage of the
first outward movement of the flux blocks. Here Vj v'2, represent
the movement of the heads of the columns ; U2 and u'2, represent the
backward movement of the stream of stragglers thrown off by the
heads in the course of their motion. Consequently, the entire
field between the two separating heads is filled with a confused
and straggling mass of attenuated flux, and a very complex state of
aff'airs is reached. The original blocks are entirely absorbed after
they have traveled a greater or less distance.

We may next assume that the insulator insulates perfectly,
but that the wires do not conduct perfectly. This is a condition
which is very nearly represented in many practical cases. In
Fig. 23, the metre block of flux starts from the centre as before.
The interior conductor being positively, and the sheath nega-
tively, electrified. The curved arrows represent the direction of
accompanying magnetic flux, produced as soon as the motion
takes place. Here the imperfect conduction of the wire sets up a
series of straggling reflections of electric flux, in the same direc-
ion, however, as that in the moving blocks, instead of the oppo-

1897.] HOUSTON, KENNELLY — THE PATH OF A CURRENT. 161

site direction, as in Figs. 21 and 22. The electric flux is bent from
the perpendicular in the direction of motion, as represented in
exaggeration at Fig. 24. Consequently, the metre .blocks are sub-
jected to a process of attenuation or decay, by throwing off attenu-
ated electric flux as they advance, the straggling flux so thrown off
immediately commencing to rush backwards with the velocity of
light in the medium as represented by the arrows Ui u\. The
metre blocks, therefore, lose definition as they advance, becoming
weaker and weaker, the energy being lost into the conductor and
into straggling flux. If the wires conduct sufficiently imperfectly,
the two metre blocks may be completely absorbed before they reach
the terminals of the line, the degree of attenuation depending
entirely upon the degree of imperfection in conducting power, for
a given electric cable; /. e., a given geometrical distribution of in-
sulating medium. The fact of imperfect conduction, may be rep-
resented roughly by supposing that the flux, instead of slipping
freely along the surface of the conductor, becomes entangled in
the surface of the same, and friction between the base of the mov-
ing flux and the surface of the wire detaches some of the flux and
leaves the detritus in the pathway.

Fig. 23

p^^ff— f^m_ p

FiQ 24

.--— ^"-^ ^^^y^rrrt^- "■■..•......•■•■frrr r: ^ ai ''' n

•°- ^_ l .>tu^w^v;:,-x'--r-jc";::.".-:^^^ ^ .-v^^

^ ^ ^ ._^._. * ~ iiumi:- ■..■■■.;...>. .-^iUUv ''' . ^ ^-^ . ____ ^

Fiq 26
C

u, u^ U;. g^ TV

D

Figs. 23-25. — Movement of Electric Flux in Cable of Perfect Insulation and Im-
perfect Conduction.

Fig. 25, represents the condition of attenuation at a later stage.

162 HOUSTON, KENNELLY — THE PATH OF A CUKRENT. [Mar. 19,

Here the original metre blocks have diminished considerably in
density, and in their stock of energy, their motion being indicated
by the arrows Vg and v^. 1I2 and u'2, are arrows representing the mo-
tion of the straggling flux, or tails, as they have been called, thrown
off bv the advancing blocks. After a certain distance has been
traversed by these blocks they become completely absorbed and
the tails only remain, the subsequent motion being very complex.

All the best electric conductors with which we are acquainted ;
namely, the metals, conduct imperfectly at the temperatures at
which they exist on the earth. It has been shown that pure copper
would apparently conduct to perfection, or have no electric resist-
ance, at the temperature of absolute zero, or — 273° C. It is pos-
sible that some means may eventually be found to artificially pro-
duce in copper, at ordinary temperatures, the electric conducting,
power it possesses at or near the absolute zero of temperature, but
at the present time we have to content ourselves with the compara-
tively imperfect conducting power of copper, which is practically
the best electric conductor available. Consequently, we cannot
attain in practice to the distortionless transmission of electro-mag-
netic waves such as represented in Figs. 4 to 19.

It is, however, possible to so unite imperfect insulation with im-
perfect conduction; /. e., leakage with conductor- resistance, as to
cause the tailings due to leakage to exactly annul the tailings due
to conductor resistance; for, the comparison [of Figs. 20, 21 and
22, with Figs. 23, 24 and 25, will show that these tailings are
oppositely directed as regards electric flux, the tailings from leak-
age being reversed, and the tailings from conductor resistance
being similarly directed, to electric flux in the main blocks. A cir-
cuit in which the leakage and conductor resistance are so balanced
as to leave no tailings, is called a distortionless circuit, and no other
means of obtaining a distortionless circuit is known at the present
time. Although such a circuit is distortionless, since no tailings are
left, as the blocks of flux move on without leaving stragglers, yet en-
ergy is expended both into the insulator and into the conductor, and,
consequently, the fluxes diminish in density and attenuation goes
on. This is represented in Fig. 26. Here the metre block of flux is
started from the centre of the line as before, the directions being
indicated by the arrows. In Fig. 27, the electric flux is seen to-
have a double curvature, being partly bent outwards and partly bent
inwards. Energy is being dissipated sideways into the insulator.

1897.] HOUSTON, KENNELLY — THE PATH OF A CURRENT. 163

and sideways into the conductor, as the blocks move on. Conse-
quently, the electric density and the accompanying magnetic
density are diminishing, but no straggling electric or magnetic
flux is left to mark the passage of the blocks. If the original stock
of energy was looo ergs, the energy which may reside in the two
blocks, when they reach the ends of the line, may be, perhaps, only
IOC ergs, depending entirely upon the amount of electric resistance
in the conductor, and the corresponding amount of leakage which
must be given to the insulator in order to balance the same.

Fig. 26

v-«-

mm

■m^ iWimiflt \_(

v^

-^v'

IMIlJUklMiJ ■ _^

f^ — — ■ — -.-,_. JtrsKtax. , — ■ — ., .. ... ~. — — - .. ., T\

F19.27

-^ . ^jMuji^ Mmi\^ , ;7~"

Fiq.28

Figs. 26-28. — Movement of Electric Flux in Distortionless Cable.

Fig. 28, represents the condition of attenuation without distortion
at the later stage in the process.

We have hitherto assumed that only a metre block of electric
flux was started from the centre of the circuit, and that this was
called into existence in some special manner. We shall now con-
sider what takes place when an electric source, such as a dynamo
or battery, is connected permanently between the wires at one
end of the circuit. In Fig. 29, a dynamo is supposed to be con-
nected at the end A, the positive pole to the upper wire and
the negative pole to the lower wire. The dynamo is assumed to
have no resistance, and the distant end of the line is short-cir-
cuited at B. The moment the connection is effected, electric

16-i HOUSTON, KENNELLY— THE PATH OF A CURRENT. [Mar. 19

flux is supplied from the dynamo to the insulating medium between
the two wires. The rush of electric flux which escapes from the
dynamo constitutes the electric current which it supplies, and if a
certain imaginary unit quantity of electric flux constitutes a coulomb
of electricity (the practical unit of electric quantity), then the
number of coulombs of electric flux, uniformly supplied per second
from the generator, represents the number of amperes of electric
current supplied to the circuit. If the pressure of the generator is
I coo volts, then the difference of potential between the wires at A,
is I GOO volts, and these two wires we may first assume to be per-

Fig.29

A<?i{{{^v IB

A AU i u u I i u i J^i ^ u u u i U i w i I i t J. i. I u in. i- u 4 J- ^•'4. 4- i M u u J i i-p

^{ U U U I U n R i lU U 1 1 U mri 1 li U U I U J U U U';^ f i U U if U P'

•^M u u u w u u j I u u u u i u^ \ I i jHwmnnnmiHmimjiyjtJfinwmnT;ti4"*

*^^ '' ,?uwtFii^WtwM|titaititlTttOTitintiTj^r

A^tinuutirifHUititimiritirittTUjtuwtinwwTWMititaiti'UTitinTUitiritiTmrj.rirituwMuwntiD

Figs. 29-33. — Movement of Electric Flux in Closed Circuit of Perfect Conduction
and Insulation, when Supplied by a Generator of no Resistance at One End.

fectly conducting. The arrow v, in Fig. 29, represents the initial
direction of flux rush, from A towards B. As the flux moves along
towards B, with the velocity of light, more flux comes out of the
generator. The function of the generator is to supply flux to the
insulating medium with which it is connected by the wires. The
curved arrows represent the direction of the magnetic flux distribu-
tion which everywhere accompanies the moving electric flux.

Fig. 30, represents what takes place by the time that the van-
guard of electric and magnetic fluxes has reached the end B. The
entire insulator between the two wires is now full of electric flux at
the particular density furnished by the dynamo at its pressure.
With perfect conduction and perfect insulation there has been no
loss of energy, and the magnetic flux and electric flux are just as

1897.] HOUSTON, KEXXELLY — THE PATH OF A CURRENT. 165

dense at B, as they are at A. Reflection with reversal of electric
flux takes place at the short-circuit under B^, so that, as shown in
Fig. 31, the vanguard of electric flux can rush back towards A.,, after
reflection from B._,, and having the direction represented by the up-
ward arrows, so that, at and near B,, as much electric flux is now
pointing downwards as pointing upwards. There is, consequently,
no resultant electric flux near B.^, although there is twice as much
electric flux, considered without regard to direction. The magnetic
flux is, however, doubled as determined by the reasoning accom-
panying Fig. 15.

After the proper interval of time has elapsed, the vanguard of
electric flux has arrived at Ao, while further flux is all the time pour-
ing out of the dynamo; this condition is represented in Fig 32.
It again reflects at A3, with reversal of electric flux, and advances
once more towards B^, Fig. 33, in the original direction, so that
there are now two streams of downwardly directed electric flux, and
one stream of upwardly directed flux, leaving as a resultant a single
stream, but the magnetic flux is trebled in density. The resulting

Rg 34

%-

Fi^.ss

^X\ y. I . I J 1 1 1 1

'^uaujimjMUJiiiJiJiiiiiiJ^iuMmu..i^^

^'5-3S _v

Li ii.iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiLiJiiiiiiii III iiiiiiiinii uAiiiliuiiiiiili I

LE_

Fig sr

-^

Fiq.38

Figs. 34-38.— Movement of Electric Flux in Closed Circuit of Perfect Conduction
and Insulation when Supplied by a Generator of no Resistance at One End.

condition is represented in Figs. 34 to 38, which correspond re-
spectively to Figs. 29 to 33. In the first passage between Ai and
Bi, the electric flux fills the entire insulator. In the next passage
between A3 and B3, Fig. 37, the electric flux entirely vanishes by a
process of cancellation of oppositely directed streams, but the mag-

16(3 HOUSTON, KENNELLY THE PATH OF A CURRENT. [Mar. 19,

netic flux is doubled. In the third passage from A4 to B^, Fig. 38,
there is a reappearance of the original electric flux and potential,
but with the magnetic flux trebled. In the fourth passage, not
shown, there is a disappearance of electric flux with the magnetic
flux quadrupled, and so on indefinitely. The current strength,
which is always measured by the density of magnetic flux, con-
tinually increases by successive leaps at each succeeding passage, but
the electric difference of potential between the wires oscillates be-
tween the original quantity of 1000 volts and zero. After an in-
definitely long period from the start, the current carried by the cir-
cuit will be indefinitely great, and this corresponds to what Ohm's
law would prescribe in a case of perfect conduction.

Any actual circuit of perfect insulation but imperfect conduction
would differ from this case in the fact that the vanguard would be
continually subjected to attenuation and distortion, so that it be-,
comes less and less observable in its passage at each successive
traverse of the circuit. Finally, after a certain interval of time has
elapsed, no further accretion of electric or magnetic flux is per-
ceptible. The rate of dissipation of energy taking place into the
conductor, all along the circuit, would then be just balanced by the
rate at which further flux energy is pouring into the circuit from the
generator. This is the condition which is determined by Ohm's
law for the case of a definite resistance and perfect insulation. The
effect is to lower the pressure to zero at the distant end of the cir-
cuit, and to maintain a uniform strength of magnetic flux distribu-
tion all through the circuit. Consequently, when the steady state has
been attained under the influence of imperfect conduction and perfect
insulation, the potential falls steadily from the source towards the
distant end, but the magnetic flux-rush is constant throughout.
The electric flux-rush is, therefore, also constant at all parts of the
circuit, but some of the rush is directed upwards and some of it is
directed downwards, so that at the distant end there is no resultant
electric flux, while at the generator end the resultant electric flux is
at full density.

This condition is represented in Fig. 39. Here the outrush from
the dynamo is indicated by the long flux arrows pointing down-
wards. As these reach the BD end of the circuit, they are short-
ened in length, to indicate that the flux density has suffered diminu-
tion by attenuation on the journey. The reflected stream is then
shown by the reversed arrows, which shorten in length as they return

1897.] HOUSTON, KENNELLY THE PATH OF A CUEREXT. 167

to the generating end. These are again reflected with reversal, and
the shortening process continues from end to end until the stream
is no longer perceptible. The contrary movement of the tailings
is omitted, for convenience, from the diagram. At Ei, these various
stages of the stream are indicated by the horizontal arrows. The
first is a long arrow e,, representing the outgoing stream of full
strength. Then come a pair of oppositely directed arrows indica-
ting the passage of the stream on return to AC, with reflection there-
from ; then similar pairs of oppositely directed arrows for suc-
ceeding returns of the stream, each time weaker and weaker, until
finally no longer perceptible. The sum of all these is the first
arrow Ci, since all the rest are in pairs which cancel. Conse-
quently, the electric flux at E, has the resultant e,, or the full strength
and density of issue from the dynamo, as shown at E'l, which rep-
resents the voltage or potential difference between the wires at Ei.
If the voltage of D, is looo volts, E'l, is 500 volts positive, and E'\,
500 volts negative.

A.
D

O

■e.

E',

eL

,ie-

^ a -■■|B

^> g .^=^0'

'K

Fig. 39. — Distribution of Electric Flux Streams in Conformity with Ohm's Law
in a Perfectly Insulated Closed-Circuit.

Again at the BD end, the electric flux streams are indicated at
Eg. First come two opposite arrows Cg, representing the first arrival
of the stream and its immediate reflection with reversal. Then
follow successive pairs of oppositely directed shortened arrows.
The sum of all these is clearly zero, so that the resultant flux den-
sity at BD, is zero, and there is no resultant voltage or potential
difference. At B'D', therefore, the dotted lines indicating poten-
tial fall to zero or join the lines A'B' CD'.

Again, in the middle of the line at Eo, there is a series of succes-

168 HOUSTON, KENNELLY — THE PATH OF A CURRENT. [Mar. 19,

sive arrows, none of which entirely cancel. Their sum, however,
is half ei, and at ad, rhe voltage E'.,, E'^^, falls on the dotted lines E'l
B', E'\ D'. The same is true for any other point on the line.
Consequently, the pressure falls steadily from AC to BD.

It is otherwise, however, with the magnetic flux which under-
goes Ro reversal. The development of this is shown at M^, M^ and
Mg. The arrows are all of equal length to the corresponding elec-
tric flux arrows at E^, E2 and E3, but there is no reversal of direc-
tion. The sum of all these sets of arrows is constant at all points
of the line, and this condition of constancy in total magnetic flux
is represented by the horizontal straight lines m, m, m, m, m, m.
In other words, the current strength is constant.

The rate at which energy is being transferred from the dynamo
along the circuit past any point is simply the sum of the electric and
magnetic energies contained in the various passing streams of flux,
the summation being made with regard to the direction of these
streams. Thus the first stream may carry past the point considered
1,000,000 ergs in each second, half in magnetic energy, and half in
electric energy, the second stream may carry 500,000 ergs back-
ward, the third 250,000 forward, and so on; the resultant stream
in this case being 666,667 ^^S^ P^^ second forward, and this is the
activity of the circuit at the point considered.

According to these views, therefore, the electric current, which is
electric flux-rush, is invariably transmitted with the velocity of
light in the ether of the particular insulator considered. But the
actual velocity with which an electric impulse travels along the cir-
cuit, as measured by the time which elapses between the connection
of the source at the generating end and the appearance of energy at
the receiving end, always tends to be less than this velocity, because,
owing to attenuation and distortion, the first impulse or block of
flux may be completely absorbed and dissipated before it can reach
the distant end with the velocity at which it travels, and further
flux must gradually come up from the source and suffer attenuation
and distortion, before the vanguard can finally arrive at the receiv-
ing end and perform its allotted function. It is for this reason that
a submarine electric cable between say Ireland and America, takes
nearly |th of a second before an electric signal or impulse trans-
mitted from one end will make its first appearance at the other,
although the time that an electric wave would take to traverse its
length would be only say about ■g^o'^h second. The original impulse

1897.1 HOUSTON, KEXNELLY — THE PATH OF A CURRENT. 169

traveled so far as it went with the velocity of light in the ether of
gutta-percha, but the vanguard was completely dissipated and the
successive vanguards were attenuated with complete dissipation for
a comparatively long time before the distant end could be reached.
It is only on long circuits, such as are afforded by telegraph and
telephone wires or submarine cables, that the phenomena of electric
transmission with their attendant distortion and attenuation are
most clearly evidenced. In the comparatively short circuits em-
ployed for transmission of electric light and power, the phenomena
of distortion and attenuation of electric and magnetic flux are of
little practical importance. Fig. 40, represents the signals sent over

T r an s m i tte d

Fig. 40. — Distortion of Signals Received Over Last- Laid Atlantic Submarine Cable.

the last laid Atlantic cable and the corresponding signals which were
received at the distant end. The two should be exact facsimiles
and should, therefore, be capable of actual superposition if no dis-
tortion occurred in the electric impulses. jN'ot only the delay or
retardation in the received signals, but also the great distortion
which is noticeable, are due entirely to the fact that there is very
little leakage in the insulator, while there is very appreciable resist-
ance in the conductor. This cable, laid in 1894, has a published
length of 1847.5 nautical miles. The copper conductor offers a
resistance of 1.68, or about if, ohms per nautical mile, while the
insulator has a resistance of 85,000,000,000 ohms in each nautical
mile. This cable has a working speed of over forty-five words per
minute, which is much faster than any other previously laid Atlan-
tic cable, owing to the greater conductance of the circuit. This
cable possesses, of course, enormous distortion, although such dis-
tortion does not prevent signals being read until a speed of over 225
letters per minute is attained. If, however, the insulation, instead
of being 85,000,000,000 ohms in each nautical mile, were reduced
to about 500 ohms in the nautical mile, the leakage tailings would

170

probably balance the tailings due to imperfect conductance and the
cable would be distortionless. The signals received would, there-
fore, be the exact counterpart of the signals sent, and an indefin-
itely high speed of signaling should be possible. In respect to
absence from distortion, such an Atlantic cable would transmit tele-
phonic speech waves perfectly. It would, however, possess so
much leakage that the received signals would be far too attenuated
and feeble to perceive. The conductor would only oifer at the
sending end a resistance of, approximately, 28 ohms, instead of 3108
ohms, the total conductor resistance, and the current strength
which would flow from the receiving end to ground would be, ap-
proximately, 5x10^^ times less than the current entering at the gener-
ating end. No telegraphic or telephonic instrument at the present
time could detect so feeble a current as this. Moreover, if any
accident happened to such a cable it would be impossible to localize
the position of the fault unless the same occurred within a mile or
two of either end. Consequently, the distortionless circuit does
not provide at the present time a practical solution for trans-Atlan-
tic telephony. About one hundred miles is, probably, the limiting
length of this particular cable, with its good insulation, over which
telephonic speech can be carried.

We have not considered the mechanism whereby the electric and
magnetic flux, when it reaches the receiving end, is absorbed and its
energy utilized for the performance of any kind of work, such as
the operation of a motor, the production of signals, or of articulate
speech. It has been sufficient to point out that the electric current
runs through the insulator from one end of the circuit to the other,
and is guided by the two conductors, which with the insulator
form the circuit. If it were not for these two conductors, any elec-
tric wave or impulse would radiate out into space in all directions,
like light from an unprotected candle. The wires do for the elec-
tric wave what a reflector does for the search light ; namely, local-
izes and concentrates the beam into a single path, whereby it may
be transmitted to the desired point with the minimum attendant
loss in transmission.

Discussion.

Mr. Paul A. N. Winand said :

I have been very kindly invited by the authors of the paper to
participate in its discussion. I wish to express first my appreciation
of the remarkably thorough, clear and original manner in which

1897.] HOUSTOX, KEXXELLY — THE TATII OF A CURREXT. 171

they have accounted for the conditions which exist in the space sur-
7'oiinding the condticior in the phenomenon called electric current.
In fact I could not attempt to add anything to this very clear ex-
position. I have therefore collected the objections that can be
raised against some of the views and conclusions of the authors.

We first encounter a difficulty as long as we do not bear in mind
the dual nature of the electric flux considered in relation to elec-
trostatic conditions. The flux is to be taken, respecting one of its
manifestations, as a measure of electric quantity inasmuch as, when
rushing, each unit will produce the same magnetic flux, but this
effect is independent of the difference of electric potential. The
energy transferred is, however, proportional to this difference.

In the case represented by Fig. 39 of a perfectly insulated closed
circuit, the quantity of flux, owing to the perfect insulation, must
remain unchanged as it rushes along the line, but the other factor
in the transfer of energy, due to the rush of flux, the difference of
potential, decreases as the energy is transformed into heat in the
conductor. If I understand the authors correctly, they consider
the process as entailing a diminution of the first factor (quantity)
by partial reflexions constituting the imperfect conduction, while
the second factor remains unaltered. It is difficult to see how, with
perfect insulation, at any point of the line, where such reflexions
occur (the reflected fractions of flux returning towards the origin),
energy will cease to be electric and become thermic, since the re-
flected fractions will carry their energy away undiminished from
that point, while the unreflected part of the flux will carry its share
away in the primary direction of main rush.

As to the view held by the authors that the electric current runs
through the insulator, or, more broadly, through the space outside
the conductor, and is merely guided or localized by the latter, it
seems to me open to some grave objections. It is true that the old
view, which considered the conductor as the only real seat of the
phenomenon, is not tenable. But there is another intermediate
position, which has been expounded by Poynting, Lodge, J. J.
Thomson and others, which is : that while the current flows through
the conductor, the energy, which is generally transferred simul-
taneously, travels through the space surrounding the conductor.

As stated by Lodge : '' We must learn then to distinguish be-
tween the flow of electricity and the flow of electric energy ; they
do not occur along the same paths Electric energy is not

172 HOUSTON, KENNELLY — THE PATH OF A CURKENT. [Mar. 19,

to be regarded as pumped in at one end of a conducting wire and
as exuding in equal quantities at the other. The electricity does
indeed travel thus, whatever the travel of electricity may ultimately
be found to mean, but the energy does not." Poynting expresses
it thus : ** Formerly a current was regarded as something traveling
along a conductor. But the existence of induced currents and of
electromagnetic action at a distance from a primary circuit, from
which they draw their energy, has led us, under the guidance of Fara-
day and Maxwell, to look upon the medium surrounding the conduc-
tor as playing a very important part in the development of the
phenomena."

I am not prepared to abandon this intermediate point of view
for the reasons which I shall presently state. It naturally depends
to a great extent on what we are to understand by an electric cur-
rent. The nature of electricity being unknown, this phenomenon
can only be dealt with as a sum of correlated effects. Some of
these occur in the conductor, some in the space outside of it.

One fundamental relation was obtained when it was proved by
experiment that the translatory motion of a charged conductor pro-
duced the external effects of a current ; the effects otherwise found
in the conductor being then absent because the conductor moved
with the charge and with its external condition or electric flux.

It might be argued that the conducting body, say a charged
sphere, should be considered as being mainly a discontinuity in the
surrounding insulating space and that the displacement of this dis-
continuity created the effects by disturbing the space. The experi-
ments of Rowland, however, have established that a rotary motion
of a plane conducting disc around its axis produced the same ex-
ternal effects as a current and in this case the conductor, considered
as a discontinuity in the insulating space, did not change its posi-
tion. Does this not- tend to show that the unknown condition
which moves bodily with the substance of the conductor in the one
case moves along the conductor in the other case, which is called
current proper ?

On the other hand we find that in the case of current proper,
effects are produced within the conductor, and we find also that these
effects occur not merely at the boundary between conductor and
surrounding space, but throughout the cross-section of the conduc-
tor. This is undoubtedly true of the heating, the electrolytic
effects, osmotic effects, migration of the ions, actions at the

1897.] HOUSTON, KEXXELLY — THE PATH OF A CURRENT. 173

electrodes, some luminous effects (as in gases), thermo-electric
effects broadly and of some magnetic effects. It is an estab-
lished fact that when a conductor carries a so-called current the
magnetic lines of force or flux do not exist only in the space around
it, but they are present also within the cross-section of the conduc-
tor. Their density is, however, smaller at points inside the cross-
section than at points immediately outside of it and at the centre of
a circular homogeneous cross-section this density is equal to zero.
Does this not clearly point to the conclusion that the action which
produces the field in the surrounding space has its seat in the cross
section of the conductor and extends throughout the same ?

Even for effects such as those of so-called free static electricity
which seem clearly to have their seat at the boundary between the con-
ductor and the space surrounding it, can we disregard the conductor
which is an essential part of the apparatus, though the effects so far
discovered in such cases seem to reside in the surrounding space ?

Turning now from the consideration of continuous currents to
that of very rapidly alternating or freely alternating currents which
generate waves of electromagnetic disturbance in space, as first
demonstrated by Hertz, we find that, on connecting the charged
conducting bodies, the disturbance originates on these bodies and
gradually spreads into space with the velocity of light. The phe
nomenon starts with a current having its seat on the conducting
bodies and the surrounding space is affected subsequently, 'as by
light emanating from a spark. Is it then not natural to consider the
conductor as the seat of the current and as the primary factor in the
apparatus ?

In view of these considerations, I cannot but retain the point of
view stated above, though I am ready to admit that, as the changes
of distribution of energy take place through the surrounding space,
the latter may be considered as more important than the conductor.
It should not be forgotten, however, that we can only postulate but
not demonstrate the travel of energy, while we can measure its dis-
appearance at one point and its appearance at another. We can
only find changes in the distribution of energy. Now if we con-
sider a conducting circuit of inappreciably small resistance; a current
of any strength can be existent without a comparatively appreci-
able change in the distribution of energy, which shows that even
the practical importance of this action is not always evident.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI. 155. M. PRINTED JULY 29, 1897.

174 HOUSTON, KEXNELLY — THE PATH OF A CURRENT. [Mar. 19,

Dr. a. Macfarlane : I wish first of all to express my sense of
'the admirable manner in which the authors have carried out the
aim which they set before themselves. Behind their descrip-
tion of the manner in which an electric current is now believed to
be transmitted there is a great amount of mathematical analysis
and experimental verification.

In a work on the Applications of Electricity, written by Count du
Moncel before the beginning of the great industrial development
of electricity, he refers to a fanciful plan of a M. Charles Bourseul
for transmitting speech by electricity. The Count makes great fun
of the idea ; yet he lived to write a book on the telephone. What
struck him as especially absurd was that vibrations produced by
the human voice could be thought capable of transmission through
a solid wire of copper. And indeed it is wonderful how electri-
cians have been so long content to regard the current of electricity
as transmitted by the copper molecules, or even by the ether in the
wire between the molecules.

In the study of electrotechnics there is nothing more important
than clear ideas about the relation of the electric current to the
associated magnetic flux. It is important to observe that there are
many analogies between the two ; but it is also important to observe
that the analogy is not complete. The electric current involves in
its idea the element of time in a way that the magnetic flux does
not. Now observe how the theory expounded explains this. We
have the complementary ideas of electric flux and of magnetic flux
and also the other two ideas of rush of electric flux and rush of
magnetic flux ; the electric current in general meaning motion of
the combined flux.

For some time it was customary to neglect the study of static
electricity because its connection with current electricity was not
evident. But observe that the one idea — electric flux — comes from
the old science of static electricity, and the other idea — magnetic
flux — from the old science of magnetism : together they explain
the phenomena of the flow of electricity along a conductor.

In the text-book of Electricity and Magnetism which I studied
there was an article headed " Velocity of Electricity." Account
was given of some experiments made to determine the time required
for the transmission of signals along conducting lines; the dis-
agreement of the values obtained was pointed out, and the writer
concluded that properly speaking there was no such thing as the

1897. J MINUTES. 175

velocity of electricity. But observe how the theory expounded
rests on that very idea, how it explains all the seeming contradic-
tions, and shows what in certain cases reduces the velocity of elec-
tricity from that of the velocity of light in the ether.

Stated Meeting, April ;?, 1897.
Vice-President, Dr. Pepper, in the Chair.

Present 45 members.

Correspondence was snbmitted.

Mr. Pettit, on behalf of the Curators, presented a i^eport,
recommending that the Xorth Room be fitted up for the use
of the Cabinet.

Dr. Pepper presented the report of the Special Committee
on the Needs of the Library.

The following resolutions were then adopted :

1. That the immediate needs of the Library demand that the Nortli
Room be devoted to its purposes.

2. That the Peale Collection be maintained in the North Room for the
present.

3. That the collections of plants be transferred in trust as a deposit,
subject to recall, to such institution as may be ordered by the Society.

4. That the duplicate collection of rocks be submitted to a Committee
of Geologists (Messrs. Lyman, Prime, Frazer and Piatt), to report to
the Society their recommendation as to its disposition.

5. That a Special Committee of nine (Dr. Pepper, Messrs. Harris,
Pettit, T. H. Bache, Price, Frazer, Stone, Jos. M. Wilson and Hays)
be appointed to adopt plans for the adaptation of the North Room for the
above purposes and to make suitable provision for the other objects of
the Society, and that the Hall Committee be empowered to expend a
sum not exceeding one thousand dollars in carrjdng into eftect the plans
so adopted.

A letter from Judge Mitchell on behalf of the Commission
to collect and print the Statutes at Large of Pennsylvania,
from the foundation of the colony to the year 1800, asking
that the Society grant it the privilege of using a volume of

176 MINUTES. [April 2,

MS. copies of laws prior to 1700, in the possession of tlie
Society, was received.

Dr. Hays stated, in connection with Judge Mitchell's letter,
that he had a few days ago incidentally called the attention of
Dr. Frederick D. Stone to a manuscript volume of laws of
the Province of Pennsylvania, passed prior to November,
1700, which had been presented to the Society in 1835, by
the late Joshua Francis Fisher, Esq. Dr. Stone at once recog-
nized that the volume might have a very important bearing
on the work of the Commission appointed in 1883 by the
State of Pennsylvania to examine and collate, and authorized
■some years later to publish, the complete text of the Statutes
at Large of Pennsylvania from the foundation of the Prov-
ince, 1^82 to 1801, of which the second volume (the only one
yet issued) has just been presented to the Society by the Com-
mission. The principal reason why the Commissioners had
delayed the printing of the first volume was due to the fact
that certain laws, twelve in number, noted in the minutes of
the Provincial Council as having been passed prior to l^ovem-
ber, 1700, which date was adopted as the starting-point of
the second volume, could not be found. Official inquiries
made at Harrisburg, and at the Public Kecord office in Lon-
don, elicited replies that no such acts were in the possession
of the State or of the English Government. Fraitless search
was also made at West Chester, at N'ew Castle and at Dover,
as certihed copies of the acts, as passed, were then usually
sent to the clerks of the several counties. The Penn papers
and the early manuscripts in the collection of the Historical
Society of Pennsylvania Avere carefully examiiied in vain, and
the Secretary of the Commission, Mr. Charles K. Hildeburn,
personally made a thorouoli but fruitless search in the Public
Eecord Office in London for these missing laws. Of all this
Dr. Stone was fully aware, and he at once suggested that the
attention of the Commission be called to the volume shown
him.

Mr. Justice Mitchell, the Chairman of the Commission,
and Secretary Hildeburn, upon being informed of the exist-

1897.] MINUTES. 177

ence of tins valuable and important volume in our Library,
at once subjected it to careful examination and found that it
contained many of the laws passed prior to November, 1700,
including the twelve missing ones, viz., one act passed June
9, 169-1 ; two acts passed February 10, 1699-1700 ; one act
passed May 16, 1700, and eight acts passed June 7, 1700.
Some in not quite as satisfactory form as could be desired,
but most of them duly attested by the Speaker of the Assem-
bly, signed by Governor Fletcher, and the later acts by
Governor Markham, and sealed Avith the " Lesser Seal " of
the Province.

It is interesting to note, in this connection, that the use
of the " Lesser Seal " for such a purpose was a most extraor-
dinary proceeding, and can bear no other explanation than
that it was done by William Penn's orders Avith a view to his
claim to a veto power, which was subsequently denied him
by the Crown, as the later acts are all passed under the
" Great Seal " of the Province.

The only copies of the laws passed prior to November,
1700, possessed by the State and from which the Commission
had intended to print, consist of unattested copies made by
Patrick Robinson, Secretary of the Council. Hence the Com-
missioners now desire to print from the duly attested copies
of these laws belonging to this Society, rather than from the
unattested copies belonging to the State.

It is surmised that the copies contained in the volume
belonging to the Society may have come into the office of
Andrew Hamilton during the period when he was Attorney -
General of the Province, and were acquired by Mr. Fisher in
the course of his examination of the Hamilton papers depos-
ited at " The Woodlands."

The finding of these acts will place the Commonwealth of
Penns3dvania in possession of a complete set of its legislative
enactments, from the founding of the Province to the readily
accessible " Pamphlet Laws " beginning with 1802. All but
two of the original thirteen States of the Union have, at one
time or another, attempted to make and publish similar collec-

178 MIXUTES. [April 23,

tions, but not one lias succeeded in gathering together all its
laws, but now, with the use of the volume which Mr. Fisher
Avith intelligent discrimination rescued from oblivion or worse,
and which the American Philosophical Society has so carefully
preserved, Pennsylvania will be the only American Common-
wealth that is able to present to the world an unbroken series
of its own laws.

The following resolution was then adopted :

That permission be given to tlie Commission for the Compilation of
the Laws of Pennsylvania prior to 1800, to refer to and to copy, if they
so desire, the MS. volume of original laws of Pennsylvania from 16<S3 to
1700, presented to this Society in 1835, by Joshua Francis Fisher, Esq.,
under such regulations as the Library Committee may prescribe.

Prof. Robert W. Rogers, of Drew Theological Seminary,
Madison, N. J., and Prof. Morris Jastrow were appointed
delegates to the Congress of Orientalists to be held at Paris
this summer.

The Society was then adjourned by the presiding officer.

Special Meeting^ A2)nl S3, 1897.

President Fraley in the (3hair.

Present, 20 members.

Dr. Morris read a paper on " The Relation of the Dode-
cahedron found near Marietta, 0., to Shamanism," Avhich
was discussed by Mr. Cushing.

Dr. Harrison Allen laid before the Society a chart of Aus-
tralian rock carvings, by R. H. Matthews.

The Society was then adjourned by the President.

1897.] MORRIS — PEXTAG. DODECAHEDRON AND SHAMANISM. 1'

RELATION OF THE PENTAGONAL DODECAHEDRON
FOUND NEAR MARIETTA, OHIO, TO SHAMANISM.

BY J, CHKSTON MORRIS, M.U.

(^Read April 23, 1S97.)

I regret that I am unable this evening to present to the Society,
as I had hoped, a very intelligent and well-educated Nez Perce
Indian, Mr. Lewis D. Williams, who called upon me some two
months ago and read a paper which he had prepared on the educa-
tion and training an Indian boy receives in his native home. It
recalled vividly to me Dr. Brinton's communication to us two years
ago on the Nagual form of worship (Froc, Vol. xxxiii, pp. 4, ii,
73), and I had hoped to secure his presence. Unfortunately I
have lost trace of him (as he is no longer in the employ of the
Bureau of Am. Ethnology at Washington), and can therefore only
give a resume of it from memory. He left his tribe when about
fifteen years old, was educated at Carlisle and the University of
Pennsylvania, before entering the employ at Washington of the
Bureau of Am. Ethnology. He spoke of the boy's close observa-
tion of nature in the world around him and his companions, of the
inquiry which arises in all human hearts as to the meaning and
object of life, and the forces which are displayed, the means of
utilizing them, of obtaining success : of the belief in hidden
unseen powers controlling or directing or opposing our efforts : of
the brave hunters and successful warriors, of the older wiser rulers,
of the medicine men and the ceremonial dances and rites of the
tribe. He told of the time when the boy hitherto nameless must
take, or have given to him, a name. What shall it be ? He told the
myth that once on a time a wise medicine man had a sacred tepee ;
to him came the beings which became the various animals and birds,
each with its own ambition. One would come and say, '' I want
to be an eagle." "Well, let me see how you can fly." Off" he
soared, and came back after flying up toward the sun, and was
received with the encouragement, "All right, go and be an eagle."
Another v/anted also to be an eagle, but only fluttered a little way,
lit upon a tree and came back chattering, to be told, "No, you
can't be an eagle, you must be a bluejay." Another showed ability,
and was allowed to become, at his desire, a wolf. Yet another, try-

180 MORRIS — PEXTAG. DODECAHEDRON AND SHAMANISM. [Ap. 23,

ing to run like him, only ambled around and sat upon his haunches
to be told with a laugh, ''No, no, you can only be a coyote."
(This reminded me of the bringing of the animals to Adam for
their names.) Filled with longing to know his fate in life, the
boy goes off into the forest, and communes with nature. He longs
to be something, somebody. He tests his powers of endurance,
his skill, his desires. Many and long may be his rambles in this
effort to place himself in his proper niche in the world. He
becomes dreamy — he longs to see a vision or to have some sign to
direct him. Perhaps some night one of these unseen spirit forces
may make itself known to him. At last, one night when all alone
on the mountain side, he sees, or thinks he sees, a wolf approaching,
who comes and talks to him, encourages him, lays open his career
of duty to him, and tells him if he will be brave and faithful he
will aid him and cause him to triumph over every difficulty, bids
him come close to him and pluck some hairs from his neck and
keep them always with him so that whenever he is in trouble he
can by pressing or rubbing them call his guardian spirit to his aid
and thus be enabled to succeed and triumph over his difficulties or
enemies, or receive counsel in emergencies. The boy returns
home, tells his experiences, is tested, and if found truthful and
brave is initiated into the lodge under the guardianship of the wolf
which he takes as his totem ; and in the sacred dances wears the
appropriate symbolic mask. Little by little, year after year, as
he shows himself fitted and acquires more knowledge and experi-
ence, learns more of the legends of the tribe in which are crystal-
lized the results of their contact with nature and their reasonings
upon it, he is advanced more and more, and becomes a medicine
man, or an elder, or chief, taking part in the councils and directing
the affairs of the community. The older, wiser, more reliable he
becomes the more respect is shown him.

The idea, so common among us, that their medicine hien are all
mere quacks and humbugs, charlatans of a low grade, and that all
their dances are low orgies and mere devil-worship — that the Indian
is an untutored, untrained savage, bloodthirsty, revengeful and
treacherous — is largely erroneous, and due to a lack of proper
and adequate knowledge of him as he really is : and of considera-
tion of his circumstances in the world. Place a human being of
average capacity of any other race in similar conditions, and the
probabilities are that his chances of survival would be less, to say

1897.] MORRIS — PENTAG. DODECAHEDRON AND SIIAMAXISM. 181

nothing of the system of a philosophy of the unseen but no less
real forces around, above and within him which he has developed.
He is in many respects a child — and so we too are but " children
of a larger growth." When things hurt or oppose him, or others
injure him, he grows angry and avenges himself unreasoningly and
excessively, as a child would. Higher aims and purposes he has
little chance to acquire. Yet there is the yearning for the higher,
the better — for the pure and true, for the brave and good : when
these are shown to him he seizes upon them and grows to the full
stature of man. How often this has been shown — and yet how
often it is ignored !

In every age and clime, among every race, there have been and
are those who have sought to know more of the truths around,
above and in them — men who have risen above their fellows, and
have been looked up to as leaders and advisers of the rest — and
also in every race and age these men have been credited with super-
natural powers — have been supposed to be in communication with
the world of spirits : and too often alas they have used their attain-
ments only for their own selfish ends : have availed themselves of
the ignorance and superstition of those beneath or around them
and by trickery have magnified their influence. If we, however,
think of the meaning of such terms as ''soothsayer," '' wahrsager,"
''wise heart" (wizard), "astrologers," "magicians," and think of
their succession in the history of our race, from that of the wise
men of the East, Balaam, Jannes and Jambres, the Pythian and Del-
phic oracles, the Roman augurs and haruspices — nay, even of Par-
acelsus, who may almost be called the father of modern physiologi-
cal medicine, we shall have less disposition to condemn so utterly the
Indian medicine man : especially as we read of Daniel, who was made
and seems to have accepted the post of "chief of the magicians,
soothsayers, astrologers and Chaldeans." In fact, the yearning
after occult science is as powerful and prevalent in Paris, London
and Berlin, not to mention among ourselves, as in India among the
Brahmins and Buddhists — it is a human yearning. To penetrate
the secrets of or to forecast the future — to resort to some species of
divination — to seize upon and compel the unknown, is so human
that Goethe makes it the aspiration of his Faust.

We need not wonder then that Shamanism, tlie idealizing and
spiritualizing of the forces of Nature, became so prevalent among
the children of the forests and mountains, of the plains and sea-

182 MOERIS— PENTAG. DODECAHEDRON AND SHAMANISM. [Ap. 23,

shores, of the New World as it did in the Old ; that mystic dances,
rites and symbols abound among them — that Nature speaks to them
with myriad tongues : that they should try to penetrate her secrets
by methods of divination more or less analogous or identical with
those of similar races. But here comes in a factor which is too often
disregarded — the influence of race. Truth, absolute truth, must
always remain the same : not so our appreciation of it, which must in
every case be more or less partial, more or less incomplete. Some
races have little or no idea of harmony — others of lapse of time —
others of liberty — others of home. The Western races of the Old
World view things objectively, the Eastern subjectively. The Indian
resembles the latter — the world is in him and he is of it. Our
Aryan brains take readily the idea of three dimensions in space. To
the Indian, and to the Eastern mind, there is another — the fullness.
It is hard for us to grasp this — it is not the length and breadth and
thickness of a cube for instance, but the whole of it, which is as
much to be considered as any one of its sides. A cube would, there-
fore, be represented numerically by 7 : a dodecahedron by 13.
Among the Mexicans the thirteen lunar months would thus corre-
spond in the year with the twelve zodiacal signs and the earth
which passed under and embraced them all. Again, the five digits
on each hand came to be a measure of a man's power or individu-
ality, and thus a sacred number. It would then require but little
stretch of imagination to suppose that a pentagonal dodecahedron,
were such a form known to them, inscribed with zodiacal char-
acters, might be the emblem of the world : and the best time for
the activity of a man in some pursuit in which he might wish to
engage might be shown by the zodiacal sign which came uppermost
when the dodecahedron was thrown or rolled with appropriate cere-
monies.

Such is the hypothesis which I would offer as to the character and
uses of this curious stone dodecahedron, which was sent to the Soci-
ety on October 19,1 792, and has since been lying in the Cabinet. The
record shows it to have been taken from a bluff on the Ohio river,
about thirty miles above Marietta; and it was sent here with other
Indian relics. The edges show slightly conchoidal fracture : the
sides are finely polished, showing also indistinctly drawings of figures
upon them which have been made, Mr. Gushing thinks, with stone
tools: it is black, of moderate hardness, sp. grav. about 2.78, and
effervesces with dilute acid.

1897.] CUSHIXG — REMARKS OX SHAMANISM. 183

In Vol. xxi, Pis. i, ii and iii, of the Proceedings, some drawings
are given of the Pictured Rocks on the Monongahela, showing good
examples of the Shamanistic symbol writing of the tribes which
roamed there before the advent of the white man, and I have the
pleasure also of exhibiting casts made from impressions in plaster
taken from some rocks in the Susquehanna at Safe Harbor, Lan-
caster county, Pa., and presented through Prof. T. C. Porter, by
the Linnsean Society of Lancaster county, figured in the Froc,
Vol. X, pp. 30, 255, and Pis. i and xiii. These figures, cut by
stone implements in the limestone rock, give striking representa-
tions of the sacred dances participated in by Indians wearing
masks, and of various mythic creatures such as the thunder-bird,
etc.

The 12 faces of the figure maybe divided into 4 groups of 3
faces each, forming 4 solid angles, which may be connected so
as to form the four-legged Sphastica : or those may be united
to form a triskele. There are in all 30 dividing edges and

12 X 30 = 360 ; add a 5 and you have the days of the year. The

13 (sum of the faces and the object itself) multiplied by the
4 points above noted gives the number 52, the Aztec cycle — while
4 adjacent faces, each with 5 sides, would give 20, the unit of a
man. Or, again, 3 edges unite so as to form 20 three-sided points.
Thus the cube and pentagonal dodecahedron might be used to rep-
resent all the mystic numbers. While those of the cube were con-
nected more with the extreme orient, those of the dodecahedron
may be found there as also in Egypt and Mexico.

I cannot refrain from the suggestion that perhaps this dodecahe-
dron may throw some light on the customs and civilization of the
mound builders of Ohio.

Discussion.

Mr. Frank Hamilton Gushing, in response to a request of
the President, commented upon and discussed the subject at con-
siderable length.

After a few general remarks relative to Shamanism, or, more prop-
erly, Primitive Priestcraft, which he defined as the outgrowth of
the ''Religion and Philosophy of Mystery," of the attempted
explanation of the unknown, — the realm of which, he stated, grew
greater and greater as we progressed farther and farther backward

184 CUSHIXG — REMARKS ON SHAMANISM. [April 23,

in time and the history of human culture growth, — he expressed him-
self as follows :

The account Dr. Morris has given us as to what Mr. Williams
related to him concerning the life of an Indian youth of the Nez
Perce tribe has interested me exceedingly by reason of its strik-
ing similarity to what I have myself heard, seen, and experienced
among the Zuni Pueblo Indians of New Mexico.

With these people, a child is not thought of, when first born, as
quite yet a living mortal being. It is referred to as '' it" or the
''new being," nor is any name given to it until after the lapse of
nine days. It is supposed to be kai'-yu-na and ai'-ya-vwi — unripe
and tender, or soft and susceptible as are germinating seeds or unfin-
ished clay vessels, until after one full day for each of the lunar
months of its inter-uterine gestation has passed. During this period
of nine days it is usually kept with its mother, secluded from the
outer world and from sunlight, in order that it may gradually
become hardened to, and so, safe in the ''world of daylight " — as
these people term the scene and condition of mortal life — that is,
condensed to "middle being" — as they further term man's par-
ticular mortal existence.

At the close of this ceremonial period the umbilical cord, which
has meanwhile sloughed off or has been removed and zealously
cared for, is ceremoniously buried in the soil at some particular
place, in order that thereat may be formed the "midmost shrine"
of the child, and therein its connection with the earth mother — as
formerly with its riiortal mother — may be established, and that its
vitality apart from her thenceforward, be maintained — by thus plac-
ing within the fertile bosom of the Universal Mother, that through
which erstwhile the child received separately, or secondarily, its
being nourishment and growth, from its human mother.

Passing over many other ceremonials which attend the first
naming of the child, its introduction to the Sun and to the tribe
of its descent, on the early morning of the tenth day, — that is, at
the end of these nine natal days, — a few words relative to the mean-
ing of the "midmost shrine" will serve to indicate what would
likely be the symbolic significance to a people like the Nez Perce
and the Zuni Indians, of such an object (whether natural or arti-
ficial) as the one to which Dr. Morris has called our attention.

He has quite accurately stated, in the theory he has advanced
regarding this object, the view one of these Indians would hold, as

1897.] CUSHIXG — REMARKS ON SHAMANISM. 185

to the meaning of the nu})iber of its sides or faces and itself. To one
of them, a cube would not be representative of six, its number of
superfices, but of seven; and a dodecahedron, not of twelve, but
of thirteen. For, when an untutored or primitive man like him,
contemplates or considers himself or any other distinct thing, in
his or its relation to space or the surrounding directions, he notes
that there is ever a front or face, a rear or back ; two sides, or a
right and a left ; a head and a foot, or an above and a below ; and
that of and within all these, is himself or it ; that the essence of
all these aspects in anything, is the thing-itself — that is, the thing
that contains their numbers or sum, yet is one by itself.

This is indeed the very key to his conception of himself and of
everything, in relation to space and the universe or cosmos. He
observes that there are as many regions in the world as there are
aspects of himself or sides to any equally separate thing ; that there
are as many directions from him or his place in the world (which
is his ''midmost " or place of attachment to the Earth-mother) or
from anything in the world (which is its midmost or natural sta-
tion) toward these corresponding regions. Hence to him a plane
would be symbolized not by four, but by five, its four sides and
directions thence, and its central self — as was actually the notion of
the Prairie tribes; a cube, not by six, but by seven, as was the notion
of the Valley-Pueblos and Navahos ; a dodecahedron, not by twelve,
but by thirteen, as was the notion of the Zunis, the Aztecs, the
Mayas, and apparently — from this example — of the Mound builders
as well.

With all that I have thus far said I cannot yet have made clear to
you the relation this supposed connection of beings and things to
their surroundings, to the regions in front, behind, at the right and
left sides, and above, below and within them, can have to the sub-
ject under discussion. It will therefore be necessary for me to
crave your patience while I entera little more fully into a considera-
tion of the beliefs of primitive man concerning force, life, and
form, for it will be seen that these beliefs have a direct bearing
on this apparently fantastic and mystic meaning of the numbers
se7'en and thirteen.

To the primitive Shaman, all force necessarily seems to be de-
rived from some kind of life, since he continually sees force as mo-
tion or stress originated in, or initiated as action by, life in some
form — his own, or some other. Now the supreme characteristic or

186 GUSHING — EEMARKS ON SHAMANISM. [April 23,

concomitant of his own or of any other form of life, is breath,
which like force or stress, is invisible ; hence he reasons that force
is breath, and conversely that breath is the force of life. He sees
that this breath enters into and issues from every living being, and
since every such being has distinctive form, he further reasons that
every separate form, whether animate in our sense or not, has life
of some kind or degree. He has, for example, no knowledge of
air — as a gas — no knowledge of it other than as wind, and no con-
ception of wind other than as breath, as the sort of something that
he feels when he blows upon his hand and knows absolutely that he
or his own breath is blowing, and that this breath it is that is coex-
istent with his mortal existence.

Therefore, he thinks not only of all forms as living, but also of
the wind as necessarily the breath of some living form or being.
And since his own little breath is so intimately of himself, he
naturally imagines that this other greater breath must needs be as
intimately that of some otnerand correspondingly greater and more
powerful — what though invisible — being. He also imagines that
this great being of the wind resides in the direction whence comes
prevailingly its wind or its breath. Now when he observes that
there are prevailing or distinctive winds of the diverse directions, —
that of the north which blows hardest of them all and chiefly in
winter; that of the west which blows more temperately and chiefly
in spring time ; that of the south, which blows softly and most fre-
quently in summer ; that of the east, which is again more fierce
and chilly, and blows mostly in autumn ; he not only severally
locates these winds in their various quarters, but also differentiates
them, and believes that the wind-being of the north produces cold
and winter ; of the west, moisture and spring ; of the south, warmth,
dryness and summer ; of the east, coolness again, frost, and there-
with the aging or maturing of all growing things, and autumn.
And so to him the element of the north world is wind (or air, breath)
preeminently; of the west world, water; of the south world, fire;
and of the east world, earth or its seeds ; and that each of these ele-
ments is produced by oris under the dominion of the special wind-god
of its quarter ; yet all combine, in the regular succession of the sea-
sons, to make this World of the Middle what it is from year to year.

Now we shall see how this kind of belief comes to affect very
directly the organizations, institutions and ceremonials (Shamanistic
in particular) of primitive man, by examining into his mode of

1897.] GUSHING — REMARKS OX SIIA^[AXISM. 187

personifying the various gods or wind-monsters of the several
quarters, and then of relating them to various divisions of his tribal
communities. We have seen how he imagines that each one of
these great world-breaths — productive as they are of effects so dif-
ferent— must proceed from beings of equally different character.
How, therefore, he first not only locates these monster beings defi-
nitely in the several quarters of the world whence the winds or
their breaths blow, but how also he imagines them to be beneficent
or evil according to the various effects of their breaths, and then
endows them with personalities corresponding to those of such of
the animals especially characteristic of these several regions, as by
their actions seem most closely to conform to these effects. The
connection this has with the sociologic organization of the tribe
may be explained without entering greatly into detail relative to
the constitution of Indian society. You are all aware that the
sociologic institutions of primitive peoples are almost universally
Matriarchal, that is, are based upon Clan organization and mother
descent. With them, each clan in the body politic is symbolized
by some totem, animal or plant. Now since the various animals
are supposed, according to their kinds, to be especially resident in
one region or another, not only is there attributed to the Great
Being or God of Wind in a particular region, a form more or less
like to that of his supposed kind of animal therein, but also, the
clans are organized with reference, in turn, to the supposed relation
of their totems to these various animals and animistic or mythic
beings of the special regions. And so, when, for example, a name
is to be conferred upon a child of one of these totems, some process
of divination must be entered into to determine what shall be his
relation to the creatures and the deific being of one region or another,
and correspondingly, of course, to his fellows among the clans.
For it is held to be essential that this sacred relationship be sym-
bolized, in some way or another, in the choice of his totemic
name, and ' thus — as well as for many reasons into a considera-
tion of which I cannot enter here — must be divined. Now in this
process of divination, various instrumentalities are employed. For
example, among the Zufiis, wands painted in diverse colors — each
color being symbolic of a special region and plumed with appropri-
ate bird feathers, — are sometimes set up in balls of clay, each placed
out on the floor in the direction of the region to which the color of
its wand relates it. Then it is noted which of the plumes waves most

188 CUSHIXG — REMAEKS ON SHAMANISM. [April 23,

actively in any wind (or breath) that may be stirring. From this,
the spiritual relation, so to say, or the source or totemic origin of
the child is divined, and he will be named, and to a certain extent
the course of his life will be determined upon according to this
divination. For example, the Zufii totem gods of the several
regions are : the Gray Wolf for the East or Dawn-Land ; the
Mountain Lion or Puma for the North or fierce Winter-Land ; the
Black Bear for the Land of the West or Night ; the sun-loving Badger
for the South or Summer-Land ; the Eagle for the Sky and Light,
and the Burrowing Mole for the Under-Land and Darkness. Let
us suppose that the plume on the white wand — the one that is set
up toward the east — waves most actively ; then, what though the
child belong to a clan or totem of one of the other regions, he will
nevertheless be regarded as spiritually related to the Gray Wolf of
Dawn, and it will be believed by his fellows — and with their belief
he will himself become, as he grows toward puberty, more and more
impressed, — that he is destined for membership in the sacred organi-
zation or Shamanistic Society or Lodge of the Medicine-men of
the East, or of the Wolf deity. Now when the age of puberty is
attained, and the boy is to be solemnly invested with the gar-
ment or clout and the responsibilities of manhood, he is, as in the
account quoted by Dr. Morris from Mr. Williams, required to pass
through various ordeals, such as a period of vigorous fasting and
purification (this both by means of emetics and purgatives) ; and to
retire to some lonely spot and there keep, day and night, lengthy
vigils, whereby it is sought to diminish for a time his earthly gross-
ness interests and affections, to "still his heart" and quicken his
spiritual perception and hearing of the meaning of the " Silent Sur-
passing Ones." This is in order that he may gain sign from or
actually behold one of the Beings who wield, in the great quarters, the
forces of nature, and who shall thereafter be his special Tamanawa
or spiritual guide. It is also in order to aid him in seeking for
some objective sign by which this relationship to his Genius may be
proven to himself and made manifest to his people. In a condi-
tion of exaltation as he is — and I can attest to its absorbing nature,
through having myself endured such an ordeal — you can well under-
stand that his perceptions will become startlingly manifest in the
various visions and signs he sees. These will seem to him, I can
again personally assure you, far more real than the most absolutely
actual things he has ever beheld or experienced. Perchance he

1?97.] CUSIIIXG — REMARKS OX SHAMANISM. 189

gazes at the mist, or a cloud in the sky. The cloud will surely seem
to take the form of a great gray wolf, and when he seeks for some
token of that God of the Sky, — a tooth-like fossil, a few hairs
maybe, which he may find on the ground nearby or underneath the
apparition, will be reverently accepted as potent amulets, and he
will bear them to the tribal Fathers or Shamans, and by them they
will be received as a sign of his Genius, and he will be relegated to
the phratral division or lodge of the Wolf. Or again, it may be that
he will find a crystal, and because this crystal shines clearly and
therein resembles the light by which we see and the eye through
which we see — and hence is regarded as helpful in seeing — it will
be regarded as a token of seership, as a sign of the Seeing Spirit,
and fortunate the youth who is thus supposed to be endowed with
the power of penetration into the unseen. To give yet one more
example, let us suppose that he finds a concretion exhibiting spiral or
concentric lines. He will regard this as a symbol of the Midmost
itself, a token of his relation thereto also — no matter to what
totem he may belong, or to what region he may be related by birth.
For the spiral lines perceived in this crystal resemble those of the
marks upon the sand produced by the whirling about of objects
like red-topped grass by the whirlwind, yet which are regarded as
the tracks of the whirlwind god, whose breath is the midmost of
all the winds of the world.

Permit me to here give parenthetically a striking illustration of
the way in which these primitive Shamans personify phenomena of
nature, by instancing their personification of this god of the
whirlwind. Of all the winds of heaven, the whirlwind alone is
upright — progresses as man does, by walking over the plains. The
whirlwind god is therefore endowed in part, with the personality of
a man ; but like the eagle, also, the whirlwind flies aloft and circles
widely in the sky ; therefore he is endowed with the wings and tail,
the head, beak and talons of an eagle. Since the sand which he, the
whirlwind, casts about, pricks the face as would minute arrows, the
dreadful wings of the god are supposed to be flinty, and his character
warlike or destructive, as is that of the eagle; yet of all the Beings
of Wind, he is the most potent, for he twists about or banishes
utterly from his trail, either the north wind or the south, the east
wind or the west, and overcomes even gravity, — the pulling-breath
of the earth or under world, — and therefore is the god of the mid-
most among all the six gods of wind. Thus, lucky in a purely prac-

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI. 155. N. PRINTED AUGUST 4, 1807.

190 GUSHING — REMARKS OX SHAMAXISM. [April 23,

tical way, is he who finds under given auspicious circumstances, his
name-token in the shape of a little concentric concretion, for he
will be in the line of ordination thereby, to the Central Council or
Priesthood of his people.

And now I would fain add a word, another parenthetic statement,
in amplification of what Dr. Morris has said in regard to the
*' Medicine-men," Priests or Shamans, of such primitive peoples, —
in regard, that is, to their earnest character, to which I can fully testify.

I am aware that they are generally supposed to be mere quacks;
charlatans or jugglers. I never knew one of them to be anything
of the sort. Quite the contrary. I have lived among them in the
tribe of my adoption, and was even initiated as one of their num-
ber, so far as was possible for one not born in the tribe, namely,
into their Society of Warriors — " the A'pithla Shi'wani,'" ox " Priest-
hood of the Bow " — and, moreover, I have been received in frater-
nal manner, by members of the priesthoods or medicine societies of
other tribes. Now hardly a traveler among the Indians who does
not come back and report what he thinks he saw when watching
the operation of one of these medicine-men, but almost invariably
his report is unreliable, from lack of understanding of what he saw.
Let us take, for instance, the common account that is given of an
Indian Medicine-Man endeavoring to effect a cure. It is said that
he pretends to charm or to suck or rub forth a worm or a wasp or
a grub or some other small object, from the diseased part of the
man or woman he is treating. The traveler usually states that he
saw the Medicine-Man, after going through his ceremonies, pretend
to pluck out a wasp or grub or other object, and hold it up for the edi-
fication of the bystanders. A little thought in regard to what really
occurs will explain all this. We all have our medical theories ; so
has the Indian Medicine-Man. Among the injuries the Indians are
exposed to by their mode of living, a^bruise from a stone or a hatchet
would be, let us say, the most frequent. This bruise may fester and
give rise to suppuration. The wound, naturally ill-cared for in their
condition of life, would readily become offensive and breed mag-
gots, which would batten on the sore. Now these people observe that
decaying meat also produces maggots or '' turns " to them, for, from
their observation of countless slain animals, they believe that all
flesh comes from, and returns to, worms. That the flesh may not be
further destroyed, the Indian Medicine-Man will seek to extermi-
nate these destructive worms ; will seek for some other maggot

1897.] GUSHING — REMARKS ON SHAMANISM. 191

which he will squeeze out in order that its form may so be fitted to
absorb the invisible form of the infesting maggot ; or else he will seek
for some insect which preys upon maggots, like certain wasps, and
will apply it to the infected place, using such aids as he can, by rub-
bing, scarifying, squeezing, sucking or blowing the diseased place,
until he succeeds in forcing out the pus or black blood or serum
and securing or snaring, as he supposes, the seed or occult creature
of the ill. Then he will hold up the crushed grub or wasp, merely to
show how successfully it has absorbed or fought and destroyed this
disease-causing worm, but with no more thought whatsoever of chi-
canery, than a surgeon among ourselves would have in exhibiting a
needle he had extracted from the hand or foot of his patient.

Now I have gone a long way around the subject in hand, in order
to measurably substantiate my reasons for thinking that Dr. Morris
is correct in his hypothesis as to the sacred and symbolic character
and origin of the pentagonal dodecahedron which he has exhibited
and commented upon here to-night. A figure even as elaborate and
difficult of production in stone as is this, could readily have been
formed by Indian artisans. Its shape might have been suggested
in the process, perfectly familiar to them, of knapping a block or
cube of stone, and afterwards breaking away its angles by batter-
ing, to form a sphere ; or, better still, by the shapes of balls of
clay — naturally formed round in the hands — and used as by the
Zunis in their processes of name — divination just described ; or
again, by the shapes of pentagonal or other like — ever sacred —
crystals. The scratchings or figures observed upon the various
faces of this stone are quite such as might well have been drawn
to differentiate them as being related to one region or another,
and in all probability the figures thus scratched were further
marked with pigments symbolic of the difi'erent regions, when this
stone was used in such processes of divination. Close observation
of the more distinct lines of these figures on the faces of the stone,
shows that they were made by a flint point, not a metal instrument ;
for they are double, — that is within each one is a minute bead such
as would be produced by the fracturing of a fine point of flint or
other hard concoidal stone when drawn over the surface of another
stone like this, — and not simply V-shaped as would have been the
case had a metal instrument been used.

Some question may arise in the minds of those who have listened
to Dr. Morris' paper, and to my comments thereon, as to the mean-

192 MINUTES. [May 7,

ing of the twelve faces in this particular specimen ; since, as I have
explained there are only six regions, the north, west, south, east,
upper and lower, that the midmost is at once surrounded by and
contains within, itself. But I failed to say earlier and in the proper
connection, that to the primitive-minded man, as there is no form
without life, so there is no life-form, without due duality of origin
— the father and the mother. Consequently we find that in rela-
tion to all things, (with tribes of primitive peoples like the Zunis of
to-day, and like the mound builders of long ago, who possessed
and reverenced this object), the sexenary division is duplicated ; but
since there can be only one middle or content, the sexenary divis-
ion is with them symbolized by the number seven, and when dupli-
cated, we have, not fourteen, but thirteen ; that is, six pairs which
are visible, but only one for the concentric or synthetic middle, since
there can be but one actual centre or middle to anything, even to
the great world.

[Mr. Gushing stated, when a fuller revision of these notes was requested, that
he would, at some future time, if the Society so desired, present instead a more
comprehensive address on Shamanism in general]

Stated Meeting, May 7, 1897.

The President, Mr. Fealey, in the Chair, assisted bj Yice-
President, Dr. Pepper.

Present, Q^ members and about 100 visitors.

The Secretary presented the following correspondence :
A letter from Prof. James Glaisher, dated South Croydon,
March 16, 1897, accepting membership.

A letter from the President announcing the appointment of
the following members to prepare obituary notices of de-
ceased members, viz.:

Dr. J. Cheston Morris, for Dr. Henry Hartshorne and

Prof. H. D. Gregory.
Prof. Albert H. Smyth, for Prof. George Stuart.
Mr. Joseph C. Fraley, for Mr. Arthur Biddle.

1897.]

MINUTES. 193

Letters from Dr. J. Cheston Morris and Mr. Joseph C. Fraley,
accepting their appointment as above.

A letter from Mr. Franklin Piatt, resigning from tlie Special
Committee of Geologists appointed April 2 to report on the
rock specimens in the possession of the Society.

Dr. Pepper, on behalf of a number of members of the
Society, presented an oil portrait of the late Prof. E. D. Cope.

On motion of Mr. Joseph C. Fraley, the gift was accepted
and the thanks of the Society Avere given to the donors.

The Committee on the Phillips Prize Essay Fund reported
the accompanying circular letter, announcing the proposed
award of a prize.

Philadelphia, 104 South Fifth Street, April 5, 1897.

The American Pliilosopliical Society lielcl at Pliiladelpliia for Promo-
ting Useful Knowledge has the honor to announce that an award of the
Henry M. Phillips Prize will he made during the year 1899 ; essays for
the same to be in the possession of the Society before the first day of
May, 1899. The subject upon which essays are to be furnished by com-
petitors is :

" The development of the Um, as illustrated by tJie decisions relating to
the police power of the State."'

The essay shall not contain more than one hundred thousand words,
excluding notes. Such notes, if any, should be kept separate as an
Appendix.

The Prize for the crowned essay will be two thousand dollars lawful
gold coin of the United States, to be paid as soon as may be after the
award. The Society invites attention to the regulations governing said
prize, which accompany this circular.

William V. McKean,

CraiCt Biddle,

Mayer Sulzberger,

C. Stuart Patterson, / Committee on the

Joseph C. Fraley, \ jj ^^ pj^.^^.

AND / ^

Frederick Fraley,

President of the Society,

J. Sergeant Price,

Treasurer of the Society, ^

Prize Essay Fund.

> Ex-officiis,

The essays must be sent, addressed to Frederick Fraley, President
of the American Philosophical Society, No. 104 South Fifth street,
Philadelphia.

194 MINUTES. [May?.

THE HENRY M. PHILLIPS PRIZE ESSAY FUND.

Miss Emily Phillips, of Philadelphia, a sister of the Hon. Henry M.
Phillips, deceased, presented to the American Philosophical Society
held at Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge the sum of five
thousand dollars for the establishment and endowment of a Prize Fund,
in memory of her deceased brother, who was an honored member of the
Society. The Society accepted the gift and agreed to make suitable
rules and regulations to carry out the wishes of the donor, and to dis-
charge the duties confided to it. In furtherance whereof, among other
rules and regulations adopted by the Society, are the following :

Competitors for the prize shall affix to their essays some motto or
name (not the proper name of the author, how^ever), and when the
essay is forwarded to the Society it shall be accompanied by a sealed
envelope, containing within, the proper name of the author, and, on the
outside thereof, the motto or name adopted for the essay.

At a stated meeting of the Society, in pursuance of the advertisement,
all essays received up to that time shall be referred to a Committee of
Judges, to consist of five persons, who shall be selected by the Society
from nomination of ten persons made by the Standing Committee on
the Henry M. Phillips Prize Essay Fund.

Essays may be written in English, French, German, Dutch, Italian,
Spanish or Latin ; but, if in any language except English, must be
accompanied by an English translation of the same.

No treatise or essay shall be entitled to compete for the prize that has
been already published or printed, or for which the author has received
already any prize, profit, or honor, of any nature whatsoever.

All essays must be dearly and legibly written or printed on one side of
the paper only.

The literary property of such essays shall be in their authors, subject
to the right of the Society to publish the crowned essay in its Transac-
tions or Proceedings.

The Special Committee on Eock Specimens presented a
report, recommending that all the specimens which have no
labels, or designations by which they can be recognized, and
which are not of value for other special reasons, be thrown
away. Also that all specimens which can be recognized as
to their locality, and are of any scientific value, be deposited
in the collection of some institution, subject to recall, and a
receipt taken therefor. The report was accepted, and the
recommendation adopted.

Announcement was made of the decease of the following
members :

Prof. Edson S. Bastin, on April 6, 1897, set. 53.

1897.] MATHEWS — AUSTRALIAN ROCK CARVINGS. 195

Prof. P^^dward D. Cope, at Pliiladclpliia, on April 12, 1897,
set. 56.

Dr. Traill Green, at Easton, Pa., on April 29, 1897, iet. 83.

Mr. George W. Biddle, at Philadelphia, on April 29, 1897,
net, 79.

The President was requested to appoint members to prepare
biographical notices of Prof. Cope and Mr. Biddle.

The following papers were presented :

" Anstralian Rock Carvings," by R. H. Mathews.

" On the Transitive Substitution Groups that are simply
Isomorphic to the Symmetric or the Alternating Group of
Degree Six," by G. A. Miller, Ph.D.

Dr. Hays moved that after the presentation of Sir Archi-
bald Geikie's communication, the meeting adjourn to recon-
vene on Thursday evening, May 13, at 8 o'clock. Adopted.

Sir Archibald Geikie then presented a verbal communi-
cation on " Recent Geological Work in the Hebrides and
Faroe Isles," for which the best thanks of the Society were
voted to him.

The meeting was then adjourned by the President, pursuant
to the resolution previously adopted.

AUSTRALIAN ROCK CARVINGS.

(Plate IV.)

BY R. H. MATHEWS, L.S.
(Read May 7, IS 97.)

At a meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales, held on
the ist of August, 1894, I read a paper on " The Aboriginal Rock
Carvings and Paintings" in that colony, for which I was awarded
the Society's medal. ^ I also contributed papers on the same subject
to the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain," the Royal Society

^ /our. Roy. Sac. N. S. Wales, xxviii, 329, 330.
2 Jour. Anthrop. Inst., London, xxv, 145, 163.

196 MATHEWS — AUSTRALIAN ROCK CARVIXGS. [May 7,

of A^ictoria/ the Royal Geographical Society of Australia'^ and other
learned bodies. Since then I have continued my researches, and
have succeeded in discovering several other groups of native carv-
ings not hitherto recorded, a description of which I have thought
are worthy of being recorded.

In the papers above referred to I have described the way in which
these carvings were executed by the native artists, their geographic
range, etc., so that it will not be necessary in the following pages
to again refer to these parts of the subject. The accompanying
plate shows much the largest and most varied as well as the most
valuable collection of rock carvings hitherto published. All the
figures are drawn to scale from careful measurements and sketches
taken by myself, and the position of each on the Government maps
is also stated in the descriptions, so that they can readily be found
by persons desirous of visiting them. As all the carvings are sit-
uated within New South Wales, it will not be necessary to add the
name of the colony in the description of each figure.

Plate IV. Rock Carvings.

Fig. T. This huge, roughly drawn figure of a man is carved on a
table of Hawkesbury sandstone, almost level with the surface of the
ground, on the old road from Peat's Ferry to Sydney, and is about
half a mile northerly from Vize Trigonometrical Station, Parish of
Cowan. The old dray track, now little used, passes over this figure,
which has caused some of the lines to become rather indistinct.

From the feet to the top of the head measures ten feet eight
inches.^ Both eyes are shown and a diagonal line across the face.
There is a line across the body at the waist, across each arm near
the shoulder, across the left thigh, and the left ankle. An un-
finished line rises from the left thigh, outside of the figure. The
right hand and part of the left shoulder have been obliterated by
the traffic along the road referred to.

Figs, 2, 3, 4 and 5. This group of carvings appears on a flat

^Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, \n (N. S.), 143, 156.

-^Froc. Roy. Geog. Soc. Aust. (Q.), x, 46-70; ibid, xi, 86-105.

3 For other gigantic carvings of men, the reader is referred to thefollowing
plates in various papers written by me on this subject : Figs. I and 6, PI. 16,
Jour. Anthrop Inst., London, xxv, 145-163; Fig. 5, PI. 2, Proc. Roy. Geog.
Soc. Aust., Queensland, xi, 86-105 ; and Fig. 7, PL 9, Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria,
vii (N. S.), 143-156.

1897.J MATIIKWS — AUSTRALIAN ROCK CARVINGS. 197

sandstone rock, about a quarter of a mile in a northwesterly direc-
tion from Taber Trigonometrical Station, Parish of Broken Bay.

There are a man and a woman in the attitude of aboriginal
dancers ; the man is about four feet six inches high from his feet to
his hands. The head contains eyes and mouth, but no nose, and
there is a belt around the waist consisting of one incised line. On
the upper side of the belt, and projecting from it, are two incised
lines extending upwards about five inches. Lines are also cut across
the arms above the shoulder, with short lines similar to those pro-
jecting from the belt extending a few inches along the centre of each
arm. The hands have four fingers and the feet four toes each. The
penis is shown in this figure by a single incised line,^ instead of in
the way usually found in native carvings.

On the right of the man is a female figure, much smaller, without
eyes or mouth. The mammae are depicted in the manner usually
employed by the Australian aborigines in their paintings or carvings
of women. -

Another carving, Fig. 4 in this group, represents a male figure,
which is interesting on account of the lines rising from the head,
which may represent hair, or may perhaps be intended for feathers
or other ornaments stuck in the hair. The hands have four fingers
only, and the feet have been carried away by the weathering of the
rock.

On the same rock is another of those grotesque forms. Fig. 5,
which are hard to definitely identify, and may be intended either
for some kind of lizard or for a human being.

Fig. 6. The large sandstone rock containing this carving is dis-
tant from Taber Trigonometrical Station about fifteen chains in a
westerly direction, Parish of Broken Bay. It is on the top of the
range dividing Smith Creek from Coal and Candle Creek.

This shield is four feet five inches long by two feet broad, and has a
longitudinal and a transverse subdivision. In the upper right-hand
quarter are four jagged holes cut in the rock, and five similar holes
in the lower right-hand quarter. The upper left-hand quarter of the
shield contains five similar holes and the lower left-hand quarter six,

^Compare with Fig. 4, PI. 2, of my paper on "Australian Rock Pictures," con-
tributed to the Anthropological Society of Washington, and published in The
American Anthropologist, viii, pp. 26S-278.

2 For an interesting carving of a woman dancing, see Fig. 3, PI. 2, American
Anthropologist, Vol. viii, pp. 268-278.

198 MATHEWS — AUSTRALIAN ROCK CARVINGS. [May 7,

or twenty holes altogether. These holes are not in any symmetrical
design, but appear scattered irregularly over the surface of the shield,
and have probably been intended for ornamentation. The ethno-
logical collection of the Australian Museum in Sydney contains a
hielaman, or shield, from Queensland which has a longitudinal line
and two median horizontal lines, and is ornamented with a ground-
work of red dots. On the other hand, these marks may be intended
to represent the indentations made by spears.

Near this shield is a hollow, or ''pot-hole," in which water col-
lects in wet weather. Around the margin of this small pool of
water are a large number of grooves or hollows worn by the abo-
rigines in sharpening their stone tomahawks. For illustrations and
descriptions of similar grinding places, see my paper on ''Some
Stone Implements Used by the Aborigines of New South Wales,"
Jour. Roy. Soc. N. S. Wales ^ xxvii, pp. 301-305, Plate 43, Fig. 3.

Figs. 7-13. These carvings are all on the same flat rock, situated
within Portion No. 1140, of forty acres, in the Parish of Manly
Cove. The first three are apparently intended for eels, varying in
length from four feet three inches to six feet one inch. Figs. 11 to
13 are all of the same kind of fish, but of different sizes. I am un-
able to say definitely what fish is intended to be represented, but it
has been suggested perhaps that they are grupers. The length of
the smallest is two feet four inches, and that of the largest four
feet two inches.

Fig. 14. This drawing, which is on the same rock as Fig. 26,
represents a man about five feet eight inches high, with a boomerang
lying near him. The left hand has four fingers and the right five.
The distance from the right toe to the centre of the boomerang is
one foot two inches, the length of the latter being two feet four
inches. The end of one of the weapons shown in Fig. 60 almost
touches the right foot.

Fig. 15. This well-executed figure of a buck kangaroo is carved
on a large flat rock of Hawkesbury sandstone, near the southern
boundary of Portion No. 717 in the Parish of Manly Cove. The
drawing appears to have been intended to represent the animal bent
down in the attitude of grazing. The eye, one of the ears and the
mouth are shown, the latter being open, which is unusual.

Figs. 16 and 17. These carvings are found on the perpendicular
face of a large standstone rock about five yards from the left shore
of Cowan Creek, about seven or eight chains above its confluence

1897.1 MATHEWS — AUSTRALIAN ROCK CARVINGS. 199

with Cockle Creek, in the Parish of Gordon. Fig. i6 repre-
sents a fish five feet nine inches long and about two feet nine
inches across the body at the widest part. This fish has
two eyes and three small dots about two feet three inches from
the point of the nose, which are perhaps intended to represent
gills. The tail is divided by two curved lines extending from the
back to the belly. Within the outline of the larger fish there is a
small one about eighteen inches long by eight and a half inches
across the body. There are six representations of boomerangs, the
most I have yet observed in so small a space, three of them being
within the outline of the large fish, two partly within and one out-
side of the said outline.^

Ten feet five inches farther to the right from the nose of the large
fish, on the vertical face of the same rock, are two small animals.
Fig. 17, which are probably intended to represent kangaroo rats,
judging by their size and general aspect." They are each about one
foot four inches in length, and are fairly well executed.

The side of the rock on which the figures are cut faces north-
easterly, or towards Cowan Creek. These carvings are somewhat
uncommon on account of being executed on the face of a vertical
rock, such drawings being generally found on horizontal surfaces ;
they are, however, sometimes met with on rocks occupying different
slopes between the two positions mentioned.

Fig. 18. This curious drawing is on the same flat rock as Fig. 26,.
and is probably intended to represent a fish, real or imaginary." It
is five feet three inches in length.

Fig. 19. This figure of a wallaby is on the eastern continuation
of the same rock as Fig. 26, but is on the Government road separating
Portions Nos. 1139 and 11 40 before referred to. The length of the
wallaby from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail is four feet
five inches; it is in the attitude of jumping, and the eye is shown.

1 Three feet seven inches to the left of the tail of the larger fish is the carving
of an iguana six feet long which is shown as Fig. 11, PL 3, of my paper on " The
Aboriginal Rock Pictures of Australia," Froc. Roy. Geog. Soc. Aust., Queens-
land, Vol. X, pp. 46-70.

2 Kangaroo-rats are represented in Figs. 13 and 14, PI. 99, illustrating my paper
on this subject in the Report of the Australasian Association for the Advance-
ment of Science^ Vol. vi, pp. 624-637.

3 For other examples of nondescript or monstrous creatures drawn by the
aborigines the reader is referred to Fig. 6, PI. 2, Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. Atist.^
Queensland, Vol. xi, pp. 86-105 ; Fig. 10, PL 9, Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, Vol
vii (N. S.), pp. 143-156.

200 MATHEWS — AUSTRALIAN ROCK CARVINGS. [May 7,

Fig. 20. This figure, which is three feet eleven inches high
and on the same rock as Fig. 26, is probably intended to represent
a boy. The correct number of fingers is shown on each hand.

Fig. 21. This remarkable carving is on a large, flat rock of
Hawkesbury sandstone on the western side of the road from Pymble
to Pittwater, within Portion No. 23 of 320 acres in the Parish of
Narrabeen.

The drawing represents a man with a weapon in his left hand,
which is raised over his head. It is not clear whether the weapon
is a nullanulla or a tomahawk, resembling one as much as the other.
This carving is one of unusual interest, as it shows what appears to
have been intended for a breast on the left side, as if the native
artist had at first intended to draw a figure of a woman and had
afterwards changed his mind. Or it may have been drawn to repre-
sent a dilly bag carried by a string over the right shoulder, with the
bag hanging under the left arm. Again, it may have been intended
to show some deformity which existed in the man it was designed
to represent ; or perhaps the intention was to delineate some real or
legendary personage having the characteristics of both sexes. *

The head contains eyes, but no other features ; the feet are drawn
in the usual way, but the hands are not shown. From head to foot
the man stands five feet eight inches high. The rock on which this
figure is carved slopes gently towards the southwest, and the bear-
ing of the figure from feet to head is N. 50° E.

Fig. 22. This figure of a man five feet eight inches high is on the
same rock as Fig. 26. The eyes and mouth are shown, and the
hands have each only four fingers.

Fig. 23. This figure of a woman, one foot seven inches high, is
■drawn on the same rock as the last described. The hands and feet are
omitted, but the paps are shown as in other carvings of females de-
lineated on this plate. This figure is interesting on account of the
-comparative smallness of its size.

Fig. 24. This figure of a man six feet high is on the same flat
rock as Fig. 15. The fingers are shown on the right hand, but not
on the left. On the left side of the head and coming partly within
it is a shield one foot nine inches long and five inches wide, with a
bar across it near the middle. The penis of this figure is drawn in
an unusual style, showing the foreskin.

Fig. 25. This human figure is three feet three inches high, and
although the sex is not shown I am inclined to think it is intended

1897.] MATHEWS — AUSTRALIAX ROCK CARVINGS. 2<)1

to represent a young girl. I have arrived at this opinion by
comparing it with Fig. 23 on the same rock and with Fig. 36 in a
different locality. It may also be compared with Fig. 11 Plate
9, of my paper on ''Aboriginal Rock Paintings and Carvings in
N. S. Wales," published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Victoria, vii, N. S., pp. 143-156.

Fig. 26. This carving is delineated on a flat rock of Hawkesbury
sandstone sloping northerly, within Portion No. 1 139 of twenty-four
and one-half acres in the Parish of Manly Cove. This drawing is
apparently intended to represent the wombat, an Australian animal
with a very short tail and heavy body. Like many other native
drawings, the animal is shown much larger than the natural size.
From the point of the nose to the end of the tail it measures nine
feet eight inches, and across the body at the widest part it is four
feet. The plate shows the figure exactly as it appears upon the
rock, the usual careful measurements having been taken. Within
the outline of this carving is what appears to be a snake three feet
six inches long.^

Fig. 27. This carving, which probably represents a shark,- is on
the same rock as Fig. 26, and is eleven feet long. There are two
dorsal and one ventral fin and a fairly good tail. The nose of this
fish is very pointed, a peculiarity I have observed in other native
drawings. Near the mouth is a boomerang one foot eight inches
long, on the concave side of which is a small oval figure. Farther
on towards the tail of the fish are two other oval figures of larger
size, but I am at present unable to suggest what they are intended
to represent — they might conceivably be meant for eggs.

Fig. 28. This figure is on the same rock as Fig. 61, and repre-
sents a man four feet four inches high. Contiguous to his right
hand are two oval figures about a foot long and nine inches across,
which may have been intended to represent shields, or possibly the
eggs of a bird. A similar object is shown in Fig. 6r.

Fig. 29. This group of carvings is situated on the horizontal sur-
face of several large tabular masses of Hawkesbury sandstone, all in

^ This carving is shown as Fig. 14, PL 3, in my paper on "The Aboriginal
Rock Pictures of Australia," in Proc. Roy, Geog. Soc. Aust., Qld. Bch., Vol. x,
pp. 46-70.

-An immense tish carved on a rock by the aborigines is shown in Fig. 15, Pl^
in my paper on "Aboriginal Rock Paintings and Carvings in N. S. Wales,"
published in Froc. Roy. Soc. Victoria^ Vol. vii (N. S.), pp. 143-156.

202 MATHEWS — AUSTRALIAN ROCK CARVINGS. [May 7,

close proximity to each other on the western side of the cleared
road leading from Pymble along the dividing range between Cowan
and Cockle Creeks, about half a mile southerly from " Bobbin" Trig-
onometrical Station, in the Parish of Gordon/

The largest emu" is six feet three inches from the beak to the end
of the tail, and is five feet high, in the attitude of looking for food
or at something on the ground ; and although the neck is rather too
short, it is a very fair picture of an emu. Only one leg is delineated,
and the foot is shown in continuation of the leg.

The other emu, which is much smaller, measures three feet two
inches from the beak to the tail, and stands three feet five inches
high. In this drawing the eye has been added, and one leg with
its foot is delineated in the same way as that of the large emu.

Between the last two birds is a small one, fifteen inches from tail
■to head, and fourteen inches from pinion to pinion. Were it not
for the presence of wings and the shortness of the neck and legs we
might suppose this to be intended for a young emu to complete the
picture. As it is, however, it appears to represent some bird upon
the wing.

Fig. 30. This carving is also on the continuation of the same
flat rock which contains Fig. 29. The figure measures two feet four
inches in extreme length, one foot two inches across the fore feet
and one foot four inches across the hind feet. The head is four
inches long and the tail nine inches. This drawing appears to be
intended for a flying squirrel, as it resembles that animal more

^Besides Figs. 29 to 37, inclusive, shown in this plate and now described, there
are on the same cluster of rocks some other carvings which are described by me
elsewhere, the positions of which are as follows : About five paces from the snout
of Fig. 31 is a group representing a man and vi'oman in the attitude of dancing.
Near them is a native <'dilly bag" and several human footmarks cut into the
rock. For a description of this group of carvings see my paper on "Aboriginal
Rock Paintings and Carvings in N. S. Wales," published in /^roc. Roy. Soc. Vic-
toria, Vol. vii (N. S.), pp. 143-156, PI. 9, Fig. 8.

About twenty-five or thirty paces in a southwesterly direction from the last-
mentioned carvings is another group representing two men and two emus. For
a drawing of this group, see Fig. 3, PI. 2, in my paper on the "Rock Pictures of
the Australian Aborigines," published in the Proceedings of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society of Australasia, Queensland, Vol. xi, pp. 86-105.

^A group of six emus are represented in Fig. i, PI. 2, in my paper on "Aus-
tralian Rock Pictures," published in The A/nerican Anthropologist, viii,
268-278.

1897.1 :\[ATHEWS — AUSTRALIAN ROCK CARVIXGS. 203

closely than any other I can compare it with. It may, however, be
intended to represent some bird.

Fig. 31. This figure is delineated on the same flat rock of Hawkes-
bury sandstone as Fig. 29. It measures four feet five inches from
the point of the nose to the tip of the tail ; the head contains an
eye, and there is also a dot on the ear, apparently to indicate the
hollow part of it. I submit that this is intended to represent an
opossum,^ because the portion of the body is more horizontal
than in figures of kangaroos and kangaroo-rats, in which the fore
part of the body is always more or less elevated. The position of
the tail, pointing slightly upwards, also strengthens the supposition
that it is an opossum.

Fig. 32. This carving is on a flat rock of Hawkesbury sandstone,
not far from the last-described carving, and appears to be intended
to delineate a bird on the wing,- but it is difficult to suggest what
bird is the likeliest to be indicated, and in trying to arrive at a definite
conclusion the forked tail should not be lost sight of. From the extrem-
ity of one wing to that of the other measures three feet, and the total
length from the head to the end of the tail is one foot eleven inches.
It is well known that the natives had animals and birds as totems ;
among these may be mentioned the eagle hawk, the crow, the white
cockatoo, the emu, the kangaroo and so on.

Fig. ;^;^. This peculiar carving is executed on the same group of
flat rocks as the preceding, and delineates the lower part of the
body of a man, from the waist downwards, the knees being bent
outwards, with the feet also in the same direction. From the out-
side of one knee to the outside of the other measures three feet eight
inches. The figure may have been intended to indicate that the
man was sitting on the rock, the rest of the body being upright
and not shown ; or perhaps it was intended to convey the idea that
the rest of the man's body had gone into the rock, leaving this part
protruding. I have seen similar figures carved upon rocks, but
they are uncommon,'

1 For another carving of an opossum see Fig. 7, PI, 3, J^oc. Roy. Geog. Soc.
AusL, Queensland, p. 67.

^For carvings of birds on the wing the reader is referred to Fig. 2, PL 99, il-
lustrating my paper on " Rock Paintings and Carvings of the Aborigines of New-
South Wales," published in the Report of the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science, Vol. vi, pp. 624-637.

' For a similar carving see Fig. 10, PI. 2, attached to my paper on <'Rock Pic-
tures of the Australian Aborigines," Froc. Roy. Geog. Soc. Aust., Queensland,
Vol. xi, pp. 86-105.

20-i MATHEWS — AUSTRALIAN ROCK CARVIXrxS. I ^lay 7,

Fig. 34. This small figure is also on the same line of rocks as
Fig. 31. It is one foot seven inches high, and the same distance
from hand to hand. The head is rather bird-shaped, and has an
eye ; there are incised curved lines reaching from the arms to the
head on each side, the meaning of which I am unable to suggest.

This figure is most likely intended to denote a "piccaninny" or
young aborigine, because there was room on the rock to draw a much
larger figure if it had been desired. We frequently, I might say
mostly, find figures of men drawn in caves which are not larger than
this, but in such cases the small -sized figures are chosen on account
of want of room on the cave walls. ^

Fig- 35- This carving is on a continuation of the same flat rock as
Fig. 31 and is another of those objects found in aboriginal draw-
ings the precise identity of which it is difficult to arrive at. It is
probably intended for the echidna'^ or porcupine, but I would, how-
ever, throw out the suggestion that it may be intended to represent
a dilly bag. Some color is lent to this view from the lines drawn
across it ; the dot, which may represent the eye, is, however, against
the latter theory.

Fig. ^6. This carving is delineated on the continuation of the
same flat rocks as the preceding, and represents a female two feet
seven inches high and about the same distance across from hand to
hand.^ The arms are very long for the size of the body, and there
are four fingers on each hand, but the feet are not shown. In the
centre of the head is a small hole or dot, and there are two similar
holes on the chest, but whether they were put there by the native
artist or are merely water-worn indentations in the rock is uncer-
tain. Above the figure there is a bird-like object which at the
nearest points is two and a half inches from the head. This may
be intended as an ornament to the head, or it may be where some
other figure has been commenced and abandoned. The breasts are
drawn in the usual way adopted by native artists, and there is a
short incised line apparently intended to represent thejfudes.

^ A few feet from this figure is a carving of an iguana seven feet two inches
long, shown as Fig. 9, PI. 9, jT'roi:. Roy. Soc. Victoria, Vol. vii (N. S.), p. 153.

'■^ For similar carvings see Figs, 11 to 17, PI. 2, American Anthropologist,
viii, 276.

3 For a colossal carving of a woman nearly twelve feet tall, the reader is re-
ferred to Fig. 2, PI. 16, of my paper on "The Rock Paintings and Carvings of the
Australian Aborigines," Jour. Anthrop. Inst., London, Vol. xxv, pp. 145-163.

1897.] MATHEWS — AUSTRALIAN ROCK CARVINGS. 205

Fig- 37. This carving is also on the same flat rocks as Fig. 31. It is
evidently intended to represent a male, probably a youth. It has
the same bird-like head as Fig. 34, a form not uncommon in
native carvings. The legs are short, but the termination of them
is well defined, showing that they were originally drawn as they
now appear. Near the extremity of one of the legs is a small un-
finished drawing eight inches long by two inches wide.

Fig. 38. This large fish, apparently intended for a shark, is de-
lineated on the same rock as Fig. 15 ; it is fourteen feet four inches
long and three feet nine inches across the widest part of the body,
not including the fins. It has a pointed nose like Fig. 27 and other-
wise closely resembles that fish.^

Fig. 40. This interesting carving is delineated on the same rock
on which Fig. 26 appears and represents a fish two feet nine inches
long and one foot across the body at the widest part. It has a
dorsal and a ventral fin and a small, well-formed tail. An incised
line, similar to that marking the outline of the fish, extends from
its mouth for about five feet six inches along the rock.^ This is
evidently intended as the picture of a fish caught on a line.*

Fig. 41 consists of a circular figure with a winding lind extend-
ing from it to another figure one foot six inches long and six inches
wide. Within the former is one of those oval objects referred to in
Fig. 27. Both this and the preceding carving, Fig. 40, are on the
same flat rock as Fig. 26.

Figs. 39, 42 and 43. Fig. 43 I am unable to off"er any explanation
of at present. Fig. 39 are no doubt intended either for human hands
or the paws of some animal.* The upper one has three fingers, the
lower one four, each having a thumb in addition. Fig. 42 is, in
my opinion, a human hand with part of the arm attached, and not

' The reader is referred to my paper on " The Rock Paintings and Carvings of
the Australian Aborigines," Journ. Anthrop. hist.., xxv, pp. 145-163, PL 16,
Fig. 7, for a carving of a very large shark, T)2> ^^^^ ^° inches in length.

2 For a similar carving of a fish caught on a line see Fig. 13, PI. 2, illustrating
my paper on "The Rock Pictures of the Australian Aborigines," Pj-oc. Roy.Geog.
Soc. Atisi., Queensland, Vol. xi, pp. S6-105.

3 Collins says he saw the natives of New South Wales fishing with a hook and
line. The line was made of the bark of a small tree, and the hooks of the pearl
oyster shell, which they rubbed on a stone until it assumed the shape desired. —
Account of the English Colony in N. S. Wales, 1798, Vol, i, pp. 556-557.

*For a similar hand see Fig. i (g), PI. 2, /'roc. Roy. Geog. Soc. Aust., Queens-
land, Vol. xi, pp. 86-105.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI. 155. O. PRINTED AUGUST 2, 1897.

I

206 MATHEWS — AUSTRALIAN ROCK CARVINGS. [May 7,

a foot, as might be supposed at first sight. Compare with repre-
sentations of feet in Fig. 6i.

Figs. 44 to 47. On the same rock as Fig. 26 are representations
offish of different sizes, ranging in length from two feet two inches
to six feet. Six inches from the mouth of Fig. 45 are two lines
crossing each other, one being ten inches long, the other five.

Fig. 48. This figure of a man five feet nine inches high appears
on the same rock as Fig. 61 and is close to it. The eyes, mouth,
and the proper number of fingers are delineated, as well as a belt
round the waist. A small oval figure, similar to those seen in Fig.
27, appears close to the belt on the right-hand side.

Fig. 49. This appears to me to be part of a shield, which was
left when half finished. It is two feet five inches long and ten
inches wide. It is on the same rock as Fig. 47 and is close to it.

Fig. 50. This interesting drawing of a fish four feet six inches
long appears on the same flat rock as Fig. 15. There are two dots
for the eyes, on the same side of the head, a peculiarity of native
drawing frequently seen in representations of fish.

Fig. 51 is on the same rock as the preceding, and is a very good
drawing of a fish four feet five inches long.

Fig. 52 represents a shield three feet six inches long and one
foot eight inches wide, and is on the same rock as the last two
figures. Attention is drawn to the unusual point at the end.

Fig- 53- This figure represents a shield four feet three inches in
length and one foot nine inches in breadth, with a longitudinal and
a transverse subdivision. This carving is on the same series of flat
rocks as Figs. 7 to 13 and is not far from them.

Fig. 54. This drawing, which is on the same rock as Fig. 26,
may have been intended to represent a fish, or perhaps the skin of
some animal.

Fig. 55 is on the same rock as Fig. 26, and represents a human
figure five feet one inch high, the sex of which is uncertain. Five
fingers are shown on each hand.

Figs. 56 and 57. Fig. 56, which is eighteen inches long, is appar-
ently intended to represent the native tomahawk, with handle
attached. Fig. 57, which is one foot nine inches long, may be
either a nulla nulla or a tomahawk. These figures are carved on a
mass of Hawkesburg sandstone more than an acre in extent, about
five chains from the eastern side of the old road from Peat's Ferry
to Sydney, and about a mile northerly from the rock containing
Fig. I.

1897.] MATHEWS — AUSTRALIAN ROCK CARVINGS. 207

Fig. 58. This large fish is carved on the same mass of sandstone
as Fig. I, but several yards farther south, and close to the old dray
track. It measures twenty feet five inches from the snout to the
farthest end of the tail, and thirteen feet from point to point of
the fins. Across the larger of the fins, which appears to be the
dorsal, is an incised line, such as is frequently met with on the
bodies of different animals drawn by the aborigines. The two eyes
are shown on the same side of the head, a mode of representing
the eyes often observed in native pictures. The greatest width of
the body, independently of the fins, is eight feet.^

Fig. 59. This representation of an eel is three feet four inches
long, and five inches across the widest part of the body ; from
point to point of the fins measures seven inches. There are four
bands or lines across the body. It is carved on the same flat rock
as Figs. 56 and 57. For other carvings of eels, see Figs. 7, 8 and
9 of this plate.

Fig. 60. It is difficult to arrive at a definite conclusion as to
what these figures are intended to represent. One is ten feet long,
the other twelve, and they each have an average width of three
inches. They occupy a position on the rock very close to Fig. 14,
the end of them almost touching the right foot of the latter. Per-
haps they represent spears or yamsticks ; or were possibly intended
for large snakes.

Fig. 61. This interesting carving is on a flat rock of Hawkes-
bury sandstone with Portion No. 796 of 9 ac. 2 r. 3 p.. Parish of
Manly Cove. It represents a man six feet high, with a belt round
the waist and bands round the arms near the shoulder, similar to
those seen in Fig. i. Within the outline of the body is a very
good representation of a human foot, twelve inches long, four
inches across the toes, and three inches across the heel.^ About
three feet behind the heel of the last-mentioned figure is another
human foot, not so perfect as the first, twelve inches long and hav-
ing only four toes. Eleven inches farther away in the same direc-

^ For a monstrous carving of a shark, nearly thirty-nine feet long, see my paper
on "The Rock Paintings and Carvings of the Aborigines of N. S. Wales," pub-
lished in Rep. Ansty-alas. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vi, pp. 624-637, PI. 99, Fig. 30.

2 Human footmarks carved on rocks are represented in Fig. 8, PI. 9, illustrat-
ing my paper on "Aboriginal Rock Paintings and Carvings in New South
Wales," published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria^ Vol. vii
(N. S.), pp. 143-156.

208 MILLER — ON TRANSITIVE SUBSTITUTION GROUPS. [May 7,

tion is an oval object, but what it is intended to represent I am at
present unable to offer an explanation. The two last-described
figures are shown in their relative positions to each other, but are
not so in reference to the man. They are shown above the head of
the latter on the plate to fill out a vacant space, but a careful
reading of this description will indicate their true position.

ON THE TRANSITIVE SUBSTITUTION GROUPS

THAT ARE SIMPLY ISOMORPHIC TO

THE SYMMETRIC OR THE ALTERNATING GROUP

OF DEGREE SIX.

BY Cx. A. MILLER, PH.D,

(Eead May 7, 1897.)

When the degree of a symmetric or an alternating group is not 6
we can obtain all the simple isomorphisms of the group to itself by
transforming it by means of the substitutions of the symmetric
group of the same degree. In other words, we can construct only
one intransitive group of degree mn and order n ! or n ! -f- 2, whose
m transitive constituents are respectively the symmetric or the
alternating group of degree n, n ^ 6.^ Hence the number of transi-
tive substitution groups that are simply isomorphic to the sym-
metric group of degree n (n ± 6) is equal to the total number of
substitution groups (transitive and intransitive) that can be con-
structed with n letters and whose order is less than n ! -f- 2, while
the number of those that are simply isomorphic to the alternating
group of this degree is equal to the number of all the other positive
groups that can be constructed with n letters.^

As nearly all the groups that can be constructed with n letters are
subgroups of larger groups that do not involve the symmetric or the
alternating group of degree n and whose degree < n -f i, the
transitive substitution groups that are simply isomorphic to the

1 Holder, Alalhetnaiische A}tnalen,Yo\. xlvi,pp. 340, 345 ; cf. Illiller, Bulletin
of the American Mathematical Society (1895), ^ol- ^' P- ^5^-

2Dyck, Mathematische Annalen,\o\. xxii, p, 90; cf. Miller, Philosophical
Magazine (1897), Vol. xliii, p. 117.

1897.] MILLER — ON TRANSITIVE SUBSTITUTION GROUPS. 209

symmetric or the alternating group of degree n are, as a rule, non-
primitive.^ Those that are simply isomorphic to the alternating
group are simple when u ^ 4 and can therefore contain no substitu-
tion besides identity that leaves all of their systems of non-primi-
tivity unchanged. The first group of this kind is of order 60 and
degree 12. Its elements can be divided in only one way so that
each division is a system of non-primitivity. Even when such a
group has different sets of systems of non-primitivity it cannot con-
tain any substitution besides identity that leaves all the systems of
non-primitivity of any set unchanged since it contains no self-
conjugate subgroup except identity.

The following well-known group illustrates that the elements of
some non-primitive groups can be divided into different sets of
systems of non-primitivity, so that the groups contain no substitu-
tion besides identity that leaves all the systems of one set unchanged
while they contain other substitutions that leave those of another
set unchanged.

I ad. bf. ce

abc. def ae. bd. cf

acb. dfe af. be. cd

This group contains no substitution besides identity that leaves
all the systems of non-primitivity of any one of the following three
sets unchanged ;

a,d : b,e : c,f a,e : b,f : c,d a,f : b,d : c,e

while three of its substitutions leave the systems of the following set
unchanged ;

a,b,c : d,e,f.

The other regular group of order 6 may serve to illustrate that the
elements of some non-primitive groups cannot be divided into sys-
tems of non-primitivity so that the groups contain no substitution
besides identity that leaves all the systems unchanged.

Anon-primitive group that is simply isomorphic to the symmetric
group of degree n (n =f 4) contains only one selfconjugate subgroup
besides identity. If its largest subgroup whose degree is less than
the degree of the group corresponds to a positive subgroup of the
symmetric group, its selfconjugate subgroup must be intransitive
and it must have two systems of non-primitivity. If the given sub-

^ Cf. Maillet, Coinptes Rendiis, Vol. cxix, p. 362.

210 MILLER — ON TRANSITIVE SUBSTITUTION GROUPS. [May 7,

group corresponds to a positive and negative subgroup of the sym-
metric group the selfconjugate subgroup of order n ! -r- 2 is transi-
tive, and the non-primitive group contains no substitution besides
identity that leaves all the systems of any of the possible sets of
systems of non-primitivity unchanged. We thus obtain composite
non-primitive groups that do not contain any substitution besides
identity that leaves all the systems of any of the possible sets of
systems of non-primitivity unchanged. The first group of this kind
is of order 120 and degree 15.

Both the symmetric and the alternating group of degree 6 con-
tain 6 ! simple isomorphisms to themselves that cannot be obtained
by transforming the groups by means of any substitutions whatever.
If we regard these groups as operation groups of orders 6 ! and 6 ! -^ 2
respectively we can find an operation group of order 2x6! which
transforms both of them into all the possible simple isomorphisms
to themselves.^ This group is simply isomorphic to the group of
all simple isomorphisms of the given operation groups to themselves
and contains the symmetric group of order 6 ! as selfconjugate sub-
group.

That the smallest operation group which transforms a given
operation group into all the possible simple isomorphisms to itself
is always simply isomorphic to the group of all these simple isomor-
phisms may be easily proved as follows. We represent the given
operation group of order g by the regular substitution group. The
largest group of degree g that contains it as a selfconjugate subgroup
transforms it into all the possible simple isomorphisms to itself and
has a g, I correspondence'" to the group of these simple isomor-
phisms. Its subgroup which contains all the substitutions that do
not involve one of its g elements must be simply isomorphic to the
group of all the given simple isomorphisms since all the substitutions
that are commutative to each of the substitutions of the given regu-
lar group form a regular group of degree g.

It is known that the symmetric or the alternating group of degree
6 can be made simply isomorphic to itself by placing the group of
order 120 or 60 and degree 6 in correspondence to a group of de-
gree 5. All the substitutions of order 3 in such a i, i correspond-
ence are of degree 9, for it is evident that some are of this degree
and that all must have the same degree because all the subgroups of

^Cf. Frobenius, Sitzinigsberichte der Akademie zu Berlin, 1895, P- ^^4-
2 Jordan, Traite des Substitutions, p. 60.

1897.] MILLER — ON TRANSITIVE SUBSTITUTION GROUPS. 211

order and degree 3 as well as those of order 3 and degree 6 are con-
jugate in the symmetric and in the alternating group. From this
it follows that the substitutions of degree and order 2 must cor-
respond to those of degree 6, and hence that all the substitutions of
order 2 in such a i, i correspondence are of degree 8.

T/ie Fifteen Transitive Substitution Groups that are Simply Iso?nor-
phic to {abcdef) pos.

We shall consider these groups in the order of their degrees, be-
ginning with those of the highest degrees. There is one group of
degree 360, viz., the regular group. We represent it by Gi. As
there is only one positive group of order^ 2 and the two groups of
order 3 can be made to correspond there is one transitive group
(G2) of degree 180 and one (G3) of degree 120 that are simply
isomorphic to (abcdef) pos. Since the given group of order 2 is
transformed into itself by 8 positive substitutions and the given
groups of order 3 are transformed into themselves by 18 positive
substitutions Go and G3 are respectively of class^ 176 and 114.

There is only one positive cyclical group of order 4 and the two
positive non-cyclical groups of this order can be made to correspond
since the transitive one cannot occur in (abcde)io, and hence it can
also not occur in (abcdef )6o. The group (G4) of degree 90 whose 4
substitutions that do not contain a given element form a cyclical
group is of class ZZ since there are only 8 positive substitutions that
transform the given positive group of order 4, or its subgroup of
order 2, into itself. The other group of this degree (G5) is of class
84. In both of these groups, the subgroup which contains the four
substitutions that do not involve a given element contains three
substitutions of the same degree. Since there is only one group of
order 5 there is only one group of degree 72 (Gg) that is simply
isomorphic to (abcdef) pos. It is of class 70.

Since only one of the two positive groups of order 6 is found in
(abode) pos., they can be placed in correspondence and there is
only one transitive group (G7) of degree 60 that is simply to (abcdef)

1 We consider only those groups whose degree does not exceed 6. A list of
these groups is given by Prof. Cayley, Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, Vol.
XXV, p. 71.

2 The class of a substitution group is the degree of its substitution that permutes
the smallest number of elements besides identity. Cf. Jordan, Lionville^s Jour-
nal, 1 87 1.

212 MILLER — ON TRANSITIVE SUBSTITUTION GROUPS. [May 7,

pos. We proceed to find the forms of the substitutions of the sub-
group of G7, which contains all its substitutions that do not involve
a given element. Its substitutions of order 3 clearly consist of 19
distinct cycles of degree 3. If vi^e arrange the substitutions of
(abcdef ) pos., according to [(abc) all (de)] pos., or (abc. def ) all,
we obtain 4 rows of substitutions whose — i powers transform any
one of the substitutions of order two in either of these groups into
substitutions of the same group. Hence the corresponding substi-
tution of G, is of degree 56, and this is also the class of G7. Its
subgroup which includes the substitutions that do not involve a
given element contains therefore 2 substitutions of order 3 and
degree 57, 3 of order 2 and degree 56, and identity.

Since there is only one positive group of each of the orders 8, 9,
10 there is only one transitive group of each of the degrees 45, 40,
36 that is simply to (abcdef) pos. We shall denote these groups
by Gg, G9, Gio. Their classes are respectively 40, ^6, 32. The
two positive groups of order 12 lead to only one group (Gn) since
one of them occurs in (abode) pos. and its substitutions of order 3
are also of degree 3. Gn is of degree 30 and class 24. Half of its
substitutions of order 3 are of degree 30 and the rest of degree 24.
All its substitutions of order 2 are of degree 28. There can be only
one transitive group of degree 20 (Gi.) that is simply isomorphic to
(abcdef) pos. since there is only one positive group of order 18.
All of its 80 substitutions of order 3 are of degree 18 and its
45 substitutions of order 2 are of degree 16. As the other substi-
tutions are of degree 20 G12 is of class 16.

There can be only one transitive group of degree 15 (G13) that is
simply isomorphic to (abcdef) pos. since the two positive groups
of order 24 must evidently correspond in the simple isomorphism
of (abcdef) pos. to itself in which all the substitutions of order 3
are of degree 9. G13 contains the following substitutions, besides
identity, whose degrees are less than 15 : 40 of order 3 and degree
12, 45 of order 2 and degree 12, 90 of order 4 and degree 14.
Hence it is of class 12. The group of degree 10 (Gi^) that dej^ends
upon the positive group of order ;^6 contains 90 substitutions of
order 3 and degree 9, 45 of order 2 and degree 8, 90 of order 4
and degree 8. The rest are of degree 10 with the exception of
identity. The group (G15) which depends upon either of the two
groups of order 60 is (abcdef) pos. itself.

1897.] MILLER — OX TRANSITIVE SUBSTITUTION GROUPS. 213

Since each of the three groups

(abcde) pos. (abcdef jgc [(abed) all (ef)] pos.

is a maximal subgroup of (abcdef ) pos. the corresponding groups,
viz., Gi5, Gi4, Gi3 are primitive. The other 12 are non-primitive.
As they are simple groups they cannot contain any substitution
besides identity that leaves all the systems of non-primitivity unper-
muted. If we arrange the substitutions of (abcdef) pos. according
to (abcde) pos. we may letter the rows in such a manner that they
are permuted according to a substitution that is identical to the par-
ticular substitution into which the entire group is multiplied. This
is clearly not the case when they are arranged according to
(abcdef )co. since the necessary and sufficient condition that a given
substitution leads to a substitution whose degree is less than the
degree of the simply isomorphic transitive group is that it is con-
jugate to some substitution in the group which forms the first row.
Gi3 is simply transitive since its order is not divisible by 14. G14
and Gi5 are clearly multiply transitive.

The Thirty-five Transitive Substitution Groups that are Simply
Isomorphic to {abcdef^ all.

The subgroups which correspond in a simple isomorphism of
(abcdef) pos. to itself correspond also in some simple isomorphism
of (abcdef) all to itself. Hence each group that leads to a transi-
tive group of degree n that is simply isomorphic to (abcdef) pos.
leads also to a transitive group of degree 2n that is simply isomor-
phic to (abcdef) all. We observed above that the latter groups
contained two systems of non-primitivity and that they are the only
groups which are simply isomorphic to (abcdef) all and have this
property. Hence 15 of the non-primitive groups that are simply
isomorphic to the symmetric group of degree 6 contain two sys-
tems of non-primitivity. Their degrees are as follows :

720, 360, 240, 180, 180, 144, 120, 90, 80, 72, 60, 40, 30, 20, 12.

The remaining 20 transitive groups that are simply isomorphic to
(abcdef) all depend upon subgroups that involve negative substitu-
tions. We shall therefore confine our attention to such subgroups.
As the methods are similar to those employed in what precedes we
shall be more brief in our explanations. The two groups of order
2 lead to the same transitive group (Gjg) since all the substitutions

214 MILLER — ON TRANSITIVE SUBSTITUTION GROUPS. [May 7,

of order 2 in some of the simple isomorphisms of (abcdef ) all to
itself are of degree 8, as observed above. Gig is of degree 360 and
class 336.

The two groups of order 4

(ab) (cd) [(abed), (ef )] dim.

must correspond in some of the simple isomorphisms of (abcdef)
all to itself for the reason just given. They therefore lead to the
same group of degree 180 (G^). Since the largest group that
transforms (ab. cd) (ef ) into itself must also transform each of its
substitutions into itself this group could not correspond to either
of the preceding groups in any of the given isomorphisms. It
therefore leads to a different group of degree 180 (Gig). It is evident
that (abed) eye. leads to another group of this degree (G19). The
two cyclical as well as the two non-cyclical groups of order 6 must
correspond in the simple isomorphism of (abcdef) all to itself in
which the substitutions of order 3 are of degree 9. Hence these
lead to only two groups of degree 120 (G20, G21).

The two groups of order 8 which contain no substitution whose
order exceeds 2 must correspond in the isomorphisms in which the
substitutions of order 2 are of degree 8. Hence they lead to the
same group of degree 90 (G22). In the same isomorphisms (abed),
must correspond to [(abcd)g (ef )] dim. with respect to (abed) eye.
We represent the group which depends upon either of these two
groups by G23. Each of the remaining two groups of order 8

(abed) eye. (ef ), [(abed)g (ef )] dimidiated with respect to (ab) (cd)

leads to a transitive group of degree 90 that is simply isomorphic
to (abcdef) all. We represent these two groups by G24 and G25 re-
spectively. The former of the given groups of order 8 is the only
one that is commutative and contains operations of order 4 and the
latter is the only one that is non-commutative and contains opera-
tions of order 4 and degree 6. On account of these properties
each of these groups must correspond to itself in all the possible
simple isomorphisms of (abcdef) all to itself.

The two groups of order 12 must correspond in some of these
simple isomorphisms since the substitutions of order 3 are of degree
3 in the one and of degree 6 in the other. Hence they lead to the
same group of degree 60 (Gjs). As there is only one group of
order 16 there is only one group of degree 45 (Gjt). Since the

1897.] MILLER — OX TRANSITIVE SUBSTITUTION GROUPS. 215

subgroups of degree 6 and order 3 in (abcdefjig are self-conjugate
while those of degree and order 3 are conjugate, this group must
correspond to the other group of order 18 in the isomorphism in
which all the substitutions of order 3 are of degree 9. Hence there
is only one group of degree 40 (Gag). The single group of order 20
leads to a group of degree 36 (G.^). It is evident that (abed) all
and {± abcdef )o4 as well as (abed) pos. (ef ) and (abcdef )24, lead to
the same group. These two groups (G30 and G31) are of degree 30.

The transitive and the intransitive group of order 36 lead to the
same group of degree 20 (G32) for the same reason as was employed
to show that the transitive and the intransitive group of order 18
lead to the same group. The groups which we employed so far are
non-maximal subgroups of (abcdef) all. Hence each of the 32
groups given above is non-primitive. Only the first fifteen of them
contain substitutions which leave all the systems of non-primitivity
unchanged. It remains to find the three primitive groups that are
simply isomorphic to (abcdef) all.

The one of the highest degree (G33) depends upon either one of
the following groups

(abcdef ),3 (abed) all (ef )

It is therefore of degree 15. The next (G34) depends upon the
single group of order 72 and hence is of degree 10. The last (G35)
depends upon (abcdej pos. or upon (abcdef )i2o. This is (abcdef)
all itself. G33 is simply transitive since its order is not divisible by
14. As it contains 48 substitutions that transform each of the 7
substitutions of the form ab. cd. ef. contained in (abcdef )48 into
itself it is of class 8. We have already observed that the self-con-
jugate subgroups of G34 and G35 are multiply transitive, hence the
groups themselves must be multiply transitive. Their classes are 6
and 2 respectively.
Fan's, April, iSgy.

216 MINUTES. [May 13,

Adjourned Stated Meeting^ May 13^ 1897.

The Treasurer, Mr. Price, in tlie Chair.

Present, 19 members.

The following papers were read :

" On the Geology of the Paleozoic Area of Arkansas South
of the Novaculite Region," by George PI. Ashley, Ph.D.,
with an Introduction by John C. Branner, was read by title.

" Stellar Dynamics," by Mr. Luigi D'Auria.

A letter was read from the Biological Faculty of the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, asking the Society to appoint a
representative of this Society to make provision for a meeting
memorial of the late Prof. E. D. Cope, and the President of
the Society was requested to appoint such a representative.

Prof. Doolittle moved " that a Committee of five, consisting
of Dr. Pepper, Hon. George F. Edmunds, Dr. Persifor
Frazer, Dr. T. Hewson Bache and Hon. H. A. DuPont be
appointed to consider and report to the American Philosophi-
cal Society on the matter of a Franklin Memorial to celebrate
the Bicentennial Anniversary of Benjamin Franklin's birth^
in 1906." Adopted.

A letter from the Academ^^ of N'atural Sciences of Phila-
delphia requesting the deposit Avith it of the various Her-
baria in the possession of this Society, was laid before the
Society In connection therewith the Curators offered the
following report :

The Curators recommend that they be authorized to deposit with^
and take receipt from, the Academy of Natural Sciences, the botanical
collection of Lewis & Clarke, the Short and Muhlenberg, the Herba-
rium Americanum, and such other botanical collections now in the
Society's possession, on the condition named in the letter from the
Curators of the Academy, that they be kept as separate collections in
the Herbarium of the Academy, properly cared for and returned on
demand.

The recommendation of the Curators Avas adopted.

The Society was then adjourned by the presiding officer.

1897.] ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 217

GEOLOGY OF THE PALEOZOIC AREA OF ARKANSAS
SOUTH OF THE NOVACULITE REGION.

BY GEORGE H. ASHLEY, PII.D.,

Assistant Geologist.

WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY JOHN C. BRANNER.

(Read May 13, 1897.)

Introduction.

In 1890-92 Dr. George H. Ashley, the author of the present
paper, was entrusted with the study of that part of the Paleozoic
region of southwestern Arkansas lying between the Lower Silurian
Novaculite area or the Ouachita uplift on the north, and the Creta-
ceous area on the south. This paper gives the principal results of
Dr. Ashley's work. Properly speaking it is a part of the official
reports of the Geological Survey of Arkansas, but the survey was
abolished by the Legislature in 1893, and no provisions were made
for printing the several unpublished volumes.

Mr. Ashley was ably assisted during one field season by Prof. A.
H. Purdue, now Professor of Geology at the Arkansas Industrial
University, and other valuable additions were made to the work by
Mr. John H. Means, who as assistant on the State Survey has
worked up the geology of the Lower Coal Measures north of the
Ouachita uplift. Some notes were also furnished by Dr. J. P.
Smith, formerly assistant geologist on the Arkansas Survey, now
Professor of Paleontology in the Leland Stanford, Jr., University.
The northern border of the Cretaceous rocks was traced by Dr. O.
P. Hay.

The limited time that could be spent upon the geology of the
region discussed in this paper, the folded and faulted condition of
the rocks, the absence of fossils and the lack of good maps have
made it impossible for the author to enter into details regarding
the geologic history of the area.

The divisions I have made of the rocks and the reasons for mak-
ing them are accepted, not as altogether satisfactory, but simply as
the best that can be offered under the circumstances. The beds I
have called the base of the Coal Measures are the novaculite con-
glomerates exposed at Hot Springs. The reason for considering

218 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

these beds as the top of the Lower Silurian or the bottom of the
Coal Measures is simply that the novaculites, as considerable beds,
end abruptly with this stratum, and because this bed is a conglom-
erate. It will be seen that there are some thin and unimportant
beds of novaculite above this horizon, but they are no more to be
compared with the novaculites below it than are the coal beds of
the Devonian to be compared with those of the Carboniferous.

So far as I can judge from my own observations there is no
marked unconformity between the Lower Silurian rocks and the
Lower Coal Measures rocks, and that in spite of the fact that there
are no Devonian rocks known to be such in this part of the State.
The conglomerate, however, suggests the possibility of such an
unconformity, and it is quite possible that the disturbed condition
of the rocks has caused such a gap to be overlooked.

Mention is made at several places of a stratum of supposed
igneous rocks interbedded with the sedimentary ones, and assumed
by Dr. Ashley to be everywhere at the same horizon. There is
some doubt in my mind as to whether this bed is everywhere the
same, and also as to whether it is really igneous. There is no
doubt but that the bed discovered by Dr. J. P. Smith in 5 south,
32 west, section i, is a tuff, but at other places the rock is so
changed by decomposition that it is not possible to say with cer-
tainty what the original materials were. It is also suggested by the
author that these beds are to be correlated with similar rocks sup-
posed to be volcanic tuffs and found about Cushman, Independence
county, in the northern part of the State. But this north Arkansas
bed turns out to be a phosphate deposit, and a chemical analysis of
one of Dr. Ashley's specimens from southwest Arkansas shows it to
contain an equivalent of nine per cent, of calcium phosphate.^

To the little proof here given of the age of these Lower Coal
Measures rocks should be added that I have found Calamites in
this series on the west bank of the Ouachita river in 5 south, 18
west, section 32. Attention should also be directed to the notes of
Prof. C. S. Prosser on the " Lower Carboniferous Plants from the
Ouachita Uplift," published in the Novaculite Report of the Arkan-
sas Survey (Vol. iii, 1890, pp. 423, 424). Prof. Prosser's notes
are upon fossils found north of the region described in the present

See " The Phosphate Deposits of Arkansas," by John C. Branner, Trans.
Amer. Inst. Mining Engineers, September, 1896.

1897.] ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 219

paper, but the structure of the region shows that they are from
rocks occupying the same geologic horizon.

The general structural features of the Ouachita uplift are so much
like those of certain parts of the Appalachian structure that one nat-
urally assumes at the outset that we have here an Appalachian type,
and indeed a part of the original Appalachian folding. It cannot
be stated positively that this is not the case, but it is my own opin-
ion that the Ouachita uplift is the structural equivalent, not of the
Appalachians, but of the Nashville Silurian basin and of the Cin-
cinnati arch. To be sure the Ouachita anticline is closely pressed,
while the Nashville and Cincinnati folds are very gentle. This
difference is, however, a matter of structural detail only. The
equivalent of the Appalachian chain and the source from which the
Lower Coal Measures sediments of south Arkansas appear to have
been derived (in part) was a continuation across the present
Mississippi drainage of the pre-Cambrian rocks of Alabama and
Georgia, etc. This region, that is the gap through which the
Mississippi river now flows, has been lowered, partly by erosion,
but chiefly by downward orographic movements and it is now
buried beneath the Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments of south
Arkansas and of north Louisiana and Texas.

This hypothesis seems to be borne out by the following facts :

L The fossils found on the south side of the Ouachita anticline
are coal plants like those from the Cumberland plateau of east
Tennessee, eastern Kentucky, and West Virginia.

IL The sediments thicken and become coarser to the south as
one leaves the Ouachita uplift (Ashley) just as in the upper Ohio val-
ley they thicken and become coarser east of the Cincinnati arch.

in. In central Texas, northwest of Austin, is an Archean and
Cambrian area which appears to be the southwestern end of the old
Appalachian chain, and north of it are Carboniferous rocks.

IV. If the Cincinnati, Nashville and Ouachita arches are assumed
to be the same general fold, this line is found to continue into
Indian Territory and Oklahoma, and the arch as a whole is parallel
with the Appalachian system save across the break made by the
present Mississippi river depression where the same conditions
would be expected.

V. The peneplain south of the Ouachita mountains and on which
the Cretaceous beds were deposited slopes toward the Mississippi.

VI. The Arkansas river drainage formerly (in Carboniferous and

220 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

Permian times) flowed westward, but it has been reversed and
now flows east and southeast.

VII. The igneous rocks of Arkansas and Texas are mostly along
what appears to be the edge — possibly faulted — of this depression.

I have not thought it necessary to exclude or suppress in the
present paper statements in conflict with other publications made
by the Geological Survey of Arkansas. Reference is here made to
the diff"erences between the structural details as worked out by Dr.
Ashley and those represented by Dr. Theodore B. Comstock on the
map accompanying his report on gold and silver. No geologist
with the two maps before him can have any doubt about which is
right. It should be said, however, in defense of Dr. Comstock,
that the time he could devote to the study of the region on which
he had to report was very limited ; and in defense of the publica-
tion of his map, that the report giving the economic results of his
work (and these were correct and of great importance) was so tied
to the theory of the structural lines put down on his maps that it
was quite impossible to separate the two.

John C. Branner,
Formerly State Geologist of Arkansas.

I. Geologic and Geographic Position.

If in any of the Atlantic or Gulf States, one start from some
point on the coast and travel inland, he will, in most cases, observe
at one point a striking change both in the topographic and geologic
features of the land. He has been traversing at first low-lying, then
somewhat more elevated, stretches of level country, characterized,
aside from its low elevation above the sea level and comparative
flatness, by sluggish, meandering rivers, a luxuriant timber growth,
the softness and horizontality of the rocks, consisting of unconsoli-
dated clays, sands, gravels, etc., with an occasional hard layer, and
by the freshness of the fossil remains. But as one passes the point
mentioned, he comes upon a region of higher altitude, frequently
or generally mountainous, with rapid rivers, more hardy but less
dense timber growth, the underlying strata being highly consoli-
dated, frequently crystalline limestones, sandstones, shales and
granites, in some regions horizontal, in others highly folded and
distorted.

A study of the geology on either side of the line of division
shows that the region on the coast side is of comparatively recent

1S97.] ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 221

origin, having been deposited since the close of the Carboniferous
age ; the harder rocks on the landward side having been deposited
during the Carboniferous and preceding ages. The former, which
includes the Mesozoic and Cenozoic, has been termed the Neozoic
addition. The line between the two has been traced down the
Atlantic coast and through northern Georgia, Alabama and Mis-
sissippi, thence following the Tennessee river into southern Illinois,
where it turns, crossing the Mississippi near Cairo and running ap-
proximately southwest on the west side of the St. Louis, Iron
Mountain and Southern Railway nearly to Arkadelphia, where it
turns westward and follows an irregular line into the Indian Terri-
tory and Texas.

The region described in the present report lies in a belt just north
of that portion of the above line running west from Arkadelphia.
To define and locate it more clearly we shall first review the
general geologic features of the region from this line to the
Arkansas river as shown in the reports already published upon that
area.^

The history thus revealed is briefly :

1. A long period of deposition running from early Silurian times
through the Carboniferous age, and the accumulation of deposits of
great thickness.

2. These deposits give way to mountain-making forces and becom-
ing much folded are lifted into an anticline, called by Dr. Branner the
" Ouachita uplift." The axis of this anticline is an approximately
east and west line running from Little Rock west well into the
Indian Territory.

3. A period of erosion during which the uplift is cut down until
the Silurian strata are exposed along the axis. The later beds are
successively exposed as one goes away from the axis of uplift.

4. A period of depression and deposition upon the southern
slope of the Ouachita uplift. During this period, and up to the
present time, there has been a series of oscillations of level, result-
ing in slight nonconformity between the strata.

The rocks are now exposed in the following order :
I. A belt of Silurian exposures running from Little Rock a little
south of west to Dallas, of which the novaculites' are prominent

1 Geol. Siirv. of Ark., An. Rep. for 1888, Vol. iii; for 1S90, Vols, i and'iii,

2 Geol. Surv. of Ay-k., An. Rep. for 1890, Vol. iii.

TEOC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXTI. 105. P. PRINTED AUGUST 5. 1897.

224 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF AE KANSAS. [Mavis,

layers. Owing to minor folds some of the higher strata are ex-
posed in this belt.

2. To the north the higher beds are successively exposed, ending
in the upper or productive Coal Measures near the Arkansas river.

3. To the south the higher strata are exposed for a short distance,
but still further south they are covered by Cretaceous rocks.

4. The Cretaceous and the overlying Tertiary beds extending
southward to the State line.

The strata we are to consider are those mentioned under the
third head of the preceding paragraph : the beds deposited between
the Silurian and the end of Carboniferous times, and exposed south
of the Silurian exposures of southwestern Arkansas, and north of the
Cretaceous area.

The northern limit of this area is a line starting from Social
Hill in 4 S., 18 W., and touching Point Cedar, Rock Creek and
Langley, then passing through the centre of township, 4 S., range
30 W., to Potter. West of Potter these beds swing around the end
of the Silurian anticlinal nose and unite with the beds of the
same age and character lying north of the Silurian area. On the
east the boundary nearly follows the Ouachita river to the mouth of
the Caddo river, thence on the south the line follows the Caddo
and up Big DeGray creek, then turns south to Hollywood, then
west, and follows a very irregular line, touching Clear Springs,
Antoine, Royston, Nathan, Muddy Fork, Atwood, Ultima Thule,
and so on into the Indian Territory.

n. Salient Features of the Region.

A General Description of the Area. — The region under con-
sideration is a rocky, hilly country stretching along the south side
of the Ouachita mountains. It varies in width from fifteen to
thirty miles ; the part lying in Arkansas is about ninety miles long.
It is for the most part densely wooded and thinly settled. The
surface is broken into a great number of valleys and ridges having
an east and west trend, with a {q'n narrow and usually rugged north
and south valleys. Few, if any, of these ridges are more than three
hundred feet in height.

The most common type is a ridge or table land having a steep north
face, while the south side slopes away gently. A few are narrow,
sharp ridges with uneven crests and steep flanks on both north and
south sides. All others may be taken as variations of these two

1^9"] ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 225

types. Sometimes the ridges can be followed for a score or two of
miles ; then again a ridge is prominent only where it approaches a
north and south stream, and as it recedes from the stream the
valleys on either side become shallower until the ridge coalesces
with those next north and south of it, and is lost as a distinct ridge.

All around the southern edge of the region, the topography is of
quite a different nature. It appears to be very level, though having
a slight rise to the north. This level strip averages half a dozen
miles in width. Its northern edge is irregular and seems to be
governed by the erosion of east and west valleys into what might
have been its northward extension. Novaculite gravels cover this
flat region. Sandstone is the most common rock, though occasion-
ally in the valley there are considerable beds of shale.

It is a matter of common observation among those living in the
region, that the rocks almost invariably ''stand on end."

While much of the region is very stony, the rocks are mostly in
the form of loose blocks and boulders, but little of it being found
in place and most of that is in the beds of streams.

Though the strata usually dip to the south, in some places they
dip to the north. The dip is usually high, more often over than
under 45°.

Just north of this Carboniferous region are the high hills or
mountains of the Ouachita mountain system. The rocks in these
mountains are novaculites associated with shales and sandstones.^

To the south these Paleozoic beds are overlaid unconformably by
sands, marls and limestones of the Cretaceous.

In the eastern part of the region under discussion the main
streams run east or southeast and the branches run south. The
streams are not rapid and the valleys are frequently quite broad.
Westward the main drainage swings around towards the south, the
branches run in east-west channels, and the streams are rapid, with
narrow, sometimes precipitous banks.

From an economic standpoint the most valuable product of the
area is the timber. Hard and soft woods of excellent qualities
abound in every part of the region.

Little of value was discovered in the line of building or other
stone, nor is the region rich in ores, though small quantities of
pay ore, mostly antimony, have been found in the southwestern
part of the area.

Corn and cotton are the principal crops. The country as a
whole is well watered and healthful.

^ Geol. Surv. of Ark. ^ An. Rep, for 1S90, Vol. ili.

226 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

Much of the land is too broken for cultivation except for some
hillside crop like grapes, which are said to do well here.

While most of the soil is sandy and not very rich, there is much
good land along the streams, particularly in the eastern part. In
the western part of the region most of the available land is on the
divides.

Conclusions. — A summary of the conclusions deduced from a
study of the features above touched upon can best be given as a
history of geologic events in the region.

The Periods of Deposition. — The deposition of the rocks took
place before the end of the Carboniferous age, and as the rocks are
of both Silurian and Carboniferous ages, it must have been during
these times that these sediments were laid down.

The Lower Silurian beds are the novaculites, with the accompany-
ing shales and sandstones. The Carboniferous strata are sandstones
and shales, with which occur a little grit, novaculite and some
other rocks. No nonconformity has been found between the two
sets of beds. The Silurian beds are believed to underlie the sand-
stones of the Carboniferous over all of the region, though they have
been recognized at only one place.

The original thickness of the Carboniferous strata is not known,
nor is it known whether the whole or only a part of the Carboni-
ferous series was laid down over this territory. The beds remain-
ing are thought to belong mostly to the Lower Coal Measures.
The only fossils found are a few fragments of plants. No satisfac-
tory columnar section has been obtained of the beds, but their
thickness cannot be less than four or five thousand feet.

Period of Folding. — At the end of the Carboniferous age, or pos-
sibly before it, the beds of sediment in southwestern Arkansas and
the adjacent portion of the Indian Territory began to yield to an
apparently horizontal pressure. Gradually the great Ouachita up-
lift rose, and the upper beds began to fold. This continued until
the upper beds were folded closely and frequently even over-
thrown ; in fact, in this area the overthrown folds or overturns are
the most common kind of fold, and testify to the intensity of the
folding action.

This folding took place very slowly, so slowly that erosion may
Iiave almost kept pace with the uplifting beds. Besides the two
kinds of anticlines, the normal anticline and the overturned anti-
cline, the region is full of faults and crushed and broken structure ;

181)7.] ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 227

SO that, with the scarcity of outcrops, it is impossible to follow or
trace the anticlines with accuracy, though in many cases, by means
of their effect upon the topography, they may be followed with
some degree of accuracy for long distances.

These folds have a nearly east and west trend, and are crossed in
traversing the region in a north and south line.

On one such line there are as many as thirty-nine anticlines in a
distance of twenty-four miles. Many of these anticlines cannot
be found at more than one place, others may be traced for a score
or two of miles. Normal anticlines sometimes merge into over-
turns.

A Period of Erosion and Sinking. — As already suggested, the ero-
sion during the period of active folding may have been consider-
able ; so that it is probable that at no time did the elevations over
the area at all approach the altitude that a restoration of the
eroded strata would make. At last the time came when erosion
exceeded elevation and probably sinking took place over the whole
region. This resulted in the formation of a base level of erosion.^
That is, the land level in its lowest part was so near sea level that
subaerial erosion was entirely expended in wearing down the eleva-
tions, and as the sinking proceeded and the oceanic waters ad-
vanced, wave action completed the leveling process. Evidences of
this old sea bottom are abundant; only the narrow remnant of flat
country fringing the south edge of the area need be mentioned here.

The exact extent of this inundation is unknown, but there are
reasons for believing that it extended north of the region under con-
sideration.- During this inundation the Cretaceous beds, of which
a remnant is still found lying unconformably on the southern edge
of the region, were laid down.

All details of the record of events during Cretaceous times are
lost in the region to be studied, the evidence only permitting us to
say, that some time previous to the Cretaceous the area was re-
duced to a base level, after which the Cretaceous beds were laid
down. The region may have subsequently been subjected to
several periods of erosion and deposition.

Following some or all of these periods of deposition came eleva-
tion, with the centre of elevation in the neighborhood of the Rich

1 Button, Te7-iiary History of the Grand Cation District, p. 76.
'' Geol. Siirv. of Ark., An. Rep. for 1890, Vol. iii, p. 220.

228 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

mountain. This, then, became the centre of drainage for south-
western Arkansas and the adjacent part of the Indian Territory,
the streams flowing away in every direction over the newly exposed
beds of Cretaceous material. A glance at a map of Arkansas and
Indian Territory will show that the streams thus started have per-
sisted to the present.

After these streams had cut through the overlying Cretaceous
they struck the hard layers of Carboniferous sandstone, and slowly
cut their channels down through the harder layers standing across
their path. In the course of time the Cretaceous beds were com-
pletely removed from the region north of the existing Cretaceous
border. The period ends with the deposit of Tertiary beds over
the eastern end.^

A Recent Subsidence. — There has been a recent subsidence of the
region which probably did not submerge the novaculite mountains
to the north, but brought them in range of wave action. The hard
novaculites tend to disintegrate into blocks rather than fine material,
and as the waters receded, these blocks of novaculite with others of
sandstone were rounded by wave action, broken up and the whole
scattered as a great gravel bed, in places at least one hundred and
fifty feet deep and probably much more, over the area and far to
the south. This subsidence is thought to have taken place in post-
Tertiary time. The greater portion of the novaculite and sand-
stone drift laid down in the preceding period has been removed re-
cently, leaving only a narrow strip undisturbed on the southern edge,
and in patches all over the region, where the larger boulders have
resisted erosion.

III. Original Stratigraphy.

In this chapter will be considered the character, thickness and
manner of deposition of the Paleozoic beds. It will be practically
a consideration of the first period in the history of the region, as
outlined in the preceding chapter.

Petrology.
Rocks of the Novaculite Series.'^ — The divisions of the rocks of
the novaculite series made by Mr. Griswold will be followed.
These rocks he divides as follows :

1 Geol. Surv. of Ark., An. Rep. for 1892, Vol, ii.

2 Geol. Szirv. of Ark., An. Rep. for 1890, Vol. iii, p

1897.] ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 229

I. Ouachita stones : those novaculites which '^ originally con-
tained a large percentage of lime."

II. True novaculites : these are the characteristic rocks of the
mountains of the Ouachita system. They are believed by Mr.
Griswold to be mechanical sediments. They are nearly pure silica,
though "originally containing a small percentage of lime." In
color they are white, black, red, yellow, gray and mottled.

III. Silicious shales, containing ''little lime, but with more
abundant clay."

IV. Sandstones and quartzites.

V. Chert.

The finding of a large number of species of graptolites in the
silicious shales has shown that the novaculites are of Lower Silurian
age and probably belong to the lower part of the Trenton.

Peti'ology of the Carboniferous Area.

Sandstones. — Probably nine-tenths of the Carboniferous beds are
sandstones. ]Mr. Griswold has described a microscopic slide of
sandstone from Grindstone Ridge in 6 S., 20 W., which gives the
characteristics of a typical sandstone of the region.^

" This stone is coarse grained, light gray in color." It contains
only a small amount of '' iron and earthy material."

''There are rounded as well as angular quartz grains, and a few
grains of decomposed feldspar are present. The quartz grains ap-
pear to have been eroded against and even into one another ; many
of them exhibit lines or striations, which probably result from pres-
sure. Since these lines are not continuous from one pebble to an-
other, and have apparently no relation to each other, they must
have been produced in some manner on the original grain and in
the original rock. Some of the quartz grains show secondary silica
added to the original grain to form crystal faces as described by
Irving in his article on quartzites.' One quartz fragment is filled
with very fine needles which may be rutile."

The specimen is a trifle finer grained than the average sandstone.
The sandstones naturally grade into each other, but certain arti-
ficial divisions may be made for convenience. These rocks have
not been, as a rule, identified with any definite position in the
strata.

'^Geol. Sitrv. of Ark., An. Rep. for 1890, Vol. iii, p. 141.

"^ Fifth Annual Report of the United States Geological Sitrvey, pp. 221-223.

2(^0 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

(a) The sandstone most commonly met with is a soft, olive green
sandstone, upon exposure decomposing rapidly into sand. Except
when freshly exposed this rock is seldom seen in its massive state ;
but its soft edges are constantly found in the roads and over the
more level territory. Probably this sandstone differs from the next
only in lacking iron.

{d) The bulk of exposures of a massive character are of a fer-
ruginous sandstone, usually a dark red or brown. In this, expo-
sure to the air oxidizes the iron, which forms a cement and makes the
exterior much more impervious. Frequently the brown color pene-
trates only a short distance, and the interior is a steel gray or light
green in color.

(c) In a few localities a very white sandstone was found. Sur-
face exposures are usually quite soft. Where fresh, as was found in
digging a well on the farm of Mr. Tom Hodges in 6 S., 19 W.,
section 4, it is exceedingly tough, making digging very slow and
laborious. A few months' exposure of the rock is sufficient to ren-
der it very friable and mealy. In places it shows slight traces of
pyrite.

(^) Of frequent occurrence are varieties of finely laminated sand-
stones verging into shaly sandstones or arenaceous shales. These
are usually dark colored or black, and, where the layers are not too
thin, are said to make good stones for chimneys and fireplaces.
They often occur in layers not more than a quarter of an inch thick,
and are frequently found interbedded with shale. There are many
intermediate forms, and varieties differing both in hardness and
color, but they are not worthy of special mention.

Shales. — The presence of the shales is usually indicated only by
the topography or by their being struck in digging wells. Single
beds are seldom over fifty feet thick, though in a few places it has
a thickness of from one hundred to three hundred feet, and in one
place on the Cossatot, in 6 S., 30 W., section 19, it appears to
have a thickness of six hundred feet. In one place a thickness of
twenty feet was seen to thin out within two hundred to three hun-
dred yards.

It varies in lithographic characters very like the shale of other
regions ; sometimes it breaks up upon exposure into long, slender,
needle-like fragments; sometimes it breaks up into thin laminae or
flakes ; at other times it is traversed by joints that cause it to break
into angular blocks, and these all weather rapidly into clay. In
color they are black, lead colored, cream colored, and reddish.

1897.1 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 231

Conglomerate. — First found in the Chalybeate mountain where
cut by the Caddo, and later in a large number of places over the
region, occurs a coarse grit or fine conglomerate. In places this
forms a distinct bed eighteen inches or a few feet thick, but oftener
it mingles in indistinct layers with the sandstones in a bed from
fifty to one hundred feet in thickness, and varies all the way from a
conglomerate to the fine-grained sandstone with which it is associa-
ted. It consists of small, rounded grains of milky quartz, none of
which are more than a quarter of an inch in diameter, cemented by
fine sand and iron.

JSIovaculite. — Reference is here made to a layer of novaculite
from two to six inches thick which is found well scattered over the
region. Considering the thinness of the layer, its persistence is re-
markable, as it was found from range 22 W. to the territory line,
and from the novaculite mountains to township 7 S. Unfortunately
its exact position in the series could not be determined, but it
seems certain that it is above the Silurian novaculite series, yet not
separated from that series by more than a few hundred feet. In
only one case was it found in a creek section; it usually appears
only where the layer is crossed by a road or field. At such places
it can be followed by the fragments of novaculite which lie on the
surface. In 5 S., 22 and 23 W., it was traced for about six miles,
and at other places it wsa traced for shorter distances. It appears
to be invariably associated with beds of silicious shales, the whole
aggregating a thickness of about fifteen feet. In the centre occurs
the characteristic novaculite from two to six inches thick. On
either side of the novaculite layer is an exceedingly fine-grained
silicious shale with hackly fracture, differing from novaculite in ap-
pearance only in that the grain can be made out. From this the
transition may be traced through less and less silicious shales, until,
at a distance of seven or eight feet on either side, it has entirely
given up its silicious character and appears to be a soft, argillaceous
shale, crumbling easily in the fingers, its only resemblance now to
the neighboring novaculite being its color, as it still retains the pe-
culiar drab and pink which run through the whole series.

Igneous Rock. — There [appear in many places from Amity west-
ward outcrops of rocks containing white specks a sixteenth of
an inch in diameter and smaller. Other unknown ingredients
appear in thin sections, but in hand specimens the white specks are
a characteristic by which it can be recognized. The rock matrix

232 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF AEKA^;SAS. [May 13,

in which this white material occurs does not appear to be constant.
In places it is a hard rock ringing under the hammer, with the
white specks sparsely scattered through it; in other places it is a
quartzite ; in some places the white and yellow specks occur in a
matrix of shining black rock; in others in a shaly breccia; but the
matrix is generally a light green earthy material.

The proportion of white material varies from a very small per
cent, to rocks in which there is little else. In many of the harder
beds the soft white material weathers out, giving the rock a very
cellular appearance. A typical locality is on the Amity-Hot Springs
road a mile north of Amity. It here forms a bed thirty-three feet
thick. It appears to be regularly bedded at every exposure found.
It is well exposed in front of the Bushy Mill in 4 S., 30 W., sec-
tion 7, and on the Line road, in 5 S., 32 W., section i. It is
apparently but a short distance above the novaculite series. Wil-
liams and Penrose, of the Arkansas Survey,^ report a similar deposit in
north Arkansas, which there occurs on the dividing line between the
Silurian and Lower Carboniferous strata. The examinations which
they have made microscopically and otherwise have led to the sug-
gestion that this is an ash bed indicating volcanic activity some-
where at the end of the Silurian. The great variation in the matrix
rocks would seem to agree with such a theory.'^

Novaculite Breccia. — At the same locality a mile north of Amity
on the Amity-Hot Springs road are found many fragments of a
novaculite breccia. This is probably the same as the novaculite
conglomerate referred to by Mr. Griswold, but in this case it is
invariably a breccia, the fragments which here measure from an
inch or two in diameter down, presenting no evidence of previous
erosion.

The matrix of this breccia is usually a light green sandstone,
though in a few instances it is reddish or brown. The fragments
which in some cases make up the bulk of the rock, in others only
scattered through the sandstone, are of novaculite and vary in color
from white to red or black.

Changes in the Rocks. Sand a?id Clay. — The most universal
change is the disintegration of the rocks into sand and clay. Pos-

'^Geol. Surv. of Ark., An. Rep. for 1890, Vol. ii, p. 375, and Vol. i, p. 128.

2 Chemical analyses of the north Arkansas beds here referred to show that they
are phosphate rocks. An example of the rock collected by Dr. Ashley was
found to contain only nine per cent, of calcium phosphate. — J. C. Bi'anner.

1897.1 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. " 233

sibly related to the sandstone is a white, friable, decomposed sand-
stone found at a few places. A typical locality is in fields about a
mile north of Amity near the Caddo Gap road. It crumbles be-
tween the fingers into a white, dust-like powder ; when dry it is
almost as white as chalk. This soft, decomposed condition ex-
tends to such a depth that gullies once started in it, cut deep,
canon-like ditches resembling those so common in the soft Creta-
ceoul marls of the region to the south.

In this sand are great numbers of concretionary ironstones, from
the size of the fist up to three or four feet in diameter. These are
strewn over the surface, or protrude from banks, or occasionally
may be observed capping a short column of the surrounding soft
material. They are usually dark brown and consist of several
layers averaging half an inch thick in which the proportion of iron
is quite large, surrounding a kernel of exceedingly tough gray
sandstone.

Beside the ironstones, this sand is found in some places inter-
sected by numerous joint-planes filled with thin films of iron.
Quartz veins and crystals are especially abundant in localities of
this nature. Through the sand are frequently little nodules of
silicious shale invariably incrusted with a soft, yellow layer. These
iron incrustations are formed by waters dissolving out the iron and
other impurities which are again deposited in the numerous joint
planes ; the quartz is deposited at the same time. Quartz filling
the crevices in the sandstone is abundant over most of the area.
While in some places this forms only a film just thick enough to give
a sparkling appearance to the rock when broken open, in others
it occurs as solid veins a foot or more in thickness, which may
withstand weathering better than the enclosing rocks and may
appear as a low wall across the country. The smaller veins, as a
rule, intersect the bedding planes at right angles or at a high angle ;
but many of the larger ones run parallel to the strike. There is
such a case in 7 S., 32 W., sections 8 and 9, on Robinson's Fork
of the Rolling Fork of Little river, where a protruding vein of
quartz can be traced a mile or more in the line of strike.

Masses of interlocking crystals occur frequently, and occasionally
well-formed single crystals are found. In many places in the
western part of the region, the ground is completely covered with
fragments of quartz, as on the ''line road " in 5 S., 32 W., section
25, where the road is paved with quartz for nearly half a mile.

234 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF AEKANSAS. [May IS,

Superposition of the Beds.

Mr. Griswold divides the Silurian strata into two series ; the
novaculite series, and the beds below the novaculites. The beds
below the novaculites he estimates to be 1300 feet in thickness, as
far down as exposed. They consist of gray, black and yellow
shales at the bottom, cherty blue limestones next above, then mas-
sive quartzose sandstones, limestones, and shales.

From several columnar sections the novaculite series appears to
vary greatly in different localities. He gives, however, a general-
ized section, in which the order from the bottom upward is :
Silicious shales, 200 feet; shale, 300 feet; novaculite, 250 feet;
shale, 100 feet; novaculite, 100 feet; novaculite with silicious
shale at bottom, 250 feet ; novaculite breccia or conglomerate, a
thin layer.

The variation in these layers may be judged by an examination
of Mr. Griswold' s sections.^ Thus, as an example, the upper layer
of novaculite in the Boss Allen Creek section is 500 feet thick,
while in the South Fork of the Caddo section it is only 60 feet
thick.

Stratification of the Carboniferous Beds. — No satisfactory col-
umnar sections of the Carboniferous beds were obtained.

Outside of the immediate channels or banks of streams, rock
exposures are rare, and when found are seldom extensive enough
to give more than the dip, and the rock exposures in the stream are
not usually more than a few yards long. Now and then a continu-
ous exposure is found for several hundred feet, and in a few cases
longer exposures are found ; but usually between the long exposures
there are so many stretches concealed, in which may be folds, or
faults, or other unknown factors, that one cannot be sure of the
structure. Had the beds been such as to permit identification and
correlation, doubtless satisfactory sections could have been made.
On Plate I are given the best general sections obtained.

Plate /, Section I. — This section was obtained on the Rolling
Fork of the Little river. In 8 S., 32 W., the lower part of section
II, is a perpendicular bluff on the east bank of the Rolling Fork
known as the ''Buzzards' Roost." The dip at this point is about
12°, S. 18° E. Continuing up stream, sandstone is met with in
bluffs and in the stream bottom almost continuously, dipping from

1 Geol. Surv. of Ark., An, Rep. for 1890, Vol. iii, PI. iii.

1897.] ASHLEY — GE'jLOaV OF ARKANSAS. 235

io° to 15°, until shales are met with in the flats at the Bellah mine.
Only one important break occurs, where the valley of Rabbit creek
comes in. At this point may be a heavy bed of shale, and shale
may exist at other points along the section, but was not seen.

From 1500 to 2000 feet of sandstone are omitted from the top of
this section. The existence of faults is quite possible, but no evi-
dence of any was found.

The position in which this section is placed relatively to the
others is based upon the occurrence, in the strike of these shales
and six miles to the east, of the thin beds of novaculites and shales
which are known to be not far above the principal bed of novacu-
lite.

Section II. — Section ii shows the order of rocks on Cossatot
river at the gap near Pontiac post-office. The ridge crossing the
Cossatot just north of Pontiac has black novaculite exposed at the
centre oi an anticline. The section starts from the exposure of nova-
culite in the gap, and runs south to where the river turns northwest
half a mile below. The sandstone overlying the novaculite is
poorly exposed on the south side of the anticline, but shows on the
north* side, and also on the south side of the ridge, east of the
river. A careful section was made at this place, but as the shales
and sandstones at many points in it are crushed together and
broken, suggesting faults, the section is not altogether trust-
worthy. Omitting minor details the section is as follows :

FEET.

Sandstone 150

Concealed 150

Heavily bedded sandstone with thin beds of shale 375

Shale with occasional beds of sandstone 325

Concealed 225

Shale and sandstone much crushed 175

Sandstone in thin beds 1 75

Shale and sandstone layers 50

Sandstone 25

Sandstone and quartzite 35°—

Black novaculite base

Total 2000

Plate L

lll.vi/.SALINE.

(.ROLLING fORK

West

r
O

m

>

CD

o
z

-n
n

:3)
o

c

LP

II.
COSSATOT

LOWER SILURTANi

?-^ji&=g

LITTLE

missouri.
5S,27w,se:c6:

V.
LITTLE
MISSOURI
55,27 W,5ECZ5.

rhitc 1.

VI.

LITTLE

MlSiOURL
5S.27W5EO.
25.26, 3r.

Columnar Scctioms ||

OF THtl

LOWER(^OAL

[v/IEASURES ROCKS

OF

Southwest Arkansas.

1

VcrTtcaL S co-lc," t_

,oo ^cc Seo' ,c^

1

Note.

To the top.

' 1

cf Stttton. T a,cCoL

/^roo To Zooo feet: o-f sccn.cC stone..

VIII.
CADDO;

551,21 W.SECZ7.

CADDO CAP.

BOSS ALLfN
CREEK.

East

PKOC. AMEK. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI. loO. C^. TKl^i TKL) AUGDST 0, Iby?

288 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

This section is broken at its southern end by a fault of unlcnown
throw.

Section III. — Section iii was recorded by Prof. A. H. Purdue on
the West Saline river, beginning at the gap near Moore's mill, 4 S.,
28 W., section 31, and running south about a mile. This section,
like the preceding, is not altogether trustworthy, for the strata are
frequently nearly perpendicular and may be overthrown or
faulted. The section, omitting minor details, is as follows :

FEET.

Sandstone 10

Shale (probably) 75

Sandstone 165

Shale (probably) 165

Concealed 20

Shale with a few layers of sandstone 375

Sandstone 530

Thin bedded sandstones and shales (poor expo-
sure) 175

Concealed 50

Thin bedded shaly sandstone 100

Green shale 50

Thin bedded shaly sandstone 30

Shale...., 135

Sandstone 320

Green shale 70

Sandstone 10

Green shale 25

Quartzose sandstone 35

Green shale 30

Sandstone with some shale 115

Novaculite and shale 45

Quartzose sandstone 115

Shale with few quartzitic sandstone layers 100

Thin beds of black novaculite and shale 400

Total 3195

Section IV. — Section iv was observed on Little Missouri river
beginning at the gap where the river cuts through Prairie mountain
in 5 S., 27 W., section 6.

1S07.J ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 289

The anticline at this gap shows nicely ; the section as given on
PL i begins with the top of the black novaculite and shale. The
section is as follows :

FEET.

Sandstone with some shale (poor exposure) .... 300

Sandstone with thin layers of shale 400

Sandstone 365

Grit or conglomerate 25

Sandstone 60

Shaly sandstone in thin layers 140

Sandstone, soft yellow where weathered 130

Shale 30

Black novaculite and shale 400

White novaculite 400

Shale and sandstone base

Total 2450

The thickness of the Carboniferous in this section is about 1600
feet.

Section V. — Section v is on Little Missouri river, in 5 S., 27 W.,
section 23, on the north and south stretch in the middle of the sec-
tion. The section obtained was :

FEET.

Sandstone, all that showed (poor exposure) 185

Sandstone 370

Shaly sandstone thin bedded 40

Sandstone 10

Shale 15

Sandstone 5

Shaly sandstone thin bedded, with some hard

sandstone 130

Sandstone 30

Total 785

This section is well exposed along the river bank, and is accurate
as far as it goes. The dip at the north end is high, but quickly
becomes low.

Section VI. — Section vi is on Little Missouri river, beginning at
Pine mountain, in 5 S., 27 W., section 26, and running south to

24:0 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF A EKANSAS. [May 13,

where the river turns east and northeast. The dip is low, from io°
to 20°. At the north foot of Pine mountain a bed of shale is
exposed, then for a short distance it is concealed beneath broken
sandstone blocks. Near the top of the mountain on the north side
in this area of no outcrops were found many pieces of grit or con-
glomerate, indicating its presence there in place. Massive layers
of sandstone, twenty to forty feet thick, form the top and south slope,
dipping 20° south. For most of the rest of the distance the sand-
stone is exposed almost continuously in low, perpendicular cliffs, the
dip being very low. This is thought to be a single outcrop to the
centre of section 31 in the next township east. This cross-section
and the preceding are separated only by a short stretch in which
there are no exposures. The dip is the same, and it is possible that
the two are part of one section; many things, however, point to its
being a repetition of the preceding section, and the topography
also is suggestive of a fault between the two.
The section gives :

FEET.

Sandstone 400

Concealed 100

Sandstone 900

Concealed 115

Shale 30

Total 1545

Section VII. — Section vii, at Caddo Gap, is quoted from Mr.
Griswold.^

It is as follows :

FEET.

Sandstone 980

Sandstone with some shale 200

Silurian novaculites, etc base

Thickness of the Carboniferous beds 1 180

Section VIII — Section viii is on Caddo river, in 5 S., 21 W., sec-
tion 27. A long stretch of low dip (from 5° to 10°) with continu-
ous outcrops gives this section :

1 Geol. Surv. of Ark., An. Rep, for 1890, Vol. iii, PI. iii.

1897.] ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 241

FEET.

Sandstone 900

Shale 75

Black shale with fossils 100

Total 1 1 75

There is evidence of much shale below the bottom of this section.
Section IX. — Section ix is on Boss Allen creek, in 3 S., 18 W. ;
it was obtained by Mr. Griswold.^

FEET.

Shale with some sandstone 700

Sandstone 400

Novaculites, etc. (Silurian)

Thickness of the Carboniferous iioo

Besides these sections, mention might be made of a continuous
outcrop of perpendicular sandstone with some thin layers of shale,
which forms the east bank of the Little Missouri in 6 S., 26 W.,
section 25. In this outcrop the beds exposed have apparently a
thickness of 1500 feet.

On the Cossatot, in 6 S., 30 W., section 19, is a continuous ex-
posure of arenaceous shale or shaly sandstone giving a thickness of
600 feet, which is much greater than the exposure of the same rock
elsewhere.

On the Cossatot, in 5 S., 30 W., section 17, is a fine exposure
of sandstone which at this point crosses the river in high massive
ledges from ten to twenty feet thick and dipping north 30°. The
river cuts through these ledges forming a series of cascades known
as the Falls of the Cossatot. The thickness is about 8oo feet.

Stratigraphic Fositiofi of the Beds.

(a) The Novaculite Breccia. — The novaculite breccia was only met
with in quantity a mile north of Amity (see p. 232). It appears
there following the strike of the rocks. Mr. Griswold reports^ a
novaculite conglomerate or breccia occurring just at the top of the
novaculite series. This is thought by Dr. Branner to be the top
of the lower Silurian strata.

1 Geol. Stirv. of Ark., An. Rep. for 1890, Vol. iii, PI. iii.
''Geol. Surv. of Ark. y An. Rep. for 1890, Vol. ii, p. 300,

242 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

{b) Igneous Rock. — This is well shown at the same locality as the
breccia, and there appears to occupy about the same horizon. It
was found at about a score of places west of the Cossatot, these
being always, where the structure was known, just at the axes of
anticlines ; and, as in many places among the novaculite mountains,
it is found very close to the novaculite, it may be safely assumed
that it is but a short distance above the novaculite, and may well
be taken, as has been suggested, as the dividing line between the
Silurian and the Carboniferous.^

(f) The Thin Bed of Novaculite and Associated Shales. — Notwith-
standing the large number of places at which this bed was met with,
it only appears in one of the columnar sections. In the Saline sec-
tion it appears not much more than one hundred and fifty feet
above the top of the black novaculite and shales. It is usually ex-
posed near anticlines; in many cases, exposures are found on
each side of the anticline. This would place it low in the series,
but the distance between the exposures, frequently a quarter of a
mile, and the distance of exposures from the thick-bedded novacu-
lite, where exposed in the fold over a novaculite ridge, suggest that
generally this thin layer of novaculite is several hundred feet above
the black novaculite. Considering the thickness of the bed, from
three to ten inches, it is remarkably persistent ; the most southern
exposures in township 7 S. appearing practically identical in thick-
ness and character with the exposures close to the novaculite ridges.

In the Saline section it is in a thick bed of sandstone. In a fine
exposure on the Caddo in 5 S., 23 W., section 21, northwest corner,
there are thick beds of shale above and below it, and it shows this
difference in many exposures.

Whether or not it is above or below the lowest of the beds which,
by their fossils, are known to be Carboniferous, is not known. If it
is below and belongs to the Silurian novaculites, we must acknowl-
edge the existence of belts of Silurian strata all through the area.
If it is above, as seems possible, we have the remarkable case of
unusual conditions which dominate in one age returning after a
long interval in a much later age, not in a single locality, but wide-
spread though of short duration.

(^) The Grit or Fine Conglomerate. — In PI. i. Sec. iv, on the

1 Geol. Surv. of Ark., An. Rep. for 1890, Vol. i, p. 128, and Vol. ii, p. 375.
For doubt regarding the igneous nature of some ot these beds see footnote on
p. 232.

1S07.] ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 243

Little Missouri, the grit appears about four hundred feet above the
black novaculite. In the Cossatot section it appears east of the
river just below the shales and not more than six hundred feet
above the black novaculite. This, together with the fact that it is
usually found elsewhere close to the anticlines, indicate that it is
not far above the novaculite, probably within a few hundred feet.
Its relation to surrounding beds varies greatly : in places it is just
below thick beds of shale, in other places it is just below thick
beds of sandstone ; hardly any two exposures agreeing, so that
while lithologically it is very similar wherever found, it is quite
possible that the different exposures are only local in extent and
occur in different horizons. In several places, however, the grit
has been traced in more or less continuous exposures for several
miles.

A General Section. — Could we construct a general section it would
be somewhat as follows :

5. Sandstones forming top of exposed beds and having a thick-
ness at one place of four thousand feet or more.

4. A variable set of beds of shale and sandstone measuring at
least several hundred feet in which occur,

(«) A bed of beds or grit.

(^) A thin bed of novaculite and silicious shales.

3. A bed probably of igneous origin, thirty-three feet.

2. A thin bed of novaculite breccia.

I. Silurian novaculites, shales and sandstones.

IV. Fossils and Age of the Strata.

Caddo River Locality. — The first and most promising locality at
which plant remains were found is in 5 S., 21 W., on the tongue
of land just east of the mouth of Point Cedar creek. There is here
a goodexposure of black, carbonaceous shale having a peculiar
hackley fracture. This contains a great many minute fragments of
plants. Only a few are large enough to show any characters ; of
these the most common are long stems showing no branches, but
ribbed longitudinally. These stems average a quarter of an inch
in width by several inches in length. They are the most common
fossils found in the area. They occur at several places, but at none
of these places were any obtained which would permit a closer
identification than that they were the stems of some plant. There

244 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

was also found at this point a fragment of a larger stem showing
leaf scars. The original material of the specimen has been car-
bonized. The specimen was not identified. Small round stems
are also found at this place, but though showing some structure un-
der the microscope, they were not identified. This and the next
were the only localities found which promise fossils of value on
further exploration.

Bluff Mountain Locality. — Sparsely scattered through the shale
and sandstones forming the northern part of the bluff on the west
side of Antoine creek at Bluff mountain in 7 S., 23 W., section 34,
were found many fragments of stems similar to those mentioned
above.

Suck Creek Locality. — The same kind of stems were also found
in a loose block, well up on the north bank of Suck creek in 7 S.,
23 W., section 30, at the bend where the creek changes from an
east to a south course.

Chalybeate Mountain Locality. — Where the Caddo Gap road
crosses the Chalybeate mountain in 7 S., 24 W., section i, the
rocks exposed in working the road near the top show traces of plant
life, but nothing was found that could be identified.

Little Missouri Locality near Mu7'freesboro. — On the Little Mis-
souri river in 8 S., 25 W., section 6, a few of the stems common to
this region were found in an argillaceous sandstone.

Little Missouri Locality near Pine Mountain. — Plant fragments
like those mentioned above were also found on the Little Missouri
in 5 S., 27 W., section 23, in the shales in the bend of the river
half a mile north of where Pine mountain strikes the river.

Little Missouri Locality near Gap. — A short distance south of
the Gap in 5 S., 27 W., section 5, at the south end of the layers
of shaly sandstone, the shale or sandstone is full of carbonaceous
streaks and patches, which prove to be remains of stems of plants
very poorly preserved. The impression of a stem with a thorn
was found at this point. The stratigraphic position of this locality
is shown on PI. i, Sec. iv, the specimens are from the top of the
arenaceous shale just below the grit shown, and only about 300 feet
above the black novaculite and shale.

Star-of'the- West Locality. — On the south bank of the creek (just
south of Star-of-the-West), at the foot of the hill, was found a sec-
tion of a stem an inch and a half in diameter which is probably
a Calamites. This was found loose on the hillside and probably
came from the shales which form the bank at this point.

1897

ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 245

Panther Bluff Locality. — At Panther Bluff on the Saline river in
6 S., 29 W., section -^-Ti^ shales are interbedded with sandstones,
and in these shales a fragment showing the peculiar ribbing and
jointing of the Calamites was found. This was the only specimen
found of which the genus could be determined with certainty.

Saiifie River Locality near Antimofiy Cave. — Prof. Purdue found
fragments of plants on the Saline at the bend just above Arsenic
Cave in 7 S., 29 W., section 21. They are too poorly preserved
for identification.

Animal Remains.

Some fragments of crinoid stems and a few bryozoans, were
found in a loose quartzite boulder near the crossing of Antoine
creek by the Old Military road (8 S., 23 W., section 24). The
only other evidences of animal life found were what are thought to
be tracks of worms or crustaceans. These were found at two
localities in 5 S., 23 W., section 31, on the Amity-Kirby road,
a quarter of a mile west of the crossing of the North Fork of
Antoine creek, and also in section 14, on a knoll southeast of Sugar
Loaf mountain.

Geologic Age of the Rocks.

The age of the Silurian strata has been determined by means of
the numerous graptolites found in the shales associated with the
novaculite. The shales containing these graptolites have been cor-
related with the Norman's Kill beds of New York, and are referred
to the lower portion of the Trenton series.^ These fossils fix the
age of the Silurian beds.

Of the fossils found in the overlying Lower Coal Measures rocks
only three have any diagnostic value : the two specimens of Cala-
mites and the stem found on the Caddo, which shows the leaf scars.
These plant remains are probably of Carboniferous age. The stems
and other fragments often found are of no value, as they might
occur anywhere from the Cambrian up, but from their association
on the Caddo with the stems believed to be Carboniferous, it has
been assumed that they belong to the Carboniferous, and that all
beds in this particular region in which they occur are Carboniferous.

Upon the above grounds it has been thought safe to refer the
strata above the novaculites to the Carboniferous age. The grits
which cap the mountains along the northern face of the Boston

1 Geol. Surv. of Ar/c., An. Rep. for 1890, Vol. iii, p. 418, e^ seq.

246 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

mountains gradually dip south and disappear under the heavy beds
of the Coal Measures which fill the syncline of the Arkansas river
basin. If these beds persist to the south they should appear again
on the north side of the Ouachita uplift, and should disappear with
a south dip on the south side of the uplift. The State Geologist
is of the opinion that the grits described in this area represent the
southern extension of the Millstone Grit of north Arkansas. The
two are identical in appearance, except that the rocks of the south-
ern area are never as coarse grained as some of that to the north.

The Millstone Grits of north Arkansas are at the bottom of the
Coal Measures; so that if the grits south of the Ouachita uplift be
correlated with those of north Arkansas we must consider that we
have strata referable to both the Coal Measures and Lower Carbon-
iferous or Mississippian series.

Without regard to time, it seems highly probable that the strata
south of the Ouachita uplift were originally continuous with those
just north of it. No direct proof of this has been found, nor has
anything been found that conflicts with this theory.

Previous Correlations,

Thomas Nuttall, who was in this part of Arkansas in 1819, pub-
lished many observations on the geology, but he found no fossils in
these lower sandstones and made no attempt to correlate them.^

In 1834, G. W. Featherstonhaugh, U. S. Geologist, made an
examination of the elevated country between the Missouri and Red
rivers."

He passed along the eastern edge of our region and down the
Ouachita river. The ferruginous sandstones he referred to the Old
Red Sandstone (Devonian) of England, which he thought to rest
upon the grauwacke, the grauwacke being the shales and shaly sand-
stones at the bottom of the series.

He failed to recognize the intimate relation between the shale and
sandstone or the folded condition of the strata. He was originally

1 " Observations on the Geological Structure of the Valley of the Mississippi,"
by Thomas Nuttall, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. of Philadelphia, Vol. ii, Pt. i. Phila.,
1821, pp. 48-52.

■■2 Geological Report on an Examination fnade in ISoJ/, of the Elevated Coun-
try between the Missouri and Red Rivers, by G. W. Featherstonhaugh, Wash-
ington, 1835, P- 71-

1897.J ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 247

led to this classification, as Marcou ^ and others have been, by find-
ing at Little Rock the highly contorted shales at the '* Little Rock "
and a few miles above, at '^ Big Rock," the almost horizontal sand-
stone strata. In 1842, Dr. W. Byrd Powell ^ questioned Feather-
stonhaiigh's correlation with the grauwacke, but he accepted it as
the best that could be given, but included the sandstones in the same
classification. Dr. Englemann saw something of the region be-
tween Little Rock and Hot Springs, but he found no fossils, and the
only suggestion as to correlation was that the sandstone at Little
Rock was '' most probably analogous to that of Lake Superior."'

Owen refers this region to the Millstone Grit,"* including in
the same formation the novaculites, which we now know to be
Silurian.

He concludes that these beds have an immense thickness from
observing sections many miles long, where the beds appear to dip
steadily in one direction. This has since been shown to be due to
a number of consecutive overturns.

Subsequent Observers. — Since the beginning of the present survey,
several of its members have crossed this region. No fossils were
found, and so, though Mr. Branner provisionally referred these
beds to the Lower Carboniferous,* he thought it better to speak of
them simply as Paleozoic.

Extent of Beds.

It can be assumed with some degree of certainty that the strata
exposed over the area under discussion are continuous. This refers
only to the beds as a whole, not to individual layers.

The extent to the south and east can only be conjectured, but as
no thinning out could be detected, the strata may have had a con-
siderable extent in those directions.

As will be discussed later, it has been suggested that the Ouachita

1 Exploration and Survey for a Railroad from the Mississippi River to the
Pacific Ocean, Vol. iii, Pt. iv, p. 122.

"^ A Geological Report upon the Fourche Cove and its Immediate Vicijiity, hy
W. Byrd Powell, M.D., Litde Rock, 1842.

'^ Froc. A. A. A. S., v, 1S51, p. 199.

* Second Report of a Geological Reconnoissance of the Middle and Southern
Counties of Arkansas, made during the years 1859-61, by D. D. Owen, Phila-
delphia, i860, pp. 32, 33, 95, no, 124.

• Geol. Surv. of Ark.,A.n. Rep. for 18S8, Vol. ii, p. 262.

248 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF AKKANSAS. [May 13,

uplift is a remnant of a westward extension of the Appalachian
chain. As this view presents certain difficulties, there has also been
advanced the theory that that westward extension, if it existed, was
to the south, possibly crossing the northern part of Louisiana. In
such a case these beds may have been continuous with, though
varying from, the Carboniferous exposures on the west of the Ap-
palachians.

To the west the same beds run into the Indian Territory, and the
Carboniferous is found as far west as the looth meridian and in
Texas as far south as the thirty-first parallel.

To the north the strata are thought to have been originally con-
tinuous with the strata just north of the Ouachita uplift.

Several attempts to prove this continuity were made, but without
much success, though nothing to the contrary was found.

Direction and Conditions of Depositions,

Mr. Griswold, from his study of the novaculite area, came to the
conclusion that the sediments with which he had to deal came from
the south. ^ This was largely based upon the fact that the sand-
stones overlying the novaculite on the south are largely represented
on the north by shales. Apparently the same fact is also to be ob-
served in our area. This is shown by the difference in the topog-
raphy : almost no shale being met with in the southern part
of the region, and east and west valleys of any breadth are un-
common, while as the novaculite mountains are approached there
are broad valleys with frequent exposures of shale. It was at first
thought that this might be due to the strata as a whole having a
slight south dip, so that the shales, which are low in the series, were
not as fully exposed, but, as will be shown later, the proof is to the
contrary. There also appears to be more shale exposed over the
eastern part than over the western ; but this is not marked enough
to make one feel sure but that greater erosion may have had some-
thing to do with the difference.

V. General View of Structure After Folding.

In Fig. I is given a generalized section across the State in a
north-south line through range 30 W.

"^Geol. Survey of Ark. ^ Rep, for 1890, Vol. iii, p. 193.

1897.]

ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS.

249

This section has been compiled from observa-
tions by members of the survey.^

It shows a monocline on the north, a syncline
in the centre, an anticline south of that, and a
nonconformity at the southern limit.

The gradual change from practically horizontal
strata on the north to highly folded on the south
is also shown.

At the north Silurian strata are exposed, but on
going south these gradually sink beneath Carbon-
iferous deposits, to appear again in the great anti-
cline of the Ouachita uplift. On disappearing
again they continue but a short distance below the
surface, until they and the overlying Carboniferous
beds are covered by the gently dipping Cretaceous
strata.

The section is given to show the relation of the
area under discussion to the general section of
western Arkansas. The line on which the section
is made crosses the Ouachita uplift not far from
its western nose, so that the Silurian outcrop is
very small compared with what it would be on a
north-south line further east, and likewise the Car-
boniferous outcrop south of the Silurian would be
narrower in a section further east.

Historical.

None of the early writers on the geology of
Arkansas seem to have made any attempt to work
out the structure of the Ouachita uplift, or of the
region immediately south of it.

Comsiock} — The first attempt to give system to
the folds was made by Dr. Theo. B. Comstock

i\Vinslow, «' Geotectonic and Physiographic Geology of
Western Arkansas," Bulletin Geological Society of Ainer-
ica. Vol. ii, pp. 225-242, Fig. I ; Geol. Surv. of Ark.,
Rep. for 1 89 1, Vol. iv, sections; Geol. Surv. of Ark.,
Rep. for 1890, Vol. iii, section on Mt. Ida sheet; Gecl.
Surv. of Ark., Rep. for 1888, Vol. ii, sections p. 126.

•^ Geol. Surv. of Ark., Rep. for 1888, Vol. i, pp. 130-
166.

Plate II.

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252 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

in 1887. He worked only in the western part and mapped out
twenty folds and faults having a strike of N. 63° E., and connected
with a similar number near Hot Springs.

That he should have found a uniform strike of N. 63° E. is
difficult to explain, for the strike is extremely variable, seldom
being the same in strata 100 yards apart. At most of the localities
cited by him the strike lacks from 10° to 40° of being N. 6^° E.
The fact that so many ridges run " transverse to all geologic struc-
tural lines," he disposes of by introducing ''some very powerful
cause of greater moment than the twenty folds and faults which cut
across the tract." But as a matter of fact these ridges are strictly
conformable to the structure. The evidences of faulting which he
found are all referable to the simple effects of erosion upon tilted
beds, some of which are much harder than others. Considering the
shortness of the time spent in the region and the obscurity of the
structure, even at the best, and that outside of the river channels
good exposures are rare and generally unsatisfactory, and that in
the first of his field work, where the structure was more evident, the
ridges have a trend of northeast-southwest, it is readily seen how he
fell into error.

Subsequent Observers. — From that time until the work herein re-
ported was taken up all the work done was such observations as dif-
ferent members of the survey made in traversing the region. These
observations soon disclosed the errors of previous work, but did
not reveal the number or closeness of the axes.

The Cross Sections. -

An idea of the folding can be gained from the north-south sec-
tions on PL n (see p. 250).

The Antoine Section. — Fig. i gives a section through the centre
of range 23 W. The part in township 6 S. is offset five miles, to a
north-south line through Caney Fork P. O. The section in 7 and
8 S. is made along Antoine creek. Its striking general feature is
the prevalence of south dips and overturned folds except at the ends.
The first attempt to make this section gave only one doubtful north
dip in shale. Further, the closeness of folding does not diminish to
the south. The exposures are mostly sandstone, though in many cases
the presence of shale can be inferred from the topography. In the
segment through Caney Fork P. O. the topography is controlled by
the structure, this being almost the only locality in the whole area

S97.1 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF AKKANSAS. 253

where distinct anticlinal ridges with synclinal valleys between were
found.

The Cossatot Section. — Fig. 2, Plate II, gives a section up the
Cossatot river to the mouth of Brushy Fork, and thence up Brushy
Fork to the north line of 4 S. The dip is north with many over-
throws to the south. The southern end is not as closely folded as
would be the case further east. The presence of one or more lay-
ers of shale or shaly sandstone has assisted materially in determining
the structure. The exposures along the Cossatot are more numer-
ous and the structure ascertainable with more certainty than on the
Antoine. The novaculite is not exposed except at the extreme
northern end of the section ; but at many places it cannot be far
from the surface, as it comes to the surface but a short distance east
in Rachel and Raspberry mountains, and a short distance west in
Cross mountain.

Directio7i and Genei'al Character of the Folds.

Eastern Sheet. — The structure of the eastern portion of the Lower
Coal Measures area is obscure, and, as the map shows, but little
understood.

This is due to three causes. Principally the prevalence of over-
turns ; next, the fact that erosion has progressed until the streams
are comparatively slow, with banks neither high nor precipitous,
thus presenting few fresh exposures of rock ; and again, the wide
distribution of water-worn material which conceals everything.

From these causes the number of exposures found giving a dip
and strike would average less than one to the square mile ; in many
townships they are as low as one in four to eight square miles. If a
complete structural map of the region could be made it would prob-
ably show many more folds than are here indicated. At the eastern
end of the map the anticlines and synclines all run nearly due
west. In range 21 W. they all bend south, running 12° to 15°
south of west. The Suck creek anticline and Bell's creek anticline
are exceptions to this rule.

West of range 23 the folds in township 4 S. regain their due
west course, the folds to the south maintaining the direction of 12°
to 15° south of west. Of the anticlines shown, about one-half are
overturns. Indications suggesting the existence of many other
overturns were found, but they were not well enough marked to
warrant their insertion.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI. 155, R. PRINTED AUGUST 6, 1897.

254

ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS.

[May 13,

The Western Sheet. — The western half of the area offered some-
what better facilities for working out the structure, due principally
to the existence of four large streams running across the folds from
north to south. These streams are rapid, and frequently they cut
their way through the ridges in deep, steep-banked gorges for long
distances. Rocky cliffs seldom occur, but the shallow creek bottoms
afford many exposures of rocks. Between these streams exposures
are as scarce as further east.

On the other hand the topography is of much service in suggest-
ing structure. It is through the suggestions thus given by the
topography that the connections between the exposures of axes
have been worked out.

In townships 3 and 4 S. the strike of the folds is east-west or a
little north of west. In 5 S. the strike is nearly always about due
east-west. In 6 S. the strike is a little south of west, becoming due
west as the Indian Territory line is approached.
In 7 S. the slightly south of west strike is main-
tained.

Thus it will be noticed that as the Indian Terri-
tory line is approached the fold tends to spread
out like a partly opened fan. This results in the
folds becoming more open toward the west. While
the strata are closely lolded or overturned on the
Little Missouri and West Saline rivers, on the Cos-
satot they present more simple anticlines, and still
further west, on the Rolling Fork, simple anticlines
and lower dips are still more prevalent. This is
especially true of the southern half of the region.
Where the dotted lines on the map suggest con-
tinuity of the axes, it is not necessarily implied that
the anticlines are strictly continuous ; as the com-
plete structure, if known, might show two or more
anticlines where only one is indicated, and these
might be strung along in a line or be slightly out of
line with the ends overlapping or running past each
other.

Structural Types.

V •••■.•:•■■ •

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■■''.■■'■.■■. \''.

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Fig. 2.— Col-
umnar section of
Paleozoic rocks
south of the
Ouachita moun-
tains.

As introductory to tracing out the anticlines and
synclines in the next chapter, it may be well to

189,.) ASHLEY— GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 255

Study briefly the effect upon the topography of such a section as
here exists, when folded and the much eroded.

FIGS. 3-6.-Sectio„s show.ng types of structure in the Paleozoic region of

southwest Arkansas.

256 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

Let Fig. 2 be a very generalized columnar section, in which (a)
represents the Silurian novaculites, {I?) the sandstone immediately
overlying the novaculites, {c) the variable thickness of sandstones
and shales, {d) massive sandstones, and (<?) the great thickness of
soft and hard sandstones forming most of the section.

The topography developed upon these beds will depend to a
great extent upon the character of the folds. In the case of a sim-
ple fold, such as are shown on Figs. 3 and 4, where erosion has
eaten down until the hard sandstones are exposed, an anticlinal
ridge will follow the axis with a valley on either side. Figs. 3 and
4 show the effect of the dip upon the width and character of the
valleys. As a rule it is found that, of the ridges formed by the
sandstones overlying the shales, the one on the side from which the
principal drainage comes is cut down so as not to present an abrupt
face. Fig. 5, shows the effect of two such anticlines close together.

Generally one side of the anticline is steeper than the other, as
is suggested in Fig. 8, when this becomes overturned the effect is
modified slightly, as is shown in Fig. 6.

Where shale underlies the sandstone of the anticlinal axis, in
time this anticline becomes breached (Fig. 7), and the topography
resembles that of which the Wall mountain (Figs. 27 and 28) is an
excellent example.

If erosion has not cut down to the underlying sandstone, the
result will be the same, except that the anticlinal ridge is omitted
and the valley will be narrower, possibly very much narrower.
Such an anticline (Fig. 8), is difficult to locate accurately. This
is a common type; it is illustrated by the Prairie Bayou anticline
(Fig. 16).

Overturns of the kind shown in Fig. 9, are very difficult to
recognize ; the mere presence of the shaly layers is frequently
the only suggestion of their presence. If the shaly layers were as
surely located and as completely isolated as in the general section,
Fig. 2, this could be relied upon ; but, as shown by the columnar
sections of PL I, it cannot be taken alone as a sure indication.

When the shales of the section are somewhat deeper seated they
may not be brought within range of erosion ; then the topography
gives no clue to the structure. These conditions are illustrated by
Fig. 10.

If an overturn occurs under such conditions as those suggested
in Fig. II, unless an exposure is found at the axis, it will generally
pass unnoticed.

1897.] ASHLEY— GEOLOGr OF ARKANSAS.

257

Figs. 7-1 i.— Sections showing types of structure and topography.

258 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

In each of these cases, while erosion is the apparent agency, the
real determining factor is the comparative elevations of the original
surfaces as compared with the average elevations of the surround-
ing region.

The anticlines may vary in height at different points, however,
and a single anticline may represent almost every feature figured ;
for, as it begins low and gradually rises, it may expose at first only
the upper sandstones, then the shales, then anticlinal ridges due to
sandstones in or under the shales, as shown diagrammatically in
Fig. 12. The anticlines which near the end may have low dips on
either side, may be overturned near the centre or for much of its
course.

Fig. 12. — Diagram of topography at the end of an anticline.

Under the circumstances represented in Fig. 12 it would seem an
easy matter to locate and accurately define the anticlines and syn-
clines. As a matter of fact, almost no such evident structural
topography is met with in the region under consideration.

While the topography is largely concordant with the structure,
many disturbing elements enter which vitiate any conclusions that
may be based upon topography alone. On account of causes to
be spoken of later, the main drainage systems of the area are only
slightly controlled by structure, their general trend being oblique
or transverse to the strike of the folds. This results in a double
series of valleys cutting each other at all angles ; and through the
same causes the main divides are also transverse to the structure and
on these for a width of from half a mile to several miles the
topography is usually not well enough marked to indicate struc-
ture. Many other local and minor causes, such as change in the
character of the rocks, faulting, crushing of strata, constant varia-
tion in the character of the folds, and others enter as factors to
complicate the topography. Though it is probable that the topog-
raphy, if worked out in detail, would be found to be closely
governed by the structure, modified by the factors mentioned,

1897.]

ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS.

259

yet, when it is considered that, on account of the density of the
forest, it is but rarely that the '* lay of the land " can be made out
for more than one or two hundred yards from the course pursued,
it will be understood why, in a rapid reconnaissance like that un-
dertaken, but little more than suggestions could be obtained from
the topography. For these reasons the structure has, in no case,
been assumed from the topography alone.

Overturns. — Overturns are a common feature of the area. In
Fig. 13 is a simple overturn, and on the right side (Fig. 14) are
shown the corresponding dips of beds at surfaces of different levels
as AB, CD, EF, GH. Thus, in the case of A'B' the axis is readily
recognized ; but remembering that no correlation of beds can be
made, the section at that point would naturally be interpreted as an

^ -^

B'

1^ '^^ ^S. D

'^^i ^ ^ "^rt'

Figs. 13, 14.-

-Diagrams illustrating the structures shown by eroding an
overturn to different depths.

anticline at b and a syncline at a. Such overturns are liable to
lead to a confusion which can only be cleared up by careful detailed
work.

In CD' and E'F', the structure is the same, but is somewhat
modified.

Most of the overturns found have been eroded so as to give ex-
posures between those of CD' and E'F'. Sometimes there is a
marked change in the dip on the two sides, as a low north dip on
the upper side and a high north dip in the underfolded strata.

In such a case an overturn is suggested, and if an exposure giving
a dip contrary to the general dip can be found, as c in CD', it has
generally been considered as confirming the probable existence of
an overturn at that point.

In many cases the only actual evidence obtainable is a single dip
or two contrary to the general direction of dip. In such a case.

260 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF AEKAXSAS. [May 13,

the suggestion thus given may often be strengthened by the presence
of shales, or of the thin bed of novaculite and silicious shale, all of
which are believed to be low in the columnar sections and there-
fore, if exposed at all, would be near the axis. In a few cases the
presence of the igneous rock or of parallel outcrops of the thin
bedded novaculite and silicious shales was considered as a possible
evidence of an anticlinal axis. In only a few cases could the actual
continuity of the beds be traced.

When erosion has cut down to the level GH, it is next to im-
possible to recognize the axis unless a good exposure of rocks low
in. the series occurs directly in the axis.

When all these fail there has been tried successfully, in cases
where the overturn is suspected, the plan of tracing an anticline
into the disputed locality. Thus in Fig. 15 a layer of sandstone is

Figs. 15, 16. — Diagrams illustrating the changes of dip and strike in the
development of an overturned anticline.

represented as rising from a low anticline and merging into a high
overturn. Were the block planed off, the outcrop would have some
such shape as that shown in Fig. 16, on one side the dip remaining
constant in direction, and probably not varying much in amount ;
on the side toward the observer not only is the outcrop curved
somewhat, but the low dip at the further side gradually rises, finally
becomes perpendicular, and then is reversed by the complete over-
turn of the fold.

In no case were continuous outcrops of that character found, but
the plan used was to select some unusually hard layer or layers in-
volved in the overturn, and to trace them partly by means of out-
crops and partly by means of the scattered blocks on the surface,

1897.J ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 261

which resisting decay would indicate the presence of the hard
layers beneath. Many of the overturns in the eastern part of the
area were worked out in this way.

To resume, overturns may be suggested or located : (i) by the
existence of anticlines to the east or west of a given locality ; (2) by
the prevalence over an unusually broad area of high dips in one
direction ; (3) by topographic relief; (4) by the exposure in parallel
outcrops of deep-seated beds.

VI. Detailed Structure on the Eastern Sheet.

The detailed structure will be described under the artificial
divisions made by the two map sheets of the area. The two
general divisions of the eastern sheet may be studied under :

T. The Caddo Valley.

2. The area of drift, the Chalybeate mountain being taken as
the northern edge of the area of drift.

Eastern Portion of Caddo River Valley.

The Caddo valley may be divided into an east and west portion,
the dividing line being in range 22 W.

As will be explained more fully elsewhere, the topography of the
portion of the eastern sheet north of the Chalybeate mountain,
while broken up by divides and ridges into minor valleys, is a broad
valley, differing in manyVays from the country south of Chalybeate
mountain.

Blakeley Creek Anticline. — The limits of this anticline were not
definitely determined, but the ridge produced by it is between 100
and 150 feet high and five miles long, running from 4 S., 18 W.,
section 27, to 4 S., 19 W., section 26, along the south side of
Blakeley creek. The ridge is of novaculite, but the novaculite bed
is only poorly exposed. The ridge is serrated (as illustrated under
Prairie Bayou anticline, Fig. 16), steep on the north side, the south
side forming a water-shed to Prairie Bayou. It is highly probable
that this anticline is continued further east, connecting with the
one a mile and a half north of Social Hill.

Mijior Anticlines. — Two minor anticlines were found in 4 S.,
18 W., south half of section 29.

By minor anticlines is meant those in which the evidence of fold-
ing is meagre, or which could not be traced or other evidence of

2&2 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

their existence found, or in which the thickness of the beds would
indicate a small fold compared with the majority of folds. The
evidence in most of these cases is only negative, but many of these
so-called minor anticlines may prove to be quite as important as
some which better exposures have disclosed more satisfactorily.

T/ie Prairie Bayou Anticline. — Fig. 17 will give an idea of the
structure of the Prairie Bayou anticline and of its accompanying
topography, which may be taken as a type of the serrated ridges.
The topography is a gentle slope draining from the top of the ridge
next north leading to a long narrow valley, perfectly flat and
covered by a deposit of novaculite gravel. This little valley is
bounded on the south by a nearly perpendicular bluff 100 feet high,
at whose base flows Prairie Bayou. From the top of the bluff the
ground slopes gently south.

The anticline was first observed in the prairie from which Prairie

^Sanders Creels

Fig. 17. — Section across Prairie Bayou anticline at Sanders Post-office.

Bayou takes its name in 4 S., 18 W., section 33. At that point it
seems to be an overturn of the type CD', Fig. 14 (preceding chap-
ter). From here it can be traced up the valley of Prairie Bayou,
keeping close to the township line between 4 and 5 S., until in
4 S., 19 W., section 31, it becomes a simple anticline. The head
of the east and west valley is at this point. It is crossed by the
Arkadelphia-Hot Springs road in 4 S., 20 W., section 36, about an
eighth of a mile north of the township line. The existence of
several good springs on the axis along its western part should be
noted. Westward from where it is crossed by the Hot Springs
road the country is flat, and no indication of the axis is found until
in 4 S., 20 W., section 31, where an anticline brings novaculite to
the surface on the Big Hill creek. The ridge is 75 or 100 feet
high and half a mile long ; it is probably a continuation of the
Prairie creek anticline.

Valley Fork Overturn. — In 5 S., 20 W., on the line between
sections 3 and 4, De Roche creek cuts through a fifty-foot ridge a

1897.J ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 268

couple of hundred yards north of the crossing of the old Malvern-
Murfreesboro road. The upper beds of the novaculite appear at the
surface, but in a very small exposure. The structure appears to be
an overturn. In 5 S., 20 W,, section 6, on Big Hill creek, dips in the
shale suggest that this overturn crosses the creek a little north of the
half mile line. In 5 S., 21 W., section 4, on the Valley Fork of
Point Cedar creek, half a mile north of Valley post-office, a seventy-
five foot ridge is cut by the stream, exposing novaculite in thin
ledges for a total thickness of 100 feet. The dip is perpendicular,
indicating an overturn of the type G'H', Fig. 14. The connection
between this and the first exposure is doubtful, but having the same
structure, and being in the same strike, it may be assumed that they
are the same. West of the exposure on Valley Fork, the overturn
can be traced into an anticline which is crossed by a branch of
Point Cedar creek in 5 S., 21 W., section 7, northeast quarter.
The strike from Valley Fork west is a little south of west. No
trace of it was found further west, unless a small anticline on Cox's
creek in 5 S., 22 W., section 9, southwest quarter be a continuation
of it.

Minor Anticlines. — A small anticline is crossed by the Arkadel-
phia-Hot Springs road in 5 S., 20 W., in the south half of section i ;
and another in 5 S., 20 W., north half of section 9, by De Roche
creek.

BayoiL Delile Overturn. — The Bayon Delile in its upper course
runs east for some distance along the foot of a 75 or 100 foot ridge,
finally turns south and cuts through the ridge in 5 S., 18 W., ex-
posing an overturn in the gap with its overthrow to the south. This
overturn shows again in perpendicular dips in 5 S., 19 W., section
15. It appears again to the south in 5 S., 20 W., just south of the
northeast corner of section 16, on De Roche creek. It has not
been found further west.

Minor Anticlines. — In 5 S., 20 W., section 16, close to the south-
west corner, on a small branch of De Roche creek, is a small anti-
cline, and again in 5 S., 21 W., section 13, is another or possibly
a continuation of the first. In section 26, on the Caddo an anti-
cline with a southwest strike shows very nicely. In 5 S., 22 W.,
southeast quarter of section 17 and southwest quarter of section 16,
near the south section line, anticlines are exposed on Cox's creek.
Also in the southeast quarter of section 15 a small anticline is ex-
posed on a tributary of Cox's creek.

26-i ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

Through the centre of 5 S., 21 and 22 W., runs a belt about two
and one-half miles broad in which the strata are nearly horizontal,
the dip varying from 0° to 25° a little east of south.

De Roche Creek Anticline. — In 5 S., 20 W., the De Roche creek
anticline is crossed by the Arkadelphia-Hot Springs road in the
centre of the northeast quarter of section 36. Haifa mile further
west, where the axis is crossed by De Roche creek, Mr. Branner
found it well exposed in the bank of the creek. The belt of north
dips, a mile broad here, becomes narrow to the west until, as it
enters 5 S., 21 W., it is less than a quarter of a mile broad, the
axis being crossed by Big Hill creek half a mile from its mouth. It
is crossed by the Caddo a mile west, in the northeast quarter of
section 35, the strike being deflected a little south of west. It has
not been identified further west.

The connection of the axis exposed on De Roche creek with
that on Big Hill creek may be strongly questioned, even though the
evidence obtained points that way. Theoretically it would be
more satisfactory to connect it with the Big Hill creek anticline
next described.

Big Hill Creek Anticline. — Just at the mouth of Big Hill creek in
5 S., 21 W., section 36, a ridge (140') juts boldly out, the rock show-
ing a dip of Z^° S. As an anticline crosses the Caddo a mile west
of this point in section 35, in the same strike, it is probable that
the high ridge is in the axis of an overturn. This ridge is con-
tinued west of the mouth of Big Hill creek, forming a narrow di-
vide between the Caddo and Big Hill creek which here runs east
and parallel to the Caddo a quarter of a mile before running into
it. The south side of this divide is for some distance composed al-
most entirely of a ^^^^ bedding surfaces having a dip of 78° S., 2°
W. For a mile or two north of where this anticline is crossed by
the Caddo the structure is not clear, the dip varying rapidly ; evi-
dences of a fault are abundant, but the amount of throw could not
be determined.

Caddo River Anticline. — The Caddo river anticline is thought to
start in an anticline near the Ouachita river, a little south of the
centre of 5 S., 18 W., which is crossed by the military road east of
the centre of section 29.

In 5 S., 19 W., an overturn which has been assumed to be on
the same anticlinal axis shows nicely on Waterhole branch, a tribu-
tary of De Roche creek, in the southern part of section 34. The

1897.] ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 265

overthrow is to the north, of the type G'H', Fig. 13, and an ap-
proximate correlation of strata is possible. In the northern part of
township 6 S., ranges 19 to 22 W., is a long shale valley just north
of the Chalybeate mountain, occupied to the east by De Roche
creek, further west by the Caddo river, and still further west by
Brushy creek. In various parts of this valley there is much indi-
rect evidence of an anticline or overturn, but, aside from those
mentioned above, at only two places was direct evidence obtained,
and that was not very satisfactory. In 6 S., 20 W., section 10,
near the northwest corner is a round mound 80-100 feet high giv-
ing a dip of 75° N., 7° E. on the north side and 60° S., 2° W., on
the south sidej and in 6 S., 21 W., northeast quarter of section
12, at the bend in the Caddo there is some appearance of over-
turning. Scattered perpendicular dips in shales on. about the same
line would suggest that an anticline or overturn passed through the
two points mentioned.

Western Portion of the Caddo River Valley.

In this division the structure is in several cases well displayed by
anticlinal ridges which rise sharply from the broad valleys here
predominating. The structures in these broad valleys is obscure,
as might be expected, and in some portions the shale and in-
terbedded sandstones have been twisted, faulted and jammed to-
gether until they defy all attempts to work out the original struc-
ture.

In 5 S., 22 W., Dr. J. P. Smith reports^ four anticlines north of
the Caddo river, the most southern of which is probably the same
as the overturn giving the novaculite ridge north of Rock creek.
It is probably this anticline which appears at the bend of the
Caddo in 5 S., 23 W., section 17.

Sugar Loaf Creek Anticline. — In 5 S., 23 W., in section i or
2, near the section line, on Sugar Loaf creek is one of the few ex-
amples of an anticline where the axis is exposed, showing the beds
closely bent on themselves. This exposure occurs at a road cross-
ing where the creek makes a sharp turn to the east. It may be a
continuation of one of the anticlines found by Dr. Smith.

Caney Fork Anticline. — In 5 S., 23 W., at the bend of the Caddo
in section 11 is another case of an overturn showing well in the

^ Geol. Siirv. of Ark. ^ Rep. for 1 890, Vol. iii, Mount Ida sheet.

266

ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS.

[May 13,

axis.^ The axis is crossed by the Caddo again in section i6 near
the mouth of Caney Fork. It forms a fifty-foot ridge running
along the south side of the Caddo. In section 1 6 it is crossed by
the river again just south of where it turns east, and again a quarter
of a mile further west in section 17. In 5 S., 24 W., there is an
overturn in the northern part of section 24 showing poorly on and
near the Amity-Rock creek road. This may be a continuation of
the preceding, and if it is, it is probable that this anticline may
be considered as running up the Rock creek valley near the middle
east and west section line of the township. It is the determining
factor in the structure of the northern part of Pine mountain.

Fig. 18. — Contorted sandstone, shale, and novaculite exposed on the Caddo;
100 feet wide by 50 feet high.

In 5 S., 23 W., the northwest corner of section 21, on the Caddo,
is one of the best exposures of the thin bedded novaculite and si-
licious shales and in the shales, on either side are good examples of
contorted strata. Fig. 18 shows the wrinkling of these beds.
There is also here a small but good example of a reversed fault
having a throw of two and one-half feet.

Sugar Loaf Mountain Anticline. — In 5 S., 23 W., the northeast

1 Photographs were obtained of many of the more interesting structural fea-
tures of the region, but through an accident nearly three dozen of the best nega-
tives were destroyed when it was too late to replace them.

1897.] ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 267

quarter of section 14 is a sugar-loaf-shaped knob of novaculite
about 200 feet high making a conspicuous landmark, as the country
for a few miles in every direction is comparatively level. This may
be a continuation of the Haw Knob anticline, the evidence being
insufficient to decide the question.

The Haw Knob Anticline. — The Haw Knob anticline is first
met with in a small ravine in 5 S., 23 W., about the centre of sec-
tion 22. Half a mile southwest it is crossed by the Amity-Caddo
Gap road, novaculite being exposed on either side of the road.
Running southwest the novaculite produces a ridge which, though
broken at two places, rises until at the western end, in the northeast
quarter of section 29, where it is nearly three hundred feet high, it
forks and ends abruptly. Farther west it appears to be continuous
with an anticline on a branch of Antoine creek in section 30 north-
west quarter and another anticline a mile further west in 5 S., 24
W., section 25, quarter of a mile north of the centre. The inter-

FiG. 19. — Section across a stream tohuvv-
ing an anticline.

mediate structure, however, is too broken to allow of direct con-
nection being traced.

This structure seems to show that Pine mountain, running east
and west through the centre of 5 S., 24 W., is synclinal in its
structure.

Minor Anticlines. — Between the Haw Knob and Amity anticlines
the structure seems to be a syncline with the layers near the surface
crumpled into a number of small folds. Along the Amity-Caddo
Gap road in 5 S., 23 W., section 27 and 22, several anticlines are
exposed. On the Caddo, in 5 S., 23 W., section 13, two overturns
are exposed, one on the east bank close to where the Caddo crosses
the south section line of section 13, and the other on the western
side at the mouth of a small drain a little below where the Caddo
crosses the west section line of section 13. The latter fold is a gap-
ing anticline along which the stream flows. Fig. 19 shows a section

268

ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS.

[May 13,

across the fold. Exposures of igneous rocks are common in the
region of these small anticlines.

Amity Anticline. — The Amity anticline is first noticed as a nose
on the Caddo in 5 S., 23 W., near the centre of section 24. By
means of a quartzite layer it was traced southwest into the novac-
ulite ridge just north of Amity. It makes a low rise, exposing
novaculite just east of the Amity-Hot Springs road in the southeast
quarter of section 27 ; it forms the low ridge, seven hundred yards
long, just north of Amity. This anticline can be traced by means
of the large novaculite blocks strewn on the ground for a quarter

Fig. 20. — Faulted sandstones near Amity, Clark county (5 S., 23 W., section
30, S. E. quarter).

of a mile west of the end of the ridge along the direction of the
strike. Where it crosses a small drain in section 33 the horizontal
outcrops of the rocks are sharply bent, without fracturing, through
an arc of 110°. In the northeast quarter of section 31, an anti-
cline in the same strike crosses a tributary of the north fork of An-
toine creek. It has not been distinguished further west. Near the
last mentioned exposure is a curious example of faulting of the
rocks; it is illustrated in Fig. 20. This fold is of interest as being
the most southern anticline to bring thick bedded novaculite to the
surface. The structure is overturned where the novaculite is ex-
posed.

Minor Anticline. — In 5 S., 23 W., section 31, the southeast quar-
ter, the dips indicate the existence of ah anticline which is seen

1897.]

ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS.

269

again in the same strike in 6 S., 24 W., section 2, where a small
drain crosses the township line, near the north and south half-mile
line of the section. This region between the Amity and Big Bear
anticlines has been very badly crushed in 5 S., 23 W., sections 31
to 33. Fig. 21 is an example of crushing in shale exposed in a

Fig. 21. — Examples of crushed shale
in 5 S., 23 W., section t,^-

creek bottom in section ^2>i northwest quarter. In the southwest
quarter of section t,^)^ ^^ ^^^^ junction of two small creeks, is a fault
with an offset in the outcrop of several yards, the sandstone layers
being sharply jammed together and the shales tightly squeezed.
Fifty yards from this point up the stream that enters from the west,
the way the shales are crowded upon the end of a hard layer of

Stream

Fig. 22. — Shale in the bed of a stream showing secondary
movement.

sandstone suggests that the movement may have taken place since
the stream eroded away the part of the Imrd layer which is gone
(see Fig. 22).

An Overturjt. — In 5 S., 22 W., section 32, near the northwest
corner are evidences (stronger in section 31, north of centre of
section) of an overturn. The overturn follows up a little creek,

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXYI. loO. S. PKI^•TED AUGUST 11, 1897.

270 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKi^XSAS. [May 13,

the thin bed of novaculite and siliceous shale being exposed along
the axis. In 5 S., 23 W., the axis strikes S., 20° W., across section
2S to ^6, being readily traced by the fragments of novaculite over
the surface. Passing into 6 S., 23 W., it follows the same course,
the novaculite being exposed on both sides of the axis. In 6 S.,
24 W., it crosses the north fork of Antoine creek just north of the
crossing of the Alpine-Kirby road, where the anticline is no
longer overturned.

Big Bear Mountain Overturn. — The Big Bear mountain over-
turn is almost .in the strike of the last-mentioned one, but at the
eastern end it seems to be deflected to the south. This anticline
starts in 6 S., 24 W., section 11, southeast quarter, runs a little
north of west for half a mile, then turns and runs S., 70° W., into
6 S., 25 W., on the western sheet, the southeast quarter of section
14 at the crossing of the Kirby-Murfreesboro road.

The Little Bear mountain, to be described later, is in this same
strike, but its eastern end is deflected south, much as the eastern
end of the Big Bear mountain is ; otherwise the Bear mountains
and the preceding anticline might be considered as a single anti-
cline from the Caddo to the Little Missouri.

The Big Bear mountain anticline produces a high, sharp, irregu-
lar ridge. This ridge, which is about three hundred feet high, rises
from a low, flat country and so makes a conspicuous landmark. It
is the best example of an overturned anticlinal ridge in the region.
The crest is sometimes as sharp as the roof of a house, the hard
layer which makes this crest in many places forming the south
flank of the mountain for a score or two of feet from the top with
a dip of 67°. In several places where there is an exposed dip on
the crest of ten or fifteen feet in length, springs start out from the
very top of the ridge. In 6 S., 24 W., between sections 16 and 17,
it is cut square in two by Gap creek.

While this may be due to the same causes that have allowed the
main streams to run south across the strike of the beds, in this
case the explanation seems to be that it 'is due to a backward cut-
ting stream, an excellent example of which is a small stream on
top of the ridge farther east. One of the little channels starting
from a depression in the crest, as shown in Figs. 23 and 24, has cut
its way along the top but on the side of the crest opposite to that
down which it flows. This has continued until the channel extends
for some distance along the top and has made a deep gap of the

1897.J

ASHLEY— GEOLOGY OF AEKAXSAS.

271

original depression from which it flowed. Given time enough, there
W.11 be formed at that point a gap cut clear to the bottom. The

F,cs. 2., .4._Top of Bear Mountain, showing the deveIop„«„, of a gap.

:i~:etp:'^ ''''- ^^" '- -'-^ -^ "- ^^^' -^ « ^ ^^w p,ace.

272

ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS.

[May 13,

Alpine AnfiWine.— The Alpine anticline was first notedJin;6 S.,
22 W Sec. 9, northeast quarter, in parallel outcrops of thm
bedded novaculite and siliceous shale. It is crossed by the Alpine-
Amity road half a mile northwest of Alpine. In 6 S., 23 W., it
can be traced across sections 13, 14, i.S and 16, having a.strike a

7c^-^S

Figs. 25, 26.— Profiles of Antoine mountain, Pike county, Arkansas.

little south of west. It appears to be crossed by the Amity-Mur-
freesboro road in section 19, southwest quarter. It has not been
found to the west.

1897.] ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF AKKANSAS. 273

Minor anticlines occur in the same township southeast quarter of
section 8 and north half of section 17. Their extent is unknown.

Antoine Mountam Anticline. — Questionable traces of the An-
toine mountain anticline appear in 6 S., 23 W., near the centre of
section 22. In section 19, it forms a ridge extending westward into
6 S., 24 W., through the south half of sections 23 and 24, and probably
forms the ridge across the township along the south side of Wood-
all's creek. The main ridge is two hundred to three hundred feet
high, and is chiefly interesting on account of the anticlinal wall on
its summit. This (see Figs. 25 and 26) is a low irregular wall
about a quarter of a mile long, from the side resembling an old,
ruined fortress. It varies in height and thickness. On the north
side it is in places 15 to 20 feet high; on the south side it is fre-
quently 40 feet high, and in thickness it varies from a wall from
3 to 6 feet thick to a mound-shaped pile of stones. The layers
are not continuous, but the break is not due to faulting. The
wall is composed of a pile of lenticular rock masses suggesting
that while being bent the layers give way in small blocks, and
these, under great pressure or tension, have elongated and assumed
the shape and position as shown, and have been left behind by ero-
sion. The theoretical consideration of thfs is taken up in VIII.
The rock at this point is a firm white standstone showing little or
no signs of metamorphism.

Minor anticlines. — There are two anticlines in 6 S., 24 W. One
first noted in section 24, southwest quarter, was traced a little south
of west to the centre of section 27. It makes a one hundred foot
ridge and probably continues in the same course westward. The
other one forms the low ridge just north of Caney Fork post-office,
running from the centre of section 26 through the south half of
section 27, and probably continues westward. Judging from the
fact that traces of manganese show at the top of the last-mentioned
ridge, the heavy novaculites, or the horizon at which they occur,
cannot be far below the surface.

The Region of the Overwash.

As only four of the anticlines in the region of the overwash
were definitely found at more than one locality, those four will be
spoken of first.

The Mill Creek Anticline. — In 7 S., 21 W., northwest quarter of
section 24, on Mill creek, an anticline is reported by Dr. O. P.

274 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

Hay^ having a strike about 20° north of west. In this same strike
Prof. T. C. Hopkins of this survey found an anticline on Bell's
creek in 7 S., 21 W., section 18, northvvejst quarter, and also in
7 S., 22 W., section 11, southwest quarter, on Terre Noir creek.
This anticline having a strike of N., 7° W., runs at a high angle to
the general trend of the structure of this region.

Straight Mountain Anticline. — The relation of the Straight moun-
tain anticline to the structure of the Chalybeate mountain to the
east is not known ; it is assumed as starting at Antoine creek in
6 S., 23 W., section ^t^, southeast quarter. It produces an anti-
clinal ridge, known as the Straight mountain, from two hundred to
three hundred feet high, running a little south of west into 6 S.,
24 W., section 36, and from this point is continued as the Wall
mountain. It is broken at one point by Kirkland creek, which
makes a gap in it.

Wall Mountain Anticline. — Wall mountain anticline is a continu-
ation of the Straight mountain fold, and runs south of west to the
Little Missouri river, which it reaches in 7 S., 25 W., southwest
quarter of section 7. Starting from the Hot Springs road in 6 S.,
24 W., section 36, for about a mile it forms an anticlinal ridge
three hundred feet high*; beyond this a little stream has cut its way
into the anticline, and lowered it somewhat. This gives an excel-
lent example of a breached anticline (Figs. 27 and 28).

In the sections given in Fig. 27, I shows the profile of the high
unbroken ridge in the background toward the east ; II, III and IV
are successive profiles coming toward the foreground (westward),
showing the cutting down of the centre of the ridge by the stream
which originally cut in, and now drains by way of the gap shown
in section IV ; the full line gives a section on the west side of the
gap. One of the interesting features of this ridge is shown in
the illustration. This is a great wall, at one place about sixty
feet high, crowning the summit of the north arm of the ridge for
more than half a mile. It is composed of a layer of hard sand-
stone eight feet thick, rising perpendicularly. The manner in which
it has withstood erosion is due partly to its hardiness and partly to
its being so exactly vertical that detached masses simply rest in their
places. The outcrop of the same layer of rock shows along the
summit of the southern arm.

This weathering of the rocks in vertical walls is not uncommon

^ Geol. Surv. of Ark., Rep. for 1888, Vol. ii, p. 271.

1897.

ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS.

/

275

Pc^. ^ 7

-I

F"*:^ . X B

Figs. 27, 28.— Map and

ap and sections of Wall

mountain.

276 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. (May 1:5,

on a small scale. In several places, where the heavy layers of sand-
stone are perpendicular at their outcrops, the topography is charac-
terized by these irregular parallel walls, from two or three to ten
feet high, running as far as the eye can reach.

Suck Creek Ove7'iurn. — The Suck creek overturn was only seen
in 8 vS., 23 W., first showing on a small creek in the southeast
quarter of section 13. It is crossed by Antoine creek near the
mouth of Suck creek in the southwest quarter of section 11, show-
ing nicely in a small exposure on the east bank. It was traced up
Suck creek about two miles \ it appears to be an overturn all the
way. Its strike is N., 65° W.

Other Anticlines. — The structure of the Chalybeate mountain
was not solved, but the evidence suggests that it is an underthrown
syncline, with the Caddo river anticline on one side, and on the
south side an anticline of which no trace was found, unless there
could be considered as such, perpendicular dips in 6 S., 22 W.,
section 13, near where the old Camden road leaves the Arkadel-
phia-Mount Ida road, or an exposure of shales apparently in the
axis of an overturn in 6 S., 20 W., northern part of section 26, on
the Caddo.

In 7 S., 21 W., section 10, an anticline is crossed by a tributary
of Winfred creek in the northern part of the section, and another
is crossed by Winfred creek in the southwest quarter. These have
a strike of S., 65° W. In section 6 an anticline is crossed by
Bell's creek in the southwest corner of the section with an east and
west strike.

In 6 S., 22 W., section 36, an anticline was found at the end of
a ridge; it probably continues to the Terre Noir, forming a ridge
which runs a little south of west.

In 6 S., 23 W., there is an anticline or overturn just at the south
township line in section 34 on the Antoine. It may be the cause
of the valley of White Oak creek.

In 7 S., 23 W., it is probable that there is an anticline in the
east and west valley running through the centre of sections 12, 11,
10, etc. Traces of manganese found near Story's store, section 10,
southeast quarter, tend to confirm this supposition. In the centre
of the township the strata for several square miles are so nearly
perpendicular that a variation of a very {t\N degrees gives the
appearance of an anticline, so that it is impossible to tell which are
anticlines and which are not. In section 22 is a large, flat area,

1897.] ASHLEY— GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 277

and the evidence of an overturn here are somewhat stronger, chiefly
the presence of shales with north and south dips. In the southern
part of section 27, on the west bank of Antoine creek, a long bluff,
seventy-five feet high, gives an excellent exposure of rock, and on
either side of one point the layers bend toward each other in such
a way as to suggest the axis of an overturn. Bluff mountain, a
quarter of a mile farther south, also gives a fine exposure. An
anticline probably crosses the big river-bottom in section 34, 7 S.,
23 W.

In 7 S., 24 W., high dips and a ridge one hundred feet high,
crossing Wolf creek near the centre of section 21, suggest the
probability of an overturn with a strike S., 70° W. This is in the
strike of an overturn on Prairie creek, to be described later.

VII. Detailed Structure on the Western Sheet.

Township 4 South.

Rachel Mountain Axis.— 'R.SiChtX mountain is a novaculite ridge
in the northern part of 4 S., 30 W., and has been described in the
report on novaculite.^ Its axis crosses the Brushy Fork of the Cos-
satot in 4 S., 30 W., section 5, southwest quarter. It ceases to be
a novaculite ridge before reaching the Brushy Fork. In the same
strike in 4 S., 32 W., section i, half a mile south of Cove, an anti-
cline is crossed by the line road, and traces of it are found in 4 S.,
31 W.

Buffalo Creek Anticlinal Axis. — This axis is reported by Mr.
Means- as crossing the Brushy Fork in 4 S., 30 W., section 7, the
southwest quarter, near the mouth of Horn creek.

In 4 S., 31 W., it was noted again in section 12 and in section
10; the presence of igneous rock and the topography across that
row of sections suggest its continuity in a due west direction.

In 4 S., 32 W., Mr. Means found the axis crossing the Old Line
road near the middle of the section line between 11 and 12. A
few uncertain dips indicate that it continues westward, and that it
determines the Buffalo creek valley.

1 Geol. Surv. of Ark., An. Rep. for 1890, Vol. iii, p. 262.

2 Mr. J. H. Means, assistant geologist of this survey, worked up considerable
of the area included in 4 and 5 S., 30 and 32 W. Most of the structure in 30
W. was gone over to get its connection and relation to the structure further east.
That in 4 and 5 S., 31 and 32 W., is largely taken directly from Mr. Means'
notes.

278 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

Mr. Means also reports an anticline or overturn on Brushy Fork
in 4 S., 30 W., section 17, northwest quarter.

Barn Creek Anticline. — Raspberry mountain is a novaculite
ridge crossing 4 S., 29 W., near the centre, and reaching the Cos-
satot in 4 S., 30 W., section 14, southeast quarter. Following
this strike there is an anticline in sections 17 and 18, south part,
which Brushy Fork crosses three times with an S-shaped curve, and
in the southwest quarter of section 18 it is crossed by Rock
creek.

Further west it is followed by Barn creek, and shows as an anti-
cline near where the Old Line road crosses Barn creek in 4 S., 32
W., section 13.

To the west Mr. Means found this axis to be replaced by one a
quarter of a mile further south. Barn creek swings south and fol-
lows the last axis quite closely across 4 S., 32 W.

Pontiac Anticline. — The end of a long novaculite ridge crosses
the Cossatot in 4 S., 30 W., northwest quarter of section 22, just
north of Pontiac post-office. It runs out as a ridge a mile to
the west where it has a strike a little south of west. In this strike,
in section 20, the northwest quarter, an anticline is crossed by
Brushy Fork. .

West of this point no anticline was found until 4 S., 32 W., sec-
tion 19, where Mr. Means reports an anticline crossing Hickory
creek near its junction with Buff'alo creek.

Anticlines on the Cossatot. — In 4 S., 30 W., two small anticlines
are crossed by the Brushy Fork in section 20, one near the north
section line and the other a little more than a quarter of a mile
further south.

About a quarter of a mile from the south side of section 20
(4 S., 30 W.), Brushy Fork and the Cossatot are separated by a
high but narrow neck of land, ten to twenty yards wide. They
diverge, however, and flow together a mile further down. On the
Cossatot side of this neck is exposed the fault shown in PI. VIII.

This same fault shows again in section 21 at the first bend in the
Cossatot south of Pontiac post-office. It is really a double fault,
as shown in the Cossatot section on PL I.

In the same township, section 30, near the half-mile line, the
Cossatot crosses an overturned anticline. A quarter of a mile
below, in the southwest quarter of section 29, the Cossatot crosses
another anticline, and near the south section line of section 29, it

1897.]

ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS.

279

crosses still another. This last anticline is in the same strike as
one crossed by Baker creek near the south section line of section
25 of the same township. In section 31, southeast quarter, the
Cossatot crosses an overturned anticline, as shown in PL 11.

Hickory Creek Anticline. — In 4 S., 31 W., section 26, southeast
quarter, an anticline is crossed by Flat creek. In this same strike
Mr. Means reports an anticline crossed by the Old Line road in
4 S., 32 W., section 25, southwest quarter. Going westward it
forms a low ridge which separates the two branches of Hickory
creek. This fold was not seen west of sections 28 and t^2>' ^^
anticline was found by Mr. Purdue in 4 S., 29 W., section 35.

A few other minor folds were noted.

Fig. 29. — Fault on the Cossatot near the Mouth of Brushy Fork (4 S. 30 W.,

Sec. 20).

Structure in Township 5 South.

Novaculite Ridges. — As the novaculite ridges have been described
in detail in the report on novaculite^ they will only be mentioned
here. In 5 S., 25 and 26 W., the northern two tiers of sections
are occupied by novaculite ridges; Brook's mountain, North moun-
tain. Warm Spring mountain, Line mountain, and others. In'5 S.,

^ Geol. Surv. of Ark., An. Rep. for 1S90, Vol, iii, Chap. xiii.

280 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

27 W., the end of Line Mountain crosses sections t and 2, and
Raven mountain, with a south of west strike, enters sections 4 and 5.
Between sections 5 and 6 it is cut by the Little Missouri river, the
anticlinal structure showing^ distinctly. West of the Little Missouri
it strikes a little north ot west, and under the name of Prairie
mountain crosses the northeastern section of 5 S., 28 W., gradually
entering 4 S., 28 W. It is crossed by the Saline at Moore's mill,
in section 31, and it comes to an end a mile or two further west.

In 5 S., 31 W., a novaculite ridge, called the Cross mountain,
rises in section 2 and runs out at the Line road in 5 S., 32 W., in
the northern part of section i.

^^ 5 S., 32 W., the southern part of section i, are two short
novaculite ridges in the same strike. The Line road passes between
the two through what is known as ''the gap." In the southeast
corner of section 2 another ridge rises and runs west to the gap at
the head of West creek, in the southwest quarter of section 3.
West of this gap it rises to a height of 450 feet, and is known as
Potato hill, then it runs a little south of west and passes out of the
State at section 7. Between sections 11 and 14 the South moun-
tain begins, strikes west for two miles, where it is cut by the head
waters of Cross creek, then runs south of west and passes out of
the State in section 18. These ridges continue west into the
Indian Territory, but how far and how important they become
is not known.

BalV s Branch Anticline. — Ball's Branch anticline is crossed by
the Saline river in 5 S., 28 W., section 6, near the centre of the
section.^ In 5 S., 29 W., this same anticline passes through sec-
tions I and 2, crosses Harris Fork in section 2, northwest quarter.
Though the anticline was not found to the west, ridges which occur
in its strike suggest that it, at least, continues across the northern
edge of 5 S., 29 W.

In 5 S., 30 W., the Cossatot crosses an overturn near the north
section line of section 6.

The Watkins' Mill Overtwned Anticline. — The Watkins' mill
fold is a simple anticline where crossed by the Saline in 5 S.,

28 W., section 5, on the south section line.

Where it is crossed by Harris Fork at Watkins' mill, in 5 S.,

1 Practically all the structure of ranges 28 and 29 W. was worked out by Prof.
A. H. Purdue, Professor of Geology at the Arkansas Industrial University, for-
merly assistant on the Geological Survey.

1897.J ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKAXSAS. 281

29 W., in the southeast corner of section 3, a recent exposure
made in the bank shows the strata making a complete overturn.
Prof. Purdue reports this to be an unusually fine illustration of an
overturn. The overthrow is to the south. Though this fold was
not found further west, the monoclinal ridge just north of it was
traced across the township, indicating that the anticline continues
across the township with a strike a little north of west.

In 5 S., 30 W., there is probably an overturn in sections 6 or 7
— an eastward continuation of the Cross mountain. Only north
dips were found, however.

Minor Anticlines. — In 5 S., 28 W., section 8, northeast quarter,
the West Saline crosses an anticline a little below Lance's mill, and
in the centre of the southeast quarter of the same section there is
another one. In 5 S., 29 W., there were found, corresponding to
these two anticlines, two doubtful anticlines on Harris Fork; one a
quarter of a mile south of Watkins' mill in section 10, and the
other a quarter of a mile north of the southwest corner of section 11.

Prior Ridge Anticline. — In 5 S., 27 W., the structure and topog-
raphy suggest an overturned anticline in the northwest corner of
section 17. It is overthrown to the north. At the Little Missouri
it is hidden in bottom land, but a short distance west of that
stream it makes a ridge between White Oak creek and Clover
creek, which gives evidence of anticlinal structure. This ridge
was traced a little south of west to the Saline, where the structure
is anticlinal. From the Saline to Harris Fork it could not be
traced, but an anticline crossed by Harris Fork in 5 S., 29 W.,
northeast quarter of section 15, is in the same strike and may be
the same axis. This last anticline may also be on the same axis as
an anticline on Moore's creek, section i6, northwest quarter; the
intermediate topography exhibits no clear structural relations.

An anticlinal ridge extends from Moore's creek to the Cossatot ;
the anticlinal structure is shown where it is cut by Moore's creek
in 5 S., 29 W., northwest quarter of section 16. The ridge then
runs a little north of west to 5 S., 30 W., southwest corner of sec-
tion 12, showing the anticlinal structure north of Eldridge post-
office in 5 S., 29 W., section 18, northern part.

In 5 S., 30 W\, it is known as Prior's ridge, and it runs due
west from section 12, the anticline showing where cut by Baker
creek in the southwest corner of section 11, and as an overturn
where cut by the Cossatot in section 7, southeast corner. From

282 ASHLEY — rxEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May i;5,

the Cossatot westward the shales which are exposed on the Cossatot
have been eroded, producing in 5 S., 31 W., the Prior creek valley.
This anticline, if produced into 5 S., 32 W., will join with the
South mountain anticline.

Minor Anticlines. — In 5 S., 29 W., a small anticline is crossed
by Harris Fork in section 15, the southeast quarter. In 5 S.,

30 W., parallel outcrops of the thin novaculite seem to indicate an
anticline or overturn in section 17, northeast quarter. In 5 S.,
32 W., section 16, northwest quarter, two small anticlines are cut
by Cross creek. ^

Baker Spring Ridge Ajiticline. — In 5 S., 27 W., the Little Mis-
souri river crosses an anticline in the northwest quarter of section
16. This anticline runs a little south of west, forming a two hun-
dred foot ridge between Clover creek and James creek. In 5 S.,
28 W., it is crossed by the Saline in the southeast corner of section
16; from this point it runs due west, being crossed by Harris Fork
in 5 S., 29 W., section 15, in the southeast corner. On the south
side of the anticline, between Harris Fork and Moore's creek, is a
two hundred to two hundred and fifty foot ridge, highest at the
Harris Fork end. It passes south of Baker Spring in 5 S., 20 W.,
section 14, southeast corner, and where cut by Baker creek, in sec-
tion 15, southeast corner, there is one of the best exposures of an
anticline in the whole area.

Going west the ridge made by this fold rises to a height of two
hundred to two hundred and fifty feet. It is crossed by the Cossa-
tot in the southeast quarter of section 17. In the centre of section
17 is the fine exposure known as the Falls of the Cossatot. The
topographic effect of these heavy ledges is seen in the long high
ridge between Prior creek and Cow creek, which runs across 5 S.,

31 W. In the southeast quarter of section 14 and in the same strike
to the east, shales are exposed structurally identical with the shales
just under the heavy novaculite exposed in the Prairie mountain
anticline on the Little Missouri river. Baker Sulphur Springs issue
from this shale.

West of the Cossatot Mr. Means found this anticlinal axis in
5 S., 32 W., section 13, southeast quarter.

Mill-site Branch Anticli?te. — In 5 S., 27 and 28 W., the Mill-
site branch anticline was not surely found, but the presence of thin-
bedded novaculite shales, horizontal dips and the topography sug-

1 All structures on Cross creek were worked out by Prof. A. H. Purdue.

L<-97.]

ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS.

283

gest its existence parallel to, and a little over a quarter of a mile
south of, the last-described axis. In 5 S., 29 W., it forms the val-
ley of Mill-site branch through sections 23 and 22. At the mouth
of the creek a small fall in Harris creek offers some water power.
North and south of the Mill-site branch valley are high ridges,
the southernmost one being synclinal in structure. From Harris
Fork to the Cossatot in 5 S., 30 W., section 21, northwest quarter,
the continuity of the structure is clearly defined by the long ridge
north of the Harris Fork valley and ridges between Baker creek
and the Cossatot in 5 S., 30 W. Mr. Means crossed the anticline
in the northwest quarter of section 20, but it was not found further
west in 5 S., 31 and 32 W. To the east of the Little Missouri no
anticlines were found in this strike, but the topography of the Pine
mountain in 5 S., 26 W., in section 15, south of Lodi post-office,
gives every evidence of being an anticline, probably an overturn.

The ridge, which, for the most of its length, is not conspicuous,
here becomes one hundred and fifty feet high, and this anticline
again may be in the same axis as the overturn south of Rock creek
post-office.

Blocker Branch A7iticline. — Corresponding in strike with the
overturn in the south part of Pine mountain in 5 S., 24 W., as car-
ried out by the topography, is an overturn on the Little Missouri
river in 5 S., 27 W., sections 21-23. This overturn is visible at
a number of places along the river, the bending showing nicely at
the foot of the road just north of Mr. Logan's, north of the centre
of section 22. This fold is remarkable for the low dip on the south
side.

Fig. 30. — North-south section along the Little Missouri river.

The exposure as given in Fig. 30 is two miles long. Pine moun-
tain, shown in this section, is an abrupt ridge on the northern edge
of sections 26 and 27 over two hundred feet high, though it main-
tains this height for only a mile or two to the west. There is probably
a fault just north of this ridge, as seen in the section in Fig. 30.

West of the Little Missouri the course of the anticline is shown
by the low ridge north of Blocker branch. But it could not be

284 ASHLEY — riEOLOe^Y OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

traced to the Saline river, and, as the structure there is quite different,
it will be considered as confined to 5 S., 27 W. Attention is called
to the northeast direction of the streams in sections 28-30.

Sulphur Spring Branch Anticline. — The structure in 5 S., 29 W.,
is not clear, but the topography and the shales go to show that the
Blocker branch axis is followed by the Sulphur Spring branch an-
ticline in sections 22-24, ^rid from Harris fork to Baker creek the
shale it exposes is a factor in the breadth of the valley of Harris
creek.

In 5 S., 30 W., from Baker creek west, this fold forms a two hun-
dred and fifty foot ridge, the structure showing at several places
where cut by ravines. In this ridge the shales appear well up in the
ridge, while blocks of novaculite lying on the highest point of the
ridge indicate the presence of the layer of thin novaculite.

Reverting to the question of the age of this thin bed of nova-
culite, and referring to section 2, PI. ii, it is readily seen that if
the novaculite occurring thus on top of this ridge be Lower Silu-
rian, as the main body of novaculite is supposed to be, we should
have at this point a belt from one to two miles broad in which
almost nothing but Silurian rocks are exposed.

To the west of the Cossatot no anticline was noted in this strike,
but it is probable that it influences the topography of Cow creek
valley in 5 S., 31 W.

Harris Creek Anticline. — The Harris creek anticline is crossed
by the Saline in 5 S., 28 W., at the north section line of section
28. Thence it passes nearly due west, helping to form the high
ridge south of Sulphur spring branch, in 5 S., 29 W. It then be-
comes part of the Harris creek valley, and is followed by that creek
most of the distance. It is crossed by the Cossatot in 5 S., 30 W.,
at the north section line of section 26. The structure of the fold
is well shown where cut by the Cossatot. From this point it trends
due west, forming a high ridge for over two miles on the south side
of the Cossatot, which, for that distance, flows through a deep nar-
row gorge between this ridge and one just north of it made by the
Sulphur spring branch anticline. The river flows in the trough of
the syncline between these two anticlines, in places being \^alled in
by parallel, almost perpendicular layers of sandstone, which give it
the appearance of a canal. There is an anticline on this same axis
in 5 S., 31 W., section 26, northern part.

Minor Anticlines. — In 5 S., 28 W., an anticline is crossed by the

1897.] ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 285

Saline river in section 28, northwest quarter, a quarter of a mile
south of the Harris Fork axis. At the same distance south of the
Harris Fork axis, where it is crossed by the Cossatot in 5 S., 30 W. ,
is an anticline corresponding to the one exposed on the Saline.

In 5 S., 32 W., a small anticline is exposed on the Rolling fork
in section 25, a little scuth of the centre of the section, and a quar-
ter of a mile further south another one is crossed by the same stream.
In the strike of these two anticlines, two anticlines are crossed by
Cross creek in section 29, southwest quarter. They may therefore
be considered as on the same axis.

Umpire Anticlinal Axis. — In 5 S., 28 W., the Umpire anticline
forms a ridge in the northern part of sections 34 and 33, and is
crossed by the Saline in the northwest of the northwest of section
TyTy. Further west in section 31 it is crossed by a small stream in
the southwest of the northeast, near an old mill. In 5 S., 29 W.,
it is indicated by the dip in section 35.

In 5 S., 30 W., it is crossed by the Cossatot in the centre of the
northwest quarter of section T^d. In 5 S., 32 W., section 32, south-
west of northwest, an anticline is crossed by Cross creek. Though
in the same strike this can hardly be assumed to be a continuation
of the anticline further east.

Possum Creek Anticline. — In 5 S., 29 W., an anticline runs
close to the south township line. In 5 S., 30 W., sections 35 and
36, the Cossatot crosses the same anticline near the south township
line. The topography, which east of the Cossatot is a valley, to
the west becomes a prominent ridge. It runs west along the town-
ship line south of Possum creek and is found to be an anticline
where crossed by the Rolling Fork just south of the township line,
in 6 S., 32 W., section 2, at the ford of the Eagletown road.
Igneous rock is exposed in the axis at the last named place. There
is an anticline crossed by Possum creek in 5 S., 31 W., section 35,
northwest of southeast, but the topography shows that it cannot be
on this axis.

Other Anticlines. — In the Carboniferous portion of 5 S., 25 and
26 W., the structure is but little exposed. The streams seldom
have deep channels and the dips found are universally south, except
for a quarter of a mile along Bear creek in 5 S., 25 W., section 34,
northwest of northwest. This last mentioned dip discloses the only
anticline definitely known in the township, though in some places
the bending of the rock suggests overturns. Slickensides abound

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI. 155. T. PRINTED AUGUST 12, 1897.

286 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

all over the region, but there is an unusually fine example of them
in 5 S., 26 W., section 24, southeast quarter, where the edges of
the heavy layers having a dip of 25° are polished horizontally.
Such cases are common and are evidence of faulting, even though
no other testimony be obtained. In this case Self creek has fol-
lowed the fault and has been carried three-quarters of a mile east-
ward.

In the same section, a little south of the centre, the rocks and
topography suggest an overturn with a strike of about S., 73° W.
In 5 S., 26 W., section 28, southwest quarter, on Rock creek in the
same strike, the rocks are sharply curved, and further west in sec-
tion 31, southwest of northwest, an anticlinal axis shows well on
Jhe east branch of the Little Missouri. The structure at this last
exposure is shown on the left of Fig. 30, the fault being introduced
to account for the sudden change of dip.

In 5 S., 27 W., section 25, southwest of southeast, on the Little
Missouri river, a heavy mass of sandstone, showing no bedding and
of unknown extent, appears to have been forced up or down through
a thick exposure of thin-bedded shaly sandstone. The great
quantity of slickensides in every direction in it seems to preclude
the idea of its being an unconformity.

The Structure in Township 6 South,

Little Possum Creek Anticline. — In 6 S., 28 W., the Little
Possum creek axis is crossed by the Saline river in section 8, north-
west of the northwest. It isexposed next in 6 S., 30 W., forming a
ridge south of White Oak creek and showing well its structure at
ihe end of the ridge in the northwest of the northwest of section
10, and also in section 9, northwest quarter. In 6 S., 31 W., this
axis is followed by Little Possum creek. In 6 S., 32 W., it is
crossed by the Rolling Fork in section 12, northwest quarter.

Galena Synclinal Axis. — Just south of the last described anti-
clinal axis and parallel to it are two other anticlines. The northern
one is crossed by the Saline river in 6 S., 28 W., section 8, south-
west of northwest, the other one is crossed by the same stream half
a mile further south. In 6 S., 29 W., only the southern one was
found, following the south section line of sections 10, 11 and 12.
Galena post-office is on the syncline between these two anticlines.
The two folds form a single flat-topped ridge which slopes off to

1897.] ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 287

the south very gradually. In 6 S., 30 W., the northern one is
crossed by the Cossatot in section 9, southwest quarter, and the
southern anticline in section 17, northwest quarter. Further west
their presence is indicated only by finding outcroppings of igneous
rock in 6 S., 32 W., section 9, southeast of southeast, in the strike
of the northern anticline and in the strike of the southern one in
isection 14, northwest quarter, on Rolling Fork and on the bluffs
above.

Brushy Branch Anticline — The Brushy branch anticline is the
northernmost of the three anticlines that are crossed by the Little
Missouri river in 6 S., 27 W., section 12. It is in the northeast of
the northwest quarter, nicely exposed in shales, and is overthrown to
the north. Just north of it in section i, where the river runs
southwest, a syncline shows on the east bank. It was noted in
section 9, northeast of southeast, south of Brushy branch, with a
strike a little south of west. Following the topography across 6 S.,

28 W., an anticline is crossed by the Saline in 6 S., 29 W., section
24. From here the axis is supposed to run south of west across
•6 S., 29 W. Then turning west it crosses 6 S., 30 W., connecting
with the anticline crossed by the Cossatot, in section 30, the south-
west quarter of the northeast quarter. In section 29 this anticline
forms a high ridge north of Sweeney's creek. Due west of this
another anticline is crossed by the Rolling Fork in 6 S., 32 W., sec-
tions 25 and 27, and again in section 30, northeast of the north-
west, an outcrop of igneous rock indicates its presence.

The White Oak Creek Anticline.— T\vq White Oak creek anti-
cline is the second of those crossed by the Little Missouri in 6 S.,

29 W., section 12. The south side of the anticline appears, as
a small monoclinal ridge, the single layer which forms the body of
the ridge being bent sharply at the top. It then forms the ridge
which runs south of west, south of White Oak creek and the Brushy
fork of the Saline. This ridge, while not sharply defined, is quite
a high one, forming a watershed between Brushy Fork and the
drainage to the south and southeast. In 6 S., 29 W., it is crossed
by the Saline in the southeast quarter of section 26, and again in
the northeast quarter of section t^-x^^ the structure here appearing to
be an overturn overthrown to the south. It then turns due
west, forming a broad flat-topped ridge across the southern part of
6 S., 30 W., south of Hunter's creek, being crossed by the Cossatot
in section 31, northeast quarter, the anticline still being overthrown

288 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

to the south. The high ridge between Sweeney's creek and
Hunter's creek is a good example of a synclinal ridge. From the
Cossatot the axis strikes a little south of west, the overturn flattens
down and is crossed by the Rolling Fork in 6 S., 32 W., the south-
west of the southwest of section 34.

The New Hope Anticline. — The third axis is crossed by the
Little Missouri in 6 S., 27 W., in the southwest quarter of section
12. It appears to form the ridge upon which the western half of
the Star-of-the-West and New Hope road is built. The lack of
marked topography prevented its being followed further west.

The Self Creek Overturn. — In 6 S., 26 W., section 11, northeast
quarter, is a good example of an overturn of the type shown by
E'F' in Fig. 14. This is probably a continuation of an anticline
crossed by Bear creek at the north township line of 6 S., 25 W.,
section 4. The strike would carry it south of west to a probable
overturn in the top of Pine mountain south of Star-of-the-West, 6 S.,
27 W., section 13. But the topography does not sustain that view.
The steep north side of the Pine mountain in 6 S., 26 W., has a
strike a little north of west. No outcrops were found in this part
of the ridge and all those found in adjacent territory have a strike a
little south of west, so that the ridge, though so marked, may not
conform to the structure in 6 S., 26 W. West of Star-of-the-West
the Pine mountain is deflected until it strikes about southwest, the
strike of the outcrops being the same. It ends abruptly at Fallen
creek.

The Gentry Overturn. — South of Gentry post-office is a ridge
two miles long, starting in a high knob at the southwest corner of
section 7, 6 S., 25 W., and maintaining a height of one hundred
and fifty feet in a south of west direction to the Little Missouri
river. This ridge gives the appearance of being an anticline over-
thrown to the north.

Bear Creek Anticlines. — An anticline is crossed by the Kirby-
Murfreesboro road in 6 S., 25 W., in the southwest corner of sec-
tion II. In the northeast corner of section 19, on a small tributary
of Bear creek, the dip suggests the presence of an overturn over-
thrown to the north ; this may be a continuation of the I^ittle Bear
mountain overturn. In 6 S., 26 W., the Little Missouri crosses an
anticline or overturn in section 24, the northwest quarter.

The Little Bear Motmtain Overturn. — The Little Bear mountain
overturn is in 6 S., 25 W. It begins in section 22, eastern part, at

1S97.] ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 289

the Kirby-Murfreesboro road. Rising abruptly to a height of about
three hundred feet it runs at first northwest, then gradually swings
around until it runs a little south of west and ends abruptly in the
northwest corner of section 21. On the top of this ridge the
rocks, though not rising into a wall, present very much the same pe-
culiar structure as on the top of Antoine mountain. The sandstone
on top of this ridge, when not examined closely, bears a striking re-
semblance to novaculite in color, fracture and general appearance.
The structure is an overturn overthrown to the north.

Chimney Rock Anticline. — In 6 S., 26 W., section 36, southwest
of northeast, a mass of rock juts out from the east bank of the Lit-
tle Missouri, forming a perpendicular cliff one hundred and forty
feet high and tapering from a broad base to a narrow top. It is
known throughout the region as the " Chimney Rock." The dips
along the river for a mile or two are within a few degrees of per-
pendicular, and so give no clue to the structure, but the most
probable explanation is that the '' Chimney Rock" is in the axis
of a closely pressed anticline. Several anticlines may be crossed
by the river in sections 25, 26 and 36 without their presence being
recognized. One case on the west bank in section 26, southeast of
northeast, where a mass of rocks having the same appearance as the
" Chimney Rock," but on a smaller scale, is thought to be an anti-
cline. The topography to the west strengthens this view.

The Chimney rock anticline, or some anticline very close to it,
probably explains the structure of Jenkins' spring ridge, a high
ridge running a little south of west across the southern row of sec-
tions of this township, and is also responsible for the high ridge to
the east of the river. Evidences of an anticline appear in 6 S., 25
W., centre of section 27, on the Kirby-Murfreeeboro road.

Siruciure in Townships 7 and 8 Soi/th.

Silver Hill A fiticlinal Axis. — In 7 S., 30 W., section 6, south-
west quarter, the Cossatot crosses two anticlines, one at Antimony
Bluff, and one about three hundred feet further north. In 7 S., 31
W., the topography indicates that one or both of them passes
nearly due west, forming the high, flat-topped ridge upon which
Silver hill is situated. In 7 S., 32 W., an overturn with a north
dip is crossed by Robinson's Fork in section 8, northeast of the
northeast. The topography between the two prongs of the Roll-
ing Fork for several miles from their junction is extremely broken,
but it shows the strike of the rocks.

290

ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF AKKAXSAS.

[May 13,

Minor Anticlines. — In 7 S., 30 W., section 6, northwest quarter,
a single exposure indicating an anticline was found on the Cassatot.
In 7 S., 31 W., the Cossatot crosses two anticlines in section 12,
one in the northeast of the northeast, and another in the northeast
of the southeast. In 7 S., 32 W., the Rolling Fork crosses an anti-
cline in the southwest quarter of section 15, near the mouth of
Davis branch. It also appears to cross an overturn with north dips
in section 16 east of the centre.

Cave Creek Anticlinal Axis. — In 7 S., 29 W., section 9, near
the mouth of Cave creek, the Saline river crosses the Cave creek
anticline. Going west it forms an unusually straight valley running
a little south of west, down which Cave creek flows. This valley
is continuous from the Saline to the Cossatot, but near the Cossa-
tot it is deflected to the south, the axis appearing to be in a sharp
ridge in 7 S., 30 W., the northwest quarter of section 20. This
ridge ends abruptly in the northeast of section 20. In 7 S., 31 W.,
it forms the valley of a tributary of Stowe's creek, running through
sections 22 and 23. It is here indicated only by the parallel out-
crops of thin novaculite and siliceous shale. Through sections 19,
20 and 21 the axis is followed by Bellah creek, forming a broad
valley to the Rolling Fork in 7 S., 32 W., section 27. The shales
form bottoms on the Rolling Fork.

On the Saline river in 7 S., 29 W., section 16, its structure is
that of a simple anticline. To the west, its structure could not
be determined, but on Rolling Fork in 7 S., 32 W., low south dips
of 10° to 15° point to a monoclinal structure. Fig. 31 shows the
composite section exposed along the Rolling Fork.

Bellah Cr.

Fig. 31. — Section on Rolling Fork of Little river from Bellah creek southward.

The Blue Ridge Anticline — The topography strongly suggest that
the Blue Ridge anticline is a continuation of the '* Chimney Rock "
axis which runs west through the Jenkins' spring ridge. Jenkins'
spring ridge runs a little south of west to Fallen creek, and is cut
by two creeks. At Fallen creek it is questionably anticlinal.

1897.]

ASnLj:Y — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS.

291

Then it runs due west to the New Hope- Centre Point road, where
it turns a little north of west to the Muddy Fork. Here the struc-
ture is anticlinal. From Muddy Fork to Rock creek it has a soutli
of west direction, and forms a high ridge in 7 S., 28 W.; in the
southeast of the southwest of section 2 it forms a high knob. The
anticlinal structure shows where the ridge is cut by Holly creek in
section 9, northeast quarter, and by Rock creek in section 18,
northwest quarter. From Rock creek west the high ridge continues,
forming a prominent bluff where it meets the Saline in 7 S., 29
W., section 16.

The Arsenic Cave Anticline. — The Arsenic cave anticline was

Fig. 32. — An overturned anticline at Arsenic cave on West Saline river
(7 S,, 29 \V., section 21).

first noted by Mr. Purdue on Muddy Fork in 7 S., 28 W., section
12, northwest quarter. In section 9 it shows where cut by Holly
creek in the southwest quarter of the southeast quarter. From

292 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

Holly creek to the Saline river it forms a high pointed ridge from
two hundred to three hundred feet in height, the anticlinal struc-
ture showing in several places. At the Saline it is overturned, and
where the axis crosses the river in 7 S., 29 W., section 21, north-
east of southwest, there is a small cave known as Arsenic cave.
Though the overturning does not show quite as plainly at the cave
as in several places, this was the only point at which a photograph
was obtained of the fold. Fig. 32 is a drawing from a photograph.
This axis could not be followed west of the Saline, but it may have
some connection with an anticline crossed by the Cossatot in 7 S.,
30 W., section ;^^, in the northwest of the southwest quarter.

Another axis appears to run parallel to the Arsenic cave anticline
but one-half mile south of it. This southern axis was found at
three places. In 7 S., 20 W., it is crossed by the Muddy Fork in
section 12, where it turns to the northeast, and by Holly creek in
section 16, northeast quarter. No trace of it could be found on
the Saline river. In 7 S., 30 W., it is crossed by the Cossatot in
section 33 at the township line.

Other A7iticlines. — In townships 7 and 8 S., 25 to 27 W., the
structure is much obscured by the over-lying water-worn material and
Cretaceous. An anticline is reported by Dr. Brannerand Dr. Hay^
as cut by Holly creek in 7 S., 28 W., section 28, northwest
quarter.

Several minor anticlines show in the banks of the Cassatot in
8 S., 30 W., section 4. as shown in the Cassatot section, PI. ii.

Red Bluff Anticline. — In 7 S., 25 W., a high ridge with a south
of west strike makes what is known as Red Bluff where cut by the
Little Missouri river in section 6, southwest quarter. The structure
appears to be an overturned anticline with south dips. Following
this strike in 7 S., 26 W., the dips give an anticline in section 8.

The Wall mountain anticline is shown by the topography to be
continued across the northern row of sections of 7 S., 25 W., and
south of Cow creek, but its extent to the west is unknown.

The Muddy Fork Overturn. — In 7 S., 25 W., section ro, north-
east quarter, Prairie creek crosses what appears to be an overturned
anticline with south dip. The topography strengthens this view.
A high ridge which starts abruptly in section 12 crosses Prairie
creek at this point and runs a little south of west to the Little

^ Geol. Surv. of Ark., An. Kep. for 1888, VoL ii, p. 286.

1897.J ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 293

Missouri. At places the top of the ridge is strewn with great mono-
liths due to the outcropping of a heavy layer of sandstone. In 7 S.,
26 W., occur parallel lines of similar monoliths sometimes combin-
ing to form a low wall. These were found in the south half of
section j6, and north half of section 21, and suggest a similarity
of structure or continuity with the overturn exposed on Prairie
creek.

In 7 S., 25 W., the Muddy Fork crosses an overturned anticline
in section 20, northeast quarter just west of Muddy Fork post-
office. The strike places this upon the same axis as the Muddy
Fork fold.

Prairie Creek Anticline. — In 7 S., 25 W., Prairie creek crosses
an overturn in section 28, northeast quarter. This is one of the
few cases where an overturn can be traced as it folds over, then
under. This anticline is exposed also in section 30 on the Little
Missouri river.

Minor Anticlines. — In 8 S., 25 W., some evidence was found of
an anticline crossed by Prairie creek in section 5 near the north sec-
tion line, and by the Little Missouri in section 6, northern part.

In 7 S., 25 W., section 20, west of the centre, Mr. Hopkins de-
scribes the nose of a ridge which, at this point, is very suggestive of
an overturn with dips to the south.

In 7 S., 26 W., section 30, a mile north of Nathan, the perpen-
dicular dips indicate the presence of an anticline, and Dr. Hay ^
reports finding an anticline west of this on the Muddy Fork, near
the Nathan-Muddy Fork road.

VIII. Theoretical Deductions.

In this chapter we shall discuss briefly some of the problems pre-
sented by the structure described in the preceding chapters.

Origifial Extent of Folded Strata. — A folded layer of rocks does
not cover as much space as the same layer spread out, nor would it
be a difficult problem to ascertain the difference, if the folds were
completely exposed. When, however, it is remembered that we
have only an imperfect section along practically a single line
(not even a plane), and in addition to this many of the folds are
overturned, or so closely squeezed that their upward or downward
extension may be a few hundred feet or several thousand feet, and

1 Geol. Surv. of Ark., An. Rep. for 1888, VoL ii, p. 284.

294 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

also that no correlation is obtainable in most cases, it is readily seen
that the problem is a difficult one.

The following method was adopted for obtaining an estimate of
the original extent of the folded strata upon the supposition that the
folds are not broken, but remain complete until eroded.

North and south sections on the scale of one mile to the inch
were made, as for example, down the Cossatot ; the structure and
dips accurately placed on it, and the folds theoretically completed,
and then measured with a scale. The folds were made as short
as could be done consistently, and the result may therefore be
regarded as conservative. Still this method makes no pretense to
accuracy, and the limit of error is certainly not more than twenty-
five per cent.

The two best examples gave the following results : The Cossatot
section, which is now twenty-four miles long, is estimated to have
had an original length of thirty-five miles. The Antoine section,
at present twenty miles long, is estimated to have had an original
length of thirty-five miles.

If it be assumed that the movement took place from the south,
the strata restored to their original horizontal position would spread
over the territory now included in all of Clark, Pike, Howard and
Sevier counties and the northern part of Nevada, Hempstead and
Little River counties.

Had such a method been adopted as that used by Prof. Claypole
in determining the original extent of a section across Cumberland
county. Pa., there is little doubt that instead of thirty-five miles,
we should have had between fifty and one hundred miles, as the
sections on Antoine creek and Little Missouri river, with their many
overturns, present much the same character of structure.^

Without going into a full discussion of the subject, we are led
to conclude, that while there has been an apparent shortening of
north-south cross-sections from their original position of not less
than five or ten miles, and possibly much more, did we know the
actual facts of the case, it is probable that such shortening has
really been very small, and that the strata occupy nearly the same
ground as that in which they were laid down.

Direction of Movement. — In determining the direction of move-
ment three factors have been used : the dip of the axial plane
of an anticline, or in the case of an overturn, the direction of over-

1 Claypole, Ajuerican Naturalist, Vol. xix, No. 3, March, 1885.

1897.]

ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS.

295

throw ; the direction of dip of faults parallel to the strike ; the
general character of folding considered over the whole of the dis-
turbed region.

Thus, in the case of overturns, if they are overthrown to the
north, the dips being south on both sides of the axis, it is asserted
that movement came from the south. In this region, however, we
find overturns overthrown both to the north and south.

a

Fig. ^^. — Diagram illustrating the effect of horizontal pressure upon a hori-
zontal homogeneous bed.

ir-

fL

Figs. 34, 35. — Diagrams showing the eff"ect of original dip upon ultimate

structure.

An examination of the subject seems to show that the real deter-
mining factor in the direction of overthrow is the initial dip of the
strata. Thus a perfectly homogeneous horizontal layer as in Fig. ^^a

296 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

subjected to horizontal pressure, evenly applied, will not tend to
bend, but to be compressed, as in Fig. 33<^. If, however, as in Figs.
34« and 35^, it have a slight initial dip, the horizontal force will, at
the point or points of bending, be resolved into two components, one
tending to compress and the other to bend. Bending may then
take place, but all that is desirable to note here is that, if the bend-
ing is carried to overturning, the direction of overthrow is not
determined by the direction of movement, but by the direction of
dip, as suggested in Figs. 34^ and 35^.^

It is true that as a rule this dip will be toward the open sea, and
the testimony of other elements show that, in many cases at least,
the movement or apparent movement has been from the shore sea-
ward. In such a case the overthrow will be away from the shore,
and so there would be a tendency for the rule to hold good that
the overthrow is away from the direction of movement. But we
are led by the facts observed in this area where there exist over-
throws both to the north and south to believe that such reasoning
from the direction of overthrow is reasoning in a circle and not to
be accepted as trustworthy.

Another element is the direction of dip of faults. This, too, con-
tains the same objection, for, as shown by Daubree,'^ faulting parallel
to the strike is governed by the folding, and if, as we are led to
suspect, the folding is not entirely governed by the direction of
movement, we must consider the faulting as under the same limita-
tions and therefore not a trustworthy factor.

If a section across the Appalachians from southeast to northwest
be examined, it will be noticed that the folding, which is intense
at the southeast end, gradually becomes more and more gentle un-
til at the northwest end the strata become horizontal.' An ex-
amination of Fig. I, shows the same thing ; in this case the intensity
dies out from south to north. In such cases the evidence seems to
be strong, that movement, if any, comes from the direction of
greatest or closest folding. This suggests that the movement in
our region was from the south.

1 Dr. E. A. Smith has suggested the same explanation for overthrust and under-
thrust (^Am. Jour. Set., April, 1893, P- S^^), but as Mr. Ashley's paper was
written before the publication of that paper his explanation is allowed to stand.
— J. C. Branner.

2 Daubree, Geologie Expervnentale, Paris, 1879, p. 344.

3 H. D. Rogers, First Geological Survey of Pemisylvai^ia, 1S57.

1897.] ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKAXSAS. 297

Bearing of Certain Features of the Region upon Theories of Moun-
taifi Making. — Reference was made in the description of Antoine
mountain (p. 273) to the peculiar appearance of the layers where
closely bent in the axis of the anticline. They have the appear-
ance of having broken into blocks, and of these blocks having ad-
justed themselves to their neighbors. The rocks on top of Little
Bear mountain present much the same appearance. In neither case
do the rocks show noticeable metamorphism, though they are
slightly closer grained than most of the layers.

Probably bearing on the same subject are the many cases noted
where solid layers are sharply bent into acute angles without show-
ing any sign of fracturing.

It has generally been assumed where such close folding without
fracturing occurred that it was due to the confinement put upon it
by the enormous vertical pressure of superincumbent beds. It be-
ing thought that, though the layer were under shearing stress far
beyond its ultimate strength, the great vertical pressure would be
sufficient to close every incipient fracture.

Some interesting experiments have been performed by Mr. Bailey
Willis of the United States Geological Survey^ in studying the
effect of a horizontal pressure on soft layers under a weight of half
a ton of shot. Some of these conditions were produced, and a
study made of tiieir action by graphical statics. Very similar re-
sults were obtained, but they led to certain questions presenting
themselves.

If we assume such a series of layers under a gradually increasing
horizontal pressure, the time will come when the bending compo-
nent of that pressure at some point of initial dip will be sufficient to
overcome the various resistances and forces opposing it, and the
layer will begin to bend. If, when the layer has bent slightly, we
make another examination of the components, forces and resist-
ances involved, we shall find that the slight bending has given the
bending component of the original horizontal pressure an advan-
tage, and it has increased at the expense of the compressing com-
ponent. On the other hand the resistances and forces opposing it
remain about the same, hence its movement would be accelerated,
and soon the bending would go forward with a rush until finally
the horizontal pressure is transmitted across the fold instead of

^ Bailey Willis, Transactions American Institute of Mining Efigineers,]\xnQ,
1892, xxi, 551-566; Thirteenth An. Rep. U. S. Geol. Sitrv.

298 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

along it. If the force not used up by the first fold were great
enough other similar folds might be made.

Figs. ^^ to 35 outline the action, only the main or combined
forces or resistances being given in the figures. The conditions
assumed are similar to those of Mr. Willis' (L) model (not given
in the paper referred to). In this case the forces are only con-
sidered in reference to the main heavy layer, the others being as-
sumed to be soft shales with little power of transmitting pressure.
The question then arises, How can bending take place unless the
bending component be as great as assumed at the moment when
bending begins ? A study of the rocks of Antoine mountain and
elsewhere has led to this suggestion. May it not be accomplished
by a much smaller force by introducing the factors of great length
of time in connection with viscosity of solids?

It is now generally held that mountain making is a process of
thousands of years, the movement being, as a rule, so slow as to be
imperceptible, and yet we still cling to the idea that the forces and
resistances involved are such as would be involved in rapid
laboratory experiments. Thus a bar of stone is placed in the ma-
chine for testing the bending strength, and the result obtained is
used in the study of mountain making.

Experiments have shown that solids under pressure below their
ultimate strength but above tljeir elastic limit will flow in the same
way as will a plastic substance like putty. They have also shown
that the elastic limit becomes lower when more time is allowed
the pressure in which to act ; and examples have been found
of marble slabs, which have lain many years, bending^ under their
own weight without fractures, though when first placed in position
they would not have bent under several times that weight, and
would probably have broken before bending perceptibly. In Mr.
Willis' experiments it may be that the plasticity of the materials
made up for the shortness of time in which movement took place.

We are led to the conclusion that the folding may be due in part
to flow of the cold solid rock under a comparatively small pressure
continued over a great length of time.

^Winslow, Am. Jour, of Sci., iii, Vol. xliii, p. 133. Ashley, Proc. Cal.
Acad, of Set., 1893, p. 319. See also Gibbs, Am. iyat.,\o\. iv, Jan., 1871, No.
II, Salem, Mass., p. 695.

1897.] ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 299

IX. Post-Carboniferous History.
Period from Carboniferous to Cretaceous.

If in the sections of PI. II the strata be restored above the sur-
face, it will be seen that a great amount of erosion has taken place.
The fact that the eroded upturned edges of the Carboniferous rocks
have the Cretaceous rocks resting unconformably upon them is suf-
ficient evidence that this erosion took place between Carboniferous
and Cretaceous times.

What was the extent and character of this erosion ? Mention has
already been made of the peculiar character of the topography along
the southern border of the area. Thus, if we start from the level
Cretaceous country and travel north over the Paleozoic, selecting a
road which avoids the immediate neighborhood of the larger
streams, as for example, the county roads to Amity from Arkadel-
phia, from Hollywood, from Clear creek, from Murfreesboro, the
Old Drove road north from Nathan, the old Stewart road from
Atwood toward Galena and others, we cannot help noting as we
leave the Cretaceous border and proceed northward that the almost
level character of the country continues without break, except
where small streams have made small valleys. The elevation
increases from two or three to eight or ten miles when east and
west valleys abruptly end the level surface. The lateral extent of
this flat country is governed by the encroachments of the nearest
streams on either side. In some cases where the tributaries of the
south- flowing streams run east and west the level topography
reaches out from the main divides and forms flat, minor east and
west divides, which extend almost or quite to the south-flowing
streams and form bluffs on those streams from 200 to 300 feet high.
In short, the whole topography suggests an original surface nearly
level, but rising gradually to the north and west over all the south-
ern portion of the region. Into this streams have later cut their
channels, in some cases to a depth of 200 to 300 feet, and in many
cases have eroded the surface to such an extent that all vestiges of
its original character are lost. The present northern boundary of
this flat country is exceedingly irregular, but in a general way is
indicated by the northward extent of the Post-Tertiary drift upon
the roads mentioned above, as shown on the maps. How far
north the Cretaceous extended is not known. A quarter of a mile

300 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF AKKANSAS. [May 13,

west of Star-of-the-West a single piece of Trinity limestone was
found, and it is said that formerly such limestone was plentiful
at that locality. In 7 S., 32 W., or 33 W., near the north town-
ship line limestone full of fossils is reported as occurring plentifully
on a ridge west of Cross creek. This could not be verified. These
suggest the possibility of the Cretaceous deposits having been
originally laid down all over this region. This view is strengthened
by the character of the Cretaceous deposits, limestones, chalks,
etc., implying at least fairly deep waters over the region.

Cretaceous and Tertiary Periods.

During the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods the southern part of
Arkansas was the theatre of several gentle oscillations of level which
find record in the varying deposits bordering on the south.

For the details of this history the reader is referred to the Survey's
reports on the Mesozoic and Tertiary.^

We must, however, note the land epochs, as it was probably dur-
ing one or all of these land epochs that the present drainage sys-
tems of our region were inaugurated and fixed. Two have been
noted during the Cretaceous and another follows the Tertiary sub-
sidence.

Frequent references have been made to the way the main drain-
age streams cut across the structure, being influenced by the strike
of the folds only to a minor degree. In the novaculite area this
feature of the larger streams is still more marked, the Little Mis-
souri and Cossatot being good examples. In some cases these
streams cut across high ridges, when, by a short east or west offset,
they could have run around them.

Remembering that the Cretaceous strata were originally much
thicker than they now are, if we replace these deposits, which have
a gentle south dip, they would doubtless extend well northward
toward or to the Ouachita mountains. Supposing now the move-
ment of elevation takes place. These new strata would gradually
become a land surface. Streams would start from the point of
highest elevation and run seaward. If a map of western Arkansas
and eastern Indian Territory be examined, it will be found that
there is such a centre from which drainage flows in all directions.
This centre is in the neighborhood of the Rich mountains, at the

'^GeoL Stirv. of Ark., Rep. for 1888, VoL ii, p. 182; Rep. for 1892, Vol. ii.

1897.

ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 301

western end of the Arkansas base line. To tlie north runs the
Poteau river, to the northeast the Fourche la Feve, to the east the
Ouachita, to the southeast the Caddo and Little Missouri, to the
south the West Saline, Cossatot and Rolling Fork, to the southwest
the Mountain Fork of the Little river, and to the west the Black
Fork of the Kimishi river.

We may then assume that that region was the centre of elevation
for the land period that gave rise to the present drainage.

We can readily imagine a condition of things, such as at present
exists in the Cretaceous region, having previously existed over
the whole area. The creeks and rivers following the general slope
of the Cretaceous strata, entirely unaffected by the buried Paleozoic
sandstones. Then as they sink their channels until the Paleozoic
strata are reached, they find it easier to continue sinking their
beds than to force their banks and make new channels conformable
with the softer rocks.

If next, we suppose that, due to shore conditions, the thickness
of the beds diminished to the north, we can understand how
erosion would first expose the Paleozoic strata at the north and the
line of contact would gradually move southward until it reached
its present position.

As erosion began to cut deeply into the Paleozoic strata, the
minor streams yielded to the influence of structure and became in
time structural streams, and the larger streams, though maintaining
their first courses in a general way, became conformable to the
structure in minor details of their courses.

Li which of the land epochs the present drainage originated
and became fixed we do not know. It must be remembered that
these land periods each produced a nonconformity in the Cretaceous
and Tertiary rocks, so that it is not impossible that all the effects
of erosion during one land epoch may have been erased in the
next subsidence, new beds being laid down and the next land
epoch beginning a new system of drainage. However this may
have been, the evidence seems to show, that, at the end of the land
period following the Tertiary, the topography of most of our area
was much as it is to-day, therefore it will be discussed at this point.

Drainage of the Area. — The direction of the main streams
would be represented diagrammatically by drawing radiants from
the centre of drainage at the western end of the Arkansas base
line.

pnOC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI 155 U. PRINTED AUGUST 12, 1807.

302 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

To the northeast of the Caddo are four smaller creeks, Blakely
creek, Prairie creek, Bayou Delile, DeRoche creek. Between the
Caddo and the Little Missouri are Terre Noir creek and Antoine
creek. The still smaller creeks are shown on the maps. As a rule,
the tributaries run at right angles to the main streams. Thus, the
Caddo runs nearly east, its tributaries nearly all run south, and this
same relation can be traced with but few exceptions to the Cossa-
tot, which runs south, but has east and west tributaries.

Going from east to west the general elevation increases more
rapidly on the north edge of the maps than on the southern ; con-
sequently the difference of elevation between points on the north
and south edges of the maps is greater in the western part than in
the eastern.

The effect of this is quite marked, both upon the character of the
streams and upon the topography ; this is still further intensified by
the direction of the streams in the eastern part, giving them the ad-
vantage of the longest side of the slope. Thus the Caddo and
other streams in that region may be characterized as a succession of
long, deep pools connected by short rapids having only a few inches,
fall. Further west the Cossatot and Rolling Fork are, for much
of their courses, shallow, rapid streams with but few stretches of
quiet water.

Comparatively speaking all the streams are rapid. The more
western streams probably averages between fifteen and twenty-
five feet fall to the mile ; the Caddo has a fall of seven or eight
feet to the mile.

In the same way the topography changes from east to west. In
the east it consists of broad valleys with many bottoms along the
streams. In the west the valleys are narrow, deep and steep-sided.
In the Cretaceous area the smaller streams are mostly surface
streams not having cut channels of any great depth. This, to a
large extent, is also true of the smaller streams of the Caddo valley,
though, where their courses compel them to cut across ridges, they
become more rapid and have abrupt banks. In the western part,
where the tributaries as a rule follow structural lines, they sink their
beds rapidly in the shaly strata, producing deep, narrow ravines, and
where these are quite numerous, the topography becomes exceed-
ingly broken.

1897.]

ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS.

303

The Ovei'wash Gravels.

Spread over both the Cretaceous and Carboniferous areas is an
overwash of gravels, sands and occasionally a little yellow clay.
These deposits are of great thickness along the northern edges of
the Cretaceous rocks, while, as a rule, they are but thin on the Car-
boniferous beds. These gravels and cobbles are well-rounded or
flattened fragments of novaculite of almost ev^ery color, from black
to white, yellow being most common, followed by gray, red, brown
and a mottling of these. Sandstone boulders are also mingled
with the novaculite pebbles. These water- worn boulders vary from
the size of one's fist down, but occasionally they are as large as
one's head. Sometimes a hillside is covered with the novaculite
boulders bleached so white that they resemble snow.

Sometimes the gravels are cemented together by iron, forming a
conglomerate. Sometimes beds of considerable thickness are thus
cemented, as, for example, near Wolf Creek P. O., on Wolf creek,
Pike county.

The character of the overwash gravels is well illustrated in a fresh
cut near the depot at Arkadelphia on the side of the road running
north to the business part of the town.

Fk;. 36. — Section of gravel bed near the railway station at Arkadelphia.

FEET.

{a) A layer of sandy clay, red, mottled with gray,
at the bottom all gray, at the top all red 3-1

(^) A layer of yellowish red gravel from very fine
to the size of a hen's ^gg or larger i^

304 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

FEET.

{c, d) A bed of fine gravel (c) into which there run
thin layers (d') of sandy clay without gravel, the
fine gravel being the size of a pigeon's Q:gg and
smaller 4

{e) Talus to level of road 2-4

As the cut was but a few days old when noticed, it seems highly
probable that the red color at the top of (^) is due to the oxidation
of the iron, the color where freshly exposed being gray; the grada-
tion from the pure gray at the bottom to the deep red at the top
exhibits very nicely the process of oxidation.

The relation of the bed of firm sand to the other beds of that
period is shown on Antoine creek in 8 S., 23 W. In section 14 it
forms a ten-foot bluff for a thousand feet, overlying two or three
feet of gravel.

At the Antoine crossing of the military road to Fort Towsen and

^^r-s-^TT^ Antoine , ^-.^i^fe^f^J-r ^drai" tji^i^-

^ ^T:^s^ creek ^^r^a^ef-L"- " ^ T-Sia — — ffnrr-

Fig. 37, Section at the crossing of the Fort Towsoa load and Antoine creek

(8 S., 23 W., section 24).

above, section 24, it appears again, Fig. 37 being a cross section at
that point. We have :

FEET.

(a) Bed of gravel dipping east or southeast and ly-
ing on a soft, friable sandstone dipping 45° south 8

(^) Bed of firm sand with same dip 8

{c) Outcrop on east bank of soft yellow or brown

sandstone dipping 70° south, 25° west 3-5

(d) Thin bed of novaculite gravel 2

(^) Bed of very firm sand 8-10

(/) Gravel ?

The age of the sand in this case depends somewhat on the age of
the uppermost gravel, which is evidently the younger. But the
gravel on top may be a very recent deposit made by the creek.

The beds of gravel attain no great thickness in the Paleozoic

1897.] ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 305

region. In the northern part they usually consist of scattered
boulders, all the finer material having been removed. At the
northern edge of the area, over which it still exists in an undis-
turbed condition, it is comparatively thin. But going southward
it gradually increases until, at Centre Point, there is an exposure of
seventy-five feet of it in a bluff. Mr. Hill estimates that a mile
south of Centre Point it has a thickness of two hundred feet.^

The undisturbed gravel deposits occupy an irregular area on the
west side of the Ouachita river for a mile or two from the river, and
from a mile south of Social Hill to Rockport. They occupy all of
6 S., 19 W., except the northwest corner. Passing westward the
northern escarpment follows the Chalybeate mountain in an irregu-
lar line through 20 west, swinging south in ranges 21 and 22 west, it
crosses range 23 west about in the centre of 7 south. It reaches
this far north in each range to the west until the West Saline has
been crossed, west of which gravel was only noted in spots.

North of this line gravel was found in nearly every township east
of the West Saline river, occupying areas from five or six square
miles down to a few acres.

Generally these consist of scattered boulders of water-worn nova-
culite ; some show a little fine material as though they represented
fragments of undisturbed deposits.

All the beds of the creeks which rise among the novaculite
ridges contain more or less water-worn novaculite gravel, but in
those in the northeast part of the region this gravel sometimes con-
stitutes the valley bottom, the creek cutting down through it, and
in places exposing a thickness as high as six feet. Prairie Bayou,
Big Hill and Valley Fork of Point Cedar creek are examples of
this kind. In the centre of a large curve in the Caddo in 5 S.,
23 W., section 22, northwest quarter, the deposit of gravel reaches
a depth of thirty feet. It is not probable that these are original
undisturbed deposits, but remains of a subsequent deposit, made
when erosion carried the gravel from the higher ground and filled
the valleys faster than the streams could carry it off.

In 5 S., 28 W., section 24, Mr. Purdue found two elliptical knobs
or mounds one hundred feet or more long and fifty feet high, which,
to all appearances, seemed to be made up entirely of novaculite
water-worn gravel. One of them is known as Round mountain.

Distribution in Other Regions. — Without asserting an exact cor-

1 Geol. Stirv. of Ar/c, Ann. Rep. for 1888, Vol. ii, p. 40.

306 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

relation, it may be said that there occur deposits of approximately
the same age and of the same character in Alabama, Mississippi,
Texas and Indian Territory.^

Age of the Gravel. — No fossils have been found in these gravels,
so that the only determination of their age possible is by their
stratigraphic position. They lie unconformably on the Paleozoic
and Cretaceous. Similar gravels overlie the Tertiary, and are
therefore of more recent origin, and on that account the age of the
gravels is given as Post-Tertiary.^

X. Economic Geology.

Minerals and Stones.

Minerals. — Many have been led by the disturbed condition of
the layers all over this area to think that mineral of some kind
must exist here in quantity. Much prospecting has been done and
many thousands of dollars expended in sinking shafts and prospect
holes, but all without results, except in a small belt in the northern
part of Sevier county. For convenience it may be well to consider
first this belt which is known as the antimony district.

The Antimony District.

The ores found in this district have been discussed in the Sur-
vey's report on Gold and Silver, to which the reader is referred,^
As Prof. Comstock misinterpreted the structure in this district, it
may be well to state that more fully.

Extent of the Antimony District. — As defined by localities in
which ore has has been found, the antimony district lies entirely in

^Tuomey, Second Biennial Report on Geology of Alabama, 1858, p. 144.
Hilgard, Report on the Geology and Agriculture of the State of Mississippi,
i860, pp. 3-46. Hilgard, Anier. Jour, of Sci., May, 1866. Geo I. Surv. of
Ark., Rep. for 1888, VoL ii, pp. 43-47.

2 Mr. Ashley's paper was written before the publication of the report on the
Tertiary of Arkansas by Professor Harris. The latter author has, in my opinion,
solved the problem of the age of these gravels. He regards them as shore de-
posits " laid down under similar conditions, though by no means in the same
geological epoch," and he thinks that their " rearrangement presumably took
place before the close of the epoch represented by the underlying stratified beds."
See An. Rep. Geo I. Surv. Ark. for 1892, Vol. ii, 7-9. The Tertiary Geology of
Southern Arkansas. By Gilbert D, Harris. — J. C. Branner.

3 Geol. Surv. of Ark., Rep. for 1888, Vol. i, p. 136, et seq. See also Wait^
Trans, of Am. Inst, of Mining Eng., Vol. viii, 1879-1880, pp. 42-52.

1897.] ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 307

township 7 S., ranges 29-32 W. inclusive; in 7 S., 29 W., how-
ever, the Busby mine is the only place, where ore was found. Thus
it may be said to be about twenty-four miles long by four miles
wide, and has a very slight south of west trend, occupying the
northern part of the eastern townships and the central part of the
western.

Prospectors report finding traces of stibnite north of this region,
but as in no case has it seemed to warrant the expenditure of time
or money in exploitation, the district may be considered as fully
comprehended in the limits given.

Structure of the District. — The structure in this district is
obscure, the topography is broken, and outcrops of bedded rock
are scarce. Such structure as was obtained was derived partly from
exposures in shafts and prospect holes. As shown in the Cossatot
section of PL ii, there appear to be about half a dozen anticlines
in the district, though only half that number could be found on
the Rolling Fork and on the West Saline. As shown in the sec-
tion, the anticlines are closely folded, giving many high dips. No
evidence of faults, which play such an important part in Prof. Com-
stock's interpretation of the structure, was found, but this must be
considered as having only a negative bearing, as faults doubtless do
exist all through this region. The Silver Hill anticline or anti-
clines have a strike of less than 5° S. of W. The Cave creek
anticlinal axis has a strike of from 5°- 10° S. of W.

The rocks in the districts are the same as all over the region —
shales, shaly sandstones and sandstones. The thin bedded novacu-
lite occurs in such a way as to suggest that, if the strata under it
are Silurian, then the Silurian is extensively exposed in this belt, if
indeed it be not the predominating formation.

Character and Occurrence of Ore Deposits. — The ore deposits of
this district are in the form of bedded veins. While they usually
follow the bedding in strike and dip, they frequently run at small
angles to the dip, and it is claimed that in a very few cases small
deposits are found crossing the bedding, but none were seen. They
occur mostly in shale, but though a contrary claim was made, they
were also found in sandstones at several places. The veinstone is
quartz and varies from a thin layer, in which the quartz simply
forms a matrix for fragments of the country rock, to veins four
feet thick and very pure. The ore occurs as lenticular masses in
the quartz from two inches to twenty-two inches thick, and occa-

308 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 1:5,

sionally of considerable extent, as one mass is said to have yielded
over seventy-five tons of clean stibnite. This quartz veinstone is fre-
quently exposed at the surface as a low wall, and in one case in 7 S.,
32 W., sections 8 and 9, this is easily traceable for nearly a mile.
The veins are of such a character that there is always much uncer-
tainty about the occurrence of paying ore. A shaft at the Valley
mines has been sunk 230 feet and still shows good ore, while others
have run out in a short distance below the surface.

Along the Rolling Fork exploration revealed twelve ore-bearing
veins within two miles. In the region just south of Antimony City
it is claimed that five leads or veins have been found.

Similar quartz veins are common north of this tract in townships
5 and 6 S., but no ore has been reported from them.

Ores. — The main ore and the only ore as yet found in paying
quantities is stibnite. Silver and lead are found in small quantities.
In still smaller quantities or occurring only as traces were found
sphalerite, cervantite, jamesonite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, arseno-
pyrite, tetrahedrite, and a few others.

Ores Outside of the Antimony District. — There are a few places
north of the antimony district where the general appearance of
quartz veins suggests a similarity of conditions to those found in the
antimony district. But, with these exceptions, the remainder of
this Paleozoic area does not give evidence of containing ore of any
kind in any quantity ; in fact, in view of the careful prospecting
that has been done and the negative results obtained, strengthened
by a study of the geology of the region and the character of the
rocks, the evidence seems to be against the existence of pay ore in
the region.

Silver. — During the silver excitement a few years ago all the
northern edge of this territory in the eastern part was thought to
be included in the silver district, and a large portion of it was
taken up in claims. Much prospecting was done and many shafts
were sunk, but no one reports finding any silver, or getting an
analysis that gave more than a trace of it.

Very recently a prospect hole has been started just north of
Caney Fork P. O., based upon the finding of two or three small
pieces of silver at that point. One of the pieces seemed to be
almost pure silver, about the weight of a dollar. It had evidently
been run out and worn smooth ; it was certainly not as it came from
the earth, though still in the condition in which it was found. The

1897.] ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 309

finding of Indian ^' tools and hammers " in the same locahty might
explain the presence of the silver. For the tools are undoubtedly
Indian implements, such as are found all over the region, and in-
stead of suggesting an old mine, suggest a camping place. The
silver belonged to the Indians and was brought from nobody knows
where.

Traditions of rich silver mines are plentiful, but they always go
so far back and contain so many improbable factors that they may
be dismissed as of no value except to entertain the traveler.

Lead. — Lead is often reported as having been found in the region.
The localities given, though not definitely known, were all in the
Caddo valley. It is possible that a little lead may occasionally be
found, though the geology makes it appear improbable that it
should ever be found in any quantity.

Manga?tese. — The northern portion of the region borders on the
manganese district of southwestern Arkansas, and in a few instances
traces of manganese were found on anticlines well in the centre of
the region.

The ore, in quanties sufficient to color the joints in the sandstone,
is quite common. Occasionally it occurs in small masses as a con-
glomerate or mixed with iron. The original bed, or more properly
plane of occurrence, is a bed at the top of the novaculite series.
It partakes of the same folding as the novaculite, and will be found,
not as a level bed, but as an outcropping edge of the layer parallel
to the neighboring novaculite layer, and, except as modified by the
topography, usually running along the side hill of a novaculite
anticline.

The ore occurs in pockets difficult to mine and generally in very
small quantities. Those interested in the manganese of this part
of the State should consult the Survey's report on manganese.^

Iroft. — Iron as a commercial ore does not exist in this territory.
A few loose pieces of impure bog iron ore occur especially around
the chalybeate springs, where the sandstone is highly impregnated
with iron. With these exceptions iron exists here only as the color-
ing and cementing material of the red and brown sandstones and
conglomerates. Iron is sometimes found in the same bed as the
manganese, but as such deposits are properly north of the area in
every case, the reader is referred to the Survey's report on iron.'^

1 Geol. Surv.of Ark., An. Rep. for 1890, Vol. i.
^ Geol. Surv. of Ark., An. Rep. for 1S92, Vol. i.

310 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

Salt, Soda. — Though indefinite reports of salt having been found
in the region were frequently heard, all those that could be traced
out proved to have come from wells or springs in the Cretaceous
border on the south.

Soda is said to exist as an efflorescence in a cave on the Little Mis-
rouri in the northern part of 7 S., 25 or 26 W.

Summary of Mineral Prospect. — As far as shown by exploration
and exploitation up to the present time, paying ore has been found
only in a small belt in northern Sevier county, and but one ore,
stibnite, has been found in that district in paying quantities ; though
silver and lead ores have been found in small quantities. In speak-
ing of stibnite as a paying ore, it is meant that it might be remu-
nerative under more favorable conditions of transportation, smelt-
ing, etc. In the present state of things no reliable judgment could
be given on the future of the antimony interest in this region.
Whether the ores exist in quantity, or whether the richest deposits
have already been exhausted, are questions that cannot be answered
without a more thorough examination of the detailed geology of the
antimony district than the State Survey could undertake. The
output in 1890 was 54,188 pounds, but in August, 1892, none of
the mines were being worked.

Commercial Stone.

Building Stone. — It is possible that the ferruginous varieties of
sandstones may prove of value as building stones : they dress easily
and acquire a firm surface afterward, but on account of their brown
color it is hardly probable that such stone, even though its wearing
qualities be good, will ever be very popular.

There occasionally occurs locally a form of the sandstone, both
pleasing in appearance, and, judging from weathered fragments, of
good wearing quality. It is a slightly metamorphosed white or
light gray sandstone, and varies from a sandstone hardly altered to
an almost pure quartzite, the harder varieties, however, being too
hard to work easily and therefore of less value. A typical outcrop
occurs on Winfield creek, just below the junction of the east fork in
7 S., 21 W., section 10, northwest quarter. An outcrop on An-
toine mountain in 6 S., 23 W., section 19, and one reported by Mr.
Hopkins on Prairie creek in 7 S., 25 W., east of the centre of sec-
tion 10, might be mentioned, and numerous other small outcrops
were noted.

1897.1 ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 311

Considering the great extent of country to the south and east
without building stone of any kind, it was hoped that stone of value
would be found in this, the nearest of the rock-covered mountain
country. At present rock is used here only for lining chimneys,
the ferruginous sandstone and slabs of laminated sandstone being
used for the purpose.

Millstone Grit. — Grits have been noted and described in preced-
ing chapters. Rock of this kind is fairly abundant, but it is only
here and there that it is firm enough to be used as millstones. Quite
a number of these have been cut from it, several having come from
the outcrop on top of the Chalybeate mountain just west of the
Caddo river in 6 S., 20 W., section 14.

It is claimed by some that the meal ground with these stones is
always gritty, and whether for that or some other reason, there are,
as far as could be learned, none of the millstones running at present.

Grindstones. — A few attempts have been made to cut grindstones
from the sandstone. None of these were seen, however, nor could
it be learned just what kind of sandstone was used. Some stones
were obtained from the part of the Chalybeate mountain east of the
Caddo, whence that portion of the mountain took the name of
Grindstone ridge. Similarly Grindstone creek, a tributary of An-
toine creek in 8 S., 23 W., section 15, took its name from the occur-
rence there of a gritty sandstone from which grindstones have been
made.

Slates. — The only places where slates give promise of any value
is along the Rolling Fork in 6 S., 32 W. ; and west of there near the
State line, Owen reports good slate. ^ But it is doubtful if these
have sufficient value to pay for working.

XI. Agriculture, etc.
Soils.

The soils of the region are of three kinds :

1. The red and brown soils of the overwash gravels.

2. The residuary soils formed by the decomposition of rocks in
place.

3. The alluvial or river bottoms soils. These will be taken up in
this order.

The Overwash Soils, — The overwash soils consist of gravel and

1 Owen, Second Geol. Surv. of Ark., p. 112.

812 ASHLEY — CtEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

sands with some clay. As shown by analysis, they are lacking in
lime, and, over much of the region, the proportion of gravel to sand
is so large as to make the land of little value with present modes of
farming.

However, when the value of fertilizers becomes recognized, it is
probable that this section, with its level yet well-drained areas, will
form some of the most desirable agricultural land in the region.

At present a great forest of pine with some hard woods covers
nearly the whole exposure of the overwash ; there are but few farms
and habitations on it at present.

Residicary Soils. — Residuary soils are those formed by the decom-
position of the underlying rocks, and, as in this region these rocks
are mostly sandstones, we have little else than sands with some
clayey sands in the valleys.

Almost universally these soils have been enriched by the decaying
leaves of the all-prevailing forest. This gives, when first cleared,
considerable fertility, but as fertilizers are for the most part wholly
unknown, or unthought of, this richness lasts but a {^w years.
There is no doubt but that this soil, primarily rich, may, by proper
care and the use of fertilizers, be made not only to maintain in-
definitely its fertility, but even to become more productive with
time. Proof of this exists in the very rare cases where some one
does use fertilizers, with the result of every year raising twice as
much to the acre as any of his neighbors, and each year leaving the
land in better condition than the year before.

Alluvial Soils. — The alluvial soils form the bottom land along
all the streams of any size. They are the cream of the agricultural
lands. The reason for this is that they not only combine all the
elements found in the other soils, but the rich vegetable mould,
which in the residuary soils forms a layer on top, is here dissemi-
nated from top to bottom, so that they retain their fertility a long
time. The idea so generally held that they will retain their fer-
tility indefinitely is of course not correct.

The bottom lands are generally flooded lands upon which the
river has for long periods deposited its load of silt and mud, until,
having changed its course or deepened its channel, the land is left
suitable for use. They are lacking in lime, as no lime is touched
by the depositing streams. A few of them are still subject to over-
flow in highest water, which, to some extent, renews their fertility.

Amelioration of Soils. — Fortunately the work of Geological Survey

1897.J ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF AKKAXSAS. 313

has shown that in the Cretaceous region there are extensive deposits
of gypsum, marls and chalks containing the elements needed by
these sandy soils. ^

The present methods of farming require that new clearings be
frequently made and new fences built. The same amount of labor,
expended in fertilizing, would increase crops, and increase the value
of land.

Timber.

Timber is at present the greatest latent source of wealth, and in
consequence of the roughness of much of the region it will always
play a considerable part in the sources of income. In the southern
half of the region, where the Pleistocene gravel occurs, the timber
is mostly pine; in some districts it is exclusively so, except in the
creek bottoms. In the rest of the region both pine and hard wood
are found, the latter being the more abundant and consisting
largely of oaks.

This mountain timber is said not to be as even-grained as
that growing in the bottoms, but has less sap and greater durability.

Of the oaks, the white oak is most abundant ; red oak, post
oak and others occur less frequently. The short-leafed pine is
probably more abundant than any other single species of tree,
especially over the gravel-covered area of the southeast, where mag-
nificent forests of it are common. Sweet and black gum are plenti-
ful in the southern and eastern part, and in the same part of the area is
much holly. Cedar has been plentiful along the Cossatot and Rolling
Fork ; ash, hickory and many other valuable woods are well scat-
tered over the region. As before stated, the whole area is one vast
forest except for the few clearings made for cultivation.

At present, from lack of transportation facilities,^ these forests
have only a nominal value. But the timber near the railroad is
being cut so rapidly that already the lumbermen are beginning to
reach into this area. For this reason timber here has a prospective
value sufficient to make it worthy of careful saving. At present it
is treated in a most wasteful manner.

Relation of Geology to Culture. — The relation existing between
the portions of a region under cultivation to the geology of the
region is seldom more interestingly shown than in this area. The

1 Geol. Surv. of Ark., Rep. for i88S, Vol. ii, Chaps, xxii-xxvii.

2 This report was written before the construction of the Kansas City, Pittsburg
and Gulf Railway through the western part of Arkansas. — J. C. Branner.

314 ASHLEY — CrEOLOGY. OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

two factors in the geology are the shales and shaly sandstones and
the structure which governs the exposures of these shaly layers.
The shaly layers for a number of reasons being favorable for
cultivation, the structure that brings the shales to the surface brings
culture.

If on a map of the region all the land under cultivation were
shaded, it would be found that instead of being irregularly scattered,
the shaded portions would run in belts, some narrow, others broad,
while between them in several places would be belts of almost
entirely unshaded territory, sometimes several miles broad, and from
twenty-five to seventy-five miles long.

These broad belts of unsettled territory are frequently nearly
level, or but slightly rolling, but they are mostly uplands. The one
feature which distinguishes them is that they are outcrops of the
great sandstone beds which form the upper portion of the columnar
section of the Paleozoic strata of this area.

The strips of well-populated country run east and west, following
the structure, and as they are almost exclusively confined to the
valleys, the valley features of the topography will be briefly re-
viewed.

On the eastern sheet the largest valley is the Caddo valley, con-
tained mostly in township 5 S., and running from the Ouachita
river to the divide between the head waters of Antoine creek and
the Little Missouri river. It is enclosed on the north by the Trap
mountains and Brooks mountain, and on the south by the Chaly-
beate mountain and its continuation westward. Its main stream is
the Caddo, and in it is contained the best farming land in the area,
as well as the largest villages.

Notice the arrangement of the post-offices in this valley. On
the Prairie Bayou anticline are Social Hill and Saunder's. South
of them lie, in a line, Maddry, DeRoche, Bismarck, Valley, Point
Cedar and Big Elm, not all on the same anticline, but on the major
anticline.

At its western end the Caddo valley is broken into four minor
valleys by three ridges : Rock Creek valley just north of Pine moun-
tain ; Antoine valley between Pine mountain and Big Bear moun-
tain ; Woodall valley between Big Bear mountain and Antoine
mountain, and Walden valley between Antoine mountain and
Straight and Wall mountains. The valleys in each case take their
names from their main streams and are all well settled.

1897.] ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. 315

South of the Chalybeate mountain is a well-marked valley, known
as the Chalybeate valley. This is wedge-shaped, with the point
at Antoine creek in 6 S., 23 W., section 34, widening out to the
east between the Chalybeate mountain and the high ridges in the
north tier of sections of 7 S. At the eastern end it opens out
and merges into the flat country in that direction. Its principal
streams are those forming the head waters of the Terre Noir.

Caney Folk valley is an east and west valley a little further south.
Starting from the head of Caney Fork of Antoine creek, 7 S., 24
AV., section 7, it runs east, becoming lost in the level country north
of Hollywood. From west to east it is bounded on the north by Wall
mountain. Straight mountain and the ridges south of the Chaly-
beate valley, and on the south by the high east and west ridges
which form the north edge of the old base level in the centre of 7
S., 21-24 W. It is followed all the way by the Arkadelphia-Mur-
freesboro road. In the area covered by the western sheet no such
marked valleys occur. There are, however, a few belts, sometimes
of indefinite limits and extent. They generally represent major
anticlines, on which may be several minor anticlines. In these
■cases the folding as a whole is such that shales have been quite
freely exposed, and it is along these belts that the land has been
taken up and in which most of the settlements occur, so much so
that, if the land under cultivation were indicated on the map, it
would quite fairly outline these structural features as previously sug-
gested.

Such a belt usually occurs just south of the novaculite ridges,
as between Warm Spring and Brooks mountains on the north and
Pine mountain on the south. It is indicated by the post-offices:
Rock Creek, Wilson, Lodi, Langley, Port Logan and Ethridge.
This is but an extension of the Rock Creek valley above mentioned.

The Antoine valley extension of the Caddo valley runs north
•of the Bear mountains and the Pine mountain in 6 S. To the north
it extends toward the Pine mountain south of Rock creek. In the
western part of 6 S., 27 W., the western extension of this valley is
joined by a continuation of Woodall valley and then runs a little
south of west. It is bordered on the north by White Oak creek
and Silver Hill anticlinal axes, and on the south by Blue Ridge
anticlinal axis and Cave Creek anticlinal axis. This belt follows
the structure and shows the same lithological characters over the
whole distance ; in fact the same as those alon^ the same strike to

81() ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

the Ouachita river. Kirby, Gentry, Star-of-the-West, New Hope
and other settlements lie through the centre of this valley.

To the north of this belt the Brushy Branch anticlinal axis
exposes shales and produces a low and well-inhabited area.

The Galena and Little Possum creek anticlines in like manner are
not productive of strong topographic features and are well under
cultivation.

Water Poiver. — Most of the larger streams carry some water all
the year round. In the eastern part, however, the larger streams
present but few opportunities for obtaining water power ; though in
a few places, as on the Caddo, where the stream makes a long and
close bend or horseshoe, power might be obtained by carrying
water over the neck at some narrow place.

In the western part the streams have more fall and opportunities
for obtaining power are frequent. Many small mills and cotton
gins exist there already. In many places the topography is such as
to render the building of dams of twenty or thirty feet height, a
comparatively simple problem. There are no falls of mo/e than
a few feet, unless the Falls of the Cossatot be counted such (the
stream here drops between twenty and thirty feet by a series of
small jumps in a space of less than a quarter of a mile), but in many
places where ridges are cut through, the channel is narrow, giving
facilities for building dams, while the fall is so rapid that but little
land would be flooded by back water.

With the utilization of such cheap power there is no reason why
cotton and other products, instead of going south to the railroads
and then north to the mills, should not here be converted into cloth
and other manufactured products.

Mifiera! Springs. — Several mineral springs have become quite
well and favorably known as summer watering places for people
from south Arkansas, Louisiana and Texas. The best known of
these are :

Mineral Springs in 8 S., 22 W., section 18.

Jenkins' Springs in 6 S., 26 W., section 34.

Baker's Springs in 5 S., 30 W., section 14.

Gillam Springs in 4 S., 30 W., section 22.

Tyra Springs in 5 S., 32 W., section 2.

Bog Springs in 5 S., 32 W., section 10.

All of these springs are pleasantly located. At the present time
the Mineral Springs in Clark county and Jenkins' Springs are the

1897.] ASHLEY — GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. oli

only ones much resorted to. The former is described in the Sur-
vey's report on mineral waters. ^

Mineral Springs, Clark county, are two miles northeast of
Antoine post-office, a quarter of a mile south of the military road,
immediately on the Amity- Okolona road. Seven springs issue
near each other and one larger spring a short distance away. These
springs are well tiled and the large one has a cover. The water
issues from a dark-colored, sandy deposit, with streaks of black
shale or clay, all of which are probably of Cretaceous age. These
beds dip to the south at an angle of 45°. The place is used as a
local summer resort and camping place. An open Methodist
Chapel, a dozen or more summer cottages and frames for a number
of tents have been built at this locality.

The others have all been largely resorted to. For the past few
years it has been claimed that there have been as many as five hun-
dred people spending more or less of the summer at Baker's Springs.
The principal constituents of these springs is given by Owen ^ as
follows :

Analysis of Baker's Stdphur Spring Water.

" Carbonate of alkali, which is probably in the state of carbon-
ate of soda.

'' Chloride of sodium.

*' A small quantity of free sulphuretted hydrogen.

*' Traces of sulphate of soda and magnesia.

" When boiled down it exhibits strong alkaline properties. Its
medical properties are a mild laxative ; a diuretic, antiscorbutic,
slightly alterative and strongly antacid. This spring rises from the
slate at the base of a ridge of quartzose sandstone.

"There are also several other mineral springs in this neighbor-
hood, in Polk county. One at Samuel Gray's on section 20, Town-
ship 5 north. Range 29 west, its temperature 58°, the air being 52°
(also known as Shurd's Sulphur Spring, G.H.A.). The main char-
acteristic constituents of this water are:

'* Carbonate of soda.

" Chloride of sodium.

1 Geol. Surv. of Ark., An. Rep. for 1891, Vol. i, p. ill.

2 Second Geol. Surv. of Ark., i860, p. 97.

TKOC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI. 155. V, PKINTED AUGUST 11, 1807,

318 ASHLEY GEOLOGY OF ARKANSAS. [May 13,

'' Sulphuret of sodium.

^' Traces of sulphate of soda.

*' Traces of sulphate of magnesia.

"Its medical properties will be found to be analogous to those
of Baker's Spring.

"Nathan Aldridge's Sulphur Spring contains the same constitu-
ents, only differing slightly in the proportions."

As shown in PI. ii, these springs all rise from the same layer of
shale.

The principal constituents of the Gap Springs are given by
Owen as :

" Chloride of sodium.

" Sulphate of soda.

" Sulphate of magnesia.

" Bicarbonate of alkali.

"And probably a little sulphuret of alkali.

" A trace of carbonate of lime."

An examination of the so-called alum spring gave indications
of the same ingredients, with the exception of the absence of sul-
phur, the presence of iron and a larger proportion of sulphates.
These waters will have a mild, aperient effect, combined with a
slight alterative action on the system."

Tyra springs in 5 S., 32 W., section 2, consist of a number of
springs on the north bank of a small tributary of the Rolling Fork
of Little river just west of Hatton Gap. The south bank and bed
of the stream are novaculite, so that they appear to come from a
layer of shale immediately overlying the novaculite.

Bog Springs are located in the pass of Cross creek through South
or Bog mountain on the west side of the creek. They flow out
from the foot of the mountain only a few yards from the creek.
The principal spring forms a considerable bog.

As a rule, this area of Carboniferous rocks is well supplied with
springs, and the streams are remarkably clear and the waters soft.

18<J7.] MINUTES. 819

Stated Meeting, May '21, 1897.

Vice-]^residcnt Pepper in tlic Chair.

Present, 82 members.

The Proceedings of the Officers and Council were
submitted.

Pending nominations Nos. l-:)7(> to 1888 were read and,
except No. 1380, action on which was postponed, were spoken
to. Secretary Frazer and Dr. Morehouse were appointed tel-
lers, and an election for members was held.

Dr. Morehouse read an obituary of the late Lewis A. Scott,
Esq.

Mr. Prime offered the followiug resolution, which was
adopted :

Resolved, That a Committee of three be appoiutecl by the President to
consider and report on the advisability of offering to cooperate on behalf
of this Society with the Royal Society of England in the preparation of
an International Catalogue liaisonne of all scientific publications, and
that such Committee shall be authorized to communicate with the Com-
mittee of the Roj^al Society on this subject."

Mr. George F. Edmunds made a communication on Inter-
national Arbitration, which was discussed by Dr. Pepper,
Mr. Wharton and Mr. Edmunds.

Dr. William H. Furness, 3d, then made a verbal communi-
tion, entitled, " Further Glimpses of Borneo," with lantern
slides.

A paper by Dr. Charles E. Sajous on '' Solar Heat and
Universal Gravitation — A New Working HjqDothesis," was
then read.

Dr. Greene, on behalf of the Library Committee, offered
the following resolutions :

That authority be given to the Library Committee to present one of
the duplicate copies of the Treaty of Peace with Great Britain, printed
in Paris in 1783, to the library of the Department of State, and one to
the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, if they do not already possess
copies.

Adopted.

320 EDMUNDS — INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION. [May 21,

That authority be given to the Library Committee to extend the time
after one o'clock, during wliicli the Library shall be open to such hours
as they may see fit, provided that no additional expense be incurred.

Adopted.

The Tellers of Election reported that the following Candi-
dates had been duly elected to membership in the Society :
Lord Lister, London.
Prof. W. C. Roentgen, Wiirzburg.
Owen Wister, Philadelphia.
Samuel N". Rhoads, Philadelphia.
Fridtjof Nansen, Lysaker, Norway.
Stewart Culin, Philadelphia.
S. F. Peckham, Ann Arbor.
Charles F. Mabery, Cleveland.
Edward Orton, Columbus, 0.
Prof. Theodor Tschernyschew, St. Petersburg.
Prof. A. Karpinsky, St. Petersburg.
Theodore N. Ely, Philadelphia.

Dr. Hays offered the following resolution :

That a Committee of five be appointed by the Chair to consider and
report upon the present status of the Magellanic Premium, and whether
anything can be done to more fully carry out the original intentions of
its founder.

Adopted.

The Society was then adjourned by the presiding officer.

INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION.

BY HON. GEORGE F. EDMUNDS.

{Bead May 21, 1897.)

The subject of international arbitration is becoming more and
more interesting, and possibly, in view of its latest developments,
somewhat more difficult of realization.

The idea of arbitration, whether between individuals or nations,

18i)7.] EDMUNDS — IN-TERNATIONAL ARBITRATIOX. 321

necessarily implies a state of difference in respect of rights or
duties. In the municipal State these rights are established or de-
fined by municipal law, either written or unwritten, and they are
compulsory in the sense that the aggrieved individual may appeal
to the power of the State to compel a recognition of his rights or a
redress for his wrongs.

This principle is equally true in respect of its nature as between
sovereign and independent States, with the exception that there is
no common tribunal yet established which has the authority to de-
cide upon, and much less compel obedience to, these principles.

The idea, therefore, of international arbitration presupposes that
there must be some rule or law that is to be the standard by which
to measure the disputed rights or duties that may be drawn in ques-
tion between sovereign States.

These rules or laws are what we call international law. It is not
founded in any essential sense upon the same grounds as is muni-
cipal law, for that is founded upon the assumed consent of all the
people who compose an organized State to which they have given
the authority, through their representatives of whatever kind, to
declare what their conduct toward each other shall be.

International law, therefore, which is to be administered through
international arbitration, unless there be special provision made in
an agreement for arbitration other or further than what interna-
tional law requires, is really and in its widest aspects the law in-
herent in the nature of man ; that is natural law, as it is called by
the writers. And this natural law may be reduced to its last and
best analysis in the statement, which is the foundation of all practi-
cal religion, that every man and nation should do to another that
which he or it would wish another to do to himself or itself.

But the law of nations has undergone — as have the social condi-
tions of mankind in the long centuries that have preceded us — a
great improvement. Some of the earliest writers on the subject
have undertaken to defend the use of poisoned weapons in war ;
later writers have been shocked at such propositions, as, justly, they
should have been. An interesting and comprehensive discussion
of the nature and history of natural and international law was
given by Vattell a century and a half ago, and it may be found in
the Preface to the comparatively recent editions of his treatise on
the law of nations.

I affirm (notwithstanding the doubts in this respect of very emi-

322 EDMUNDS-— INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION. [May 21,

nent and able gentlemen expressed within a year or two) that there
is such a thing as international law that is just as binding upon
independent nations in every sense as is municipal law upon the
individuals composing a State. It is true that this international
law cannot be adjudged in particular cases by a preestablished tri-
bunal or executed by a sheriff or constable. But it is not the less
binding upon the moral sense or honor (if there be any difference
in the expression) of every nation having relations with another.

The progress of civilization has been such that nations have
come more and more to feel the necessity of, and their obligation
to obey, the fundamental principles of justice that every one will
admit exist between individual men in a state of nature. Men in
a state of nature have found that they could not exist safely and
make progress without the establishment of associations respecting
common rights and duties which we call States. Thus associated,
they bear the same relations as States to each other that they bore
toward each other in a state of nature ; that is, the duties of justice
and right. In their formation of States as between each other,
they have agreed to establish tribunals to determine rights and to
establish authority to compel respect of such rights. The law of
nations imposes the same duties and obligations between nations,
but it lacks the compulsory power referred to.

This state of things, then, leads at once, and logically, to inter-
national arbitration.

I think no one can state a difference in principle between the
duties of men toward each other in an organized State and the
duties of nations toward each other, although they do not have a
federation possessing the power of judgment and coercion through
tribunals appointed to decide and powers authorized to execute the
decision.

Thus, in the present condition of the world, international arbi-
tration is the only resource short of the ultima ratio regimt through
which disputes between nations that shall have failed to be adjusted
through diplomatic means can be determined.

Why is it that it so often happens that arbitration in the place of
war does not take place ? It is obviously for the reason that the
various organized nations of the world are so suspicious of each
other that they are not willing to submit their differences to any
common tribunal in the brotherhood of nations.

Take, for illustration, the present condition in eastern Europe

1S97.J EDMUNDS — INTEEXATIONAL AKBITRATIOX. 323

and western Asia. The United States, having no possible selfish
interest (just or unjust) in the question, might have been appealed
to in the person of their chief magistrate to decide, upon due hear-
ing and consideration, what were the respective rights of Greece
and of Turkey in Crete, and what were the respective adjustments
that ought to be made in respect of European interests in the pas-
sage from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, and in the passage
from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea. Had the powers inter-
ested in this most difficult question been willing to submit to the
United States, or to any -other unbiased power, or to a tribunal
composed from several States, these perpetual and burning ques-
tions which continually involve not merely public war but animosi-
ties affecting large communities, unmeasured disaster of life and
peace and property might have been avoided. And so it is every-
where in all the frictions and differences that exist in the relations
of independent States. The fundamental difficulty is in their want
of confidence in each other. The Senate of the United States, I
am grieved to say, has very recently demonstrated this want of con-
fidence in any tribunal of an international character to which it
should be willing to refer differences even of a very narrow range
that might arise between ourselves and that power whose colonies
and dependencies are everywhere, and upon whose flag the sun
never sets. It may be that motives and considerations less broad
than those I have stated have led Senators, as it is reported, to
refuse assent to the recent arbitration treaty with Great Britain.
And, if this be so, there may be ground for the hope that at some
near day in the future this great nation will not be content to rest
itself alone on its physical strength, but upon the justice of its
cause determined by arbitration in many matters of difference that
may arise with another nation, and that in such a case it will be
willing to believe and to act upon the belief, that strength is not
the absolute test of justice and right, and that the strongest power
may sometimes be in the wrong ; and, therefore, be willing — strong
as it may be — to have its disputes determined by impartial interna-
tional judges, rather than by the arbitrament of war, with all its
miseries.

MAR 16 1898

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

AMEPJCAF PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

Vol. XXXVI. December, 1897. No. 150.

Stated Meeting^ September 3^ 1S97.

Yice-Presiclent 'Pepper in the Chair.

Present, 26 members.

;Mr. S. N. Ehoads, a ncAvly elected member, was presented
to the Chair, and took his seat.

Acknowledgments of election to membership were read
from Mr. Owen Wister, Prof. Orton, Mr. El}^, Mr. Pvhoads,
Prof. Maberj' , Mr. James Bryce, Lord Lister, Prof. Peckham,
Dr. Nansen, Prof. Karpinsky and Prof. Tschernyschew.

Correspondence was submitted and donations to the Library
were reported — the latter iaclnded a very valuable gift of
sixtj-two volumes and ten pamphlets of the publications of
the British Museum, from the Trustees, for which a special
vote of thanks was ordered to be transmitted to them.

The announcement of the decease of the following members
was made:

Dr. Don Crescendo Carrillo j Ancona, Bishop of Yucatan,
on March 19, 1897, a^t. 59.

Prof. Johannes Japetus Steenstrup, Professor of History at
the University of Copenhagen, on June 20, 1897, aH. 84.

Alfred M. Mayer, Professor of Physics in Stevens Institute
of Technology at Hoboken, on July 13, 1897, set. 61.

Dr. Frederick D. Stone, Librarian of the Historical "Society
of Pennsylvania, at Philadelphia, on August 12, 1897.

PKOC. a:mer. riiTLOs. soc. xxxvi. 150. w. phtnted dec. 10, 189T.

326 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF IXDIAX TERRITORY. [Sept. :i,

J. Sergeant Price, Esq., Treasurer of the Societ}^, at Cape
May, 'N. J., on August IB, 1897, tet. Q6.

A communication for tlie Transactions was presented from
Mr. John Yan Denburgh, entitled, " Some Experiments with
the Saliva of the Gila Monster {Ueloderma suspectum).^^

The foUowino' communications were read :

By Dr. IS". F. Drake, a paper on " The Geolog}^ of the
Indian Territory."

Mr. Clarence Alve, " Magnetism in Space."

The Finance Committee presented a report, announcing the
death of the Treasurer of the Society, J. Sergeant Price, Esq.

It was ordered " that the Finance Committee be and is here-
by authorized to draw upon the funds of this Society for the
money necessary to pay the current expenses, and to receive
its income during the vacancy in the office of Treasurer of
the vSociety, and the said Committee is authorized to have
possession of the financial papers and securities of the Soci-
ety, until such vacancy shall be filled."

The Society was adjourned by the presiding officer.

A GEOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE OF THE COAL
FIELDS OF THE INDIAN TERRITORY.^

BY XOAH FIELDS DRAKE,

{Read September 3, 1S97.)

INTRODUCTION.

During the spring, summer and fall of 1896, the writer spent six
months making a geological reconnaissance of the larger part of
the Coal Measures and adjacent formations of the Indian and Okla-
lioma Territories. The best maps that could then be had of the
region were exceedingly inaccurate. In connection with geologic
observations, sketch maps were therefore made of areas that were
especially important. Nearly all the area south and east of the
Canadian river, shown on the accompanying map, was sketched

^ A thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, presented to the Department
of Geology of the Leland Stanford, Jr., University, May, 1897.

18y7.] DRAKE^THE (lEOLOCrV OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 327

and studied rather closely, partly because the coal beds of that area
are valuable economically, and partly because the folded structure
and the resulting topography are of special geologic interest. The
bordering areas of the Boone chert and limestones were studied
because these beds have a wide distribution, and a knowledge of
their relations to overlying beds was essential to an understanding
of the structure of the area and of the conditions of deposition.

PART I.
Structural Geology.

Af-ea of the Reconnaissance. — The area over which the reconnais-
sance was made includes the northern part or nearly half of the
Indian Territory, and a little of the adjoining part of Oklahoma.
It includes the Cherokee, Creek and Seminole Nations, all the
Indian Nations in the northeast corner of the Indian Territory, the
northern part or nearly one-third of the Choctaw Nation and a
little of Oklahoma adjoining the Creek and Cherokee Nations.

The area is about 165 miles long and about 125 miles wide and
covers a little more than 20,000 square miles.

Previous Investigators. — In 1819, Thomas NuttalP made several
excursions across this region to study its botany and geology. He
passed over the country southwest of Ft. Smith, Ark., between
Sugar Loaf and Cavaniol mountains' and across Winding Stair
mountains ; then he went up the Arkansas river to Verdigris river
and across the country in a southwesterly direction from Verdigris
river. He also went up Grand river to the Salt springs and made
short excursions in the vicinity of Salisaw and Lee's creeks. His
conclusions regarding this field were : that sandstones, shales and
coal-bearing rock extend over most of the area ; that limestones
and cherts all lie north of the Arkansas river; that the salt-bearing
strata of Grand river are different from the salt-bearing red beds in
the southwest, and that the mountain chains in central western
Arkansas and central Indian Territory have a southwest trend. ^

^A Joii7-nal of Travels into the Arkansa Territory y by Thomas Nuttall,
Philadelphia, i82l,pp. 146-177.

"^Cavaniol, Caveniol and Kavanaugh are the different ways of spelling the
name applied to the mountain lying between the Sugar Loaf and the Sans Bois
mountains. Cavaniol is the oldest spelling of the name that has been found,
and is the one used in this report.

^Jour. Acad. iVat. Sci., Vol. ii, p, 49.

'628 imXKE — THE GEOLOGY OF IXDIAX TERRITOKY. [Sept. 3,

In 1822, Edwin James^ published a geologic section and some
explanatory notes of that part of this country lying along the 35th
parallel of north latitude. This publication, however, gave very
little additional information concerning the geology of this area
since it only showed the Ozark mountain strata to be Carbonif-
erous, and the rocks of the Canadian river country to be red beds
bearing salt and gypsum.

In 1853, important geologic observations in this country were
made by Jules Marcou," geologist to the Pacific Railroad Expedi-
tion. His reconnaissance in this field was principally confined to
the area lying immediately south of the Arkansas and Canadian
rivers. The important additional geologic knowledge he gave of
the area was: abetter knowledge of the coals, the lithology, and
the structure along the line of reconnaissance. He considered the
Ozark mountain area an outlying or second fold of the Allegheny
mountains.^

George G. Shumard made the statement before the St. Louis
Academy of Science, in 1857, that he had traced the coal fields
from Ft. Smith, Ark., to Ft. Belknap, in Texas. ^ He apparently
did not note the break in outcrop of these beds in the southwestern
part of the Choctaw Nation, where the Carboniferous is concealed
by the overlying Cretaceous.

In 1890, H. M. Chance^ published ''The Geology of the Choc-
taw Coal Fields," which is the most valuable information yet pub-
lished on the geology of this area. In this paper he locates the
relative stratigraphic position in the Indian Territory of the three
productive coal beds, and clearly outlines by description, sections,
and maps, most of the Grady and McAlester coal beds along the
outcrop from six or seven miles west of McAlester to near the
Poteau mountains. He gives a section from the base of the Grady
coal bed to the top of Cavaniol mountain, which includes the pro-
ductive part of the Coal Measures. He also notes the prevailing
S. 80° W. axes of folds and the system of southwest folds.

In 1 89 1, R. T. Hill*^ published a paper outlining the Ouachita

^•your. Acad. Nat. Sci., Vol. ii, pp. 326-329.
-Pacific Railroad Reports, Vol. iii, Part iv. pp. 123-127.

^ " Esquisse d'une classification des chaines de montagnes d'une partie de
rAmerique du Nord," Annates des Mines, 5 me. ser., Tome vii, pp. 339, 340.
^ Trans. Acad. Sci., St. Louis, Vol. i, p. 93.
^Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., 1890, Vol. xviii, 653-661.
^'Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. xlii, August, 1891, pp. III-121, *

1S97.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF IXDIAX TERRITORY. 329

Mountain System in the Indian Territory, which further classified
the knowledge of this system.

The work of the Arkansas and the Texas geological surveys, the
geologic investigations in southeastern Kansas by Prof. Charles S.
Prosser, and an unpublished sketch map kindly furnished by Prof.
Orestes St. John, showing the general distribution of the geologic
formations in the Indian Territory, further assisted in giving an
idea of the geology of this area. Taken as a whole, however, the
field was comparatively a new one to geologists and it is rather
remarkable that it should have so long remained so little known.

Hydrography. — Nearly all of the area under consideration is
drained by the Arkansas river and its tributaries. A very little of
the southern part, however, is drained by streams tributary to tlie
Red river. The Arkansas river enters the country under discus-
sion a little south of the northwest corner, and runs in a south-
easterly direction, thus crossing it diagonally through the central
portion. To the nortli of this river the larger streams, the Illinois,
the Grand, the Verdigris, and the Little Verdigris or Caney rivers,
fiow nearly southward and empty into the Arkansas river. The
Illinois river, however, is somewhat deflected to the westward, and
the Verdigris and Caney rivers deflected to the eastward. The
streams on the north thus have a tendency to flow into the Arkansas
river at the same locality.

To the south of the Arkansas river the Cimarron and the Cana-
dian rivers are its largest tributaries. The Cimarron, the most
northerly of the two, flows eastward into the Arkansas river, while
the Canadian river is slightly deflected to the north in its eastward
course, and enters the Arkansas river about twenty miles below the
collecting basin of the streams to the north. Between the Cimar-
ron and Canadian rivers, the Deep Fork and North Fork of Cana-
dian rivers, flow almost eastward and unite a short distance above
their confluence with the Canadian.

Topography. — There are three general topographic groups in this
area. One is the elevated and folded area to the south, which is an
extension of the Ouachita mountain system ; a second group is
the elevated plateau area in the northeast, which widens slightly
southward to near the Arkansas and the Grand rivers. This belongs
to the Ozark plateau system. The third group is a broad plain-like
area that slopes gently eastward in terrace-like escarpments and
undulations, and narrows into the low depression between the Ozark

Plate I.

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332 DRAKE— THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

and the Ouachita mountain systems. The westward deflection of
the Illinois and Grand rivers is due to the Ozark uplift, while the
northern deflection of the Canadian river is caused by the uplifted
folds of the Ouachita mountain system. Thus the rivers approach
each other on either side of the Arkansas river along the border
lines of these topographic groups.

The Ozark Mountain System. — This term was formerly applied
to the mountainous area of southern Missouri, northwestern and
central western Arkansas and east central Indian Territory. The
name is, however, properly restricted to the plateau or northern
part of this area, and the name, Ouachita, has been applied to the
folded mountains of the southern part of the area.

The Ozark mountains in the Indian Territory are divided into
two distinct topographic areas. One lying east of Grand river and
north of Tahlequah and Evansville is the lower table-land of the
two, and contains flat lands and also areas of sharp narrow ridges
and small V-shaped canyons. The other portion of the Ozark
system is more elevated and is the western prolongation of the
Boston mountains. This area is triangular in shape ; the apex of
the triangle is about four miles southeast of Fort Gibson, the base lies
south of Evansville, and is about fifteen miles across, measured
along the Arkansas-Indian Territory line. This table-land is about
1500 feet above tide-level. It is usually bounded by steep escarp-
ments on the north side and by both escarpments and slopes on the
south. Several streams have cut through this plateau and at present
flow through narrow valleys or canyons. The escarpment on the
north side of the Boston mountains has a general east-west direc-
tion, but it is a very irregular line with plateau tongues and outliers
extending northward along the face of the mountain ; these are
erosion remnants showing the former extension of the lower car-
boniferous strata.

The Ouachita Mountain System. — The elevated topographic
group in the southern part of the field is an extension of the Ouachita
mountain system which forms such a typical area of folded strata
and parallel ridges and valleys in western Arkansas. This system was
named ^ by Dr. J. C. Branner, who thinks it is an outlier of the Ai>
palachian system and the structural equivalent of the Cincinnati-
Nashville anticline. The Appalachian system, he thinks, once ex-
tended across the Mississippi Valley south of the Ouachita moun-

^ Ann. Kept. Geol. Snrv. Afk.,\o\. ii, 18SS, p. 175.

l^'.-7.] DRAKE— THE GEOLOGY OF IXDIAX TERRITORY. o33

tains, through Mississippi, Louisiana and central Texas. ^ There are
two principal types of mountains in the Ouachita system ; one of
these consists of long ridges, the other is the bench-and-bluff and
flat-topped mountain type. The mountains, ridges and valleys of
this region trend almost east and west, corresponding to the folds.

The Canadian river and the Arkansas river from the mouth of
the Canadian river to Arkansas, practically form the northern
boundary of this group. For some fifteen to twenty miles south of
these rivers low isolated buttes, table-lands and ridges such as
Long mountain, the Seven Devils, McChar mountains and Back-
bone mountain are the outliers to the typical part of the mountain
system. Immediately south of these outliers are the Sugar Loaf,
the Cavaniol and the Sans Bois mountains, each rising nearly 3000
feet above tide-level. Tliey all trend about S. 80° -W., but are com-
pletely separated.

These three mountains, together with the Poteau mountains, and
many smaller elevations, are of the bench-and-bluff type. The
mountains farther to the south, the Walker, the Blue, the Winding
Stair, the Black Fork and the Rich mountains are of the ridge type.

Prairie Plains^- — The third topographic division comprises all
the country north of the Canadian river and west of Grand river.
The predominant topographic feature of this division is a broad
southeastward sloping plain, broken by gentle irregular undulations
and by long lines of escarpments facing east or east -southeast. Of
these features the east-facing escarpments are the most conspicuous.
They are usually but fifty to one hundred feet high, although often
from ten to fifteen miles long, and even much longer if local breaks
are not taken into account. Occasionally gentle westward slopes
extend from the top of one escarpment back to the base of the one
next west of it, but usually the inclination is not sufficient to bring
the base of the western escarpment down to the level of the eastern
one.

Structure of the TopograpJiic Groups. — In each of these topo-
graphic groups the geologic structure accounts for the topographic
forms. The plateau type in the northeast has its strata almost
horizontal ; the folded type in the southern part of the field has its
strata irregularly folded along nearly parallel lines ; in the western

^ Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat, Hist., Vol. xxvi, p. 477/ Am. Joicr. Sci., November,
i897» PP- 357-371-
■■^ J. W. Powell, National Geogr. Monographs, Vol. I, No, 3, p. S3.

334 DRAKE— THE GEOLOGY OF IXDIAX TEP.RITORY. [Sept. :^,

part of the field the escarpments and undulating topographic fea-
tures are due to the varying resistant power of gently westward
dipping beds.

Ouachita Mountain Structure.— In the central and northern part
of the Ouachita area the mountains and mesas are practically all
synclinal in structure, and the deeper and broader synclines form
the larger mountains, such as Sugar Loaf, Poteau, Cavaniol and
San Bois mountains; the mesas, such as the Seven Devils and
McChar mountains, occupy the smaller synclinal folds. In the
southeastern part of the field all the mountains and ridges are up-
turned edges of extensive hard rock beds. There is every grada-
tion from the sharp ridge with equal slopes on either side and its
steeply dipping strata, to the escarpment or bench topography with
its gently dipping beds.

Ouachita Valley Structure. — In the central and northern part of
the Ouachita area most of the larger valleys lie along anticlinal
axes, while in the southeastern part of the field the valleys are in
the softer strata or along faults, and are nearly always parallel to the
structural lines.

Folds and Faults. — The folds and faults belong principally to
that part of the field included in the Ouachita mountain system.
The limits of the folded area are not sharply marked, however, and
there are isolated folds and faults through and around the Ozark
mountains. There are two distinct systems of folds, a primary
system and a secondary one. The axes of the most characteristic
or primary system run about S. 80° W. The axes of the secondary
system run approximately northeast-southwest, but the different
folds of this s) stem vary much in direction on either side of the
general direction. It does not appear that these two systems of folds
are of different ages, because the topographic features have de-
veloped equally along corresponding kinds of folds regardless of the
direction of their axes, and also because the two systems are inti-
mately related, as is shown by certain folds lying in both systems.
As already stated, the axes of the principal folds run nearly east and
west and the folds are quite regular. The distinctness of the
secondary folding is shown by the general southwest direction of
many axes and by the west-northwest dip of all the rock beds in
the central and western part of the whole area of the reconnaissance.
These western beds dip nearly northwest in the southern part of the
area, to the west-northwest in the central, and to the west in tlie

18117.] DEAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF IXDIAX TERKITOKY. 335

northern part of the Indian Territory. Thus the strike swings
around so as to become parallel to the western end of the Ozark
mountain uplift. This secondary system of folds is more charac-
teristic of the northern part of the region, thus further showing its
intimate connection with the Ozark mountains. So it appears that
the force that threw the Ouachita mountain system into east and
west folds at the same time uplifted the Ozark mountains to the
north and started secondary north-south folds.

The sketch map of the Choctaw coal field shows that there are
three groups of the south 80° west folds that are especially promi-
nent. The group on the north is anticlinal and runs westward
from immediately south of Pocola, passing near Farmer and Milton,
and running through Sans Bois to the west end of Sans Bois prairie.
This group includes three separate anticlinal folds, or the Backbone,
the Bokoshe-Miiton and the Sans Bois anticlines.

The group lying immediately south of this is composed of three
separate synclines, the Sugar Loaf, the Cavaniol and the Sans Bois
synclines, giving axial direction to the mountains of those names.
The third group, farther to the south, is anticlinal and extends from
immediately north of Heavener westward, with some minor deflec-
tions, passing near Krebs and through McAlester. This is a con-
tinuous anticlinal fold. To the north of these three groups the
folds are more gentle and irregular, while to the south of them the
folding is also more irregular and decidedly more violent and
accompanied by faulting. So in the southern part of the field the
structure can only be worked out by detailed study.

Folds of the second system, or those running nearly northeast-
southwest, are all gentle and not so extensive. The most promi-
nent folds of this system are those separating the Sugar Loaf, Cav-
aniol and Sans Bois mountains, and those lying between Ward and
Whitefield. Of all these the one separating Cavaniol and Sans
Bois mountains is the most prominent, and it is only a gentle roll.

Characteristics and Origin of the Folds a/id -Faults. — The inten-
sity of folding and faulting increases quite regularly southward, as
is shown in Sees, i, 2, 3 and 4, PI. 11, and this intensity of folding
extends further westward in the southern part of the area. Along
any given east and west line the folding is usually more intense to
the east ; this, however, is due chiefly to the southward deflec-
tion of the west end of the principal folds. As a rule, the strata
on the north side of anticlinal folds dip more steeply than on the

jJrtiy uowouej Y-

w

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1S97.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF IXDIAX TEKKITORY. oS i

south side of the same folds, as is shown in Sees, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, S,
and A. This feature is more marked where the folding is inten-
sified. Where the anticlines are very closely pressed, overthrows
to the north and often faulting along the north side of the anti-
clines are the usual consequences; this is shown in Sees. 5, 6 and
Pis. II and VII. In the Ozark mountain area the faults are usually
normal, while in the Ouachita area the faults are along anticlines.

All mountains of importance in the southern part of the field
(Walker, Black Fork, Rich, Blue, Winding Stair, Jack Fork and
Kiamichi mountains) have practically all their beds dipping south
about 40°. Throughout the area including these mountains, the
folds are so closely pressed, overthrown, and faulted that the strata
no longer show broad anticlines with low dips.

The elevation of the region, the increased intensity of folding
toward the south, and the overthrows toward the north all show
an upward and northward movement of the rock beds at the time
of folding. In places these movements of the strata have pro-
duced wrinkles like that shown in Sec. A.

'^-^

-^fe

Sec. A, To illustrate Ouachita folded structure. Sketched from exposures along
a railway cut, five miles southeast of Bengal.

This movement has tilted beds 40° to the south, the angle at
which they best resisted breaking and crushing. As noted by
Marcou,^ Branner- and Griswold% these disturbances are probably
contemporaneous with the Allegheny mountain uplift, and as noted
by Winslow^ they are probably due to the raising of the isogeo-
therms in the great thickness of Paleozoic beds.

Lithology of the Area of the Reconnaissance. — This field includes
both igneous and clastic rocks. The igneous rocks, however, are
confined to one small granitic dike in the Cherokee Nation.
Among the elastics, shales, sandstones, limestones and cherts have
extensive developments.

^Annales des Mines, 5me ser., vii, pp. 339, 340.
'-Ann. Rep. Geol. Sur. Ark., 1890, iii, p. 213.
'^ Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., xxvi, pp. 474-479.
''Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 1891, ii, pp 231-234,

338 DRAKE — Till-: (tEOLOGY of IXDIAX territory. [Sept. 3,

Igneous Rocks.

Previous Kno'cvlcdge of the Igneous Rock. — The existence of
igneous rock in the Cherokee Nation has been known for a long
time. It was referred to in D. D. Owen's Second Report of the
Geology of Arkansas as a red granite which occurred at the mouth
of Spavinaw creek, some thirty or forty miles west of the Arkansas
line. Edward T. Cox failed to find the granite in place, but saw
some millstones that were made from it, and obtained specimens
which were broken off in fashioning the millstones. He thought
this granite underlay the sedimentary rocks of southwestern Mis-
souri and northwestern Arkansas.^

The exact locality of this granite outcrop has, however, appa-
rently never been definitely known to any one interested in the
geology of the country until 1896, when the writer, after a special
search, found the rock in place.

Locality and Mode of Occurrence. — The rock occurs in the Cher-
okee Nation, on the north side of Spavinaw creek, about six miles
from its mouth and three-fourths of a mile west of Spavinaw post-
office. It is a dike about twelve hundred feet long by fifty feet
wide. The outcrop is not continuously exposed, but the breaks are
probably due to a thin covering of detritus from the clastic rock.
There are four exposures of the dike rock, which vary in length
from about one hundred to two hundred feet, and occur at inter-
vals of about two hundred feet.

This dike runs along the axis of a gentle anticlinal fold which
extends about N. 30^ E. The dips of the sedimentary beds on
either side of the dike are only 5° to 10°, but the fold is broad and
affects the rocks for two to three miles to the west and probably as
far to the east. Silurian strata which, over the adjoining country,
are usually covered by two hundred to five hundred feet of Lower
Carboniferous beds, are here exposed to a depth of about two hun-
dred feet and outcrop in the valley, as shown in PL III. The Silu-
rian strata along the contact of the dike appear to be free from any
special metamorphic action due to the dike rock.

Macroscopic Characters. — The general color of the rock is a
light brick red with a mingling of black specks which are slightly
grouped and in places so much as to give it a somewhat

'^Second Report of a Geological Reconnaissance of the Middle and Southern
Comities of Arkansas^ lSo9 and 18G0, pp. 404, 408.
'^Ibid., p, 40S.

isy:.] DKAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TEEIUTOKY

339

340 DIIAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF IXDIAX TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

mottled appearance. In the red* color are blended a light pink and
also deeper ^ed, due to the feldspar crystals, which are red and
form by far the larger part of the rock. The black specks are
small magnetite crystals. Associated with the black crystals are
greenish hornblende and chlorite crystals, which give a greenish
tint hardly noticeable on a casual observation. It contains also a
few small white quartz crystals. The crystals composing the rock
vary in size from those which give a general granular appearance
to the ground mass to feldspar crystals that are i c. m. or more in
length. The freshly broken rock shows a general fine-grained,
somewhat shiny and bright appearance with numerous shining
crystal faces of the larger feldspars.

Microscopic Examination. — Feldspars, quartz, chlorite and mag-
netite are the principal minerals of the rock, while hornblende and
epidote occur sparingly. A holocrystalline texture is shown
throughout the rock. The most striking and general microscopic
feature is its granophyric and micropegmatitic texture. Through
most of the orthoclase crystals quartz is intergrown in the most inti-
mate manner, so that each feldspar shows radiating or parallel alterna-
ting quartz and feldspar in narrow bands, which form fan-shaped or
irregular patches. In other cases, the quartz appears m trian-
gular sections along lines through the feldspar crystals, or is micro-
pegmatitic. In any given feldspar crystal, the included quartz
plates or prisms show the same orientation. Quartz occurs spar-
ingly isolated in larger crystals, but very rarely shows its out-
lines. Feldspars are the predominant minerals. They are princi-
pally orthoclase, but plagioclase feldspars are of rather common
occurrence. The feldspars have a fine granular appearance and a
reddish color. Phenocrysts of feldspar are quite common ; they,
however, generally show irregular outlines instead of crystal faces.
Magnetite occurs in small opaque masses, many of which show per-
fect crystal outlines. They show a slight grouping through the rock
and in places give a blended appearance to the crystals.

The hornblende is the greenish variety and of rather uncommon
occurrence. The chlorite is common and occurs in greenish bands,
spherular aggregates and in minute particles. Epidote is of rather
common occurrence.

1S97.] l^RAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF IXDIAX TERRITORY. 341

Chetnical Analysis.^ — per cent.

Loss on Ignition i.ii

Silica (SiOo) 71.10

Ferric Oxide and Alumina (Fe.^ O3 and AI2O3) 20.60

Calcium Oxide (CaO) 2.53

Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 0.99

Potassium and Sodium Oxide (K2O and Na.^0) 3.76

Total 100.09

Classification of the Rock. — The high percentage of silica, the
holocrystalline texture and the general interference of crystallization
shown in the irregular crystal outlines at once place the rock in
the granitic series. As shown by the feldspars, quartz and mag-
netite, however, there is a strong tendency to the porphyritic texture:
it is, therefore, a porphyritic granite. The minute textures of the
feldspars and quartz is designated by the name granophyre.

Age of the Dike. — As noted above, the dike breaks through
Silurian strata along the axis of an anticlinal fold. The Lower Car-
boniferous strata overlying the Silurian are tilted by this fold. The
igneous rock was, from this evidence, most likely protruded at the
time of the folding. This anticline is one of the outlying folds of
that mountain system which is such a marked feature of central
western Arkansas and the adjoining part of the Indian Territory.
This system of folding is post-Carboniferous, pre- Cretaceous and
quite likely pre-Mesozoic, because Upper Coal Measures deposits are
folded. Lower Cretaceous deposits lie almost undisturbed upon these
folds and no Jurassic or Triassic beds occur over the area.

Relatio7i to the Igneous Rocks of Other Areas. — This dike in
the Cherokee Nation is equally distant from three different igneous
rock areas, and about two hundred miles from either of them. One
lies in southeastern Missouri, one in central Arkansas and the other
in the Choctaw and Chickasaw Nations, Indian Territory. The
igneous rocks of this latter-named area have not been studied by
any one sufficiently to make satisfactory comparisons. The igneous
rocks of Arkansas are quite different from the Spavinaw granite.
Those of Arkansas " belong to the eleolite syenites and their asso-
ciated dike rocks ;" they are gray or blue in color- and are post-Car-

1 Analysis made by Mr. Chester A. Thomas.
"^ Anil. Rept. Geo I. Surv. Ark.^ 1890, Vol. ii, p. 3.
PROC. AMER. PHILOS. 800. XXXYI. 156. X. PRINTED DEC. 17, 189T.

3-12 DRAKE — tup: geology of IXDIAX territory. [Sept -A,

boniferous in age. In texture, color and mineralogical composition
many of the Missouri granites closely resemble those of the Spav-
inaw area. The resemblance is especially true of the granophyric
and micropegmatitic texture. Dr. Haworth says : ^ '' The distribu-
tion of rocks exhibiting such structure is very wide; there is
scarcely a granite in the State in which portions of it are not rep-
resented The small outlying granitic areas generally have

this structure throughout This structure is common in the

porphyries also." '"

Iron oxide is a rather common constituent of the Missouri
granites, and is especially common in the porphyries. ' These
properties in general are also characteristic of the Spavinaw rock.
The age of the Missouri granite, however, is apparently different
since it has been referred to the Archean. ^

Clastic Rocks.

The clastic rocks which cover all this area, except the small dike
described, belong to the Silurian, the Lower Carboniferous, the
Coal Measures and the Permian.

The Silurian occurs in a few narrow valleys in the northeastern
part of the area. The Lower Carboniferous covers about half of
the Cherokee Nation, or the northeastern part of the field under
discussion. The Coal Measures cover all the rest of the area except
a narrow strip along the western edge, which is Permian.

Silurian.

The Silurian areas lie in narrow strips along valleys in the
Cherokee Nation, where stream erosion has cut down through the
overlying Lower Carboniferous beds. In some places folding has
elevated these lower beds so that erosion has more readily exposed
them.

Structure. — The Silurian strata lie almost horizontal and closely
conform to the inclination of the overlying Lower Carboniferous
beds.

LWiology. — The strata are composed of saccharoidal sandstones,
marble or highly metamorphosed limestones, chert and dolomitic
calcareous sandstones.

1 Mo. Geol. Stir., Ann. Rept., 1894, Vol. viii, pp. 165-166.

"^ Ibid.,^. 193. '^ Ibid., pp. 141, 188. ^ Ibid., pp. 95-96.

1S07.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 343

Local Develop/neni. — The localities where the writer saw and ex-
amined Silurian deposits are on Spavinaw creek six to seven miles
from its mouth, along the Illinois river southeast of Oaks, along
Salisaw creek at and near Marble and on Elk creek west of Bunch.

Spavinaw Creek Area. — The area on Spavinaw creek is shown in
PL III. It is about one mile square, and is exposed mainly on ac-
count of an anticlinal fold which elevates the beds so that the
erosion of Spavinaw creek has reached and cut into them. About
two hundred feet of the strata are exposed. The rocks are mainly
cherty limestones, cherty calcareous sandstones and saccharoidal
sandstones. The lowest exposed strata lie practically in contact with
the igneous dike and are composed of fossiliferous chert. Along the
creek at Spavinaw post-office twenty feet or more of the Silurian
strata are exposed.

Illinois River Areas. — At the Stewie ford of the Illinois river on
the Cincinnati-Oaks road, about seventy-five to one hundred feet
of Silurian strata are exposed in the bluffs and the hillsides along
the valley. These strata are mainly saccharoidal sandstones, rather
thin bedded, but sandy clay shale is quite frequently interstratified
with the sandstone. These clays are of a light gray color and in
places are slightly blue, and some are yellowish. Silurian strata
are exposed on the above-named road also about two miles to the
northwest of the ford, at which exposure the beds are saccharoidal
sandstones dipping slightly to the southeast. Good exposures of
the thin bedded sandstone and shales may be seen at the Stewie
schoolhouse about one-half mile northwest of the ford. From the
exposures seen along and near the river, it seems likely that the
outcrops extend several miles up and down the valley from the foid.
Silurian strata are reached by this river erosion along the Arkansas-
Indian Territory line, and they are nearly reached in the bed of
the river east of Greenleaf courthouse, some twelve to fifteen miles
southeast of Tahlequah. So it is probable that exposures may be
seen for twenty or thirty miles along the river valley within the
Cherokee Nation.

Salisaw Creek Areas. — The exposures of Silurian deposits on
Salisaw creek were caused by folding, faulting and erosion. The
location and areal outcrop of these beds are shown in PI. IV. The
Silurian strata nowhere rise high upon the hillsides, but are almost
entirely confined to the deeper erosion channels of the valleys and
canons. They are exposed, however, only where folding or fault-

;44

DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

ing has brought them to a higher level than they would otherwise
have reached. There are in this area two systems of folds and
fault lines ; one runs about io° south of west, and the other io° east

Ph(t6 IV.

of north. One of the S. 80° W. fault lines runs from a point
about one-half mile southeast of Marble P. O. westward across Dry
creek. From the first-named point, a fault line runs N. 10° E.
across Walkingstick creek, where it meets a monoclinal fold running

1S97.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIA X TEERITORY. 345

nearly east and west apparently. The uplift of the monoclinal
fold being on the riorth side, outcrops of the Silurian strata extend
farther east on that side of the fold. Another east and west anti-
clinal fold appears to lie about one mile north of Bunch. Silurian
rocks are exposed along this uplift one and a half miles northwest
of Bunch, and on Elk creek about six miles W. N. W. from Bunch.
Lithology of the Salisaw Creek Area. — Marble and saccharoidal
sandstone are practically the only kinds of rocks exposed in these
outcrops. There is, however, a bed of chert some twenty-five feet
thick one-half mile west of Marble, which is most likely Silurian.
This chert consists of angular pieces, from an eighth to a fourth inch
in diameter, of pink and also white chert scattered through a ground
mass of gray chert. At the base of the chert bed, there is some
saccharoidal sandstone containing chert nodules. The saccharoidal
sandstone usually lies at the top of the Silurian beds in this area,
and is from one inch to twenty-five or thirty feet thick. The grains
composing the sandstone vary considerably in size : the largest are
about two millimeters in diameter. These sandstones may be
seen along Walkingstick creek above the Marble bed, at almost
every place where the top of the marble is exposed. They also out-
crop one-half mile east of Marble on Salisaw creek, and northwest
of Marble along Dry creek. The marbles are generally of a pink
color, rather coarsely crystalline, seamed, and lie in massive beds ;
twenty-five to thirty feet of massive marble is exposed at all the
larger Silurian areas marked on PL IV, and the base of the marble
was not seen at any place. Mr. J. D. Rice, who quarries marble at
Marble P. O., gave me the following section from a drill hole on
Dry creek, northwest of Marble P. O.

FEET.

Pink marble 25

Light gray marble 100

Deep pink marble 2 i

Dark gray marble 2\

Deep pink marble 5

Dark gray marble • i

Relation to the Silurian of A?'kansas. — K section^ of the Silurian
deposits in Arkansas gives something over one hundred and fifty
feet of pink, chocolate and gray-colored marbles on top, which beds

^ Ann. Kept. Geol. Sur. Ark., 1890, Vol. iv, pp. 10, 11, 214.

346 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF IXDIAX TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

are called St. Clair marbles. These beds are underlain by blue and
gray limestones called the Izard limestone. The Izard limestone
is underlain by saccharoidal sandstones, magnesian limestones and
cherts.

All the Silurian deposits seen in the Indian Territory, except the
Salisaw and Elk creek areas, are composed of saccharoidal sand-
stones, cherts and calcareous, magnesian sandstones. The Salisaw
and Elk creek Silurian rocks, however, are mainly pink and gray
marbles, and therefore appear to be the equivalent of the St. Clair
marble, while the Illinois river and Spavinaw creek areas belong to
the beds below the Izard limestone.

The St. Clair marbles in Arkansas are principally confined to
Independence, Izard, Stone and Searcy counties, in the northern
part of the State. The Izard limestones have a somewhat wider
range,^ but neither the St. Clair marble nor the Izard limestones
are known as far northwest as Benton county, Ark.,^ or to the west
of Benton county, in the Indian Territory. So it appears that
these topmost Silurian beds were eroifed in the northwest to a
greater extent than they were to the south and east, before they were
covered by later deposits. Dr. Henry S. Williams,' principally
from biological investigations, has determined the top of the St.
Clair marble to be of Clinton-Niagara age, and the lower part of it
to be of Trenton age. From the thickness of the marble beds in
the Salisaw creek areas, as shown by drill holes, it is probable that
the outcropping part is the equivalent of the Clinton-Niagara part
of the St. Clair.

Lower Carboniferous.

Area. — The Lower Carboniferous is confined to the northeast
part of the Cherokee Nation and is roughly bounded on the west by
the Grand or Neosho river and on the south by the Boston moun-
tains. This area covers about three thousand square miles, approxi-
mately one-half of the Cherokee Nation.

Lithology. — The rocks composing the Lower Carboniferous are
cherts, limestones, shales and sandstones.

Structure. — The beds as a rule are practically horizontal, especially
in the northeastern part of the area. Along the western border of

^Ann. Kept. Geol. Stir. Ark., 1890, Vol. iv, p. 112.
"^ Ann. Rept. Geol. Sur. Ark., 1891, Vol. ii, pp. 27-32.
"^ Am. Jour. Sci., 1894, Vol. cxlviii ]■)]). 32S, 329.

is<)7.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF IXDTAX TERRITORY. 847

the area the strata dip slightly to the west, while along the southern
border they are somewhat disturbed by gentle folds which usually
run a little south of west by north of east ; but many run about
northeast by southwest. The general result of the disturbance is to
make the strata dip with varying steepness to the south.

Eureka Shale.

This shale is black, argillaceous, bituminous and rather friable
and varies in thickness from one inch to forty or fifty feet. It
immediately overlies the Silurian beds and is apparently uncon-
formable with them since the shale lies on cherts and saccha-
roidal sandstones along Spavinaw creek and Illinois river, while
about twenty-five miles farther south it lies on higher strata com-
posed of one hundred and fifty feet or more of Silurian marble.
Similarly, in Arkansas, the shale lies on top of the St. Clair
marble and the Izard limestone along the southern border of the
Silurian area, while farther to the north it rests on cherts and sac-
charoidal sandstones which underlie the marbles and limestones.

The shale is apparently conformable with the overlying beds,
since the limestone at the base of the Boone chert was found resting
on it at every place where it was seen. The shale may be seen at
nearly every locality where Silurian beds are exposed, and at a few
places where the erosion has not passed through the shale bed.
Quite often detritus from overlying rock beds covers and obscures
the outcrop of the shale, but by tracing the horizon a short distance
it is usually found.

The Eureka shale has a wide distribution outside of the Indian
Territory. It is usually found in northwestern Arkansas wherever
the base of the Boone limestone is exposed. From its typical de-
velopment at Eureka springs. Ark., it was named by Dr. J. C.
Branner, the Eureka shale. ^

Dr. Branner says : " The Eureka shale is clearly the equivalent
of the Tennessee bed called by Safford the ' Black shale.' " - Saf-
ford says this shale also occurs in Virginia, Georgia and Alabama.^

^Ahh. Rept. Geol. Sur. Ark., Vol, iv, 1890, p. 345 ; " Phosphate Deposits of
Ark.," Tran. Am. Inst. Mm. Eng., 1896, xxxvi, 580-582.

"^ Ann. Rept. Geol. Siir. Ark., Vol. iv, 1888, p. 26; "The Phosphate Deposits
of Arkansas," Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1896, xxxvi, 582.

3 Elementary Geol. of Tenn., by James M, Safford and J. B. Killebrew, Nash-
ville, 1885, p. 75.

348 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

The '' Black shale " of Tennessee was referred to the Devonian ^
by Safford. The Eureka shale of Arkansas was referred doubtfully
to the Devonian.' Dr. Branner thinks the shale belongs to the
Lower Carboniferous,' because in places it grades into the over-
lying Lower Carboniferous limestones, and the few fossils that
have been found in the shale belong equally to the Devonian and
the Lower Carboniferous. The persistency with which such a thin
bed occurs unconformably with the Silurian and conformably with
Lower Carboniferous beds in the Territory, as well as in Arkansas,
also strengthens the theory that it is Lower Carboniferous.

Spavinaw Creek ^r<?^.— Exposures of the shale are common
around the border of the Silurian area on Spavinaw creek. One of
the best exposures seen there was about one mile west of Spavinaw
post-office, on the north side of Spavinaw creek. At that point it
is about forty feet thick, and is the usual typical, bituminous,
rather friable shale.

Illinois River Areas. — On the north side of the Illinois river,
west of the Cincinnati-Siloam Springs road, and near the Arkansas-
Indian Territory line, good exposures of the shale may be seen.
Near the Stewie ford of the Illinois river, along the Cincinnati-
Oaks road, the shale outcrops again. In the limited area examined,
no complete section was seen, but it appeared to have its usual
thickness and characteristics. West of Bunch, at a point about
four miles below the mouth of Elk creek, the Eureka shale outcrops
in the bed of the Illinois river.

Salisaw Creek Areas. — About two miles northwest of Bunch, along
Marble creek, the valley shows the typical Eureka shale soil, but no
good exposures of the shale were seen there. Along Walkingstick
creek, however, about three and a half miles north of Marble,
good exposures of the shale may be seen. At this locality it is
about thirty feet thick and contains some calcareous nodules, other-
wise it does not vary from its general characteristics. Along Dry
creek, one and a half miles northwest of Marble, good exposures of
the shale show it to be about thirty feet thick.

'^ Eletneiitary Geol. of Tenn., by James M, Safford and J. B. Killebrew,
Nashville, 1885, pp. 112, 118.

''■Ann. Rept. Geol. Sur. Ark., 1891, Vol. ii, p. 32,

3" Phosphate Deposits of Arkansas," Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., loc. cit.

1S97.] DKAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF IXDIAX TERRITORY. 349

Boone Chert and Limestone.

Stratigraphic Position. — Immediately above the Eureka shale,
there is a series of cherts and limestones aggregating from fifty to
about five hundred feet in thickness, and averaging about three
hundred and fifty feet. It was named the Boone chert by Dr.
Branner because of its extensive and typical development in Boone
county, Ark.^ These beds are the probable equivalents of the Bur-
lington-Keokuk divisions of the Lower Carboniferous.

Areal Extetit. — The Boone chert and limestones form the prin-
cipal strata outcropping over several counties in southwest Missouri
and northwest Arkansas, and continue into the Territory, where
they cover half of the Cherokee Nation — three thousand square miles.
They lie in the northeastern and east central part of the Cherokee
Nation. Roughly, their western limit is four to five miles west of
Grand river and their southern limit some twenty to twenty-five
miles north of the Arkansas river. Tracing the boundary more
definitely, it enters the Territory south of Baxter Springs, Kans.,
curves to the southwest, passing through Miami, thence bears
southward to near Fairland, whence it extends southwestward to a
point on the M. K. & T. Railway, some four or five miles south-
west of Vinita. From this point it runs southward in a wavy line
between the railway and Grand river to a point about fourteen miles
north of Ft. Gibson. From this point it runs eastward in a zigzag
way to a point about one and a half miles south of Tahlequah. Then
in its eastward course it swings southward, passing a little south of
Park Hill, makes deep southward swings on the Illinois river, Sali-
saw and Lee's creeks, and passes into Arkansas a little north of Evans-
ville. All along this border, and more especially its southern part,
there are small isolated areas of higher geologic horizons scattered
over the chert area along drainage divides.

Structure. — Over most of this area the beds are practically hori-
zontal, but nearer the borders the strata dip toward and at right
angles to the border line. In the northwest part of the area this
dip, even along the border line, is barely perceptible, but toward
the south the dip increases and also becomes more irregular by the
increased folding and some faulting along several axes. These dis-
turbances largely account for the irregular border of the chert area
on the southwest and south.

'^An. Rep. Geol. Stir. Ark., 1890, Vol. i, p. 129.

850 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF IXDIAN TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

Slratigraphy. — Most of the formation is chert, and the limestone
strata are usually confined to the base and top of it. These
two limestone horizons are usually five to twenty feet thick each.
The limestone interstratified with the chert is in thin layers, sel-
dom more than two or three feet in thickness, and is of rather rare
occurrence.

Characteristics of the Chert. — The chert varies in color from
white to gray; light gray or white is the prevailing color, and is
especially characteristic of the rock that has been exposed to
weathering agencies, or is dry. Weathered pieces, however, are
often of a brownish color. The rock is almost a uniform mixture
of lime and silica, but the proportion of lime and silica varies
somewhat at different horizons or even along the same stratum. In
weathering it breaks into rather small sharp angular pieces. The
strata are usually thin and present a slight wavy and much fractured
appearance. These features are doubtless due to the weather-
ing of rock of an uneven composition. These irregularities and
characteristics run through the whole chert bed throughout the
entire area.

Limestones. — The limestone at the base of the chert bed corre-
sponds to the St. Joe marble of the Geological Survey of Arkan-
sas '^ it varies from an inch to about thirty feet in thickness ; it
is of rather uniform texture, quite crystalline, of a rather dark-gray
color, and lies in strata from a few inches to four or five feet in
thickness. This bed is rarely missing where the base of the Boone
chert was seen. On Spavinaw creek and Illinois river it is from fif-
teen to twenty feet thick. On Dry creek, one and a half miles
northwest of Marble, it is about two feet thick, crystalline, gray in
color, and contains greenish specks scattered through it.

The limestone that occurs very sparingly through the chert is
rarely more than two or three feet thick. It is usually of uniform
texture, tough, and of a gray color.

The limestone at the top of the chert is from fifteen to forty feet
in thickness. It is massive, tough, gray and crystalline, but in the
northwestern part of the area it is arenaceous and somewhat flaggy.
This limestone forms the base of a great many small hills along the
border of the chert area. It is often marked by glades due to thin
soil. Along the west bank of Spring creek, near the south line

1 Ann. Rept. Geol. Siirv. Ark., 1890, Vol. iv, p. 253.

1S97.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TEKRITORY. 351

of the Quapaw Nation, hard gray massive beds of the upper Boone
limestone are finely exposed in bluffs and benches known as the
Devil's Promenade. Along the east bank of the Neosho river,
south and southwest of Miami, the upper Boone limestone forms a
long outcrop ; the bed is composed of shaly, flaggy and lenticular
bedded limestone, some of which near the top and especially along
parting planes is decidedly arenaceous. Archimedes are abundant
in the upper part of these limestones. Along a little brook, one
mile to the west of Big Cabin creek, a full section of the limestone
overlying the Boone chert is exposed. The limestone bed is
about thirty feet thick and arenaceous throughout, though it varies
very much in the proportion of sand and lime in different strata.
The beds that are most arenaceous are shaly and lenticular and
some contain arenaceous limestone nodules with flinty centres.
Archimedes occur in some of these strata. East of Grand river,
opposite Chouteau, this bed is arenaceous and flaggy. About seven
miles east of Adair the Boone limestone outcrops along streams.
The rock is massive, hard, gray, fossiliferous limestone. The out-
crops seen northeast of Ft. Gibson, west and southwest of Tahle-
quah, are practically all gray limestone in rather massive strata.
The bed as it occurs along the Illinois river and Greenleaf creek
southeast of Greenleaf, is about thirty feet thick, mostly gray and
massive limestones. There is at the top of the bed, however, a
stratum of bluish limestone which weathers to a whitish color, and
the base of the bed is somewhat arenaceous, shaly and wavy.

Along Walkingstick creek, about three miles north of Marble,
the stratum is thirty feet thick, and is composed of massive gray
limestone. The top of this bed, as seen in the base of a hill
one and a half miles south of the Tahlequah-Evansville road and
four or five miles east-southeast from VVauhillau, has a little blue
limestone that weathers white. Near the base it is decidedly
arenaceous and shaly ; the rest of the bed, which is the greater part
of it, is massive gray limestone as usual. East of Stillwell, south
and southwest of Westville, the stratum is from thirty to forty feet
thick, and is practically all gray limestone in layers from a few
inches to five or six feet in thickness.

352 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

Fayetteville Shale.

The Fayetteville shale is probably the stratigraphic equivalent of
the AVarsaw division, as recognized in Illinois, Iowa, etc.

Sees, a-k, PI. V, show the variation in thickness and the associ-
ated strata of the Fayetteville shale along its line of outcrop through
the Indian Territory. These sections were made at the following
localities :

Sec. a — About two miles west and southwest of Stillwell.

Sec. b — Four or five miles east-southeast from Wauhillau and
one and a half miles south of the Evansville-Tahlequah road.

Sec. c — Compiled from sections made northwest of Marble and
southwest of Bunch.

Sec. d — West side of Big Vian creek about one and a half miles
northwest of Vian.

Sec. e — Compiled from outcrops along the Illinois river and
Greenleaf creek, about five miles east-southeast from Greenleaf.

Sec. f — About one mile north of Fourteen Mile creek and one
and a half miles northeast of Grand river.

Sec. g — About two and a half miles south-southwest of Mark-
hain's store or thirteen miles south of Brushtopped mountain.

Sec. h — One and a half miles east of Grand river, opposite Ned
Adair's ferry, east of Chouteau.

Sec. i — Brushtopped mountain, a small hill one mile north of
Pryor creek and one and a half miles west of Grand river.

Sec. j — South side of Rock creek about four miles west of its
mouth northeast of Adair.

Sec. k — Along and south of Little Log Cabin creek one and a
half miles south of Vinita.

The Fayetteville shale is a black, friable, clay shale, which
usually contains clay-ironstone concretions, and has an average
thickness of about fifty feet. This shale immediately overlies the
upper Boone limestone, and varies but little around the southern
and the southwestern border of that limestone, and also along the
western border as far north as the Grand river east of Chouteau.
Farther to the northward it is more arenaceous and thinner and
varies in color from gray to blue and yellowish. It is doubtful
whether there are any outcrops as far north as the Indian Territory-
Kansas line that may be referred to this shale. The shale is di-
vided throughout by a bed of light blue, friable, fine-grained lime-

1S97.J DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF IXDIAX TERRITORY.

Phite Y.

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51

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854 DRAKE— THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TEKRITOKY. [Sept. 3,

Stone. The lithologic characteristics of this limestone are quite
uniform throughout its extent and are such as to contrast it sharply
with the limestones of the associated beds. It varies in thickness
from an inch to thirty feet. Along Grand river east of Wagoner,
Chouteau and Pryor creek, it is twenty to thirty feet thick ; far-
ther northward and southeastward it is usually but five to ten feet
thick. This bed is apparently confined to the Indian Territory,
since it was not observed north of Vinita and was not noted in
Arkansas by the Geological Survey of that State. There is, how-
ever, a stratum of limestone about a foot thick in the Fayetteville
shale three miles southeast of Westville, which from its position
and lithologic characteristics, appears to be this bed.

In the Fayetteville shale exposed around the hillsides southwest
of Bunch and along Illinois river east of Greenleaf this limestone
occurs almost regularly and is usually five or six feet thick.

Batesville Sandstone.
In the isolated small hills norfhwest, southeast and south of West-
ville, sandstone beds twenty feet or more in thickness overlie the
Fayetteville shale, and are probably the equivalent of the Batesville
sandstone. This sandstone bed is apparently lacking at other places
over the field where the Fayetteville shale was seen.^

Boston Group.
This group is composed of the uppermost beds of the Lower Car-
boniferous and corresponds to the St. Louis and Chester horizons of
Illinois, etc. The classification of the group into beds as was
worked out in Washington county. Ark., by Dr. F. W. Simonds'^ is

as follows :

Kessler limestone.
Coal-bearing shale.
Pentremital limestone.
Washington shale and sandstone.
Archimedes limestone.
Marshall shale.

These horizons were classified mainly on lithologic characters,

1 Mr. Stuart Weller has recently shown that the Batesville sandstone is the
equivalent of the Aux Vases sandstone of Illinois and Missouri ( Trans. N. Y.
Acad. Sci., xvi, 251-282).

2 Ann. Rept. Geol. Surv.y Ark., 1888, Vol. iv, p. xiii.

Boston group

1897.] DIJAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. • 300

which change rapidly in most of them. These variations are appa-
rently greater in the Indian Territory than they are in Arkansas.
In the northern part of the Indian Territory it is doubtful whether
the group is represented by any deposits of consequence. It is rep-
resented southeast of Vinita by a series of shaly clays and thin beds
of impure limestones, aggregating about seventy-five feet in thick-
ness. East of Chouteau, along Grand river, the group is about one
hundred feet thick and is rather clearly divided into different beds
of limestones and shales. On Salisaw creek and eastward to the
Arkansas-Indian Territory line, the group is about one hundred and
fifty to two hundred feet thick. The whole group, as outlined in
Washington county, Ark., is, however, nowhere in the area studied
represented in a characteristic way. The Archimedes and Pentre-
mital limestones are usually together, and it is very doubtful whether
the Kessler limestone is at all represented.

This group is usually confined to an escarpment and isolated
hills along the western and southern border of the Boone chert and
limestone area; at most its outcrop forms a belt only two or three
miles wide along the border of the Lower Carboniferous. Sees.
a-k, PL V, show the development of this group along its line of
outcrop from near Still well to near Vinita. The hills east, west
and south of Stillwell are capped by fifty to seventy-five feet of
limestone that belongs to this group. The limestone is usually gray
in color, rather massive and in places quite arenaceous. Farther
westward, in the isolated hills south of Wauhillau, near the Evans-
ville-Tahlequah road, the limestone and beds of the Boston group
are considerably thinner and are overlain by sandstone that is prob-
ably Coal Measures. Ten to twenty-five miles south and southwest
of Wauhillau, near Bunch, Marble, Vian and along Illinois river'
east of Greenleaf, the Boston group is one hundred and fifty to two
hundred feet thick and probably thicker, since the dividing line
that has been used to separate this group from the Coal Measures is
largely an arbitrary one and the doubtful beds are mostly classified
as Coal Measures. One and a half miles northwest of Marble the
lower part of the Boston group beds consists of about one hundred
feet of gray limestone slightly interstratified with clay shale and
arenaceous shaly limestone. Archimedes occur frequently in the
lower part of the limestone bed. Overlying this limestone there
is a series of strata aggregating about two hundred feet in thickness,
which are composed of sandstones and some interstratified clay shale.

366 ])RAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF IXDIAX TERRITORY. [Sept. '.i,

The sandstones vary from massive to flaggy and shaly, and in places
near and at the top they grade into a grit. This grit appears to be
the equivalent of the so-called Millstone grit of the Geological Sur-
vey of Arkansas, since it has the same lithological characteristics and
apparently has the same stratigraphic position. It is probable,
therefore, that not over one hundred feet of the shales and sand-
stones overlying the limestones at this place should be referred to
the Boston group. The above section (Sec. c, PL V), with slight
modifications, represents the group as it is shown in outcrops
between Bunch and Marble.

The Boston group is well exposed along the west side of Big
Vian creek, northwest of Vian, where Sec. d, PI. V, was made.
The section at that place is as follows :

FEET.

Massive sandstones (Coal Measures ?) loo-f-

Arenaceous black clay shale , 75

Brownish, weathering, hard limestone }4

Shaly sandstone 5

Gray, massive, hard limestone 5

Black clay shale. 10

Massive, hard, gray limestone at the base which
grades into shaly brownish weathered lime-
stone at the top 15

Clay shale (?) 10

Massive, gray, firm, fossiliferous limestone 35

The following is a section on the east side of Illinois river,
about west-northwest of Marble :

FEET.

Sandstone and grit (Coal Measures?) 30-]-

Blue clay shale 5

Uniformly textured, smooth, gray limestone in

strata i to 2 feet thick 10

Nodular friable limestone in thin, irregular, rough-
surfaced strata with clay partings and fillings
of lenticular places through the strata 10

Rather uniformly textured, massive, gray, fossili-
ferous limestone 50

Blue clay shale 20

FEET.

Hard, gray limestone 2

Sandstone and clay shale 10

Limestone, usually massive, arenaceous, and fria-
ble, but it varies to pure, tough limestone of
a gray color. Some bluish limestone, which
weathers to a white color, occurs near the
base of the bed 30

137

Below this section is about twenty feet of the Fayetteville
shale and its included stratum of blue limestone. The limestone
at this place is only about two feet thick.

On the west side of Illinois river, about five miles east-southeast
from Greenleaf, the following section (Sec. c, PI. V) may be seen :

FEET.

Sandstones and grit (Coal Measures?) at top

Massive, gray, brownish weathering limestone. . . 15

Clay shale 20

Massive gray limestone 4

Blue limestone alternating with a little clay shale.
The limestone weathers to a rather smooth
but angular wavy surface and a whitish or
yellowish color ; the weathered cross sections
of fossils and wavy branching calcite seams
of a darker color than the mass of the rock
gives a streaked, wavy and mottled appear-
ance to its surface . , 30

Rather massive but in part flaggy limestone which
in places contains abundant Pentremites. ... 50

Clay shale 25

Gray massive limestone 75

215
The following section is exposed four miles southeast of Ft..
Gibson on the south side of Bayou creek along the Ft. Gibson-
Braggs road :

FEET.

Sandstone (Coal Measures) at top

Massive gray limestone 10

PROC. AMER. PIIILOS. SOC. XXXVI. 150. Y. PRINTED DEC. 20, 1897.

358 DKAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

FEET.

Argillaceous sandstone, sandstone shale and arena-
ceous clay shale 20

Limestone : the lower part is brownish weathering
and somewhat shaly, the upper part is massive

and gray 20

Sandstone 5

Limestone 5

Sandstone 5

Limestone containing Archimedes in the central
part of the bed 50

Fayetteville shale and some interstratified blue
limestone at base

West and northwest of Tahlequah, along Pecan creek and Four-
teen Mile creek, and along Grand river, east and northeast of
Wagoner, the Boston group is usually limited to a fifty to seventy-
five foot bed of limestone, which is in places slightly interstratified
with clay and contains Archimedes and Pentremites associated
throughout almost the entire bed. The Archimedes, however,
are more common in the central and lower divisions, while
the Pentremites are more common in the central part of the bed.
Farther to the north it becomes thinner and more argillaceous
until calcareous and arenaceous clays form the principal part of the
group as shown in Sees, j and k, PI. V. East of Pryor creek,
Adair, Big Cabin, and south of Vinita, the group is represented by
yellowish calcareous clays, friable arenaceous limestones, some hard
gray limestone and a little sandstone. The limestone and clays are
usually rich in fossils. The following section (Sec. k, PL V) will
show the general character of the group along its outcrops from the
Grand river, east of Chouteau, to within one and a half miles of
Vinita.

FEET.

Brownish weathering massive sandstone (Coal

Measures ?) 5

Clay shale (Coal Measures ?) 10

Sandstone (Coal Measures ?) 12

Coal Measures 27

1897.J DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF IXDIAX TERRITORY. 359

fep:t.
Clay shale which contains some fossiliferous shaly

limestone near the base lo

Friable arenaceous fossiliferous limestone 2

Calcareous, fossiliferous, yellowish clays 10

Hard, rough-surfaced, highly fossiliferous lime-
stone 3

Bluish clay shale 25

Limestone i

51

Clay shale (Fayetteville shale ?) at base

Fossils of a decided Coal Measures facies were collected from
some black clay shale at a place on the M. K. & T. Railway, about
four miles north of Vinita. This shale is not more than one
hundred and fifty feet above the Boone limestone, so the strata
referable to the Boston group, at this place, is probably not more
than twenty-five or fifty feet thick.

Between Fairland and Miami the strata that may be referred to
this group are gray shales and possibly a little limestone. North-
east of Miami it seems probable that the horizon of the Boston
group is overlapped by Coal Measures shales and sandstones, or if
this is not the case the group is represented by gray clay shales and
some sandstone.

The sections of the Boston group show that it is thicker and ap-
parently has higher beds in the southwestern part of the Lower
Carboniferous area where the strata are exposed by being folded or
excessively eroded. The same sandstone or grit bed appears to
overlie unconformably these different Lower Carboniferous beds at
various places. The sandstone beds lying on the Boston group
one and a half miles south of Vinita are apparently the same sand-
stones that rest on the Boone limestone, some six or seven miles
southeast of Vinita. Two or three miles southwest from the mouth
of Pryor creek a conglomerate sandstone overlies the Boston
group to the westward and the Boone limestone to the eastward.
The gradual upward change in the Lower Carboniferous deposits
from massive and extensive cherts and limestones to shales,
arenaceous limestones and sandstones indicate an upward move-
ment of the ocean bottom. This movement may have continued

C)60 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

until the deposited beds were subject to slight erosion before the
following subsidence began and the sand and grit deposits laid
down over them. The continuity of the fauna and the small amount
of overlapping in these deposits could, however, allow only a slight
break in deposition.

Coal Measures.

The Coal Measures of the Indian Territory and Oklahoma are a
direct continuation of the Kansas, the Arkansas and apparently the
Texas Coal Measures. The southward extension of the Coal Mea-
sures of Kansas enters the Indian Territory in a belt sixty-
five miles wide, which extends from about ten miles west of the
northeast corner of the Territory to near the northwest corner. The
western limit of this belt through the Territory bears about io° west
of south throughout the area studied. The eastern limit running
southward from the Kansas-Indian Territory line extends south
40° W. for a distance of forty miles, then rims nearly south for fifty
miles and then with a gentle southward curve and zigzag line ex-
tends eastward into Arkansas. The belt through the Territory,
therefore, at first contracts from the eastern side for a distance of
nearly one hundred miles, then rapidly widens on the eastern side
so that the Coal Measures in the territory studied, roughly covers an
L-shaped area. The southward continuation of the Coal Measures
into Texas is broken in the southern part of the Indian Territory by
the overlapping of Cretaceous deposits.

Structure. — The Coal Measures lie in the three structural and to-
pographic groups previously mentioned. The horizontally uplifted
plateau, or Ozark type, includes the larger part of the Coal Measures
lying between the southern boundary of the Lower Carboniferous
area and the northern boundary of the Arkansas river valley. The
area of the folded beds, or Ouachita type of structure, lies princi-
pally south of the Arkansas river and east of a line connecting the
mouth of the Canadian river, Brooken, and a point about seven
miles west of McAlester. The remaining and by far greater part
of the Coal Measures in the area under discussion belongs to the
Prairie Plains region, and consists of gently westward and north-
westward dipping strata.

Stratigraphy. — With the possible exception of slight uncomformi-
ties produced by overlapping of the basal beds of the Lower Coal
Measures, there seems to be no break in the stratigraphy from Lower

l«^-»7.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 361

Carboniferous into Permian beds. A rough estimate giVes a total
thickness of 25, GOO feet for the Coal Measures deposits. Most of these
strata were laid down near shore and are, therefore, subject to the
irregularities of near-shore deposits. Arenaceous clay shales, sand-
stones, limestones, coal, grits and conglomerates occur in relative
abundance in the order named. Well-marked beds that may be
used for making stratigraphic divisions are for the most part want-
ing. The limestone beds are mainly confined to the northern part
of the field and to the central part of the Upper Coal Measures. The
shale and the sandstone beds are so local and repeated in such litho-
logical uniformity that they serve poorly for divisions ; fossils, espe-
cially in the southern part of the field, are of rare occurrence. The
larger coal beds, with some irregularities, extend across the entire
field and furnish the best means of grouping the formations. The
workable beds of coal are all confined to the lower part of the
Upper Coal Measures. The Coal. Measures deposits will be con-
sidered under the following classification :

{ Upper Coal Measures.

( Poteau group. ^
(Cavaniol group. ^

Coal Measures. ^^

(^ Lower Coal Measures.

Plates II and VII show the relation of these groups.

The Lower Coal Measures produce no coal ; the Cavaniol group
contains the workable beds, and the Poteau group contains some
thin ones.

Lower Coal Measures.

There are three different areas of the Lower Coal Measures in
this field. One lies in the southeastern part of the region, and is
bounded on the north by a line running along the southern base of
the Poteau mountains and the north side of Fourche Melane valley
and Jack Fork mountains; from the latter place the bounding line
runs southwesterly and passes out of the field. This area includes
the Fourche Melane valley and the upper part of the Kiamichi
valley and Walker, Black Fork, Kich, Blue, Windingstair, Jack
Fork and Kiamichi mountains and the intervening areas.

1 These names were taken from the names of mountains in the southeastern
part of the field where the beds included in those groups are well represented.

362 DKAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITOKY. [Sept. 3,

The second area is a strip about four miles wide and twenty-two
or twenty-three miles long which extends into the Territory along
the Backbone anticline. The third one is an irregular belt border-
ing the Lower Carboniferous on the south and west. The most of
the southern part of this belt lies near and to the north of the
Arkansas river, and includes the Boston mountains; the western
part of the belt extends along the Missouri, Kansas and Texas rail-
way from Wagoner to Vinita, and from Vinita it runs northeasterly,
passing into Kansas at and southwest of Baxter Springs. Along the
Arkansas-Indian Territory line this belt is about twenty miles wide,
but it gradually narrows to the westward and northwestward until
north of Wagoner it is usually but four to five miles wide.

Lithology of the Lower Coal Measures. — Throughout this group
there is such a constant repetition of arenaceous gray, clay shales
and sandstones of uniform character that the lithology and stratig-
raphy are exceedingly monotonous.

There is, however, some marked variation introduced by the
grits and conglomerates at the base of the group north of the
Arkansas river, and by the limestones south of Ponola, Wilburton
and Hartshorne. Some minor variations in color and composition
also occur in the shales and sandstones. The sandstones are usually
massive, but in places they are flaggy or shaly and micaceous, argil-
laceous, calcareous, ferruginous, or bituminous. A little quartzite
occurs in the Windingstair mountains and some conglomerates
may be seen in the vicinity of Thomasville.

Thickiiess of the Lower Coal Measures. — The greatest thickness
observed in the Lower Coal Measures was in the southeastern part
of the field. In this locality the strata throughout show little vari-
ation ; extensive faults lie along the north side of Walker, Black
Fork, Windingstair and Kiamichi mountains, and smaller faults
at other places ; and overthrows occur at some places to further
complicate the interpretation of the stratigraphy. On account of
these difficulties, as well as the limited amount of work the recon-
naissance would allow, only rough estimates of the thickness of the
exposed beds will be attempted.

The longest continuous section studied in this part of the field
was from the base of the Poteau mountains to the south side of
Rich mountains. This section extends north and south about
three or four miles west of the Arkansas-Indian Territory line.
The stratigraphy somewhat generalized along this line is shown in

1897.] DEAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 363

Sec. 8 (p. 366.) The strata exposed along this section are divided
into three divisions by two faulted areas. The division on the north
is about seven thousand feet thick, the one next further to the south
is about eleven thousand feet thick, but possibly contains as much
as six thousand feet of strata that is repeated from the first division,
thus leaving only five thousand feet to be added to the seven thou-
sand of the first division, which gives twelve thousand feet. The
third and last division is about fifteen thousand feet thick. In this
the heavy sandstone beds in the south side of Black Fork and
Rich mountains are each about one thousand feet thick, and are
so much more massive than any of those exposed to the north,
that they are probably lower horizons. There is a strong probabil-
ity, however, that the strata of Black Fork and Rich mountains are
the same, which is the case if the beds are overthrown to the north,
as they appear to be. If this is the case, only five thousand
feet of the thickness of the strata of the two mountains, should
be added to the section already estimated. The remaining five
thousand feet of strata to the north of Black Fork mountain is most
likely a repetition of the strata exposed and counted farther to the
northward. So only five thousand feet more can safely be added
to the twelve thousand feet, which gives a total thickness of seven-
teen thousand feet.

It is possible that this section represents a thickness of as much
as twenty-five thousand feet of strata, but under the observed con-
ditions, seventeen thousand feet seems more probable, and even
that may be too much. The base of the formation was not seen,
but as the thickness exposed is very nearly as much as the estimated
thickness of the whole formation in Arkansas,^ it is probable that
almost the total thickness of the beds is exposed in this section.
The Lower Coal Measures in Arkansas, however, run a little higher
in the section than they do in the Indian Territory, since the
Huntington Coal belongs to a higher horizon than the coals farther
to the east in Arkansas."

Stratigraphy of the Lower Coal Measures. — The basal beds of
the Lower Coal Measures appear to be exposed only in the Chero-
kee Nation. Overlying the Lower Carboniferous there is a series
of sandstones, grits and shales which belong to the basal beds of

iDr. Branner estimates the thickness of these Lower Coal Measures in Arkan-
sas to be 18,480 feet thick {Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. ii, September, 1896, j). 235)
"^Geol. Surv. 0/ Ark., Ann. Rep., 1888, Vol. iii.

864 J)RAKE — THE nEOLOGY OF INDIAN TEREITORY. [Sept. y,

the Coal Measures. No definite division between the Lower Car-
boniferous and the Coal Measures could be fixed, but the fossils
found in the highest strata, known to belong to the Boston group,
are a mingling of species belonging to the highest Lower Carboni-
ferous and the Coal Measures. These sandstones, grits and shales
have the same lithological characteristics and stratigraphic position
as the so-called Millstone grit of the Geological Survey of Arkan-
sas.^ There is every gradation from the smooth, fine-grained sand-
stones to the grits and coarse conglomerates. Good examples of
the grit may be seen, north of Camp Track, five miles south of
Bunch, in places three to four miles northwest of Vian, and along the
east side of Illinois river west-northwest from Marble. This grit is
composed of angular grains of quartz, which are usually from one
to two millimetres in diameter, but occasionally are from five to six
millimetres in diameter. Hematite usually forms the cementing
matter for the grit. The basal group of the Lower Coal Measures
in the Cherokee Nation is composed mainly of sandstones and grits
throughout. No section was made of this group along the Arkan-
sas-Indian Territory line, but it is probably not less than two thou-
sand feet thick. Five to ten miles southeast of Ft. Gibson it is three
hundred feet thick ; from eight to ten miles northeast of Ft. Gib-
son it is about two hundred feet thick. From this place further to the
north it rapidly thins until from about ten miles north of Wagoner
to near Baxter Springs, Kans., it is but five to fifteen or twenty feet
thick. In this northern part of the field the grit is usually lacking
and the sandstones are very variable. These basal sandstones cap
the isolated hills and east-facing escarpments from four to six
miles south of Chouteau, one and a half miles south of Vinita,
three miles west of Afton, one mile south of Miami, and about two
miles south of Baxter Springs, Kans. There is a bed of gray, are-
naceous clay shale two hundred and fifty to three hundred feet
thick overlying this group of sandstones and grits throughout the
Cherokee Nation. This shale is somewhat thicker in the northern
part of the field than it is toward the south. It comprises nearly
all the Lower Coal Measures strata that lie west of Grand and
Spring rivers and throughout that area it is marked by level or
gently undulating prairie plains.

The southern extension of the Lower Coal Measures area of the
Cherokee Nation outcrops along the Milton-Bokoshe anticline

1 Ibid., Vol. iv, p. io6,' and 1890, Vol. i, pp. 113-II5.

i^yy.]

DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF IXDIAX TERRITORY.

365

south of the Arkansas river. The rocks exposed along this anti-
ch'ne are mainly sandy clay shales north of Bokoshe, and massive
and flaggy sandstones east and west of Milton. The sandstones
one mile south of Bokoshe are highly micaceous and often smooth-
surfaced flags. About two thousand feet of Lower Coal Measures
rocks are exposed on either side of the anticline in this locality.

In the Backbone mountain area of the Lower Coal Measures the
beds are massive sandstones and thick gray arenaceous clay shales.
The sandstone beds are from about thirty to five hundred feet in
thickness and the interbedded shales are from eight hundred to
thirteen hundred feet in thickness. The structure of the Backbone
ridges that best account for the observed facts is shown in Sees. 5,
6 and 7, PL VI and in PI. I. This overthrown anticline is faulted

Plate VI.

Through Ta.rn\er

Seetioa

Sections across the Backbone anticline.

ection Jio S

along the north side of the overthrow. The faulting runs westward
from Arkansas almost to the western end of the mountains, where it
ends rather suddenly. With the gradual lessening of the faulting
toward the west the strata on the north side of the fault line in-
crease in dip as they approach the axes of the anticlinal folds.
The thickness of strata exposed in this area, on either side of the
anticline, is a little over twenty-five hundred feet. The Lower
Coal Measures in the southeastern part of the field show very little

366 DEAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TEKRITORY. [Sept. 3,

variation lithologically from the beds described to the northward ;
there is, however, a great increase in the thickness of the deposits.
The east and west folding in this area has made it possible to get
moderately long exposures of the same strata along the axial direc-

i a f- Scalg a^ JVLiles JO /& , /£ ^

Sec. No. 8. Across the Lower Coal Measures, south of Poteau mountain.

tion of the folds. The three groups of strata shown in Sec. 8 are,
with modifications, extended to the westward the full length of the
area. The faulting along the north side of Walker mountains,
along Fourche Melane valley and south of Hartshorne, separates the
group on the north from the Central or Walker mountain group.
The central and southern groups are in part repetitions of the same
strata. The second group comprises the strata of Walker moun-
tains. Blue mountains and nearly all the strata lying between Bengal
and Hartshorne. The beds between Hartshorne and Bengal are
referred to the second division rather doubtfully, since this necessi-
tates an upthrow of about six thousand feet along the faulted belt
south of Hartshorne and along Fourche Melane valley. Such a
throw would require the strata in a block about one and three-
quarter miles wide to be tilted at an angle of 45° to the south.
South of Hartshorne, as shown in Sec. 10, the strafa are tilted at
angles of 40"" to 50° for a distance of about two miles and possibly
farther. This tilting is only slightly offset on the north side of the
fault line by gentle dips of 4^ to 5°. So it seems probable that the
throw is as much as six thousand feet at this place. South of Wil-
burton and southwest of Red Oak the strata on the south side of the
Fourche Melane valley do not dip very much more steeply than
they do on the north side, and as the dips are in opposite directions
the beds appear to be the same. They are, however, not the same,
for the coal beds are not repeated on the south side of the valley.
Furthermore, the strata are different lithologically, since limestones
occur on the south side and may be traced westward to the lime-
stone beds south of Hartshorne, which beds have been shown to
probably belong six thousand or seven thousand feet below the

1897.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 367

Grady coal bed. The third division comprises the strata of Black
Fork, Rich and Windingstair mountains.

The highest bed of the Lower Coal Measures is a sandstone
about one hundred and fifty feet thick, although varying in thickness
from a few inches to three hundred feet. Mr. H. M. Chance calls
it the Tobucksy^ sandstone. This bed is especially important because
it immediately underlies the Grady coal bed and makes a ridge

RUmiehi. Ml..

Sec. No. 9. Across the Winding Stair and the Kiamichi mountains, south of
Hanson creek.

of considerable prominence almost all along its line of outcrops,
so that the coal may be closely located by tracing the outcrop
of this sandstone. It has an unusual persistence for a sandstone,
outcropping as it does almost regularly over an area of one
thousand square miles, and forming an unbroken ridge excepting
at a few places where streams have cut across it, from about three
miles northwest of Heavener to Hartshorne. This ridge is a very
prominent topographic feature rising usually one hundred to three
hundred feet above the surrounding country. South and southwest
of Heavener and southwest and west of Milton, this bed is thick and
makes ridges from one hundred to three hundred feet high. Where
it is thick enough to make a prominent topographic feature it is
shown so on the sketch map. The following are approximate sec-
tions of the upper part of the Lower Coal Measures as they occur
in Sees. 8 and 5 ; the sections were made south and southeast of
Heavener and across the Backbone anticline.

SEC. 8. SEC. 5.

FEET. FEET.

Sandstone 200 50

Gray arenaceous clay shale .... 1000 1150

Massive sandstone 50 250

Gray arenaceous clay shale 660 600

Sandstone 30 35

Clay shale 1^50 500

1 Trans. Am. Inst. Aliii. Eng.^ Vol. xviii, p. 659.

368 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

SEC. 8. FEET.

Sandstone lo

Shale and thin beds of sandstone 8oo

Sandstone lo

Shale and thin beds of sandstone 8oo

Sandstone lo

Shale and thin beds of sandstone 2000

The beds that appear to underlie these are those of Walker,
Blue and Jack Fork mountains.

They are but little different lithologically from the beds above
them, but the shales are of a darker color, and in the western part
of the belt there is some limestone to break the usual monotony.
The main ridges of Walker, Blue and Jack Fork mountains have
sandstones from fifty to one hundred feet or more in thickness in
the southern part of the ridges.

Sees. 10, II, 12 and 13, PI. VII, show the general character and
variation of the rocks on the south side of Fourche Melane valley
from a point south of Red Oak to a point south of Hartshorne.
Sec. 10 lies south of Red Oak. The limestone, calcareous sand-
stone and arenaceous limestone shown in this section were seen
southwest of Red Oak, but they probably extend farther to the
east. In this section the first sandstone bed south of Fourche
Melane is about one hundred feet thick, usually massive. Twenty
to thirty feet of arenaceous limestone and calcareous sandstone
occurs on the north side, or at the base of this sandstone bed.
The next ridge to the south is formed by two sandstones each
ten to fifty feet thick and separated by about fifty feet of clay shale.
This shale southwest of Red Oak is partly replaced by five to ten
feet of hard, rather nodular, blue limestone. On the north side of
the fourth sandstone — the third prominent ridge south of Fourche
Melane — there is more arenaceous limestone and calcareous sand-
stone. It is only five to ten feet thick at the places where it
was seen. Farther west or south of Ponola, Sec. 11 shows the
stratigraphy of the first ridge south of Fourche Melane. At this
place the strata dip south 50°. There is a hard, blue limestone, fif-
teen to twenty feet thick, on the south side of the ridge ; this lime-
stone is underlain by about one hundred and twenty-five feet of
sandstone, of which the upper fifty feet is ferruginous and fossili-
ferous, and the lower part is hard massive sandstone. This sand-

370 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

Stone is underlain by alternating strata of shaly sandstones and
arenaceous clay shale, which in turn is underlain by thirty feet of
gray fossiliferous limestone.

Farther west, south of Wilburton, only one limestone bed was
seen, but others are probably covered by debris. A somewhat
generalized section at this point is shown in Sec. 12. Farther to
the west the limestone beds increase rapidly in thickness, until
south of Hartshorne the lowest one is about one hundred and fifty
feet thick.

Strata of Black Fork, Rich and Windings tair Mountains. — Mas-
sive sandstones with regular texture and smooth bedding planes and
dark gray clay shales are the prevailing rocks of these moun-
tains. The sandstones in the southern part of Black Fork
mountain are about one thousand feet thick, principally massive,
and light in color; some flaggy and shaly beds occur near the
centre of the section. The sandstones of the south side of Rich
mountain appear to be about one thousand feet thick and closely
resemble those of Black Fork mountain, but are seemingly some-
what more flaggy and have a little more interbedded clay shale.
The strata in the valley between the two mountains and those in the
north side of both mountains are principally arenaceous clay shale
and thin beds of sandstone. Along Big creek on the north side of
Black Fork mountain, 'the sandstones and shales are distributed in
the proportion of about one of sandstone to five of shale. The sand-
stones are usually from four to eight feet thick and have irregular
bedding planes. About one mile east of Page a massive sandstone
about fifty feet thick is broken across by a fault and so impregnated
with bitumen that the rock has a very black color. There is a
small anticline immediately southwest of this point in Big creek.

These irregularities seem to be only local breaks and crumplings
on the side of a very large fold. Windingstair mountains appear
to be the westward continuation structurally and stratigraphically
of Black Fork and Rich mountains. Sec. 9 shows in a general
way the stratigraphy of the Windingstair mountains south of Han-
son creek. The north side of the mountains at this point is steep
and rather free from ridges or canons running parallel to the range,
while the southern slope is broken by a number of ridges running
parallel to the main mountain and less elevated toward the south.
Deep erosion channels lie between some of these ridges and connect
with a cross channel leading into the Kiamichi valley to the south.

1897.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TEREITORY. 371

Evidences of faulting and sharp folding may be seen on either side
of the mountain along this section, and almost all through the
mountain along the St. Louis and San Francisco railway. These
orographic movements have metamorphosed the rock locally until
the sandstones are quartzites and the shales are hardened. Some
limestone concretions and boulders occur in the shales on the north
side of the mountain west of the head of Hanson creek and along
the railroad four or five miles southeast of Bengal. Occasional
chert concretions occur with the limestones. Porous, ferruginous
sandstones were found in a number of. places on the north face of
the mountains and they were usually found to be fossiliferous. The
rocks of Kiamichi valley southeast of Talihina appear to be princi-
pally dark gray clay shale. Some of this shale that was taken from
a well dug at the south side of Windingstair mountain, about ten
miles east of Talihina, was almost black and so crushed that every
piece showed "slickensides."

The strata of the northern side of Kiamichi mountains bear a
close resemblance to and are possibly to be correlated with the mas-
sive sandstones of Black Fork mountain. Rich mountain and Wind-
ingstair mountain. Sec. 9 shows the structure and approximate
stratigraphy of the Kiamichi mountains at the point where they
were studied.

Upper Coal Measures.

Cavaniol Group. — This part of the Coal Measures is confined to
the area outlined on the map between the outcrops of the lowest
and the highest workable coal beds. From Arkansas this coal-
bearing belt extends westward into the Territory for a distance of
about sixty-five miles and divides into two belts, one of which
extends northward and the other south west ward. The belt
extending westward from Arkansas lies mainly to the south of
Arkansas river and has an average width of about forty miles. The
belt extending northward passes through the Creek and Cherokee
Nations into Kansas, and has an average width of about twenty-five
miles. It lies mainly on the west side of the Missouri, Kansas and
Texas railway. The southwest belt extends through the western
part of the Choctaw Nation, and has, in the area studied, an
average width of about fifteen miles. That part of the Cavaniol
group lying to the south and east of Canadian river will be referred

Plate Vlfl.

Jh. Sm/m/rrwi- AAJUri/otcYL Si/^Ucn juztvndi

Sj£^:ptiem. jiotio^dU thA/rxA/^i ^uao;^ ^ Kld^^
J^dc?iA^ -Po/wAi^ukcL Sjicdcyv .e^nck iMcTA^k

Comparative sections of the Coal Measures. Compiled from cross-sections
through the Cherokee, Creek and Osage Nations.

17.]

DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 373

to as the Choctaw coal field, ^ since this term has been applied to
that area by Dr. H. M. Chance.

Stratigraphy.— T\\Q beds of this group consist of shales, sand-
stones, coals and limestones. The shales comprise the larger part
of the strata, but sandstones are very abundant, especially in the
southern part of the field, while limestone beds are confined to the
northern part. The workable coals are thicker in the southern
region, but extend throughout the entire area. The group is thick-
est in the southeastern part of the field and thinnest in the northern
part. The decrease in thickness appears to run regularly to the
westward and northward. The most constant and easily recogniz-
able horizons in this division are the coal beds. Three of these
are thick enough over most of the field to work. Other thin beds
occur locally, and one in particular that lies about one hundred feet
above the central coal bed extends almost regularly throughout the
field where its horizon occurs. The lowest workable coal varies
in thickness from one and a half to six feet ; this is the coal
that Dr. H. M. Chance named the Grady coal.' It proves to
be, without any reasonable doubt, the same bed as the one worked
at Huntington, Jenny Lind, Hackett and several other places in
Arkansas.

The next higher workable coal is the McAlester bed, which
varies in thickness from about one and a half to four feet. The
highest workable bed is the Mayberry coal, which also varies in
thickness from one and a half to four feet. These three coal beds
apparently extend throughout the entire area of the Cavaniol group,
but north of the Canadian river there are four coal beds that are
worked locally. These four beds were not studied in enough detail
to correlate them throughout. The outcrops and stratigraphy noted
in different sections across the group give some suggestions of cor-
relation, as maybe seen in Pis. I and VIII.

The following table shows a rough estimate of the distance
between the coal beds at different places in the Choctaw coal
field:

1 Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Vol. xviii, p. 653.

2 Ibid., 1890, Vol. xviii, pp. i, 2.

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SCO. XXXVI. 15G. Z. PRIKTED DEC. 21, 189i

374 DRAKE — THE rTEOLOrxY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,
Vertical Distance between the Grady and Ale A tester Coal Beds.

LOCALITIES. FEET.

One mile east of Fanshaw 2500

Two miles east of Red Oak 2500

West of Cameron .' 2000

North of Brazil 2000

South of Milton 2000

North of Wild Horse Prairie 1300

East of Krebs 1000

Vertical Distance between the Mc A tester and May berry Coal Beds.

LOCALITIES. FEET.

Cavaniol mountains. . , 3000

Northeast end of Sans Bois mountains 2200

West end of Sans Bois prairie 1500

These estimates show a marked tendency throughout the whole
division to decrease in thickness towards the west and northwest.

The following sections will show the general stratigraphy of the
two lower coal beds and the intervening strata in the Choctaw coal
fields :

South side of North side of Northwest of
One mi. west West of Buck Creek Buck Creek Wild Horse

Fanshaw. Cameron. Prairie. Prairie. Prairie.

FEET. FEET. FEET. FEET. FEET.

Coal ih ih li li

Shale 1200

Sandstone. . . ' 10

Shale 200 100 200 200 300

Sandstone. . . 25 10 zoo 25 50

Shale 2000 300 600 900 400

Sandstone... 50 25 15 25 100

Shale 300 400 1000 1000 500

Coal.... 33443

Two sandstones and three clay shale beds usually form the
sequence of strata between the two lower workable coals. This
prevailing condition is shown in the above sections. This usual
sequence, however, is not constant, for in some places, as north-
west of Alderson, only one sandstone intervenes, and in other
places, such as west of Cameron, there are three. This table is not
intended to show a strict correlation but rather a comparison.

1897. ( DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 875

The strata between the McAlester and Mayberry coal beds ap-
parently are more diversified. In the Cavaniol mountains four
thick sandstone beds alternating with clay shales intervene between
the coals. Northwest of San Bois there are three intervening sand-
stones, while to the west of Sans Bois two sandstone beds inter-
vene, and east of Brooken only one of prominence lies between the
two coal seams. This shows a decrease in the number and thickness
of intervening beds to the northwest. The intervening sandstone
beds, especially those in Cavaniol and Sans Bois mountains, are
usually from fifty to two hundred feet thick and are evenly textured
strata that usually have smooth bedding planes, and vary
from flaggy to massive sandstone. The first sandstone below the
Mayberry coal is especially flaggy and smooth where it was seen
on the east end and north side of Cavaniol mountain. The dark
gray clay shales interstratified with these sandstones are from two
hundred to five hundred feet thick. South of the Arkansas river
a coal seam four to eight inches thick occurs almost regularly one
hundred feet above the McAlester coal.

A rough estimate of the thickness and stratigraphy of the Cava-
niol group north of the Canadian river, along a line running from
McDermitt through Checotah and Starvilla to the mouth of the
Canadian river, is as follows :

FEET. INCHES.

Coal , 2 6

Gray, arenaceous clay shale 50

Friable, shaly and massive sandstone and

• some clay shale 300

Gray, arenaceous clay shale 500

Sandstone 10

Clay shale 25

Coal 10

Clay shale 200

Sandstone 25

Clay shale 100

Coal 8

Clay shale 50

Coal I 3

Clay shale 50

Sandstone and some interstratified clay

shale 100

Clay shale 300

Coal I 6

Total thickness (approximate).. 1700

376 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. [Sept. 3.

A section across the group along a line from Muscogee, througli
Ridge and Sapulpa to Gushing, is approximately as follows :

FEET. INCHES.

1. Coal (Mayberry coal?) 2

2. Clay shale 100

3. Sandstone 10

4. Shale 50

5. Thin strata of light gray, arenaceous,

limestone and calcareous sandstone
interstratified with gray calcareous
clay shale 25

6. Gray clay shale 100

7. Friable, black, carbonaceous, clay
shale, which contains near the top
some limestone nodules one and a
half feet in diameter. These lime-
stone nodules are carbonaceous and
black, but weather to a white
color and contain numerous calcite
seams running through the nodules. . 50

8. Sandstone 25

9. Clay shale 100

10. Sandstone 50

1 1 . Clay shale 100

12. Coal I 6

13. Gray, arenaceous clay shale contain-
ing some thin sandstone strata which

are ferruginous in places 500

14. Coal , 4

15. Clay shale 250

16. Coal I

17. Clay shale 100

18. Sandstone 25

19. Clay shale 25

20. Coal (Grady coal ? } 8

Total thickness (approximate) .... 1500

1897.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF IXUIAX TERRITOIir. 377

A section across the group along a line from Adair through
Chelsea and Oologah to Pawhuska is as follows :

FEET.

1. Coal (Maybery coal ? ) 2

2. Clay shale 100

3. Limestone (Oologah limestone ^) 50

4. Arenaceous clay shale and a little interstrati-
fied shaly sandstone 200

5. Gray limestone , . , . 15

6. Clay shale 5

7. Coal ik

8. Clay shale and sandstone . 50

9. Limestone 2

TO. Clay shale 50

11. Coal 12^

12. Clay shale and a little sandstone 150

13. Sandstone 25

14. Clay shale 15

1 5 . Coal (Grady coal ?) li

Total thickness (approximate) 650

These three sections [show the Cavaniol group to have the fol-
lowing northward variations: A regular decrease in the thickness of
the group and in the relative proportion of sandstones ; a gradual
increase in the limestones, and a very little variation in the
coals. The most marked stratigraphic feature introduced in the
northern part of this group is the limestone beds.

Bed 5 of the Muscogee-Cushing section is apparently the
Oologah limestone, since it has about the same stratigraphic posi-
tion and shows the decrease of limestone common to the southward
development of the beds. At and in the vicinity of Oologah this
limestone is massive, hard, gray, rather unevenly textured, and in
places contains gray chert nodules. On weathering, the limestone
breaks into irregular-shaped pieces. This bed forms an east-facing
escarpment fifty to one hundred feet high along the west side of
Verdigris river valley east of Oologah. The limestone bed next in

1 This bed has been called the Oologah limestone because it is finely exposed
in Oologah, along Four Mile creek at the west edge of Oologah, and in an escarp-
ment some three miles to the east of that place.

378 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

importance to the Oologah limestone is Bed 5 of the Adair-Paw-
huska section. This limestone is beautifully exposed in bluffs along
the east bank of Verdigris river, quarter of a mile below the
McClellan ford east of Talala. At that place it contains no chert
nodules, but in other lithologic characteristics it closely resembles
the Oologah limestone.

Poieau Group. — Dr. J. P. Smith was the first to introduce, the
name Poteau in connection with strata included in this group. ^ It
is probable that the Poteau mountain beds do not extend so high as
the base of the Permian, but the name *' Poteau group" will be
applied to the group of beds between the Cavaniol group and the
base of the Permian, as outlined in this paper. The dividing line
used to separate the Poteau group from the Permian is merely an
arbitrary one, and is, in the main, based on the fossils found at dif-
ferent localities. The beds of the Poteau group lie in small isolated
areas and in a long belt-like area. The isolated areas are the upper
parts of Poteau, Sugar Loaf, Cavaniol, Sans Bois, Tucker Knob and
McChar mountains. The long belt-like area lies on the west side
of the Cavaniol group throughout the field and has an average
width of fifteen to twenty miles. The beds of this area are
tilted to the northwest, where they lie against the western limit
of the folded region of the Choctaw coal field, but further to the
north the beds dip gently to the westward or a little north of west-
ward. Throughout this belt the outcropping hard rock beds form
east and southeast facing escarpments.

The Mayberry coal bed was not definitely located in either the
Sugar Loaf or the Poteau mountains, but as these mountains do not
appear to be situated in quite such deep synclines as the Cavaniol
or the Sans Bois mountains the coal must be at a somewhat higher
elevation. All four of these mountains are nearly the same in
elevation — between twenty-five hundred and three thousand feet.
From fifteen hundred to two thousand feet of the upper part of the
Cavaniol and Sans Bois mountains belong to the Poteau group
and twelve hundred to fifteen hundred feet of the tops of Sugar
Loaf and Poteau mountains belong to this group. The group
northwest of McAlester is about two thousand feet thick, but prob-
ably the top beds represent somewhat higher horizons than the top

1 Jour. Geol.,No\. ii, pp. 194-196, and Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc Vol. xxxv,.
No. 152, p. 17.

1897.] DRAKE— THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 379

beds of the above-named mountains, since the same strata decrease
in thickness to the westward and especially to the northward. This
group, in the main, consists of arenaceous gray clay shales and
massive sandstone beds, but in the northern region limestone beds
are included in the group. The sandstone beds of this group are
somewhat more massive than they are in the Cavaniol group, as is
shown in Plate VIII. In the southeastern region nearly all the sand-
stones are massive, but southwest of Enterprise they are frequently
ripple-marked and thin-bedded. Three miles south of South Cana-
dian, sandstones form a prominent escarpment about one hun-
dred feet high. This sandstone is composed of strata that are
usually massive, but sometimes flaggy, so that beautiful smooth
flags of varying thickness are common. Five or six miles farther to
the west, the dark-gray clay shale overlying this bed contains some
black carbonaceous fossiliferous limestone nodules. The shales along
Salt creek five miles east of Calvin are light gray, very arenaceous,
and carry some thin shaly layers of calcareous sandstone that are
quite fossiliferous. The sandstone beds, so prominent a feature of
this group in the southeast and southern region, gradually grow less
prominent to the northward, but as far north as McDermitt they
are the prevailing strata. A section across this group in the vicinity
of Sapulpa is as follows :

FEET.

1. Massive and slightly friable sandstones and a

little interbedded clays and shales 400

2. Clay shale 100

3. Massive, rather friable sandstones 200

4. Gray clay shale, calcareous in places, and con-

taining two feet of limestone about one
hundred and fifty feet from the base of the
bed 100

A section across this group west of Oologah shows the following
sequence of strata:

FEET.

1. Sandstones interbedded throughout with arena-

ceous clay shale 200

2. Fossiliferous shaly limestone 3

3. Clay shales and shaly sandstone 50

4. Hard, massive, gray limestone 25

880 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY, [Sept. 3,

FEET.

5. Clay shale 25

6. Arenaceous limestone 5

7. Sandstone 5

8. Clay shale containing calcareous nodules and

some fossils 25

9. Gray clay shale, blackened in places by car-

bonaceous matter often calcareous and occa-
sionally containing thin shaly sandstone
strata 300

Total thickness (approximate) 650

Bed 4 of the above section forms the bed-rock of Bird creek
about twelve miles from Skiatook along the Skiatook-Pawhuska
road. From that point to the eastward it gradually rises until it
forms bluffs on either side of the creek and farther eastward forms
an east-facing escarpment.

This escarpment was seen about due west of Oologah and two
to three miles west of the Osage-Cherokee Nation boundary line.
The limestone bed is very massive, gray in color, unevenly tex-
tured, rather highly crystalline and contains little ferruginous masses
scattered throughout most of the bed.

Origin of the Sediments of the Coal Measures. — Throughout the
Coal Measures the thickness of the sediments gradually decreases
northward and westward. The most rapid decrease is toward the
north, and the lower beds decrease more rapidly than the higher
ones. The Lower Coal Measures decrease from a thickness of
about seventeen thousand feet in the southern part of the field to a
thickness of five hundred to six hundred feet in the northern part.
The Upper Coal Measures across the same field decrease from about
seventy-five hundred to twelve hundred feet>

The Permian beds, so far as they were studied, show very
little, if any, decrease in thickness toward the north. This con-
tinuous northward thinning of the beds in the central and northern
part of the field is shown in PL VIII. The relative proportion in
the amount of shales and limestones to sandstones and conglomer-
ates gradually increases westward and especially northward. Be-
cause of these conditions the sediments are considered to have
come from a land area lying to the southeast.

1897.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAX TERRITORY. 381

Permian.

The Permian area studied lies along the western part of the field
and extends into it twenty to forty miles. Only about fifteen hun-
dred feet of Permian sediments are included in the area studied.
The base of the Permian deposits, as it is defined in the present
paper, begins with the first appearance of Permian species, and not
with the disappearance of the Coal Measures fauna, for that usually
predominates even to the highest beds studied. The strata of the
Permian beds consist of massive sandstones, clay shales, conglom-
erates and limestones. The clay shales are mostly gray and arena-
ceous, but toward the top they grade through blue to reddish and
red shales and marls. The lower two hundred to one thousand feet
is composed of alternating clay shale and sandstone beds in about
the proportion of one hundred feet of shale to ten of sandstone.
These beds are overlain by two hundred and fifty to five hundred feet
of sandstones and conglomerates, and these in turn are overlain by
bluish and red clay shales and marls which are interstratified with
occasional thin sandstones and limestones. Four generalized
sections, at widely separated localities, were made across these Per-
mian beds. The first section extends in a northwest direction from
Calvin to a point west of Wewoka near the western boundary line
of the Seminole Nation. This section will be referred to as the
Calvin-Wewoka section. The other three sections, with their
localities, are shown in PI. VIII.

The following table gives the generalized stratigraphy of these
four sections :

FEET.

" Red and blue clay shales and
marls interstratified with
thin sandstone and very

rare limestone beds 250 -|-

Conglomerate and s a n d -

stone 250

Gray and blue clay shales
interstratified with thin

sandstone 600

{ Massive y el 1 0 w i s h
? ■} weathering friable
( sandstone 400

Calvin-Wewoka Section.

882

DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TEREITORY. [Sept. 3,

Swimmer- Arlington Section. ^

' Red and blue clay shales and
marls interstratified with
thin sandstone and scarcer

limestone beds 250-]-

Sandstone and conglomerate 500
Gray arenaceous clay shale
beds alternating with
sandstone beds in about
the proportion of ten of
shale to one of sandstone 500

Red and blue clay shales and
marls interstratified with
thin sandstone beds and
more rarely thin lime-
stone beds 250-f

Muscogee-Cushing Section . . ■{ Alternating blue and gray

clay shales and sandstones 200

Sandstone and a little clay
shale 500

Gray clay shales and a few
thin sandstone beds 100

Blue and red clay shales and
marls alternating with
thin sandstone and a few
thin limestone beds 500+

Sandstone and a little clay
shale 500

Alternating beds ot gray
clay shale and thin sand-
stones , 200

In general terms, the section farthest to the south, or the Cal-
vin-Wewoka section, shows two thick sandstone groups of beds with
an intervening and an overlying clay shale. The other three
sections show one principal group of sandstone beds overlain
and underlain by clay shales. It may be possible, however,
that the lower sandstone group of the Calvin-Wewoka section
belongs to the Poteau group, as seems to be the case judging from
lithological evidence. If this be true, there are three generalized

Adair- Pawhuska Section .

1897.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 383

groups running through the entire area. The following descriptions
of local developments and their general connections will give a
better idea of the stratigraphy and lithology.

About five miles northwest of Calvin, along Sandy creek, the
strata consist of massive, friable, yellowish sandstones interstratified
with gray and yellowish argillaceous compact sand. About a mile
farther west, along the Calvin-Wewoka road, there are some sand-
stone beds exposed which are practically like the above, but are
highly fossiliferous and apparently belong either to the Upper
Coal Measures, or the Lower Permian. These sandstones are so
friable, thick and extensive that the country for fifteen miles or
more to the northwest of Calvin is covered by deep loose sand
from the disintegration of the rock. Railway cuts three to four
miles northwest of Holdenville show the strata at that place to be
principally gray arenaceous clays with occasional reddish bands
and streaks which carry numerous yellowish, ferruginous, calcareous
clay nodules. There is some lenticular interbedded sandstone
which is hard and has a clear quartzitic appearance. Similar clay
shales and thin interstratified sandstone beds, aggregating a thick-
ness of six hundred feet or more, are the outcropping strata for
several miles on either side of Holdejiville. It seems probable that
this group is the base of the Permian and is the stratigraphic equiv-
alent of about five hundred feet of similar strata outcropping both
east and west of McDermitt. Farther to the north it thins
quite rapidly or is replaced by sandstone beds until west of Kelley-
ville and northwest of Skiatook it is but one hundred to two hun-
dred feet thick and contains no red clays. At the top of this
group, along the Calvin-Wewoka section, there is a limestone from
three to four feet thick. This limestone outcrops about two miles
southwest of Wewoka, where it shows a weathered surface of gray
and yellowish color, is very friable, and in places is quite arena-
ceous. About *a mile farther west this limestone is overlain by a
conglomerate and sandstone bed aggregating two hundred and fifty
feet or more in thickness. The larger part of this bed at this
locality is conglomerate, composed of rather angular light-colored
chert pebbles two to three millimetres in diameter, imbedded in a
sand matrix. Occasional well-rounded quartz pebbles, about five
millimetres in diameter, also occur in the conglomerate. This
conglomerate has the same lithologic characteristics of the con-
glomerate beds that extend from northern to central Texas through

384 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAX TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

the Cisco division of the Coal Measures of Texas. ^ The outcrop
of this conglomerate and sandstone bed forms a belt ten miles
wide that extends nearly north and south through the centre of the
Seminole Nation. Farther northward the conglomerate gradually
disappears and the beds thicken by addition of other sandstone
beds until it is apparently five hundred feet thick and outcrops in a
belt about twenty miles wide. This belt lies twelve miles east of
Arlington, two miles west of Kelleyville, and about eight or ten
miles east of Pawhuska.

The sandstones of this belt are so friable that the country is cov-
ered by loose sand derived from the disintegrated rock. About four-
teen miles east of Arlington the group contains a bed of light-gray
sandy clay shale, seventy- five or one hundred feet thick, which
contains some limonite nodules and one thin stratum of rich hema-
tite. There are also two strata of limestone, each one or two feet
thick, which occur near the base and top of the shales respectively.

Proceeding upward and westward across this sandstone and con-
•glomerate group of beds from about a mile west of Kelleyville to
about eight miles west of that place, the strata are found to be
mainly sandstones, which are massive, rather ferruginous, friable
and weather into rough irregular shapes. The rapid disintegration
of the rock covers the ground with deep loose sand. About nine
miles west of Kelleyville the sandstone is slightly shaly in places
and some red sandy clays are interstratified with the sandstone
beds. The dip of these beds is about fifty feet per mile to the
westward, or a little north Of westward. The thin interbedded
shales and clays and alternating harder sandstone beds allow only
very slight escarpments to be formed. On top of these sandstones
there is about one hundred feet of gray sandy clay shale and some
interstratified shaly sandstone. Over the outcrop of this shale
there is not much loose sand and the bed is marked by little prai-
ries. The dip of the strata here is about twenty to twenty-five
feet per mile to the westward. Ten to eleven miles west of Kelley-
ville the rocks are massive cross-bedded sandstones ; in these
the bedding planes are curved surfaces separating their lenticular
and wedge-shaped layers. It is interstratified with a little bluish
argillaceous sand, red clays and gray argillaceous sandy shale. For
the next five or six miles to the westward the strata lie practically
horizontal, then farther west to the top of the sandstone group,

^Geol. Surv. Texas, Fourth An. Rep., 1892, pp.372, 445; Geol. Surv.
Texas, Second An. Rep., 1890, pp. 362, 495, 509, and PL xvi.

1897.J DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 385

which is about two miles west of Polecat creek, sixteen miles
east of Gushing, the strata apparently dip about twenty-five
feet per mile. The top of this group outcrops along the bed of
Bird creek, one mile west of Pawhuska. On either side of the
creek, beds of gray and bluish clay shales and some thin sandstone
beds overlie the main sandstone group, so that it does not form the
chief outcrops until a point about ten miles southeast of Pawhuska
is reached.

From Pawhuska the rocks of this group outcrop southeastward
along the Skiatook-Pawhuska road for about fifteen miles. The
principal variation across this Adair- Pawhuska section is a slight
increase of argillaceous strata. A three-foot bed of brownish
weathering arenaceous limestone occurs about one and a half miles
east of the road crossing Bircli creek. From Birch creek westward
the dip of the strata appears to be twenty-five to thirty feet per mile
to the westward, while for five or six miles to the east the strata are
almost horizontal.

The next higher group of Permian beds consists of bluish and red
clay shales and marls, interstratified at rather wide intervals with
thin cross-bedded sandstones and occasional thin limestones. The
following local developments will give the usual characteristics. The
lower part of this group, as seen eight to nine miles west-southwest
from Wewoka, consists of sandy clay shales, bluish and reddish
colored, and massive sandstones that have edges and parts of the
rock broken into thin shaly wedge-shaped, cross-bedded strata. The
sandstone is either light grayish or reddish-colored. The gray sand-
stone is coarse textured. Farther westward and higher geologically
the sandstones decrease in quantity and most of the strata are red
clay shales.

Two and a half miles southeast of Econtuska there is a little
white, nodular, arenaceous limestone interstratified with yellowish
marls. The strata at Bellmont and between that place and Arling-
ton are mainly red arenaceous, calcareous clays interstratified with
occasional red sandstones which are usually rather massive, but often
broken into shaly and flaggy parts by cross-bedding planes. Some
of the sandstone has a light gray-color. There are also rare beds
of arenaceous and even quite pure fossiliferous limestone which
varies in color from white and gray to red and almost invariably
weathers to rough nodular fragments. One of these beds outcrops
one mile west of Arlington. Five or six miles east of Arlington
there is a one to three-foot bed of hard crystalline red limestone

386 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

which is overlain by a thin clay bed, and this in turn by sandstone
conglomerate similar to that west of Wewoka.

The limestone that outcrops one mile west of Arlington is
probably the same as the one that occurs sixteen mjles east of
Gushing and two miles west of Pawhuska. Dr. J. P. Smith called
the limestone bed that outcrops from two to three miles west of
Pawhuska, the Pawhuska limestone.^

The limestone bed that outcrops about sixteen miles east of Gush-
ing is from four to six feet thick, gray, bedded in rough, thin
layers, and contains FusuUna and crinoids. The strata here lie
almost horizontal, and the same bed outcrops ten miles east of Gush-
ing along the Kelleyville-Gushing road. About five miles east of
Gushing higher beds of massive friable cross-bedded sandstone, red
clay, and arenaceous limestone oiitcro'p. Some of the limestone is
quite pure, but usually it occurs in nodular form in beds one-half to
one foot thick. In the vicinity of Gushing clay shales and marls
are the principal strata. Six miles north-northwest from Gushing
along the south op east bank of the Gimarron river there is a bluff
about fifty feet high showing massive and shaly sandstones of light
gray or yellowish and reddish color, sometimes cross-bedded. A little
rough concretionary limestone occurs at the top of the bed. The
twin peaks from ten to eleven miles north of Gushing are com-
posed of red clays capped by concretionary limestone. Some of
the limestone contains chert. The Pawhuska limestone out-
crops about twelve miles north of Gushing along branches of Salt
creek. The bed at this locality is about five feet thick, gray in
color, hard, rough surfaced, unevenly textured and rich in two
species of FusuUna.

The following section was compiled from outcrops of strata found
five to ten miles south of Pawnee.

FEET.

1 . Red clays at top.

2. Limestone , 1 2

3. Red, bluish and gray clays 150

4. Limestone (Pawnee limestone)'^ 2

5. Principally gray clay shales 100

6. Pawhuska limestone 5

1 Jour. GeoL, Vol. ii, p. 199.

2 Stratum 4 appears to be the same as the bed of limestone outcropping on the
east side of the courthouse grounds at Pawnee, and for convenience it will be
called the Pawnee limestone.

1897.1 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 387

The Pawnee limestone outcrop on the east side of the courthouse
grounds at Pawnee consists of three to four feet of hard evenly tex-
tured, tough, bluish gray limestone underlain by five to six feet of
yellowish blue marls. Both the limestone and marls are rich in
fossils. The Pawhuska limestone bed which outcrops in the bed
of a creek half a mile northeast of Pawnee at an elevation of about
one hundred feet below the Pawnee limestone, is, at this place,
about five feet thick ; the lower three feet is hard and massive,
while the upper part of the bed is friable. FusulincB are very abun-
dant in this bed.

Four miles south of Ralston in the banks of Coal creek there is a
three to five-inch bed of coal which appears to be below the Pawnee
limestone. The following section was compiled from exposures of
an escarpment facing the Arkansas river valley at a point about two
miles southeast of Ralston.

FEET.

1. Light gray and yellowish weathering sand-

stone 15

2. Gray clay shale 4

3. Nodular gray limestone (Pawnee limestone?). 3

4. Red clays and light gray shaly sandstones. . . 100

5. Pawhuska (?) limestone 5

The Pawhuska limestone outcrops along the Gray Horse-Paw-
huska road at every creek crossing for seven to eight miles from
Gray Horse, and also about five miles southwest of Pawhuska. At
the latter place it is about ten feet thick, unevenly textured, gray in
color, and underlain by yellowish and bluish clays. A section of
the strata in the vicinity of Pawhuska is about as follows :

FEET.

1 . Blue and red clays , at top.

2. Pawhuska limestone 10

3. Clay shale ...... ■ 50

4. Sandstone 50

5. Clay shale 150

6. Sandstones at base.

This limestone outcrop forms a little escarpment facing east and
running north about two miles west of Pawhuska, while the first
sandstone bed below the limestone cap the buttes and escarpments
around the village.

388 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TEKRITORY. [Sept. 3,

General Classification of Rocks of the Indian Territory.^

System.

Series.

Group.

Permian.

Coal Measures

Carboniferous

Devonian.

Silurian.

Poteau.

Cavaniol.

Lower Carboni-
ferous.

Osage.

I^Kinderhook.

Devonian.

Upper Silurian
', I Lower Silurian

i'l

Correlations.

Beds.

f Albany division, 1 rci,„i.. „„ ^ ^
Texas (Shales, sandO

[ Kansas. J ^ limestones. J

M AXI-
AI U M

Thick-
ness IN
Feet.

i,5co

Lower Coal M.

r !

Boston.

fWabaunsee and")
1 Cottonwood for- I
■{ mations, Kansas ;•
I Cisco division, |
L Texas. J

f Missouri forma- ( i
\ tion, Kansas. J j
( Strawn, Milsap

and Canyon V Shales, sandstones.
( divisions.Texas j

Massive and shaly^
sandstones and
shales. !

/Shales, sand-'
I \ stones and coals j

St. Louis.

Osage.

fLimestones,"]
< shales and sand- [-
(^ stones. j

f Batesville sand- )
I stone. J

J Fayetteville shale.
1 Boone chert and )

limestone.

[ Eureka shale.
Wanting.

Wanting.

(Niagara, New
J York.

] St. Clair Marble,
[ Arkansas.

I i I Marble and sac-"!

J- ■< charoidal sand- >

( stone. j

fSaccharoidaH
i sandstone, chert (
■{ and dolomitic J-
1 sandstones and j
[ limestones. J

2,ooo

5,5co
17,000

25

50

500

50

75 +

200 -f-

1 Since this paper was put in type Mr. Stuart Weller has definitely correlated
the Batesville sandstone of these tables with the Aux Vases sandstone of Illinois.
His results show that the hitherto tentative correlations of these Arkansas and
Indian Territory rocks require more careful paleontologic study. — Trans N. Y.
Acad. Sci., xvi, 251-282.

1897.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAX TERRITORY. 389

PART II.

Paleontology.

The fossils collected from various localities over the field are
listed in locality groups, and arranged in their stratigraphic order.
All the species listed here and the originals figured are deposited in
the geological museum of Stanford University.

Lower Carboniferous.

Upper Boone Limestojie (Burlington-Keokuk). — Collections of
fossils from the upper Boone limestone were made at three different
localities. At the north side of West monntain, three miles south-
east of Westville, the following fauna was found :

1. Productiis scabriculiis ? Martin.

2. Producius cherokeeensis n. sp. Drake.

3. Productiis {Marginifera ) adairensis n. sp. Drake.

4. Producius ovaius Hall.

5. Athyris {Semimila) subquadrata Hall.

6. Rhynchonella grosvenoi'i White.

7. Spirifer keokuk Hall.

8. Eumetria vera Hall.

9. Rhynchonella mutata'^ White.

10. .D is etna sp.?

11. Archimedes sp.?

Seven miles east of Adair the upper Boone limestone contains
the following fauna :

1. Productiis {Marginifera) adairensis n. sp. Drake.

2. Producius ovaius Hall.

3. Producius longispinus ? Sowerby.

4. Producius sp.?

•5. Derby a kaskaskiensis McChesney.

6. Spirifer keokuk Hall.

7. Athyris {Seniinula) subquadraia Hall.

8. Orihotheies crenistria Phillips.

9. My a Una sp.?
10. Archimedes sp.?

TROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI. 156. 2a. PRINTED .TAX. 18. 1898.

390 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

The following fossils were collected from outcrops of the upper
Boone limestone found along Ballard's creek one mile west of Echo :

1. Orthothetes crenisti'iaYX-^iWxi^^.

2. Pi'o ductus cesb'iensis Worthen.

3. Or this swallovi Hall.

4. Eumetria vera Hall.

5. Athyrts?>^.7

6. Archimedes sp.?

7. Phillipsia sp.?

Fayetteville Shale (Warsaw). — No fossils were collected from the
shale itself, but the limestone bed that occurs near the centre of
the shale bed is very fossiliferous in places. One and a half
miles south of Vinita Productus cestrieiisis Worthen is a very com-
mon fossil in this limestone. East of Chouteau on either side of
Grand River valley, opposite Ned Adair's ferry, the following fauna
was collected from this limestone :

1. Productus ovatus Hall.

2. Productus cherokeeensis n. sp. Drake.

3. Productus alternaius N. and P.

4. Productus sp.?

5. Productella sp.?

6. Athyris {Seminulci) subquadrata Hall.

7. Athyris sp.?

8. Spirifer keokuk Hall.

9. Spirifer trigonalis y[.2.x\.\Y\.

10. Rhyjichonella (yCamarophoria^ cooper ensis Shumard.

I r. Chonetes planumbona M. and W.

12. Pentremites godoni de France.

13. Pleurotomaria tagge?'ti Meek.

14. Pleurotomaria sp.?

15. Platyceras sp.?

16. Edmondia burlingtoiiensis White and Whitfield.

17. Edmondia ellipsis White and Whitfield.

Boston Group (St. Louis-Chester). — A very good representative
fauna of this group was collected at four different localities. Most
of the fossils came from the Archimedes and Pentremital horizons.
The following fauna was found in this group east of Grand river,

1897.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 391

opposite Wagoner, about one and a half miles northeast of the
mouth of Fourteen Mile creek.

1. Productus ovatus YidW.

2. Productus cestriensis Worthen.

3. Product ell a sp.?

4. Spirifer ST^.}

5. Terebratula bovidens Morton.

6. Athyris {Seminula) subqiiadrata Hall.

7. Athyris sp.?

8. Camarophoria worth em Hall.

9. Eumeti'ia verneuilana Hall.

10. Eumetria vera Hall.

11. Aviculopecten simplex ? Dawson.

12. Posidono7nya fractal Meek.

1 3 . Edmondia sp . ?

14. Pentremites godofii A^ France.

15. Archimedes communis Ulrich.

16. Archimedes swallovafia Hall.

17. A rchimedes terebreformis Ulrich.

18. Archimedes sp.?'

19. Zaphrentis spinulifera YldXl.

20. Phillipsia sp.?

The following fauna was collected from this group five miles east
of Adair.

1. Productus (^Marginifera^ adairensis n. sp. Drake.

2. Productus cherokeee7isis n. sp. Drake.

3. Productus cestriensis! Worthen.

4. Productus pertejiuisl Meek.

5. Productella sp.?

6. Chonetes loga7iensisl Hall.

7. Orthis dubiaYidW.

8. Orthothetes crenistria Phillips.

9. Spiriferina kentuckensis Shumard.
I o . Rhynchonella grosvenori White.

11. Eumetria verneuilana 1^2\\.

12. Spirif er keokuk YidiW.

13. Athyris (Seminula) subquadrata Hall.

14. Phillipsia scitula M. and W.

392 DRAKE— THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

Seven or eight miles southeast of Big Cabin the following collec-
tion was made :

1. Prodicctus che7'okeee7isis n. sp. Drake.

2. Productella sp.?

3. Aihyris {Seminula) subquadrata Hall.

4. Spiriferina ke?ituckensis Shumard.

5. Rhynchonella grosvenori White.

6. Eunietria ve7-a Hall.

7. Chonetes sp.?

8. Archimedes sp.? "^

9. Zaphrentis sp.

The Boston group contains the following fauna one and a half
miles south of Vinita :

1. Productus chcrokeeensis n. sp. Drake.

2. Productus cora? d'Orbigny.

3. A thy r is {Seminu/d) subquadrata Hall.

4. Chonetes plamunbonal M. and W.

5. Spiriferina kentuckensis Shumard.

6. Spirifer keokuk Hall.

7. Straparollus lens ? Hall.

8. Zaphretitis lanceolata ? Worthen.

9. Archimedes proutanus M. and W.

10. Michelinia eugenece White.

11. Orthoceras s"^.?

12. Bellerophon 'S>^.}

13. Pleurotoinaria sp.?

Coal Measures,
lower coal measures.

The Lower Coal Measures are very poor in fossils, and collec-
tions of any special value were made at only three different locali-
ties :

Along the limestone bed and ridge two and a half miles south of
Ponola and Wiiburton.

1 . Productus longispinus ? Sowerby.

2. Productus cor a ? d'Orbigny.

3. Derby a eras ^ a ? M. and W.

4. Phynchoneila illinoisensis Worthen.

1897.] DEAKE — THE GEOLOG-Y OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 393

5. Athyris sp.?

6. Spiriferma} kentuckensis '$)\\Vi\n3.xd.. ,

7. Reizia'^

8. Spirt fer sp.?

9. Spirifer rocky montanus Marcou.

10. Septoporal

11. Playtyceras sp.?

One mile south of Muscogee the following fossils were found in
shaly and friable limestones and arenaceous clay shales :

1. Froductus perfenuis? Meek.

2. Pro ductus splendens N. and H.

3. Prodiictus longispinus Sowerby.

4. Spirifer lineatus Martin.

5. Spirifer rockymontanus Marcou.

6. Spirifer sp.?

7. Derby a crass a M. and P.

8. Discina convex a Shumard.

9. Athyris {Seminuld) sitbtilita Hall.

10. Septopora biserialis Swallow.

1 1 . Zaph rentis sp . ?

Four miles north of Vinita, where the M. K. & T. railway crosses
a brook, the following fauna was collected from some black shale :

1. Proditctiis pertenuisl Meek.

2. Spirifer canieratus Morton.

3. Athyris {Seininula) siibtilita Hall.

4. Derbya crassa Meek and Hayden.

5. Chonetes sp.?

6. Belt crop on sp.?

UPPER COAL MEASURES.

Cavaniol Group. — This group is represented in the. collection of
fossils from five different localities as follows :

The following fossils were found in a ferruginous sandstone
one hundred and fifty feet above the Grady coal and four miles
northwest of Hackett, Ark.

1. Derbya crassa M. and H.

2. Nuculana bellistriata Stevens.

3. Bellerophon carbonarius Cox.

4. Aviculopecten occidentalis Shumard.

394 DKAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TEREITORY. [Sept. 3,

One and a half miles west of Starvilla along a little branch
some shaly argillaceous limestone contains great numbers of Pro-
ductus pertenuis ? Meek, and Discina nitida Phillips occurs rarely.
In some ferruginous sandstone, six miles southwest of Salisaw on
the east side of Big Salisaw creek, the following fauna was collected :

1. Productus cor a d'Orbigny.

2. Terebratula bovidens Morton.

3. Aihyris {Seftiinuld) subtilita Hall.

4. Spirifer rockymontanus Marcou.

5. Retzia {Hustedid) mormoni Marcou.

6. Derby a crass a M. and H.

7. Aviciilopecttn occide7tialis Shumard.

The following fauna was collected from the Oologah limestone in
the western part of the town of that name :

1. Productus semireticulaius Martin.

2. Aihyris {Seminuia) subtilita Hall.

3. Chonetes sp. ?

4. Syringopora sp. ?

The following fossils were found in the limestone bed that out-
crops along Verdigris river a quarter of a mile below the McClellan
ford, which is about four miles east of Talala. This limestone
belongs about two hundred feet below the Oologah limestone :

1. Productus punctatus Martin.

2. Productus semireticulatus Martin.

3. Productus {Marginifera^ splendeiis N. and P.

4. Productus pertenuis ? Meek.

5. Spirifer cajneratus Morton.

6. Spirifer lineatus Martin.

7. Spiriferina kentuckeiisis Shumard.

8. Athyris {Seminula) subtilita Hall.

9. Chonetes mesoloba N. and P.

10. Chonetes sp. ?

1 1 . Fusulina cylindrica Fischer.

Poteau Group Fauna. — Collections of fossils were made at four
different localities in this group. ' The shales immediately overly-
ing the Mayberry coal bed at the coal mines, four miles northwest
of Poteau, contain the following fauna :

1897.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF IXDIAX TERRITORY. 395

1. Discina niiida Phillips.

2. Aviculopecten rectilaterarius Qoy..

3. Aviculopecten dubertiamcs Dawson.

4. Nuculana bellistriata Stevens.

5. Nucula ventricosa Hall.

6. Bellerophon carbonarius Cox.

7. Gasirioceras globulosum'^ Meek and Worthen.

Six miles southwest of South Canadian some limestone nodules
included in a clay shale bed contain the following fossils :

1. Nucula ventricosa Hall.

2. Pleurotomaria sphcerulata Conrad.

3. Bellerophon crassus Meek and Worthen.

Five or six miles northwest of Calvin, the following fauna occurs
in friable sandstones :

1. Productus semireticulatus Martin.

2. Productus pertenuis'^ Meek.

3. Strophalosia ? spondyliformis White and St. John.

4. Schizodus wheeleri Swallow.

5. Nuculana bellistriata ^tQYQWs.

6. Murchisonia sp. ?

7. Pinna peracuta Shumard.

8. Aviculopecten cat actus ? Meek. \

9. Gastrioceras globulosum Meek and Worthen.

Ten miles south of Okmulgee, about one hundred and fifty feet
above the base of the Poteau group, the following fossils were found
in sandstone :

1. Aviculopecten occidentalis Shumard.

2. Solenopsis solenoides Geinitz.

3. Pleurophorus angulatus Meek and Worthen.

The following fossils were collected west of Oologah, about two
miles west of the Cherokee-Osage Nation boundary line :

1. Productus splendens N. and P.

2. Spirifer ca?neratus Morton.

3. Spirifer lineatus Martin.

4. Athyris {Seminula) subtilita Hall.

5. Spirifer ena kentuckensis Shumard.

896 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN" TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

6. Meekella striatocosiaia Cox.

7- Temnocheilus foj'besianus McChesney.

8. Chonetes sp. ?

Near the top of the group, at a place about ten miles northwest of
Skiatook, the following fauna was found in sandstone strata :

1. Chofietes verneuilana N. and P.

2. Chonetes laevis Keyes.

3. Productus s^).?

4. Sanguinolites sp. ?

Permian Fauna.

Good collections of fossils were made at three different places
from beds that are classed as the lowest Permian. The first two
lists given below afford the evidence that has been used to draw
the line between the Permian and the Coal Measures. These two
collections of fossils come from widely separated localities and ap-
parently from the same stratigraphic position.

Five miles east of McDermitt along the McDermitt-Chelsea road
the following fauna was found in beds of sandstone.

1. Productus semireticulatiis Martin.

2. Productus nebrascensis Owen.

3. Productus auriculatus Swallow.

4. Or this sp. ?

5. Derby a crassa Meek and Hayden.

6. Nuculana bellistriata Stevens.

7. Pinna peracuta Shumard.

8. Aviculopecte7i Occident alis Shumard.

9. Aviculopecten sp. ?

10. Myalina s7vallovi McChesney.

1 1 . Edmondia aspenwallensis Meek.

12. Edmondia 9'eflexa yiQok.

13. Schizodus wheeleri Swallow.

14. Schizodus insignis nov. sp. Drake.

15. Macro don obsoletus Meek.

16. Macrodon carbonarius Cox.

17. Bakevellia parval M. and H.

18. Murchisonia marcouiana.

19. Gervilia ohioensis Herri ck.

1897.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 397

20. Pleurop)iorus angiilatus Meek and Worthen.

2 1 . Plem-ophoriis sp. ?

22. Plcurotomaria sp. ?

23. Pseudonionotis haivni Meek and Hayden.

Four miles west of Sapulpa and about one-half of a m'de north of
the Sapulpa-Kelleyville road the following fauna was collected.

1 . Produ ctus cor a ? d ' O r b i gn y .

2. Derby a crassa Meek and Hayden.

3. Chonetes verneidlana Norwood and Pratten.

4. Chonetes Icevis Keyes.

5. Myalina swallovi McChesney.

6. Nucula bellisiriata Stevens.

7. Edmondia nebrascensis Geinitz.

8. Dentaliimi meekianum Geinitz.

9. Solenopsis solenoides Geinitz.

10. Yoldia subset tula Meek and Hayden.

11. Schizodus 7£//^<?<?/<fr/ Swallow.

12. Pseudomo7iotis Jiawnil Meek and Hayden.

13. Pleurophorus angulatus Meek and Worthen.

14. Pleurophorus sp. ?

15. Pleurophorus sp. ?

16. Pleurotomaria sph(Erulafa} Conrad.

17. Murchisoina sp. ?

18. Bellerophon carbonarhts Cox.

Three or four miles west of McDermitt, and about one mile west
and northwest of the Pigler place, there are some highly fossiliferous
sandstones. These beds are three hundred or four hundred feet
above the base of the beds containing the fossils of the above two
lists. Fossils were collected from two different sandstone beds in
these higher horizons four miles west of McDermitt. The lower
sandstone bed contains the following fossils :

I. Pro ductus nebrascensis Owen.

■ 2. Productus auj'iciilaius Swallow.

3. Pt?tfia peracutal Shumard.

4. Myalina swallovi McChesney.

5. Aviculopecten occidentalis Shumard-

6. Plcurotomaria sp. ?

398 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

The upper fossiliferous sandstone bed lies about fifty to seventy-
five feet higher and contains the following fauna :

1. Fro ductus semireticulatus Martin.

2. Productus nebrascensis Owen.

3. Productus pertenuis Meek.

4. Productus auriculatus Swallow.

5. Derby a crassa Meek and Hayden.

6. Athyris sp. ?

7. Orthis resupinoides'^ Cox.

8. Edinondia gibbosa Swallow.

9. Pmna peracuta Shuma,vd.

ID. Myalina swallovi McChesney.

11. Myalina recurvirostris'^ Meek and Worthen.

12. Myalina subquadrata Shumard.

13. Schizodus whceleri '$>w2i\\ow.

14. Schizodus curtus} Meek and Worthen.

15. Bakevellia parval Meek and Hayden.

16. Dentalium meekianum Geinitz.

17. Monopteria gibbosa Meek and Worthen.

18. Aviculopecte?i occidentalis Shumard.

19. JSJucula bellistriata Stevens.

20. Pseudomonotis hawni Meek and Hayden.

2 1 . Gervillia ohioensis Herrick.

22. Loxonema cerithifornie} Meek and Worthen.

23. Avicula sp. ?

24. Avicula sp.

25. Pleurophorus ?,Y>.

26. Sanguinolites}

The Seminole sandstone and conglomerate beds that run north-
ward through the Territory are, as a rule, barren of fossils, and no
collections of importance were made in them.

Pawnee and Pawhuska Beds. — Collections of fossils from these
beds were made at ten different localities. These fossils were col-
lected from strata that apparently extend from the base of the Paw-
huska limestone to a horizon three hundred or four hundred feet
above that limestone. The first five lists of fossils come from strata
that appear to belong to the Pawhuska limestone. One to four
miles southwest of Arlington the following fossils were found in a
limestone bed.

1897.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 899

1. Productus (^Marginifera) splendens Norwood and Pratten.

2. Spirifer earner atus Morton.

3. Chonetes verjieuilajia Norwood and Pratten.

4. Allorisma subcuneatu7n Meek and Hay den.

5. Pin7ta peracuia'^ Shumard.

The following fauna was found in what appears to be the Paw-
huska limestone, along branches of Salt Creek twelve miles north of
Gushing.

1. Spirifer cameratus M.ox\.oxi.

2. Spirif er piano c 071V exus Shumard.

3. AtJiyris sp. ?

4. Schizodus 7vheele7i Swallow.

5. Zaphre7itis sp.

6. Fusuli7ia cylindrica Fischer.

7. Fusulina gracilis "> Meek.

About ten to fifteen feet above this limestone, at a place eleven
miles south of Pawnee, the following fossils were collected :

1. Productus cora d'Orbigny.

2. Choneles granulifera O'Ntn.

3. Spirifer ca/neratus yiox\.OY\.

4. Athyris suit Hit a Hall.

5. Myalina subquadrata Shumard.

6. Belleropho7i percari7iatus Conrad.

The following fossils were found in the limestone bed outcropping
in the bed of the creek at the road crossing one-half mile northeast
of Pawnee courthouse.

r. Productus (Marginifera) sple7ide7is Norwood and Pratten.

2. Chonetes gratiulifera Owen.

3. Cho7ietes Icevis Keyes.

4. ' Rhyncho7iella (^Pugnax) uta Marcou.

5. Spirifer ca7ne r atus yioxioxi.

6. Athyris {Se77ii7iuld) subtilita Hall.

7. Fusulina cylind7'ica Fischer.

The following fauna was found in the Pawhuska limestone at a
place about four and one-half miles southwest of Pawhuska.
I. Productus semireiiculatus Martin.

400 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TEREITORY. [Sept. 3,

2. Pi'oductus cora d'Orbigny.

3. Athyris {Seminula) subtilita Hall.

4. Spirifer cameratus Morton.

5. Spirifer piano CO nvexus Shumard.

6. Chonetes sp. ?

7. Lophophyllum prolifenim Hall.

8. Pleurotomaria illinoisensis Worthen.

The following fossils were collected from a friable limestone bed
that occurs about one hundred and fifty feet above the Pawhuska
limestone, at a place five miles east of Gushing.

1. Productus perienuis Meek.

2. Derby a crassa Meek and Hayden.

3. Chonetes ^ranulifera Owen.

4. Spirifer came rat us Morton.

5. Aviciilopecten occidentalis Shumard.

6. Myalina sp. ?

7. Rhombopora lepidodendroides'^ Meek.

Ten miles north of Gushing the following fauna was collected
from some limestone strata capping Twin hills.

1. Spirifer earner atus Morton.

2. Productus (^Marginiferd) splendens N. and P.

3. Chonetes granulif era 0\wtn.

4. Athyris {Seminula') subtilita Hall.

5. Syntrielasma hemiplicatum Hall.

6. Fusulina cylindrica Fischer.

On the east side of the courthouse grounds at Pawnee there is an
outcrop of four feet of limestone, and four feet of fossiliferous cal-
careous gray clays. Fossils collected from this bed are as follows :

T . Produ ctus semireticu latus Martin.

2. Productus cora d'Orbigny.

3 . Productus pertenuis Meek.

4. Productus nebrascensis Owen.

5. Productus {Marginifera) splendens N. and P.

6. Spirifer earner atus Morton.

7. Spirifer planoconvexus Shumard.

8. Derby a crassa Meek and Hayden.

9. Meekella striatocostata Gox.

1897.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 401

10. Rhynchonella {Fugnax) uta Marcou.

11. Chonetes granulife7^a Owtw,

12. Orthis pecosi Marcou.

13. Athyris {SejJimuhi) subtilita Hall.

14. Avictclopecten occidentalis Shumard.

15. Euomphalus rugosus Hall.

16. Fiisulina cylindrica Fischer.

17. Rho7?ibopora lepidodendroides Meek.

18. Zeacrinus sp.?

The following list of fossils shows the fauna that was found
about two miles southeast of Ralston, in a bed of limestone, and
marls that appear to be the same as that in Pawnee.

1 . Productus semireticulatiis Martin.

2. Producius nebrascensis Owen.

3. Productus {Marginifera) splendens? N. and P.

4. Rhynchonella {Pugnax) uta Marcou.

5. Derby a crassa Meek and Hayden.

6. Spirifer cameratus Morton.

7. Spirifer {Ambocoelia) planoconvexus Shumard.

8. Athyris {Semimda^ subtilita Hall.

9. Spiriferina kentuckensis Shumard.

10. Meekella striatocostata Cox.

11. Chonetes granulifera Owen.

12. Cho?tetes Icevis KtyQS.

13. Retzia {Hustedia) inormoni Mdircou.

14. Orthis pecosHsls^Ycou.

15. Avicuiopecten occidentalis Shumard.

16. Avicuiopecten sp. ?

17. Avicula speluncariaGeimiz (not Schloiheim).

18. Myalina subquadrata Shumard.

19. Myalina perattenuata Meek and Hayden.

20. Astarte sp. ?

2 1 . Bellerophon sp. ?

22. Lophophylium proliferuni Hall.

23. Phillipsia scitulal Meek and Worthen.

The following fauna was collected from sandstone beds that
outcrop six to seven miles southwest of Pawhuska along the Pav.--

402 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

huska-Gray Horse road. These sandstone beds are probably one
Hundred and fifty feet above the Pawhuska limestone.

1. Pinna pei-acuta Shumard.

2. Schizodus wheelej'i Swallow.

3. Schizodus 7'ossicits Verneuil.

4. Nucula bellisiriata Stevens.

5. Aviculopecten sp. ?

6. Pleurophorus angidatus Meek and Worthen.

7. Pleurophorus sp. ?

8. Myalina swallovi McChesney.

9. Yoldia subscitula Meek and Hayden.

10. Pleuroiojnaria perhumerosa Meek.

1 1 . Belle roplion sp. ?

Descriptions of Species.

Producius {Marginifera) adairensis sp. nov. Drake. PI. IX,
Figs. 1-3.
Shell small, the largest specimen found being three-quarters of an
inch in height, and seventeen-twentieths of an inch in greatest
breadth, at hinge line. Beak highly arched, and projecting one-
third of the entire height of the shell above the hinge line. Ears
slightly extended. Surface ornamented with very fine ribs, and
occasional small spines, and in the region of the beak, with a slight
reticulation. The ventral valve has a distinct medial sinus, which
begins near the beak. The outside of the shell resembles some-
what Producius inultistriatus Meek, of the Upper Carboniferous,
but has the ribs even finer, and the beak somewhat more slender
than that species. The inside of the shell shows the characters

Plate IX.

PAGE.

Figs, i, 2 and 3. — Proauctus adairensis nov. sp. Drake. Fig. 2, from
Boone limestone, seven miles east of Adair. Figs, i and 3, from
Boston group, five miles southeast of Adair 403

Figs. 4 and 5. — Prodttctus cherokeeensis nov. sp. Drake. Boston group,

five miles southeast of Adair 403

Fig. 6. — Avicitlopecten rectilaterarius Cox. Upper Coal Measures, Poteau

group, four miles northwest of Poteau 403

Fig. 7. — Schizodus insignis nov. sp. Drake. Permian, five miles east of

McDermitt 403

Figs. 8, 9 and 10. — Productus pertemiis Meek. Low^er Carboniferous, St.

Louis-Chester, five miles southeast of Adair , 403

1897.] DRAKE— THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY

Plate IX.

403

fin

m

jW^^fi

-^ k

%'7

^'^*^>Cs

'f%>

40-1 DRAKE— THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERKITORY. [Sept. 3,

assigned by Waagen to liis genus Margin ifera, although Hall and
Clarke have recently shown, in "Nat. History of New York,"
FalcBotiiology, Vol. viii, '' Brachiopoda," p. 331, that the genus is
not valid, and can have at most subgeneric value. As such it is
here retained.

Occurrence and Horizon. — Boone limestone (Burlington-Keo-
kuk), three miles southeast of Westville ; Boone limestone, seven
miles east of Adair, PI. IX, Fig. 2 ; Boston group (St. Louis-
Chester), five miles east of Adair, PI. IX, Figs, i and 3. About
fifteen specimens collected, altogether.

Froductus cherokeeensis nov. sp. Drake. PI. IX, Figs. 4 and 5.

This species resembles closely P. seinireticulatus Martin, but is
always smaller, more compressed laterally, more highly arched,
and has the mesial sinus more pronounced. It is nearest akin to
P. inflatus McChesney, but the umbo is not so prominent, nor so
greatly incurved as in P. inflatus ; also the ribs seem a little coarser
on P. cherokeeensis.

The dorsal valve is strongly concave, the ventral is very convex,
with strong medial sinus. The surface of both valves is ornamented
with distinct ribs, often dichotomous ; the region near the beak is
distinctly reticulated by the growth lines. There are occasional
spines on the surface.

The ears are somewhat more extended than on P. seniireiiculafuSf
but the total proportional width of the shell is less than on that
species.

Occurrence and Horizon. — Rather common in the Upper Boone
limestone (Burlington-Keokuk), West mountain, three miles south-
east of Westville ; in the Fayetteville shale (Warsaw), on Grand
river, at Adair's ferry; in the Boston group (St. Louis-Chester),
eight miles southeast of Big Cabin, and in the same horizon a half
miles south of Vinita ; in the Boston group, five miles southeast of
Adair, PL IX, Figs. 4 and 5. The species is confined entirely to
the Lower Carboniferous in Indian Territory, and a very similar
form has been found in the Fayetteville shale (Warsaw) of Arkan-
sas, and also in the Marshall shale, probably St. Louis, of that
State. It is worthwhile to separate this species from P, semireticu-
laius from its stratigraphic importance, and because of the unlike-
ness of the two and the difference of their associated faunas.

Pro ductus pert e7iuis Meek. PI. IX, Figs. 8-10.

1897.J DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 405

Productus pertenuis Meek. Final Report U. S. GeoL Survey Ne-
braska, p. 164, PI. I, Fig. 14, PL VIII, Fig. 9.

Productus cancrini Geinitz. Carbon und Dyas in Nebraska, p. 54,
PI. IV, Fig. 6 (not Murchison, Verneuil and Keyserling).

Tiie specimens referred to Productus pertenuis are rather larger
than those figured by Meek, and have somewhat stronger radial
ribs. But the thinness of the valves, the great convexity of the
ventral valve, the lack of a medial sinus, and the disposition of the
small spines all agree with the figures and descriptions of Meek's
P. pertenuis, and the form referred by Geinitz to P. cancrini M.
V. K.

Adults of the shell a.verage about three-fifths of an inch wide
and the same in height ; convexity of the valve for a shell of these
dimensions is nine-twentieths of an inch. The shell referred by
Meek, Geol. ExpL 40th Parallel, Vol. iv, p. 78, PL VIII, Fig. 4,
to P. longispinus Sowerby, probably belongs to P. pertenuis, for it
lacks the medial sinus, and has the other characters o^ P. pertenuis,
except that the beak is not quite so slender.

Horizon a?id Locality. — Lower Coal Measures, four miles north
of Vinita ; one mile south of Muscogee : Upper Coal Measures,
Cavaniol group, McClellan ford on Verdigris river ; Poteau group,
six miles west of South Canadian ; Permian division, upper bed of
sandstone four miles west of McDermitt ; Pawhuska sandstone, five
miles west of Gushing. The same or a nearly related species also
occurs in the Lower Carboniferous limestone, Boston group (St.
Louis-Chester), five miles southeast of Adair ; a specimen from this
locality is figured on PL XII, Figs. 8, 9 and 10.

Aviculopecten rectilaterarius Cox. PL IX, Fig. 6.

Avicula rectalaterarea Cox. Geol. Survey Kentucky, Vol. iii, p.
571, PL ix. Fig. 2.
The shell is somewhat semicircular in outline, the greatest length
being about equal to the greatest width. The hinge line is straight
and nearly equal to the greatest width. The beak is small, rounded,
does not project above the hinge line. The rounded anterior ear
is rather sharply set off from the rest of the shell, and differs
slightly from it in having the radial ribs rather coarser and further
apart. The left valve has the base of the anterior ear somewhat
notched. The posterior ear, which is longer than the anterior, is

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI. 156, 3 B, PRINTED JAN. 18, 1898.

406 DEAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TEKRITORY. [Sept. 3,

not distinctly set off from the rest of the shell, but differs from it
in ornamentation, so as to be well marked.

The surface is marked by distinct radial ribs, somewhat narrower
than the interspaces. These ribs are often dichotomous, and also
increase by intercalation. Near the beak the surface is faintly
ornamented with distinct concentric striae of growth, which grow
stronger towards the posterior margin. The ears are ornamented
just as the rest of the shell, except that the ribs are somewhat
coarser on both anterior and posterior ears.

A. rectilaierarius resembles very closely A. papyraceics Sowerby
of the European "Coal Measures, and indeed a more perfect suite of
specimens may show their identity, for many of the species that
accompany A. papyraceus in Europe have already been found in
America.

Horizon and Locality. — Upper Coal Measures, Poteau group, in
the shales overlying the Mayberry coal, at the mines four miles
northwest of Poteau, Indian Territory.

Schizodtts insignis sp. nov. Drake. PI. IX, Fig. 7.

This species, one of the largest of the genus Schizodus, is repre-
sented in the collection only by a cast, so that the generic refer-
ence is not beyond doubt. The shell is large, being two and a half
inches in length and two inches in height. Convexity of the
valve is eleven-twentieths of an inch. The beak is rather high and
pointed, rising two-fifths of an inch above the hinge line. The
anterior margin is rounded, the posterior is broken off. The ante-
rior and posterior adductor impressions are quite large and distinct.
The cast is smooth, so nothing is known of the sculpture of the
surface. The only species with which Schizodus insignis may be
compared is Schizodus {Leptodomus') magnus Worthen, Geol. Surv.
III., Vol. viii, p. 107, PL XVIII, Fig. 2, of the Lower Carboniferous,
Chester horizon ; but ^. magnus differs from S. insignis in the
elongation of the anterior part of the valve, also in the sharp high
ridge that runs from behind the beak obliquely to the rear of the
shell. Otherwise there is considerable similarity, and the two spe-
cies may very well belong to the same genus.

Occurrefice and Horizcii. — In hard sandstone of the Permian
horizon, five miles east of McDermitt, Indian Territory; only a
single specimen was found.

1897.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 407

PART III.

Economic Geology.

The coals of the Indian Territory are at present its most im-
portant geologic product. The part of this paper treating of
economic geology must therefore be devoted principally to coal.

Coals of the Choctaw Field.

Grady Bed. — The outcrops and workable areas of the Grady coal
bed are confined to three continuous narrow belts. One belt
encircles the Backbone anticline, one the Bokoshe-Milton anticline,
and the other lies at the south bases of the Poteau, Cavaniol and Sans
Bois mountains. The bed around the Backbone anticline enters the
Indian Territory on the north side of the axis east of Pocola,
and runs about S. 80° W. At the Territory line the bed is almost
horizontal, or dips slightly to the north, as shown in Section No. 5,
which was made across the Backbone anticline southeast of Pocola.

One mile west of Pocola the coal bed dips 15° to 20° to the
north ; the coal is three feet and seven inches thick, and has one
thin parting of shaly coal nineteen inches from the bottom of the
bed. Fire clay underlies the coal and arenaceous clay shale over-
lies it. The increased dip of the coal bed to the west from the
Territory line is probably due to the decrease in the throw of the
fault along the north side of Backbone mountain, so that the strata
enter into the anticlinal fold. It is possible that the Poteau river
west and north of Pocola runs along a gentle anticline ; if so, the
coal bed is deflected down that stream on either side. The dip of
the rock west of Pocola, however, does not make this probable. At
any rate, a few miles west of Poteau river along the general direc-
tion of the coal outcrop, the dip of the rocks shows conclusively that
the bed is continued westward from that place. The coal bed has
been opened near the Kansas City, Pittsburgh and Gulf Railway at
several places on either side of Buck creek prairie and east of
Poteau river. This coal is being worked to a very limited extent a
half mile east of Poteau river and a half mile south of James fork of
Poteau river ; the coal at that place is twenty-eight inches thick,
dips 10° S. and is overlain and underlain by black clay shale. The
bed increases in thickness towards the west, so that a few miles
west of Poteau river it is four feet thick. The Bokoshe- Milton
anticlinal fold brings this coal bed up so that its outcrop swings

408 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

around that anticline. This outcrop has been prospected along
most of its length at intervals of one-fourth to one-half mile.

West of Ward the coal is four to five feet thick and dips 25°.
Southwest of Ward, at the Coleman place, a well passes through
six feet and two inches of coal, including a parting of very
shaly coal one and a half inches thick, two feet from the top.
One-half mile further south the co^l is said to be five and a
half feet thick. The dip of the coal bed increases slightly toward
the south for a mile or two. South of Bokoshe it is about
four feet thick and dips 25°. One and a half miles east of Milton
the coal is three feet eight inches thick. A half mile south of
Milton, at the Ward Brothers' coal bank, the coal bed is parted by
twelve to eighteen inches of shale; the upper stratum of coal is
twenty-six inches and the lower forty-four inches thick. Gray clay
shale underlies and overlies the coal. A half mile further west the
coal bed is parted by five inches of shale, the upper stratum of
coal is twenty-two inches thick and the lower four feet two inches
thick ; the dip is 23°. A half mile still further west the upper
stratum of coal is twenty-eight inches thick, the shale parting
three inches ; only about four feet of the lower stratum of coal was
seen, and the bed is a little thicker than that; dip of bed 22° S.

Farther to the west the coal slightly decreases in thickness,
while eastward and northward on the north side of the loop it
decreases rather rapidly, until it. is about eighteen inches thick west
of Bokoshe, and about fourteen inches thick northwest of Bokoshe.

This coal bed dips southward under the Sugar Loaf, Poteau,
Cavaniol and Sans Bois mountains and comes to the surface again
on the south side of those mountains, as shown in Sees, i, 2, 3
and 4. The coal bed along this south line of outcrops is often
split by partings varying in thickness from a few inches to fifty feet,
and several thin strata of coal are common near the main bed. The
following section, from a railway cut one and a quarter miles south
of Heavener, shows the nature of this coal group at that and a
number of other places :

FEET. INCHES.

Shale 2

Coal 8

Shale 15

Shaly coal i

Shale and streaks of coal 5

1897.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 409

FEET. INCHES.

Coal 6

Carbonaceous shale i 6

Coal 2

Carbonaceous shale 2

Coal 4

Carbonaceous shale , i 6

Coal ,ik

Carbonaceous shale ". i 6

Shale 15

Sandstone 25

Shale 12

Sandstone 5

Shale 2

Coal , I

Carbonaceous shale 11

Coal I J

Carbonaceous shale 6

Coal 2

Shale 3

Coal I

Shale 2

Coal I

Shale 4

Coal 2

Three miles east of this section the coal is two feet six inches
thick. One and a half miles southwest of Heavener it is twenty-
eight inches thick. Three miles northwest of Heavener the coal
has been mined considerably and is said to be about four feet thick.

This coal has been mined quite extensively where it is touched
and crossed by the St. Louis and San Francisco Railway. At the
most easterly point touched by the railway, a place once called
Pocohontas, the coal lies in two beds separated by about fifty feet
of shale ; the upper coal bed is thirty-seven inches thick and the
lower one forty-four inches, and the bed dips about 45°.

At Wilburton preparations for extensive coal mining were being
made in 1896. The coal occurs in two beds separated by about fifty
feet of shale. The upper bed is about four feet thick ; the lower
one was not accessible in 1896, but the superintendent of the mine

410 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

reported it a little over four feet thick. The coal is apparently of
uniform good quality. This bed is now being worked extensively
at Cherry Vale, about three or four miles northeast of Krebs, where
it averages about three feet four inches thick, is uniformly good
and dips about 12° N. From this mine the coal outcrop runs
but little farther west before it swings to the south and then turns
east some twenty miles, when it again swings to the south and
back west again, thus forming an S-shaped outcrop at this place.
The eastward loop of the S outlines a small synclinal basin called
by Dr. H. M. Chance the Grady basin. ^ Coal is extensively mined
in this basin at Hartshorne. The coal is composed of one four-foot
bed, which is worked, and other higher, thinner beds, not worked.
The synclinal fold, forming the basin, is a gentle one so that the
dip of the rocks on its sides are only 4° to 5°. Chance ^ says : "The
maximum depth of the Grady coal bed in this basin is about 600
feet ; but over three fourths of the basin the bed can be reached at
depths less than four hundred and fifty feet, and over one-half of
the basin the depth will probably not exceed three hundred feet.
The basin is about six miles long by three or four wide and con-
tains over 11,000 acres of the Grady bed. Throughout this area
the coal is not always of workable thickness ; but over a large por-
tion of it the bed will range from three and a half to five feet
thick, yielding an average of four feet of clear coal."

This coal outcrop west of Hartshorne is so broken by faults
and tilted by very irregular folds that it is not easily located.
The three-foot bed of coal that outcrops in Brushy creek, about five
miles west of Hartshorne, appears to be the Grady bed. Here it
shows a fault of four or five feet and dips to the southwest 5° to 6°.
About two miles further west, that is, seven miles west of Hartshorne
and one-fourth of a mile northeast of the Brunton place, this coal
outcrops again and is three feet eight inches thick, but with two part-
ings of shaly coal in it. One three to four-inch parting is within
three inches of the base, and ten inches from the base of the bed
there is a shaly parting from one to two inches thick.

McAlester Coal Bed. — The outcrop of the McAlester coal bed
is greater than that of the Grady bed, since it does not lie so
deep and does not require such excessive foldings to bring it up or
such profound erosion to reach it. The outcrop is shown on PL I

1 Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Vol. xviii, p. 654.
^ Ibid., p. 659.

1897.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 411

with the exception of areas near the Canadian and Arkansas rivers
and around the base of Sugar Loaf and Poteau mountains. These
latter places were not sufficiently examined to locate the line of out-
crop. This coal bed varies in thickness from about one and a
half to about four feet. The thickest part of the bed is in the south-
west part of the field or about McAlester, Krebs and Alderson. It
appears to thin gradually eastward and northward. In the north-
ern part of the field it is almost regularly eighteen inches thick.
This bed is now, and has been for some time, extensively mined at
Alderson, Krebs and McAlester. The coal bed at Alderson and
Krebs is about three feet six inches thick. One-half mile south-
west of McAlester, at D. Edwards & Son's mine, the coal is four feet
thick. The dip of the coal bed from Alderson to McAlester varies
from about 6° to 25° ; the gentler dips are at and near Krebs. The
outcrop northwest, north and east of McAlester for some distance
lies along a faulted area, so that the coal bed occurs in blocks dip-
ping irregularly and usually at very steep angles. In this faulted
area no place has yet been worked extensively and profitably. Far-
ther to the east the coal has not been found sufficiently thick to pay
for working. Southeast of Red Oak it is two feet thick and dips
20°. North of Red Oak, in Brazil Creek valley, it is about two
feet thick and dips very gently.

At and near Fanshaw the coal is thirty inches thick, dips about
25° and was once considerably but unprofitably mined. About
five or six miles east of Fanshaw, in Big Caston creek, the
coal is twenty-eight inches thick and dips 35°. The coal once
mined at the west edge of Poteau seems to be this bed ; it is said to
be about two feet thick at that place.

About two and a half miles southwest of Cameron this coal is
eighteen inches thick and dips to the southward 2° to 3°. It is
occasionally mined to a limited extent by stripping. At this place
there is a shale parting in the bed six inches from the base of the
coal. In wells on the farm of Mr. Henry Choate, about four to
four and a half miles west of Brazil, this coal is reported to be
from two to two and a half feet thick. About three miles south
of Milton, in Owl creek, near its mouth, this coal bed is eighteen
inches thick ; some six miles further west in Owl creek, one-fourth
mile east of Haney Smith's, the coal is only thirteen inches thick;
the dip of the bed about 20°.

Southeast of Sans Bois, along Mountain Fork of Sans Bois creek,

412 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

the coal is a little more than a foot thick at the places where it was
seen. About three miles west or north of west from Sans Bois, on a
branch of Fish creek, in Mr. Scott's pasture, this coal is seventeen
inches thick ; dips 4° to 5° N. 10° W.

Sec. 14. Across the Sans Bois anticline, four miles west of Sans Bois.

The above cut shows the structure four miles west of Sans Bois.
About seven miles west of Sans Bois, in Beaver creek, the coal is
fifteen inches thick. About four and a half miles east-northeast
from Sans Bois and one-fourth of a mile east of Mr. Ben Noel's
place, this coal is eighteen to twenty inches thick ; four miles
north-northeast of Sans Bois, in the banks of Sans Bois creek, it is
eighteen to nineteen inches thick. About three miles north of Sans
Bois, along Cedar creek, the coal is eighteen to twenty inches
thick, and dips, 5° to 10°. Two miles west of Iron Bridge this
coal is twenty-six to twenty-seven inches thick and quite uniform
throughout. About four miles west-southwest from Cashier the
coal is eighteen inches thick. Two miles west of Stigler, in Cane
prairie, the coal is twenty- eight inches thick and of excellent
quality. On Rock branch, one mile west of Whitefield, the coal is
twenty-seven to twenty-eight inches thick. The Canadian river,
north and northeast of Whitefield, appears to run along an anti-
clinal fold. If this is the case, the east end of the coal outcrop, west
of Whitefield, follows down the east side of Canadian river valley
and joins the coal outcrop running northward from east of White-
field ; the westward extension of the coal outcrop, west of White-
field, ascends Canadian river valley probably nearly opposite
Brooken before crossing that river and running back east and north-
east by Starvilla, as seems to be the case.

Mayberry Coal Bed. — This coal was not located in the Sugar
Loaf or Poteau mountains, but it is doubtless represented there.
The coal in the east end of San Bois mountains, at some three hun-

1897.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 418-

dred to four hundred feet above the base of the mountains, and that
on the north side of the mountains near the west end, probably
belong to this bed. Sans Bois mountains were not studied closely
enough to outline the coal outcrop. The final disappearance of
the Mayberry bed, under the westward dipping strata, is shown by
the coal outcrop located west and southwest of Enterprise. This
coal bed is being mined quite extensively in the east end of Cavaniol
mountain by the Kavanaugh Coal, Coke and Railway Company.
The bed at this place averages about three feet eight inches in
thickness and dips slightly to the southwest. On the opposite side
of the canon, from where it is worked and about one hundred and
forty feet lower, there is what appears to be another bed of coal.
This lower bed contains some shale, as is shown by the following,
section :

FEET. INCHES.

Coal 5

Clay shale i *

Coal I

Shale 9 '

Coal 2 6

The layers of shale found in this lower bed and its difference
in elevation indicate a different horizon from the one that is
being worked, but it seems possible, from the cursory examina-
tion made, that they may be the same bed. If they are not the
same bed, the lower or more shaly bed is probably a local deposit,
for but one coal bed of importance was found at other places over
the field at the horizon of the Mayberry coal.

On the north side of Cavaniol mountain, at the original place of
discovery of the Mayberry coal, the beds show the following
sequence :

FEET. INCHES.

Coal I 5

Clay shale 3

Coal 8

Clay shale 3

Coal I lo

This coal is a short distance above the fourth thick sandstone
bed of the Cavaniol mountains.

A coal bed eighteen inches thick outcrops in the northeast end of

414 DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TEERITORY. [Sept. 3,

Sans Bois mountains one mile south of Henry Blaylock's house and
three hundred or four hundred feet up on the mountain side. It is
quite uniformly good except one and a half inches of shaly coal
three or four inches from the bottom of the stratum. The coal is
overlain by sandstone and underlain by clay. This coal was traced
one-half mile or more around the hillside and was about the same
wherever it was seen. From its position it seems to belong to the
Mayberry coal bed. The coal near the head of Ash creek and near
the west end of the Sans Bois mountains is said to be about eigh-
teen inches thick. The bed that appears to represent the Mayberry
coal, along the western border of the folded area, is from eighteen
to twenty-four inches thick and of a good quality. About four
miles northeast of Reams, at the west end of Sans Bois prairie, this
coal is twenty-four inches thick. The bed is very much fractured
at this point, which is on the axis of the Sans Bois anticline.
About eight miles south of Enterprise and one and a half miles
southwest of Russelville, along the head waters of Old Town
creek, the coal is twenty-nine inches thick, including a thin parting
of shaly coal eight inches from the base and another seven inches
from the top. On the southwest side of McChar mountain, along
the head waters of Long Town creek, the coal is nineteen inches
thick. One-half mile above the mouth of Old House creek, it is
twenty- one inches thick. The coal outcrops on Haytubya creek
one-half mile from its mouth and about six miles west-southwest from
Enterprise. At this place it is twenty-three inches thick and good
throughout, but closely fractured by lines a half to one inch apart ;
dip of bed 2° to 3°. About four and a half miles west-southwest
from Enterprise, the coal has been worked to some extent by strip-
ping. At that place it is twenty-two inches thick and uniform
throughout. One and a half miles north of Enterprise, the coal
is twenty-six inches thick and is worked for local demands by
stripping.

Coals of the Cherokee and Creek Nations.

In those parts of the Indian Territory lying within the Cherokee
and Creek Nations the coal beds were not traced in detail, and
were seen usually only at widely separated intervals, and cannot
therefore be definitely outlined in this discussion. However, the
structure of the area is quite regular, so that the general extent
and connections of the various coals can be fairly well outlined.

1897.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 415

Grady Coa/.— The lowest coals found through the Cherokee and
Creek Nations will be discussed under this heading, though it is
doubtful whether they represent the northern continuation of the
Grady bed, or whether they all belong to the same bed. The
northern and eastern limit of the Cavaniol group, as outlined on
the accompanying map, shows the approximate outcrop of this coal
bed. The following local developments were seen : About one
mile east of Little Salisaw creek, and one-fourth of a mile south of
the Kansas City, Pittsburgh & Gulf Railroad, this bed of coal outcrops
and has been worked to some extent by stripping. The coal is said
to be one and a half feet thick and of good quality. The strata
overlying the bed dip 15° to 20° north-northwest. About three
miles southwest of Salisaw Station the same coal outcrops along
Coal creek. It is one to one and a half feet thick, and has
been mined by stripping. This coal was, in the summer of 1896,
being used by blacksmiths in Salisaw, who pronounce it an excellent
one for their work. The mines were all filled with water at the
time the writer visited the place. Along the south side of Spaniard
creek, at the Weber's Falls-Muscogee road crossing, the coal bed
is ten to twelve inches thick and is mined for local demands. The
bed dips north-northwest about 12°. Going from this point toward
Muscogee, the synclinal basin is crossed at right angles and the coal
outcrop is again seen about four miles southeast of Muscogee. The
eastern end of this synclinal fold lies near Braggs, where the bed
has been worked a little. It outcrops along branches about two
miles south of Braggs, and is four to six inches thick. It is said to
underlie Braggs at an average depth of about thirty feet and is six
inches thick. Five miles west of Muscogee and one mile south
of the Arkansas river, this coal has been worked a little. At
that place the coal is eight to twelve inches thick. It outcrops
again four miles north-northwest of Adair, along the side of an
east-facing escarpment. Where it was seen (the Ross coal bank),
the coal is seventeen inches thick, underlies a gray shale and is
apparently rather high in ash and sulphur.

This coal outcrops along Log Cabin creek, about three miles
west of Welch, where it is said to be about two feet thick, and is
mined for local demands.

McAlester Coal Bed. — This coal outcrop is approximately located
on the map from near Starvilla to Dirty or Elk creek, northeast of
Checotah. One and a half miles northwest of Starvilla the coal

^16 DRAKE — TPIE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. [Sept. 3,

is about two feet thick. It is mined to some extent along the
Thomas fork of Elk creek, at a place about six miles east of Che-
cotah, where it is about fourteen inches thick. Along Elk or Dirty-
creek, about four miles east of Checotah, the coal is eighteen to
twenty-four inches thick. From Starvilla to Elk creek, and doubt-
less much farther, a five to six-inch seam of coal occurs regularly
fifty to seventy-five feet above the McAlester bed. These beds in
the Choctaw coal field are separated by about one hundred feet
of gray clay shale.

The McAlester coal outcrops six or seven miles southwest of
Muscogee, where it is about one foot thick and is worked for local
demands.

Another outcrop was seen four or five miles west of Chelsea,
where it was worked at several places for local demands. At the
Robinson bank it is eighteen inches thick, and of uniform quality
throughout. At the McFadden coal bank the same qualities are
shown.

About a hundred feet above this bed and four miles farther west,
a coal bed fifteen inches thick outcrops. It is also worked some-
what for local use by stripping. This bed is probably not repre-
sented south of the Canadian river, but the outcrops 'along Coal
creek, twelve miles east-northeast from Okmulgee, and those five to
six miles southwest of Chelsea, are probably the same. On Coal
creek the coal is about fifteen inches thick and quite uniformly
good. The bed dips i° to 3°, is overlain by carbonaceous clay
shale, and underlain by fire clay. Southwest of Chelsea the coal is
about ten inches thick and of very good quality.

Mayberry Coal Bed. — The coals occurring at the top of the
Cavaniol group, and that probably represent the northern extension
of the Mayberry bed, were seen as follows:

The upper bed outcrops along Coal creek, twelve miles south of
Okmulgee, where it is parted by from four to eight inches of shale
and shaly coal. The upper stratum of coal is fourteen inches thick
and the lower one is from fourteen to sixteen inches thick. Both
strata are apparently good, but iron pyrites is rather common in
places through the coal. In general appearance this coal is almost
identical with that occurring four or five miles west of Chelsea, and
the chemical analyses show them to have the same general proper-
ties. The next outcrop of this coal bed was seen along Coal creek,
about six miles east of Sapulpa. At that place it is from twenty-

1897.] DRAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF IXDIAX TERRITORY. 417

two to twenty-four inches thick where it was examined, and has
three to four shale partings, which are froQi a quarter to half an
inch thick. Gray clay shale overlies the coal. The Mayberry coal
bed was seen next at a place three miles northwest of Oologah,
where it is two feet thick and rather uniform throughout. It is
mined rather extensively by stripping for shipping to distant mar-
kets as well as for local demands. This same bed outcrops along
Little Verdigris or Caney river at Mustgroves crossing, where it is
about one and a half feet thick, according to report.

These local developments show that the best coals of the Chero-
kee and Creek Nations are only about two feet thick, but that they
extend through the entire length of the Nations.

Coal Analyses. — At each locality where coals were collected for
analyses, samples were selected to represent the average coal of that
particular place ; but as no guide save the appearance of the coal
could be used in sampling, the analyses will necessarily not show
the quality of the coal as well as may be desired. They will, how-
ever, show fairly well the characteristics of the coals and their
adaptability to various uses.. In the table of coal analyses the coal
beds are placed in the same relative position that they occupy in
the field, so that the Mayberry coals are first or at the top, the
McAlester coals in the centre, and the Grady coals at the bottom.
In each group the analyses begin with coals in the west and north-
west part of the field and proceed eastward and southeastward.
The groups thus proceed from higher to lower coals ; the analyses
of each group, and the groups also to some extent, run from a
region of less to a region of greater folding and crushing. This
arrangement clearly shows the decrease in the bituminous nature of
the coals toward the region of greater dynamic movements. The
coals are practically all bituminous, only that from near the mouth
of James fork of Poteau river and that from near Milton being
semi-bituminous. All the coals show a probability of coking, and
a considerable quantity of slack coal from mines at Alderson and
Krebs is now being coked. Most of the coals, however, are too
high in sulphur to produce good coke for metallurgical uses. Some
of the coals are objectionably high in sulphur, water, or ash, but
as a whole they compare favorably with good coals from other
fields.

Coal Oil. — During the summer of 1896, several wells were sunk,
two hundred to three hundred feet deep, along Spencer creek val-

418 DKAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITOKY. [Sept. 3,

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1897.] DEAKE — THE GEOLOGY OF INDIAN TERRITORY. 419

ley, four to five miles west of Chelsea. Some of the wells flow,
but none of them produce very much oil. The foreman of the
works informed me that the greatest flow of any one well was about
a barrel per day, and that the oil was struck in a micaceous shaly
sandstone. This sandstone is probably the bed that outcrops
east of Chelsea, and lies between the two lower coal beds. The
rock beds are practically horizontal in the area where the oil wells
have been sunk, but the strata passed through, in sinking the wells,
come to the surface farther eastward. The oil is probably derived
from the Lower Coal Measures shale beds that outcrop along the
Missouri, Kansas & Texas Railway, east of Chelsea.

Building and Ornamental Stone. — The sandstones, limestones,
marbles and granite that occur in this field are adapted to many
uses in construction work. Sandstones are very abundant, except
in the Boone chert area, throughout almost the entire field. They
are usually evenly textured, massive, tough, and are well adapted
for ordinary building purposes. The best limestones for building
purposes are confined to the Lower Carboniferous and especially to
the upper Boone limestone horizon. Massive beds of tough gray
evenly-textured limestone are common in the Boone limestones.
The Boston group also contains some good building limestones and
occasional thin beds of limestone were seen in the Permian area that
are fairly good for building purposes. The outcrops of the marble
beds are shown in PL IV. Massive beds of marble, twenty-five
to thirty feet thick, outcrop at nearly every marble area shown
in that plate. The thickness of the marble beds has not yet been
determined, but from drill borings it appears to be one hundred
and fifty feet or more. The marble is usually pink colored, but
some of it is gray and a little is practically white. So far, the
marble that has been quarried contains a great many fractures and
rather abundant small cavities, partly or entirely filled with large
calcite crystals. Further investigation may result in finding better
marbles than the surface outcroppings. Some of the bed that is
at present being quarried can be advantageously used for building
and ornamental uses.

The granite found on Spavinaw creek is an excellent stone
for building and ornamental purposes, but it is at present too far
from any railway to be profitably quarried for marketing. For a
more extended discussion of the various kinds of rock previous
pages may be consulted.

420 FIELJ^ — THE SPAN OF LIFE. [Sept. 17,

Stated Meeting^ September 17^ 1807.

Vice-President Pepper in tlie Cliair.

Present, 16 members.

Correspondence was submitted and donations to tlie Library
were reported.

The announcement of tbe decease of William S. Baker, a
member of the Society, on the 8th day of September, set. 74
years, was made.

Mr. R. P. Field presented a communication on " The Span
of Life."

Mr. Henr}^ C. Mercer made some remarks on the " Survival
of the Art of Illuminating Manuscripts among the Germans
in Eastern Pennsylvania."

The Committees on By-Laws and Finance presented reports.

The Society was adjourned by the presiding officer.

THE SPAN OF LIFE.

BY ROBERT P. FIELD.

{Read Sej)temher 17, 1S97.)

Oil Thursday, February 28, 1895, the Evening Bulletin, a daily
journal published in Philadelphia, had an editorial upon long life
in Philadelphia, referring to an address by Dr. Lawrence Turnbull
on "Longevity and Personal Hygiene," in which he presented an
array of facts with regard to the advanced age of some of our best
known men, and said : ''The Biblical idea of threescore years and
ten is gradually ceasing to be the limit in our day, owing to better
sanitary laws and regulations," which this journal states is in direct
opposition to the common belief that, in the United States at least,
the activity and restlessness of the people are tending to shorten
the period of life enjoyed by the average man. This belief, it says,
is entirely reasonable owing to the greater hurry and cram of the
people of this country, and in view of the fact that they sleep less
and hurry more over their food than do the people of other nations.

1897.] FIELD — THE SPAN OF LIFE. 421

The editorial goes on to say, for instance, that the late Dr. Oliver
Wendell Holmes believed that the life of a poet is generally not
long; yet refers in his writings to Longfellow, Halleck and Whit-
tier, all of whom attained to over seventy-five years of age and
one of them to eighty-five, and that Holmes himself was eighty-five
when he died. Other well-known men are cited by Dr. TurnbuU
as examples of longevity ; for instance, Mr. Gladstone living at
eighty-five, Bismarck at eighty, Pope Leo XUI at eighty-five, and
in our country Senator Morrill, of Vermont, eighty-four; ex-Senator
Payne, eighty-five; Neal Dow, of Maine, ninety-one; Robert C.
Winthrop, eighty-seven ; ex-Secretary McCulloch, eighty, and ex-
Senator Thurman, eighty-one, in addition to whom he mentions
Dr. William H. Furness and the Hon. Frederick Fraley. The ap-
parent conclusion reached by the paper is that long life in America
is not uncommon, and that, therefore, the average age is greater
than the so-called three-score years and ten.

This editorial was penned more than two years ago. My atten-
tion was called to it by Dr. J. Cheston Morris, who knew that I
was interested in such matters. The remark by Dr. Turnbull on
the " Biblical idea " aroused my curiosity and a desire for investi-
gation. As some of the names mentioned in this paper appear
upon the rolls of the American Philosophical Society, it seemed as
if the ''experience" of the Society in this direction would 'be
interesting. The ''experience" of the Society does ;/^/ bear out
the assertion of Dr. Turnbull if his statement be taken to mean that
nowadays the average life is greatly prolonged beyond the "three-
score and ten."

In the general list of the members of the Society from 1743 to
1894, inclusive^ there have been 11 18 deaths where the ages have
been recorded. The average age at death is seventy and one-eighth
years. The youngest age is twenty-five (25) years. Two deaths are
recorded at that age. Dr. John Pennington and Joel B. Reynolds.
The oldest age at death was Dr. Ed. Holyoke, of Massachusetts
Bay, having died at the advanced age of one hundred and one
(loi).

The average length of membership is found to have been twenty-
two and sixty-four one-hundredths years (22.64). The shortest
membership is that of Capt. Karl Chevalier Rousseau d'Happon-
court, who was a delegate from K. K. Military and Geographical
Institute of Vienna on the occasion of the Society's sesqui-centen-

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI. 156. 2 C. TRIKTED FEB 18, 1898.

422 FIELD — THE SPAN OF LIFE. [Sept. 17,

nial, was elected to membership October 20, 1893, ^^"^^ unfortu-
nately died only six days afterwards, on the 26th.

The longest membership was that of Thomas Bradford, who was
elected May 18, 1768, at twenty-three (23) years of age and died
on May 7, 1838, at ninety-three (93), having been a member
seventy (70) years, less eleven days.

Six cases show a membership of sixty-five (65 ) years and over.

The average age at entry (or at election) was forty-seven and
forty-nine one- hundredths (47,49) years.

From the record it would appear that several persons were elected
at a very early age — Rev. Henry Steinhauer as early as thirteen
{13), but there are so {^.yf^ that this error (if it be one) could not
affect the general finding.

The general deduction from this study shows :

TI18 members entering at an average age of. . . .47.49
1118 members living after election a total of

25,312 years or averaging 22.64

1 1 18 members living 78,403 years or averaging

at death 70-13

It is exceedingly interesting and instructive to note that compar-
ng this with the "American Experience Table of Mortality," cal-
culated from the experience of the insurance companies, we find that

Persons living at the age of forty-seven and a
half. 47.50

May be expected to live for twenty-two seventy-
two one-hundredths years 22.72

Or to reach the average age of 70.22

But the editorial refers to " the common belief that, in the United
States at least, the activity and restlessness of the people are tend-
ing to shorten the period of life enjoyed by the average man." In
order to see whether the American members live a shorter time
than others, or whether the '* leaven " of the foreign element has
increased the apparent longevity, a study was made of the "ex-
perience " of the American members alone for twenty-five years.

The record was studied with reference to the deaths which have
occurred during the twenty-five years ending December 31, 1894.
Three hundred and fourteen (314) members died during this period,
the ages of two hundred and ninety-three (293) of whom are known

1897.] FIELD — THE SPAN OF LIFE. 423

The result of the study of these shows :

Two hundred and ninety-three members enter-
ing at an average age of. 48.5 7

Two hundred and ninety-three members living
after election a total of 6253 years, averaging. 21.34

Two hundred and ninety-three deaths of mem-
bers living a total of 20,484 years, or averag-
ing 69.91

Even this small number shows a fairly close agreement with the
tables.

This shows practically the same result as that given above.
This result bears out the mortality tables and the " Biblical idea."

The table shows that people aged 4S.57 years

Might be expected to live 22.00 "

And reach the age of. 7o-57 "

which is but sixty-six one-hundredths of a year longer than this
actual ''experience," a variation easily accounted for by the small
number making up the ''experience."

Some years ago 1 had occasion to look up the " experience " of
clergymen in connection with some of the different Protestant de-
nominations. In this study the records of eight denominations
were consulted, involving seven thousand six hundred and twenty-
two (7622) lives, who lived 495,967 years, or an average of 65.07
years.

The average age at which a man enters the ministry is from
twenty-five (25) to thirty (30) years, averaging, say, twenty-eight
(28) years.

By looking at our "American Experience Table" again, we find
the " expectation "

For those entering the table at twenty-eight

years is 37 years

If we add the entering age to this 28 "

We get 65 years

which is almost exactly the experience of these ministers.

Returning to the records of the Society we find that on Decem-
ber 31, 1894, the longest term during which any one still living had

424 MERCER — SURVIVAL OF ILLUMINATIVE WRITING. [Sept. 17,

been a member was fifty-five (55) years, Mr. Martin H. Boye, who
was elected January 17, 1840, being still alive. The next
longest term was that of Prof. E. Otis Kendall, LL.D., who was.
elected January 21, 1842, or fifty-three years previous. Our Presi-
dent, Hon. Frederick Fraley, LL.D., was elected July 15, 1842,
and had lived for fifty-two and one-half years. The average length
of membership of the living members on that date was sixteen and
one-half years (16.05), but this count includes only the American
members, of whom there were three hundred and thirty-seven

(337)-

While to a certain extent the average health may be improving,
it will take long periods of time for the predictions of physicians
to falsify the mortality tables. In this connection it might be well
to note that the records of the Board of Health of Philadelphia
show that, one year with another, while improved sanitary condi-
tions modify the fatality of certain zymotic diseases, the death rate
in Philadelphia remains practically stationary and at about two
per cent.

THE SURVIVAL OF THE MEDIEVAL ART OF ILLUMI-
NATIVE WRITING AMONG PENNSYLVANIA GERMANS.

BY HENRY C. MERCER.

(Read Septemher 17, 1897).

The notion of a novel collection was suggested to me by a visit
paid last April to the house of an individual who has long been in
the habit of buying '^ penny lots" of so-called trash at country
sales. There, scattered in confusion about the premises, rusting,
warping and crumbling, lay a heterogeneous mass of objects of
wood or iron, which by degrees I recognized as of historic value.
Forgotten by the antiquary, overlooked by the historian, they
were the superannuated and cast-away tools of the Pennsylvanian
pioneer. Because they illustrated, with the fidelity of visual facts,
the felling of the forest, the building of the log cabin, cooking in
the open fire and the disused arts and crafts, professions and amuse-
ments of colonial times, I gathered them together and, ransack-
ing Bucks county for other specimens, stored them by the wagon-
load in the museum of the Bucks County Historical Society, at

1897.]

MERCER — SURVIVAL OF ILLUMINATIVE WRITING.

425

Doylestovvn, as a novel and hitherto unattempted illustration of the
Anyerican beginning.

Among the manifold suggestions involved in the genealogy of
such objects as the reaper's cradle, the American carpenter's hatchet
and pitching axe, the Dutch scythe and the wooden plow, carrying
investigation from America to various parts of Europe, a rude, lid-
less paint-box, fastened with wooden pegs, long puzzled us.

l**3

Fig. I. Paint box used by German schoolmaster about 1820 in the execution
of Fractur or illuminative German handwriting. Museum, No. 103, Bucks
County Historical Society. Presented to the Society by Tobias Nash, of Wor
mansville.

About a foot long by six inches broad, with several compartments
containing little glass bottles, it was finally explained as one of the
color-boxes of teachers of the German schools, superseded in
Bucks county fifty years a^o. Using it as a receptacle for their
home-made pens, brushes and colors, they had instructed scholars in
the art of Fractur or illuminative handwriting until about the year
1840.

With great interest, we learned that the time- stained box found
in one of the garrets of Bedminster had long ago in its longest
compartment contained goose-quill pens, and brushes made of the
hair of the domestic cat ; that the caked colors in the small bottles
had been the home-mixed inks and paints of the master once liquefied
in whisky, and that the varnish was composed of the gum of the
cherry tree diluted in water.

Working with these primitive tools, often lit at his task, let us
suppose, by the once familiar boat-shaped lard lamps suspended
upon trammels of wood, the pioneer schoolmaster at the log school-
houses produced in the latter part of the last century and the

426 MERCER — SURVIVAL OF ILLUMINATIVE WRITING. [Sept. 17,

beginning of this, the beautiful illuminated hymns (see Plate V)
and ornate title-pages which when found in numbers among Men-
nonites in central Bucks county astonished and delighted us for the
first time in August, 1897.^

These glowing relics of the venerable stone farmhouses of eastern
Pennsylvania, sometimes falling to pieces through carelessness, some-
times preserved with veneration between the leaves of large Lutheran
Bibles, revealed by degrees to our investigation the following facts:

First, That the art of Fractur was not confined to Bucks county
or to the Mennonites, who had presented us with the first specimens
seen, but that it had flourished throughout Pennsylvanian Germany,
among the Dunkers, the Schwenkfelders and probably the Amish
and Moravians.

Second, That it had been chiefly perpetuated by deliberate in-
struction in German schools by German schoolmasters, and that it
had received its death blow at the disestablishment of the latter in
Bucks county in 1854.

Third, That the art, always religious, had not been used for the
decoration of secular themes, such as songs, ballads or rhymes, but
had expressed itself in

A. Illuminated Song Books,

Such as the beautiful manuscript song books called Zionitischer
Rosen Garten^ and Paradisisches Wunder-Spiel, made by the monks
at Ephrata, and presented by Mr. Abram H. Cassell to the Penn-
sylvania Historical Society.

B. The Title-pages to Small, Plain Manuscript Mennonite

Song Books,

Often giving the owner's name, with the date and the writer's
school, with illuminated borderings, overhanging tulips or lotus,
birds and angels blowing trumpets. For example :

iThe observation was made while my Tools of the Nationtnaker was in press,
on August 20, 1897. I called attention to the special discoveries made in Bucks
county in Science (See Survival of the Art of Jlluttiinating Manuscripts
among the Germans in Eastern Pennsylvania, September 17, 1897), ^^ a
special meeting of the Bucks County Historical Society at Doylestown, October
7, 1897, ^'^^ i^ Tools of the Nationmaker, published by the Bucks County
Historical Society, Alfred Paschall, Doylestown, 1897, under the numbers 103,
633. 689, 726.

1897.] MEKCER — SURVIVAL OF ILLUMINATIVE WRITING. 427

1. Leaflet 8X inches long by 6^ inches broad. Name. Words, Dieses Vor-
schrifften Buchlein Gehoret Margretha Wismerin Schreib Schuler in der Bir-
chenseher Schule (now Blooming Glen). Vorgeschrieben der October Ji.te^ 1781.
Above a short prayer, surrounded with admonitions to diligence. In rectangle,
formed of ornate foliated borders, are three feathered crowns and two angels
holding tulips and bloviing trumpets. Tulip stalks spring from hearts. Colors,
blue, green, red, yellow and black. Probably made in the last century by Jacob
Overholt, teacher in a log schoolhouse near Deep Run, Bucks county. Pa. Pre-
sented to the writer by his descendant, David Landis, of Plumsteadville.

2. Title-page to church song book {Lieder Buck, printed in Germantown,
Michael Villmeyer, i8li). Name, Susanna Fretz, upon heart, from which
springs a tree with the conventional tulips. Deep beaded bordering, 1814. Colors,
red, yellow, brown and black, red predominant.

3. Title-page to manuscript song book. Name, Susanna Fretz (spelled Freizin
for feminine) in red circle, with date, 1810. Stalks, with black leaves and con-
ventional tulip to right and left. Foliated border with red leaves on black and
yellow ground.

4. Illuminated card on blank page of same hymn book. Above name, Susanna
Fretzin, heart, from which rises conventional tulip. In possession of Henry W.
Gross, Doylestown.

5. Title-page to manuscript hymn book. Name, Joseph Gross ; illuminated
letters, foliated capitals. Date, April 20, 1830. Double tulips in foliate border on
yellow ground.

6. Title-page to manuscript hymn book. Name, Sarah lVis?ner. Foliated capi-
tals, conventional flowers on heavy stalks. Date, 1827. Colors, yellow, red,
brown and blue.

7. Title-page to ditto. Name, Elizabeth Nesch, spelled N'eschin; with words.
Dieses Sing-Noteti Buchlein Gehoret Mir. Sing Schuler in der Bedtninster
Schule. Geschrieben, Septe??iber Qten, ivi Jahr, 1799. Three tulips. In
possession of Joseph N. Gross, Doylestown.

8. Title-page to similar book, with tulips floriated capitals, and name, Stauff'er.
In possession of Isaac J. Stover, of New Britain.

C. Rewards of Merit on Loose Leaflets.

About a I'oot Long by Eight Inches Broad.
First there is a text of Scripture, with elaborately illuminated
characters, and done in many colored inks, under which a bar of
music may set the tune to a German hymn, engrossed in many-
verses below. From this rich, floriated text, with its adorned and
highly colored borderings, emerge birds, twining stalks growing
from symbolic hearts bearing tulips, or angels blowing trumpets.
Examples are :

I. Leaflet, 13^4; inches long by 8^ inches wide, with floriated text, Allda
Kreiizigten Sie Ihn., etc., et:., nineteenth chapter of John, eighteenth verse.

428 MERCER — SURVIVAL OF ILLUMINATIVE WRITING. [Sept. 17,

Luther's translation (see Plate V). Above, single bar of music, with red
lines heading hymn and six verses beginning, O frolic he Stunden, O herrliche
Zeit. Under this the alphabet in common German handwriting, capitals and
small letters, with Arabic numerals up to a hundred. Below, to the left, transverse
rhymed admonition in red and black ink, beginning Ach lieber Mensch. Two
birds are set upon the text of the hymn. The capital letters are elaborately
illuminated and surrounded with scrolls. The bordering to the left is colored
with a design. In the possession of Henry W. Gross, Doylestown. Date proba-
bly from 1760 to 1790.

2. Similar leaflet. Text, one hundred and third Psalm, verses nine and
thirteen, in German. Hymn and six verses. Alphabets, numerals and admoni-
tion arranged as before. Elaborately illuminated capitals and colored borderings,
birds, scrolls and tulips. Colors, red, brown, blue, green yellow and black.
Name Christian Gross, in rectangle. Date probably about 1760. In possession
of Isaac Gross, of Bedminster.

3, 4. Two similar leaflets, closely resembling each other. Text, Philippians i.
23. Hymn in five verses. Admonition, alphabets and numerals omitted.
Capitals more elaborately floriated than before. Conventional leaves, flowers,
tulips and birds. Colors, red, blue, green, yellow and black. Ornate borderings
with heart pattern. Name, Isaac Gross, on corner of one specimen. Made by
Isaac Gross, of Bedminster, related to the owner, born 1807, died 1895. -^^'^
about 1840, or earlier. In the possession of Henry K. Gross, of Plumsteadville.

5. Leaflet, slightly smaller (see Plate VII), with hymn or sacred verse in six
rhymed lines, beginning Jesus soil mein Jesus bleibeit, intertwined with
numerous leaves bearing flowers. Elaborately scrolled capitals and four birds over
the name of the maker, Isaac Gross, January 10, 1830. Colors, green, red,
brown, blue and black. In possession of Henry K. Gross, of Plumsteadville.

6. Leaflet, II 34f inches long by 7 ^4^ inches broad. Text, Proverbs xiii. 7. Below
this, a prayer on the theme of poverty. Capitals set in rectangles filled with pen
hatchings. Colors, red and black, with a little green. Date about 1760 or earlier.
In possession (1897) of Isaac Gross, of Bedminster.

7. Leaflet, 13 inches long by 8 inches wide. Pious rhyme of admonition to
children, beginning Die Kinder Lieb ist Wunderlich, with elaborately illumi-
nated capitals, scrolls, leaves, a bird and several tulips, A separate admonition
in small ovate enclosure to the right, colored borders with alphabet below.
Colors, blue, red, yellow, green, brown and black. In possession of John Wal-
ters Chalfont.

D, Book Marks.

Sometimes consisting of such designs as tulips springing from
hearts, conventionalized trees, or religious symbols. Examples are :

I. Leaflet, 6^ inches long by 33^ inches wide. Two conventional trees with
red stalks, and lanceolate green leaves. Border, yellow and red. No writing.
In possession of Henry K. Gross, Plumsteadville. Date, about 1830.

1897.] MERCER — SURVIVAL OF ILLUMINATIVE WRITING . 429

riate_VII. Illuminated leaflet with hymn, and date, 1S30, In possession of Henry
K, Gross, of Plumsteadville.

430 MERCER — SURVIVAL OF ILLUMINATIVE WRITING. [Sept. 17.

2. Conventional bird, the pelican (a mediaeval church symbol emblematic of the
Redemption), standing upon bracket protruding from urn-shaped nest, tears its
breast with its beak (see Plate VIII). Three dotted red lines lead from the
wound to the outstretched mouths of three eel-shaped young birds uplifting their
bodies from the nest. Colors, red, yellow, green and black. No writing. In pos"
session of Henry K. Gross, of Plumsteadville. Date, about 1830.

3. Leaflet, 7^ inches long by 6^ inches broad. No writing. Two tulips with
other flowers sprout from heavy red stalks. Illuminated borders. Colors, red,
yellow, brown, green, blue and black. Date, 1820. Made by Isaac Gross, died
1895. ^^ possession of Henry K. Gross, of Plumsteadville.

4. Small leaflet, 4 inches long by 2 inches wide. Stalk bearing large tulip.
Flower rises from centre of the heart. Name, Susanna Fretzin. Illuminated
border. Colors, red, green, yellow, brown and black. Date probably about iSio.
Property of Henry W. Gross, of Doylestown.

5. Unfinished leaflet, 7 inches long by 4^ inches wide. Words, Diese Bibel ist
gekauft worden im Jahr unsers Herrn lS30,'den 25th December und gehoret
mier^ Isaac Gross, ,flO. Abundant leafage springing from a heart with flowers
and tulips done in red outline. Brush work just begun. Ornamental borderings.
Colors, blue, black, yellow, red and olive. In possession of Henry K. Gross,
Plumsteadville.

6. Leaflet, about 9 inches long by 6^ inches broad, with angels and illuminated
writing done by teacher of Pebble Hill German School about 1800. In possession
of Mrs. Levi Garner, Doylestown.

E. Taufscheine or Baptismal Certificates with Marriage
AND Death Registers in Bibles.

The German custom of preserving baptismal certificates, though
wanting the force of legal compulsion, after crossing the Atlantic,
survived until recent years in parts of Pennsylvanian Germany.
Not practiced by the Mennonites, owing to their rejection of the
doctrine of infant baptism, it prevailed extensively among Luther-
ans in northern Bucks and Lehigh counties, where however since
about 1840 printed Taufscheine, gaudily colored, took the place of
the old documents illuminated by hand.

Three of the printed certificates (giving the date of the individ-
ual's birth on a colored sheet adorned with hearts, wreaths, four
birds, and angels blowing cornets, published by Johann Ritter,
Reading, 1845, ^^^ i^ Allentown in 1848) were seen by the writer
in October, 1897, in possession of Philip Flores, of Dillingersville,
Lehigh county.

Examples of the old illuminated Taufscheine are :

I. Round leaflet, 7^ inches in diameter, surrounded by a round band, spotted
in red, the latter fringed on both sides with yellow and red scrolls. Text, in
black, Anna Maria ist von chri^tliche Luiherische Eltern im fahr Unsers

1897.] MERCEK — SURVIVAL OF ILLUMINATIVE WRITING. 431

Herrn Jesii Christi jy82 den jo. Jenner in Grossschwam Tatittschipy Bocks
Counti, Geboren, etc., giving name of minister, father, mother and witnesses. Pre-
sented by Mr. S. W. Boyer, of Spinnerstown, to the Bucks County Historical
Society.

2. Leaflet, 15 inches long by I2j4 broad. Text in scalloped circle inscribed
with legend, Wer da glaubt und getauft wird, der wird selig werden. Wer ihn
nicht glaubt dcr wird verdamet tverden. The border is adorned with two large
flower stalks, a singing bird and a swan, and two gaudy flying female figures
with puffed hair and rosy cheeks, bearing flowers. Another singing bird adorns a
small circlet, and upon a heart is inscribed the motto, Dis Herz mem soli dir
allein O lieber Jesit sein. The baptismal inscription is in plain black Gothic text,
Diese beide Ehegatten ah Joha^ines Erdman ti7id Seine Ehefrau Sara, Eine
Geborene Pitzin, Lutherische Religion, ist Einen So/in Zur Welt Geboren als
Heinrich, ist Geboren im Jahr Unseres Herrn Jesii Christi Jygs d. 2g. Jany
um 6 Uhr Abends in Saccon Taunschip Northhampton Counti im Staat Pensyl-
vanien, giving name of pastor and of witnesses. Colors red, brown, green and yel-
ow. In possession of the Bucks County Historical Society. Given by Oliver H.
Erdman, Steinsburg, Bucks county, Pennsylvania.

3 and 4. Two leaflets in style like the above. Certificates of Peter Floers,
1792, and Elizabeth Wetzel, 1804. Flying woman, birds, swans and hearts^
floridly executed a«: above. On one of the hearts is the legend, Dis Herz mein
soil dir allein O lieber Jesti sein. In possession of Philip Flores, Dillingersville.

5. Leaflet about 15 inches long by 12 wide, containing text in an ornamented
square, with heavy border adorned with conventional flowers and tulips, and four
hearts containing legends (see Plate IX). Colors brown, red, yellow, green and
blue. A certificate in black German Gothic text, translated, says that " Samuel
Roeder was born of Christian and married parents in Herford township, Berks
county, in Pennsylvania, on May 8, in the year 1779, and was given his Christian
name by the minister, Theobold Sahwer, in the Christian Church in Nugoschen-
hoben," giving witnesses, etc. Deposited in the Museum of the Bucks County
Historical Society by Nathan Roeder, of Spinnerstown, Bucks county, Pennsyl-
vania.

Tlie marriage and death registers in Bibles are plainly executed
as compared with the other specimens, and it seems that the prac-
tice of engrossing these latter lasted much later than the other
phases of the art, and still continues (1897) among German fami-
lies in upper Bucks county. More than two colors, red or purple
and black, are rarely used. The elaborate scrolling, the leaves,
hearts, birds and tulips, have disappeared. Examples are:

1. Register bound in Lutheran Bible of Mrs. Levi Garner, of Doylestown.

2. Similar register, in purple ink, made about 1890, in Bible of Mr. Elmer
E. Funk, of Doylestown.

3. Loose register from Bible of the Hendricks' family near Perkasie, showing,
late survival of the tulip design. Words, Sarah Hendricks ist geboren den iten
September im Jahr 1S51. Capitals decorated in inferior style with leaves and

432 MERGER — SURVIVAL OF ILLUMINATIVE WRITING. [Sept. 17,

three tulips. Colors, very little red, blue and yellow. Probably made in Bed-
minster. In possession of J. Freeman Hendricks, Doylestown.

It appeared upon inquiry that the art of Fractur was easily
traceable to Germany, where^ according to information received
from foreign-born citizens of the United States living in Philadel-
phia and Bucks county, it had been taught without religious sig-
nificance (generally in black, rarely in colors, save to special
scholars, and sometimes, if desired, in Nassau with the reed pen of
the monks), until about the year 1850, at public schools in Saxony,
Bavaria, Hanover, Hesse and Nassau.

If the existence of Fractur in Pennsylvania had been adequately
■noticed before, its evidences are so interesting that it might well be
described again, but we learn that it has been little more than
casually alluded to by any writer. Yet it illustrates the relation of
Germany to the United States at one of its most interesting points.
It recalls the fact that while the English reformation was hostile to
artistic impulses, the German reformers were not always unfriendly
to them. In this case, at least, they held fast to one of the most
beautiful products of mediaeval fancy. Here is a contribution to
American character at the beginning, for which we owe nothing to
New England and the Puritans. Fractur did not come over in the
Mayflowei', nor did it flourish among the associates of those New
England reformers who, at the siege of Louisburg, are said to
have attacked the adornments of the captured cathedral with axes.
As in the case of the Pennsylvanian earthenware of the last century,
glazed in several colors and decorated with tulips or the lotus ; as
with the Durham stove plates of 1750, adorned by Germans with
flaming hearts, tulips and designs of Adam and Eve, Potiphar's
wife, and the Dance of Death, we see that we are dealing with a
reflection of the artistic instinct of the Middle Ages, directed upon
us from the valley of the Rhine. The fresher from Germany the bet-
ter the work. But by degrees the iron caster forgets his trans-
Atlantic inheritance of taste. A lack of skill finally overtakes the
potter after years spent under sterner and more material condi-
tions. First, the German mottoes are abandoned upon the plate
and jar. By degrees the colors grow less varied and the designs
weaker. Then the toys and whistles in the shape of birds, fish and
animals, are forgotten with recipes for glaze. At last only the yel-
low tints of the pie-dish remain. So, too, the hand of the master

1897.] MINUTES. 433

of Fractnr looses its cunning and the fading art ceases to exist in
the memory of a generation yet living.

The establishment of the English school system in Bucks county
in 1854^ necessarily resulted in the suppression of the previously
existing German schools. Hence that date after which the latter,
sustained by private subscription, lingered on for a time, reasonably
marks the end of Fractur in a region where at least two aged mas-
ters of the craft still survive in the person of Jacob Gross, of New
Britain, and John H. Detweiler, of Perkasie.

A study of these fugitive examples of a venerated handwriting
leads the investigator by sure steps from the Germany of Pennsyl-
vania to the valley of the Rhine, from the backwoods schoolhouse
to the mediaeval cloister. In the fading leaflets we recognize pro-
totypes of the glowing hand-made volumes that illuminated learning
in the Middle Ages and still glorify the libraries of the Old World.
From the paint-box of Bedminster to the priceless book which
at Venice is shown to the delighted visitor as the handiwork of
Hans Memling, we are led by a chain of intimately related facts.
With strange sensations, we rescue from the Pennsylvaiiian garret
evidence indisputable of the passing away in the New World of
one of the fairest arts of the cloister, which, meeting its death-blow
at the invention of printing, crossed the Atlantic to linger among
the pious descendants of the German reformers until recent years.

Stated Meeting^ October i, 1897.

Mr. Ingham in the Chair.

Present, 11 members.

Donations to the Library and Cabinet were reported, and
thanks were ordered for them.

1 A German school sustained by a private subscription was taught by the
Mennonite Samuel Musselman, in Swartley's schoolhouse, at the lower end of
Hilltown, Bucks county, Pa., about 1866. Information of Mr, J. F. Hendricks
Doylestown. Another, the last in Bucks county, existed, under the tuition of Mr.
Meyers, of Deep Run, at the old Mennonite Schoolhouse near the meeting house
at Deep Run, Bucks county. Pa., in the winters of 1895-96 and 1896-97. At
the latter school where a pair of the time-honored leathern spectacles {Bocks-
brille or Schulbrille) now in possession of the Bucks County Historical Society,
were used to punish children in 1897, ^^ ceiling rafters are still inscribed with
bars of music written in chalk.

434 DOOLITTLE — VARIATION OF TERRESTRIAL LATITUDE. [Oct. 11,

The Committee on Mr. Van Denburgh's paper recom-
mended its publication in the Transactions^ and it was so
■ordered.

The meeting was adjourned by the presiding officer.

Special Meeting^ October 11^ 1897.

Yice-President Pepper in the Chair.

Present, 41 members.

The special meeting was called by the President for the
reception of communications on subjects of science.

Lord Kelvin was presented to the Chair, and took his seat
in the Society.

Communications were made by Prof. Heilprin on " The
Absence of Glacial Action in J^^orthern Africa."

By Prof. G. F. Barker, on " The Constitution of Matter."

By Prof. Doolittle, on " Latitude Yariation."

By Dr. Kennelly, on " A Speculation upon the Nature of
Cathode Kays."

By Dr. D. G. Brinton, on " The Measurement of Thought
as Function."

The meeting was adjourned by the Chair.

THE VARIATION OF TERRESTRIAL LATITUDE.

BY C. L. DOOLITTLE.

{Read October 11, 1897.)

As the distinguished scientist with whose presence we are favored
this evening has on various public occasions shown a deep interest
in the problem of latitude variation, it has occurred to me that a
brief communication on this subject might not be out of place on

1897.] DOOLITTLE — VARIATIOX OF TERRESTRIAL LATITUDE. 435

this occasion. In this connection I shall speak of the work which
we are doing at our newly erected Observatory of the University of
Pennsylvania. As the audience is not composed exclusively of
professional astronomers, it will perhaps be as well to give a brief
statement in explanation of the problem.

The idea of possible variations in the latitude of points on the
earth's surface is by no means a new one. It is, in fact, as old as
Ptolemy. At various times, from that day to this, apparent changes
of this character have renewed the interest of scientific men in this
subject. It is probably superfluous to say that these supposed
changes of latitude were almost exclusively due to imperfect
methods of observation and to want of knowledge of various theo-
retical matters now well understood, that with improvements in
instruments, with more perfect knowledge of the effect of refrac-
tion, with the discovery of aberration and nutation these supposed
changes for the most part disappeared.

More than a hundred years ago, the illustrious Euler gave to this
subject something like a scientific basis. In the development of
the law of rotation of a rigid body, for which we are indebted to
him, it was shown that a body like the earth, supposed to be per-
fectly rigid and in form an ellipsoid of revolution, unless originally
started in its diurnal rotation about an axis exactly coinciding with
the axis of figure, would have in addition to this diurnal rotation
another motion. Suppose the original axis of rotation to make a
small angle with the axis of figure. It was shown that this axis of
rotation would itself revolve about the axis of figure, describing
the surface of a cone, the angle between the two axes remaining
unchanged. The period of this rotation depends upon the princi-
pal moments of inertia of the earth or upon their relation to each
other, which may be found from the observed values of the con-
stants of precession and nutation. The resulting period proves to
be about 305 days, or ten months.

If, therefore, this period has a real existence, that is, if the axes
of rotation and figure do not exactly coincide, it will, according to
this theory, be shown by a periodic increase and diminution of all
terrestrial latitudes in a corresponding period. Such a change was
not found, though sought for by many investigators. In fact, the
apparent perfection of the theory probably retarded the true devel-
opment of the matter for several years. However, about ten or
fifteen years ago, a number of apparent changes of latitude, found

436 DOOLITTLE — VARIATION OF TERRESTRIAL LATITUDE. [Oct. 11,

from various series of observations made at different places and by
different methods, began to awaken a widespread interest in the
subject. That the changes were real admitted of but little doubt.
It was equally obvious that they could not be fitted into the ten-
month period of Euler.

Finally, Mr. Seth C. Chandler, by a most laborious investigation,
embracing an analysis of many thousands of observations, extend-
ing over a hundred and fifty years, succeeded in solving the mys-
tery, at least in so far as existing evidence can solve it. The result
shows that the earth's axis of rotation moves about the axis of figure
not in one simple period of ten months, but in two periods of
twelve and fourteen months respectively, with perhaps a third of
several years. The combination of these motions results in a some-
what complicated curve. If we suppose circles drawn about the
north and south poles of the earth having diameters of about fifty
feet, the extremities of the axis of rotation will always be found
within these circles.

For the purpose of perfecting our knowledge of these motions, for
obtaining data for a correct explanation of the same from a theo-
retical standpoint, very accurate and carefully executed series of
latitude observations at different points are necessary. It is such a
series we have undertaken at the Flower Observatory.- This series
is a continuation as far as may be of that which was kept up for
several years at South Bethlehem.

In this work the instrument employed is the Zenith Telescope.
The stars observed are arranged in groups so selected that the
errors in the positions of the stars are almost completely eliminated
in so far as they effect the apparent change of latitude. Regular
observation at our Observatory for this purpose was begun October
I, 1896. Since this date observations have been made on nearly
every favorable night. Two series constitute a complete night's
work, the first in the early evening soon after dark, the second in .
the morning before sunrise. Each series embraces ten pairs of
stars, requiring about two hours of actual observation. As will be
seen, the work is laborious. This with the necessary numerical com-
putation might very well be regarded as sufficient employment for
one person.

Some 1700 observations, extending from 1896, October t, to
1897, August 26, have been reduced so that we can form some
judgment of the results obtained and of the character of the work.

1897.]

DOOLITTLE- —VARIATION OF TERRESTRIAL LATITUDE. 43'

We find a pretty satisfactory agreement with the theoretical results
as given by Chandler's formula, the range of variation being about
o''.4, as indicated both by observation and theory. The phase,
however, is a little more discordant, that is the times of maxima
and minimal as shown by observation, do not quite agree with
those indicated by theory. However, the amount of material is
not yet sufficiently great to warrant any sweeping conclusions.

As to the quality of the work, the probable error of a single
observed latitude is found to be o".i4. This is derived from the
mean of everything, whether the conditions were favorable or
otherwise. It does not take into account the errors of the star
places used, but is simply what is sometimes called the internal
probable error.

The probable error of the mean of one series of ten observations
will be something over ".04. Nevertheless we find in comparing the
results from consecutive evenings ranges sometimes as great as o'^5,
or say twelve times the probable error. Such variations from even-
ing to evening are not peculiar to our own work, but are found in
every extensive series which I have examined. In some cases the
range has been found as great as o^.y. The cause of these dis-
crepancies is at present very much of a mystery. They are pre-
sumably due in great part to atmospheric causes, producing anoma-
lous refraction phenomena. It is apparently a very difficult matter
to deal with, but unless means can be found for doing so it would
appear that we have about reached the limit of accuracy attainable
in this class of work.

The instances before mentioned are the extreme ones. The fluc-
tuations from night to night are usually far within the amounts
mentioned. Usually it will be difficult to determine whether the
variation is a real one or simply represents the error of observation.
An unusually favorable opportunity for investigating this matter
was furnished by the work of Marcuse, of Berlin, and Preston, of
the U. S. Coast Survey, who, in 1891-92, carried on similar series
of observations at Waikiki, in observatories separated by only a
few feet. A comparison of the results with reference to this, point
was made by Marcuse, but the result was not very decisive. In a
general way the number of cases of agreement in the direction of
the variation was about twice as great as that of disagreement.
One case in particular was very interesting, where for nine consec-
utive days the latitudes given by the two different observers always

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI. 156. 2 D. PRINTED EFB. 3, 1898.

488 BRINTON — MEASUREMENT OF THOUGHT AS FUNCTION. [Oct. 11,

varied alike. In other cases, however, for many consecutive days
no agreement between the two series is apparent. It is greatly to
be desired that this matter should receive a thorough investigation,
but the method by which the problem may be successfully attacked
is not obvious.

THE MEASUREMENT OF THOUGHT AS FUNCTION.

BY DANIEL G. BIIINTON, M.D.

{Read October 11, 1897.)

I can best introduce what I have to say by a quotation from the
address of Vice-President McGee before the late meeting of the
American Association at Detroit. He refers in it to a distinguished
member of our own Society who, I am glad to see, is with us to-
night ; and the words I am about to quote are of such a tenor that
that they cannot be otherwise than agreeable. Mr. McGee said :

''Less than a quarter of a century ago Barker was deemed bold
unto recklessness for undertaking to correlate vital and physical
forces, and many heads were shaken doubtfully when, in his presi-
dential address before the American Association at Boston in i88o,
the same brilliant experimentalist argued from the application of
Mosso's plethysmograph that mental force also may be weighed
and measured, so that it must be regarded as interconvertible with
other forms of energy; yet less than half a generation of organic
chemistry has established these revolutionary propositions beyond
perad venture " (^The Science of Humanity, by W. J. McGee, Vice-
Pres., Address before Section H, at Detroit, 1897).

These words must have been intended by their writer to have
important limitations. If taken in their ordinary sense they would
convey a very erroneous idea of the achievements of physical and
chemical science.

It is quite true that the action of thinking is in one sense a func-
tion of the brain, and is accompanied by cell destruction, by in-
creased temperature and by the increased elimination of inorganic
matter through the secretory organs. For this reason it was said
by one of the older physiologists that "without phosphorus there
is no thought." In a somewhat similar manner others have under-
taken to demonstrate that thought is merely a mechanical process,.

1897.] BRINTOX — MEASUREMENT OF THOUGHT AS FUNCTION. 439

and, indeed, a logical machine was invented by Jevons which could
carry out a proposition from major premise to conclusion. From
another aspect the late Dr. Post, of Bremen, used to maintain that
*'we do not think, but thinking goes on within us; " just like any
other involuntary function of our bodies.

All such statements must be understood to apply only to certain
concomitant phenomena of thought ; but by no proper use of words
can such phenomena be taken as the measure of thought itself. This
measure eludes all chemical and physical research, and can in no
way be calculated by mechanical formulas. The worth of the
thought bears no relation whatever to the physical changes of tem-
perature and cell activity concerned in its production. Mental
force cannot be weighed and measured, nor is it convertible by any
means known to us into other forms of energy.

The value of thought and the measure of mental force is, as has
already been intimated by our distinguished guest this evening, the
truth oi the thought, the verity of the proposition. To quote from
Shakespeare, *^A tale told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
signifying nothing," may cost that poor idiot's brain just as much
cell-destruction and increased temperature as did the composition of
Macbeth to the great dramatist. A false or a worthless thought in-
volves just as many changes as a true and valuable one. The brain of
the savage is often as active, functionally, as that of the devotee to
science ; but how different the value of the results ! As a physical
stimulus affecting the lives of organic beings, the truth of thought
is the only measure of the power of thought.

A striking confirmation of the views I am urging is the undoubted
fact that the greatest conquests of thought, its most valuable pro-
ductions, arise when the functional activity of the brain is at a low
ebb. They are the fruits of what is called ''unconscious cerebra-
tion;" or by its more modern name, ''subliminal consciousness."
The greatest inventions, the solutions of the most difficult problems
in mathematics, the most marvelous inspirations of genius in art,
have reached their finders in such passive moments. How wide of
the mark, therefore, is it to expect to measure mind by units of
matter ! There is absolutely no common measure between them
and nothing in modern chemical or physical science weakens this
ancient doctrine.

If what I have said is true as respects the facts of science, how
much less capable are material weights and measures of appraising

440 MINUTES. [Oct. 15

those spiritual forces, whose potency lies in exalting the character
of the individual, and in elevating the tone of national life, and on
which alone we must depend for the real progress of the human
race?

Let me, in conclusion, present this last point in the words of one
of the noblest and most gifted women of our English-speaking race —
Elizabeth Barrett Browning :

'< If we tread the deeps of ocean, if we strike the stars in rising,
If we wrap the globe intensely in one hot electric breath —
'Tis but power within our tether — no new spirit-power comprising.
And we are not greater men in life, nor bolder men in death."

' Stated Meeting, October 15, 1897.

President Fraley in the Chair.

Present, 41 members.

Mr. Stewart Culin, a newlj elected member, was presented
to the Chair, and tool: his seat in the Society.

Donations to the Library were reported, and thanks were
ordered for them.

The death was announced of Prof. Alfred L. 0. Cloiseaux,
of Paris, France, a member of the Society.

Mr. Kosengarten was appointed to prepare the obituary
notice of Mr. J. Sergeant Price.

dominations Nos. 1380, 1389 to 1398, 1400, 1402 to 1409,
1418, 1423 to 1431 were read and spoken to, and Tellers were
appointed to conduct the election for members, who reported
the following as having been elected members :

2323. Clarence B. Moore, Philadelphia.

2324. James Biddle Leonard, Philadelphia.

2325. George Vaux, Jr., Philadelphia.

2326. James Seguin DeBenneville, Philadelphia.

2327. Richard H. Sanders, Philadelphia.

2328. William Tatham, Philadelphia.

2329. Gregory B. Keen, Philadelphia, Librarian of the
University of Pennsylvania.

1897.] MINUTES. 441

2330. George Wallace Melville, Washington, Commodore
and Chief Eno;ineer U. S. N.

2331. Charles D. Walcott, Washington, Director of the U.
S. Geological Survey.

2332. Edward K. Squibb, M.D., Brooklyn.

2333. George Wharton Pepper, Philadelphia.

2334. Hon. Wayne MacVeagh, Philadelphia.

2335. John C. Smock, Trenton, State Geologist of New
Jersey.

2336. Hon. Grover Cleveland, Princeton.

2337. Hon. Thomas F. Bayard, Wilmington, Del.

2338. William Libbey, Princeton, Professor of Physical
Geography, Princeton University.

2339. Alfred T. Mahan, Captain U. S. Navy.

2340. Frank Morley, Haverlord, Professor of Pure Mathe-
matics, Haverford College, Pa.

2341. Woodrow Wilson, Princeton, Professor of Jurispru-
dence, Princeton IJniversit}'.

2342. George A. Piersol, M.D., Philadelphia, Professor of
Anatomy, University of Pennsylvania.

2343. Lightner Witmer, Ph.D., Philadelphia, Assistant
Professor of Experimental Psychology, University of Penn-
sylvania.

2344. Rudolfo Lanciani, Rome.

2345. James Mark Baldwin, Ph.D., Princeton, Professor of
Psychology, Princeton University.

2346. Henry M. Howe, New York.

2347. Edward H. Williams, Bethlehem.

2348. H. Morse Stephens, Ithaca, Professor of Modern
History, Cornell University.

2349. Charles P. Hildeburn, Philadelphia.

2350. Percival Lowell, Boston, Director of the Lowell
Observatory, Flagstaff, Ariz.

2351. A. Donaldson Smith, M.D., Philadelphia.

The rough minutes were read, and the Society was ad-
journed by the presiding officer.

442 NANSEX — POLAR EXPEDITION, 1893-96. FOct. 29,

Special Meeting, October 29, 1807.

President Fraley in the Chair.

Present, 100 members.

The special meeting was held for the reception of com-
munications on subjects of science.

Dr. Fridtjof Hansen, a recently elected member, was pre-
sented to the Chair, and took his seat.

Dr. Nansen presented a communication on " Some Kesults
of the Norwegian Polar Expedition, 1893-96," Avhich was
discussed by Commodore Melville, Prof. Abbtj, Prof. Heilprin
and Mr. Amos Bonsai 1.

The reading of the rough minutes was dispensed with, and
the Society was adjourned by the President.

SOME RESULTS OF THE NORWEGIAN POLAR EXPEDI-
TION, 1893-96.

BY DR. FRIDTJOF NANSEN.

{Read October 29, 1897.)
Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : —

First of all, I beg to thank you most heartily for the great honor
the Society has shown me and the cordial welcome you have given
me.

It is with some hesitation that I come to discuss the results of the
exploration from which I returned last year. The material I brought
back is not by far worked out, and it will take years before it can
be properly studied, and before this is done perhaps I ought not to
talk much about the results for fear of giving you wrong ideas.
But in the meantime I would like to point out a few of the more
important points in our discovery, and I propose to begin with the
geographical discoveries.

The whole plan of the expedition was based on a theory con-
cerning the currents, about which we knew very little before. I
thought, for various reasons, that there was a constant drift of

1897.] NANSEN" — POLAR EXPEDITION, 1893-96. 443

the ice across the north polar region. I would especially refer
here to some relics from the American ship Jea.nnette, which were
found on the southwest coast of Greenland three years after the
Jeannette was crushed and sank at a point northeast of the Siberian
Islands. The question arose, How could these relics have come to the
coast of Greenland ? The only leasible explanation, in my opinion,
was that first proposed by Prof. Mohn. The relics must have been
drifted straight across the polar region to the north of Franz-Josef
Land and Spitzbergen, then must have come southward by the
east coast of Greenland, thence around Cape Farewell and north-
ward along the southwest coast. (Dr. Nansen then taking his posi-
tion by a chart pointed out the supposed course of the relics.)
Here is a map of the polar region. The Jeannette was beset in the
ice near the Wrangel Island, which was then believed to be a large
land, extending northward. She was drifting for nearly two years
in a northwesterly direction to a point about here (indicating),
where she was crushed by the ice pressure and sunk ; and, as you
know, the gallant crew of that vessel had a desperate struggle to
reach inhabited parts, and it is unnecessary here to touch upon the
sad fate of most of them.

Three years later some relics were found down here (pointing to
the southwest coast of Greenland) and the only explanation was
that they must have drifted this way down (indicating). There
was, however, other evidence that made me believe still more
firmly in this constant drift across, and that was especially that
drift timber is found on the Greenland coast, on the Spitzbergen
coast and on various other lands in the Arctic regions, and that
most of this drift timber proves, on examination, to have come
from Siberia. The only explanation, in my opinion, is that this
drift timber must have been carried to these shores by the floe-ice
across the polar sea somewhere near the pole ; although I must say
that this opinion is against that of most authorities.

As a further proof I will mention a third evidence of great im-
portance, and that was some mud that I found on the ice floes on
the east coast of Greenland. This map does not show it, but Ice-
land would be about here (indicating) and there is a strait between
Iceland and Greenland. In this strait I collected, in i888, some
specimens of mud, and by a microscopic examination of this mud
it was found to contain many diatoms never found anywhere else
in the world except near Bering's Strait. Some specimens collected

444 NANSEN — POLAR EXPEDITION, 1893-96. [Oct. 29,

by the Swedish Vega expedition were examined by Prof. Cleve, who
also examined my mud. He said "that the diatoms contained in
the two samples of mud are perfectly alike, and are totally differ-
ent from those contained in all other samples in the whole world."
I thought it could not be explained in any other way but that there
must be some connection between the two places, the ice^carrying
the mud to where this mud was found across the polar sea.

There were also other evidences that made me believe in this
drift current. If this drift really existed, I thought it a simple
thing to go with it ; to build a ship strong enough to stand the
pressure, push her into the ice and let her be carried along with
it just as the Jeannette was. And that is what the expedition
accomplished. As the expedition was therefore undertaken with
the intention to drift with the ice, we could not expect that we
would discover many new lands. My hope was to keep clear of the
land, as that would stop our drifting and perhaps oblige us to leave
the ship and travel over the ice. We were fortunate enough not to
meet any land. We found only one vast extended sea in the north,
which was very much deeper than we had expected.

Before we set out a good many authorities said that the reason
why such a drift was impossible was because we would me*t with
much land in the north, and that the sea was shallow. So far as
we knew it was shallow north of Asia. The greatest depth found
by the Jeannette expedition was eighty fathoms. I also believed
that this sea might be pretty shallow, but seeing that there was a
deep sea north between Greenland and Spitzbergen, a sea extending
up to 2600 fathoms in depth, the northern limits of which had not
been found, and seeing at the same time that the depth increased
with the progress of the Jeannette expedition, as it was carried to
the north and east, I said it looks as though there should be some
connection between the deepening of the sea to the north of where
the Jeannette expedition met with disaster and this deep sea east of
Greenland. I thought there might be some narrow channel or
trough of deep sea across the polar region.

Great was my astonishment when I found a great depth as soon
as we got north of the New Siberian Islands. All the way north from
the Siberian coast there was a very shallow sea, only twenty or thirty
fathoms deep, until at a certain point the depth suddenly increased
and we could not reach the bottom with all the lines we had on
board. We had to make new line and at last we found the bottom.

1897.] NANSEN — POLAR EXPEDITION, 1893-96. ^45

at about 2000 fathoms, and we found the same deep basin along
the whole route of the Fram across the polar region.

The question then arises, Of what extent is this sea? I did not
find anywhere any indication that the sea grows shallow. We see
it stretching from the south northward into the unknown. We
also see it stretching eastward to the region north of the New
Siberian Islands and we might expect it to extend much further
eastward. When we look at the deep seas on the rest of the
globe's surface we do not find anywhere such a long, narrow exten-
sion of very deep seas; and, therefore, the probability is that this
sea is much broader than we had an opportunity of ascertaining.
We may therefore say that we have established the fact that a great
part of the polar region is an extended, deep sea, instead of the
shallow sea that we believed in before. I think there cannot
be much doubt that the whole of the polar region lying on the
Asiatic and European side of the pole is one extended sea.

For this belief we have several reasons. First, as I have just
mentioned, the depth of the polar sea indicates some extension
of the sea to the north of the Fram's course. But there are other
evidences. It is evident that ice drifting in a sea where there is
land in the neighborhood will be stopped in its drift as soon as it
drifts in the direction of this land. Now, however, if there had
been land anywhere in the neighborhood of our route it is evident
that if the ice happened to drift in that direction it would have
been stopped at once. But we never saw anything of the kind.
The ice seemed to drift readily in almost every direction as the
wind commenced to blow in that direction. The only direction
in which the ice seemed to drift slowly and with some difficulty
was backward in the direction from which we had come, and there
we knew there was nothing but open sea. Very easily, say as soon
as the southerly wind began to blow, the ice drifted toward the
north, consequently there was no possibility of land being found
anywhere near us in that direction.

There is another evidence which is even stronger^ and that is the
amount of floe-ice or polar ice floating southward through the
channel between Spitzbergen and Greenland and especially along
the eastern coast of Greenland.

When you look at the route of the Fram you see the drift
going in this direction (indicating). She drifted to about this
point (indicating), and then began to work herself out of the ice

446 NANSEN — POLAE EXPEDITION, 1893-96. [Oct. 29,

by forcing herself forward with the help of her steam engine. If
she had not done this slie would, of course, have been drifted
further in the same direction, and then she would as you see have
been drifted southward along the east coast of Greenland, and
might have drifted in that direction for a year more.

Thus you see there would have been a broad belt of drift ice
drifting southward -between the Fram and the coast itself. It is
evident that this ice must have traveled by a route similar to that
of the Fram, but that route had been to the north of the Fram's.
All this ice (indicating) must therefore come from an extended sea
lying to the north of our route, and consequently there cannot be
any land in that region stopping the drift. Thus, we have good
reason to believe that the whole extent of this region on the
European and Asiatic side of the pole is nothing but sea, perhaps
with some small islands of no importance. In my opinion the pole
itself is situated in the same extended deep sea.

This distribution of the land and water on the European side is,
I think, the most important feature of the geographical discov-
eries made by us on the expedition. There might, of course, be
found land on the American side of the polar region. It is not
probable that we should just now happen to have found the northern
limit of land on this side. Much still remains to be done by future
expeditions in geographical exploration.

Before leaving the subject of geographical discoveries, I will
briefly mention the extent of Franz-Josef Land. You know
that the group of islands situated to the east of Spitzbergen,
called Franz- Josef Land, was discovered by the Austrian Teget-
hofft expedition in 1872-4. The expedition had only explored
the southern coast of this land and made a dash northward
through a narrow channel which was called Austria Sound.
Afterward the English explorer Leigh-Smith came two sum-
mers to this land and discovered the more western part of its
coast. The last time he came his ship was crushed and he spent
the winter there and came back in boats the next year. The north-
ern extension of this land was not at all known, and therefore it
was believed by some authorities that this land was only the south-
ern coast of a big continent extending poleward. I did not believe
this; I believed that Franz -Josef Land was only a group of islands.
Now with our discoveries and those of the English Jackson- Harms-
worth expedition it is an established fact that Franz-Josef Land

1807.1 NANSEX — POLAR EXPEDITIOX, 1893-96. 447

is a group of very small islands. We came southward here (indi-
cating) and we saw there was no land of importance to the north.
The island we first met with was situated in 8i° 38'' north latitude.
We traveled along the north coast here (indicating), and now the
English expedition has this spring traveled along the northwest
coast of these islands here (indicating) and found that there was
nothing but a comparatively small island which approximates the
most western point of this map. Consequently we know pretty
nearly the whole extent of Franz- Josef Land. We want to know
its extent toward the east and it is hoped that some expedition not
far in the future will settle that.

While I have mentioned the geographical results of the expedi-
tion, I should mention the geological results also, but will not
detain you long with them. There is one important geological
discovery which we made, and that is the evidence we found of a
glacial epoch in Siberia. As you certainly know, the whole of
northern Europe and the northern parts of North America have
had at least one glacial age, during which they were covered with
an extensive ice cover as Greenland is at the present time. It was,
however, generally believed that Siberia and the whole of northern
Asia had had no glacial age, as there were no marks indicating an
ice-cover in those countries. During our voyage along the Siberian
coast I had an opportunity of visiting the coast at several places,
and everywhere I found signs that there had been at one time a
glacial covering, an ice mantle over the whole country. We found
the coast here pretty much cut up. It did not look as it appears on
this map, but looked more like the western coast of Alaska, and
more like the coast of Norway.

Outside of the coast there was a belt of islands which we find
on]y along the coasts of lands which have once been covered with
an ice cap. This is but an indication that something of the same kind
must also once have existed in Siberia. But I found more certain
proofs that such had been the case. In one place I saw the rock
scratched with glacial striae and marks, which is a certain evidence
that glaciers have once covered that country. In another place I
found ground moraines covered with big erratic blocks of vari-
ous forms, and there is, in my opinion, no explanation of these
blocks being there except that they have been carried by glaciers
similar to what we know have been in Europe and America.

I have already mentioned some of the evidences on which I

448 NANSEN — POLAR EXPEDITION, 1893-96. [Oct. 29,

founded my theory >bout the drift of ice across the polar region. I
have mentioned that the expedition was accomplished in the way it
was planned, and thus the theory was proved to be fairly correct. The
expedition has, however, given us a great deal of information which
enables us to form a much clearer and better idea of this drift of ice
across the polar region than we could have had before. We have had
plenty of experience, and have made many observations of how this
ice is constantly being drifted from one side of this polar region to
the other. What causes this drifting? The drift is for the most
part caused by the prevailing winds. The data collected have not
been calculated yet, but so far as I can now say the direction of the
prevailing winds was pretty nearly the same as the prevailing drifts.
Perhaps they do not, however, quite coincide, as I believe there are
some other factors which also help to decide the final drift of the
ice.

The prevailing winds in this region during the whole year go from
this Siberian side (indicating) toward the Atlantic sea, and con-
sequently sweep the whole expanse of ice cover out into the Atlantic
sea. That is the main feature of this drift. Of course there are
many variations, many periods of drift during the year. At
some periods the drift is more rapid. At other times the drift stops,
or even goes in the opposite direction. But as a rule the best
period for the drift to go in the direction we wanted was the
winter and spring, and the worst period, generally, was the late
summer and autumn.

I may mention here that the route you see on this map^ is very
much simplified. If we had it marked down as it really was it
would not be possible to understand it ; it would be so complicated
that you would not know one drift from another. During the first
autumn we had a drift backward, and were drifted southeast into
the shallow sea and toward the New Siberian Islands again. Then
the winter came and we were pushed forward until the middle of
June, and then came another bad period and we were pushed back-
ward. Then it began to drift onward again until the next year ;
then there was a stop again during the summer. Then there was a
more favorable drift during the winter again until the Fram worked
her way out of the ice to the north of Spitzbergen.

You will understand that we are now able to form pretty nearly
a complete picture of the motion of this ice in the polar sea. You

^ An enlarged drawing of a map given in " Farthest North."

1897.] KANSEN — POLAR EXPEDITION, 1893-96. 449

see how it is carried across the polar regions from the Siberian side
toward the opening between Spitzbergen and Greenland, and also
toward the channel between the islands in the North American
archipelago. As, however, there is no such gap between these
islands as between Spitzbergen and Greenland, the ice there
seems to be very much blocked, and is stopped for years and gets
very much thicker than on the East Greenland and Spitzbergen
side. By snow being heaped upon it year after year it forms striae
similar to what we find in glacial ice; it is what has been called
the paleocrystic ice by the English and American explorers.

You understand that our expedition has removed that extended
massive and immovable ice-cap, or mantle, which so many explorers
thought covered the polar region. Instead we have found a deep
sea covered with a comparatively thin layer of ice in constant mo-
tion from one side to the other, being one link of the eternal circu-
lation of the ocean.

We had a very good opportunity to study the formation of this
ice. I shall mention here only the growth of it by the frost. A
good many people, I dare say, believe that the ice in the north
goes on growing forever, and that it gets thicker and thicker every
year it remains there. That is, to some extent, the case ; but it is
not quite so simple, and the growth is not so quick as one would
generally imagine. In the beginning, as long as the ice is thin, it
grows very rapidly. It was measured at certain intervals during
the whole expedition. Ice formed in November of the first year,
1893, had in April, 1894, attained a thickness of seven and a half
feet. On June 9, it was eight feet three inches thick. That is
about the growth of one year. In some parts it was nine feet
thick. In the last month of summer and in the autumn it melted
a little. At the beginning of the winter, in September, the same
floe was about six and a half feet thick. Then the growth began
again very slowly, and in May of the next summer, 1895, ^^"'^ same
ice had become nine feet ten inches thick. You see it does not
increase very much after the first year. The next year another floe
was measured. At the beginning of the winter, in November, it
was eleven feet thick. At the end of that winter, in May, 1896, it
had reached a thickness of thirteen feet six inches. This ice was
about three or four years old. The most of the ice that drifts
across that region will not grow much thicker directly by freezing,
as it is carried across the polar sea, at most, in five years.

450 NANSEN — POLAR EXPEDITION, 1893-96. [Oct. 29,

By the pressures the ice is, however, piled up to very much
greater thicknesses, and ridges and hummocks are formed, the
height of which may amount to twenty feet or even more above
the water. The highest hummock I ever measured was twenty-
three feet high, so far as I remember. I saw a few which 1 esti-
mated to be about thirty feet high. These hummocks will freeze
solid and will last for years. I might mention one which was
formed near the Fram in January of our first year, which followed
the Fram during the whole time of the drift. This hummock has
probably drifted on southward along the East Greenland coast.
The ice floes are crushed easily, but these hummocks require much
more force to crush them. They will stay together and be the last
remnants of the ice to be carried around Cape Farewell and the
west coast of Greenland.

The cause of these ice pressures has already been referred to in
the accounts of previous expeditions. It is a fact, which has often
been observed by various explorers, that the pressures are to some
extent caused by the tidal currents. Our observations showed that
at the margins, near the outer edge of the polar ice-pack, where
there is an open sea to the south, the ice pressure is almost solely
caused by the tidal currents. The pressures were there often so
regular in their occurrence that we could say beforehand when the
ice pressures would occur. We knew that they would come with
the spring tide, the heaviest ones a little after new moon, and
another period with less heavier pressures about full moon. The
pressures would at these periods generally occur twice in twenty-
four hours. Then the ship would often be lifted a good many
feet out of the water, while in the intervals the openings in the ice
would widen out and the ship would be floating in a broad, open
channel.

In the interior of the polar ice these tidal currents do not seem
to have much influence on the pressures. I could not discover any
regularity in them there. The pressures seemed to be caused
mostly by the changing winds. It is evident that when the wind
suddenly changes, especially to the opposite direction to that from
which it has been blowing for some time, immense pressures must
arise. The great body of ice is moving on, while in front the ice is
moving against it. We had a very severe nip on such an oc-
casion about New Year's day, 1895. I dare say it was the heavi-
est ice pressure any ship has ever been exposed to, and that was

1897.] XAXSEX POLAR EXPEDITION, 1893-96. 4:61

in the middle of winter when the ship was frozen fast in her ice
berth.

These ice pressures which form the hummocks that I have spoken
of, and which make the ice so much thicker in some places than
in others, give room for cracks and open water lanes in which new
ice is formed. Thus one must not think of the polar sea as being
covered with one even layer of ice. We find floes of all thicknesses
from this newly formed ice on the lanes up to the big hummocks
which are very deep.

There is one important feature in our discoveries about which I
shall say a few words, and that is the temperature of the sea. As
is well known, the temperature of the deep sea all over the world is
very low. It is not many degrees above the freezing point. In
the northern part of the Atlantic ocean the bottom, and in fact the
whole sea on the Greenland side, is filled with water two or three
degrees below the freezing point. The temperature is about 29.4°
Fahrenheit through nearly the entire depth from the surface down
to the bottom. Of course as far as the Gulf stream runs north the
surface is very much warmer. As the polar sea sends southward
such a cold current, filling the whole depth of the North Atlantic,
you would naturally expect the whole polar sea to be filled with
such cold water. But such is not the case. We found that from
100 fathoms under the surface of the polar sea down to the bottom
the water is warmer than we find it in the depth of the North
Atlantic ocean. I will give you a few of the observed tempera-
tures. The surface of the polar sea is covered with a layer of water
of comparatively low salinity, and is very cold. But when you
penetrate down through this layer you find that the temperature
begins to rise. At the surface you find the temperature — 1.5° Cen-
tigrade, which means 29.3° Fahrenheit. But at a depth of no
fathoms you suddenly come on warm water, the temperature of
which would be as much as 32.9° or even 33.4° Fahrenheit,
which you see is very much warmer than you would expect or than
you find in the deep sea in the North Atlantic ocean.

At a greater depth the temperature varied somewhat, but remained
about the same to a depth of 220 to 270 fathoms, after which it
sank slowly toward the depths, though without sinking to the cold
temperature of surface water. Near the bottom it again rose quite
slowly. These conditions were fairly uniform in that part of the
sea over which we traveled and where investigations were made.

452 NANSEN — POLAR EXPEDITION, 1893-96. [Oct. 29,

It may seem rather striking that the sea should be so warm in the
depths and so cold on the surface. The reason is natural. I may
say first that the cold surface layer of water was fresher than the
lower warm layers. The deeper water had a high salinity very
much like the Atlantic water. That is the reason why this warm
water is heavier than the cold water and keeps below. All this
salt and comparatively warm water runs into the polar sea from the
Atlantic ocean, filling the whole depth of the polar basin, while its
surface water to some extent is mixed up with the fresh water run-
ning in from the American and Siberian rivers.

The Atlantic water is slowly cooled down and is gradually, to
some extent, mixed with the fresher water of the surface and is then
again carried out into the Atlantic ocean as water with less salinity
than the Atlantic water and much colder; and on that account is
heavier and sinks and fills the bottom of the sea. What is the
result of these conditions? The result is that the fresh water
floating on the top of the salt warm water protects the ice to some
extent from the influence of the heat which is carried into the polar
sea by the Atlantic water. It allows that ice to grow slowly year
after year. If this fresh water had not existed the Atlantic water
would come to the surface in the polar sea, and this covering of ice
would consequently be very much thinner.

If we look backward through the ages and ask what the result
would have been if the geographical distribution of the land and
water were a little different from what it is to-day, what result would
we expect? What would the result be if we were to shut up the
whole polar basin, not allowing this warm water to flow into it and
not allowing the ice and the cold water to float out of this polar sea?
If we had a bridge of land passing from Greenland to Iceland and
across to the Faroe and Shetland Islands, uniting Scotland and
England with Greenland, and consequently closing up the whole
entrance to the polar sea, what would be the result ?

The result would be that no warm water would be carried from
the south to the polar region ; the ice would be allowed to block
up there year after year and would not be allowed to drift across
and out, and by and by the whole polar sea would necessarily be
covered with a very much thicker layer of ice and snow than at
present. This layer would at last have no more motion and the
thickness of the ice would allow the temperature to fall during the
winter on account of the radiation of heat from the surface. This

1897.] NANSEN — POLAR EXPEDITION, 1893-96. 453

would produce a cooling down of the polar region to a much
greater extent than exists to-day.

Consequently we would have in the north a colder climate, and
we would at the same time have a warmer climate in the south, be-
cause the ocean would not be cooled down by the northern ice, and
it would be prevented from giving off a good deal of its heat to the
polar region. That might to some extent explain a colder climate
in the north and a warmer climate in the south, but I do not think
it would be sufficient to explain the glacial periods. It gives us,
however, some idea, or some factor that would explain the changes
of climate on the surface of the globe.

You might ask what would be the result if we could open out the
entrance to the polar sea and let more warm water flow into it. If,
for instance, the Bering's Strait could be made much wider and
deeper than at present, so that the warm Japanese current, the
Kurosiwo, could run into the polar sea, its temperature would then,
of course, be very much higher than at present. It would still be
covered by a layer of fresher water from the rivers flowing out of
Siberia and America, but the thickness of the ice would be less than
at present. If we, however, could let the rivers of Siberia flow in
some other direction, not going into the polar sea, but somewhere
else, so that the polar sea would not be covered by such a layer of
fresh and cold water, what would be the result ? The warmer water
would then come up to the surface, the ice would necessarily be
thinner, we would get much more open sea in the north, and to
some extent the climate would be milder. At the same time much
more cold water would run out of the polar sea into the Pacific and
Atlantic oceans, and would cool down the temperatures in those
latitudes.

I do not think this explanation is sufficient to account for the
much warmer climate in the north when we, for example, had a sub-
tropical climate in Greenland and Spitzbergen. At the same time
it may give you some idea of what such changes in the distribution
of the land and water would result in.

I will not go further into these very difficult questions. I just
mention this to show you what glimpses polar exploration might
give us into the conditions existing during other ages of the earth.
This is only one side of the many results which polar explorers have
brought back from the polar regions. They have to a great extent
enlarged the knowledge of humanity. They have made it possible

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI. 156. 2 E. PRINTED JAN. 31, 1898,

454 MELVILLE — REMARKS ON POLAR EXPEDITION. [Oct. 29,

for US to form ideas of the past history of the globe which we would
not have been able to form had not man gone out to explore these
regions.

1 hope to see new expeditions start soon again for these regions,
and I trust that especially this great nation will take an important
part in them. We know from what you have accomplished in the
past that you will be able to achieve great results to the benefit of
the nation and to the benefit of humanity.

Commodore George W. Melville :

It is with a great deal of diffidence that I arise to speak at all in
discussion of so clever a discourse as that of Dr. Nansen, much less
to criticise it, for my experience in three different Arctic voyages, in
different Arctic seas, has taught me that only those who are in the
same field at about the same period can have the requisite informa-
tion to undertake a critical discussion. Moreover, Dr. Nansen's
experience with respect to ice conditions, its formation, drift and
other phenomena, so fully agrees with my own in the Jeannette,
that there is no room for argument.

However, my sojourn of twenty-two months in a drifting pack of
no mean proportions, extending from the Pole south to 70°, em-
boldens me to speak of some experiences, second only to those of
Dr. Nansen and of Weyprecht and Payer of the Tegethoff expedi-
tion of 1 871 to 1874.

The Jeannette, Capt. De Long, U. S. N., was boldly pushed into
the ice in latitude 71° 35' N., 175° W., as we then believed the theory
of Dr. Petermann, the celebrated German geographer, that Wrangel
Island m.ight be of continental proportions, extending to the north-
ward and eastward toward the Pole, and possibly extending so far
to the eastward as to overlap the northern part of Greenland. It
was thought to be what some explorers had supposed to be land
seen to the northward of the Spitzbergen, and extending as far to
the eastward as the archipelago formed by the Spitzbergen on
the west and Franz-Josef Land on the east.

It took us but a few days to prove that Wrangel Land was only
an insignificant island, as we drifted across its northern face, at
times in as little as thirteen fathoms of water; and at times as close
as fifteen or twenty miles to its northern shores.

It is needless to state that drifting in a heaving pack in so shallow

1897.] MELVILLE — REMARKS ON POLAR EXPEDITION. 455

a sea was most hazardous, the underrunning and overrunning of the
floes causing them to telescope and rise to heights at times approach-
ing loo feet.

After our ship was solidly frozen in, she was never again released
until she was finally crushed on June 12, 1881, after we had drifted
twenty-two months in a zigzag course, many times lapping and
crossing and recrossing our track. The resultant of our drift was
north, 45° west true, distance 1300 miles, when our floe broke up,
and the ship was crushed, in latitude 77° 15' N., 155° E., leaving us
500 miles in a bee line from the nearest point of succor, the mouth
of the Lena river, Siberia. We were left on the ice, thirty-three
officers and men, with seven on the sick list, and with the disheart-
ening prospect of hauling- our baggage an indefinite distance to
clear water. It consisted of eight pieces, giving each man fit for
duty a load of 290 pounds to haul.

Just here, let me call attention to the very important fact that the
Jeannette expedition is the first on record where such a long im-
prisonment in the Arctic pack was not accompanied by scurvy.
The Lady Franklin Bay expedition, under ihe command of Lieut.
(now General) A. W. Greeley, U. S. A., was the second up to the
date of our wreck which had escaped the dread scourge. Our good
fortune, so different from the experience of previous expeditions,
can be clearly traced to good food, distilled water, good sanitary
conditions, a light, though healthy diet, and abundant outdoor ex-
ercise, not of a laborious or wearying nature, every day in the year.

You will, I am sure, pardon me for introducing a few facts of the
drift of the Jeannette, as leading up to the drift of the Fram, for
Dr. Nansen put his ship into the ice to commence his drift about
where the Jeannette let go, though a little farther to the westward.
In other words, the Fram finished the drift that was commenced and
prosecuted by the Jeannette involuntarily, for our intent was to go to
the northward and eastward. But, after being beset in the pack, and
drifting across the north face of Wrangel Land, we were pretty sure
that there was no possible retracing of our course, unless, by a swirl
or turn of the floe, we might be cast out on the coast of Siberia, as
the whaleship Mount Wollaston and others had been, which were
visited by the native Tschuckchees and found abandoned.

As the cartographer of our expedition, I was directed to make a
circumpolar chart showing every known current that had been laid
down by Arctic explorers, from the time of Barents and Wil-

456 MELVILLE — REMARKS ON POLAR EXPEDITION. [Oct. 29,

loughby to date. We were fortunate in having a very extensive
Arctic library on board, and, as tlie discussion of Arctic literature
and the formulation of theories and conjectures were among our
pleasantest ways of passing time, you can well imagine that, with
eight intelligent readers in our cabin mess, it was not long before I
had a chart with hundreds of arrows denoting currents as laid down
by voyagers for more than 300 years. It was remarkable how
plainly they pointed to the fact that, if our ship should hold
together and our provisions last, we should drift out either by way
of Franz-Josef Land aiid Nova Zembla, or, taking the northern
cant across the north face of Franz- Josef Land, between the Spitz -
bergen and east coast of Greenland. That was as well understood
and believed by the officers of our ship as it is to-day proved by
Dr. Nansen.

In addition to what we learned from our drift chart, we also knew
that drift wood covered the east side of the Spitzbergen, Franz-
Joseph Land, and even the northeast coast of Nova Zembla, where
grand old Barents wintered, and it was certain that this was brought
by the great Siberian rivers discharging into the Arctic ocean.
These facts had all been established before our time, but none of us
then supposed for a moment, nor do I now believe, that this debris
would drift across the North Pole. In fact, I have not believed
hitherto that it ever drifted beyond 85°, but Dr. Nansen and the
drift of the Fram have demonstrated that it has drifted north of
S6°. So I must concede that latitude, at least, as possible for drift
wood to reach.

There were, however, two great '' ifs " in the way of our accom-
plishing this long drift : Could our ship hold together ; would our
provisions hold out ? We had pumped our ship night and day for
twenty-two months, at first by hand and steam power, afterward by
a wind-mill that was extemporized on board ship, supplemented by
hand power, or steam, as the emergency arose. The merry *'chug"
of the pump night and day^ for twenty- two months, never ceased.
Our game in the far north had become scarce, and we had not
added much to our larder beyond a few seals, walrus and bears we
had taken in the early part of our drift, in the spring of 1880.

After many consultations about the situation b}* the officers of the
ship, and a close account of the provision list, it became manifest
that our provisions would be exhausted before January, 1882. So,
the question was whether we should abandon our ship in the spring

1897.] MELVILLE — REMARKS ON" POLAR EXPEDITION. 457

of 1 88 1, or the fall of the same year. As seamen, loyal to our ship
and duty, we decided to remain by the ship as long as possible,
though sober judgment taught us that the proper time to abandon
the ship was in the spring, which' would give us mild weather and
summer game to assist us on our retreat. At that time, we were
nearly due north of the New Siberian Islands, which seemed like
stepping stones toward the Lena river and the coast of Siberia.

The problem was solved for us by the breaking up of the floe,
which, in time, crushed our ship ; and, amidst the crashing and
grinding of the poor old ribs of our good ship, we were cast out,
Caesar-like, from the bowels of our good mother Jeannette, who had
sheltered us and kept us warm all these months.

At this very time we were making our most rapid drift to the
northward and westward, and it was impressed upon us in a most
startling and disheartening way. The Jeannette was crushed and
sank in latitude 77° 15' N., longitude 155° E.; after marching
southward twenty-one days, we found ourselves in latitude 77° 36'
N., longitude 153° E., or actually twenty-eight miles 7iorthwest of
where we had started and at the most northerly point of our voy-
age. This rapid drift is the key to the situation pointed out to our
good friend. Dr. Nansen, who had the sagacity to seize the idea
and to originate the theory that has led to his great success.

As I have said, our retreat lay directly south, about five hundred
miles in a straight line. At the start we had sixty days' provisions,
allowing one and a half pounds per man per day. Most of our
dogs had died during the first winter, and of the remainder we shot
all but eleven good ones, which, however, rendered very little ser-
vice, eating nearly as much as a man and doing about one-tenth as
much work, so that we finally shot them also.

.Thus we journeyed, dragging our boats and provisions on sledges
over the broken floe, and finally taking to the boats to cross the
open sea to the Siberian coast. It was the stormy fall season of
gales, ice and snow. Our small open boats were often in danger of
foundering, and in the fiercest of the gales Lieut. Chipp's boat was
swamped, drowning him and his seven men.

The other two boats, those of Captain De Long and myself, suc-
ceeded in reaching land, although one hundred and fifty miles apart,
thus ending our long retreat of one hundred and ten days. De Long
and all but two of his men perished of cold and starvation. My
•crew of eleven all told were more fortunate, all being saved,

45t5 MELVILLE — REMAKES ON POLAR EXPEDITION. [Oct. 29,

although one died of smallpox in Siberia on the way home. The
total loss was thus sixty-six per cent, of the personnel of the expe-
dition, and of the original survivors there are only six now alive.

Now, as regards our drift. It was quite evident that, for the first
eighteen months at least, our drift was caused by the fierce south-
easterly gales that drove the pack up into the northwest. We can
conceive the effect of the innumerable hummocks of ice, like mil-
lions of sails set to catch the breeze. After the subsidence of each
gale, we took a rapid setback drift to the southeast. In fact, in the
spring of 1880, after our first winter in the pack, we were driven
back in sight of Wrangel Land to about the place where we were
first beset, which accords with Dr. Nansen's experience.

Dr. Nansen found a deep sea to the northward and westward of
the line of our drift, which is the exact opposite of our experience
in the part of the ocean we traversed. Although soundings were
taken every day at noon, they never but once showed more than
from thirteen to thirty-six fathoms. Even this greatest depth was
only eighty fathoms, which occurred at the most northern point of
our drift during the winter of 1880.

I had a theory of an ice cap at the Pole (which, by the way,
our good friend, Dr. Nansen, has very materially shaken) extend-
ing down to about 85°, against which I believed the drifting pack
impinged. Between thissupposed ice cap and the drifting pack, in
the shallow sea in which we were drifting, I conceived a canal of
comparatively deep water, which my messmates in derision called
*' Melville's Canal." It is needless to say, however, that I was
pleased, as were also my messmates, to find that we were on the
edge of " Melville's Canal" when we got a cast of the lead in eighty
fathoms of water, and they conceded that my theory of a deep canal
might be correct, so that, in our theories at least, " Melville'-s
Canal" had a recognized standing.

Unfortunately, after the southeasterly gales had ceased to blow,
we were rapidly drifted back again by the receding ice, and never
again got far enough north to find the deep water where currents
alone can run. It is impossible for any geographer to conceive of
a natural sea current in a shallow sea of thirty fathoms. Local
currents, it is true, may be caused by wind or tide, if there is any ;
or by the outflow of great rivers, but a natural current of inlet and
outlet, caused by the heated or chilled waters, such as the mighty
Gulf Stream, or the Kuro Siwo of Japan, can only run and be

1897.] MELVILLE — REMARKS OX POLAR EXPEDITION. 459

maintained in water whose depth is measured in hundreds of
fathoms. Such seas we did not find. Hence, my theory of wind
currents in a shallow sea. Another fact of our drift is that our floe
was continually swinging around, not always in the same direction,
as our ship's head pointed to every point of the compass, though
frozen solidly into the moving pack, demonstrating the fact that the
great floe itself was in a '* swirl." Dr. Nansen was more fortunate
in early striking ''Melville's Canal," where the water was deep
enough to permit ocean currents to run.

Now, as regards the shallow sea over which the Jeannette
drifted: Is this shallow sea caused entirely by the silt of the great
northern rivers, or is it partly caused by the erosion of the land ?
The islands that extend all the way from the Lena Delta to " Ben-
nette," "Jeannette" and ''Henrietta," like so many stepping
stones from the mainland toward the Pole, were, in my belief, at no
very distant period, part of the mainland of Siberia. They are
daily being eroded by the drifting ice pack ; and, in time, nothing
but the bare rocks will remain of these islands.

During our short stay on these islands, while on our march to the
south, and while we were in the Lena Delta, the land was not mak-
ing, but the daily evidence of the constant washing away by sea
and ice floe, or melting snow, and occasional rain, showed that the
islands were being denuded and eroded away.

I saw, on the banks of the Lena Delta, immense trunks of trees,
with roots attached, that had apparently fallen in situ. Forty feet
above the bed of the river, these lands were gradually washing
away. These lands and the islands of the Arctic sea still show the
remains of the mammoth which, without doubt, was a native of
the mainland, and of the islands when they were part of the main-
land. We found remains— tusks and teeth of the mammoth— as
far north as Bennett Island, and, I doubt not, had time sufficed,
similar remains would have been found on the other islands visited
by the Jeannette.

I have thus digressed, gentlemen, from the main question of Dr.
Nansen's drift, in order to justify the theory of a shallow sea more
than 1500 miles in extent, east and west, though perhaps local in
its northerly extension.

And now that Dr. Nansen has made the most magnificent drift
on record, attained the highest latitude known to man, and made
the most fortunate and masterlv retreat, let us say, "Well done,

460 MELVILLE — REMARKS ON POLAR EXPEDITION. [Oct. '29,

Nansen!" and let us plan the next possible drift from the east
toward the west to make a high northern latitude, reaching, if pos-
sible, within marching distance of the Pole.

If Dr. Nansen is correct in his conjecture that we have deep
water and broken ice, with open "polynias" all the way to the
Pole, and, if my theory of a solid ice cap at the Pole (like an
inverted saucer) is wrong, let us theorize a little further, and seek
the best place to put a. ship in the pack for such a drift as is con-
templated. Let us see where our ship, if she holds together (which
is doubtful), or if not crushed (possibly being buried in the over-
lapping and underrunning floes), let us conjecture, I say, the best
place to put the ship in the pack for such a drift.

Dr. Nansen took several months to proceed from Norway, along
the coast of Siberia, toward the river Alaneck, before he pushed
north to take up the drift about where the Jeannette let go and
sank in thirty-four fathoms of water, thus losing valuable time after
leaving any source of supplies.

We must get north as rapidly as possible after leaving our last
depot of provisions, so that if Dr. Nansen's theory of the Arctic
ocean currents and of the ice conditions toward the Pole be cor-
rect, I believe that the proper place to put a ship in the ice will be
through Bering strait. We should keep along the east edge of the
pack in about longitude 165° W., attaining the highest possible lati-
tude, and westerly longitude, culminating together. Then we
should push the ship into the pack as far as possible to the north-
ward and westward, and await the fulfillment of the prophecy of
one of the jolly whalemen I met at San Francisco. He said :
*' Melville, push her into the ice at about the point I have men-
tioned, and you will either go to the Pole or to hell, and I believe
the chances are about even." I can't agree with my whale-fisher
friend about the hell part of the business, for true philosophers
have a right to disagree about that. I do believe, however, from
the information we have gained from the drift of the Jeannette and
of the Fram, that vessels of any kind, such as casks or driftwood,
will come out by way of the Spitzbergen — though not necessarily
across the Pole. The only reason for sending in ships and men is
that there may be observers to make a daily record of events, and
of phenomena, such as latitude, longitude, soundings, daily drift,
dredging the ocean's bottom if possible ; in fact, recording all the
phenomena proper on such an expedition. But for this, I say, a

1897.] HEILPRIN — REMARKS ON POLAR EXPEDITION. 461

hundred oaken casks, properly numbered, made after the manner
of a beer keg of twenty gallons capacity, properly hooped, and the
ends extended out to complete a parabolic spindle, would demon-
strate the drift. At the end of four or five years, we might begin
to look for the beer kegs between the Spitzbergen and Greenland.
And now, as regards the work of our honored guest this after-
noon:

His is the honor to have reached the ''Farthest North," the
Ultima Thule, that has defied the best blood and brains for three
centuries. He it was who conceived the grand thought of making
that most perilous drift, though he knew not how long it might
last, nor whether his good ship and ship's company would ever
drift out of the terrible unknown sea of ice and snow. His was
the honor — after waiting months and years for the slow drift, and
becoming impatient of the gods of ice and snow — to break away
from the good ship in order to add a few more miles to his northern
journey; and, taking his life in his hands, with but one solitary
human companion, to make the long and dreary march to Franz-
Josef Land. And to what purpose ? That we, the eager, driv-
ing, working world, might have that knowledge which is power,
wealth and happiness.

And let me ask my hearers this afternoon. What better school of
heroic endeavor for our lusty youth than the Arctic ocean ? There,
amidst the silence of the eternal ice and snow, man can commune
with the God of Nature in the hushed stillness that brings awe, but
not fear, to the soul of the intrepid explorer, and there he receives
the inspiration that spurs him onward in his search for the great
unknown !

This, gentlemen, is Dr. Nansen, the guest whom we delight to
honor, who among Arctic explorers is ''the noblest Roman of
them all.''

Prof. Angelo Heilprin :

Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : — I was asked to speak this
afternoon, and inasmuch as my resources in Arctic exploration are
extremely limited, it is doubtless expected of me to say something
on the scientific aspect of the subject, something of what remains to
be done and something that has been done.

The question of the existing and past relations of the land and

462 HEILPRIN — REMARKS ON POLAR EXPEDITION. [Oct. 29,

water areas in the far north is an exceedingly interesting one to the
geologist. I have given it a considerable amount of attention, but
have arrived at no absolute conclusion to which I should like to
commit myself at present. For some months past I have been
engaged in the preparation of a geological map of Arctica, more par-
ticularly with reference to the results obtained by recent explorations.
It is hardly necessary for me to state with what expectancy we are
looking forward to the publication of the minute geological details
which have been obtained by Dr. Nansen.

As geologists, we have gone sufficiently far to be able to state cer-
tain facts. Perhaps the most important of these is the very strong
likelihood that, where we find to-day the deep ocean discovered by
Dr. Nansen in place of the shallow sea that was thought to exist in
the far north, its place was at a period not so very remote covered
by land, and instead of a polar sea we had once a polar con-
tinent. Dr. Nansen has given to us very conclusive evidence as to
the condition of Siberia at the not very remote period when in the
general temperate regions of the north we had glaciers running
down different mountain slopes, extending to the lower valleys, cut-
ting out the fjords and valleys in the Scandinavian peninsula, like
those which we to-day find in Greenland. Since that time, not
more perhaps than fifty, seventy, or a hundred thousand years
ago, the condition of the country has entirely changed, and changed
to such an extent as to have deceived the geologists into the belief
that there never was a glacial period toucliing the Siberian frontier.
The discovery made by Dr. Nansen, and still earlier that of the Rus-
sian traveler and geologist, Baron Von Toll, who seemingly found a
fragment of the old glacial ice existing to-day, and in addition the
remains of animals, such as the tiger and rhinoceros, in the de-
posits of the New Siberian Islands, speak conclusively of great
changes of climate and of oceanic configuration.

One great pleasure I experienced on the comparatively small ven-
ture I made in the north was in searching in the deposits of
Atanekerdluk, Greenland, in approximately latitude 70° N., for the
remains of old foresters, the history of a forest of warm temperate
aspect, with trunks and leaves indicating a growth largely identical
with or similar to that found to-day in Japan, and in locali-
ties where the redwood grows in the United States, and where
we have poplars, elms, maples and oaks. The dimensions of the
trees measured perhaps a hundred feet or more in height ; to-day

1897.] HEILPRIN — REMARKS ON POLAR EXPEDITION. 463

the full height of vegetation of the same region is measured by six,
eight and ten inches.

The evidence appears conclusive to my mind that we had the
whole northern part of this tract of the world covered by a land-
mass uniting Greenland not only with Spitzbergen but also with
Franz- Josef Land and northern Siberia. Dr. Nansen, I believe,
gives the best evidence for assuming that Franz- Josef Land is
merely a fragment of what was once united with Spitzbergen ;
and if we had this connection it is practically certain that its rela-
tions were continental. What the result of such continental asso-
ciation may have been geologists have not yet been able to deter-
mine, but it will be one of the objects for explorers to make clear
to us in the future.

I think it was the Austrian geologist. Prof. Eduard Suess, who
first clearly pointed out the enormous changes that are taking place
on the face of the earth through downward breakages, and that
even the Atlantic ocean is but a depression of a comparatively re-
cent date fof course from a geological point of view). It may not
have been in existence more than 200,000 years, possibly for one or
two million years. In the Arctic regions we have evidence that
what is now water was once land, not very many thousands of
years ago. A second proposition brought out by Dr. Nansen in
reference to the relation that Bering Strait bears to the geology and
geography of the region of land to the north, points to its having
been opened in comparatively recent times, and that breakages are
taking place to-day we have the best of evidence. The eastern
remnants of the old Asiatic connection, which atone time extended
to the outlying islands, are monuments of this form of destruction.

This largely indicates the direction in w^hich to look for the solu-
tion of the problems that the results which Dr. Nansen has given to
us have raised. Scientific expeditions have been fitted out from
New York to explore that very Asiatic tract for further evidences
of these breakages. We know, too, that the foremost explorer of
this city — I refer to Lieut. Peary — is preparing for an expedition to
penetrate into the solitudes of the northernmost part of Greenland
and of the regions beyond ; and we have learned from recent re-
ports that Capt. Sverdrup is at the present moment preparing for
another exploration of the far north to supplement the brilliant
results of Nansen.

It is not my intention to detain you longer, and I will only

464 MINUTES. [Nov. 5,

express the hope that expeditions of this kind may continue to be
sent out until the entire northern tract is known to us in exactly
the way that much of it has been made known by Dr. Nansen.

Stated Meeting^ November 5, 1897.

Vice-President Pepper in the Chair.

Present, 28 members.

Mr. Theodoie N. Ely and Mr. Kicliard H. Sanders, newly
elected members, were presented to tlie Chair, and took their
seats in the Society.

Acknowledgments of election to membership were read
from Mr. George Wharton Pepper, Commodore Melville, Mr.
Gregory B. Keen, Mr. George Yanx, Jr., Hon. Wayne
MacYeagh, Mr. John C. Smock, Hon. Grover Cleveland, Prof.
William Libbey, Capt. Alfred T. Mahan, Prof. Woodrow
Wilson, Dr. George A. Piersol, Prof. Ligbtner Witmer, Prof.
James M. Baldwin, Mr. Kicbard H. Sanders, Mr. James S.
deBenneville, Prof. Henry M. Howe, Mr. James B. Leonard,
Prof. Edward H. Williams, Prof. H. Morse Stephens, Mr.
William Tatham, Mr. Clarence B. Moore, Mr. Charles P.
Hildeburn.

Donations to the Library and Cabinet were reported, and
thanks were ordered for them.

The decease of the following members was announced :

Prof. James Ellis Humphrey, of the Johns Hopkins
University, on August 17, 1897, at Jamaica, W. I.

Justin Winsor, LL.D., Librarian of Harvard College and
President of the American Library Association, at Cambridge,
on October 26, 1897, a3t. 86.

John Sartain, at Philadelphia, on October 25, 1897, £et. 89.

The Society resolved itself into the Committee of the
Whole, and proceeded to the consideration of the proposed
amendments to the Laws.

The Societv adjourned until Wednesday evening, Novem-
ber 10, at 8 o'clock.

1897.] MINUTES. 465

Adjourned Stated Meeting of November 5, 1897^
November 10^ 1897.

Yice-President Pepper in the Chair.

Present, 20 members.

The Society met pursuant to adjournment, and resolved
itself into the Committee of the Whole, with Mr. Garrett in
the Chair. The Committee resumed the consideration of the
proposed amendments to the Laws.

The Committee of the Whole rose and reported, and on
motion the meeting adjourned to Wednesday evening, Novem-
ber 17, at 8 o'clock. •

Adjourned Stated Meeting of November o, 1897,
November 17, 1897.

Mr. Garrett in the Chair.

Present, l-i members.

The Society resolved itself into the Committee of the
Whole, and resumed the consideration of the proposed
amendments to the Laws.

The Committee of the Whole rose and reported, and the
Society was adjourned by the presiding member.

Stated Meeting, November 19, 1897.

Mr. KiCHARD Wood in the Chair.

Present, 10 members.

Letters of acknowledgment of election to membership were,
read from Dr. E. E. Squibb, Sig. Kodolfo Lanciani and Mr.
Charles D. Walcott.

466 MATHEWS — ROCK CARVINGS AND PAINTINGS. [Nov. 19,

Donations to the Library were reported and thanks were
ordered for them.

The decease of the following members was announced :

Mr. William Woodnut Griscom, of Philadelphia, on Sep-
tember 24, 1897, get. 46.

Dr. Harrison Allen, at Philadelphia, on November 14,
1897, ^t. 56.

Mr. E. H. Mathews presented a paper on " Rock Carvings
and Paintins^s of the Australian Aboris^ines."

The Society resolved itself into the Committee of the
Whole, and continued the consideration of the proposed
amendments to the Laws.

The Committee rose and reported. The Society resumed its
session, Vice-President Pepper in the Chair.

The Finance Committee reported upon the legacy of Henry
Phillips, Jr., deceased.

The meeting was adjourned by the presiding officer.

ROCK CARVINGS AND PAINTINGS OF THE AUSTRA-
LIAN ABORIGINES.

(Plate X.)

BY R. H. MATHEWS, L.S.

{Read November 19, 1897.)
INTRODUCTORY.

The wide distribution throughout Australia of these native draw-
ings would lead us to expect that the figures of animals and various
objects carved upon large rocks — and the groups of hands, varying
in number and in relative position, as well as weapons and other
tribal devices painted on the walls of caves — had some symbolical
meaning in connection with the myths and superstitions of the
natives, or were commemorative of events and scenes in the history
and life of the tribes. Most of the figures of animals were probably
intended to represent the totems of the different families; but it
seems reasonable to suppose that some of the smaller drawings and

1897.] MATHEWS — ROCK CARVINGS AXD PAIXTIXGS. .1:67

nondescript devices are the result of idle caprice. The production
of some of the larger groups — both of carvings and paintings — has
been a work of immense labor, and it is unlikely that the natives
would have taken so much trouble for mere amusement.

Aboriginal drawings are almost everywhere of the same character,
with but little variation either in the subjects treated or in the style
of workmanship. They consist chiefly of stenciled and impressed
hands, outline drawings of human forms, animals and a few non-
descript devices. In many of the caves we find groups of lines
varying in length from about four inches to two feet. Sometimes
the series consists of two or three lines; in other cases there are as
many as about a dozen. They are generally drawn vertically or
only slightly inclined, but are occasionally met with in a nearly
horizontal position. The native artists had no idea of perspective,
and their figures are not copied from nature, but are apparently
drawn according to some conventional pattern which has probably
been handed down from a remote period. The stenciled drawings
cannot be called copying from nature, and may, therefore, be
included in the conventional type.

Owing to our limited acquaintance with the subject, it would
obviously be premature at present to advance any far-reaching
theoiy as to the signification of these drawings. What we should
endeavor to accomplish is the collection of all the facts now obtain-
able respecting these works of native art, by careful observation
and inquiry in all parts of Australia. This would, I feel convinced,
yield results of more than ordinary interest. The information thus
gathered should be systematically compared and classified, from
which it may be possible for us to arrive at some definite conclusion
in reference to the purpose of these drawings, and perhaps furnish
an important link in regard to the prehistoric colonization of this
continent. This work should be undertaken without delay, because
the farther we get away in point of time from the period of produc-
tion of these pictures, the more difficult will it obviously become
for us to obtain satisfactory explanations as to their meaning and
origin. There are many difficult points which require much closer
attention than they have yet received.

Writing under the date of February, 1788, Capt. Watkin Tench
mentions some carvings seen by him upon rocks in the vicinity of
Sydney;^ and in January, 1803, Capt. M. Flinders discovered some

^ A Narrative of the Expedition to Botany Bay (1789), p. 79.

468 MATHEWS — ROCK CARVINGS AND PAINTINGS. [Nov. 19,

rock paintings on Chasm Island, in the Gulf of Carpentaria/ These
are the earliest authentic records of the discovery of carvings and
paintings respectively in any part of the Australian continent, so
far as I am aware. Since that period rock paintings have been
found in several places in West Australia, South Australia, Victoria,
Queensland and New South Wales. The rock carvings have also
been observed in a few localities, long distances apart, in all the
colonies mentioned with the exception of Victoria. The fact of
these carvings not being reported in Victoria may probably be
attributed to their having escaped the notice of investigators rather
than to their non-existence.

Among the Darkinung tribe of aborigines, who occupied the
country from the Hunter river to the Hawkesbury, I had the good
fortune to meet a few natives who told me that when they were boys
they had seen both painting and carving on rocks done by their
countrymen, between 'the years 1843 ^^^^ 1855, and it is probable
that the practice was continued for some years later. From the
last-mentioned date to the present the blacks have disappeared very
rapidly by death, and the few survivors have lived chiefly amongst
their white supplanters, abandoning most of their former customs.

To those who may be desirous of taking part in investigations
respecting this subject a few practical directions relating to taking
the necessary notes and the subsequent preparation of the plates for
publication may be found of some assistance. The investigator
should provide himself with a suitable note-book, a pencil, a tape
measure of thirty-three or sixty-six feet in length and an ordinary
pocket compass.

On reaching a cave containing paintings a careful sketch of all the
figures in the relative order in which they appear upon its walls
should first be made. Then note down the dimensions of every
figure in this sketch, and at the same time fix by measurements their
relative position to each other. If the paintings consist of different
colors these should be carefully noted in the sketch. The dimen-
sions of the cave should be measured, and the direction
which it faces should be taken with the pocket compass ; the bear-
ing and approximate distance from some conspicuous or well-known
point should also be stated, as this information will greatly facilitate
its identification by others.

In making notes of carvings found on the surfaces of rocks a

^A Voyage to Terra Australis, Vol. ii, pp. 188-189.

1897.]

MATHEWS — ROCK CARVINGS AXD PAINTINGS. 469

similar course may be adopted, sketching and measuring each figure.
The width and depth of the grooves along the outlines should be
ascertained, and the direction which the rock slopes stated. In
any case of either paintings or carvings where the investigator has
not time or is unable for any other reason to copy the drawings, he
should describe them as fully as possible, and state their geographi-
cal position as nearly as he can, for the purpose of enabling others
to find thenVat any future time.

In reproducing cave paintings from the notes taken in the field
they should first be outlined in pencil in their relative positions
from the sketches and measurements given in the field book, and
afterwards drawn in the colors in which they appear on the rock.
The carvings will be reproduced in the same manner and then
drawn in with Indian ink. Plates for publication should be drawn
the size, or some multiple of the size, of a page of the journal in
which they are to appear. It is generally found more convenient,
especially if the objects are small or numerous, to draw the plate on
a larger scale than that required, because it can afterwards be
reduced by photography or otherwise to the proper size for
publication.

In describing the rock pictures of the Australian aborigines and
explaining how they were executed by the native artists, it will be
desirable to treat the subject under two divisions, one being headed
^'Carvings" and the other ''Paintings." In the former the outlines of
the figures were in some cases cut and in others ground into the
surface of the rock with sharp-pointed pieces of stone ; in the latter
the pictures were painted on the rock in the required colors; dif-
ferent methods being employed in doing the work.

Rock Carvings.

Rock carvings are found in districts abounding in large masses of
rock, chiefly of the Hawkesbury series, but sometimes granitic and
metamorphic rocks are used, where the softer sandstones are not
available. Occasionally the rock surface containing the carvings is
almost level with the surrounding land, and in other cases the
drawings have been executed on the tops or sides of rocky masses
several feet high. Some of the smallest of the rock surfaces on which
these delineations appear do not exceed ten feet square, but they
are generally much larger, and in a few places the table of rock,
intersected here and there by fissures, was scarcely less than two

PROG. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI. 156. 2 F. PRINTED FEB. 14, 1898.

470 MATHEWS — ROCK CARVINGS AND PAINTINGS. [Nov. 19,

acres in extent, the carvings being numerous and widely scattered
over it. These drawings are generally found on the tops of hori-
zontal rocks, but are sometimes met with on the smooth walls of
rocks occupying various slopes between the horizontal and the per-
pendicular position.

Denuded rocks are more general on the tops and sides of hills
than elsewhere, owing to the soil and disintegrated matter being
carried away by the weather to lower levels, hence w$ find these
carvings more numerous in such situations than in the valleys, where
masses of rock are less plentiful. It is obvious, however, that the
natives, with their primitive tools, would be guided more by the suita-
bility of the rock for their purpose than by its location ; but where cir-
cumstances permitted, preference seems to have been given to rocks
occupying prominent positions or which were situated in mountain
passes along which the natives traveled from one part of their
hunting grounds to another. Fine-grained sandstones of a durable
character, with tolerably smooth surfaces and in dry situations,
appear to have been chosen.

In nearly all carved figures, owing to age or weathering, the
grooves along their outlines have assumed the same color as the
original undisturbed surface of the rock. Some of them can be seen
without difficulty, but numbers of them are so much defaced by long
exposure to the weather that it requires some practice to be able to
distinguish them, and they would be passed by unobserved by any
person unaccustomed to them. They are more easily seen on sunny
than on cloudy days on account of the light falling on all parts of the
figure when viewed from different standpoints. The best time to
observe those which are very faint is either on a dewy morning
shortly after sunrise, or any time after a shower of rain ; the dew
or the rain, as the case may be, collects in greater quantities in the
grooves than elsewhere and indicates their position.

Some of the carvings are so indistinct that it is necessary to make
a chalk mark along the grooves before a complete idea of the out-
line of the figure can be obtained. Most of them exhibit tolerably
strong likenesses of the objects they are intended to represent, but
some grotesque drawings occasionally met with were probably
intended for legendary monsters, or creatures of the native artist's
imagination.^

1 For examples of these mythologic and strange drawings, see my papers in the
following publications : Froc. Roy. Soc. Victoria, vii, N. S., PI. ix, Fig. lo ;
Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. Ausi., Qld, Brch,, x, PI. ii, Fig. 15; Am. Anthrop.,
Wash., viii, PI. ii, Fig. 30; Journ. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xxv, PI. xvi, Fig. 6.

1897.} MATHEWS — ROCK CARVINGS AND PAINTINGS. 471

In the production of rock carvings three methods were employed
by the native artists, i. That most generally adopted was to cut the
outline of the required figure on the rock. It is probable that the
object to be delineated was first designed by making a mark with a
piece of colored stone or hard pebble along the lines to be cut out.
A number of holes were then made close together along this outline,
and these were afterwards connected by cutting out the intervening
spaces, making a continuous groove of the required width and
depth. From the appearance of the punctured indentations made
along the lines thus out out, I am led to assume that the natives had
a hard stone or pebble chipped or ground to a point and used as a
chisel. Such a chisel could have been used either by holding it in
the hand or otherwise and hitting it with another stone, or by
fastening a handle to it and chopping with it in the same way that
a tomahawk is used. As soon as the outline was chiseled out to
the required depth, it is not unlikely that a stone tomahawk, in addi-
tion to the chisel, was used in completing the work, because the
sides of the grooves were cut more evenly than would have been
possible with such an instrument as that with which the holes were
punctured. From the smoothness of the edges of the grooves in a
few of the best executed figures I am inclined to think it probable
that after the chiseling and chopping out was finished the edges
were ground down by rubbing a stone along them, to give them an
even and regular appearance.

2. In other instances the whole surface of the rock within
the outline of the figure was cut away to the same depth as
the exterior groove, as in the cases mentioned by Capt. Wickham
in his description of the carvings on Depuch Island, on the coast of
West Australia, published in \X\q Joiu^nal of the Royal Geographical
Society, London, Vol. xii, pp. 79-83.

3. Another method was to trace on the rock all the lines of the
object to be drawn, and then to form a groove by repeated rubbing
with a hard stone or pebble along the outlines which had been so
designed until the entire figure was completed. Carvings executed
upon rocks in this way have been observed in West Australia and
in some of the other Australian colonies.

In a previous communication to this Society^ I furnished a plate
containing sixty-one figures of men, women and children, kangaroos,
emus, fish, wombats, snakes, native weapons, etc., together with

iPROC, Amer. Philos, Soc, Vol. xxxvi, pp. 195, PI. iv, Figs. 1-61.

472 MATHEWS — ROCK CARVINGS AND PAINTINGS. [Nov. 19,

some land and marine monsters the types of which do not exist in
nature, so that it will not be necessary on this occasion to add any
farther examples of aboriginal carvings. The present article,
taken in conjunction with my former paper, will be found to place
the subject of Australian rock pictures in a tolerably complete form
before scientific men who may be engaged upon similar investiga-
tions in America.

Rock Paintings.

Cave paintings are necessarily restricted to those parts of Aus-
tralia in which suitable rocks for the purpose are obtainable. They
are sometimes met with in weather-worn cavities at the bases of
separate boulders, but much more generally in rocky escarpments,
of more or less continuity, on the sides of hills or watercourses.
These cavities or shelters owe their origin to the natural wasting
away of a softer stratum of the rock, leaving a harder layer over-
hanging, which forms the roof of the cave. In most cases they get
narrower and lower as they go back into the rock ; but some are
small at the entrance and become higher and larger as they recede,
having a somewhat dome -shaped interior. Some of them are of
great extent, being more than one hundred feet in length, upwards
of twenty feet high and extending back into the rock about twenty-
five feet ; while some are merely shallow crescent-shaped hollows
of small dimensions weathered out of the face ot a boulder or
escarpment.

Many of the larger shelters have been used by the natives as
camping places for considerable periods. This is evident from the
smoke stains on the roofs and also from the remains of ashes and
cinders on the floors. In digging into some of these floors, frag-
ments of the bones of animals, broken implements such as toma-
hawks, knives^ and other articles used by the natives are found
covered over with ashes and other debi'is, in some instances to the
depth of one or two feet. These shelters are mostly found in the
proximity of streams of a more or less permanent character, from
which water was probably obtained for camp use during the occu-
pancy of the cave. Very small shelters would obviously be unsuit-
able for residential purposes.

1 See my paper on <' Stone Implements Used by the Aborigines of N. S,
Wales," Journ. Roy. Soc. iV. S. Wales, xxviii, p. 304, PI. xliii. Fig. 2.

1897.1 MATHEWS — ROCK CARVINGS AND PAINTINGS. 478

Most of the paintings are executed on the cave walls, but they
are not infrequently drawn on the roofs, and are sometimes found
in both these positions in the same cave. They are generally
within the reach of an individual standing on the ground, but in a
few instances I have found them at heights varying from eight,
twelve and eighteen feet above the floor. In such cases it is likely
that the natives stood on ledges of rock which have since weathered
away, or on a staging erected for the purpose.

These paintings are nearly always drawn on the natural surface of
the rock, but in some cases I have found that the cave wall had
previously been painted a different color to that employed in the
figures executed upon it. In one case the wall had first been colored
red and on this background the figures had been drawn in white. ^
A similar instance of white painting on a ground of red ochre rubbed
on the cave wall is mentioned by Capt. P. P. King^ as having been
observed by him in 1821 at Clack's Island, Prince Charlotte's Bay,
Queensland. Capt. Grey states that the rock around one of the
figures seen by him in West Australia in 1838 was painted black in
order to produce the greater effect.^ In some of the caves visited
by me I found that the walls had been blackened before the paint-
ings were made upon them.^

Owing to the weathering ot the cave walls, in some instances the
paintings are barely discernible ; and in such cases I have found
that one can see them better by standing several yards off than
when very close to them. It is well to observe them from more
than one standpoint, so that'they may be seen with the light falling
upon them in different directions, for the purpose of bringing into
view faint lines which might otherwise escape notice.

Throughout my observations respecting this subject I have found
that the natives in selecting rock shelters in which to produce their
paintings always chose those whose walls consisted of smooth sur-
faces on which the objects could be delineated and at the same time
sufficiently hard to be durable. Caves consisting of soft, friable
sandstone, or which were situated in damp localities, or were
exposed to storms, were rejected as unsuitable. I have also found
that far the greater number of these shelters have a northerly aspect,

1 Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. Aust., Q. Branch, x, p. 65, PL ii, Fig. 8.

2 Survey Intertropical Coasts of Australia, ii, pp. 26, 27.

3 Two Expeds. N. IV. and IV. Australia, i, p. 202, Fig. I.
^Jour. Anthrop. /w^A.xxv, pp. 157, 158, Pi. xiv, Fig. 2.

474 MATHEWS — ROCK CARVINGS AND PAINTINGS. [Nov. 19,

thus receiving more or less of the sun's rays on every sunshiny day.
In the large number of these rock shelters inspected by me those
which were the most exposed to the sun's rays were the best pre-
served ; and it would appear from the fact that most of them face
the direction of the sun that this was known to the aborigines.

Aboriginal rock paintings have been executed in three different
ways, viz., stenciled, impressed and outlined, i. In the stencil
method the extended hand was placed firmly on the smooth surface
of the rock and the required color blown or squirted over it out of
the mouth. Sometimes the rock was first wetted and the color
blown in a dry state around the object ; in other instances the color
was wetted and was then squirted out of the mouth. Drawings
done in the last-mentioned way can be easily distinguished from
those stenciled with dry powder. This method of drawing was
also frequently used in representing native weapons such as toma-
hawks, boomerangs, waddies, etc. Small animals such as fish,
human feet and the feet of animals are also sometimes shown in this
way. The color in some of the larger figures appears to have been
applied in a wet state with a tool similar to a brush or mop.

In many of the stenciled pictures of the hand it is probable that
the latter was held in position on the rock and the color applied by
the same individual ; but in representations of feet and native
weapons, some of the latter being three or four feet in length, it
would be necessary for two or more persons to participate in the
work. A modification of this method was to previously color the
surface of the rock and afterwards to stencil the hand or other object
upon it in a different color. This mode of drawing was very effec-
tive, especially when the ground was red and the stenciling was
done in white. ^

Stenciled drawings of the shut hand are occasionally met with.
In these cases the hand with the fingers shut, but the thumb
extended was placed against the rock and stenciled in the usual
way.

2. In the impression method the palm of the hand of the artist
was either rubbed over with a liquid color or was dipped into it,
and while wet was firmly pressed against a smooth surface ^ on the
cave wall. Upon removing the hand, the colored impression of it
was left clearly defined upon the rock.

1 For an example the reader is referred to the cave described by me in the
Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. AttsL, Q. Branch, x, pp. 46-70, PI. ii, Fig. 8.

1897.] MATHEWS — ROCK CARVINGS AND PAINTINGS. 475

A variation of this method of drawing was to impress the hand in
the manner described and before removing it from the rock to
squirt a different color around its margin. This may be more cor-
rectly called a combination of the impression and stencil methods.

In the 'districts visited by me in collecting information on this
subject I have found impressed hands^ in comparatively few caves,
the stencil method being that generally adopted. It may be that
impressed hands had some particular meaning. In both these
methods of drawing it was always the palm and never the back of
the hand which was used.

3. Objects which could not be either stenciled or impressed,
such as men, animals and a number of nondescript figures and
devices appearing on the walls of these rock shelters, have been
drawn in outline in the color selected for the purpose. In some
cases the objects are shown in outline only ; in other instances the
space within the outline is painted with a solid wash of the same
tint ; whilst not infrequently this space is shaded by means of lines
drawn either all in the same color or in two or more different tints.

It is not very clear what the nature of the coloring matter was in
all instances, but it undoubtedly possessed the durability of an ordi-
nary pigment. In the drawings which appear in red there is no
doubt that most of them are done with red oxide of iron, found as
a clay and known as red ochre. The white color would probably
be pipe clay or fine white ashes from the camp fire. The few
drawings done in yellow are produced by an oxide of iron found as
a clay in the same districts where the pipe clay and red ochre
occur. The black color appears to have been done with charcoal
or soot.

In cases where it was necessary to use any of these colors in a
liquid form they were first reduced to a powder and were then
mixed with water or with oil obtained from some animal. When
applied in a dry state a piece of the required color, as a lump of red
ochre, or pipe clay, or charcoal, was held in the hand of the opera-
tor and the necessary lines drawn with it upon the rock, the sur-
face of which was probably first moistened with animal fat or water

^The earliest reference I can find to the " impression method " is that by Sir
George Grey. He states that in a cave in the district of York, West Australia,
there is " the impression of a hand which had been rubbed over with red paint
.... and then pressed on the wall " (^Two Expeds. N. W. and IV. Aus-
tralia (1841), Vol. i, pp. 260, 261).

476 MATHEWS — ROCK CARVINGS AND PAINTINGS. [Nov. 19-,

along the outline of the figure to be drawn, which would have the
effect of assisting the color to penetrate it.

Whether the color was applied as a liquid or a solid, water or grease
appears to have been employed to work it into the surface of the
stone and give it greater permanency. This is easily demonstrated
by rubbing the figures with a wet cloth, which has no effect upon
them; but if the same test be applied to the initials of white visitors
written with chalk or charcoal in some of the shelters they rub off
at once.

Vegetable colors were also known to the aborigines. Mr. E.
Stephens says^ that the natives of the lower Murray river and Ade-
laide plains painted red bands on their shields by means of the
juice of a small tuber which grew in abundance in the bush. Sir
George Grey stated^ that he imagines that the blue color used in
paintings seen by him on the Glenelg river in West Australia was
obtained from the seed vessels of a plant very common there, which
on being broken yielded a few drops of a brilliant blue liquid. I
have myself stated^ that the apple tree and also the grass tree of
Australia yield a red gum or resin, which has the property of stain-
ing anything a red color. "*

Explanation of Plate X.

All the figures represented on this plate are drawn to scale from
careful sketches and measurements taken by myself, and the posi-
tion of each cave on the public maps is accurately described by
reference to the nearest purchased land in the vicinity. All the
caves are in New South Wales.

Cave I consists of a weather-worn cavity in a large boulder of
Hawkesbury sandstone within Portion No. 6, of fifty and three-
quarters acres, in the parish of Bulga, county of Hunter. The
interior is forty-two feet long, seventeen feet from the front to the
back wall and eight and a half feet high. It faces S. 70° E., and
has apparently been used as a camping place by the aborigines.

^Jour. Roy. Soc. N. S. JVales, xxiii, p. 487.

2 Two Expeds. in N. IV. and IV. Australia^ i, pp. 262, 263.

^ Iroc Roy, Soc. Victoria, y'li, N. S.,p. 146.

* Mr. E. M. Carr mentions that the natives of the Leichhardt river, Queens-
land, imprinted their hands, stained with red ochre or blood, on a conspicuous
tree {TAe Australian Race, ii, p. 301).

1897.1 MATHEWS — ROCK CARVINGS AND PAINTINGS. 477

The plate shows four hands — one of them being the right — done in
white stencil. Amongst these is a human figure in black outline
filled in with shading of the same color. There is permanent
water in Wareng creek, five or six chains distant.

Cave 2 is situated within Portion No. 41, in the parish of Cool-
calwin, county of Phillip, about ten chains from Jolly's Downfall
creek, in which water is permanent. The cave is in a large isolated
sandstone boulder, near the base of a rocky spur, and the entrance
faces the northwest, so that it gets the afternoon sun throughout
the year. Its length is fourteen feet, depth eighteen feet, with a
height at the entrance of three feet, which increases to five and a
half feet inside. The rocky floor has several natural interstices
extending the whole length of the cave, with a few others nearly at
right angles to them, caused by the disintegration of the softer
parts of the sandstone, giving the floor the appearance, at first sight,
of having been paved.

All the drawings in this cave, except the turtle, are executed in
the stencil method, in red color. There are fourteen hands, several
of which have some of the fingers missing ; two are smaller than the
rest ; and in one the arm is shown nearly as far as the elbow. There
is a rude representation of what may be either a turtle or a beetle,
outlined in black and filled in with a wash of white. A child's
right foot and two small bent objects complete the drawings.

Cave 3. This rock shelter is on Portion No. 81, of one hundred
and eight acres, parish of Bulga, county of Hunter. Its length is
fifty-four feet, depth eleven feet, and its height varies from four and
a half to six and a half feet — the roof being level, but the floor
irregular. The cave faces N. 20° E., and looks out upon a small
watercourse. These drawings are all upon the roof, and are done
in white stencil. They consist of eleven hands, one of which is
very small ; two native tomahawks with handles attached, and two
other weapons. The position of the hands as well as the weapons
is unusual and were probably intended to convey some meaning.

Cave 4. This cave is situated within Portion No. 31, of sixty-
one and a half acres, parish of Merroo, county of Cook, near the
right bank of a small gully in which water can be obtained during
the winter months. It has been worn out of a low escarpment of
Hawkesbury sandstone and faces the west ; its length is twenty-
three and a half feet and the depth eleven feet. Owing to the dome-

478 MINUTES. [Dec. 3,

shaped roof, the height, inside is seven and a half feet, whilst that at
the entrance is only five feet.

The drawings consist of a number of hands, ten of which are
still distinguishable ; one tomahawk with handle, and three boom-
erangs— all executed in white stencil. There is also a drawing
which appears to be intended for a snake or an adder, and eight
iguanas, varying in length from two feet to three and a half feet.
The snake or adder and the iguanas are drawn in black outline,
shaded with a wash of the same color within their margins.

Note. — I wish to make the following corrections in my paper on " Australian
Rock Carvings," published in the Proceedings of this Society, Vol. xxxvi, No.

J55:—

At page 200, line 5, for « western " read «' northern."
At same page, line 6, for '« No. 23 " read " No. ^^y
At page 203, line 8, for " portion " read " position."
At page 205, line 20, for " lind " read " line."
Figs. 39, 42 and 43, are on the same rock as Fig. 26.

Stated Meeting^ December S, 1897.

Vice-President Pepper in the Chair.

Present, 19 members.

Mr. George Yaux, Jr., and Mr. William Tatham, newly
elected members, were presented to the presiding officer, and
took their seats.

Mr. Edmunds, by unanimous consent, offered the folloAving:

Resolved, That a Committee of five members be appointed by the
Chair to report as soon as may be, such further amendments to those
proposed by the Committee reporting the Laws now under considera-
tion, as shall by them be deemed best, and especially to provide for a
separation of the Laws of the Society required by its Charter, from the
regulations of administration and order which need not be in its Charter
Laws, and that meantime the proposed revision of the Laws now pend-
ing, stand over from stated meeting to stated meeting until disposed of.

Adopted.

1897

PRINCE — THE PASSAMAQUODDY WAMPUM RECORDS. 479

The Chair appointed the following as the Committee:
Hon George F. Edmunds, William A. Ingham, Esq., William
P. Tatham, Esq., Samuel Dickson, Esq., and Richard L.
Ashhurst, Esq.

Donations to the Cabinet and Library were announced, and
thanks were ordered for them.

The death of Dr. George H. Horn, on November 24, 1897,
8et. 58, was announced.

The following papers were read by title, as follows :

" The Passamaq noddy Wampum Records," by J. Dyneley
Prince, Ph.D.

" The Ethnic Affinities of the Guetares of Costa Rica,"
by Daniel G. Brinton, M.D.

" The Sources of Goethe's Printed Text: Hermann and
Dorothea," by Prof. W. T. Hewett.

Mr. McKean read the reports of the Committee on the
Henry M. Phillips Prize Essay Fund and of the Trustees of
the Building Fund.

Dr. Frazer made a communication, illustrated b}^ photo-
graphic views, on "The Ourals and the Caucasus."

The annual reports of Treasurer and Finance Committee
were read.

The rough minutes were read, and the Society was ad-
journed by the presiding officer.

THE PASSAMAQUODDY WAMPUM RECORDS.

BY J. DYNELEY PRINCE, PH.D.

{Read Decemher 3, 1897.)

The Passamaqiioddy Indians of Maine, who, together with the
Penobscots, now occupy Oldtown on the Penobscot river as their
headquarters, are members of the great Algonkin family which was
in former times the dominant native race from Nova Scotia to the
Carolinas. The language still in use among the Passamaquoddies ^

^The Indians call themselves Pestuma^atiek in their own idiom.

480 PRINCE — THE PASSAMAQUODDY WAMPUM RECORDS. [Dec. 3,

is a northern dialect of the Algonkin stock, very closely allied to
the idiom of the Etchemins or Maliseets of New Brunswick and to
that of the Abenakis ^ or St. Francis Indians of Quebec, and less
closely, although nearly, related to the language of the Micmacs of
Nova Scotia.

The Passamaquoddies, Penobscots, Maliseets, Abenakis and Mic-
macs call themselves by the common name Wabanaki or ''children
of the dawn-country," ^ which was in earlier days the generic name
of the entire Algonkin family. These five tribes seem to have
been members of a federation both with one another and with the
Iroquoian Six Nations, and the Passamaquoddies have preserved
the traditions regarding both of these unions in their Wampum
Records, the text and translation of which are given in the present
article.

The records of an Indian tribe were in nearly all cases orally
transmitted by elderly men whose memories had been especially
trained for the purpose from their early youth. It was customary
for these keepers of the tribal history from time to time to instruct
younger members of the clan in the annals of their people. The
records thus transmitted in the case of the Passamaquoddies were
kept in the memory of the historians by means of a mnemonic system
of wampum, shells arranged on strings in such a manner that certain
combinations suggested certain sentences or ideas to the narrator
or ''reader," who, of course, already knew his record by heart
and was merely aided by the association in his mind of the arrange-
ment of the wampum beads with incidents or sentences in the tale,
song or ceremony which he was rendering. This explains such
expressions as " marriage wampum " or "burial wampum," which
are common among the Passamaquoddies and simply mean com-
binations of wampum which suggested to the initiated interpreter
the ritual of the tribal marriage and burial ceremonies.

This custom of preserving records by means of a mnemonic system
was peculiar to all the tribes of the Algonkin race as well as to the
Iroquoian clans. Brinton refers to the record or tally sticks of the
Crees and Chipeways as the " rude beginning of a system of
mnemonic aids." ^ It seems to have been customary in early times

1 The Abenakis who call themselves Wabaiiaki are at present a small clan resi-
dent at St, Francis near Quebec. They were at one time a powerful New Hamp-
shire tribe.

2 See Brinton, The Leiiape and Tkeir Legends, p. 19. 3 /_ ^__ p ^g^

1897.] PRINCE — THE PASSAMAQUODDY WAMPUM RECORDS. 481

to burn a mark or rude figure on a stick suggestive of a sentence or
idea. Brinton adds:^ '' In later days, instead of burning the marks
upon the stick, they were painted, the colors as well as the figures
having certain conventional meanings. The sticks are described
as about six inches in length, slender, although varying iii shape,
and tied up in bundles." Among the more cultured tribes the sticks
were eventually replaced by wooden tablets, on which the symbols
were engraved with a sharp instrument, such as a flint or knife. The
Passamaquoddies appear never to have advanced beyond the use of
wampum strings as mnemonic aids.

I obtained the Wampum Records at Bar Harbor, Me., in 1887,
from a Passamaquoddy Indian, Mr. Louis Mitchell, who was at
that time Indian member of the Maine Legislature.'^ The MSS.
which he sent me contained both the Indian text and a translation
into Indian-English, which I have rearranged in an idiom I trust
somewhat more intelligible to the general reader. Owing to the
fact that the Indian text in Mitchell's MSS. is written syllabi-
cally, without any attempt at a division into words, much less
into sentences or paragraphs, the difficulty of editing the same with
even approximate correctness has been very great. I have followed
almost exactly Mr. Mitchell's extremely variable orthography,
although tempted in many cases to depart from it, as he has written
what is evidently the same sound sometimes in as many as three dif-
ferent ways. Thus, he was clearly unable to distinguish between
j and ch, a, it and e, or 00 and ?/, and he uses k-c, kw-qic, b-p, etc.,
apparently indiscriminately. I plead guilty in advance, therefore,
to any errors which may occur in the original text, trusting that
the interesting character and historial value of the records them-
selves will justify their publication in the state in which I offer
them.

^/. ^., p. 59-

2 The Passamaquoddy and Penobscot tribes send a representative to the Maine
Legislature who is permitted to speak only on matters connected with the affairs of
the Indian reservations.

482 PKINCE — THE PASSAMAQUODDY WAMPUM KECORDS. [Dec. 3,

The Wampum Records in Passamaquoddy.

Mechi mieu begokni tohocioltowuk k'chi ya wioo w'skittap
epitjik wasisek nespi w'sikyojik yot mechi mipniltimkil ; nitt etuch
alitt-huswinook negmaoo tepit-hodmotit chewi kegw layoo kegu-
sitch eliyoek chewi layoo tech na neksayiu. Nitt etuchi m'sioo
sise p'chittaketil kinwetaswinoo m'sitte elipitt w'skichin anquotch
elquiyik sownisnook anquotch w'chipenook ketkik snoot segdenook
ketkik k'ski yasnook. Pechiote pechiyik Wabnakik. K'mach
w'sipkikm'n yaka keswook naga wew'chiyanya nitta tama weji-
wetit w'tiyawa w'skichunoo kepechip-tohien w'liagnotmag'n. N't
ettlowsittgvv-ton kisipootwusoo likislootemook. M'sitte tekepitt
w'skichin kinwetto nitt k'chi lagootwag'n kitwitasso. M'sioo
w'skichin nootek aknoomag'n m'sioo w'litt-hasoo. M'sioo w'si-
watch yogonyalkatkisilet tekowm'k maltnitin. Nitt m'sioo kesook-
mik sittobjitakan opootwuswinoom. M'sioo kesookmiksittopetchi-
takan nissoo kessena agwam'k opootwuswinoom natchiwitchitagwik
k'chi lagootwag'n kessena k'chi mawopootwuswag'n.

Nitt m'sioo kisma wewsettil nitt omache tipit-hodm'nya ta n'teh
w'telook-h'dinya. Stepal m'sioo siwatch yokotit eli w'abli pemow-
sittit ; yotk k'chi sogmak w'tiyana-k't kihee yot elapim'k asitt-
wechosyokw k'n'mittunen elipegak napttwuk kenemittonenwul
kesek ewablikil yot'l pegaknigil tem'hig'nsis'l to (?) naga tapyik
tepakw-yil chewi pooskenoswul oskemioo nitte m'sioo w'tlikis-
lootm'nya w'tlagootinya ; nitt otaginwipoonm'nya kisook etuchi
pootwusitit.

Nitt liwettasoo chikte wigwam. Yot w'kesekmenya etasikiskakil
katama loo-wen-kelosioo m'sitte pootwuswin chewitpit-hasoo tanetch
w'titm'n. Tan etuchi littootit tebaskuswag'n'l m'sitte w'tipit-
hodm'nya tanetch likisi-chenetasso man'tim'k guni chikpultowuk
topemlokemkil.

Apch etuchi apkw-timootit wigwam liwitassoo m'siltakw-wen
tlewestoo nitt na guni omache pootwuswinya ; m'sioo potwooswin
w'toknootm'n elippipyaks nage mech matnuttitit m'sioo eli w'sik-
yoltotitits guenipn'ltim'k ; nittlo alteketch tepnasko yotipit-hatosoo
naga k'temakitt-haman w'tepittemowa w'towasismowa nega mamat-
wikoltijik; mechi mieu yokli-w'sikyaspenik tahalote saglit-hat
w'sikap naga m'tappeguin. Nitt m'sioo mitte westotitit. Nitt
likisloomuk w'tlitonia k'chi lakalosnihag'n naga tochioo opoom'nya

1897.] PRINCE — THE PASSAMAQUODDY WAMPUM RECORDS. 48S

The Wampum Records in English.

Many bloody fights had been fought, many men, women and
children had been tortured by constant and cruel wars until some
of the wise men among the Indians began to think that something
must be done, and that whatever was to be done should be done
quickly. They accordingly sent messengers to all parts of the
country, some going to the South, others to the East, and others to
the West and Northwest. Some even went as far as the Wabanaki}
It was many months before the messengers reached the farthest
tribes. When they arrived at each nation, they notified the people
that the great Indian nations of the Iroquois, Mohawks and others
had sent them to announce the tidings of a great Lagootwagon or
general council for a treaty of peace. Every Indian who heard the
news rejoiced, because they were all tired of the never-ending wars.
Every tribe, therefore, sent two or more of their cleverest men as
representatives to the great council.

When all the delegates were assembled they began to deliberate
concerning what was best to do, as they all seemed tired of their
evil lives. The leading Chief then spoke as follows: ^' As we look
back upon our blood-stained trail, we see that many wrongs have
been done by all of our people. Our gory tomahawks, clubs, bows
and arrows must undoubtedly be buried for ever." It was decided,
therefore, by all concerned to make a general Lagootwagon or
treaty of peace, and a day was appointed when they should begin
the rites'.

For seven days, from morning till night, a strict silence was
observed, during which each representative deliberated on the speech
he should make and tried to discover the best means for checking
the war. This was called the '' Wigwam of Silence."

After this, they held another wigwam called m' sittakw-wen tle-

1 According to Indian tradition, six Iroquoian tribes united in a confederation in
the interests of peace. This was the famous league of the six nations: Onondagas,.
Mohawks, Oneidas, Senecas, Cayugas and Tuscaroras. The first five of these com-
pleted their league as early as the middle of the fifteenth century under the Onon-
daga chief Hiawatha. The object of the federation was to abolish war altogether
(see Brinton, The American Race, pp. 82, 83). It is evident that the Passamaquoddy
tradition embodied in this part of the Wampum Records refers to these proposals-
made by their Iroquois neighbors.

484 PRINCE — THE PASSAMAQUODDY WAMPUM RECORDS. [Dec. 3,

epasioo k'chi wigwam tebagalosneoo ; na w'tlitunia ebiss opon-
moonya omittakw-sowall nitt wen pelestowatt nitt etuch eshemlioot-
tam yot'l eyilijil w'nijan'l tebakalusneoo. M'sitte na w'tachwiyik
settswawall naka na mejimioo w'm'tutwatm'n w'kchi squt wa wechi
skanekaswenook. Yot wechi mach-hak wababi tebaskuswag'n'l.

Nitt lagalosnihag'n'l ettli-n'settwasik spemek nitt nitmame lagoot-
wi-kislootmewag'n m'sitte kesigpesitt w'skichin newanko kesook-
inito kenooklo kechayami milijpesw. M'sitte yokteke w'skichinwuk
w'tachwi elyanya naga wiginya tebagaloosneoo teketch wen kegw
liwableloket chiwisemha w'nikikowal w'tesemhogol ; nitt ebis kisi
mawettasiks nittlo tane teppo wigitt tebakalosneoo chejik s't'menal
tan eyigil tebaskuswag'n'l kessena essemha. Nitt wigwam ettlin-
wasik tabakalosneoo hidmowioo m'sitte kesitt w'skichin kesittakw
chewi sanke wipemowsoo. Katama apch chigawi yotoltiwun chewi
lipemowsowuk tahalo wesi westoltijik witsegesotoltijik opeskon
wenikicowa. Nittlo k'chi squt ettli w'sittwasik wigwamek hidmo-
wiw m'sitte ta wut kiswichitakw w'skichin nittetch ettlositit squtek
wela manch skat apch teke yiwibmes-honwal. Nittlo wenikigowal
ettlin m'sitt woot wigwamek nitt k'chi Sagem Kanawak. Nitte
lakaloshig'n naga hibis hidmowiw wababi tebaskuswag'nl. Tan wut
pelsetek chewi mawe sagyawal ettli n'settwojik nitt m'sigekw kisitt-
piyak.

Nitte apch omach elok-h'dinya h'n'w'tlitunia apsegiguil w'tebas-
kuswag'nowal. M'sioo yot'l tebaskuswag'n'l chewi-littaswul waba-
bik. Wechich kiskittasik tan teppo elikimwittpiyak elnogak m'sit-
tech yo naga elimilichpegek wapap. Yot wapap elyot sagmak naga
m'itapeguinwuk naga nipwultimkil. Elok-h'dimek tane etuchi
metchmete sagem naga elipuskenoot eli-m'takittmowatil m'sitte
w'skichinwuk. Wulasikowdowi wapap ; wigwamkewi wapap.

1897.] PRINCE — THE PASSAMAQUODDY WAMPUM RECORDvS. 485

westoo, or '' Wigwam of Oratory." The ceremonies then began.
Each representative recited the history of his nation, telling all the
cruelties, tortures and hardships they had suffered during their wars
and stating that the time had now come to think of and take pity
on their women and children, their lame and old, all of whom had
suffered equally with the strongest and bravest warriors. When all
the speeches had been delivered, it was decided to erect an exten-
sive fence and within it to build a large wigwam. In this wigwam,
they were to make a big fire and, having made a switch or whip, to
place ^^ their father " as a guard over the wigwam with the whip
in his hand. If any of his children did wrong he was to punish
them with the whip. Every child of his within the enclosure must
therefore obey his orders implicitly. His duty also was to keep
replenishing the fire in the wigwam so that it should not go out.
This is the origin of the Wampum laws.

The fence typified a treaty of peace for all the Indian nations
who took part in the council, fourteen in number, of which there
are many tribes. All these were to go within the fence and dwell
there, and if any should do wrong they would be liable to punish-
ment with the whip at the hands of '' their father." The wigwam
within the fence represented a universal house for all the tribes, in
which they might live in peace, without disputes and quarrels, like
members of one family. The big fire {ktchi squi) in the wigwam
denoted the warmth of the brotherly love engendered in the Indians
by their treaty. The father ruling the wigwam was the Great Chief
who lived at Caughnawaga. The whip in his hand was the type of
the Wampum laws, disobedience to which was punishable by con-
sent of all the tribes mentioned in the treaty.

After this, they proceeded to make lesser laws, all of which were
to be recorded by means of wampum, in order that they could be
read to the Indians from time to time. Every feast, every cere-
mony, therefore, has its own ritual in the wampum ; such as the
burial and mourning rites after the death of a chief, the installa-
tion of a chief, marriage, etc. There were also salutation and
visiting wampum.

PROG AMEE. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI. loG. 2 G. PRINTED FEB. 17, 1898.

486 PRINCE — THE PASSAMAQUODDY WAMPUM RECORDS. [Dec. 3,

Elok-h' dim'k tan etiichi mechmete Sagem.

Tan etuchi mechinett sagem omutl'waqulm'n'l chewi temitaha
naga n'kikw-wakw-san. M'sitte tan kesiyitt w'towegaknul w'tchap-
yil w'tumhigen naga w'mutewag'n w'skichinwuk w'nittagitmowawal
enguchi g'dunweyin. Tan etuchi tepnasgoyak w'skichinwuk wikw-
mania pootwuswinoowo pootwuswinia wateplomania pili sagmal
negootekmi katama w'kislomowyil sagmal. Nitte eli kisi-mawe-
kislootmootitits nitt opechitakaya kinwetasswinoo newunol kes-
sena kamachin hegwitnol hesgun elye Mikmakik^ Kebeklo, Pan-
wapskek welastogok sagem teli mechinett Pastemogatiek. Tan
etuchi pechiyatit kinwettasijik elyatit Mikmakik nitte m'mittutil
wechkiyak eguidin metenegnahasik w'kisin setumenya kigw ittmowio
nitte sagem w'moweman oskmaknesum w'tiyan nitt wechkoyak
kigw nitk kinwut wechipechijik. Nitt m'sitte wen wasisek nake
epijik w'skittapyik m'tappyataswook wenachi asikwenya malemte
eguayik. Nitte peskw w'gapetasin natuchio w'tlintowatmun n'ska-
wewintowag'n'l. Nitt w'tali esui n'skawan elamkigap wiyalit.
Malem te mechintoo nitte na yok wechiyojik peskw littposwin
omilawiyan nitt na negum w'tasitetunan w'siwesul na negum w'wus-
kawan.

Malem te m'sioo mechi n'skaw-h'timek naga tuchioo omach
yapasinya imye-wigwam'k w'naji mawehimyanya. Malem tech
apch kisi-myawletwuk naga tuchioo lippan tanpunote wigwam'k.
Nitt m'sioo wen peji ti epijik wasisek m'sioo w'tlapasinya w'naji
w'lasikwawa s'sikiptinenawa naga na opummumya m'tewegon
tesagioo wigwam'k ettli wechiwetit nitt naga tojio kchi-yawiwul
w'skichin wutakewag'nl.

Elukemkil etchwi kisetuchil meskw kisi sepyatikw nitt amskwas
welaguiwik eh'li wulit-has soeltowegw pemgowlutwuk. Nitt apch
wespasagiwik yotk mejiwejik opetchitaganya pesgowal oskittapemwal
sagmawigwam'k wutiyanya sagmal opawatmunia m'sitte w'unem-
yanya oskittapi gwandowanek. Nitte sagem w'takinwettuwan oskit-
tapemomaweman gwandowanek naga apch w'taginwettuwan yohote
wechi-welijihi. Nitt na kisi kusyapasitit naga tojoo omoosketunia
wapapyil naga tojoo egitoso negett elikislotmotits. Nitt ettlowsitt
Pestumagatiek w'kuskatam w'k'chi-w'skinosismowow ; nittlo k'pa-
watmag'nkil yot ettlowsiyan k'najiwichi kehman eliat-k'chi'w'-
skinosismul. Malem te nega kise westoltitit yotk wechiwejik nitt

1897.] PRIXCE — THE PASSA:\[AQU0DDY WAMPUM RECORDS. 487

Ceremonies Customary at the Death of a Chief.

When the chief of a tribe died, his flag-pole was cut down and
burnt, and his war-like appurtenances, bows and arrows, tomahawk
and flag, were buried with him. The Indians mourned for him one
year, after which the Pwutwuslmwuk or leading men were summoned
by the tribe to elect a new chief. The members of one tribe alone
could not elect their own chief; according to the common laws of
the allied nations, he had to be chosen by a general wigwam. Ac-
cordingly, after the council of the leading men had assembled, four
or six canoes were dispatched to the Micmac, Penobscot and Mali-
seet tribes if a Passamaquoddy chief had died.^ These canoes bore
each a little flag in the bow as a sign that the mission on which the
messengers came was important. On the arrival of the messengers
at their destination, the chief of the tribe to which they came called
all his people, children, women and men, to meet the approaching
boats. The herald springing to land first sang his salutation song
{n^'skaweivinfuagunul), walking back and forth before the ranks of
the other tribe. When he had finished his chant the other Indians
sang their welcoming song'in reply.

As soon as the singing was over they marched to some Unwewig-
wam or meeting house to pray together. The visiting Indians were
then taken to a special wigwam allotted to their use over which a
flag was set. Here they were greeted informally by the members of
the tribe with hand-shaking, etc. The evening of the first day was
spent in entertaining the visitors.

On the next day the messengers sent to the chief desiring to see
all the tribe assembled in a gwandoivanek or dance-hall. When the
tribe had congregated there, the strangers were sent for, who, pro-
ducing their strings of wampum to be read according to the law
of the big wigwam, announced the death of the chief of their
tribe, 'their eldest boy " (ktchi lu' skinosismowal), and asked that
the tribe should aid them to elect a new chief. The chief of the

1 From here on the recorder mentions only the neighboring Algonkin tribes as
belonging to the federation which he has in mind. The northern Algonkin tribes
were very probably in a loose federation with the Iroquois merely for purposes of
intertribal arbitration. These Algonkin clans themselves, however, seem to have been
politically interdependent, as one clan could not elect a chief without the consent of
all the others.

488 PRINCE — THE PASSAMAQUODDY WAMPUM RECORDS. [Dec. 3,

na sagem onakisinn na wutelewestoon w'tiyan w'pemowsowinoom
nitt negum holithodmun wenajiwi-chakekemiw wicho keman
w'siwesul kipnael. Nitt apch yotk wechivvejik onagesin w'tele-
weston olasweltum'n kisi weleyet sagman eliwulmatulit napch
okisiyinya nega tojoo onestom'nya kisookch etuchiweswesittit.

Wechiyovvitit nittech apch liwitasso eldagemk ekelhoochin malem
te kisachwuk weswesinya. Wechiyavvitit nitt sagem w'tokinwet-
tuwan oskittapem nitk k'siwesnowook kisachwuk weswesinya katama
kiseltuniwownewin toji neksayiu omach-honya. Napch mosket-
taso wapap kelhodwei naga w'tegitmunya w'tiyawa: n't yot etlow-
sit Mikmakik epit wasis w'skittap k'powatmagon k'chenesin apch
wagisook nio nitt kigwusin katagonkuthag'n k'machkiilit-hookowa.
Nitt ittmowioo katama okiseltumwawun omach-halin.

Nitt apch elok-h'dim'k liwitasso n'skowh'din. Nitt apch sagem
opechitagon oskittapem onachi ketonkatinya k'chikook nitt appi
k'tunkatitit nitt w'telogw-sumnia tan eli pechputit m'sioo weyesis
nepahatijihi malem te m'sioo kegw kisogwew. Nitt m'sioo machep-
taso gwandowanek nitt ettli kitima.wemittsoltitit naga kinwetowan
nojikakolwet {or notgudmitt) w'talqueminowticook k'waltewall {or
wikw-poosaltin). Nitt m'sioo wen w'nastowan. Elque milit nitte
na w'quaskokinya wasisek epitjik w'skitapyikpemip-hatijihi waltewa
mosque weya malem te pechik sikowlutwuk gwandowanek. Nitte
m'sioo t'holpiyanya pemkemigek nitt yotk nojitophasijik otep-
hemwan yayate elapesitt. Yot nitt elwittasik elok-h'dim'k egel-
hodwi wikw-paltin ; nitt kisapeseltitit omach yapasinya. Nitte
apch neksayiu appat aptdoowuk. Nitt naga tochio h'nskowh'din
nitt apch yotk wechiwejik onakisin peskw w'tlintowatm'nhichi
eleyiks elittotits omesomsowuk peskwun kessena nisnol elintowatkil.
Nitt na sagem wut wechi yot wenaskawan-na.

Malem te nitt mechintotim'k nitt sagem holpin eppasio gwando-
wanek kelnek pegholagnesis naga epesis nitte omache k'tumosin
omachetemun opekholag'n naga otlintowatmun k'tumaswinto-
wag'n'l. Nitt miswen onayinyan opemkan w'skittapyik epitjik
pechiote wasisek nitt oraikmow powl'tinya.

Nitt malem te mechitt piye apch naga tojoo apch otakinwipun-
munia etuchi mach-hatit. Apch kisatchitit nitt apch sagem nim-
wul-k'd'minya hilelok-h'dimkil. Anquotch metch nichi kesspemi
minwukelhak yot nitt eldakewag'n anquotch metch nihilente

1897.] PEINCE — THE PASSAMAQUODDY WAMPUM RECORDS. 489

Stranger tribe then arose and formally announced to his people the
desire of the envoys, stating his willingness togo to aid them, his
fatherless brothers, in choosing a new father. The messengers,
arising once more, thanked the chief for his kindness and appointed
a day to return to their own people.

The ceremony known as kelhoochun then took place. The chief
notified his men that his brothers were ready to go, but that they
should not be allowed to go so soon. The small wampum string called
kellhoweyi or prolongation of the stay was produced at this point,
which read that the whole tribe, men, women and children, were
glad to see their brothers with them and begged them to remain a
day or two longer; that ''our mothers" {kigwusin), e. g., all the
tribal women, would keep their paddles yet a little while. This
meant that the messengers were not to be allowed to depart so
soon.

Here followed the ceremony called N' skahuditi. A great hunt
was ordered by the chief and the game brought to the meeting-hall
and cooked there. The noochila-kalwet or herald went about the
village crying wikw-poosaJtin, which was intelligible to all. Men,
women and children immediately came to the hall with their birch-
bark dishes and sat about the game in a circle, while four or five
men with long-handled dishes distributed the food, of which every
person had a share. This feast v/as called kelhootwi-wikw-poosaltiu.
When it was over the Indians dispersed, but returned later to the
hall when the messengers sang again their salutation songs in honor
of their forefathers, in reply to which the chief of the tribe sang his
song of greeting.

When the singing was over the chief seated himself in the midst
of the hall with a small drum in one hand and a stick in the other.
To the accompaniment of his drum he sang his \k' tumasooi-n ta-
wagunul or dance songs, which was the signal for a general dance,
followed by another feast.

The envoys again appointed a day to return, but were deterred in
the same manner. As these feasts often lasted three weeks or a
month, a dance being held every night, it was frequently a long
time before they could go back to their own tribe, because the chief

490 PRIXCE— THE PASSAMAQUODDY WAMPUM RECORDS. [Dec. 3,

kessena te peskw kisus etasi-welaquiwigil pemkak ; nitt quenni
wechi yot.

Elok-h'dim'k tan etuchi elyoot Sagem.

Malem te m'sigekw mitnaskiyi nitt naga toji sankiyiw omaja
hapanya malem tech nitk pechiyik elyatit wecheyawitit nitte na
oraawemania opemowsowinomwa w'tegimvetowania eli kisi-kiwkeni-
tit eli pekwatotit wichoketwag'n. Miyawal te nitk na ketkik
otapch-yanya ki w'kenitsepenik. Nitt w'chi-mach-yiw otaskowal-
munia wechiyan nachiwichi sakmakatenik. Malem te pechiyik
om'sioo nitt me (?) elok-h'dimkil-lelan nach sekeptin ewan nut
pemkemek. Pechiyatil odenesisek kisi-pemkatil kisi-n'skowh'ditit.

Malem te tama nisook nekiwik naga omache hel-yanya m'tewa-
gem'l n't sagem kitwi yot om'tewagwemul. Malem te kisachitt
otemepelanya h'nitt peskw sagmak oponmowan naga w'nasettowan
omannim'l naga na onas-hewhotlanya pileyal elequotewag'n'l.
Nitt peskw sagem onestomowan yohot sagmal kisiyajik wutege
k'chi-w'skinosismowa k'tachwi elokepa tan eli kisi wulasweyekw
naga na k'tachichiks't'wania nekemch na elookil tan wechi miyawil
wahod opemowsowinoom. Yot'l naechwi elokejil sagem w'tachiwi
sagitonel m'sioo tan yoot'l nekachikil. W'tachwi klamanel chikow
yoot'l timkil matn'toltimkil w'tachwi na kig-ha opemowsowinoom.
Chikate w'pemowsowag'n lawutik.

Napch omach yot asinya gwandowanek w'nachmoyowag'nya.
Napch sagem w'kutomasin naga wisek-han sagmal sagmaskw wisek-
hod pili sagmal naka kiskamek.

Apch wespasakiwik naga okeptinen teboloman elwig'n'k keswuk
nihitanke yachihi w'tliteboloma wataholoteh elitebolomoot sagem.
Peskw na elipemket wut eli wisek-hot. Eli miloot o'manimwa
aguami sagleyowal katik sagem napch wut piliwi sagem oskowiman
naga onestomowan kesich pigak wutlokewag'nowal miyawal tena
okisajin otewepoosan m'tewaguem. Nittle metewag'n-mel osagmam-
wal nitk gaptinek wiwunik apwihtowatijil ya te chikihig'n'l kelnajit
ayat na tan teppo yot kegus ewabligik quasijik kemenia pekusek
w'tachwi pekiyawal. Yot nitt itraowin w'tachiwi wulankeyow-
wowwal tan te quenowsiltil pemowsowag'nawa te w'tlipoonm'nia.

1897.] PRINCE — THE PASSAMAQUODDY WAMPUM RECORDS. 491

would detain them whenever they wished to return. Such was the
custom.

The Ceremony of Installation.

When they reached home, however, and the embassies from the
other Wabanaki tribes had also returned, the people of the bereaved
tribe were summoned to assemble before the messengers, who
informed them of the success of their mission. When the delegates
from the other tribes, who had been appointed to elect the chief,
had arrived and the salutation and welcome ceremonies had been
performed, an assembly was called to elect the chief.

This took place about the second day after the arrival of the
other Wabanaki representatives. A suitable person, a member of
the bereaved tribe, was chosen by acclamation for the office of
chief. If there was no objection to him a new flag-pole was made
and prepared for raising, and a chief from one of the kindred tribes
put a medal of wampum on the chief-elect who was always clothed
in new garments. The installing chief then addressed the
people, telling them that another '' eldest boy " had been chosen,
to whom they owed implicit obedience. Turning to the new chief,
he informed him that he must act in accordance with the wishes of
his people. The main duties of a chief were to act as arbiter in all
matters of dispute, and to act as commander-in-chief incase of war,
being ready to sacrifice himself for the people's good if need were.

After this ceremony they marched to the hall, where another
dance took place, the new chief singing and beating the drum. A
wife of one of the other chiefs then placed a new deer-skin or bear-
skin on the shoulders of the new chief as a symbol of his authority,
after which the dance continued the whole night.

The officers of the new chief {gepfins) were still to be chosen.
These were seven in number and were appointed in the same
manner and with the same ceremonies as the chief. Their duties,
which were much more sev^ere, were told them by the installing
chief. The flag-pole, which was the symbol of the chief, was first
raised. The geptins stood around it, each with a brush in his hand,
with which they were instructed to brush off any particle of dust
that might come upon it. This signified that it was their duty to
defend and guard their chief and that they should be obliged to
spill their blood for him, in case of need and in defense of the

492 TRINCE — THE PASSAMAQUODDY WAMPUM RECORDS. [Dec. 3,

W'tachwi lipoonmenia opokenoom ya botankeyowa tich-hi nihitanke
yatgotachihi tan etuchi nesa naguak pechyamkotit. Chewi noteyik
gaptinek wut sagem kislomot katama kiseltumwawun wichipnusin
ansa teppo w'tankeyowa opemowsowinoom naga w'note genekmen
tan gekw-nesanaguak pechiyak. Nitt wut sagem naga otelitepsowi-
noom okisitpesotinia.

Nitt apch ketkil elok-h'dimkil malem te nitt welaguiwik nitt yaka
opemkanya tegio te apch echeguak enitespatek w'tenkamhedoltinia.
Enowdoltowuk epeskum-h'dinya w'kisik-apwelanya metewagwemel.
Nitt m'sioo tan elitowtoltitit ek-bodasik tan wut neglo-wechik
niktech wikw-nekik niltelkisek hodasikil. Nitt elok-h'dim'k
anquoch queneket nihi sente kessena te pes-kisoos.

NiBOWE eldakewag'n n'kansoswei.

Tan etuchi w'skinoos pewatek oniswitijil en w'takin-wetowan
w'nikigo naga tan yot'l pawatgil nika nionitaskowtitiesil netch wut
k'takw-hemoos w'takin-wetuwan w'tehiapem nitt skawen waplit-
hodmuk nittech tekw-chetunia. Nitt wut k'takw-k'moosimilan
kelwasilipil pileyal mowinewiyul kessena odook kessena quabit-
ewiyul. Nutch wut oskinoos omachep-bon odeneksonel yetnackskw
wikowak netch nitponan wut neksonel nowtek wigwamek ; yote
ebonel nisnol naga nowtek naga k'sosbone. Nitt elichpi milipitasik
ela- wigwam nitt kisekelat w'doneksoneb Wut loo nackskw omitakw-
sel otakin-wetuwan otelnapem malem te kisi mowemat w'nustowan
eliwisilit w'skinosel pechipowat matonijanel w'niswinya. Nitt
skawen wablitt-hodmuk nittech w^ut kitakw-p'moos w'telkiman
w'tusel nowtek pemekpit eneksone nittech nitt kisitt piye nipwoltin
nitan elikwusitasik wigopaltin mawemitsoltin ayotpemkamik neskow
h'dim'k. Anquotch quenatk't pemlokemkil.

NiEOWE eldakewag'n yote PILIOO YOT KISI MAWETASIK.

Tan etuchi w'skinoos ketwakatek w'tachwich na kinwettwa w'ni-
kiko w'nostowan nackskwyil powatkil. Netch wut k'takw-hemoos
omaweman w'telnapemwa nitt skatwen waplit-hodmuk, Nitch w'da-
kinwettowania nojikelol welijil nitch omacbeptunia nequotatkeyi wa-
pap nittech nitt milatit wut nackwesk omitakw-sel naga tan te kisikesi-
tit kesosejibi najichik lutkig wapap egitasik nibowei. Liwitasso k'lel-
wewei yotech w'tetlegitm'n elgitnuwik w'nestowalch na eli-wisilit

1897.] PRINCE — THE PASSAMAQUODDY WAMPUM RECORDS. 493

tribe. All the women and children and disabled persons in the
tribe were under the care of the geptins. The chief himself was not
allowed to go into battle, but was expected to stay with his people
and to give orders in time of danger.

After the tribal officers had been appointed, the greatest festivi-
ties were carried on; during the day they had canoe races, foot
races and ball-playing, and during the night, feasting and dancing.
The Indians would bet on the various sports, hanging the prizes for
each game on a pole. It was understood that the winner of the
game was entitled to all the valuables hung on this pole. The fes-
tivities often lasted an entire month.

The Marriage Ceremony.

The Ancient Rife.

It was the duty of the young Indian man who wished to marry to
inform his parents of his desire, stating the name of the maiden.
The young man's father then notified all the relatives and friends of
the family that his son wished to marry such and such a girl. If
the friends and relations were willing, the son was permitted to offer
his suit. The father of the youth prepared a clean skin of the beair,
beaver or deer, which he presented to his son. Provided with this,
the suitor went to the wigwam of his prospective bride's father and
placed the hide at the back of the wigwam or nowteh. The girl's
father then notified his relations and friends, and if there was no
objection, he ordered his daughter to seat herself on the skin, as a
sign that the young man's suit was acceptable. The usual wedding
ceremonies were then held, viz., a public feast, followed by danc-
ing and singing, which always lasted at least a week.

The Marriage Ceremony in Later Days.

After the adoption of the wampum laws the marriage ceremony
was much more complicated.^

When the young man had informed his parents of his desire to
marry and the father had secured the consent of the relations and
friends, an Indian was appointed to be the Keloolwett or marriage
herald, who, taking the string of wampum called the keioiwawei,

1 Mitchell interpolated this remark.

494 PRINCE — THE PASSAMAQUODDY WAMPUM RECORDS. [Dec. 3,

oskinosel n't pawatek nit'l nackskwuyil oniswinya. Nittech nitt
metewestakw nittech weswi yapasinia yot w'skinoos wigek. Nittec-
et-tlaskowasooltitit tegio asittemoot. Nittech na wut nackskw
omitakw-sel omaweman otehiapemw'l nittech skatwen wablit-
hamagw nit'l pechi kelohvelijil nittlowen kegw k'chi chitwat
ewabligik w'mestom'nch. Nittech sagesso k'tinipwooltimkepn.
Nittlo m'sioo li wulit-hodmotit nitt etepkisitpiye. Nitt neke
oskichinwuk kisi papatrcotit nitch patlias onipwik-han.

Nittech nitt'l nibowe eldakewag'n'l elok h'dim. Wutech w'ski-
noos omilwan pileyal elquootewag'n'l nitt kissewett wut pilkatek
netch omach yapasinia oniswitijil wigwek netch w'natlasikwan
w'niswitijil wenachi sekeptinenan w'niswitijil naga kesosejihi. Yot
nitt eliwittasik eldakewag'n wulisakowdawag'n. Nitt weswesitt
wikwak nutch nut holpiyanya yohot na pechi kesosejihi quesquesoos
naga pilskwessis naga gana w'skittapyik. Wutech na w'skinoos na
onag'nl ma keslasikasijihi nittech omach yapasinia w'nachi sekepti-
nenya. Malem tech metlasikowdoltin. Nittech uletonya k'chi
mawepoltimek wutech nackskw towipootpoonek liwitass natpoonan
oskittapyik epijik pechi te wasisek. Wutech na w'skinoos soksagw
kotch meketch tlagw-te mijwag'n malemch kisakw-tek. Nitt wiko-
paltinya netch w'gagahvaltinya k'waltewall. M'sitte wen w'nestem
nitt.

Nitt omache guaskoltinia natchi teppam wan wikopalan. Mechte
nibowattimek meskw metekto. Nitte otias-hewhodlusooltinya naga
omach yapasinia gwandowanek. Malem te pachaswook gwando-
wanek pechi kesosejihi. Nitte kes yapasitit nitte pesgowat pesku-
tenil ech wechi k'chich yot lusoweskw eliyit kis gwandowanek.
Nitt ne oskinoo-lusoo. Ena negum omach yapasinia kesooswechihi
malem te petapaswuk kesyapasittit nitt apch peskw-tay peskowat.
Nitte gaptin omachep-han omachi-ostook kegania oniswitijil.

Malem te epasitpokak en-onatpoon-h'dinya kiste wulaquipwag'n.
Nitt etli mikomoot yotk kisiniswijik nitt yot'l lusowesquiwil omache
kesoosanya k'chi epitjik. Otasohonel na onespiptonial.

Metegut.

1897.] PRINCE — THE PASSAMAQUODDY WAMPUM RECORDS. 495

went to the wigwam of the girl's father, generally accompanied by
as many witnesses as cared to attend. The herald read the marriage
wampum in the presence of the girl and her father, formally stating
that such and such a suitor sought his daughter's hand in marriage.
The herald, accompanied by his party, then returned to the young
man's wigwam to await the reply. After the girl's father had noti-
fied his relatives and friends and they had given their consent, the
wedding was permitted to go on.

The usual ceremonies then followed. Tlie young man first pre-
sented the bride-elect with a new dress. She, after putting it on,
went to her suitor's wigwam with her female friends, where she and
her company formally saluted him by shaking hands. This was
called wulisakowdowagoji or salutation. She then returned to her
father's house, where she seated herself with her following of old
women and girls. The groom then assembled a company of his
friends, old and young men, and went with them to the bride's
wngwam to salute her in the same manner. When these salutations
were over a great feast was prepared by the bride, enough for all
the people, men, women and children. The bridegroom also pre-
pared a similar feast. Both of these dinners vrere cooked in the
open air and when the food was ready they cried out k' waltewall
''your dishes." Every one understood this, which was the signal
for the merry-makers to approach and fall to.

The marriage ceremonies, however, were not over yet. The
wedding party arrayed themselves in their best attire and formed
two processions, that of the bride entering the assembly wigwam
first. In later times it was customary to fire a gun at this point as
a signal that the bride was in the hall, whereupon the groom's pro-
cession entered the hall in the same manner, when a second gun
was fired. The geptins of the tribe and one of the friends of the
bride then conducted the girl to the bridegroom to dance with him.
At midnight after the dancing a supper was served, to which the
bride and groom went together and where she ate with him for the
first time. The couple were then addressed by an aged man {no-
hmikokemii) on the duties of marriage.

Finally, a number of old women accompanied the newly made
wife to her husband's wigwam, carrying with them her bed-clothes.
This final ceremony was called natboonaji, taking or carrying tlie
bed.

The End.

496 BRINTON — ETHNIC AFFINITIES OF THE GUETARES. [Dec. 3,

THE ETHNIC AFFINITIES OF THE GUETARES OF
COSTA RICA.

BY DANIEL G. BRINTQN, M.D.

{Read December 3, 1897 )

The Guetares, or Huetares, of Costa Rica, included various
tribes speaking related dialects now believed to be wholly extinct.
They dwelt on the lofty plateau of the interior, in the vicinity of
Cartago and San Jose de Costa Rica, and for that reason received
their name from their Nahuatl neighbors, which is a corruption of
the Nahuatl uei tlalli, great land (Peralta).

They were a people of no mean culture, as the fine examples of
worked gold ornaments and deftly carved stones obtained from
their sepulchres and exhibited at the Madrid and Chicago exhibi-
tions testify. Many of the best specimens now in the Museum of
Costa Rica were collected from these interments by the director,
Senor Anastasio Alfaro.

These remains justify the description of Juan Vasquez de Coro-
nado, who was among them in 1562. He depicts them as of active
intelligence, war-like in disposition, tall and well built, wearing
cotton clothes skillfully woven, and having in their possession much
gold. From other sources we learn that they were celebrated among
the surrounding nations for their mitotes, sacred songs and dances ;
and that they were accustomed to make human sacrifices at the
burial of important individuals.^

But where the Guetares belonged in the linguistic classification of
American tribes has up to the present been an unsolved problem.

Writing in 1890, M. Alphonse Pinart asks: ''In Costa Rica,
those tribes called Guetares, who dwelt at first on the southern
declivity of the Sierra and were driven thence by the invading
Nahuas, were they not related to the Carib family of the southern
continent?"^ And in 1893, Manuel de Peralta, in his excellent study
of Costa Rican ethnography, observes, ''It is almost impossible to
ascertain the ethnic affinities of the Guetares, since no vocabulary of
their language has been found ; but archaeology shows that if they

1 See M. de Peralta, Costa Rica, Nicaragua y Panama en el Siglo xvi, pp. 762^
770 (Madrid, 1883).

'^ Pinart, Limite des Civilizaiions dans l' hthme A?nericain (Paris, 1S90).

1897.1 BRIXTOX — ETHNIC AFFINITIES OF THE GUETARES. 497

were not actually related to the Nahuas, they were at least under
their cultural influence."^

These two guesses, so widely asunder, by eminent living authori-
ties, indicate how uncertain ethnographers are as to the relationship
of this once important and cultured people.

This uncertainty I shall endeavor to dispel by an examination of
a few words preserved by early writers supposed to be in the
Guetar language ; by a comparison of some proper names stated
to be from their tongue ; and by the aid of an unpublished vocabu-
lary obtained from what was believed to be the last remnant of the
tribes, about forty years ago.

The traveler Benzoni visited the area of Costa Rica in 1528, and
gives the following five words of the language of the " Suerra " (to
be pronounced according to the Italian alphabet) :^

Earth, t'sc/ia.

Men, cid.

Sickness, s^asa.

Gold, chiaruela.

Great, tnatto.

A wild animal, cascuii.

These words mostly belong without doubt to the Talamancan lin-
guistic substock. Thus, ischia = Talamanca ischiko, earth, and
Cabecar hizhku. The word for men, cici^ is the Cabecar, /VyV/ that
for gold, chiaruela, appears a modification of the Talamanca txela,
copper, perhaps yellow metal. The word for large, inatto, belongs
probably to the Cuna, which has tumati ; and cascuii has too vague
a meaning to identity. The term stasa for sickness does not appear
in modern vocabularies.

But the " Suerre," although assumed by Dr. Berendt and others
as identical with the Guetar tongue, is not positively known to
be so ; and geographically it appears to have been on the north
coast along the river of the same name, some distance from the
province of the historical Guetares.

I have found but one word of the ancient Guetar language pre-
served by the early conquistadores, but it is almost convincing of
their linguistic position. This is ueritecas or biritecas, applied by
them to the women of the neighboring province of Goto, because
they' went forth to battle with the men and joined like them in

^ Translated in my Report upon the collections exhibited at the Columbian Histori-
cal Exposition, Madrid, p. 40, sq. (Washington, 1895).

2 Benzoni, Historia del Mondo Nuovo, fol. jj (Venice, 1572).

498

BRINTON — ETPINIC AFFINITIES OF THE GUETARES. [Dec. 3,

the fray.^ This is clearly in the Talamancan tongue compounded
of era or wa-re, woman, and probably i/uk, to shoot, chop or strike.'^

To this evidence may be added that of some geographical names.
It is considered by local antiquaries that the names of several
mountains in the region referred to belong to the extinct Guetar
dialect. Examples of these are Excasu, Atarazu and Irazu. Here
the termination 2?/ cannot be else than the Cabecar fsu (Gabb),
meaning hill or mountain.

Finally, I have a vocabulary taken at least forty years ago from
some natives surviving near San Jose de Costa Rica, in the ancient
Guetar territory. It is called Talamanca, but Mr. Gabb, who
saw it, pronounced it to be of a different dialect ; and Dr.
Berendt, from whose collection it came, marked it as '^ antigua
Talamanca." I believe it to be the only specimen of the Guetar
dialect known, and as such I quote from it the list of words I
used in my Amen'ca/i Race, adding their similars in some other
dialects of the stock.

Vocabulary of " Ancient Talamanca" or Guetar.

Man,

pejelilli

(Cabecar,

pejettille = vir).

Woman,

palacrak

(

id.,

palacrak).

Sun,

cagune

(

id.

cagune^.

Moon,

fun' a

(

id.,

tura).

Fire,

yocb

(

id.

yoco).

Water,

dicre

(

id.

dicre).

Head,

sotacii

(

id.

sotacu).

Eye,

seguehra

(

id.

seguehra, or wobra, Gabb)

Ear,

secuque

{zgo-ku,

Gabb).

Mouth,

se que que

{kc

i-kwu,

id. ).

Nose,

seyiquefe

{fik,

id. ).

Tongue,

seguecfe

{kok-tu,

id. ).

Tooth,

saka

{ka,

id ).

Hand,

seyura

{lira,

id. ).

Foot,

ecuru

{kru-kwe,

id. ).

House,

tu

{hu,

/./. ).

This comparison leaves no room for doubt that this modern dia-
lect, supposed to represent the ancient Guetar, is Talamancan, and
closely allied to the Cabecar still spoken in Costa Rica ; and from
all the evidence above brought forward, the identification of the
Guetares as a branch of the Talamancan linguistic group is suffi-
ciently conclusive.

1 Juan Vazquez de Coronado, in Peralta, U. S., p. 775.

^ Gabb, Indian Tribes and Languages of Costa Rica, p. 533.

1897.] MINUTES. . 499

Stated Meeting^ December 17 ^ 1897.

Vice-President Pepper in tlie Chair.

Present, 35 members.

Messrs. James S. deBenneville and Charles R. Hildeburn,
newly elected members, Avere presented to the Chair and took
their seats in the Society.

-' Acknowledgments of election to membership were received
from Hon. Thomas F. Bayard and Prof. Frank Morley.

The Finance Committee presented a report and recom-
mended the appropriations for the year, which Avere approved
and ordered.

Prof. Morris Jastrow, Jr., made a commmiication on " The
Original Character of the Jewish Sabbath."

Pending nominations were read and spoken to, and the
Society proceeded to the election of new members, after
which the Tellers reported that the following persons had been
elected members :

2352. T. J. J. See, A.M., Ph.D. (Berlin), Flagstaff, Ariz.

2353. Sydney George Fisher, Philadelphia.

2354. Hon. Richard Olnc}^, Boston.

2355. Edward S. Holden, Lick Observatory, Cal.

2356. Benjamin Kendall Emerson, Amherst.

2357. Rev. Francis L. Patton, D.D., LL.D., Princeton.

2358. A-lden Sampson, Haverford, Pa.

2359. Ethelbert D. Wariield, Easton.

2360. Charles De Garmo, Swarthmore.

2361. William H. Dale, Washington.

2362. Arnold E. Ortmann, Ph.D., Princeton.

2363. Leroy W. McCay, D.Sc, Princeton.

2364. Henry B. Fine, Ph.D., Princeton.

2365. John B. Hatcher, Ph.D., Princeton.

2366. Charles F. W. McClure, M.A., Princeton.

The Society was adjourned by the presiding officer.

. INDEX TO VOLUME XXXVI

Page.

Arbitration, International, Edmunds on 320

Ashley, George H., On the Geology of the Paleozoic Area of Arkansas South of the

Novaculite Region 216, 217

Australian Rock Carvings, Matthews on 195

Barker, George F., The Constitution of Matter .434

Botanical collections in Society's possession, report on 216

Brinton, Daniel G., The Ethnic Affinities of the Guetares of Costa Rica 466,479

The Measurement of Thought as Function 434,438

British Museum, donation from the 325

Bronze medal presented by Princeton University _ 141

Building Fund Report 479

Committee on Calendar of the Franklin Correspondence and Declaration of Inde-
pendence 143

Finance Report 326, 466, 469, 479

Hall 433

Henry M. Phillips Prize Essay Fund 2, 3, 4, 193, 479

Library, Resolutions from 319

Magellanic Premium 320

On Revision of the Laws 4.464,465,466,478,479

Special, on the Needs of the Library . . 175

on Rock Specimens 194

on Mr. Van Denburgh's Paper 433

Commitees Standing, Appointment of 92

Cope, E. D., Presentation of Portrait of 193

New Paleozoic Vertebrata from Illinois, Ohio and Pennsylvania 71, 92

Some Paleozoic Vertebrata from the Middle States 141

Memorial Meeting 216

Curators report on botanical collections in the Society's possession 216

Report on North Room 175

D'Auria, Luigui, Stellar Dynamics 216

Day, David T., A Suggestion as to the Origin of Pennsylvania Petroleum .' 112

Declaration of Independence, Jefferson's MS. copy, Committee to report on 143

Delegates to the Congress of Orientalists 178

Doolii tie, C.L., Latitude Variation 434

_ Drake, Noah Fields, A Geological Reconnaissance of the Coal Fields of the Indian

Territory 326

The Geology of the Indian Territory 326

Edmunds, George F., International Arbitration 319, 320

Elefttion of Officers 1, 2

Ethenic Affinities of the Guitares of Costa Rica, Brinton on the 466,479

Field, R. P., The Span of Life 420

Fossil Sloth of the Big Bone Cave, Tennessee, Mercer on the 4, 36

Franklin, Benjamin, Bicentennial Anniversary Committee on 216

Franklin Correspondence, Committee on 143

Frazer, Persifor, The Ourals and the Caucasus . . 479 .

Report of a Recent Visit to the Black Hills of South Dakota 4

Furness, William H. ,3d. Further Glimpses of Borneo. 319

Geikie, Sir Archibald, Recent Geological Work in the Hebrides and Faroe Isles ... 195

Geology of the Indian Territoy, Drake on the 326

Geology of the Paleozoic Area of Arkansas South of the Novaculite Region, Ashley
on ' 216, 217

PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC. XXXVI. 156. 2 H. PRINTED FEB. 19, 1898.

502 INDEX.

Page.

Hays, I. M., on MS. Volume of Early Laws of the Province of Pennsylvania 176..

Heilprin, Angelo, The Absence of Glacial Action in Northern Africa 434

Remarks on Polar Expedition .... 461

Hewett, \V. T., The Sources of Goethe's Printed Text : Hermann and Dorothea . . . 479
Houston, E. J., and A. E. Kennelly, The Insulating Medium Surrounding a Conduc-
tor, the Real Path of its Cuirent 143, 144

Illuminative Writing, Survival of Art of in Pennsylvania 424

Insulating Medium Surrounding a Conductor, the Real Path of its Current. . . . 143, 144

International Catalogue Raisonne 319

Jastrovv^, Morris, Jr., The Original Character of the Jewish Sabbath 469

Kennelly, A. E., Speculation upon the Nature of Cathode Rays 434

and E. J. Houston, The Insulating Medium Surrounding a Conductor, the Real

Path of its Current 143,144

Latitude Variation, Doolittle on 434

Librarian elected 4

Librarian pro Um elected 4

Library open, Extension of time 320

Mabery, Charles F., On the Composition of American Petroleum 93,126

Manuscript Volume of the Laws of the Province of Pennsylvania 176

Mathews, R. H., Australian Rock Carvings 195

Chart of Australian Rock Carvings 178

Rock Carvings and Paintings of the Australian Aborigines 466

Mellville, Commodore George W., Remarks on Polar Expedition 454

Mercer, H. C, The Fossil Sloth of the Big Bone Cave, Tennessee 4,36

Survival of the Art of Illuminating Manuscripts among the Germans of Eastern

Pennsylvania 420, 424

Miller, G. A., On the Transitive Substitution Groups that are Simply Isomorphic to

the Symmetric or the Alternating Group of Degree Six 195,208

Morehouse, Dr., Obituary of Lewis A. Scott 319

Morris, J, C, ;.Relation of the Dodechedron found near Marietta, O., to Shaman-
ism . ... 178, 179-

Meetings adjourned 465

Special 43^1, 442

Stated .... 1. 2, 92, 111, 142, 143, 175, 178, 192, 216, 319, 325, 420, 433, 440, 464, 465,

469, 478

Melanoplus, Species of the Genus • • • 5

Members deceased :

Gen. John Meredith Read 1

Theodore G. Wormley 5

William Henry Pancoast 5-

Horatio Hale 92

Henry Hartshorne 141

Hon. J. Randolph Tucker 141

Henry D . Gregory 141

Arthur Biddle 143

James J. Sylvester 143

George Stuart 143

Edson S. Bastin 194

Edward D. Cope 195

Traill Green 195

George W. Biddle 195

Don Crescendo Carrillo y Ancona 325

Johannes Japetus Steenstrup 325

Alfred M. Mayer 325

Frederick D. Stone 325

J. Sergeant Price 326

INDEX. 503

Members deceased : Page.

William S. Baker ^20

Alfred L. O. Cloiseaux ^^^

James Ellis Humphrey ^'^

Justin Winsor "^^

464

,[.,....... 466

466

John Sartain

William Woodnut Griscom

Harrison Allen

George H.Horn ^"^

Members elected :

Morris Jastrovv, Jr 1^2

Ferdinand J. Dreer 1^2

William H. Furness, 3d ■. 142

Edwin Grant Conklin 1^

Horace Howard Furness 1^2

H. M. mUer . 1-12

John Sartain l'*2

Henry Trimble 142

George W. Biddle 142

Alexander C. Abbott 142

Lord Lister 320

W. C. Roentgen 320

Ow^en Wister 320

Samuel N. Rhoads 320

Fridtjof Nansen 320

Stuart Culin 320

S. F. Peckham 329

Charles F. Mabery 320

Edward Orton 320

Theodor Tscheniyschew 320

A. Karpinsky 320

Theodore N. Ely 320

Clarence B, Moore 440

James Biddle Leonard . '. 440

George Vaux, Jr 440

James Seguin de Benneville 440

Richard H. Sanders 440

William Tatham 440

Gregory B. Keen 440

George Wallace Mellville 441

James Mark Baldwin 441

Henry M. Howe 441

Edward H. Williams, Jr 441

H. Morse Stephens 441

Charles R. Hildeburn 441

Percival Lowell 441

A. Donaldson Smith 441

William Libbey 441

Allred T. Mahan 441

Frank Morley 441

Woodrow Wilson 441

George A. Piersol 441

Lightner Witmer 441 •

Rudolfo Lanciani 441

Charles D. Walcott 441

Edward R. Squibb 441

George Wharton Pepper 441

Hon. Wayne MacVeagh 441

• 504 INDEX.

Members elected : Page.

John C. Smock 441

Hon. Grover Cleveland 441

Hon. Thomas F. Bayard 441

T. J. J. See 469

Sydney George Fisher. 469

Hon. Richard Olney 469

Edward S. Holden 469

Benjamin Kendall Emerson 469

Francis L. Patton 469

Alden Sampson , 469

Ethelbert Warfield 469

Charles De Garmo 469

William H. Dall 469

Arnold E. Ortmann 469

Leroy W. McCay 469

Henry B. Fine 469

John B. Hatcher 469

Charles F. W. McClure 469

Membership, resignation of :

Goldwin Smith 92

Nansen, Dr. Fridtjof, presented 442

Some Results of the Norwegian Polar Expedition 442

Obituaries ordered :

Arthur Biddle 143, 192

James J. Sylvester 143

George Stuart 143, 192

Henry Hartshorne 192

H.D.Gregory 192

J. Sergeant Price 440

Obituaries read :

Lewis A. Scott 319

Passamaquoddy Wampum Records 479

Peckham, Prof., The Nature and Origin of Petroleum 93,103

Petroleum, discussion on 92, 93, 110, 112, 126

Phillips, Henry, Jr., Legacy 466

Phillips, Prof., The Genesis of Natural Gas and Petroleum 93,110

The Occurrence of Petroleum in the Cavities of Fossils 93,121

Polar Exploration 442, 454, 461

Prince, J. Dyneley, The Passamaquoddy Wampum Records 479

Princeton University, Bronze Medal of Sesquicentennial of 141

Rock Carvings, Australian 466

Sadtler, S. P., The Genesis and Chemical Relations of Petroleum and Natural Gas .92, 93

Sajous, Solar Heat and Universal Gravitation— A New Working Hypothesis 319

Scott, Lewis A., Obituary Notice of 319

Scudder, Samuel H., The Species of the Genus Melanoplus 4,5

Sloth Fossil of Big Bone Cave 36

Span of Life, Field on the 420

State Forestry Reservation 141, 142

Transitive substitution groups that are simply Isomorphic to the Symmetric or the

Alternating Group of Degree Six 195, 208

Treasurer's Report . . 479

Treaty of Peace with Great Britain, duplicate copies of the 319

Van Denburgh, John, Some Experiments with the Saliva of the Gila Monster {Helo-

derma suspectum) • 326

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL' SOCIETY.

FEBRUARY 12, 1898.

Name.
1687. Abbe, Cleveland, Professor

2170. Abbot, Dr. Charles Conrad
1463. Abbot, Gen. Henry L. . ,

Present Address.

U. S. Weather Bureau, Wash-
ington, D. C.

Trenton, N. J.

23 Berkeley Street, Cambridge,
Mass.

221 S. 44th Street, Philadelphia.

Stockholm, Sweden.

Oxford, England.

41 Bard Sevign4, Rennes,
France.

Baltimore, Md.

Cambridge, Mass.

Quincy St., Cambridge, Mass.

Ardmore, Montgomery Co., Pa

Am. Mus. Natural History, 77th
St. and 8th Ave., New York.

1927. Ames, Rev. Charles G Jan'y 21, 1881, 12 Chestnut St., Boston, Mass.

2064. Anderson, George B., Lieut. . Feb'y 19,1886, West Point, N. Y.

2164. Angell, James B., Pres't Oct. 18, 1889, Ann Arbor, Mich.

2224. Appleton, William Hyde, Prof. May 19,1893, Swarthmore, Pa.
2102. Argyll, Duke of May 21, 1886, London, England.

1761. AR5ISTR0NG, THE RIGHT HON.

Lord July 17, 1874, Cragside, Rothbury, England.

1996. AsHHURST, John, Jr., M.D. . . . Jan'y 18, 1884, 2000 Delancey PI.. Phila.
2012. ASHHDRST, Richard L April 18, 1884, 2204 Walnut St., Philadelphia.

2311. Abbott, Alexander C, M.D. . .

1809. AcKERMAN, Richard, Professor.
1713. ACLAND, Sir Henry, Bart. . . .
2128. Adam, Lucien

2081. Adams, Herbert B., Professor. .
1779. Agassiz, Alexander, Professor .
1642. Agassiz, Mrs. Elizabeth . . . .
1860. Alison, Dr. Robert Henry. . .
1869. Allen, Joel Asaph

Date of Election.
July 27, 1871,

Dec. 20, 1889,
April 18, 1862,

Feb'y 19, 1897,

July 21, 1876,

Jan'y 17, 1873,

Dec. 17, 1886,

May 21, 1886,

April 16, 1875,

Oct. 15, 1869,

May 3, 1878,

Sept. 20, 1878,

Name.

1995. Bache, R. Meade

1832. Bache, Dr. Thomas Hewson .

2285. Bailey, L. H., Professor

1630. Baird, Henry Carey

1991. Baird, Henry M., Professor . .
2345. Baldwin, James Mark, Prof. . .
2191. Ball, Sir Robert Stawell . .
1965. deBar, Hon. Edouard Seve . .
1818. Barcena, Don Mariano, Prof.
1741. Barker, George F., Professor . .

2011. Barker, Wharton

1902. Bartholow, Roberts, M.D. . ,
2119. Bastian, Adolph, Professor . . .

Date oj Election.
Jan'y 18, 1884,
Feb'y 2, 1877,
15, 1896,
15, 1869,
18, 1884,
15, 1897,
15, 1S91,
21, 1882,
2, 1877,
18, 1873,
April 18, 1884,
April 16, 1880,
Dec. 17, 1886,

May

Jan'y

Jan'y

Oct.

May

July

Feb'y

April

2337. Bavabd, Hon. Thomas F Oct. 15, 1897,

1934, Beaulieu, M. Paul Leroy, Prof. April 15, 1881,

1968. Bell, Alexander Graham, Prof. .July 21,1882,

1802. Bell, Sir Lowthian April 21, 1876,

2255. Bement, Clarence S May 17, 1895,

2326. deBenneyille, James S . . . . Oct. 15, 1897,

2264. Berthelot, M. P. E. Marcelin . May 17, 1895,

22.53. Bertin, Georges May 17, 1895,

2228. Bessemer, Sir Henry Feb'y 16, 1894,

2149. BiDDLE, ALEXANDER Fcb'y 17, 1888,

1920. BiDDLE, Cadwalader Oct. 15, 1880,

1831. BiDDLE, Hon. Craig Feb'y 2, 1877,

2134. Billings, John S., M.D Feb'y 18, 1887,

2256. BisPHAM, George Tucker . . . May 17, 1895,

2157. Blair, Andrew A May 17, 1889,

1554. Blair, Thomas S Jan'y 19, 1866,

1669. Blake, Wm. Phipps, Professor = Oct. 21, 1870,

1700. Blodget, Lorin April 19, 1872,

1444. Bohtlingk, M. Otto Jan'y 17, 1862,

2235. Bonaparte, Prince Roland . . Feb'y 15, 1895,
2047. BONWILL, W. G. A., D.D.S. . . . Oct. 16, 1885,
1126. BoYi:, Martin H., Professor . . Jan'y 17, 1840,
1826. Brackett, Cyrus Fogg, Professor Feb'y 2, 1877,
2083. Branner, John C, Professor . . May 21,1886,
2195. Brezina, Dr. Aristides May 21, 1886,

1636. Brinton, Daniel G., M.D. . . . April 16, 1869,

2069. Brinton, John H., M.D Feb'y 19, 1886,

1745. Brinton, J. Blodget ... . Oct. 17, 1873,

2080. Brooks, William Keith, Prof. . May 21, 1886,

1881. Brown, Arthur Erwin .... April 18, 1879,

2275. Brubaker, Albert P., M.D. . . Oct. 18, 1895,

1547. Brush, George J., Professor . . Jan'y 20, 1865,

2236. Budge, Dr. A. Wallis Feb'y 15, 1895,

1653. Bullock, Charles Oct. 15, 1869,

1452. BuNSEN, Robert W., Professor . Jan'y 17,1862,

2007. BURK, Rev. Jesse Y Jan'y 18, 1884,

Present Address.

4400 Sanson! St., Philadelpbia.

233 S. 13th St., Philadelphia.

Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y.

810 Walnut Sr., Philadelphia.

219 Palisade Ave.,Yonkers,N.Y.

Princeton, N. J.

Observatory, Cambridge, Eng.

Ramsgate, England.

Museo Nacional, Mexico.

3909 Locust St., Philadelphia.

119 S. 4th St., Philadelphia.

1525 Locust St., Philadelphia.

S. W. Koniggratzerstrasse 120,
Berlin, Germany.

Wilmington, Del.

No. 27 Ave. du Bois de Bou-
logne, Paris, France.

1336 19th St., Washington, D.C.

Northallerton, England.

1804 Spring Garden St., Phila.
123 S. 7th Street, Philadelphia.
Paris, France.

11 bis Rue Ballu, Paris.
Surrey, England.
1307 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
1420 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
2033 Pine Street, Philadelphia.
40 Lafayette Place, New York.

1805 Delancey Place, Phila.
406 Locust Street, Philadelphia.
P. O. Box 508, Tyrone, Pa.
New Haven, Conn.

1329 S. Broad St., Philadelphia.

Seeburgstrasse 35, II, Leipzig.

10 Ave. d' Jena 22, Paris.

2009 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.

Coopersburg, Lehigh Co., Pa.

Princeton, N. J.

Stanford Univ., Palo Alto, Cal.

VII Siebensterngasse, 46, Vi-
enna, Austria.

Media, Delaware Co., Pa.

1423 Spruce St., Philadelphia.

339 Walnut St., Philadelphia.

Johns Hopkins Univ., Balti-
more, Md.

1208 Locust St., Philadelphia.

105 N. 34th St., Philadelphia.

Yale University, New Haven,
Conn.

British Museum, London, Eng.

1017 Clinton St., Philadelphia.

Heidelberg, Germany.

400 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.

Name. Date of Election .

193S. Butler, Hon. William April 15, 1881,

1788. Campbell, John Lyle, Prof. . . July 16, 1875,

1606. Canby, William Marriott . . . Oct. 16, 1868,

2051. Cannizzaro, Tomaso Oct. 16, 1885,

1731. Capellini, Giovanni, Senator . April 18, 1873,

1796. Carll, John F., Professor . . . . Oct. 15, 1875,

1911. Carson, Hampton L April 16, 1880,

2260. Carter, Hon. James C May 17, 1895,

1707. Cassatt, Alexander J Oct. 18, 1872,

2147. Castner, Samuel, Jr Dec. 16, 1887,

2152. Cattell, Dr. J. McKeen .... May 18, 1888,

1908. Chance, Dr. Henry Martyn. . April 16,1880,

1783. Chandler, C. F., Professor . April 16, 1875,

1778. Chapman, Henry C.,M.D. . . . April 16, 1875,

2132. DE Charencey, Comte Hyacinth Dec. 17, 1886,

2158. Clark, Clarence H May 17, 1889,

1717. Clarke. Thomas C. E Jan'y 17, 1873,

1983. Claypole, E. W., Professor . . . Jan'y 19,1883,

2247. Cleeman, Richard A., M.D.. . . Feb'y 15,1895,

2336. Cleveland, Hon. Grover, . . . Oct. 15, 1897,

1999. Cohen, J. Solis, M.D Jan'y 18. 1884,

2305. CoNKLiN, Edwin Grant, Prof. . Feb'y 19, 1897,

2257. Cook, Joel May 17, 1895,

2129. Cora, Guido, Professor .... Dec. 17, 1886,

1867. CouES, Elliott, M.D., U. S. A. . Sept. 20, 1878,

1662. Cox, Hon. Jacob D April 15, 1870,

2207. Cramp, Charles H Dec. 16, 1892,

1836. Crane, Thomas Frederick, Prof. Feb'y 2,1877,

2317. CuLiN, Stewart May 21, 1897,

2100. Crookes, William, Professor . . May 21, 1886,

2172. Cruz, Hon. Fernando, M.D. . . Dec. 20, 1889,

1439. CuRWEN, John, M.D April 18, 1861,

2296. Gushing, Frank H May 15, 1896,

Present Address.

West Chester, Pa.

Crawfordsville, Ind.

1101 Delaware Avenue, Wil-
mington, Del.

Santa Maria fuori cinta, Casa
Roffa, Messina, Sicily.

Portovenore pres Spezia, Italy.

Pleasantville,VenaiigoCo., Pa.

1033 Spruce St., Phila.

54 Wall Street, New York City.

Haverford, Del. Co., Pa.

3729 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.

Garrison-on-Hudson, N. Y.

5164 Columbia Ave., Phila.

49th St., cor. 4th Av., N.Y. City.

2047 Walnut St., Philadelphia.

25 rue Barbet de Jouy, Paris.

42d and Locust Sts., Phila.

44 Broadway, New York, N. Y.

Buchtell College, Akron, O.

213) Spruce St., Philadelphia.

Westland, Princeton, N. J.

1341 Walnut St., Philadelphia.

University of Penna, , Phila.

8t9 N. Broad St., Philadelphia.

Corso Vittorio Emanuele, 74,
Turin, Italy.

Washington, D. C.

Cincinnati, O.

507 S. Broad St., Philadelphia.

Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y.

University of Penna , Phila.

7 Kensington Park Gardens,
London, W. England.

Washington, D. C.

Warren, Pa.

Bureau of Ethnology, Wash-
ington, D. C.

ID

1567. Da Costa, J. M., M.D Oct.

2361. Dall, William H Dec.

2214. Daly, Hon. Charles P May

2282. Dana, Edw. S., Professor .... May

1806. Dannefeld, C. Juhlin April

1811. Davenport, Samuel Oct.

1557. DA^^DSON, George Jan'y

1923. Dawkins, Wm. Boyd, Prof. . . . Oct.

2360. De Garmo, Charles, President. Dec.

2208. Dercum, Francis X., M.D. Dec.

2013. Dickson, Samuel April

19,

1866,

17,

1897,

19,

•1893,

15,

1896,

21,

1876,

20,

1876,

19,

1866,

15,

1880,

17,

1897,

16,

1892,

18,

1884,

1700 Walnut St., Philadelphia.

U. S. National Museum Wash-
ington, D. C.

11 W. 29th St., New York, N. Y.

Yale Univ., New Haven, Conn.

27 Gt. Winchester St., London.

Adelaide, S. Australia.

Observatory,San Francisco, Cal.

Woodhurst, Fallowfield, Man-
chester, England.

Swarthmore, Pa.

1719 Walnut St., Philadelphia.

901 Clinton St., Philadelphia.

Name.
2208. Dixon, Samuel G., M.D

Dale of Election.
Dec. 16, 1892,

2108. DoLLEY, Charles S., M.D. . . . Dec. 17,1886,

2089. DONNER, Dr. Otto May 21, 1886,

1946. DooLiTTLE, C. L., Professor . . . Oct. 21, 1881,

1839. Douglas, James April 20, 1877,

1924. Draper, Daniel Oct. 15, 1880,

2303. Dreer, Ferdinand J Feb'y 19, 1897,

1787. Drown, Thomas M., President . July 16, 1875,

1918. Du Bois, Patterson Oct. 15, 1880,

1878. Dudley, Charles Benjamin . . Jan'y 17, 1879,

2063. Duncan, Louis, U. S. N Feb'y 19, 1886,

1573. Dunning, George F Jan'y 18, 1867,

1727. DUPONT, Edouard April 18, 1873,

2227. DuPoNT, Col. Henry A Feb'y 16, 1894,

1679. DUTTON,CLARENCEE.,Lieut.U.S.A Jan'y 20,1871,

Present Address.
Academy of Natural Sciences^

Philadelphia.
3707 Woodland Ave., Phila.
Helsingfors, Finland.
College Hall, Univ. of Penna.
Spuytenduyvil, NewYork, N.Y.
Meteorological Observ., Central

Park, New York, N. Y.
1520 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
Lehigh Uni v., S. Bethlehem, Pa.
1031 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
Altoona, Blair Co., Pa.
Johns Hopkins Univ.,Balt.,Md.
Farmington, Conn.
Mus6e Royal Museum, Brux-

elles, Belgium.
Winterthur, Montchanen, Del-
U. S. Arsenal, Washington,D.C.

IB

2105. Easton, Morton W., Professor . Dec. 17,1886,

2271. Ebers, Dr. George May 17, 1895,

1917. Eckfeldt, Jacob B Oct. 15, 1880,

1825. Eddy, H. Turner, Professor. . . Feb'y 2, 1877,

2294. Edison, Thomas A May 15, 1896,

2262. Edmunds, Hon. George F . . . May 17, 1895,

1686. Eliot, Dr. Charles W April 21, 1871,

2272. Elliott, A. Marshall, Professor May 17, 1895,

2313. Ely, Theodore N May 21, 1897,

2356. Emerson, Benj. Kendall, Prof. Dec. 17, 1897,

1981. Emmons, S. F Jan'y 19, 1883,

1943. Evans, Sir John, K.C.B Oct. 21, 1881,

17, 1895,

2254. EwELL, Marshall D., M.D

May

224 S. 43d St., Philadelphia;

Tutzing, near Munich, Bavaria.

U. S. Mint, Philadelphia.

Univ. Minn., Minneapolis.

Orange, N. J.

1724 Spruce St., Philadelphia.

17 Quincy St.,Cambridge,Mass.

Baltimore, Md.

Broad St. Station, Phila.

Amherst, Mass.

U. S. Geological Survey, Wash^

ington, D. C.
Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead,

England.
59 Clark St., Chicago, 111.

2234. Fennell, C. a. M., Litt.D.
2180. Field, Robert Patterson
2364. Fine, Henry B., Professor
2353. Fisher, Sydney George .
1901. Flint, Austin, Jr., M.D. .
1621. Flower, Wm. Henry, M.D.

1875. FoGGO, Edward A., D.D. .
2197. Forbes, George, Professor.

1170. Fraley, Hon. Frederick

1912. Fraley, Joseph C

2270. Franks, Sir Augustus W.

1695. Frazer, Persifor, Dr. ^s-Sc. Nat.
301. Frazier, Benj. W., Professor

Feb'y]

15,

1895,

May

16,

1890,

Dec.

17,

1897,

Dec.

17,

1897,

April

16,

1880,

Jan'y

15,

1869,

Oct.

18.

1878,

Oct.

16,

1891,

July

15.

1842,

April

16,

1880,

May

17,

1895,

Jan'y

19,

1872,

Dec.

18,

1896,

Cambridge, England.

218 S. 42d St., Philadelphia.

Princeton, N. J.

328 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.

14 W. 33d St., New York, N. Y.

South Kensington Museum,.

London, England.
3216 Summer St., Philadelphia..
34 Great George St., London,

England.
2017 Delancey Place, Phila.
714 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
123 Victoria St., S. W. London,.

England.
928 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
Lehigh Univ., Bethlehem, Pa.

Vll

Name. Date of Election.

2171. Friebis, George, M.D Dec. 20, 1889,

2179. FuLLERTON, GEORGE S., Rcv. . . May 16, 1890,

1739. Fulton, John April 18, 1873,

1914. FuRNEss, Horace H April 16, 1880,

2306. FuRNEss, Horace Howard, Jr.. Feb'y 19, 1897,

2304. FuRNESS, William H., 3d, M.D. . Feb'y 19,1897,

Present Address.
'l906 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.
309 S. 40th St., W. Philadelphia.
136 Park PI., Johnstown, Pa.
Walllngford. Delaware Co., Pa.
2034 Delancey Place, Phila.
Wallingford, Del. Co., Pa.

1988. Garrett, Philip C April 20, 1883,

2079. Gates, Merrill E., Dr May 21, 1886,

1025. Gatschet, Albert S., Dr . . . . Oct. 17, 1884,

1897. Geikie, Sir Archibald Jan'y 16, 1880,

1803, Geikie, James, Professor .... April 21, 1876,

2067. Genth, F. a., Jr Feb'y 19, 1886,

2274. Gibbs, J. WiLLARD, Professor . . May 17, 1895,

1355. Gibbs, Oliver Wolcott, Prof. . July 21, 1854,

1587. Gill, Theodore N., M.D July 19, 1867,

1800. GiLMAN, Dr. Daniel C April 21, 1876,

1950. Gladstone, Rt. Hon. Wm. Ewart Oct. 21,1881,

2240. Glaisher, James W. L Feb'y 19, 1895,

2233. Glazebrook, Richard T . . . . Feb'y 15, 1895,

2212. GooDALE, George Lincoln, Prof. Feb. 17, 1893,

1680. Goodfellow, Edward Jan'y 20, 1871,

2292. Goodspeed, Arthur W., Prof. May 15, 1896,

2203. Goodwin, Harold May 20, 1892,

2232. Goodwin, W. W., Professor . . . Feb'y 15, 1895,

1851. Gray, Elisha Jan'y 18, 1878,

2222. Green, Samuel A., M.D Oct. 20, 1893,

1504. Green, William Henry, D.D . . April 17, 1863,

1880. Greene, William H., M.D. . . . April 18, 1879,

2155. de Gregorio.Marchese Antonio Dec. 21, 1888,

2188. Gregory, Dr. Caspar R6n6. . . May 15, 1891,

1815. Grote, Augustus Radcliffe . . Oct. 20, 1876,
2090. deGubernatis,Angelo, Professor May 21, 1886,

1438. DE GUYANGOS, DON PASCUAL . . April 19, 1861,

Logan P. O., Philadelphia.
Amherst, Mass.

1330 F St., N. W., Wash'n, D. C.
Geological Survey Office, 28 Jer-

myn St., London,England.
31 Merchiston Ave., Edinburgh .

Scotland.
103 N. Front St., Philadelphia.
121 High St., New Haven, Conn.
Newport, R. I.

Smithsonian Inst., Wash'n,D.C.
25 N. Charles St.,Baltimore,Md.
Hawarden, England.
The Shola, Heathfield Road,

South Croydon, England.
Cambridge, England.
Harv. Univ., Cambridge, Mass.
1718 Corcoran St., Washington,

D. C.
Univ. of Pa. College Building,

Philadelphia.
501 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
Cambridge, Mass.
220 Kinzie St., '.Chicago, 111.
Historical Soc, Boston, Mass.
Princeton, N. J.
204 N. 36th St., Philadelphia.
Al Molo, Palermo, Sicily.
Naunhofstrasse 25, Marien-

hohe, Leipzig-Stotteritz, Ger-
many.
Buffalo, N. Y.
Florence, Italy.
London, England.

131

2054. Haeckel, Ernst, Professor Dr. . . Oct.

1658. Hale, Rev. Edw. Everett . . . Jan'y

1853. Hall, Asaph, Professor Jan'y

1795. Hall, Charles Edward Oct.

2219. Hall, Isaac H., Professor . . . . May

1356. Hall, James, Prof July

2027. Hall, Lyman B., Prof Jan'y

1412. Hammond, William A., M.D. . . Oct.

16,

1885,

21,

1870,

18,

1878,

15,

1875,

19,

1893,

21,

1854,

16,

1885,

21,

1859,

Univ. Jena, Germany.
39 Highland St., Roxb'y, Mass.
U. S. Observ.,Washington, D.C.
Westport, Essex County, N. Y.
Metropolitan Museum of Art,
Central Park, New York, N.Y.
State Museum, Albany, N. Y.
161 N. 15th St., Philadelphia.
Washington, D. C.

Vlll

Name. Date of Election.

2194. Hamy, Dr. E. T May 15, 1891,

1337. Harding, George Jan'y 20, 1851,

2136. Harris, Joseph S May 20, 1887,

2246. Harrison, Chales C, Provost.
1827. Hart, James Morgan, Professor.
2365. Hatcher, John B., Professor . .
1764. VON Hauer, Franz Ritter.
1681. Haupt, Hermann, General . . .

1862. Haupt, Leavis M., Professor . .
2082. Hayes, Richard Somers ....

2071. Hays, I. Minis, M.D

1985. Heilprin, Angelo, Professor . .

2283. Henderson, C. H

2218. Hewett, Waterman T., Prof . .

2266. Heyse, Paul, Dr

2349. Hildeburn, Charles R

2307. HILLER, H. M., M.D

2110. Hilprecht, Hermann v., Prof.
1768. Himes. Charles Francis . .
1663. Hitchcock, Chas. Henry, Prof.

Feb' y

15,

1895,

Feb'y

2,

1877,

Dec.

17.

1897,

Oct.

16,

1874,

April

21,

1871,

May

3,

1878,

May

21.

1886,

Feb'y

19,

1886,

AprU

20,

1883,

May

15,

1896,

May

19,

1893,

May

17,

1895,

Oct.

15,

1897,

Feb'y

19,

, 1897,

Dec.

17,

1886,

Oct.

16,

, 1874,

April

15,

1870,

Oct.

18,

1889,

2160. Hoffman, Walter J., M.D

2355 HoLDEN, Edward S Dec. 17, 1897,

2068. Holland, James W., M.D. . . . Feb'y 19, 1886,

1624. Hooker, Sir Joseph D Jan'y 15, 1869,

2224. HOPPIN, J. M., Professor .... Oct. 20, 1893,

2070. Horner, Inman Feb'y 19, 1886,

1941. HOTCHKISS, Jedediah Oct. 21, 1881,

1696. Hough, George W., Professor . . Jan'y 19, 1872,

1698. Houston, Edwin J., Professor. . Jan'y 19, 1872,

2346. Howe, Henry M., Prof. Oct. 15, 1897,

2239. Huggins, William Feb'y 15, 1895,

1843. Humphrey, H. C July 20, 1877,

2248. Hunter, Richard S Feb'y 15, 1895,

2231. Hyatt, Alpheus, Professor. . . Feb'y 15, 1895,

1426. Hyrtl, Joseph, Professor. . . . July 20, 1860,

Present Address.

40 Rue Liibeck, Ave. du Troca-
dero, Paris, France.

2036 Chestnut St., Phila.

144 School Lane, German town,
Philadelphia.

1618 Locust St., Philadelphia.

Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y.

Princeton, N. J.

Leoben, Austria.

747 Portland Ave., St. Paul,
Minnesota.

107 N. 35th St., Philadelphia.

32 Nassau St., New York. N.Y.

266 S. 2lst St., Philadelphia.

Acad, of Nat. Sciences, Phila.

Philadelphia.

Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y.

Munich, Bavaria.

1015 Clinton Street, Phila.

350 S. 16th Street, Phila.

1031 Walnut St., Philadelphia.

Dickinson Coll., Carlisle Pa.

Dartmouth College, Hanover,
N. H.

U. S. Consulate, Manheim, Ger-
many.

Smithsonian Institution, Wash-
ington, D. C.

2006 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.

The Camp, Sunningdale, Eng,

New Haven, Conn.

1811 Walnut St., Philadelphia.

346 E. Beverly St , Staunton,Va,

N. W. Univ., Evanston, 111.

1809 Spring Garden St., Phila.

27 W. 73d St., New York.

90 Upper Tulse Hill, S. W.
London, England.

44 Broadway, New York, N.Y.

1413 Locust St., Philadelphia.

Cambridge, Mass.

k. k. Akad. d. Wissenschaften,
Vienna. Austria.

1773. Ingham, Wm. Armstrong. . . .
2221, d'Invilliers, Edward Vincent.

April 16, 1875, 320 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
May 19,1893, 711 Walnut St., Philadelphia.

2010. James, Edmund J., Prof. April 18,1884, Univ. of Chicago, Chicago, lU,

1933. Jannet, Claudio April 15, 1881, 11 Rue las Casas, Paris, France.

2302. Jastrow, Morris, Jr Feb. 19, 1897, 248 S. 23d St , Philadelphia.

2049. Jayne, Horace, M.D Oct. 16, 1885, 318 S. 19th St., Philadelphia.

IX

Name. Date of Election. Present Address.

1954. Jefferis, William W Jan'y 20,1882, 1836 Green St., Philadelphia.

2017. Jordan, Francis. Jr April 18, 1884, 111 N. Front St., Philadelphia.

1989. Kane, Elisha Kent April 20, 1883, Kane, Pa.

2322. Karpinski, Alex. Petrovitch . May 21, 1897, Geological Survey, St. Peters-
burg, Russia.

2169. Keane, John J., Right Rev. . . Dec. 20, 1889, Washington, D. C.

2329. Keen, Gregory B Oct. 15, 1897, 3237 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.

2021. Keen, William W., M.D., Prof. July 18, 1884, 1729 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.

1723. Kelvin, Lord, (Sir Wm. Thorn- University of Glasgow, Glas-

son) April 18, 1873, gow, Scotland.

1161. Kendall, E. Otis, Professor . . Jan'y 21,1842, "The Stratford," Philadelphia.

2278. Kennelly, A. E., D.Sc Feb. 28, 1896, 1105 Betz Building, Phila.

2118. Kiepert, Henry, Professor Dr. Dec. 17, 1886, Berlin, Germany.

1708. King, Clarence Oct. 18, 1872, IS Wall St., New York, N. Y.

1767. Konig, George A., Professor . . Oct. 16, 1874, Sch. of Mines, Houghton, Mich.

2167. Krauss, FriederichS., Dr. . . Dec. 2), 1889, VII Neustiftgasse 12, Vienna.

1694. Lambert, Guillaume, Professor.

2344. Lanciani, Rudolfo

1858. Landreth, Burnet

1781, Langley, Samuel P., Professor .

1721. La Roche, C. Percy, M.D. . . .

1974. Laaves, Sir John B

1595. Lea, Henry Charles

1737. Le Conte, Joseph, Professor . .

2241. Legge, James, Rev

1986. Lehman, Ambrose E

2182. Leland, Charles G

2174. Le Moine, Hon. J. M

2324. Leonard, James B

1382. Lesley, J. Peter, Professor. . .
2085. Levasseur, Emile, Professor . .

1415. Lewis, Francis W., M.D

2300. Lewis, G. Albert

2338. Libbey, William, Professor. . .
2312. Lister, The Right Hon. Lord .

1756. LocKYER, Sir Joseph Norman,

K.C. B

1728. LoNGCHAMPS, Baron de Selys .
1872. Longstreth, Morris, M.D. . . .

2202. Low, Hon. Seth

2350. Lowell, Percival

2019. Lubbock, Sir John

2003. Ludlow, William, Col. U. S. A.

1629. Lyman, Benjamin Smith ....

Jan'y

19,

1872,

Univ. of Lou vain, Belgium.

Oct.

15,

1897,

2 Via Goito, Rome, Italy.

Jan'y

18,

1878,

Bristol, Pa.

April

16,

1875,

Smithsonian Institution, Wash-
ington, D. C.

Jan'y

17,

1873,

1518 Pine Street, Philadelphia.

Jan'y

19,

1883,

Rothamstead, Herts, England.

Oct.

18,

1867,

2000 Walnut St., Philadelphia.

April

18,

1873,

Univ. of California, Berkeley,
Cal.

Feb.

15,

1895,

Oxford, England.

April

20,

1883,

711 Walnut St., Philadelphia.

May

16,

1890,

Baring Bros. & Co., London,
England.

Dec.

20,

1889.

Quebec, Canada.

Oct.

15,

1897,

1813 Spruce St., Philadelphia.

July

13,

1856,

Milton, Mass.

May

21,

1886.

26, Rue Mons le Prince, Paris.

Jan'y

20,

1860,

2016 Spruce St., Philadelphia.

Dec.

18,

1896,

1834 Delaucey Place, Philadel-
phia.

Oct.

15,

1897,

Princeton, N. J.

May

21,

, 1897,

12 Park Crescent, Portland

Place, London, Eng.
Royal Col. of Sci., S. Kensing-

April

1",

1874,

ton, London S. W., England.

April

18,

1873,

Liege, Belgium.

Sept.

20,

1878,

1416 Spruce St., Philadelphia.

Feb.

19

, 1892,

Columbia College, New York.

Oct.

15,

1897,

Lowell Obs., Flagstaff, Arizona,

July

IS,

1884,

15 Lombard St., London, Eng.

Jan'y

■ 18

, 1884,

Army Building, 39 Whitehall
St., New York.

Jan'y

15,

1869,

708 Locust St., Philadelphia.

1^

Name.
2319. Mabery, Charles F., Prof.

Date of Election.
May 21, 1897,

2107. MacAlister, James, Pres Dec. 17, 1886,

2209. Macfarlane, John M., Prof. . . Dec. 16, 1892,

2334. MacVeagh, Wayne, Hon .... Oct. 15, 1897,

2363. McCay, Leroy W., Prof Dec. 17, 1897,

2366. McClure, Charles F. W., Prof. Dec. 17, 1897,

2280. McCooK, Henry C, Rev., D.D, . Feb. 28, 1896,

1888. McCreath, Andrew S Julj' 18, 1879,

1821. McKean, William V Feb'y 2, 1877,

2299. Magie, Wm. Francis, Prof. . . . Dec. 19, 1896,

2339. Mahan, Alfred T., Capt. U. S. N. Oct. 15, 1897,

2042. Mallet, John Wm., M.D. . . . Jan'y 16, 1885,

1847. Mansfield, Ira Franklin . . . Jan'y 18, 1878,

1857. March, Francis Andrew, Prof. Jan'y 18, 1878,

1861. Marks, William D., Professor , May 3, 1878,

1604. Marsh. Othniel C, Professor. , . Oct. 16, 1868,

2078. Marshall, John, M.D May 21, 1886,

2184. Mascart, E., Professor Dec. 19, 1890,

1572. Mason, Andrew, Jan'y 18, 1867,

2196. Maspero, Gaston, Professor . . . May 15, 1891,

2279. Mason, Wm. Pitts, M.D., Prof. . Feb. 28, 1896,

1677. Meehan, Thomas Jan'y 20, 1871,

2115. von Meltzel, Hugo, Prof. Dr. . Dec. 17, 1886,

2339. Melville, George Wallace,

Com. U. S. X Oct. 15, 1897,

2251. Mercer, Henry C. Feb. 15, 1895,

1903. Merrick, John Vaughan. . . . April 16, 1880,

1947. Merriman, Mansfield, Prof. . Oct. 21, 1881,

1744. Messchert,Mattheav Huizinga. Oct. 17, 1873,

2142. Michael, Mrs. Helen Abbott . May 20, 1887,

2284. MiNOT, Chas. Sedgwick, M.D, . May 15, 1896,

2175. Mitchell, Hon. James T. . , . Feb'y 21, 1890,

1461. Mitchell, S. Weir, M.D .... Jan'y 17, 1862,

2267. MONTEGAZZA, Paolo May 17, 1895,

2323. Moore, Clarence B Oct. 15, 1897,

2029. Moore, James W., M.D Jan'y 16, 1885,

1841. Morehouse, George. R., M.D. . April 20, 1877,

2340. Morley, Frank, Professor . . . Oct. 15, 1897,

1976. Morris, J. Cheston, M.D Jan'y 19, 1883,

2265. Morse, Edward S., Professor . . May 17, 1895,

2242. DE MORTILLET, GABRIEL . . . Feb. 15, 1895,

1577. Morton, Henry, President . . . Jan'y 18, 1867,

2121. Much, Dr. Matth^us Dec. 17, 1886,

2120. Mueller, Dr. Friederich . . .
1486. Mueller, F. Max, Professor . .
1866. Muhlenberg, Rev. Fred A. . ,
2192. Munroe, Charles E., Professor.

2062. Mubdock, J. B., Lieut. U.S.N . .

Dec.

17,

1886.

Jan'y

16,

1863,

Sept.

20,

1878,

May

15,

1891,

Feb'y

19,

1886,

Present Address.

Case School of Applied Science,
Cleveland, O.

119 N. 18th St., Philadelphia.

Lansdowne, Delaware Co., Pa*

Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania.

Princeton, N. J.

Princeton, N. J.

3700 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.

223 Market St., Harrisburg, Pa.

200 N. 19th St., Philadelphia.

Princeton, N. J.

160 W. 86th St., New York.

University of Virginia, Char-
lottesville, Va.

Cannelton, Beaver Co., Pa.

Lafayette College, Easton, Pa.

1014 Betz Bldg., Philadelphia.

Yale University, New Haven,
Conn.

1409 Spruce St,, Philadelphia.

176 Rue de 1' University, Paris.

30 and 32 Wall St., New York.

Paris, France.

Rensselaer Polytechnic Insti-
tute, Troy, N. Y.

Germantown, Philadelphia. ■

Koloszvar, Hungary.

Navy Dept., Washington, D. C.
Doylestown, Pa.
Roxborough, Philadelphia.
Lehigh Univ., Bethlehem, Pa.
Douglassville, Berks Co., Pa.
44 Mt. Vernon St., Boston, Mass.
Harvard Univ., Cambridge.
1722 Walnut St.. Philadelphia.
1524 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
Florence, Italy.
1321 Locust Street, Phila.
Lafayette College, Easton, Pa.
2033 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
Haver ford. Pa.

1514 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
Essex Institute, Salem, Mass.
St. Germain-en-Laye, France.
Hoboken, N. J.
XIII Penzingerstrasse 84,

Vienna.
XIII Marxergasse 24, Vienna.
Univ. Oxford, England.
34 S. 5th St., Reading, Pa.
Columbian Univ. Washington,

D. C.
Navy Dept., Washington, D.C.

XI

Name. Date of Election

1937. Murray, James A. H., Dr . . . April 15, 1881,

2087. DE Nadaillac, Marquis May 21, 1886,

2316. Nanskn, Fridtjof May 21, 1897,

1852. Newcomb, Simon, Professor . . . Jan'y 18, 1878,

1703. Nichols, Starr Hoyt July 19, 1872,

2060. NiKiTiN, Serge, Chief Geolog . Feb'y 19, 1866,

1805. NoRDEXSKiOLD, ADOLF ERic.Prof. April 21, 1876,

1712. NoRRis, Isaac, M.D Oct. 18, 1872,

2106. NoRRis, William F., M.D. . . . Dec. 17, 1886,

2046. North, Edward, LL.D., Prof . . Oct. 16, 1885,

2269. NuTTALL, Mrs. Zelia May 17, 1895,

Present Address.

Oxford, England.

18 Rue Duphot, Paris, France.

Lysaker, Norway.

U. S. Nautical Almanac Office,
Washington, D. C.

64 Exchange PL, NewYork,N.Y.

Geological Survey, St. Peters-
burg, Russia.

Stockholm, Sweden.

2043 Walnut St., Philadelphia.

1530 Locust St., Philadelphia.

Hamilton College, Clinton.N.Y.

Beuststrasse 17, Dresden.

O

2072. Ouver, Charles A., M.D. . . . Feb'y 19, 1886,

2354. Olney, Richard, Hon Dec. 17, 1897,

2195. Oppert, Julius, Professor Dr . . May 15, 1891,

2362. Ortmann. Arnold K, Prof . . . Dec. 17, 1897,

2320. Orton, Edward May 21, 1897,

2135. OSBORN, Henry F., Professor. . Feb'y 18, 1887,

2039. OSLER, WiLLlAil, M.D Jan'y 16, 1885,

1507 Locust St., Philadelphia.

23 Court Street, Boston.

Paris, France.

Princeton, N. J.

State University, Columbus, 0.

Amer. Museum of Natural His-
tory, New York City.

1 West Franklin St., Baltimore,
Md.

1=

1868. Packard, A. S., Dr Sept. 20, 1878,

1578. Packard, John H., M.D Jan'y 18, 1867,

1331. Paget, Sir James. Bart Jan'y 20, 1854,

2035. Patterson, C. Stuart Jan'y 16, 1885,

1282. Patterson, Robert April 18, 1851,

1320. Patterson, Thomas Leiper . . April 15, 1853,

2213.

Pattison, Robert E., Hon . . ,

Feb.

17,

1893,

2357.

Patton, Francis L., D.D., Pres't

Dec.

17,

1897,

1772.

Pearse, John B

Jan'y
May

15,

21,

1875,

2318.

Peckham, S. F

1897,

1859.

Peirce, C. Newliv, D.D.S. . . .

May

3,

1878.

1722.

Pemberton, Henry

Jan'y

17,

1873,

2104.

Penafiel, Antonio, Dr

May

21,

1886,

2073.

Pennypacker, Samuel W., Hon.

May

21,

1886,

1518.

Penrose, R. A. F., M.D

July

17,

1863,

2059.

Pepper, Edward, M.D

Feb'y

19,

1886,

2333.

Pepper, George Wharton . . .

Oct.

15,

1897,

1666.

Pepper. William, M.D

July

15,

1870,

2281.

Pettit, Henry

Feb.
May

28,
17,

1895,

2261.

Phelps, Edward J., Hon. . . .

1895,

2295.

Pickering, Edw. C, Professor .

May

15,

1896,

2342.

PiERSOL, George A , M.D

Oct.

15,

1897,

2277.

Pilsbry, Henry A., Professor. .

Dec.

20,

, 1895,

Providence, R. I.

Hotel Stenton, Philadelphia.

5 Park Square W., Regents
Park, London, England.

1000 Walnut St., Philadelphia.

329 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.

176 Washington St., Cumber-
land, Md.

5930 Drexel Rd., Overbrook, Pa.

Princeton, N. J.

317 Walnut Av., Roxbury, Mass-

Univ. Mich., Ann Arbor, Mich.

1415 Walnut St., Philadelphia.

1947 Locust St., Philadelphia.

Ciudad, Mexico, Mexico.

1540 N. 15th St., Philadelphia.

1331 Spruce St., Philadelphia.

El Afia, El Biar, Alger, Algerie.

701 Drexel Building, Phila.

1811 Spruce St., Philadelphia.

5951 Overbrook Ave., Phila.

Burlington, Vt.

Harvard Univ. Observatorj',
Cambridge, Mass.

Chester Ave. and 49th St., Phila.

Acad. Nat. ScL, Philadelphia.

Name.

1760. Platt, Fkanklin ;

2127. Platzmann, Julius, Dr

2053. PojUALOwsKY, John, Professor
1539. Porter, Thomas C, Rev. . . .
2097. PosTGATE, J. P., Professor . . .
2161. Powell, J. W., Major

1780. Prime, Frederick April 16, 1875,

2088. PULZSKY, Francis, Ur May 21, 1886,

1758. PUMPELLY, Raphael April 17, 1874,

2293. PUPIN, Michael I., Professor . . May 15, 1896,

2268. Putnam, F. W., Prof. May 15, 1895,

Date

of Election.

July

17, 1874,

Dec.

17, 1886,

Oct.

16, 1885,

Oct.

21, 1864,

May

21, 1886,

Oct.

18, 1889,

Present Address.
1617 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.
Reichsstrasse 2, Leipzig.
St. Petersburg, Russia.
Lafayette College, Easton, Pa.
Cambridge, England.
910 M. St., N. W., Washington,

D. C.
1008 Spruce St., Philadelphia.
Buda-Pesth, Hungary.
Newport, R. I.

7 Highland PI., Yonkers, N. Y.
Harvard Univ., Cambridge,

Mass.

2131. Rada, Juan de Dios-y Delgado, Dec. 17, 1880,

1736. Rand, Theodore D April 18, 1873,

1849. Randall, F. A., Dr Jan'y 18, 1878,

1644. Rawlinson, George, Professor . Oct. 15, 1869,

1765. Rawson, Sir Rawson W Oct. 16, 1874,

2099. Rayleigh, Lord May 21, 1886,

1784. Raymond, Rossiter W April 16, 1875,

1889. Remsen, Ira, Professor July 18, 1879,

1948. Renard, a. F., Professor .... Oct. 21, 1881,

1343. Renard, Charles, M.D Jan'y 20,1854,

1890. Renevier, E., Professor July 18, 1879,

1816. Reuleaux, F., Professor Dr . . . Feb'y 2, 1877,

2122. Reville, Albert, Professor Dr . Dec. 17, 1886,

2315. Rhoads, Samuel Neely .... May 21, 1897,

2226. Roberts, Isaac, Dr Oct. 20, 1893.

1957. Robins, James W., Rev April 21, 1882,

1390. Rogers, Fairman Jan'y 16, 1857,

2177.- Rogers, Robert W., Professor. . Feb'y 21, 1890,

"-1462. Rohrig, F. L. Otto, Professor . . April 18, 1862,

2050. ROLLETT, Hermann, Dr Oct. 16, 1885,

1907. Rood, Ogden N., Professor. . . . April 16, 1880,

2198. Rosengarten, Joseph G Oct. 16, 1891,

1964. deRosny, Leon, Professor, . . . July 21,1882,

1838. RoTHROCK, Joseph T., Professor April 20, 1877,

2291. Rowland, Henry A., Professor . May 15, 1896,

1620. RiJTiMEYER, Dr. Carl L., Prof. . Jan'y 15, 1869,

Calle de la Corredera baja de S.
Pablo No. 12, Madrid, Spain.

Radnor, Del. Co., Pennsylvania.

Warren, Pa.

Oxford, England.

68 Cornwall Gardens, Queen's-
gate, London S.W.. England.

TerlingPl.,Witham, Essex, Eng.

13 Bulling Slip, New York.N.Y.

Johns Hopkins Univ. Balti-
more, Md.

Acad, of Sci.,Brussels,Belgium.

Moscow, Russia.

Univ. Lausanne, Switzerland.

Ahornstrasse '2, Berlin.

21 Rue Guenegaud, Paris.

Acad. Nat. Sci.. Philadelphia.

Starfield, Crowborough, Sussex,
England.

Merion Station, Montg. Co., Pa.

Univ. of Pa., Philadelphia.

Drew Theological Seminary,
Madison, N. J.

Los Angeles, Cal.

Baden bei Wlen, Austria.

Columbia College, New York
City.

1704 Walnut St., Philadelphia.

47 Ave. Duquesne, Paris.

West Chester, Pa.

Johns Hopkins Univ., Balti-
more, Md.

Basle, Switzerland.

2230. Sachse, Julius F Feb'y 16, 1894,

1766. Sadtler, Samuel P., Prof. . . . Oct. 16, 1874,

2148. Sajous, Charles E., M.D ... . Feb'y 17, 1888,

2358. Sampson, Alden. Dec. 17, 1897,

4128 Pine St., Philadelphia.
1042 Drexel Building, Phila.
2043 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
Haverford, Pa.

Name. Bate of Election.

1563. Sandberger, Fredolin, Prof. . April 20, 18G6,

2327. Sanders, Richard H Oct. 15, 1897,

1958. Sargent, Charles Sprague, Prof. April 21,1882,

1730. Saussure, Henri de April 18, 1873,

2211. SCHAFFER, Charles, M.D. . . . Feb'y 17, 1893,

1498. ScHOTT, Charles Anthony, Prof. April 17,1863,

1864. Schurz, Carl, Hon Sept. 20, 1878,

1725. ScLATER, Phillip Lutley April 18, 1873,

2112. Scott, W. B., Prof. ....
1870. Scudder, Sajiuel Hubbard
2352. See, T.J. J, Ph.D. .

Dr.

1704. Sellers, Coleman . .
1533. Sellers, William. . .
1770. Selwyn, Alfred R. C. ,
2057. Sergi, Giuseppe, Prof.
2076. Sharp, Benjamin, M.D.
1944. Sharples, Philip Price
1960. Sharples, Stephen Paschall.
1797. Sherwood, Andrew . .
1822. Shields, Chas. W., D.D..
2351. Smith, A. Donaldson, M.D ,
2146. Smith, Edgar F., Professor .

1789. Smith, Stephen, M.D

2335. Smock, John C

2141. Smyth, Albert H., Professor,
2229. Snellen, Herman, Jr., Dr. . .

1724. Snowden, a. Loudon

2009. Snyder, Monroe B., Professor .

1720. Spofford, a. R.,

2332. Squibb, Edward R., M.D ....

1949. Stallo, Hon. John B

2348. Stephens, H. Morse, Prof. . . .
1990. Stevens, Walter LeConte, Prof.

1840. Stevenson, John James, Prof. . April 20, 1877,

2276. Stevenson, Sara Y Oct. 18, 1895,

2168. Stokes, Sir George G Dec. 20, 1889,

2193. Stdbbs, William, Rt. Rev., D.D. May 15, 1891,

2094. SuESS, Edward, Professor .... May 21, 1886.

2258. Sulzberger, Mayer, Hon. . . . May 17, 1895,

2092. SzoMBATHY, JosEF, Profcssor . . May 21, 1886,

Dec.

17,

1886,

Sept.

20,

1878,

Dec.

17,

1897,

July

19,

1872,

April

15,

1864,

Oct.

16,

1874,

Oct.

16,

1885.

May

21,

188G,

Oct.

21,

1881,

April

21,

1882,

Oct.

15,

1875,

Feb'y

2

1877,

Oct.

15,

1897,

Oct.

21,

1887,

Oct.

15,

1875,

Oct.

15,

1897,

May

20,

1887,

Feb'y

16

1894,

Oct.

17,

1873,

Jan'y

18.

1884,

Jan'y

17.

1873.

Oct.

15,

1897,

Oct.

21,

1881,

Oct.

15,

1897,

Jan'y

18,

1884,

Present Address.

Univ. of Wiirtzburg, Bavaria.

1225 Locust St., Philadelphia.

Jamaica Plain, Mass.

Geneva, Switzerland.

1309 Arch St., Philadelphia.

U. S. Coast and Geodetic Sur-
vey, Washington, D. C.

54 William St., New York, N.Y.

3 Hanover Square, London,
England.

Princeton, N. J.

Cambridge, Mass.

Lowell Observatory. Flagstaff,
Ariz.

3301 Baring St., Philadelphia.

Clifton, Edgemoor, Delaware.

28 Nepean St., Ottawa, Canada.

UniversitaRomana, Rome, Italy

317 X. 35th St., Philadelphia.

West Chester, Pennsylvania.

13 Broad St., Boston. Mass.

Mansfield, Tioga Co., Penua.

Princeton, N. J.

ISll Walnut St., Philadelphia.

210 S. 37th St., Philadelphia.

57 W. 42d St., New York, N. Y.

Trenton, N. J.

Radnor, Delaware Co., Pa.
Utrecht, Netherlands.

1812 Spruce St., Philadelphia.

2402 N. Broad St., Philadelphia.

Washington, D. C.

Brooklyn, N. Y.

Cincinnati, O.

Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y.

Rensselaer Polytechnic Insti-
tute, Troy, N. Y.

Univ. Heights, New York, N.Y.

237 S. 21st St., Philadelphia.

Linfield Cottage, Cambridge,
England.

Cleveden Palace, Oxford, Eng.

Geol. Reichsanstalt, Vienna.

1303 Girard Ave., Philadelphia.

Burgring 7, Vienna, Austria.

T

2328. Tatham, William Oct. 15, 1897,

1786. Tatham, William P April 16, 1875,

2243. Taylor, Isaac, D.D., Rev. . . . Feb'y 15, 1895,
2098. Temple, Richard C a r n a c ,

Lieut-Col May 21, 1886,

2289. Tesla, Nikola May 15, 1896,

1811 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
1420 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
York, England.

Government House, Port Blair,
Andeman Islands, E. Indies.
46 E. Houston St., New York
City.

XIV

Name. Date of Election.

2006. Thomas, Allen C, Piofessor. . Jan'y 18, 1881,

1993. Thompson, Heber S Jan'y 18, 1884,

1726. Thompson, Sir Henry April 18, 1873,

1807. Thomson, Elihu, Professor . . . April 21, 1876,

1754. Thomson, Frank April 17, 1874,

1909. Thomson, William, M.D April 16, 1880,

2052. IM Thurn, Everard F Oct. 16, 1885,

1530. Thury, a., Professor April 15, 1864,

1688. TiLGHMAN, Benjamin C, Gen . . July 21, 1871,

1233. TiLGHMAN, Richard A. .... . April 16, 1847,

1657. TiLGHMAN, William M Jan'y 21,1870,

2176. TiMMiNS, Samuel Feb. 21, 1890,

2123. TopiNARD, Dr. Paul Dec. 17, 1886,

2065. TOPPAN, Robert Noxon Feb'y 19, 1886,

2249. Tower, Charlemagne, Jr., Hon. Feb'y 15,1895,

2309. Trimble, Henry Feb. 19, 1897,

2288. Trowbridge, John, Professor . . May 15, 1896,

2024. Trumbull, Henry C, D.D., Rev. July 18, 1884,

2321. Tschernyschew, Theodore. . . May 21, 1897,

1973. Tschermak, Gustav, Oct. 20, 1882,

1529. V. TuNNER, Peter R., Professor. . April 15, 1864,

1983. TuRRETTiNi, Theodore, Prof . Dec. 19, 1890,

2166. TUTTLE, David K Oct. 18, 1889,

2163. Tyler, Lyon G., Hon., President Oct. 18,1889,

2138. Tyson, James, M.D May 20, 1887,

Present Address,
Haverford, Pa.
Pottsville, Pa.
35 Wimpole St., Cavendish

Square, London, England.
Swampscott , Mass.
Merion, Penna.
1426 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
Pomeroon River, Georgetown,

British Guiana, S. A.
Univ. Geneva, Switzerland.
1114Girard St., Philadelphia.
321 S. 11th St., Philadelphia.
1114 Girard St., Philadelphia.
Arley,near Coventry, England.
105 Rue de Rennes, Paris.
10 Highland St., Cambridge,

U.S. Embassy, Vienna, Austria.
St. David's, Pennsylvania
Harv. Univ., Cambridge, Mass.
1031 Walnut St., Philadelphia.
Geological Survey, St. Peters-
burg, Russia.
Universittit. Vienna. Austria.
Leoben, Austria.
Geneva, Switzerland.
U. S. Mint, Philadelphia.
Williamsburg, Va.
1506 Spruce St., Philadelphia.

2185. Unwin, William C, Professor.

TJ

Dec. 19,

7 Palace Gate Mansions, Lon-
don, England.

"V

2325. Vaux, George, Jr

2045. de Verb, M. Schele, Professor

1475. Virchow, Rudolph, Prof. Dr . .
1670. VosE, George L., Professor . . .

2186. VossioN, Louis

Oct. 15, 1897, 404 Girard Building, Phila.

Oct. 16, 1885, University of Virginia, Char-
lottesville, Albemarle Co., Va.

Oct. 17, 1862, Universitat, Berlin, Germany.

Oct. 21, 1870, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Boston.

Dec. 19, 1890, Consulate of France, Honolulu.

-VT

2034. Wagner, Samuel Jan'y 16, 1885,

1748. Wahl, William H Jan'y 16, 1874,

2331. Walcott, Charles D., Director. Oct. 15, 1897,

1724. Wallace, Alfred R April 18, 1873,

133 S. 12th St., Philadelphia.
15 S. 7th St., Philadelphia.
U. S. Geological Survey, Wash-
ington, D. C.
Parkstone, Dorset, England.

Name. Date of Election .

2156. Ward, Lester F May 17, 1889,

23.39. Wakfield, Ethelbert D.,Pres't Dec. 17, 1897,

2033. Weil, Edward Henry Jan'y 16, 1885,

2028. Weisbach, Prof. Dr. Albin. . . Jan'y 16, 1885,

2286. Welch, William H., M.D. . . . May 15, 1896,

1639. Wharton, Joseph April 16, 1869,

1637. White. Andrew D., Professor. April 16, 1869,

1848. White, Israel C, Professor . . Jan'y 18, 1878,

1863. Wilder, Burt G., Professor . . May 3, 1878,

2250. WiLLCox, Joseph Feb. 15, 1895,

2317. Williams, Edward H., Jr., Prof. Oct. 15, 1897,

2114. Williams, Sir Monier-Monier.. Dec. 17, 1886,

2151. Williams, Talcott May 18, 1888,

2178. Willis, Henry, Professor .... Feb'y 21, 1890,

2041. Wilson, James Cornelius. M.D. Jan'y 16, 1885,

1747. WII.SON, Joseph M Jan'y 16, 1874,

2137. Wilson, William P., M.D. . . May 20, 1887,

2341. Wilson, Woodrow, Professor . . Oct. 15, 1897,

2220. Wistar, Gen. Isaac J May 19, 1893,

2314. Wister, Owen May 21, 1897,

2343. Witmer. Lightner, Professor. . Oct. 15, 1897,

1884. Wood, Richard April 18, 1879,

1762. Woodward, Henry July 17, 1874,

1751. Wootten, J. E Jan'y 16, 1874,

2J90. Wright, Arthur W., Professor . May 15, 1896,

2244. Wundt, William, Professor. . . Feb. 15, 1895,

1932. Worts, Dr. Charles Stewart . Jan'y 21, 1881,

2061. Wyckoff, Lieut. A. B Feb'y 19, 1886,

Present Address.

1464 Rhode Island Ave., Wash-
ington, D. C.

Easton, Pennsylvania.

1720 Pine St., Philadelphia.

Bergdkad, Freiberg, Saxony.

Johns Hopkins Univ., Balti-
more, Md.

P. O. Box 1332. Philadelphia.

Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y.

West Virginia Univ., Morgan-
town, W. Va.

Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N. Y.

The Gladstone, Philadelphia.

Lehigh Univ., Bethlehem, Pa.

Onslow Gardens, London S.W.,
England.

916 Pine Street, Philadelphia.

4036 Baring St., Philadelphia.

1437 Walnut St., Philadelphia.

1036 Drexel Building, Phila.

640 N. 32d St., Philadelphia.

Princeton, N. J.

269 Broad Street Station, Phila.

328 Chestnut Street, Phila.

University of Penna., Phila.

1620 Locust St , Philadelphia.

British Museum, London S.W.,
England.

226 N. 6th Ave., Reading, Pa.

Yale Univ., New Haven, Conn.

Leipzig, Germany.

1701 Walnut St., Philadelphia.

North Yakima, Washington.

1904. Yarnall, Ellis April 16, 1880, 105 S. Front St , Philadelphia.

1759. Young, Charles Augustus, Prof. April 17,1874, Princeton, N. J.

Proceediogs Amer. Philos. Soc.

nXVI, No. 154.

Scales of Sagenodus. Natural size.

Proc. Am. Fhilos. 3oc. Voi.X.XXVI.

PLATE 11

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PROCEEDINGS. AM. PHILOS. SOC.

VOL. XXXVI, No. 155, PLATE IV.

^It

Australian Rmk I'arvings.

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PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. SOC.

VOL. XXXVI, No. 156, PLATE VIII.

Plate VIII.— The Pelican feeding its young with its bh)od.
bolic design in possession of Henry K. Gross, of Plumsteadville.

Sacred sym-

PROCEEDINGS AM. PHILOS. SOC.

VOL. XXXVI, No. 156, PLATE X.

3 :>;>^

CaveZ

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PEOCEEDINGS

JUN 2 1897

OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,
HELD AT PHILADELPHIA, FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDfiii.

^^

Vol. XXXVI. LlJW^ January, 1897. No. 154.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Stated Meeting, January i, 1897 1

Stated Meeting, January 15, 1897 2

The Species of the Grenus Melanoplus. By Samuel H.
SCUDDER 5

The Finding of the Remains of the Fossil Sloth at Big
Bone Cave, Tennessee, in 1896 (illustrated). By Henry
C. Mercer 36

On New Paleozoic Yertebrata from Illinois, Ohio and Penn-
sylvania (with three plates). By E. D. Cope , 71

Stated 3Ieeting, Fehi^uary 5, 1897 92

The Genesis and Chemical Relations of Petroleum and
Natural Gas. By Samuel P. Sadtler, Ph.D 93

On the Nature and Origin of Petroleum. By S. F. Peckham. 1'03

A Suggestion as to the Origin of Pennsylvania Petroleum.
By David T. Day , 112

On the Genesis of Natural Gas and Petroleum. By Francis
C. Phillips 116

On the Occurrence of Petroleum in the Cavities of Fossils.
By Francis C. Phillips 121

On the Composition of American Petroleum. By Charles
F. Mabery 126

Discussion 136

Philadelphia :

The American Philosophical Society,

104 South Fifth Street,

1897.

No. 153 of the Proceedings, completing
Volume XXXV for the year 1896, is not yet
published, but will be issued shortly.

It is requested that all correspondence be addressed

To THE Secretaries of the

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,
104 South Fifth Street,

Philadelphia, U. S. A.

Members will please communicate any change of address or
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It is requested that the receipt of this number be ac-
knowledged.

Members who have not as yet sent their photographs to the
Society will confer a favor by so doing ; cabinet size preferred.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

American Philosophical Society,

Held at Philadelphia,
For Promoting Useful Knowledge.

Vol. X VIII, New Series, ^to, pp. 282, with jo Plates.
Lately published.

CONTENTS.

Art. I.— Old Babylonian Inscriptions, Chiefly from Nippur. Part

I. By H. V. HiLPRECHT, Ph.D.

Art. II.— The Mammalia of the Deep River Beds. By W. B.
Scott.

Art. III.— The Classification of the Ophidia. By E. D. Cope.

Art. IV.— Old Babylonian Inscriptions, Chiefly from Nippur. Part

II. By H. V. HiLPRECHT, Ph.D.

VoL XIX, New Series, Part I, ^to, pp. ig8, with j
Plates, y^tst published.

CONTENTS.

Art. I.— A New Method of Determining the General Perturba-
tions of the Minor Planets. By William McKnight
RITTER, M.A.

Art II.— An Essay on the Development of the Mouth Parts of
Certain Insects. By John B. Smith, Sc.D.

SUBSCRIPTION— FIVE DOLLARS PER VOLUME.

SEPARATE PARTS ARE NOT SOLD.

A few complete sets of the Transactions, New Series,

Volumes I-XVIII, can be obtained.

Price, Ninety Dollars.

Address THE LIBRARIAN OF THE

American Philosophical Society,
No. 104 South Fifth Street,

Philadelphia, U. S. A.

Magellanic Premium

FOUNDED IN 1 7^6, BY

JOHN HYACINTH DE MAGELLAN,
OF London.

18Q7.
The American Philosophical Society,

Held at Philadelphia, for Promoting Useful Knowledge,

ANNOUNCES THAT IN

DECEMBER, 1897,

IT WILL AWARD ITS

MAGELLANIC GOLD MEDAL

to the author of the best discovery, or most useful invention, relating to Navi-
gation, Astronomy, or Natural Philosophy (mere natural history
only excepted) under the following conditions :

1. The candidate shall, on or before November i, 1897, deliver, free
of postage or other charges, his discovery, invention or improvement,
addressed to the President of the American Philosophical Society, No.
104 South Fifth Street, Philadelphia, U. S. A., and shall distinguish his
performance by some motto, device, or other signature. With his dis-
covery, invention, or improvement, he shall also send a sealed letter
contaming the same motto, device, or signature, and subscribed with the
real name and place of residence of the author.

2. Persons of any nation, sect or denomination whatever, shall be
admitted as candidates for this premium.

3. No discovery, invention or improvement shall be entitled to this
premium, which hath been already published, or for which the author
hith been publicly rewarded elsewhere.

4. The candidate shall communicate his discovery, invention or im-
provement, either in the English, French, German, or Latin language.

5. A full account of the crowned subject shall be published by the
Society, as soon as may be after the adjudication, either in a separate
publication, or in the next succeeding volume of their Transactions, or
in both.

6. The premium shall consist of an oval plate of solid standard gold
of the value often guineas, suitably inscribed, with the seal of the Society
annexed to the medal by a ribbon.

All correspondence in relation hereto should be addressed
To THE Secretaries of the

American Philosophical Society,

No. 104 South Fifth Street,

PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A.

I

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

a.merican philosophical society,,

held at phiiadeiphia, lor promoting usepl'l knowledge.

' ij:7

Vol. XXXVI. ^i.^'g., Mat, 1897. • No, 155,

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Stated Meeting, February 19, 1897 141

Stated Meeting, March 5, 1897 , 142

Stated Meeting, March 19, 1897 143

The Insulating Medium Surrounding a Conductor, the
Real Path of its Current (illustrated). By Edwin J.

Houston, Ph.D., and A. E. Kennelly, Sc.D 144

Discussion l'3'O

Stated Meeting, April 2, 1897 175

Stated Meeting, April 2S, 1897 178

Relation of the Pentagonal Dodecahedron Found Near
Marietta, Ohio, to Shamanism. B}^ J. Cheston Morris,

M.D 179

Remarks on Shamanism. By Frank Hamilton Cushing. . 183

Stated Meeting, May 7, 1897 .■ 192

Australian Rock Carvings (with one plate). By R. H.

Mathews, L.S 195

On the Transitive Substitution Groups that are Simply Iso-
morphic to the Svmmetric or the Alternating Group of

Degree Six. By <&. A. Miller, Ph.D 208

Stated Meeting, May 13, 1897 216

Geology of the Paleozoic Area of Arkansas South of the
Novaculite Region (illustrated). By George H. Ashley,

Ph.D 217

Stated Meeting, May 21, 1897 319

International Arbitration. By Hon. George F. Edmunds. . 320

philadelphia :

The American Philosophical Society,

104 South Fifth Street,

1897.

It is requested that all correspondence be addressed

To THE Secretaries of the

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY,
104 South Fifth Street,

Philadelphia, U. S. A.

Members will please communicate to the Secretaries any
inaccuracy in name or address as given on the wrapper of this
number.

It is requested that the receipt of this number of the
Proceedings be acknowledged to the Secretaries.

Members who have not as yet sent their photographs to the
Society will confer a favor by so doing ; cabinet size preferred.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

American Philosophical Society,

Held at Philadelphia,
For Promoting Useful Knowledge.

Vol. X VIII, Nezu Series, ^to, pp. 282, with jo Plates,
Lately published.

CONTENTS. »

Art. I.— Old Babylonian Inscriptions, Chiefly from Nippur. Part

I. By H. V. Hilprecht, Ph.D.

Art. II. — The Mammalia of the Deep River Beds. By W. B.
Scott.

Art. III.— The Classification of the Ophidia. By E. D. COPE.

Art. IV.— Old Babylonian Inscriptions, Chiefly from Nippur. Part

II. By H. V. Hilprecht, Ph.D.

Vol. XIX, New Series, Part I, ^fo, pp. ig8, with j
Plates, ytist ptiblished.

CONTENTS.

Art. I. — A New Method of Determining the General Perturba-
tions of the Minor Planets. By William McKnight
Ritter, M.A.

Art II.— An Essay on the Development of the Mouth Parts of
Certain Insects. By John B. Smith, Sc.D.

SUBSCRIPTION— FIVE DOLLARS PER VOLUME,

SEPARATE PARTS ARE NOT SOLD.

A few complete sets of the Transactions, New Series,

Volumes I-XVIII, can be obtained.

Price, Ninety Dollars.

Address THE LIBRARIAN OF THE

American Philosophical Society,

No. 104 South Fifth Street,

Philadelphia, U. S. A.

Magellanic Premiuivi.

FOUNDED IN 1 786, BY

JOHN HYACINTH DE MAGELLAN,
OF London.

1897.
The American Philosophical Society,

Held at Philadelphia, for Promoting Useful Knowledge,

ANNOUNCES THAT IN

DKCEIVLBER, 1897,

IT WILL AWARD ITS

MAGELLANIC GOLD MEDAL

to the author of the best discovery, or most useful invention, relating to Navi-
gation, Astronomy, or Natural Philosophy (mere natural history
only excepted) under the following conditions :

1. The candidate shall, on or before November i, 1897, deliver, free
of postage or other charges, his discovery, invention or improvement,
addressed to the President of the American Philosophical Society, No.
104 South Fifth Street, Philadelphia, U. S. A., and shall distinguish his
performance by some motto, device, or other signature. With his dis-
covery, invention, or improvement, he shall also send a sealed letter
containing the same motto, device, or signature, and subscribed with the
real name and place of residence of the author,

2. Persons of any nation, sect or denomination v^^hatever, shall be
admitted as candidates for this premium.

3. No discovery, invention or improvement shall, be entitled to this
premium, which hath been already published, or for which the author
hath been publicly rewarded elsewhere.

4. The candidate shall communicate his discovery, invention or im-
provement, either in the English, French, German, or Latin language.

5. A full account of the crowned subject shall be published by the
Society, as soon as may be after the adjudication, either in a separate
publication, or in the next succeeding volume of their TransacUons, or
in both.

6. The premium shall consist of an oval plate of solid standard gold
of the value of ten guineas, suitably inscribed, with the seal of the Society
annexed to the medal by a ribbon.

All correspondence in relation hereto should be addressed
To THE Secretaries of the

American Philosophical Society,

No. 104 South Fifth Street,

PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A.

?^AR 15 IfiSB PROCEEDINGS /

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

HELD AT PniLADELPHL^ FOR PROMOTING USEFUL RNOWlEDfiB.

Vol. XXXYI. December, 1897. No. 156.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Stated Meeting, September S, 1897 325

A Geological Reconnaissance of the Coal Fields of the In-
dian Territoiy (with maps and illustrations). By Noah

Fields Drake 326

Stated 3Ieeting, SejJtev^ber 17, 1897 420

The Span of Life. By Robert P. Field 420

The Survival of the Medii^val Art of Illuminative Writing
among Pennsylvania Germans (illustrated). By Henry

C. Mercer , 424

Stated Meeting^ October i, 1897 433

Special Meeting, October 11, 1897 434

The Variation of Terrestrial Latitude. B}^ C. L. Doolittle 434
The Measurement of Thought as Function. By Daniel G.

Brinton, M.D . 438

Stated Meeting, October 15, 1897. 440

Sjjecial Meeting, October 29, 1897 442

Some Results of the Norwegian Polar Expedition, 1893-96.

By Dr. Fridtjof Nansen 442

Remarks on Polar Expedition. By Commodore George W.

Melville 454

Remarks on Polar Expedition. Bj- Prof. Angelo Heilprin 461

Stated Meeting, November 5, 1897 464

Adjourned Stated Meeting, November 10, 1897 465

Adjourned Stated Electing, November 17, 1897 465

Stated Meeting, November 19, 1897 465

Rock Carvings and Paintings of the Australian Aborigines

(with plate). By R. H. Mathews, L.S 466

Stated Meeting, December 3, 1897 478

The Passamaquoddy Wampum Records. B}' J. Dyneley

Prince, Ph.D 479

The Ethnic Affinities of the Guetares of Costa Rica. By

Daniel G. Brinton, M D 496

Stated Meeting, December 17, 1897 499

philadelphia :

The American Philosophical Society,

104 South Fifth Street,

1898.

Henry M. Phillips Prize Essay.

Philadelphia, 104 South Fifth Street,

April 5, 1897.

THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY held at
Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge has the honor
to announce that an award of the Henry M. Phillips Prize will be
made during the year 1899 ; essays for the same to be in the posses-
sion of the Society before the first day of May, 1899. The subject
upon which essays are to be furnished by competitors is :

The devalopmsni of the law, as illustrated by the
decisions relating to the police power of the State.

The €3say shall not contain more than one hundred thousand
words, excluding notes. Such notes, if any, should be kept sepa-
rate as an Appendix.

The Prize for the crowned essay will be two thousand dollars
lawful gold coin of the United States, to be paid as soon as may be
after the award. The Society invites attention to the regulations
governing said prize, which accompany this circular.

William V. McKean, Craig Biddle, Mayer Sulzberger,
C. Stuart Patterson, Joseph C. Fraley, Frederick Fraley,
President 0/ the Society, Horace J ayne, M.D.,^ Treasurer
of the Society, Committee on the Henry M. Phillips Prize
Essay Fund.
The essays must be sent, addressed to Frederick Fraley,
President of the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.

* Elected Treasurer American Philosophical Society, January 7, 1898, in place of J. Sergeant
Price, Esq., deceased, August 16, 1897.

RKOUIvATIONS.

Competitors for the prize shall affix to their essays some motto or name (not the
proper name of the author, however), and when the essay is forwarded to the Society
it shall be accompanied by a sealed envelope, containing within, the proper name of
the author, and. on the outside thereof, the motto or name adopted for the essay.

At a stated meeting of the Society, in pursuance of the advertisement, all essays
received up to that time shall be referred to a Committee of Judges, to consist of five
persons, who shall be selected by the Society from nomination of ten persons made
by the Standing Committee on the Henry M. Phillips Prize Essay Fund.

Essays may be written in English, French, German, Dutch, Italian, Spanish or
Latin ; but, if in any language except English, must be accompanied by an English
translation of the same.

No treatise or essay shall be entitled to compete for the prize that has been
already ptiblished or printed, or for which the author has received already any prize,
profit, or honor, of any nature whatsoever.

All essays must be clearly and legibly written or printed on one side of the
paper only.

The literary property of such essays shall be in their authors, subject to the right
of the Society to publish the crowned essay in its Transactions or Proceedings.

Magellanic Premiu/vi.

FOUNDED IN 1786, BY

JOHN HYACINTH de MAGELLAN,
OF London.

1898.
The American Philosophical Society,

Held at Philadelphia, for Promoting Useful Knowledge

ANNOUNCES THAT IN

DKCEMBER, 1898,

IT WILL AWARD ITS

MAGELLANIC GOLD MEDAL

to the author of the best discovery, or most useful invention, relating to Navi-
gation, Astronomy, or Natural Philosophy (mere natural history
only excepted) under the following conditions :

1. The candidate shall, on or before November i, 1898 deliver, free
of postage or other charges, his discovery, invention or improvement,
addressed to the President of the American Philosophical Society, No.
104 South Fifth Street, Philadelphia, U. S. A., and shall distinguish his
performance by some motto, device, or other signature. With his dis-
covery, invention, or improvement, he shall also send a sealed letter
containing the same motto, device, or signature, and subscribed with the
real name and place of residence of the author.

2. Persons of any nation, sect or denomination whatever, shall be
admitted as candidates for this premium.

3. No discovery, invention or improvement shall be entitled to this
premium, which hath been already published, or for which the author
hath been publicly rewarded elsewhere.

4. The candidate shall communicate his discovery, invention or im-
provement, either in the English, French, German, or Ladn language.

5. A full account of the crowned subject shall be published by the
Society, as soon as maybe after the adjudication, either in a separate
publication, or in the next succeeding volume of their Transactions, or
in both.

6. The premium shall consist of an oval plate of solid standard gold
of the value often guineas, suitably inscribed, with the seal of the Society
annexed to the medal by a ribbon.

All correspondence in relation hereto should be addressed
To THE Secretaries of the

American Philosophical Society,

No. 104 South Fifth Street,

PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

American Philosophical Society,

Held at Philadelphia,
For Promoting Useful Knowledge.

Vol. X VIII, New Series, ^to, pp. 282, with jo Plates.
Lately pitblished.

CONTENTS.

Art. I.— Old Babylonian Inscriptions, Chiefly from Nippur. Part

I. By H. V. HILPRECHT, PH.D.

Art. IL— The Mammalia of the Deep River Beds. By W. B.
Scott.

Art. III.— The Classification of the Ophidia. By E. D. Cope.

Art. IV.— Old Babylonian Inscriptions, Chiefly from Nippur. Part

II. By H. V. HILPRECHT, Ph.D.

Vol. XIX, New Series, Part /, ^to, pp. ig8, zuith j
Plates. Just pttblished.

CONTENTS.

Art. I. — A New Method of Determining the General Perturba-
tions of the Minor Planets. By William McKnight
RiTTER, M.A.

Art II.— An Essay on the Development of the Mouth Parts of
Certain Insects. By John B. Smith, Sc.D.

SUBSCRIPTION— FIVE DOLLARS PER VOLUME.

SEPARATE PARTS ARE NOT SOLD.

A few complete sets of the Transactions, New Series,

Volumes I-XVIII, can be obtained.

Price, Ninety Dollars.

Address THE LIBRARIAN OF THE

American Philosophical Society,

No. 104 South Fifth Street,

Philadelphia, U. S. A.

3 2044'"093 31 o' 522

Date Due

"^t

m.