i^SSllk^:^^a^

SdO.Z

library of iljc P^uscitm

OF

COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY,

AT HARVARD COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
JFounticti hj) prfbate sutsccfplfon, fn 1861.

From the Library of LOUIS AGASSIZ.

No. V-^. /-^

PROCEEDINGS

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA

PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE

Vol IX

JANUARY 1862 TO DECEMBER 1864

PHILADELPHIA:
PEINTED FOR THE SOCIETY

BY SHERMAN &, CO.

^1865.

PROCEEDINGS

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Vol. IX. JANUARY, 1862. No. 67.

Stated Meeting, January 3, 1862.

Present, eleven members.

Dr. Franklin Bache, in the Chair. .

The judges and clerks of the annual election, held this day.
reported the appointment of the following officers :

President.
George B. Wood, M.D.

Vice-Presidents.
John C. Cresson,
Isaac Lea,
George Sharswood.

Secretaries.
Charles B. Trego,
E. Otis Kendall,
John L. Le Conte, M'.D.,
J. Peter Lesley.

Counsellors for Three Years.
Isaac Hays,

Robert E. Rogers, M.D.,
Henry C. Carey,
Robert Bridges.

VOL. IX. — A

(January.

Curatoi'S.
Franklin Peale,
Elias Durancl,
Joseph Carson, M.D.

Treasurer.
Charles B. Trego,

Letters acknowledging the receipt of publications, were
received from the R. Saxon Society, dated Leipsig, August
1, the Royal Society, dated London, July 1, and the Lon-
don Linnean Society, dated July 14th, 1861.

Letters announcing donations to the Society were read
from the Imperial Society of Naturalists, dated Moscow,
June 1-13, the Lnperial Academy at Vienna, dated June 25,
the R. Saxon Society at Leipsig, dated July 9, and 30, the
Society at Gorlitz, dated July 30, the Society at Gcittingen,
dated July 19, and the Society at Marburg, dated August 14,
1861, desiring an exchange of publications. The Marburg
Society was ordered to be placed on the list of correspon-
dents, to receive the Proceedings.

A letter was read from the Directors of the U. S. Naval
Observatory at Washington, which Institution was ordered
to be placed on the list of correspondents, to receive as full a
series of the Transactions as can be made up.

Donations for the Library were received from the Aca-
demies and Societies at St. Petersburg, Moscow, Vienna,
Leipsig, Gorlitz, Marburg, Gcittingen, Haarlem, and Dijon ;
the School of Mines at Paris ; the Royal and Linnean Socie-
ties of London ; Prof. Secchi, of Rome ; the Director of the
U. S. Observatory at Washington ; the Director of the U.
S. Mint at Philadelphia; C. M. Wheatley, of Phoenixville ;
Charles Ellet, Jr., and Joseph Lesley, of Philadelphia.

Mr, Peale called the attention of the Society to the resume
of recent Antiquarian Science of Prof. Morlot, of Geneva,
published by the Smithsonian Institution ; and exhibited a
specimen, from his own cabinet, of a saw-like stone, resem-

1862.] 3 [Lesley

bling the implements ■with crenulated edges described as saws
by Prof. Morlot.

Prof. Lesley presented three short original Vocabularies of
African Dialects, obtained by Rev. Alexander Crummell,
from among four hundred recaptured slaves, landed from a
United States war vessel at Sino, in Liberia.

The following words were obtained by the Rev. Mr. Crummell,
from a crowd of recaptured Africans, landed at Sino, in Liberia,
about two hundred miles west of Cape Palmas. The slaves were
about four hundred in number, and apparently of four or five distinct
nationalities, each group conversing and keeping apart. Mr. Crum-
mell had the aid of several intelligent interpreters whom he found
among them, and took great pains to secure both the true words and
the correct pronunciation. As the English language is gradually
supplanting the native African dialects along that coast, every au-
thentic addition to our collections becomes valuable. In re-writing
these words I have employed the continental vowels. The v is a
pure English v, and the consonants are written double only when
clearly pronounced double. The most striking feature of these little
vocabularies, is the application of almost the same dental dissyllable to
a number of very dissimilar objects. I refer to the words Ade (1),
Ato (3), Ane (4), Ede (6), Afie (8), lonu (woman), Addo (stomach),
Adu (teeth), Ade (tongue), Edda (hair), Etta (head), Etto (ear),
Ido (eye). I suspected that some error had been occasioned by the
use of pantomimic references to the members of the head, and that
thereby the word for head was offered, when words for eye, ear, hair,
tongue, teeth, &c., were required. But Mr. Crummell assured me
that this source of error was carefully guarded against. We find the
analogues of this dental dissyllable in the list of words meaning head,
published in Vol. VII, page 151 of the Proceedings of this Society,
among the Indian languages of America, in e. x. the Naguiler <Pie,
the Chippewayan ed^le; among the European languages, in the
French tete, the Wallzau totao, the Caucasian diidi and adada, the
Siberian t^, Chinese teu, and Manchu iuhu. "We find the same form
meaning hair in the Vogul and Samoied words of/a, yta, yt, at, aetl,
and tue. It is remarkable how rarely this simple dental form occurs
in that list; and that the confounding of head and hair under this
form occurs in the same reofion.

Lesley.]

[January.

Popo and Jelakufi

Awusa People.

Dahomi.

People.

1.

Uli,

Ade,

Dok-po.

2.

Biu,

Erver,

O'-we.

3.

Oku,

Urtong,

A-to.

4.

Hodu,

Ane,

E'ne.

5.

Biat,

Etong,

A-tong.

6.

Sid-da,

Ede,

Ai-ise.

7.

Bok-koi,

De-din-ne,

Teg-we.

8.

Tok-quos,

Aiie,

Ta^to.

9.

Tera,

'Shaki,

Te'-ne.

10.

Go-mer,*

Eo,

0^-0.

Sun.

Allar,

( Don-kus-so,
1 Er-we,

We'-di-ve.

Moon .

Wa-ta,

U-la-ti,

O'-su.

Man.

Bar-bar,

Er-wu-su,

Su-nu.

Woman.

Mut-chi,

En-nun-nu,

lo-nu.

Hand.

Han-nu,

Al-lo,

Al-lo-pa.

Foot.

Koppa,

Af-fo,

Af-fo.

Face.

Fis-ca,

E'-u-ma,

An-nu-ku-m

Stomach.

Chik-i,

Ad-do,

Ad-do-go.

Arm.

Dum-si,

Ab-lo,

A'-wa'.

Teeth.

Hai-ko-li,

Ad-u,

Ad-u.

Tongue.

Hal-lis-si,

Ad-e,

Ad-e.

Hair.

Gai-si,

Ed-da,

U-da.

Head.

Kai-si,

Et-ta,

U-ta.

Nose.

Han-si,

Em-mo-ti,

A'-wo-ti.

Ear.

Quin-ni,

Et-to,

Et-to.

Eje.

Id-o,

En-ku-ve,

Un-de.

Prof, Haldeman described certain peculiar words and sounds
of the Basque language, obtained from natives, on his late
visit to Europe.

The attention of the members present was invited to a set
of lithographs of fossil sauroid bones, discovered by Mr. C.
M. Wheatlej, in the Phoenixville Tunnel, on the Schuylkill
River, about thirty miles above Philadelphia, in rocks of the
New Red Sandstone Formation. The originals form part of

* Basque, 'amar.

1862.] 5 [Hall.

Mr. Wlieatlej's extensive cabinet of undescribed Mesozoic
plants, shells and bones.

On motion of Mr. Fraley, Mr. Lesley was nominated Li-
brarian for the ensuing year.

Pending nominations Nos. 425 to 445, and new nomination
1^0. 446, were read.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, January 17, 18G2.

Present, twelve members.
Dr. Franklin Bache, in the Chair.

The Verein flir Naturkunde im Herzogthum Nassau, was
ordered to be placed upon the list of corresponding societies.

Donations for the Library were received from the Academy
at Boston ; the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture ; the
Medical Journal and Franklin Listitute; B. V. Marsh, and
Sherman & Son, of Philadelphia.

Dr. Bache announced the death of Sir John Forbes, a
member of this Society, i^ovember 13, 1861, aged 74.

Prof. Lesley, read extracts from letters from Prof. James
Hall, of Albany, relative to the Taconic System of Dr.
Emmons.

The discussion of this system has lately been revived by Mr.
Marcou, supported by the distinguished Bohemian palaeontologist
M. Barrande. Mr. Hall in these letters claims that the original
error was made by the geologists of the New York Survey, who had
charge of the eastern divisions of the State, in identifying the two
slate formations on the two opposite sides of the Hudson River. Sir
William Logan, chief of the Canada Survey, describes a similar error
made in the great plain of the Richelieu River, before the existence
of the great fault in Canada was known. Mr. Hall, accepting the
identification in the Hudson region, proved long ago that the Hud-
son River slates were the same as the Taconic slates of Emmons. It
now appears, that the Hudson River slates, east of the Hudson, are
not the No. 3 (the upper part of the Lower Silurian) slates of New
Jersey and Pennsylvania, west of the Hudson ; and that that name
must be dropped ; or applied only to the slates of the Hudson River

Hall.] Q [January.

Valley proper, at the base of the Lower Silurian Formation, In
like manner, the Canadian geologists, having traced the great fault
from Cape Gaspe, for seven hundred miles, along the south shore of
the Lower St. Lawrence, past Quebec, across the plain of the Riche-
lieu, and along the east shore of Lake Champlain, to meet the Hud-
son River Valley fault, which seems to terminate north of the High-
lands, it is now certain that the Quebec Group, the Georgia rocks of
Vermont, and the whole Taconic System of Dr. Emmons, belong to
the Lower Silurian System near its base, and are a thickening east-
ward of the calciferous sand-rock over the Potsdam Sandstone which
lies at its base. As soon as fossils were discovered in the slates on
the east side of the great fault, those slates had to be referred to the
base, instead of to the top of the Lower Silurian, But no further
change was needful. Everything else remained the same. The
structure of the Taconic range, and of the Canadian plain, remained
the same. Dr. Emmons's Taconic System beneath fhe Potsdam
sandstone has no existence now, any more than it had before the dis-
covery of the fossils, and their recognition by Barrande. Professor
Hunt, of Montreal, has shown how both M, Marcou and M. Bar-
rande have mistaken Dr. Emmons's language, where he speaks of an
"inversion" of the series in the Taconic Mountains, east of the Hud-
son, Dr, Emmons supposed the existence of not one great fault,
but numerous parallel faults, bringing up lower and lower sandstones,
slates and marbles, as one crosses them going east. His interpreters
ignorantly suppose a fan-shaped structure in the Green and Berk-
shire Mountains, overturning the dips in the ranges to the west of
them. Dr. Emmons taught an apparent inversion produced by the
parallel upthrows. His interpreters teach an actual inversion by
overthrow. The succession of the strata, however, is equally falsified
by the view of Dr. Emmons and by that taken by his interpreters.
Dr. Emmons, however, argued correctly from his premises. Did the
parallel and increasing upthrows exist, then the Taconic System
would be as he says it is, beneath the base of the Lower Silurian Sys-
tem. M, Marcou, on the contrary, misconceives the whole structure,
and his conclusion flows just contrariwise from his premises. The
recent careful map survey of the minute anticlinal subfolds of the
great fault along the east shore of the foot of Lake Champlain, by
Sir William Logan, has resulted in establishing the old accepted
order of the rocks, as both the apparent and the real order of the
Taconic System ; and the only resource we have is to accept his
theory, of a great thickening of the calciferous sand-rock along a deep

1862.] 7 f^*"-

sea-sbore line, extending from the mouth of the Gulf of St. Law-
rence to Alabama; and a subsequent disruption and up-shove against
this steep shore, along perhaps its whole extent, certainly along an ex-
tent of seven hundred miles. Along this whole line the once so-called
" Hudson Kiver Slates" (the No. 3, of the Pennsylvania Survey) are
over-ridden by and abut against the Hudson River Slates proper
(Taconic Slates, or No. 1, of the Pennsylvania Survey). Whether
the Philadelphia and Baltimore System will obtain hereby, at last, its
explanation, we can only conjecture. But certainly its rocks and
minerals resemble some of the members of this " Quebec Group" or
Taconic System ; and there are evidences along its northwest edge,
from Trenton past Philadelphia, of a great fault, in the place where
we should be inclined to look for one.

Mr. Powel exhibited the stalk of an Asclepias from his
garden, to show the strength of its fibre. Prof. Haldeman,
mentioned an instance of thread spun from the nettle fibre.

Prof. Lesley was chosen Librarian for the ensuing year.

Standing Committees for the year were chosen, as fol-
lows:

On Finance. — Mr. Fraley, Mr. J. F. James, Mr. Samuel
Powell (in the place of Mr. Justice, declining re-election).

On Publication. — Dr. Bridges, Mr. T. P. James, Dr.
Hartshorne, Prof. Copp^e, Dr. Wister.

On the Hall. — Mr. Peale, Judge King, Prof. Coppee.

On the Library. — Dr. Bell, Dr. Stevens, Dr. Coates, Mr.
Foulke, Mr. Barnes (in the place of Mr. Ord, declining re-
election).

The list of surviving members was then read, as follows :

Summary.
On the List, January 1, 1861, . . 376

\ In the U. S. 4

Elected in 1861,

I

Foreign 4

384

Reported as deceased, k „ . y

(Foreign 3 \ 375

Resigned, in the U. S. . . . . 1

Number of members January 1, 1862, . 374
Of whom are resident in the U. S. 267
And in foreign countries . . 107

§ [February.

Nominations Nos. 425 to 446, and new nomination No.
447, were read.

Nominations Nos. 425 to 445 were ballotted for.

The report of the Committee on the Library was presented,
and its consideration postponed, owing to the lateness of the
hour.

The ballot boxes being opened, the following persons were
declared bj the presiding officer duly elected members :

MiRZA Alexander Kasem Beg, of St. Petersburg.

Professor Otto Bohtlingk, of St. Petersburg.

Professor G. Forchhammer, of Copenhagen.

Professor J. S. Steenstrup, of Copenhagen.

Professor C. J. Thomsen, Director of the Royal Museum
at Copenhagen.

Professor Andrew C. Ramsay, of England.

Professor Edguard Desor, of Neuchatcl.

Professor L. G. De Koninck, of Liege.

Professor Joachim Barrande, of Prague.

Professor Robert W. Bunsen, of Heidelberg.

Professor William Hoffman, of London.

Doctor H. R. Goppert, of Breslau.

Professor Alexander Braun, of Leipsig.

Mr. "William J. Hamilton, of London.

Sir William J. Hooker, of London.

Doctor J. J. Kaup, of Darmstadt.

Doctor J. Anthony Froude, of Oxford.

Doctor Hermann Lebert, of Breslau.

Doctor S. Weir Mitchell, of Philadelphia.
And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting^ February 7, 1862.

Present, eleven members.

Vice-President, Judge Sharswood, in the Chair.

A letter, accepting membership, was received from Dr. S.
W. Mitchell, dated 1226 Walnut Street, January 31, 1862.

1862.] 9

Letters were read from Mr. B. Whiting, senior officer, and
Mr. Hubbard, Librarian of the Washington Observatory,
dated January 21, 1862, acknowledging the receipt of publi-
cations.

A letter was received from M. Paul Bossange, dated New
York, January 30, 1862, respecting the Annales de Chimie
et de Physique.

Donations for the Library were announced from the Li-
brary Company of Cape Town, South Africa ; the Bureau of
Engineers at Paris ; the R. Astronomical Society, the Ameri-
can Academy, American Antiquarian Society, and Boston
Society of Natural History ; Prof. H. A. Newton, of Yale
College ; the Publishers of Silliman's Journal ; M. Carey
Lea, of Philadelphia, and the Academy of Natural Sciences ;
the Adjutant General of the United States, and Col. Long, of
the Bureau of Topographical Engineers at Washington ; and
the American Colonization Society.

Pending nominations Nos. 446, 447 were read.

The Committee on the Library submitted the accompany-
ing special report of the Librarian, and recommended its sug-
gestions to the favorable consideration of the Society.

The Librarian reports : That there have been added to the
Library by donation in the year 1861, 317 books and pamph-
lets, and Proceedings of Corresponding Societies. The Lon-
don, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine, and the
Astronomische Nachrichten have been regularly received on
subscription.

A large number of pamphlets, periodicals, and publications
of societies remain unbound upon the shelves ; fifty volumes
of pamphlets have been disposed ready for binding, and 150
more volumes will be so disposed during the printing of the Cata-
logue The printing of the Catalogue has proceeded

slowly, but steadily. . . . .' Two bound copies of the part
already printed, are herewith presented, comprising Classes
I and II, to page 212 ; exhibiting the books and pamphlets of a
general nature, such as Encyclopedias, Scientific Magazines,
the Publications of Societies, and the Catalogues of Libraries ;
together with books and pamphlets on the Mathematical

VOL. IX B

20 [February.

Sciences and Physics, including Astronomy, Meteorology,
Navigation, Geodosy, Civil Engineering, Geography, Maps
and Charts, and Voyages and Travels. The III Class of
books and pamphlets on Chemistry, Mineralogy, Mining,
Metallurgy, Geology, and Palaeontology, carrying the Cata-
logue folio up to page 250, is in press. These three, with
the IV Class, of 130 pages, and the V Class, of 115 pages,
would make a volume of aliout 500 pages, which might be
issued as a first volume. Leaving Classes VI, VII, and VIII,

to make a second volume of about 600 pages The

Catalogue has been increased in size to these unforeseen di-
mensions by the introduction of over ten thousand pamphlet
titles, which are usually in themselves longer than book titles,

and are still further lengthened by their references

When the Catalogue is published, an increased use of the
Library will probably be a consequence, for which additional
room will be needed.

On motion, it was resolved that Dr. Bridges, Dr. Coates,
and Dr. Le Conte, be a special committee to obtain informa-
tion respecting the completion of the Catalogue of the Library.

On motion of Mr. Fraley, an appropriation of $349 35
was made, to pay the bill presented for printing the Catalogue,
accompanying the Committee's Report.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, February 21, 1862.

Present, twenty members.

Judge Sharswood, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Dr. S. Weir Mitchell, a newly elected member, was intro-
duced.

Pending nominations Nos. 446 and 447, and new nomina-
tions Nos. 448 to 452 were read.

The special committee appointed at the last meeting re-
ported; the report was accepted and the committee discharged.
The subject of printing the Catalogue was then discussed.

1862.1 !]_

and on motion of Judge King, was referred back to the com-
mittee, with instructions to report at a future meeting of the
Society, whether any change can be made in the style of the
work, Avhich will diminish the cost of printing the remainder.

On motion of Judge King, the Secretary was directed to
communicate with the gentlemen charged with preparing
notices of late members, Dr. Robert Hare, Dr. Elisha K.
Kane, and the Honorable John K. Kane, and to respectfully
request them to complete the same, at their earliest conveni-
ence.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, March 7, 1862.

Present, fifteen members.

Judge Sharswood, Vice-President, in the Chair.

A letter Avas read from Sir Roderick I. Murchison, dated
London, February 18, 1862, accepting membership.

A letter was received from Samuel Hazard, Librarian of
the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, dated Philadelphia,
February 25, acknowledging the receipt of the Proceedings.

A letter was received from S. H. Long, Col. T. E., accom-
panying a donation for the Library.

Pending nominations Nos. 446 to 452 were read.

New nominations Nos. 453, 454, 455 were read.

Dr. Bache announced the death of F. Martinez de la Rosa,
a member of this Society, aged 73, Avho died in 1862.

Dr. Coates asked to be excused from preparing an obituary
notice of Major John Le Conte, which on motion was granted,
and Dr. Torrey was appointed in his stead.

Mr. Durand asked and received permission to borrow the
MS. Journal of M. Andre Michaux, for the purpose of
making extracts therefrom.

Mr. Tilghman offered the following :

Resolved, That a committee be appointed to report to the
Society the names of any of its members, who may have been

12 [March.

publicly and notoriously engaged in acts of treason against
the United States, and to inquire into the expediency of
striking their names from the list of its members ; which after
debate was postponed for the present.
And the Society was adjourned.

Stated fleeting, 3Iarch 21, 1862.

Present, twenty-seven members.

Judge Sharswood, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Letters were read from the Central Physical Observatory,
of Russia, acknowledging and transmitting publications, dated
St. Petersburg, June and July, 1861 ; from the Royal Bava-
rian Academy, dated Munich, Dec. 2, 1861, accompanying a
donation to the Library ; and from Mr. J. B. Serjeant, Li-
brarian of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia,
dated March 14, offering for sale certain copies of parts of
the Transactions of this Society ; which was referred to the
Committee on the Library.

Donations to the Library were presented from the Central
Observatory of Russia ; the Academy at Munich ; the Bos-
ton N. H. Society ; the Franklin Listitute ; the Royal Astro-
nomical Society, London ; the Dublin University Association ;
the State Library at Harrisburg ; the Philadelphia Gas
Works; Silliman's Journal; G. P. Putnam, of New York;
Charles Nagy, of Hungary; and J. S. Newberry, of "Wash-
ington.

Dr. Coatcs made a verbal communication respecting the
Catalogue raisonn^e of the Medical Library of the Pennsyl-
vania Hospital, at Philadelphia.

Pending nominations Nos. 446 to 455 were read.

Mr. Tilghman offered the folloAving resolution, in lieu of
the one offered by him at the last meeting : " Whereas, Mat-
thew F. Maury and W. F. Lynch have committed public and
notorious acts of treason against the United States, it is

1862.] 13

hereby ordered that they be expelled from this Society," —
which, with Mr. Gerhard's amendment, "And -whereas, they
have withdrawn themselves from the service of notice upon
them by this Society," was agreed to ; the ayes and nays being
called, there were 23 ayes, 3 nays, and one excused from
voting.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, April 4, 1862.

Present, nineteen members.

Judge Sharswood, Vice-President, in the Chair.

A letter Avas read from the Royal Danish Society, dated
Copenhagen, July 1, 1861, acknowledging the receipt of pub-
lications.

Letters, acccompanying donations, were received from the
Royal Society of Upsala ; the Royal Danish Society, dated
Copenhagen, July 1; the Royal Prussian Academy, dated
Berlin, August 31 ; the Prince Jablonow'ski Society, dated
Leipsig, November 20 ; the I. Academy, dated Vienna, Oc-
tober 28 ; the Dublin University Assocation, dated Novem-
ber, 1861 ; and Dr. Dunglison, dated Philadelphia, February
19, 1862.

Judge King moved that the MSS. presented by Dr. Dun-
glison be referred to a special committee, consisting of Judge
King, Judge Sharswood, and Mr. Price.

Donations to the Library were received from the Academies
at St. Petersburg, Berlin, Munich, Vienna, Turin, and Paris ;
the Societies at Upsala, Copenhagen, Leipsig, Emden, and
Liverpool ; the Royal Astronomical Society at London, and
the Geographical Society at Paris ; the Horticultural Society
at Berlin ; the Observatory at Pulkova ; the Institutes at
Salem, Massachusetts, and Buffalo, New York ; the Hospitals
at Boston and Harrisburg ; from Franz Odernheimer, of
Wiesbaden ; C. M. Wetherill, of Indianapolis ; and Miss
Gareschd, of Philadelphia ; and from B. L. Emerson, Francis

14 [^P'-il-

Leopoldt, John Penington, and Blanchard & Lea, book-
sellers.

Mr. Price offered for publication in the Proceedings, a copy
of the Opinion of the Supreme Court in the suit for taxes
against the Society, Avith a brief communication introductory,
as follows :

To THE American Philosophical Society :

I have the satisfaction to report to the Society, that the suit of
the City of Philadelphia against this Corporation, claiming to tax the
Hall, has been decided in favor of the Society, and against the power
of the City to tax this property. The Argument of Counsel has been
printed, and numerous copies of it are in possession of the Society.
As the Opinion of Judge Read, which is that of all the Court, is of
historical interest, as well as protective of the title and interests of
the Society, I cannot but recommend that it be printed in the So-
ciety's Proceedings. For this purpose I herewith furnish a copy of
that Opinion. I am, very respectfully, &c ,

Eli K. Price.

SUPREME COURT. THE CITY OF PHILADELPHIA v. THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

The Hall of the American Philosophical Society is not liable to taxation.

Eastern District. Error to the District Court of Philadelphia.
Opinion by

Read, J. — Independence Square was not one of the original
squares left open for public use by William Penn in his platform of
the City of Philadelphia, but consisted of various lots purchased at
different times under the authority of the Legislature of the Pro-
vince. The intention was to erect a State-house and other public
buildings upon it, and that the residue of the square should be and
remain a public green and walk forever. The old court house had been
built in 1707, in Market Street above Second, and was used not only
as a hall of justice, but also as a legislative hall, in which the Pro-
vincial A.ssemblies transacted their business, and the general elections
were held there. By the direction of the Representatives of the
Freemen of the Province, Andrew Hamilton and William Allen
purchased certain lots on the south side of Chestnut Street, lying
contiguous to each other, and bounded by Delaware Fifth and Sixth
Streets, and erected thereon the present State-house, which was begun

1862.1 15

in 1729 and finished in 1734. On the 20th February, 1735-6, the
General Assembly passed an Act vesting the State-house and other
public buildings, and the lots, in other trustees, to and for the use of
the Representatives of the Freemen of the Province, and to and for
such other uses as the said Representatives at any time or times
thereafter in General Assembly met, should direct and appoint.
" Provided ahoays, and it is hereby declared to be the true intent
and meaning of these presents, that no part of the said grounds lying
to the southward of the said State-house, as it is now built, be con-
verted into or made use of for erecting any sort of buildings thereon,
but that the said ground shall be inclosed and remain a public open
ground and walk forever." Another contiguous lot having been
purchased by William Allen, and both he and Andrew Hamilton
having died without executing the necessary assurances, the General
Assembly, on the 17th January, 1762, passed an Act vesting the
whole property in new trustees, for the same uses declared in the
former Act, and under the same proviso, with an immaterial altera-
tion in its phraseology, and on the 14th May in the same year, they
passed another Act, authorizing the trustees to purchase the remain-
ing lots between Chestnut and Walnut Streets, for the same uses, and
appropriated five thousand pounds for that purpose. By the first
of these Acts, two lots, one at the corner of Sixth, and the other at the
corner of Fifth Street, were directed to be conveyed, upon the pay-
ment of fifty pounds for each, the first to trustees for the use of the
County of Philadelphia, for erecting a public building for the holding
of courts or common halls for the said county; and the second to
the Mayor and Commonalty of the City of Philadelphia, for erecting
a public building thereon for the holding of courts or common halls
for the use of the said city.

On the 28th February, 1780, the General Assembly of the Com-
monwealth vested the State-house, and the whole lot between Walnut
and Chestnut and Fifth and Sixth Streets, in the Commonwealth, to
the uses and trusts theretofore appointed and limited. The legal
title was therefore in the State of Pennsylvania. From a club called
the Junto, originated in 1727, by Benjamin Franklin, sprung a pro-
position to form a society composed of virtuosi or ingenious men re-
siding in the several colonies, to be called The American Philosophical
Society, to be held at Philadelphia, being the city nearest to the centre
of the continent colonies, communicating with all of them northward
and southward by post, and with all the islands by sea, and having
the advantage of a good growing library. It was made in the form

16 [April.

uf a circular, signed by Franklin, which bore date the 14th of May,

1743, old style, corresponding in the new calendar to the 25th,
which is considered as the birthday of the present institution. In

1744, the Society, so far as relates to Philadelphia, was actually
formed, and had several meetings, to mutual satisfaction, of the nine
original members of the Philosophical Society. Six, including the
three officers, President Hopkinson, Treasurer Coleman, and Secre-
tary Franklin, are known to have belonged to the Junto.

Out of another Junto, established in 1750, arose another body in
1756, called " The American Society for Promoting and Propagating
Useful Knowledge," held at Philadelphia; and in November, 1768,
the name being changed to The American Society held at Philadel-
phia for Promoting Useful Knowledge, Dr. Benjamin Franklin was
elected its President. The first institution. The American Philoso-
phical Society, was also revived about the same time, and on the 9th
February, 1768, ex-Governor Hamilton was elected President of this
body.

On the 2d January, 1769, these two institutions having merged
themselves into one body, being the present '' American Philosophi-
cal Society, held at Philadelphia, for Promoting Useful Knowledge,"
Dr. Benjamin Franklin was elected President, and Dr. Thomas Cad-
walader. Dr. Thomas Bond, and Joseph Galloway, Esq., were elected
Vice-Presidents. The Society, aided by the General Assembly of
the Province, ei'ected temporary observatories, one at Philadelphia,
the other at the residence of Mr. Rittenhouse, in Newton town.«hip,
Montgomery County, about twenty miles northwest of Philadelphia,
for observing the expected transit of Venus, that was to occur on the
3d of June, 1769.

Measures were also taken for making observations at Cape Hen-
lopen, on the Delaware Bay, where a building was found that could
be used for the purpose. The observations at these different places
were all successful, and the account of them, and of the results to
which they led, is given in full detail in the first volume of their
Transactions, published in 1771, from the press of William & Thomas
Bradford, in this city.

Upon their application, the General Assembly, on the 15tli March,
1780, passed an Act incorporating them, and one of its provisions,
as indicative of the liberal policy, humane spirit, and wise fore-
thought of our forefathers in the midst of a war for existence, is too
remarkable to be omitted. That it shall be lawful for the " Society,
by their proper officers, at all times, whether in peace or war, to

1862.] 17

correspond with learned societies as well as individual learned men
of any nation or country, upon matters merely belonging to the busi-
ness of the Society, such as the mutual communication of their dis-
coveries and proceedings in philosophy and science, the procuring
books, apparatus, natural curiosities, and such other articles and in-
telligence as are usually exchanged between learned bodies for further-
ing their common pursuits." This learned Society has always pre-
served its high character both at home and abroad, and numbers
among its members the most distinguished men of the day. Of the
past it enumerates among its Presidents, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas
Jefferson, Rittenhouse, Wistar, Patterson, Tilghman, Duponceau.

On' the 15th April, 1782, the General Assembly transferred the
property and moneys of the Silk Society to the Philosophical Society,
who were to be accountable, and redeliver the same whenever a ma-
jority of the subscribers to the Silk Society shall request it, in order
to revive their institution. The Philosophical Society having repre-
sented to the Legislature the necessity of their having a Public Hall,
Library, and other accommodation, and prayed that they would grant
to them a lot of ground suitable and convenient for erecting a hall
and other buildings, an Act was passed on the 28th March, 1785,
granting to them a lot on Fifth Street, being a part of the State-house
square, for that purpose. The third section is in these words : " Pro-
vided always, and it is the intention and meaning of this Act, that
the said lot of ground shall not he sold, leased or trans/erred, by the
said Philosophical Society or their successors, to any other person or
persons, or bodies corporate ; nor shall the same be applied by the said
Society to any other use or purpose but that of erecting buildings for
the accommodation of the said Society, as hereinbefore specified."
Upon a further representation from the Society, that the restriction
in the preceding Act as to the letting parts of the building was dis-
advantageous and unreasonable, the House thought it was founded
in reason, and on the 17th IMarch, 1786, passed an Act authorizing
the Society to let or lease such vaults or cellars as they may think
proper to make under the building by them to be erected on the lot
aforesaid, and to let any other parts of said building for such purposes
as may have affinity with the design of their institution, and for no
other; the issues and profits to be applied to the purposes for which
the Society was originally instituted, and to no other.

By the Act of the 8th April, 1785, the Commissioners of the
County of Philadelphia, and the Wardens of the City of Philadelphia,
having respectively paid to the Treasurer of the State the sum of

VOL. IX. — c

18 [April.

fifty pounds each, the lots at the corners of Sixth and Fifth Streets
were severally vested in the said parties respectively, agreeably to
the Act of 1762. The Act also provided that the old gaol and
workhouse should be sold, and three thousand pounds of the pur-
chase-money be applied to the purpose of erecting the County Court-
house on the northwest corner of the State-house lot; and the war-
dens were authorized to take out of the personal estate of the latter
corporation, three thousand pounds for erecting a court-house on the
northeastern corner of the said State-house lot, and if it fall short
of completing the building, then such sums as shall be necessary
shall be taken out of the common stock of the city in the hands of
the Treasurer of the Wardens. These lots were extended in depth
to 88 feet by the Act of 29th March, 1787 ; and by the Acts of 27th
March and 29th September, 1789, a lottery was authorized to raise
eight thousand dollars to defray the expenses of erecting a common
hall in the city of Philadelphia. On the 11th March, 1789, the
City of Philadelphia was incorporated by an Act of the General
Assembly, by the name of ''The Mayor, Aldermen, and Citizens of
Philadelphia," its limits being the original city plot of William Penn,
as delineated in Holmes's Portraiture of it : two miles in length, from
river to river, and one mile in breadth, from Vine to South Street.

By an Act of the 30th September, 1791, the Grovernor was au-
thorized to contract for paving the footway round the State-house
square at such times as the City Commissioners shall be paving the
cartways of the several streets which surround the State-house. The
same Act, after reciting that it would contribute to the embellishment
of the public walks in the State-house garden, and may conduce to
the health of the citizens by admitting a free circulation of air, if the
east and west walls of the said garden were lowered, and palisadoes
placed thereon, authorized the city corporation, at their expense, to
take down the wall on the east and west sides of the State-house
yard, within three feet of the pavement, and to erect thereon good
and substantial palisadoes of iron, fixed on a stone capping, to be
placed on such wall so prepared.

The City Hall was occupied by the executive, legislative, and
judicial authorities of the city ; whilst the Congress of the United
States, on their removal from New York to Philadelphia, in 1790,
occupied the County Court-house, the use of which was offered to
them by the Commissioners of the City and County of Philadelphia,
for their accommodation during their residence in Philadelphia, until
their final removal to Washington, in 1800. The State-house had

1862.] 19

been used by the General Assembly of the Province and State for
their place of meeting from 1735 until the removal of the seat of
Government to Lancaster, in November, 1799. The Congress of
the Confederation had also used it during the Revolutionary war, and
continued its occupation until the 24th of December, 1784, when
they adjourned to meet in the city of New York. The east room on
the first floor of this building was the scene of the Declaration of
Independence, on the 4th July, 1776.

By a resolution of the General Assembly of the 17th March, 1802,
Charles Wilson Peale was allowed to remove his Museum into the
east end of the State-house, and to use the lower story of the east
end, except the room formerly occupied by the Legislature as a com-
mittee-room, and the whole of the upper story, as he might find most
convenient for the arranging and displaying the said museum, during
the pleasure of the Legislature ; but it was provided that the citizens
should hold their general elections at the State-house according to
law, and he was to take charge of the State-house and State-house
yard, to open the doors of the hall, and permit the citizens to walk
in the yard for recreation, and pass and repass at reasonable hours.
Under this regime I have often visited the museum, which was a
favorite place of resort, and as a boy, played marbles and prison-base
in the State-house yard, whilst it was still surrounded by the high
brick wall. On the 8th August, 1811, an ordinance was passed to
carry out the permission to take down the east and west walls of the
State-house yard, and erect iron palisadoes in place thereof, granted
by the Act of 1791 ; and on the 10th March, 1812, the Legislature
passed another Act, empowering the Select and Common Councils to
take down the south wall and make a similar improvement, and
giving them the charge of the yard, and repealing so much of the
resolution of 1802 as gave Mr. Peale the charge and care of it; and
on the 2od April, in that same year (1812), an ordinance was passed
to carry the Act into effect, and the City Commissioners were directed
to take charge of the State-house yard, and keep it in proper order.

On the 24th March, 1812, the Legislature authorized the County
Commissioners to occupy the east and west wings of the State-house
for the accommodation of the public ofiices of the city and county,
and to convert the same into fire-proof buildings, or, if found most
convenient, to rebuild the same upon a more extended plan ; which
law was adopted ; and a fire-proof, and one other suitable portion of
said building was appropriated exclusively to the safe-keeping of the
records of the office of the Prothouotary of this court, and for his

20 [April.

use; but it was provided tlint the title in fee simple to the lot on
which said offices may stand, be reserved to the Commonwealth.

By an Act of 13th March, 1815, the Legislature authorized the
County Commissioners to take charge of the State-house, and to let
the rooms, giving a preference of the upper part to Mr. Peale, but
no lease to exceed one year, and repealed so much of the resolution
of 1802 as made it the duty of Mr. Peale to take charge of the
State-house; and after the sale to the city on the 23d March, 1818,
they directed the Commissioners to give up possession of the lower
part to the city.

On the 11th March, 181G, the Legislature passed a very disgracious
Act, providing for the sale of the State-house and State-house yard,
by running a street or streets through it, laying it out in lots, and
valuing them so as to produce $150,000, and ordering the removal
of the clock to Harrisburg; giving, however, an option before a spe-
cified period, to the city corporation to purchase the whole for
•170,000 (with certain exceptions), but expressly declaring that in
such case " no part of the said ground lying to the southward of the
State-house, within the wall as it is now built, be made use of for
erecting any sort of buildings thereon, but the same shall be and
remain a public green and walk forever."

The two lots reserved and excepted out of the State-house square,
were the County Court-house lot, and the lot on the northeast corner,
reserved for the use of the city, and the lot on the east side of the
square, granted to the American Philosophical Society under the Act
of the 28th March, 1785, "and the two public offices which, by the
Act of March 24, 1812, were put into the possession of the Com-
missioners of Philadelphia County, which said offices are thereby re-
leased from the claim of the State, and given and granted in fee
simple, in lieu of the expense laid out in repairs on the State-house
yard ; and the offices and ground on which they stand, or on which
they are allowed by the said Act to stand, are thereby granted and
confirmed to the said City and County of Philadelphia forever."

By the Consolidation Act, the whole of this entire square, with all
the buildings on it, with the exception of the lot of the American
Philosophical Society, is vested in the City of Philadelphia, subject,
of course, to the public use re-declared by the Act of 1816, as to all
the ground lying south of the State-house.

By an Act of 16th March, 1847, the County Commissioners and
the Select and Common Councils, — whose powers are now all merged
in the consolidated city, — were severally authorized to erect a new

1862.] 21

court-house and a new city hall on parts of the State-house square ;
but the authority thus given has never been exercised, and the Act
of the 2d April, 1860, was never carried into eflFect; a fortunate cir-
cumstance in the present state of our finances.

It will be perceived by this statement, and their present occupa-
tion, that all the buildings belonging to the city on the State-house
square, are devoted entirely to public purposes — to the courts of
justice — including the Supreme Court, who are expressly provided
for in the Consolidation Act, and to all the public offices of the
county, and of the city, into which they are practically merged, and
by whose authority they are provided with a local habitation.

The State, bearing in mind the services rendered to science by
this Society, and at the same time determined that this lot should
never be held by private owners, nor devoted to any but public uses
connected with the welfare of her commercial metropolis, on the 11th
February, 1842, authorized the Society to sell or lease their lot, and
to make legal conveyance of the same, so that the same shall be used
for the accommodation of courts of justice, and offices connected
therewith, or for the public use of the City or County of Philadelphia.
Under this restriction it is clear there can be only two purchasers or
lessees, — the United States and the City of Philadelphia ; and it is
equally certain that the latter should be its owner. The proceeds of
sale can only be applied to the purchase of convenient ground and
buildings for the accommodation of the Society, and the residue for
the furtherance of the objects for which the Society was instituted.
By the second section of the Act of 13th March, 1847, the Society
were further authorized to lease such portions of their buildings as
may not be required for their immediate use, for such rents and in
such manner as they may deem expedient; such rents to be used by
them solely for promoting the objects for which they were incorpo-
rated.

On the 25th April, 1857, the Legislature gave their consent to the
United States purchasing the lot and buildings in pursuance of the
Act of 1842 : the United States to hold the same for the purposes
and business of courts of justice, and the offices and officers connected
therewith. The vaults and cellars were allowed to be rented like
those under the City Hall, and under many of our churches, for the
storage of goods and groceries; the rooms in the lower parts were
often lawyers' offices. At one time, the Athenaeum was located
there ; and now, we believe, they are occupied solely by the United
States : the issues and profits have always been applied to the fur-

22 [April.

therance of the scientific objects of the Society. The number of
scientific men is always small, in any community, their means are
generally limited, and their pursuits are of a character not to enlist
the sympathies or enthusiasm of the wealthier classes of society. It
would seem impolitic and unwise, therefore, for the State that fos-
tered it, or the city which should be proud of it, to cut ofi" their
limited resources by taxation, even if it be legal, which was never
dreamed of by anybody until 1853.

The taxes claimed are for city and State from 1853 to 1858, both
inclusive, amounting, without interest or costs, to $1203.

All taxes on real estate in the City and County of Philadelphia are
declared to be a lien on said real estate; the nature of which real
estate is to a certain extent defined by the priority given to them
over any recognizance, mortgage, judgment, debt, obligation, or re-
sponsibility which such real estate may become charged with or
liable to. Now the eventual legal title to the Society lot is in the
Commonwealth, whilst the Society have the use of it for what may
be called a public purpose, the erection of a hall, library, and other
buildings, as may be necessary for their proper accommodation.
This is accompanied by a provision which no private individual could
impose upon a fee simple estate, to wit, — a perpetual prohibition
against alienation. The Society were expressly told that it was the
intention and moaning of the Act making the grant, that the said
lot of ground shall not be sold, leased, or transferred by the said
Society or their successors, to any other person or persons, or bodies
corporate ; nor shall the same be applied by the Society to any other
use or purpose but that of erecting buildings for the accommodation
of the Society, as thereinbefore specified. A more guarded method
of preserving this property, the free gift of the State, from being
appropriated by any act of the law or of the Society, to any other
than its expressed public and patriotic purposes, could not well have
been devised. This provision being found to be too severe on the
Society, they were permitted by legislative action, — 1. To let the
vaults or cellars under the building to be erected, and to lease any
other part of the building for such purposes as may have afiinity with
the design of their institution, and for no other j but the issues and
profits arising therefrom could only be applied to the purposes for
which the Society was originally instituted, and to no other. 2. To
sell or lease the lot, and make legal conveyance thereof, so as that
the same shall be used for the accommodation of courts of justice and
offices connected therewith, or for public uses of the City or County of

1862.] 23

Philadelphia: Provided, however, that the proceeds of any such
sale shall be applied to the purchase of convenient ground and
buildings for the accommodation of the Society, so far as may be
necessary to the furtherance of the objects for which the Society
was instituted. 3. They were permitted to lease or let such portions
of their building as may not be required for their immediate use ;
such rents to be used by them zoMy for promotincj the objects for
which the Society icas incorporated.

It is clear, then, that the Society could not charge this lot by any
recognizance, mortgage, judgment, debt, obligation, or responsibility,
nor could they create any lien upon it ; because it could not be sold
by any form of execution, and this being the case, no taxes could be
a lien upon it, and no form of proceeding to recover the same could
create a lien upon this lot, because it could not be sold under any
such judgment. It seems stronger in the case of taxes levied under
the authority of the very Government that has expressly prohibited
any sale of it, except in the cases specially pointed out, and by the
character of its public uses as expressly declared. The uses for
which it was given are public, and can neither be affected nor de-
stroyed by the adverse action and process of a court of law. The
court below were therefore right, and their judgment must be
affirmed.

This Society numbers amongst its members many distinguished
foreigners of great scientific eminence, and it corresponds with public
bodies and private individuals devoted to the pursuit of science in
every country in Europe ; one of its latest correspondents being a
Hungarian Society, whose Transactions are published in their native
language. It has a most valuable library of about 27,000 volumes,
of which a complete catalogue is now preparing at a very heavy ex-
pense, including a great many manuscript letters and papers of a
most valuable and rare character, relating to the early history of this
province and country. K large number of the works in the library
are of a scarce and rare kind, and are not to be found on this side of
the Atlantic, including a complete set of the Transactions of the
Royal Society of London, commencing two centuries ago. The first
President of this Society was the originator of the first fire company,
the first public library, the first hospital, and the first academy, now
the University of Pennsylvania, a signer of the Declaration of Inde-
pendence, minister to France, one of our ministers plenipotentiary
who signed the provisional articles and the definitive treaty of peace

24 [April.

between the United States and Great Bi'itaiu, and finally one of the
fraraers of the Constitution of the United States.

This was Dr. Benjamin Franklin, the patriot and the philosopher ;
and I cannot but express a confident hope that the City and the State
of which he was so distinguished an ornament, will never permit the
hands of the tax-gatherer to diminish the fund devoted to the inte-
rests of science in every part of the world, both in peace and in war,
and belonging to a Society of which he was the founder.

Judgment afl&rmed.

Pending nominations Nos. 446 to 455 Avere read.

The special committee on the Catalogue presented a report,
whicli on motion of Dr. Baclie was adopted and the committee
discharged.

On motion of Judge King, it was Resolved, That the So-
ciety authorize and request its officers to execute a power of
attorney, to M. A. Germain, of Pontoise, notary, charged
with the execution of the "Will of the late j\I. Andre Michaux,
constituting him the attorney at law and in fact of this
Society, to maintain its rights to the legacy bequeathed to it
therein ; which power of attorney is now present and read
before the Society.

Mr. Foulke tendered his resignation from the Library
Committee, which was accepted, and Mr. Price was appointed
by the Vice-President to supply the vacancy.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, April 18, 1862.

Present thirty-six members.

Dr. Franklin Bache, in the Chair.

Mr. Sidney George Fisher, a new member, was presented
by Mr. Fraley.

Baron Ostensacken and Mr. Kimber, members of Corre-
sponding Societies, were introduced by Dr. Le Conte and Pro-
fessor Coppde.

Mirza Alexander Casern Beg, a ncAv member, signified his

1862.] 25

acceptance of membership by letter, dated St. Petersburg,
March 3-15, 18G2.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of publications, and re-
questing the completion of their sets, were received from the
Essex Institute, dated Salem, Massachusetts, March 28 ; from
Harvard College, April 7 ; from the ISTew York State Library,
April 5 ; from the Astor Library, April 5 ; from the New
York Lyceum, April 14 ; and from the Chicago Historical
Society, April 7, 1862.

A letter announcing a large donation for the Librar}^, was
received from the Royal Academy of History, dated Madrid,
March 12, 1862.

A letter "was read from Dr. Wood, the President of the
Society, to the Secretary, dated Florence, March 17, 1862.

A letter from Wm. Jones, Librarian of the Buffalo Young
Men's Association, Avas read and referred to the Library
Committee with power to take action.

Donations for the Library were received from the Aca-
demies at Paris and Philadelphia ; the Societies of Science at
Emden and Hobarton ; the Royal Astronomical Society,
Geological Society, Society of Arts, and Board of Trade at
London; the Listitutes at Dresden, Utrecht, and Philadel-
phia ; the University at Christiania, and of New York ; the
Museums at Nurnberg, and Peel Park ; the Free Public Li-
brary at New Bedford ; the booksellers Voight and Glinther,
of Weimar ; Schmidt, Muldener, and Zuchold, of Gcittingen ;
Norton, of New York ; and Leypoldt, of Philadelphia.

Mr. Fraley announced the death of a member, Mr. George
M. Justice, on the 14th inst., in the 70th year of his age.
Mr. Letchworth was appointed to prepare an obituary notice
of the deceased.

A letter Avas read from Dr. Tafel, of St. Louis, dated March,
1862, accompanying a manuscript history of the English
Language, offered for publication by the Society, which, on
motion, was referred to the same committee, consisting of Dr.
Coates, Professor Alexander, and Professor Copp^e, that had
charge of the memoir of Dr. Tafel, lately published in the
Proceedings.

Dubois.] 26 [April.

Professor Coppee introduced the subject of Flax and the
manufacture of Linen in the United States, the history of
which Avas then given by Mr. Kimber, of Philadelphia, with
the causes leading to its abandonment in 1857, and the dif-
jBculties, probability, and utility of its revival. Other mem-
bers present then spoke of the substitution of Flax for Cot-
ton, and of the growth of Cotton in the Northern States, in
China, and elsewhere. Dr. Rogers hoped to see the fibre of
the Flax become a substitute for Cotton, and based the hope
upon their similarity under a microscope, and the fact that
no perfect solvent for the cement between the fibres had been
yet discovered. Dr. Coates referred to communications on
the subject in the Proceedings of the Rhode Island Society,
and to manuscripts in the possession of an absent member,
Mr. Powel.

Mr. Peale submitted for inspection a large collection of the
Stone implements of the Ancient Britons, which he had lately
received from England; they were obtained from barroAvs in
the North Riding of Yorkshire.

Mr. Dubois made the folloAving communication respecting
the average health of Philadelphia, in comparison Avith other
cities.

The last edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in the article
Mortality, contains a tabular statement, which, however accurate
in other respects, is far from being correct in regard to Philadelphia.
It professes to show (but without citing authorities), the ratio of
deaths in every thousand of the population, per annum, in various
cities of the world, arranging them in the order of healthfulness.
Philadelphia stands pretty far down in the catalogue, and, as will
surprise every one, quite below London and New York. Its annual
mortality is stated to be 26.8 per thousand.

In point of fact, the mortality for the years 1859, 1860, and 1861,
being averaged, shows an annual proportion of 21 to 1000, if the
still-born are included; if not, about 20 to 1000. This result places
Philadelphia near the top of the list, and agrees with the general im-
pression on this side of the ocean. It may be remarked that the
year just elapsed, although not visited by any great epidemics, was
unusually fatal in Philadelphia.

It may be interesting to add, in this connection, that the average

1862.] 27

duration of life, found by multiplying the various ages of the dying
by their numbers respectively, and dividing the sum of the products
by the whole population, is 23 years, in Philadelphia. Excluding
those who die under one year, and who may be said not to have the
stamina to begin the race of life, the average duration is 301 years.
This small allotment, it is scarcely necessary to observe, arises from
the large proportion of deaths under the age of five years; nearly one-
half of the entire sum.

Pendino; nominations Nos. 446 to 455 and new nomina-
tions Nos. 456 and 457 Avere read.

Nominations Nos. 446 to 455 were ballotted for, and there
being no other business before the Society, the ballot boxes
were examined, and the following persons were declared by
the presiding officer to have been duly elected members of the
Society:

Professor F. L. Otto Rcehrig, of Philadelphia.

Lieutenant H. L. Abbot, Corps of Topographical Engi-
neers, United States Army.

Professor Oswald Heer, of Zurich, Switzerland.

Professor John Lindley, of London, F.R.S.

Professor JoiiANN Liebig, of Munich, Bavaria.

Professor Friedrich Wohler, of G()ttingen, Germany.

Professor J. W. Dawson, of Montreal, Canada.

Captain Samuel F. Dupont, of the United States Navy.

Dr. George Englemann, of St. Louis, Missouri.

William S. Sullivant, Esq., of Columbus, Ohio.
And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, May 2, 1862.

Present, seventeen members.

Vice-President, Judge Sharswood, in the Chair.

Letters accepting membership, were received from Profes-
sor J. W. Dawson, of Montreal, dated April 23, 1862, and
H. L. Abbot, Lieutenant United States Army, Topographi-
cal Engineers, dated Camp Winfield Scott, April 24, 1862.

28 i^^^y

Letters acknowledging publications sent were received from
the Royal Academj and Royal Zoological Society at Amster-
dam, dated February and October, 18G0, and from the Leeds
Philosophical and Literary Society, dated October 29, 1861.

Letters transmitting donations for the Library were re-
ceived from the Royal Academy at Vienna, dated December
28, 1861 ; from the Royal Academy at Amsterdam, No-
vember 15, 1861 ; the Royal Zoological Society at Amster-
dam, August, 1860 ; the Royal Society at Gcittingen, Febru-
ary 12, 1862 ; Col. Bache, Washington, April 19 ; and James
Lenox, of New York, April 25, 1862.

Donations for the Library Avere received from the Aca-
demies at Buda, Vienna, and Amsterdam ; the Societies at
St. Gall, Lausanne, Gottingen, Leeds, and Bath ; the Royal
Society, Royal Institution, Royal Astronomical and Asiatic
Societies, and Society of Antiquarians, at London ; the Geo-
graphical Societies of London and Vienna ; the Geological
Societies in Vienna, Leeds, and Dublin ; the Zoological
Society in Amsterdam ; M. M. Troyon, of Lausanne ; Pier-
ragi, of Paris; James Lenox, of New York ; Blanchard & Lea,
of Philadelpliia, and Col. Hartman Bache.

Dr. Goodwin made some remarks upon the Faculties of the
Mind and Causation, which were followed by a general dis-
cussion of the subject.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, May 16, 1862.

Present, nineteen members.

Judge SiiARSWOOD, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Prof. Roehrig, a lately elected member, was introduced by
Mr. Lesley.

A letter, accepting membership, was read from S. F. Du-
pont, dated Wabash, Port Royal, May 8, 1862.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of publications was re-
ceived from the New Jersey Historical Society, dated April

1802.] 29

28, 1862 ; the Royal Society of Edinburgli, dated December
21, 1861 ; the Batavian Society at Rotterdam, dated Sep-
tember 30, 1861 ; the Boston Library, dated April 15, 1862.

A letter accepting the appointment to prepare an obituary
notice of Mr. Justice, was received from A. S. Letchworth,
dated Philadelphia, May 12, 1862.

Two letters respecting a communication offered for publi-
cation in the Transactions, were received from Dr. F. V.
Hayden, dated Washington, April 29, and May 1, 1862.

A letter respecting the Michaux legacy was read from Dr.
Wood, dated Paris, April 15, 1862, addressed to Judge King,
as chairman of the special committee on that subject,

A letter requesting the librarian to make up a deficiency
in the third volume of the Transactions for the Imperial Aca-
demy at St. Petersburg, was read from Baron R. Ostensac-
ken, dated Washington, April 30, 1862.

A letter requesting the completion of the set of the Trans-
actions from Volume III onwards (inclusive) for the Royal In-
stitution, and to be placed on the list for the Transactions,
was received from the Assistant Secretary and Keeper of the
library, Benjamin Vincent, dated Albemarle Street, London,
September 12, 1861. The librarian was directed to furnish
the Transactions.

Donations for the library were received from the Bureau
of Civil Engineers at Paris, the Royal Academy of Edin-
burgh, the Massachusetts Historical Society, the Franklin
Institute, the New Jersey Historical Society, the Managers
and Superintendents of the House of Refuge, Deaf and
Dumb Institute, State Lunatic Asylum, Pennsylvania School
for Feeble-minded Children, James J. Barclay, Ed. C. Jones,
C. Sherman, and Joseph Lesley, of Philadelphia, Col. Hart-
man Bache, and Charles Ellet, Jr., of Washington.

Judge Sharswood announced the death of a member, Mr.
Charles J. Ingersoll, at Philadelphia, on the 14th inst., aged
79. Judge Sharswood was appointed to prepare an obituary
notice of the deceased.

Dr. Bache announced the death of another member. Dr.
George W. Bethune, at Florence, on the 28th of April, aged

Lesley.] 30 [May.

57. Dr. Dunglison "svas appointed to prepare an obituary
notice of the deceased.

Mr. Lesley announced the death of a member of the So-
ciety, Prof. K. C. Von Leonhard, at Heidelberg, on the 23d
of January, 1862, in the 83d year of his age.

A memoir was presented for the Transactions by Dr. Hay-
dcn, and referred to a committee, consisting of Dr. Leidy,
Prof. Lesley, and Dr. Roehrig.

Prof. Lesley exhibited a manuscript map of the Alleghany
Mountains on a large scale, and described especially the coal
formation of Southern Virginia. He remarked that :

The coal region of Montgomery, Pulaski, Wythe, Washington,
and Smith counties in Southern Virginia, is interesting in an eco-
nomical as well as a geological sense. It furnishes species of semi-
antbracitc and semi-bituminous coal, which come in competition
with the Oolitic bituminous coal of the Richmond basin, over the
principal internal railroad of the Southern Atlantic States. This
railroad penetrates the great primary range of mountains, the Blue
Ptidge, at Lynchburg, and then follows the course of the Great
Valley, southwestward, to Knoxville and Chattanooga, in Eastern
Tennessee. This Great Valley, of Lower Silurian limestone, extends
from Newburg on the Hudson to Montgomery in Alabama, every-
where separating the range of the Blue Ridge, South Mountain,
Smoky Mountain, or Black Hills, from the true Alleghanies or Ap-
palachians. The rocks of the Blue Ridge Range, on the eastern side
of the Valley, are a prolongation of the Green Mountains of Vermont,
and consist of the Quebec group or Taconic system, now understood
by Logan to be a thickening of the lowest Silurians (Calciferous Sand-
rock and Potsdam Sandstone or Primal Slates).* The Appalachian
3Iountains on its western side are Middle and Upper Silurian and De-
vonian formations. West of these rises the long high escarpment of
the Carboniferous formation, forming the mountain plateau of Western
Pennsylvania, Western Virginia, Eastern Kentucky, Central Tennes-
see, and Northern Alabama. The escarpment of this vast plateau,
facing the east, and overlooking the Appalachian ranges, with their
narrow, parallel, interval valleys, is the so-called Backbone Alleghany

* It is but just to say that the Rogerses maintained substantially this view be-
fore 1840, considering, as they did, the Blue Ridge System an enlargement merely
of Formation No. I.

1862.] 31 [Lesley.

Mountain, beginning at Catskill on the Hudson, and ending in Ala-
bama. The northern portion of this plateau is drained eastward by
the branches of the Susquehanna, and westward by the branches of
the Alleghany and Monongahela Rivers. All the waters of Middle
Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Northern and Middle Virginia flow from
the foot of this escarpment towards the Atlantic, breaking successively
through the parallel Appalachian ridges of the subcarboniferous for-
mations. The waters of the Tennessee River head also at the eastern
foot of this escarpment, and flow along at its base for several hun-
dred miles southwestward, before they turn west at Chattanooga, and
break through its southern extremity, to make their great circuit
through Alabama, Western Tennessee, and Kentucky to the Ohio
River near its mouth. But in the middle of the region, namely, in
Southern Virginia, its normal drainage is reversed. The New River
heads in the Blue Range, crosses the Great Valley westward, breaks
into (not out of) the Appalachians, striking the escarpment in its
face, and flowing directly through and across it (as the Great Kanawha )
through Western Virginia into the Ohio.

The cause of this phenomenon is to be found in a change of struc-
ture at this line. Most of the valleys and mountains north of it as
far as New Jersey are unbroken anticlinals and synclinals. Most of
the valleys and mountains to the south of it, as flu- as Alabama, are
monoclinals, bounded by immense faults or downthrows.

The Appalachian Mountains of Southern Virginia and Eastern
Tennessee are grouped in pairs by these faults. The country for
three or four hundred miles northeast and southwest, and from thirty
to forty miles from southeast to northwest, is fractured in parallel
strips from five to six miles wide. Each strip is tilted at such an
angle (dipping southeast) that at each fault the upper edge of one
strip (with its Carboniferous rocks) abuts against the bottom or Lower
Silurian edge of the strip next to it. As the Palaeozoic system, thus
revealed (on edge) between any two of these faults, contains two
massive sandrock formations. No. IV, Middle Silurian, and No. X,
Upper Devonian, there occur necessarily between each pair of fimlts
a pair of parallel mountains. The Palocozoic zone, therefore, included
between the Great Valley and the Backbone escarpment, is occupied
by as many pairs of parallel mountains as there are great parallel
faults; and as these foults range in straight lines at nearly equal dis-
tances from each other, these mountains run with remarkable unifor-
mity, side by side, for a hundred or two hundred miles, and are finally
cut off, either by short cross faults, or by slight angular changes in
the courses of the great faults. Thus we get an explanation of the

Lesley.] 32 [May.

very unusual arrangement of the head waters of the Tennessee River,
in long parallel branches, with few subordinate affluents, suddenly
uniting through mountain gorges, or at the ends of long mountains.

In each pair of PalDeozoic mountains the eastern one carries a coal
area on its seaward flank ; because, the last formation to dip against
each fault is the Coal at the top of the series, abutting against the
Lower Silurian of the limestone valley which always exists on the
eastern side of the fault; as seen in the accompanying diagram, re-
presenting a section made across three pairs of mountains just north
of Wythe. (See Fig. A.)

The coal here represented, however, is not the coal of the Carbo-
niferous formation, commonly so called.

Underneath the true coal measures of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and
Northwestern Virginia, and underneath the Millstone Grit Conglo-
merate (No. XII) at its base, and the Pied Shale formation (No. XI),
which underlies the last, there begins, even in Pennsylvania, to ap-
pear an older coal formation, connected with the uppermost Devonian,
white, mountain Sandstone, No. X. It is seen in one or two beds
two feet thick at the head waters of the Juniata. It is mined where
the Monongahela waters cut through Chestnut Ridge from Virginia
into Western Pennsylvania. It has been mined in the mountains on
the Potomac hdow Cumberland. It appears occasionally in Northern
Middle Virginia, on the western side of the Great Valley of Win-
chester. It increases in importance along the western outcrop of the
great coal field through Eastern Kentucky, until it enters Tennessee.
It seems, however, to attain its maximum development in Montgo-
mery county, on the New River, in Southern Virginia, near the line
of our section. Here it is seen to consist of two principal coal-beds
and several minor seams. The lowest bed reaches the thickness of
four feet, and the next one above it is in some places nine feet thick.
In the Peak Hills, just east of Wythe, along the line of the railroad,
numerous lenticular deposits of coal are seen, and thin distorted beds,
the whole composing a formation several hundred feet thick. Near the
New River, the two beds above-mentioned are seen to be covered by
at least a thousand feet of Red shale; upon which rests a Subcarbc-
niferous limestone ; w^hich abuts, at the foult, against other limestones
belonging to the Lower Silurian age. Between Christiansburg and
Blacktown, north of New River, a regular synclinal coal-basin has been
preserved for a few miles upon the eastern side of the great fault,
which crosses the river in front of the gap. In this coal-basin the
two beds of coal are preserved, but in a crushed condition. To the
southwest, two faults cut off a similar .short basin from the regular

Lesley, VnQini^ Co£L

PPOC.AM.PH IL.S MAV€'2

1862.J 33 [Lesley,

coal formation on the mountain^ throwing up a wedge of Lower Si-
lurian Limestone, as in the section, Fig. B.

It is here that the relationship of these great faults to the normal
anticlinals and synclinals of the Appalachian region can be studied to
great advantage ; the presence of cross faults at high angles being
exhibited by the sudden termination of the mountains, and by the
tearing open, as it were, of one side of anticlinal coves. The sketch
of the topography north of Wytheville, in Fig. C, will show how
this has been effected, and render further description needless.

The straitness of the mountains is sometimes interfered with by
small cross undulations or faults (it is not easy to determine which
they are), producing offsets and minute coves, notches, and some-
times gaps, as seen in Fig. F, representing a portion of the first pair
of mountains west of Wytheville.

The " plaster banks" of the Holston, are deposits of rock salt and
gypsum and red marl, in excavations along faults, two of which are
transverse, and one parallel to the main fliult, at the foot of the Little
Clinch Mountain. Over this main fault the river flows, probably bury-
ing the outcrop of the coal, although it is possible that the fault
itself may here have cut out the coal, see Figs. E, h and c. Fig. E, a,
represents the coal, and the fault further east.

These gypsum deposits have no geological connection with the
coal, however the analogy of the Michigan subcarboniferous gyp-
sum and salt, and of the Nova Scotia gypsum deposits, might seem
at first glance' to suggest one. They are found along the valley
for sixteen miles, but the principal deposit occupies the excavated
axis of a broken anticlinal, in the lowest part of the Lower Silurian
limestone. The plain of the Salt Works was once a triangular lake,
scooped out of the soft, reddish sulphur-iron rocks of the base of the
Palaeozoic system, lifted to the surface by an anticlinal, terminated
at its east or northeast end by a cross fracture, which lets the usual
hard limestones of the valley settle down on the other side of it into
their ordinary posture against the main fault. No plaster occurs above
water-level. The Upper Banks occupy a cross fracture ; and borings
here, 500 feet deep, bring up salt water. At the Middle Banks, seven
miles east of the Salt Works, the deposit seems to be on the line of the
main fault. A mile from the Salt Works, it is dug on the small cross
flxult. At the Salt Works, the borings go down along the snap of
the anticlinal, through 60 to 80 feet of plaster and red clay.

The decomposition of the sulphurets in these red rocks, have con-

Lesley.] 34 [May

verted the outcrop edges of the limestone, as well as the limestone
clays and lime waters of the inflowings of the valley, into gypsum.
There must have been standing pools along these excavated faults,
or no deposits of solid gypsum and rock salt could have occurred.
And the want of such, in other parts of this and the neighboring
valleys has prevented similar deposits, especially in the great valley
east of "Wythe, where these lowest red rocks, with their sulphuret
ores of iron and lead, appear at the surface in great force ; and large
quantities of these ores have been converted into peroxide of iron
and carbonate of lead ; no doubt by the loss of sulphuric acid, gone
to produce gypsum, which has been carried off by the free drainage
of the country. None of the main parallel faults of the back valleys,
seem to bring these red rocks to the surface, except along the IIol-
ston ; and even here, it required the crushing of the surface rocks
along a supplementary anticlinal, to afford facilities, first for excava-
tion, and then for decomposition.

It is possible, of course, that sulphur waters, issuing upwards
along the line of the anticlinal and cross faults, may have assisted in
the process ; but there is no need to call in their assistance to explain
the phenomenon, and such springs now are wanting elsewhere. On
the other hand, masses of sulphuret of iron, inclosed in workable
limonite ore, may be seen along the line, at Oarleton Hill, twenty
miles east of the Salt Works, and three miles east of large deposits
of limonite ore of workable quality.

To account for the rock salt several hundred feet below the gypsum,
seems more difficult. It lies in solid form, mixed and interstratified
with compact red marl or clay, 200 feet below water-level ; and the
borings have gone down 176 feet further without reaching the
bottom. Into this deep lake, the drainage of the Upper Devonian
sandstones on one side of the fault, as well as of the Lower Silurian
limestones on the other, must have always run and deposited their
■salt with mud and sand. But on top of the deposits of salt and mud
was thrown down a stratum of blue slate more than a hundred feet
thick ; and over this again, the 60 to 80 feet of gypseous clays, until
the lake was full. All this looks much more like a chemical than a
mechanical precipitation.

The present connection of the mass of gypsum, mud, and salt with
the Holston River, through underground crevices beneath the ridge
of limestone which separates them, is apparent from the fact that
water in all the wells not only always stands at the same level, but at
the level of the river ; nor does the heaviest pumping alter it.

The lower gypsum banks (Preston's) yielded in 1854, 2000 tons;

1S62.] 35 [Lesley.

the cost at the mines being $3 per lump and 65 for ground plaster ;
eighty miles distant it has been sold for $20.

The yield in salt in 1853 was 300,000 bushels ; 50 pounds to the
bushel, and 6 bushels to the barrel, at 50 cents per bushel. Five
furnaces were then running, and 24,000 gallons of brine pumped
daily; 10,000 cords of wood supplied the fuel. Coal is now used,
brought from the neighborhood of Wytheville by a branch railroad.

Southwest of Wythe, the coal is traceable in all the little ravines
and gaps of the first mountain west of the Great Valley; and in the
third mountain west of it, far beyond the celebrated salt deposit of
Smith county, and into Tennessee ; but the single bed is thin and
ci'ushed, and the coal worthless. In the Peak Hills country, east of
Wythe, the coal is almost an anthracite, and has been exposed to such
movements that it rattles like sand out of the shovel, and cannot, there-
fore, go to market. Otherwise it is pure and good. This condition
is apparently connected with the appearance of a massive sand-rock
under it, which forms a terrace and range of small peaks along the
side of the mountain. The coal bed itself is of large size, consisting
of the following layers :

Roof shale, sandy, several feet.
Coal dirt and coal slate, ...... 5 feet.

Yellow shale, two feet.
Coal crushed to coarse dust, ...... 2 feet.

Blue shale, &c., three feet.
Coal crushed and coal slate, ...... 2 feet.

Interval of twenty or thirty feet.
Quarry rock.

On the south side of the New Kiver the two coal beds are opened
at Cloyd's. Here the summit and mid-rib of the Brushy Mountain
is a pebbly conglomerate of great thickness, dipping 45° J south 34°
east ; over which, forming the southeastern slope of the mountain,
are, first, yellowish flagstones; and then, soft clay slates; in all about
1200 feet thick, dipping the same way. Over these lies the "Quarry
rock," a massive, gray, micaceous, quartzose sandstone, forming a
line of little peaks. Ten feet above this is coal bed A, yielding
about two feet of very bright pure semi-anthracite coal, much crushed
and with the same dip. Thirty-five feet above A lies coal bed B,
with its neat, undisturbed roof-rock of thin-bedded argillaceous sand-
stone, yielding about two and a half feet of good coal out of the fol-
lowinsr section :

Lesley,

36

[May.

FEET.

IXCHES.

10

1

0

1

2

6

6

2

6

1

10

9— in

Coal, good,

slate,

Coal, poor.

Coal, crusbed and slate.

Coal, poor,

Coal, crusbed and slate,

Coal, good.

Coal, good,

An outcrop of black slate seems to represent the place of a third
bed of coal, about 50 feet above coal B. About 550 feet still higher,
the red shales set in and continue for many hundred feet, all at the
same dip of about 45°, with great regularity, until limestones appear
just at the fault. This section is represented in Fig. H.

On the northeast side of New River, where it enters the gap, a
minor fault, in the opposite direction, has downthrown the coal of the
mountain, so as to cause the outcrop of coal A to disappear, with steep
mountain dips. But coal B shows four feet of good solid coal, with
five feet of slaty coal on top. (See Fig. D.)

At Poverty (lap, further east, both beds appear with a dip of about
17° J south 13° east, 45 feet apart; A yielding 3 feet of excel-
lent coal, and B eight feet thick, slaty and crushed on top, soft and
sandy in the middle, and hard, fine, blacksmith coal 3 feet at the
bottom. Cliffs of compact green sandstone, 40 feet high, tower over
the gangway, and introduce (going east) a new feature in the vertical
section. Here is observable the curious variety called '' sand-coal;"
rightly named, for it feels to the hand as if sanded over, but is ap-
parently as pure and good as the rest.

At Brose's mill, still further east, the great fault can be distinctly
seen, where the red shale over the cliff" sandstone dips 30° J south-
ward, directly against the vertical Lower Silurian Limestone of the
valley. At Knode's crossing, further east, the red shale side of the
fault has been curved down so as to produce a plunge of red shale
against the fault at an angle of 60°-70°. (See Figs. I. and J.)

At Millstone hollow (still going east), A yields 2.C of good coal,
and, 20 feet above it, B (under its cliffs) shows the following section :

FEET. INCHES.

Soft coal.
Slate and coal,
Soft coal.
Slate,
Coal,

4 0

10

1 3

3 0

1862.] 37 [Lesley.

In these and other mines on this side of the river, the variety of
"sand-coal" always appears as a constant element in the section, but
occupying sometimes the top and sometimes the middle or bottom of
the bed. Everywhere, also, the coal of the small bed A (which has
not this aspect) is recognized as the best. The lower part of B is
the most reliable and productive. At the eastern end of the district,
also the pebble-rock underneath A, is no longer recognizable, having
slowly degenerated to a bed of clay slate or soft sandstone. But in
its place, and at a much lower depth (about 200 feet) below A, ap-
pears a massive stratum of flinty gray sand-rock ; from under which,
at one place, painted water issues, and a coal seam is reported. This
may correspond to a black slate stratum which is seen at one place
(near Cloyd's) about 150 yards below coal A. Two beds at this
horizon are also reported to exist at Shlusher's mines, in the little
basin opposite Blacksburg.

In Price's Mountain, between Blacksburg and Christiansburg, the
two coal beds with their slates, and the red shale formation above
them, have been curiously let down, still in an anticlinal form, between
two faults, so as to be inclosed between two valleys of Lower Silurian
Limestone. (See Fig. Gr.)

These coal beds have been long known and dug at old openings
long deserted and fallen in. Later gangways show the same coal
as that in Brush Mountain, but more anthracitic, frangible, and
crushed, dipping on the southern side of the anticlinal 25°J south
10° east; and on the northern, 70°-80°J. Over Kyle's coal are
thin, blue, shaly sand-rocks, full of fossil plants. Three or four se-
parate beds appear to exist, but the dips vary somewhat. The area is
small, and the coal of little or no value to a railroad trade.

The coal of Montgomery county, then, is a soft anthracite of a
sandy grain, disposed to slaty structure, passing into a compact,
smooth, conchoidal, quasicannel, but never, so far as I have seen, a
true cannel coal. In one or two instances I noticed a prismatic struc-
ture, where the coal would be called and sold for semi-bituminous.
In general it is a semi-anthracite, or a soft, flaming, white ash an-
thracite.

Portions of the beds exhibit numerous specks of sulphuret of iron,
in fiat discs, in the joints. No cubic crystals.

The chief use of the coal must be domestic, although its harder
parts can compete in the llichmond market with Richmond coal, with
blacksmiths and limeburners, and probably puddlers and furnace-
keepers. But it will not be likely to go to sea, on account of its slack

2. Three to four miles
west of Pov. Gap,

•i. Two miles next
New Eiver Gap,

4. Five miles west of
New River Gap,

Lesley.] 3g [May.

waste and high per cent, of ash, and the competition of Pennsyl-
vania portable anthracite.

The quantity available by gangways driven in from New River,
Poverty Gap, and the other breaks in Brush Mountain, where the
real supply is to be obtained for any future trade, is an important
question, and the answer may be tabulated as follows :

A, being the amount above water-level of all gangways.

B, being the amount above water-level of Poverty Gap.

C, being the amount below water-level to the fault.

A. B. C. TOTAL.

1. Ten miles east of )

„ , ,^ J- 850,000 1,560,000 11,500,000 12,910,000 tons.

Poverty (xap, } '

i 250,000 3,500,000 3,750,000 tons.

i Much less coal. 2,000,000 2,000,000 -f tons.

I 750,000 +

It is supposed that at 3 cents per ton per mile, a branch road ex-
clusively for coal will pay 6 per cent on a capital, if its tonnage is at
least double the number of dollars which the road has cost per mile.
A road costing $15,000 should send over at least 30,000 tons per
annum.

The data from which the above calculation is made, are as follows :
The distance from Poverty Gap (the terminus of a branch road from
Christiansburg) to Shlusher's, along the coal beds, is ten miles, 17,000
yards; the line of highest outcrops strait, the line of water-level
gangway-mouths in the different ravines rises regularly eastward ;
the greatest breastings from the gangway, above water-level, at Po-
verty Gap, is 350 feet; the least breasting at Shlusher's is nothing;
the height of Shlusher's coal crop above Poverty gangway, 250 feet;
the loss by ravines at every half mile, say one-quarter ; the average
yield of B say 3 feet, of A 2 feet; loss in mining one-third.

Mr. Gerhard presented specimens of mammoth powder in
use in Gunnery.

Pending nominations Nos. 456, 457, 458, and new nomina-
tions Nos. 459 to 465 were read.

The communication of Mr. Prettyman was referred to a
committee consisting of Prof. John C. Cresson, Mr. Peale,
and Mr. Baldwin.

And the Society Avas adjourned.

1862.] 39 [TaM.

The following Chapter in Professor Tafel's communication,
entitled " Investigations into the Laws of English Orthogra-
phy and Pronunciation," Avas not received in time for publi-
cation in its proper place, following page 376 of Vol. VIII.

CHAPTER XIII.

The Elementary Sounds of the English Language, repre-
sented IN Writing.

§ 47. I HAVE now examined the mode in which the elementary
sounds of the English language are formed by the organs of speech,
I have investigated the manner in which they combine with one
another in the formation of syllables j and I have finally shown the
process by which the syllables are connected so as to form words.
The only subject that yet remains for discussion in connection with
the physiological part of the English language is accent ; for by ac-
cent the words are imbued, as it were, with living breath, or are
individualized, and by it they are prepared for their work of ex-
pressing the human thought. English accent, however, is such an
extensive subject that I reserve its discussion for a future part of my
investigations. Meanwhile, I shall exhibit the various methods
resorted to in the English language for the expression of the several
elementary sounds of speech. In the preparation of this chapter I
have been assisted very much by the works of the phoneticists,
such as Ellis, Comstock, etc., who have taken particular pains in
collecting all those instances, in which the English language, accord-
ing to their ideas, has sinned against the rules of sound spelling.

The elementary vowel-sounds of the English language have been
collected in § 6, in the following table :

long. short. long. short.

1, father, . . . . . <S. sJieej), . 9. sht'j),

2. fast, . . o. faf, . . . \0. pool,fiuie, . 11. pnU,
4. a(/e, Lane, . 5. end, . . . 12. 7iote, . .

6. fare, . . 7. fell, let, . 13. off, all, . 14. not, u-Iiat.

15. he7', bird, either long or short.

16. love, but, always short.

[Rem. — The only departure I allowed myself in the present table.

Tafel.] 4Q [May.

is that of regarding the vowels c in end and fell as two distinct
sounds ; the former as the corresponding short sound of a in a<je, and
the latter of a in fare. In § 6, I was inclined to regard them as
identical, or almost so, because in some individuals whose pronuncia-
tion I then studied, I could not detect any difference between them ;
they gave to both vowels a sort of middle sound between a in a(jc
and fai-e. Upon reconsidering this subject lately, and examining
the pronunciation of other careful speakers of the English language,
I came to the conclusion that there does exist a difference in the
pronunciation of these two sounds in the English as well as in the
German, French, and other languages. In order to prove that the
same distinction of sound which exists between the long sounds of a
in fate and fare, continues among the short sounds, compare the
sounds of e in end and let, and this is best done by starting with the
words hane and late (where the vowel a is pronounced alike), and
winding up with the words end and let, thus hd-cnd, Id-it. By doing
so, it will be found that the sound of e in end is but a continuation
of a in lja7ie, while that of e in let, is broader than a in late.'}

In the above table I have not endeavored to express the various
vowel-sounds by peculiar signs, but I have limited myself to collect-
ing such words in which these sounds are exhibited; but henceforth
it will be necessary to represent these sounds abstractly from the
words in which they occur, and for this purpose I propose the signs
introduced in the next table. — These are not arbitrary signs, but each
I'epresents the shape of the mouth, and the position of the tongue in
the pronunciation of the several vowel-sounds.

In taking an external view of the shape of the mouth in the pronun-
ciation of the several vowel-sounds, we see that in the pronunciation of

the vowels from i to 9, the mouth is extended, viz., r ^, but in the

pronunciation of the vowels from 10 to 14 it is contracted, viz., ( \

Also, in the diagram of § 6, which delineates the position of the
tongue in the pronunciation of each of these sounds, we see that in
the pronunciation of a in father, the tongue lies flat in the mouth;

therefore, the sign C^y, in which the mark ( O j denotes the posi-
tion of the tongue, will be used for the representation of this
sound. In the pronunciation of a in fast the tongue is slightly

raised ; this sound, therefore, is represented by L^J) ; and so forth.

1862.] ^]_ [VoAvels.

The following diagrams will furnish a key for these signs :

sheej), ship pool, pull

rnd,«ge -/ \ _ fore, fdl

flit, f«st — ^ ^ . ^,

^- •=::- father

Of the two marks used in pointing out the position of the tongue,
the one which is white, viz., , qJ, represents the long vowels, and

the other which is black, viz., f 9 j, the short : these marks are bor-
rowed from musical notation.

As regards the names by which to call the signs, I propose to
follow the same plan which is pursued in the alphabet. Thus a in
arje will be called long «, and its corresponding short sound, viz., c in
cud, short a ; o in nofc, will be called long o; a in father-, long ah ; a
in fast or a/t, long a{ft) ; and a mfat, short a{ft) — the two con-
sonants in brackets are not to be pronounced, but the vowel a is to
receive that sound which it has in aft. A in fore, and e in fell, I
call ai (?•) ; a in all and loliat, or o in o^and 7iot, an, or aice, and u
\n flute and pull, oo.

The above table, containing the long and short vowels in use in
the English language, may therefore be expressed with the following
signs and names :

B. (\^ = short a (ft),
5. Q^J = short a (ge),
7. ^^^ = short ai (y),
9. (^^ = short ce,
11. fj = short oo,

14. fj = short aw,
16. (j^ = short u (p).
In the pronunciation of No. IG, which is the unmodified vowel-

VOL. IX. — F

1.

( J = long ah,

2_

Q==long«(ft),

4.

(_0_) = long a (ge),

G.

(55 = longfli(r).

8.

(^ =r long ee,

10.

(j = long 00,

VI.

0 = Jong 0,

13.

Q = long aic.

15.

(®) = «'■(/"'•),

Tafel.] 42 LMay.

:-oiind, the tongue occupies no particular position, but the mouth has

its round shape ; it is therefore represented thus, C®^- In No. 15,

which is an amalgamation of the unmodified vowel-sound with the
smooth r, the mouth is slightly contracted, as in the pronunciation

of bird; it will, therefore be represented thus : (@], and as its sound

may either be protracted or shortened ad libitum, without altering
the word any, this quality will be expressed by a combination of the
black with the white mark. In calling this sound by name, I pro-
pose to pronounce the vowel together with the following r, viz., ru-
in fur.

§ 48. I now proceed to give the English spelling of the several
elementary sounds in use in the English language,
a. Vowels and Diphthongs.

By ea, as in great,

^

^ = '

ong ah :

s.y

a, as in

arm, father.

ah, "

ah!

e, "

sergeant,

ea, '^

heart.

aa, "

to baa.

i, "

reservoir.

2. 05 = long a (ft) :

By a, as in ((ft, grass, calf,
" au, " laugh.

3. (^^ = short a (ft) :

By a, as in black, at,

'^ ai, " plaid.

4. -^^ = a (ge) :

By a, as in ehaos, age,
" aa, " haali, Aaron,
" ae, " Gaelic,
" ai, '• aijn, hail,
" ao, " gaol.

tl,

ei,

a

veil.

u

''J/,

((

they.

5. (=^-.

= 1

short a (ge) :

v_

^^

By

e, as in end,

a

ea,

a

cleanse,

a

^U,

a

Reynolds,

a

ie.

a

friend.

a

Thames.
long ai(r) :

6. ^■

—

By

a, !

as in /are,

a

ai.

il

fair,

a

(^,

a

there.

a

ea.

a

bear.

" ^

-^^^

=

short ai(y) :

'■ Q^

By

c, as in bell, let,

i(

ea.

health, head.

n

'^h

heifer,

il

CO,

leopard,

il

('>

any.

(I

ac,

Pa^sfum,

J8G2.1

43

[Vowels and Diphthongs

By ai, as in said,
" f'i/, '' says,
" oe, " fortitude.

«-o

= ]

long ce :

By

c, as in e?;?, fever.

ea,

pea, heap,

ee,

glee, feed,

ei,

seize, ceiUncj,

eo,

people,

ey,

J^^y,

ae.

paean.

cy,

quay,

h

machine,

ia,

caviar,

le.

field, pier,

oe, " diarrhoea.

'■©

short ee .

10

By /. as in

is, big.

" y,

u

hymn.

" ee,

IC

been.

" ei.

u

teint.

ii

icomen.

" V,

ii

busy,

" vi,

l(

build.

'•© =

= long 00 :

By 0, as in

I lose, prove,

" oe.

shoe.

" 00,

too, mood.

" OH,

wound, sovp.

" n,

flute, rude,

" tie.

flue, rue,

" 21 i,

fruit.

" ew.

blew.

" oen.

1

manoeuvre.

11.

0

sTiort 00 .

By 0, as in icolf,
" u, " put, full,
" 00, '' icood, booJi,
" ou, *' u-ould.

12. i-oA = Ion"' u :

18.

By 0, as in

1 so, note, old.

" oa, "

oar, goaf.

'' oe, "

foe, toe.

" 00, "

floor, door,

" ou, "

four, mourn,

" oiv, "

flow, boivl.

" oh, "

oh!

" eo, "

ijeomen,

" ew, "

sew.

" ecai,"

beau.

" au, "

hautboy.

>• Q = ^o"s ^"' •■

By a, as in all, talk,

" au, "

laud.

" atu, "

law.

" 0, "

off, loss,

" oa, "

broad.

" 0?f, "

ought.

14.

0-

= short au

By o, as in loclt,
^' a, " what,
'' ou:, " Jcnoivledge.

15.

&

z<(p):

a. In accented .syllables.
By u, as in ?//), but,

Tafe!.] 4^ [May.

By 0, as in Jove, wn, By o, as in fd'o-vy, pur' pose,

" oe, '' does, " o!, " ^yorpoise,

" 00, " hlood, " o», " fa'mous,
" OK, " tough, " v., '^ dep'\j-tij, ccn'.sus.

b. Ill unaccented syJlahles.

Bv a, as in A-fresJi, men' Ace, ,p /"\ /p -,

^ ' -^ ' ' 16. (o ^nr (fur).

" a*, " caj) tain, \y

" e, *' hid'lE-tin, di'Ef, By er, as in Jiei', herd,

" ei, " snr'feit, " yV, " bird, fir,

'• ey, " alley, " or, " word, worth,

" ?", " ahil'l-ty, Tu'm, " Kr, " /i/r, hum,

'' y, " tru'lY, " OJir, '' journey.

§ 49. The table o^ diphthongs is found in § 8.

1. at J in atVs^e, etc. 4. all, in i/o?<?, s/o«^,

2. d'\, in height, etc. 5. a°f, in ?o//, /;o^,

3. ao, in spouse, fold, etc. 6. ill, in c?<e, /«ie.

(Concerning the characters used in describing the diphthongs,
see § 8, in the beginning.)

These diphthongs are spelled in the English language in the fol-
lowing manner :

1.

at:

4.

9lt:

By {, as in

child, hide,

sign,

By ou, as in gout, doubt.

high,

'' ow, "

boivnr.

" i/, "

hy, rhyme,

5.

a°c:

" ie, "

pie,

By oi, as in ?o(7,

" ye, ''

rhye.

" oy, "

boy.

" ei, "

eider,

6.

in:

" eye, "

<^ye,

By u, as in

tube, Hugh,

" ui, "

guide.

" lie, "

due.

" yy, "

buy.

" ni, "

Juice,

3\:

" e», "

feud,

By /, as in

sight, side, indict,

" ew, "

few,

U y^ U

scythe,

'' eau, "

beauty,

" ei, '<

height.

" /CK, "

lieu,

ao:

" iew, "

view,

By ou, as in our, mouse,

bough

>

" ^o», "

you.

'' ow, "

now, fowl.

1862.1 45 [Consonants.

b. Consonants.

§ 50. The consonant.s of the English language, which have been
described in Chapter V., are represented in writing in the following
manner :

Labials. 2. The soft consonant :

1. The hard consonant : 13y d, as in day^ had,

}ly p, as in pit, hoj), " dd, '• add, bladder,

" PPy " ^"^PPJ/i " '-"^ " hdcUlnm.
" <jh, " hiccough,

" p/f, " diphthong. 3. Fluid consonants of the Jrrst

series :

2. The soft consonant : a. JVon-sonant:

]3y b, as in boic, sob, By th, as in thunder, lorath,

" bb, " ebb, robber. " j^hth, " apophthegm.

b. Sonant:

ii. The non-sonant Jluld conso- IJy th, as in then, leather.

nant :

By/, as in fame, safe, ^- ^^"'^^ consonants of the second

" /, " off, traffc,

series .

" J)Jl, "

phial, graphic,

a. Non-sonant :

'< /,pA, ^'

Sappho,

By

s, as ill

1 S('?2, case,

" .7/', "

la ugh .

(1

(I

cent, fence,
hiss, passing,

4. T/ic sonant fluid consonant :

u

scene,

By i;, as in vie, have.

a

sch, "

sell ism,

"/, "

of,

a

s/, "

glisten, thistle.

" ph, "

Stephen.

((

ps, "

psalm.

u

X, ''

beaux.

Dentals.

h.

. Sonant:

1. 7%e

hard consonant :

%

z, as in zeal, seize,

By ^, as in top, at.

s, "

his, rose.

" ti, "

Pitt, butter.

c, "

suffice.

" /A, "

thijme, jihthisic,

X, "

xanthic,

" d, "

stopped,

cza r,

'' p/, "

p)tisan,

sc, "

discern y

a f.;^ u

ctenoid.

ss, "

scissors,

buzz.

Tafel.J

46

[May.

5. Fluid consonants of the tJiird
series :
a. Hun-sonant:
By sh, as in shade, fish,
'' shi, " fashion,
'' ch, " machine,
" c, *' officiate,
" c/, ce, " social, ocean,
" s, " s?/rc, nausea,
" Sii*, " mersion,
" (", '' satiate,
'' ^", " nation,
" sc, " fascia,
" ss, " cassia,
'' ss/, " accession.

b. Sonant:
By .:, as in azure,

" s, " treasure,
" Si", '' fusion,
'' ti, " transition.

c. Semi-Voavels and

§ 51. 1. R'sound.
By r. as in roZ/, pair,
" ;•/•, " iwrr, marrij,
" rr/i, " mijrrh,
'' /■/, '' mortyarje,
" JTr, '' write.

2. L-sound.
By *', as in li(jht,file,

3. Lahial Nasal :
By ?)i, as in mind, fame,
'' »i?H, " mammon,
" 7?zn, " hymn,
" ?)iZ^, '' lamb, lambda,
" wjjj, " contempt,
''• ^»i, " tmesis.

By ss/', as in scission.

Gutturals.
1. Hard consonant :
By /»;, as in Z;eep, freak,
" c, '' ca^), f'olic,
*' (^j " queen,
" (^((j " pique, liquor,
" fc, " hiccough,
" c/i-, *' hlaclc, jacket,
" c/i, '' chord, ache,
" r//(, '' louyh.

2. /S'oyi! consonant :
% ^, as in ^o, %,

" r^if, '^ rorjue, (juide,

" (A-, " hlackguard.

Vowel-Consonants.

4. Dental Nasal :
]]y Ji, as in ?io, ??i(r»,

Ji?(,

((

Ann, hannei

mn,

u

mnemonics.

pn.

u

pneumatics,

kn.

a

know,

en.

<.'

Cue us.

!/'h

a

(jnau-.

5. Guttural Nascd :
]?y n, as in thank,
" ??y, " thing ^
" J^i/'fe, " tongue.

G. Lahial Voicel-consonanf ,
By ly, as in ^(/e, ?f;oo,
'*' ?/, " quill, suavity,
" o, " reservoir,
" — , " one.

1862.] _j.'^- [Consonantal Diphthongs.

7. Palatal Vuioel-conwnant : By J, ns in Jiallelujah,
By 1/, as in ^car, you, " e, "■ eice, hcic,

" /, " million, onion, " — , " vse.

d. Consonantal Diphthongs.
§ 52. With regard to the consonantal diphthongs, their spelling
is found under the head of the single consonants of -which they are
composed, with the exception of the following combinations, where
peculiar characters are used for their representation :

1. (6li:

o. h'S :

By cJi, as

in churcli.

By ks, as in steaks.

'' h-Ji, "

fetch,

" cks, " bricks.

nature,

'' cs, " mimics.

" a, "

question.
2. (hh:

" X, " exile,
'' cc, " accent.

% 9, as

> in gentle,

Gipsi/,

4. g.:

" 96, gi,

" George.

, legion,

By X, as in example.

" dge.

" hriJ<je,

" g^, " figs,

" dg.

" judgment.

" ggh " eggs-

'' h

" judge.

- cli.

" soldier,

5. ts:

" eh.

" ostrich.

By ts, as in kits,

'■'• z, '■'■ mezzotinto.
§ 53. Thus far the characters have been exhibited by which the
several elementary sounds of the English language are represented
in writing ; I now invert this exhibition, and intend to show the
number of elementary sounds, expressed by the single and double
characters of English orthography.

a. Simple Vowel-sitjns.

A has 10 sounds :

E has 6 sounds :

1.

a.

as in all, stalk.

1.

C;

as in

there.

o

a.

tchaf.

2.

^;

bell,

3.

a,

arm.

3.

e,

end.

4.

a.

fast, sand.

4.

^,

her.

5.

a.

M,

5.

f,

eve,

6.

a.

flare,

G.

c,

bid'lE-tin, diEt.

7.

a.

ale.

S.

a.

any,

Ih

as 6 sounds :

9.

a.

Thames,

1.

',

as in

caprice,

0.

a.

a-frcsh, mm' ace.

2.

',

ii

is, bi<J,

Tafel.l 4g [May.

3. /, as in sir, hinJ, ?>. o, as in oj",

4. /, " (■hilil,file,

5. /, " reservoir,
G. /, '^ ru'in.

U lias 8 sounds :
1. u, as hi fiafr,

2.

">

I) nil,

3.

V,

hut, up,

4.

II,

hurry.

5.

w,

busy.

G.

M,

tube,

7.

")

suavity,

8.

")

een'svs.

4.

0,

ii

lock,

5.

0,

11

love.

6.

0,

u

word,

7.

0,

a

icomen.

8.

0,

a

lose,

9.

0,

u

wolf,

10.

o.

ii

one.

11.

0,

ii

reservoir

12.

o,

ii

pur' pose.

Y has 5 sounds :

1. ^, as in yoke,

2. y, " hymn,
S. y, " myrrh,

0 has 12 sounds: 4. y, '' by,

1. 0, an in old, 5. _?/, " envy.

2. o, " nor, (?)

b. Compound Voiccl-sir/ns, or Digraphs.

AA has 2 sounds: 2. ao, as in extraordinary,

1. aa, as in baa, Aar, 3. ao, " aorisf.

2. «rt, " ^4aro».

A U has 4 sounds.
AE has 4 sounds: 1. rn?, as in /cult,

1. ac, as in Gaelic, JIaesc, 2. «», " rrjni^, lauyli,

2. ae, " Aetna, 3. a», " i/""i/^5

3. ae, " Caesar, 4. aw, " hautboy.

4. Of, " aerial.

A IF A«s 1 sound :

Alha

s 6 sounds:

1.

aio, as in awl.

1.

rti,

as in

aim,

2.

«/,

a

a ir,

AY has 4 sounds:

3.

a/,

ii

said,

1.

ay, as in day,

4.

«'■;

ii

plaid,

2.

ay, " sr7y.s,

5.

ai,

ii

aisle.

3.

cf/, " qitay.

6.

ai.

1

cap' tain.

4.

ay, " ay.

A 0 has 3 sounds :

EA has 8 sounds :

1.

no

, as in

yaol,

1.

ea, as in bcnst,

LS(12.

49

(Digraphs.

2. ea, as in great,

3. ea, " cleanse,

4. ea, " hear,

5. ea, " bread,

6. ea, " earth,

7. ea, " heart,

8. ea, ** /Tw?.

EE has 5 sounds

1. ce, as iny'/TC,

2. ee, " breeches,

3. ee, " ?ie'(?/'",

4. ee, " Beelzebub,

5. c<?, " iec/-.

EI has 8 sounds:

1. e<", as in deceive,

2. c?*, " surfeit,

0. e/, " re«7,

4. e/', " AciV,

5. e(', '' heifer,

6. e?', '' eider,

7. e/, " height,

8. e**, " being,

EO has 5 sounds ,

1. eo, as in people,

2. eo, ** leopard,

3. CO, " George,

4. eo, " yeoman,

5. eo, '' yeofZ.

£"^7 /t«s 2 sounds :

1. ei(, as in/eiff?,

2. ei?, " rheum.

EW has o sounds .

1. eif;, as in peic,

2. ew, " drew,

3. cw, " scio.

EY has 3 sounds :
1. ey, as in 7rey,

A'OL. IX. — G

2. ey, as in they,
S. ey, " alley.

I A has 1 sound :
1. ia, as in caviar, (^cavir).

IE has 4 sounds :

1. ie, as in pie,

2. /e, " /eW,

3. ie, " sieve,

4. ie, " friend.

OA has 4 sounds :

1. oa, as in boat,

2. oa, " oatmeal,

5. oa, " cupboard,
4. oa, " broad.

OE has 6 sounds :

1 . oe, as in s/toe,

2. oe, " toe,

3. oe, " docs,

4. oe, " foetus,
b. oe, " foetid,

6. oe, " doer.

01 has 6 sounds :

1. o/, as in boil,

2. o(', '' turkois,

3. o/, " choir,

4. o<', ** scrutoir,

5. ot", '' reservoir,
H. o/, " porpoise.

00 has 4 sounds :

1. 00, as in eoo/,

2. 00, " ^oo/t,

3. 00, '' blood,
i. 00, " floor.

Oa has 9 sounds :
1. ou, as in arouse.

iTafel.

50

[May.

2. ou, as in gout,

3.

ou.

ought.

4.

ou.

CO lose.

5.

ou,

rough,

6.

ou,

journey.

7.

ou,

youth.

8.

ou,

could.

9.

ou,

famous.

UE Las 2 sounds :

1. ue, as in due,

2. %ie, " Hue, rue.

1.

UI lias 5 sounds
ui, as in Juice,

0 W has 3 sounds :

1. oiv, as in now,

2. ow, " floiv,

3. ozr, " hnoioledge.

OY has 1 sound, as in hoy.

3. ?</,

4. ui,

5. ■jtA

fruit,
huild,
guile,
ruin.

UY has one sound, as in hiy.
YE has one sound, as in rye.

c. Triple Vowel-signs, or Trigraphs.
AYE has one sound, as in aye. 2. ieu, as in 3Iessieurs,

3. ieu, " lieutenant.
EA U has 2 sounds :

1. eau, as in heaxity, JEW has one sound, as in view.

2. eau, " leau.

OEU has one sound, as in ma-
EYE has one sound, as in eye. noeuvre.

IEU has 3 sounds
1. ieu, as in adieu.

UOY has one sound, as in huoy.

d. Simple Consonantal and Semi-vowel Signs.
This table includes all simple signs of the English alphabet, with
the exception of the vowel-signs.

B represents one sound, as in 3. c, as in suffice.

hoy, hahe.

It is mute :
In bd, as in bdellium,
'' bt, " douht, subtle,
" mb, " dumb, climb.

C represents 5 sounds :

1. c, as in cap, arc,

2. c, '' cent, cider,

4. c, " ocean,

5. c, "' cicerone.

It is mute :
In ct, as in victuals, indict.

D represents 3 sounds :

1. d, as in day, bad,

2. d, " hojyped,

3. d, " soldier.

1862.

51

[Semi-vowel Signs.

It is mute in handkerchief, 2. m,^s \n comptroller.

Wednesday, etc.

F represents 2 sounds :
1. /, as \nfame, life,

It is mute in halfpenny .

G represents 5 sounds :
1. r/, as in go, log,
•2. (J, " gem, gill,
S. g, " rouge,

4. g, " poignant,

5. g, " long.

It is mute :
In gl, as in oglio,
'' gm, " phlegm,
''' O^h " gnarl, Lagnio.

It is mute, as in mnemonics.

j^'' represents 2 sounds :

1. 11, as in no, nun,

2. n, '' inJc.

It is mute :
In mn, as in hymn, limn,
" In, " kiln.

P represents 2 sounds :

1. p)j ^s in^fV, top,

2. p, " cuphoard.

It is mu.te :
In pn, as in p)neumatic,
" pph, " sap)phire,
^' ps, " j)salm,
'^ pt, " i^tiaan, receipt, at-
tempt,
" rps, " corps.

iZ represents 1 sound, as in hat,

help).
It is mute, as in humhle, heir. Q represents 1 sound, as in qnill.

t/ represents 2 sounds:

1. j, as mjoin,

2. j, " hallclnjah.

R represents 2 sounds
1. r, as in roiv,

2. r, " her.

It is mute :
A" represents 1 sound, as in In rl, as in 3Iarlhorougli,

keep, hreak.
It is mute, as in know, knight.

L represents 2 sounds :

1. ^, as in life, hold,

2. I (?•) as in colonel.

It is mute :
In Id, as in could, chaldron,
" ^/, " calf
'• Ik, " talk,
•' Im, " calm,
" Is, " halser.

M represents 2 sounds :
1. m, as in man, from,

" rs, " toorsted.
S represents 4 sounds :

1. s, as in sick,

2. s, " close,

3. s, " nausea,

4. s, " treasure.

It is mute :
In si, as in aisle, isle,
" sn, " demesne,
" sc, " viscount; at the end
of words, as in cha-
mois, corps.

T represents 3 sounds :
1. t, as in tin, pit,

Tate!. |

r)2

I May.

2. ^, as in nation,
8. t, " feature.

It is mute :
In ,s/, as in christen, chestnut,

icoistcoat, castle.
" /■/, as in mortijage; at the
end of words, as in
ragout, depot.

Frepresents 1 sound, as in vile, Jove.
]V represents one sound, as in loise.

It is mute :
In wv, as in icrite,
" sw, " sicorel, ansicer,

fu\

two.

F(see among vowels.)

Z represents 3 sounds :

1. s, as in zeal, freeze,

2. z, " azure,

'' mezzotint.

3

e. Compound Consonant-signs.

Ch has 4 sounds :

1. ch, as in church,

2. ch, " ostrich,

0. ch, " champaign,
4. ch, " ache, Christ.

It is mute, as in drachm, i/acht.

Ck has 2 sounds :

1. ck, as in hacJc, brick,

2. ck, " Itlackgnard.

Gh has 4 sounds :

1. gh, as in ghost,

2. gh, " laugh, rough,

3. gh, " hough, lough,
i. gh, " hiccough.

It is mute, as in Armagh^ us-
quebaugh, iceigh,nigh, bough,
though, through, Hugh.

Ng has 2 sounds :
1. ng, as in thing,
2- ng, " finger.

Ph has 4 sounds :
1. ph, as in phial, Joseph,

2. ph, as in Stephen (v).

3. ph, " aphelion (f-h).

4. ph, '■'■ diphthong (p).

Sc has 4 sounds :
sc, as in scour, sceptic,
sc, " scene,
sc, "■ conscience,
sc, " discern.

Sch has 2 sounds :

1. sch, as in school,

2. sch, " schism,

iSh has one sound, as in ship,
fish.

Th has 3 sounds :

1. th, as in thank, bath,

2. th, " than, mother,

3. th, " thijme, isthmus.

X has 4 sounds :

1. a;, as in expect, exile,

2. X, " example,
o. X, " beaux,

4. X, " xanthic.

After thus showing the full extent of the field of my investiga-
tions, and after giving to the reader some idea of the work before me,
I close this first part. In the next I shall commence the work of
solving the problem of English pronunciation and orthography, be-
iiinning; with a historv of the formation of the Emrlish tongue.

53

NOTE.

The Committee beg leave to append to the above the fol-
lowing note :

With regard to the character, so generally ascribed in Ger-
many, of greater softness to the sounds of "d," "g," and
"b," when respectively compared with those of " t," "k,"
and "p," it appears to the members of the committee that
the production of the latter sounds is accompanied with less
force of breath and of the muscular action of the tongue,
and is accompanied with a larger volume of intonation than
that of the former. It therefore seems to them that the cha-
racter of greater hardness, rather than of softness, would
be naturally attached to "d," "g," and "b." They would
ask whether, instead of the more recent ascriptions of soft-
ness and hardness, and if we reject the scholastic distinctions
of slender, middle, and rough, tenues, mediae and aspiratse,
(I'lld, [j.iaa, and daffia, a more correct idea would not be given
by the use, in this case, of the words delicfte or well-defined,
as applies to "t," "k," and "p," and coarser, to "d," "g,"
and "b."

They observe in this, as in some other works of great
learning and just reputation, from the German school, a pre-
vailing or total omission of the theta and the aspirated delta,
or Anglo-Saxon b, as they occur in the English words " thick"
and "this." The committee avoid the inquiry whether the
pronunciation of the Latin contained these sounds, and of
the authority, in this respect, of the Greek, kept up as a liv-
ing language to our days ; but certainly the theta and the
aspirated delta cannot be rejected from the English. They
do not appear to the committee as hissing sounds, but sui
generis. They seem to be produced by protruding the tongue
quite beyond the edge of the incisor teeth, and then emit-

54

ting a more delicate current of voice, prevented from form-
ing the sound of "s" or "z" by the approach of the soft
surface of the tongue so near as to render the sound quite
smooth.

"What are called the long English vowels, "a," "i," and
"o," appear to the committee to be, in each instance, diph-
thongal ; and they think that this will appear if these vowels
are much prolonged in their pronunciation. Thus, if we ex-
press the force of "e" in the English word "there" by the
character "e," and the common sound of "e," as in "me,"
by the simple letter "e," long "a" will appear to be com-
posed, consecutively, of "e" and "e," which we may write
e-e, or if greatly prolonged, e-e-e-e-e-e.

"I" seems to be composed of "a" as in "ah," and in vari-
ous French words ; followed by "e," as when called long " e."
Thus, if we express "a," as in "ah," by "a/' and use the
common "e,". we shall find "i" to be "a©," or, when pro-
longed, a-a-a-a-e-e.

"0" they would form by a sound not used in English in
its simple form, that of "6" in the French word "dome;"
(a sound which does not seem to them identical with English
"u" in "cut;") and to this they would add the sound of
"oo:" "o" would then be "o-oo," or, if prolonged, 6-6-6-6-
00-00. It is believed to be impossible to elongate "a," "i,"
or "ii," as can be done with every simple vowel, without
dwelling on one or other of the above initial or concluding
sounds.

PROCEEDINGS

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Vol. IX. JUNE— DECEMBER, 1862. No. 68.

Stated Meeting, June 20, 1862.

Present, nine members.

Prof. Cresson, Vice-President, in the Chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from Dr. En-
glemann, dated St. Louis, Mo., May 29, 1862.

Letters were received from Dr. A. D. Bache and D. Hun-
tingdon, respecting the deposit of a portrait of the former in
the Hall of the Society.

A letter respecting the Michaux legacy was received from
the President, Dr. Wood, dated Paris, May 12, 1862.

Dr. Bache read an extract from a letter, also from Dr.
Wood, respecting the Tischendorff Manuscript.

Letters advising the Society of donations to the Library
were received from the Royal Prussian Academy, dated
Berlin, February 18th, 1862; the Minister of the Interior,
dated Harlem, February 15th, 1862 ; the Royal Academy of
San Fernando, at Madrid ; and the Royal Academy at Lis-
bon, per the United States Legation, dated April 19th, 1862.

Donations for the Library were received from the Physico-
Economical Society at Konigsberg ; the Academies at Berlin,
Paris, Madrid, and Philadelphia ; the Natural History So-
cieties at Bonn and Boston ; the Essex, Franklin, and Wil-

Clark.] Kg [June.

mington Institutes ; the Minister of the Interior at Harlem ;
the Museum of Natural History, and the Geographical So-
ciety at Paris ; the Royal, Royal Geographical, and Chemi-
cal Societies at London ; the publishers of the Medical News
of Philadelphia ; Messrs. J, S. Morris of Baltimore ; S.
Shellabarger of Washington ; F. Leypoldt of Philadelphia ;
Dr. Englemann of St. Louis ; and the State of Wisconsin.

On recommendation of the special committee to which it
was referred, Dr. Hayden's memoir on the Lidian Tribes of
the Missouri River was, on motion of Dr. Bache, ordered to
be published in the Transactions.

The committee on Mr, Prettyman's communication, re-
ported verbally through its Chairman, Prof. Cresson, that it
had had an interview with Mr. Prettyman, who asked leave
to withdraw his communication. On motion, leave was
granted.

A suite of coal oil specimens was offered for the examina-
tion of the members present. Mr. Heber R. Clark, who was
present, being invited to give a description of the coal oil
localities with which he was most familiar, and from which
he had himself collected the various oils which he exhibited,
communicated very interesting and detailed information re-
specting their geological and statistical character.

Mr. Clark said that the principal part of the specimens, and com-
monly those of the lightest color, were from various borings around
Edenburg, in Lawrence County, Pennsylvania, and in the same
valley of the Mahoning, within the Ohio State line. Many were
from the Slippery Rock Creek Valley. A number were from Oil
Creek, and the neighborhood of Titusville in Northwestern Pennsyl-
vania. One or two were from Mecca in Northeastern Ohio, and
from Kentucky; the last being thick and black like tar.

The Edenburg " Continental Boring" was sent down through 80
feet of so-called drift; then through 200 feet of sandstones and
shales, with a layer of black, fetid shale at the bottom, fi-om which
the gas blew off violently ; then through 45 or 50 feet of the " First
White Sandstone," with gas in its crevices (this sandrock is said to
thin out eastward) ; then through 40 or 50 feet of shales and slates
charged with gas and oil ; then through 75 or 80 feet of the " Second
White Sandstone," softer, coarser, and harder than the first, and full

1862.] 57 [Clark.

of gas, to the oil stratum, 448 feet beneath the surface. The first
sandrock has a soft middle member between hard top and bottom
members.

Crawford's Boring at Edenburg struck oil (for the second time) in
a supposed crevice leading up from the " Third White Sandstone/'
and at a depth of 580 feet.

Mr. Clark gave it as his experience, that the harder the rock was
to drill, the lighter in color, purer in quality, and smaller in quantity
was the oil ; the softer the rock, the darker and more abundant the
oil.

Mahoning Creek oil has a stronger smell than Oil Creek oil. The
surface oil of Slippery Rock Creek is as fluid as water, and quite
dark, running from and impregnating the surface of the ground and
the rocks in place, and is collected in shallow wells.

At the Alban Well, 600 feet deep, on Oil Creek, six miles above
its mouth, Mr. Clark saw the fresh oil spouting 100 feet into the air,
a week after it had been struck.

At the Edenburg well first described, Mr. Clark noticed that for
two or three weeks there occurred every day invariably a few minutes
after eight o'clock p.m., a blow of gas, violent enough to stop the
pump, and lasting from fifteen to thirty minutes, after which the gas
seemed to be exhausted. He thinks that there is more gas blown
ofi" in winter than in summer, and that the testimony among the oil-
well men is general to that effect.

The Librarian presented No. 67 of the Proceedings.
Pending nominations Nos. 456 to 465 were read.
The Society was adjourned.

Stated M.eeti7ig^ July 18, 1862.
Three members present. No formal proceedings.

Stated Meeting, August 15, 1862.
Dr. Bache reported the following deaths of members

no [September.

Edward Stanley, an eminent surgeon of London, died
May 24th, 1862, iet. 69.

Duke Bernard, of Saxe Weimar, aet. 70.

Dr. Bache presented a manuscript from the pen of our
venerable fellow-member, Samuel Break, entitled, "Recollec-
tions of my Acquaintance and Association with Deceased
Members of the American Philosophical Society," which was
referred to the Secretaries.

Pending nominations Nos. 456 to 465 were read.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, September 19, 1862.

Present, nine members.
Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.

Letters were received from S. P. Berry, New York,
August 23d, 1862, inviting members to attend the funeral of
their late fellow-member, G. W. Bethune, and from Louise
and Leopold M. and Heinrich Bronn, announcing the death
of their husband and father, Dr. H. G. Bronn, a member of
this Society, at Heidelberg.

Letters, accepting election, Avere received from Andrew
Ramsay, London, July 1 ; J. A. Froude, Clinton Place,
Hyde Park, June 22 ; A. W. Hofmann, London, Royal
College of Chemistry, June 21 ; Dr. L. de Koninck, Liege,
August 18, 1862.

Letters acknowledging donations in exchange, were re-
ceived from the Batavian Society of Sciences, the Botanical
Society of Canada, the Boston Public Library, the Connec-
ticut Historical Society, the New York State Library, the
Pennsylvania State Library, the Pennsylvania Historical
Society, the Smithsonian Institution, and the United States
National Observatory.

Letters announcing donations to the Library, were re-
ceived from the R. Acad, at Lisbon, the R. Geog. Society at

1862.] 59

London, the Batavian Academy, the Botanical Society of
Canada, and the United States Coast Survey.

Donations for the Library were received from the Acade-
mies at Vienna, Batavia, Lisbon, and Philadelphia ; the So-
cieties at Konigsberg, Bath, Kingston, and Boston ; the
Essex Institute ; the Royal London and Dublin Societies ;
the Observatory at San Fernando ; the Ecole des Mines ;
the Society of Arts, and the London Astronomical, Geogra-
phical, Geological, and Asiatic Societies ; the American
Antiquarian Society, and American Journal of Science ; the
Hartford Retreat ; the Medical News, and Franklin Listitute ;
College of Physicians, and Dr. Dorr, of Philadelphia ; the
Coast Survey, and Smithsonian Listitution ; Prof. Tafel, of
St. Louis ; the Santa Clara College, San Francisco ; the
State Library, and Board of Regents, at Albany ; Prof. Vol-
picelli, of Rome, and Dr. A. D. Bache.

The deaths of the following members were announced :
Dr. H. G. Bronn, at Heidelberg, July 5, 1862, aged 62 ;
Hon. Samuel Breck, at Philadelphia, September 1, 1862,
aged 91, announced by Dr. Franklin Bache. On motion of
Prof. Cresson, Mr. Joshua Francis Fisher was appointed to
prepare an obituai-y notice of the deceased.

Dr. Coates asked and received permission for the committee
to append a note to Dr. Tafel' s paper published in the Pro-
ceedings.

Prof. Cresson described the remarkable features of the
rain-storm which flooded the streams in the neighborhood of
this city on the morning of the 12th instant.

The peculiarities noted wei'e the limited area affected and the un-
usually large quantity of rain-fall at particular points.

The quantity by measurement at the Gas Works, in the First
Ward of the city, was Sy'^^ inches, at those in the Fifteenth Ward 6
inches, at the Gas-holder station, in the Twentieth Ward, 9 inches,
and at a private mansion in the Twenty-second Ward 6 inches.
These points are located on a triangle, whose sides are respectively
about 5, 7, and 8 miles longj the First Ward station being at the
southern apex, the Twentieth Ward at the northeasternmost angle,
7 miles distant, and the Twenty-second Ward gauge at the north-

[Lesley. gQ [September.

western angle, 8 miles from the First Ward, and 5 miles from the
Twentieth.

The Fifteenth Ward station is on the western side of the triangle,
about 3 miles from the First Ward, 3 from the Twentieth, and 5
from the Twenty-second. Outside of a circle about 8 miles in radius,
the centre of which was nearly 2 miles north of the Twentieth Ward
station, at Ninth and Diamond Streets, the quantity of rain at this
time does not appear to have been such as to produce any noticeable
rise of the streams; but within these limits nearly all of the small
streams, including the Tacony on the north and the Cohocksink on
the south, were swollen beyond any freshet recorded concerning
them.

Alono; the northern margin of the rain there was a remarkable
development of electrical disturbance, by which much damage was
done to several lines of telegraph wires and instruments.

Prof. Henry added instances to show that it was a general
disturbance of the atmosphere, following the course and
obeying the laws of the more continuous storms later in the
season.

Prof. Lesley described a curtain aurora which lie saw on
the 23d of July last, near Sydney, Cape Breton.

The positive tone in which the possible nearness of auroral pheno-
mena to the earth's surface is denied by some physicists, makes it
desirable that every appearance to the contrary should be mentioned
and placed on record. Professor Potter, in Art. IX, Phil. Mag.,
No. 158, page 51, reviewing a paper of De la Rive's in a preceding
number, pronounces his own hypothesis, — " that the aurorae boreales
are caused by the earth's electro-magnetism acting upon masses of
very rare vapors, of like constituents to the meteoric stones and va-
porous comets, moving in the planetary spaces under the laws of
gravitation, and coming near the boundaries of our atmosphere"
— <' the only tenable one." The lowest calculated locality of an ob-
served aurora, according to him, has been one given by Cavendish at
fifty-two miles.

It seems unreasonable that the trigonometrical determinations of
Halley, Cavendish, Bergman, Dalton, and others, should despotically
exclude such observations as those recorded in No. XV of the Pro-
ceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool, p. 104,
where Dr. Walker, Sir William Hooker, and General Sabine testify
that auroras are seen at so low a level that they interpose themselves

1862. J Ql [Lesley.

between the observer on the ship's deck and the low cliffs of the
neighboring shore. This occurred to Dr. Walker in Bellot's Straits.

It was my good fortune to observe an aurora which, to my eyes,
was embodied in and swept the earth with successive banks of Cape
Breton fog.

It was in the evening of the 23d of July, 1862, on Little Glace
Bay, which is one of several indentations in the eastern coast of the
island, and about 17 (seventeen) miles, by road, from Sydney. The
house in which Captain W. P. Parrot and myself were living was on the
northwest side of the narrow bay, not far from its mouth. To the
north and east spreads the Gulf of St. Lawrence. To the east by
south stretches out the long headlands of Schooner Cove, with the
Flint Islands opposite their end. During the five weeks which I
spent in the neighborhood, my observations confirmed the account of
the inhabitants that an almost perpetual fog-bank rests upon the
southern coast and the headlands of Mire Bay, Cow Bay, and
Schooner Pond, enveloping the Scatari and Flint Islands, and sweep-
ing obliquely across the gulf to the western shores of Newfoundland ;
while the indentation of the Glace Bay coast leaves it in the wake of
the fog, so to speak, and therefore in sun and moonshine quite as
constant.

Auroras are frequent, summer and winter, along this coast. Cap-
tain Parrot had seen them during March and April almost nightly;
but they were of the common type, arched and waving, and radiant
against the north, and not of any peculiar grandeur or brilliancy.

From the 1st to the 23d of July we noticed no aurora of any kind,
although some of feeble light might have occurred. The weather
was nearly always clear. I remember no local fog at Glace Bay ;
whereas I repeatedly admired the mountain-like barrier, resembling
a sunlit Alpine country, stretched across the southeastern horizon,
at a probable distance of from ten to twenty miles, and losing itself
in a low perspective towards the distant shores of Newfoundland.

On the evening of the 23d an exclamation of my companion, who
was sitting after tea so as to face the window, looking out towards
the northeast, announced the phenomenon. Going round the house,
we saw what I at once recognized from the plates of the French
Expedition to Norway as a curtain aurora. It was totally unlike any
aurora we had ever seen, and was evidently connected with a dense
broadside of fog, which the south wind had just brought up from the
south coast across the Little Glace Bay, and was driving from us
northward. In this fog-bank hung, as it were, a brilliant curtain of

VOL. IX. 1

Lesley.! 62 [September.

light with a wide fringe or flounce, of maximum brilliancy along its
bottom edge, the light fading upwards along the curtain, but trace-
able to the very zenith ; and the curtain stretching from the eastern
horizon out at sea to the western horizon on the low hill tops. The
perspective was perfect. The curtain was evidently vertical, thin,
straight, long enough to reach from one limit of the vision to the
other, and floating broadside before the south wind towards the
north. No reasoning could convince us that these were not elements
of the phenomenon, and moreover that the lower edge of the bright
fringe was more than one or two hundred yards away, at its nearest
point, when we first saw it: Its rate of departure from us was evi-
dently that of the fog-bank, or that of t^ie gentle south wind then
blowing. The perspective of the whole curtain changed in con-
formity with that supposition. We had both spent our lives in topo-
graphical work, and no record of triangulations made upon this
aurora would alter my convictions of the posture and movements of
the beautiful object, derived from the natural triangulations of the
unassisted eye.

But this was not all. The two most important features of the ex-
hibition remain to be described.

In the first place the curtain hung not in a perfectly straight plane,
but was magnificently waved or folded in recurrent plaits, like the
gophered edge of an Elizabethan collar ; and these folds were con-
fined chiefly to the lower part of the curtain, or to the flounce of
maximum brilliancy, although they sometimes went up high into
the thinner body of the curtain. They were sufficiently recurved
in some instances for us to see through three thicknesses of the
flounce, the fold thus almost tripling its own light. But the per-
spective of each fold was unmistakable; and the impression on
the mind was that of the unequal advance of the line of fog-bank,
some sections pushing forward and swinging in front of intermediate
sections which lagged behind. We saw no material break in the con-
tinuity of the light curtain ; nor did there seem to be any fixed
order of curve, the plaits sometimes lying one way and sometimes
another; and therefore no impression of a vortical system was made,
but rather of an irregular advance of the fog-bank. The plates of
the French Expedition to Norway (" Lottin's Aurora Borealis,'' 8°
and royal 4°), will give a better idea of the structure of the curtain
than any description.

The most imposing part of the scene now followed. We had
been watching the receding curtain perhaps five or ten minutes, and

1862.] (33 [Lesley.

it had reached a distance of apparently half a mile or a mile (it may
have been more, however, as we had no means of accurate judgment),
when we became aware of the passage over us of a second curtain,
which soon occupied the place of the first, and went floating off after
it towards the north ; the interval between them apparently remain-
ing constant, but the brilliancy and definiteness of the second being
inferior to the first. And not long afterwards a third passed over
us and followed in the rear of the other two, inferior also to the
second. We gazed with astonishment and delight upon all three
together, until they became an indistinctly defined common aurora
in the north. Soon afterwards the clouds increased; the fog be-
came denser ; the light in the northern heavens was broken by bars
and patches of black, and we retired into the house.

I am curious to learn whether in any part of the United States or
Canada an aurora was seen on the evening named, and whether any-
thing unusual was noticed in its appearance. But my belief is, that
the phenomenon was modified to the folded curtain form in that
particular locality, by reason of the peculiar parallel structure of the
front part of the fog-bank which that night took possession of the
surface of Cape Breton at its eastern end. Professor Stephen Alex-
ander of Princeton informs me that this form of aurora was fre-
quently seen by him on the coast of Labrador.

Prof. Henry described an aurora wliicli he saw on the 4th
of August last, at the Smithsonian Institution.

Prof. Bache referred to Mr. Espy's observations of auroras,
by which he proved that the trigonometrical calculations or
determinations of their heights by parallax were unreliable,
and adduced instances to show that different observers do not
behold the same phenomenon at the same moment.

Dr. Wood described the effects of lightning upon Dr. W^is-
tar's house, north of Philadelphia.

Pending nominations Nos. 456 to 465 were read.
And the Society was adjourned.

DuTiglison.] 54 [October.

Stated Meeting, October 3, 1862.

Present, thirteen members.

Judge Sharswood, Vice-President, in the Chair.

A letter transmitting a donation for the Library was re-
ceived from the Royal Academy at Madrid, dated January
1st, 1862.

Donations to the Library were received from the London
Geographical, Geological, and Antiquarian Societies ; So-
ciety of Arts and Institutions in Union ; Dr. Edward Jarvis
of Dorchester, Mass., and Prof. A. D. Bache.

Donations for the Cabinet were received from Prof. Bache,
and Capt. Thomas Y. Field, U. S. Marine Corps.

The committee to which was referred the manuscripts of
the late President of the Society, Peter C. Duponceau, pre-
sented by his granddaughter, reported, recommending that
these manuscripts be carefully preserved in the Library of
the Society.

Obituary notices of Professor Tucker and of G. W. Be-
thune, D.D., were read by Dr. Dunglison.

Obituary Notice of Prof. George Tucker.

Professor George Tucker was born in Bermuda in the year 1775.
He came to this country when about twelve years of age, to be
educated under the superintendence of his relative, Judge St.
George Tucker, who was Professor of Law in the College of William
and Mary in Virginia, and was the father of Judge Beverly Tucker,
afterwards Professor of Law in the same college, and of Judge Henry
St. George Tucker, Professor of Law in the University of Virginia,
and author of Commentaries on the Laws of Virginia. Professor
Tucker's collegiate education was at the College of William and
Mary, after which he studied law, and practised his profession in
Richmond, and afterwards at Pittsylvania and in Lynchburg, and for
a considerable distance around, with great success. He was elected
to the Legislature of Virginia from Pittsylvania, and in 1819, whilst
a resident of Lynchburg, was chosen mendjer of Congress to represent
the district composed of the counties of Pittsylvania, Halifax, and
Campbell. He was in Richmond at the time of the terrible sacrifice
of life by the burning of the Theatre in 1811, and from a falling

1862.] (35 LI*unglison.

beam, received a severe wound, ■which resulted in a permanent scar
over one eye.

Whilst in Richmond, he contributed to the '' British Spy," edited
by Mr. Wirt, and wrote amongst other communications, in the year
1800, on the Conspiracy of the Slaves in Virginia, and in 1811, on
the Roanoke Navigation, which were printed. In the State Legisla-
ture, and in Congress, he was most distinguished as chairman or
member of important committees, in which his services were highly
valued, and he was twice re-elected to Congress. In the year 1822,
he published "Essays on various subjects of Taste, Morals, and
National Policy, by a Citizen of Virginia," which were so favorably
thought of, as was, indeed, his whole course in the Legislature of
Virginia, and in Congress, by President Madison, that he urged and
obtained his appointment to the Chair of Moral Philosophy and
Political Economy in the nascent University of Virginia.

In the year 1819, after the death of a daughter at an early age,
who had given promise of varied excellence, he wrote in Lynchburg,
" Recollections of Eleanor Rosalie Tucker." In 1824 appeared " The
Valley of Shenandoah," a novel, intended to illustrate the manners
of the Old Dominion, which was republished, the writer has been
informed, in London in 1825, and in Germany the year after.

In consequence of the protracted voyage — of fourteen weeks —
from England of the vessel in which were the writer of this notice,
and two of the professors, the opening of the University of Vir-
ginia, which was to have been on the 1st of February, did not take
place until April, 1825, when Professor Tucker, the oldest of the
professors, and the one most familiar with the habits of the country,
was chosen Chairman of the Faculty for the first session.

During his residence at the University, he engaged in many
literary labors. In 1827, he published a work of fiction entitled "A
Voyage to the Moon," the evident aim of which was to fulfil for the
existing age, what Swift had so successfully accomplished for that
which had passed by ; to attack, by the weapons of ridicule, those
votaries of knowledge, who may have sought to avail themselves of
the universal love of novelty amongst mankind to acquire celebrity,
or who may have been misled by their own ill-regulated imaginations
to obtrude upon the world their crude and imperfect theories and
systems, to the manifest retardation of knowledge. It was reviewed
by the writer in the American Quarterly Review for March, 1828.

In 1837, Professor Tucker published "The Laws of Wages,
Profits, and Rent Investigated," and in the same year, his " Life of

Dunglison.] gg [October.

Thomas Jefferson," in two large volumes, which received high com-
mendation in the "Edinburgh Review" from Lord Brougham, as '^ a
very valuable addition to the stock of our political and historical
knowledge." In it, Professor Tucker does not always accord with
the illustrious subject of his biography. The work, indeed, manifests
a laudable desire to do justice, and to decide impartially on contested
topics ; and hence, perhaps, it failed to give satisfaction to the ardent
supporters, as well as to the bitter opponents of Mr. Jefferson.

In December, 1837, he delivered before the Charlottesville Lyceum,
"A Public Discourse on the Literature of the United States," which
was published in the Southern Literary Messenger for February,
1838 ; and in which he enumerates many of the contributions made
in this country to the domains of science and literature, concluding
with glowing auguries of their future " progressive brightness."

In 1839 appeared a small volume, entitled " Theory of Money and
Banks," the copyright of which Professor Tucker was unable to
dispose of in Philadelphia or New York, and which was published in
Boston, and soon passed to a second edition. His "Progress of the
United States in Population and Wealth in Fifty Years, as exhibited
by the Decennial Census from 1790 to 1840," was a valuable contribu-
tion to statistics and political economy. It was a thorough analysis
of the census for the period mentioned, and led its author to impor-
tant inferences on the subjects of the probabilities of life, the pro-
portion between the sexes, emigration, the diversities between the
two races which compose our population, the progress of slavery, and
of productive industry, &c. To this he added an appendix in 1855,
when eighty years of age, containing an abstract of the census of
1850, in the preface to which he expresses the patriotic hope "that
these authentic exhibitions of our growth and improvement, so grati-
fying to the pride and love of country, will lead our citizens to
greater party forbearance, and give them new incentives to cherish
that Union to which, under heaven, they owe the blessings they
enjoy." Impelled by the same sentiments, he gave " A Public Dis-
course on the Dangers most Threatening to the United States ;"
(Washington, 1843.)

Professor Tucker's last production at the University of Virginia,
was a " Memoir of the Life and Character of Dr. John P. Emmet,"
the accomplished Professor of Chemistry and Materia Medica in the
University, who died in 1842.

During the whole of this period of his life, he had been a prolific
contributor to the public journals, and to the more imposing periodi-

1862.] giy [Dunglison.

cals, as the North American, the American Quarterly, the Southern,
and the Democratic Reviews, and at an earlier period, to the Port-
folio of Philadelphia; and when his colleague, Professor George
Long, left the University of Virginia, to occupy a professorship in
the University of London, and became editor of the London Journal
of Education, and of the Penny Cyclopaedia, Professor Tucker was,
at his request, the author of various educational articles in the
former, and in the latter, of sundry biographical notices, as of Presi-
dents Jefferson and Madison, and of geographical contributions in
regard to the United States.

From the first opening of the University of Virginia, it had been
thought by many of its most intelligent friends, that it presented a
favorable occasion for the establishment of a literary journal. It was
presumed that eight or nine professors, who were daily occupied in
communicating the fruits of their studies to others, would be quali-
fied to make such a work at once useful and interesting to the public.
It was known that the plan of the Institution was principally the
work of Mr. Jefferson, and that important innovations had been made
in its discipline and course of instruction, whence it was inferred
that a lively curiosity would be felt to learn the progress of an experi-
ment, made by one of the most popular and most philosophical states-
men of his age. It was not, however, until the year 1829, after the
University had been visited by an endemic disease, from which no
locality, however healthy, is exempt, and the feeling of the faculty,
that if such a medium of communication had been in existence, they
might have been able to allay popular apprehension, and prove from
unquestionable evidence the general salubrity of the place, that they
determined on the establishment of a weekly periodical, entitled
" The Virginia Literary Museum, and Journal of Belles-Lettres,
Arts, Sciences, &c.," the editorial charge of which was assigned to
Professor Tucker and the writer. The first number appeared on the
17th of June, 1829; but although its contents were diversified and
interesting, it was discontinued at the end of the year, and mainly
for causes which have proved fatal to so many undertakings of the
kind, — the failure of the contributors to afford the aid they had
profusely promised, and hence the editors found, that to furnish the
requisite materials from their own resources, demanded more of their
time than was consistent with their other duties and engagements.
The contributions of Professor Tucker were numerous and varied, but
were, generally, popular essays on the subjects that appertained
directly or indirectly to the chair he held in the University.

Dimglison.] gg [October.

In the year 1845, at the age of seventy, witli his mental powers
undimnied, he resigned his Chair in the University of Virginia, and
decided to spend the remainder of his days in comparative leisure.
At all times fond of social intercourse with the enlightened, he had
never failed to pass his vacations away from the University, and
generally spent a portion of the time at the summer resorts of the
refined and intellectual. Philadelphia was his choice for a perma-
nent residence, both on account of its intelligence, and the opportu-
nities afforded by its libraries to the seekers after knowledge. He
was chosen a member of this Society in 1837, and was, likewise,
a member of the Historical Society.

From the time Professor Tucker took up his residence in Phi-
ladelphia until his death, with brief intervals of relaxation, he ad-
hered to his student life, and continued his contributions to various
literary periodicals, and especially to those which were devoted to
the elucidation of great questions of politics and political economy.

His undiminished intellectual activity is signally shown by his
having commenced about the year 1850, or when seventy-five years
of age, the herculean task of collecting materials for a political his-
tory of the United States. To aid him in the execution of his work,
as he himself remarks, it had been his good fortune to have a per-
sonal knowledge of many, who bore a conspicuous part in the Revo-
lution, and of nearly all those who were the principal actors in the
political dramas which succeeded. The history extends to the eleva-
tion of General Harrison to the Presidency, in 1841. This seemed
to Professor Tucker as far as he could prudently go, at least, without
obtaining some testimony from public sentiment of his fairness to
his contemporaries.

The work was comprised in four volumes, the first of which ap-
peared in 1856, and the last in 1857. The first chapter is devoted
to colonial history prior to the Declaration of Independence, and the
remainder to the Confederation and the United States.

Nor was this elaborate work the last production of its venerable
and indefotigable author. In 1859, he printed, and was his own
publisher of " Political Economy for the People," being in substance
a compendium of the lectures on Political Economy, delivered by him
in the University of Virginia, with such alterations and additions as
his farther experience and reflection had suggested ; and lastly, in
1860, when eighty-five years of age, he issued on his own account,
"Essays, Moral and Metaphysical," some of which had been already
published anonymously or separately, but were now republished, and

1862.] 69 [Dunglison.

added to the series. These essays were respectively, Oa our Belief
of an External World ; On Cause and Effect, read before this So-
ciety; On Simplicity in Ornament; On Sympathy; On the Asso-
ciation of Ideas ; On Dreams ; On Beauty ; On Sublimity ; On the
Ludicrous ; On Classical Education ; On the Siamese Twins, read
before this Society ; and On the Love of Fame.

Professor Tucker's protracted and useful existence was now verging
to a close. The death— in the summer of 1859 — of his wife, the con-
stant and faithful participator in his joys and his sorrows for upwards
of thirty years, gave occasion to a thorough revolution in his domestic
arrangements, and in place of wisely determining

" To husband out life's taper at the close,
And keep the flame from wasting by repose,"

he undertook extensive and harassing journeys. In the early portion
of the summer of 1860, he visited Baltimore, Washington, Norfolk,
the Eastern Shore of Virginia ; and in the middle of June, in com-
pany with his son-in-law, Mr. George Bives, of Virginia, travelled as
far as Chicago, to look after property which he had there. He did
not suffer from the long journey he took on this occasion, and subse-
quently in Virginia, and returned to Philadelphia in the early part of
the winter, with the intention of escaping the severity of the northern
winter, from which he had suffered greatly the previous year, by a
sojourn in the South. In December, he left Philadelphia, and in
company with a friend pi-oceeded from Richmond, in Virginia, to
Columbia, in South Carolina; and afterwards to Charleston, Savan-
nah, and other Southern cities. The last letter the writer received
from him was dated Savannah, in February, 1861. In it he feel-
ingly and deploringly depicts the condition of Southern sentiment
as exhibited there. '^ The state of public affairs," he remarks, *'is
indeed gloomy, even to heart-sickening. People seem to be crazed
in the fancies of imaginary evils, and of their strange remedies."

Some weeks after the date of this letter, the writer was pained to
learn from Mrs. Bives, the eldest daughter of Professor Tucker, that
while landing at Mobile from a steamboat from Montgomery, her
father had been struck down by a bale of cotton, which was being
removed from the vessel ; and that the shock to his system was so
great, that for two or three days he was insensible, or more or less
incoherent. Under a most hospitable roof, he remained at Mobile,
until his son-in-law reached the place, when he was removed to
Sherwood, in Albemarle County, Virginia, the residence of Mr.

VOL. IX. K

Dunglison.] "70 [October.

Rives, where, surrounded by his estimable rehitives, he gradually
sank, and died on the 10th of April, at the advanced age of eighty-
six.

Few persons have contributed more to the literature of the period
than Professor Tucker. He himself estimated the amount of his
more fugitive productions, — about one-half of which were anonymous
and gratuitous, — at ten thousand pages. His talents were at one period
directed greatly towards the composition of works of fiction, and he
occasionally wooed the muse. When at the White Sulphur Springs of
Virginia, in his extensive journeyings in the summer before his
death, he composed measured lines, upwards of one hundred in num-
ber, entitled " Life's Latest Pleasures," the manuscript of which he
gave to the writer, before setting out on his last journey to the South,
in which, to use his own language, he casts a look on the future,

"And midst old age's cares and pains,
Asks what enjoyment yet remains."

His forte was not, however, the imaginative. It is as a successful
and equitable writer on great questions of politics and political
economy, and of intellectual philosophy, that he will take his place.
His Biography of Jefferson, and his History of the United States
may, indeed, be regarded less as narratives of occurrences than
views of great national and political questions, as they from time to
time arose, logically discussed, and conveyed in language which has
usually the merit of great terseness and perspicuity.

During his residence in Philadelphia, Professor Tucker was a
frequent attendant on the meetings of this Society, and at the time
of his death was a member of the Board of Officers and Council.

Obituary Notice of Dr. George W. Bethune.

Dr. George W. Bethune was born in New York on the 18th of
March, 1805. The name Bethune was originally French, and was
that of the celebrated Due de Sully. Some of Dr. Bethune's an-
cestors must have migrated to Scotland, where the name was and is
often pronounced with the accent on the first syllable, and from it
were corrupted the names of the families of Beaton and Betton, who
have the same heraldic bearings as Bethune, or Bethune' as it was
pronounced by the family of the subject of this notice.

Dr. Bethune's parents were born in Scotland. His fathex-, Mr.
Divie Bethune, removed to New York in 1792, where he became a

1862.] ^]_ [Dunglison.

successful merchant. His mother was the daughter of Isabella
Graham, whose life was devoted to good works, and whose " Letters
and Correspondence" were edited by her daughter. Both parents
were celebrated in New York for their pious and charitable phi-
lanthropy.

After having passed three years in his preparatory education in
Columbia College, in New York, the subject of this notice was sent
to Dickinson College, at Carlisle, in Pennsylvania; and, after gra-
duating there, entered the Theological Seminary at Princeton. In
1827 he was ordained to the ministry, and having, at an early age,
married the excellent lady who survives him, he travelled for a time
in the Southern States and in Cuba, officiating in Savannah ; and,
on his return, having joined the ministry of the Reformed Protestant
Dutch Church, became, in 1828, the pastor of a prominent church
at Rhinebeck, in New York, whence he was translated, two or three
years afterwards, to Utica.

In all these places he was eminently successful in his holy calling;
and soon gathered around him, to listen to his eloquent ministrations,
and to enjoy his rare social and intellectual endowments, many of the
wisest and the best.

He continued in Utica until the year 1834, when he was called
to the pastoral charge of the First Reformed Dutch Church in Phi-
ladelphia. At once his admirable qualifications for his elevated ofiice
were appreciated; and measures were speedily taken to extend his
sphere of usefulness, by the establishment of the Third Reformed
Dutch Church, of which he was chosen pastor in the autumn of 1837.-
He continued there, respected and beloved by his congregation, and
by all with whom he was brought in contact, until the fall of 1849,
when he resigned his chai'ge and removed to Brooklyn, in order that
his wife, who had been for years grievously afflicted, might be nearer
to one from whose medical services she was led to anticipate relief,
an anticipation which unhappily proved to be illusive.

It was during his residence in Philadelphia that Dr. Bethune's
reputation as a profound theologian, a fiiithful and devoted pastor,
a learned and accomplished scholar, and an eloquent and gifted lec-
turer and author on various topics, became established. " Around
him," as has been well remarked by his successor in the Philadelphia
pastorate, the Rev. Dr. Taylor,* " were soon gathered many of the
elite of the city, distinguished laymen and professional gentlemen.

* A Discourse on the Death of the late George W. Bethune, D.D., by William
J. R. Taylor, D.D., &c., &c. Philadelphia, 1862.

Diinglison.] "^2 [October.

Crowds of intelligent and admiring hearers thronged his services.
Members of other denominations held pews or sittings in the church
as well as in their own ecclesiastical houses. Strangers in the city
in great numbers waited upon his ministry. He was known, ad-
mired, sought, welcomed, and honored among all denominations of
Christians for his catholicity of principle, his faithful and eloquent
preaching, and his services to every good cause in which Christians
united, and to which he conscientiously trained his people. Few
ministers have filled a wider sphere in the cause of general Chris-
tianity in our city, while none were more faithful to their own im-
mediate theology and church."

"Whilst his reputation was thus culminating in Philadelphia, he
was energetically aifording his powerful aid -to every scheme for the
promotion and diffusion of general literature and science, and for the
good of his fellow-man. Early and prominent among these was the
"Athenian Institute," the object of which was to establish a course
of lectures, to be delivered gratuitously by literary gentlemen of Phi-
ladelphia, and which, for a time, was eminently successful. The
first course was given in the winter of 1838, and the last in that of
1842. Large and intelligent audiences assembled together to listen
to the diversified discourses, of which none were more popular than
those of Dr. Bethune.

In the different reunions of the respectable members of the Board
of Directors of the Institute, he was placed in intimate intercourse
with the first literary and scientific gentlemen of the city, by whom
his sterling qualities were at once appreciated, and his claims to be
regarded as a true lover of wisdom cheerfully conceded.

It was not long before he was proposed as a member of this So-
ciety. He was elected in April, 1839, and, whilst he resided in
Philadelphia, assisted, whenever he was able, in its proceedings.

After the meetings of the Society, a small band of five congenial
spirits were in the habit of adjourning to each other's houses for the
purpose of farther social communion ; and for years these occasional
unions of 'Hhe five" were maintained; until, indeed, the removal to
other spheres of usefulness of two of its honored members, the
lamented subject of this notice, and Professor A. D. Bache, and the
subsequent death of two others, Dr. Robert M. Patterson and Judge
Kane, left the writer solitary and alone, and dissolved one of the
'' most quiet, joyous, and instructive meetings," as it was happily
designated by Judge Kane in his obituary notice of Dr. Piobert M.

1862.] 13 [Dunglison.

Patterson, read before this Society, that imagination could conceive
or reality picture.

In these meetings none participated with more genuine and proper
abandon than Dr. Bethune, and much of their geniality and instruc-
tiveness were ascribable to his beaming cordiality and richly stored
intellect.

Amongst the earliest productions of his prolific pen, after his re-
moval to Philadelphia, were those comprised in two volumes, which
contain, in the language of one already cited, who well knew their
value, " delightful, practical works, which will perpetuate his use-
fulness along with the best devotional writers of the century."
" They exhibit," says Dr. Taylor, " to every reader some of the most
remarkable traits of the public ministry of Dr. Bethune, embracing
every variety of subject matter and style, from the most simple and
severely Scriptural declarations of his ' Guide for the Inquiring,'
through the gentle pages in which he deals with the bruised hearts
of bereaved parents; and from the calm beauties and exquisite de-
lineations of the ' Fruit of the Spirit,' up to the magnificent periods
and resounding eloquence of his best pulpit efforts."

These volumes were respectively entitled: ''The Fruit of the
Spirit;" "The History of a Penitent, a Guide for the Inquiring;"
and "Early Lost, Early Saved."

In the year 1846, Dr. Bethune published a volume of " Sermons,"
in accordance, as he remarks, with " the wishes of some friends,"
and " a selection made out of the discourses preached by him
from his own pulpit, with some regard to variety, but principally to
the practical character of their subjects." He modestly adds : " The
prospect of their being widely read, when there are so many better
books, is small; yet the attempt to serve the cause of our beloved
Master is pleasant, and if He smiles upon it, it will be successful,
not in the proportion of our talent but of His grace."

In 1847 he edited a new issue of a work of a very different char-
acter, which was undertaken as a pleasing relaxation from his se-
verer studies, and executed at intervals, as he said, when others
might have idled away their time. This was the " Complete
Angler" of Isaac Walton, and the "Instructions" of Charles Cotton,
with copious notes, for the most part original ; a bibliographical pre-
face, giving an account of fishing and fishing-books from the earliest
antiquity to the time of Walton, and a notice of Cotton and his
writings ; to which he added " an appendix, including illustrative

DuDglison.] "Y^ [October.

ballads, music, papers on American fishing, and the most complete
catalogue of books on angling, &c., ever printed."

For such an undertaking no one could have been better qualified
and prepared. Fond of the sport to enthusiasm, perfectly acquainted
with his authors, and possessed of an admirable piscatorial library,
diligently accumulated at considerable expense, he brought to the
subject an amount of familiar knovyledge and opportunities for re-
search possessed by few, if by any, in this country. The references,
with rare exceptions, were verified by his own examination, whilst
for the literary annotations he held himself alone responsible. Many
of these, especially of a philological character, were the subjects of
occasional playful but delightful and profitable correspondence be-
tween the writer of this notice and himself; and the whole work
affords abundant evidence of rare learning and ample practical know-
ledge.

The annual return of the season of angling was ever looked forward
to by him with joyous anticipations as a periodical relief from his
constant and absorbing ecclesiastical studies and duties; and in the
company of two or three kindred spirits and tried friends of himself
and the rod, he hastened, at the proper season, to the rivers or lakes
of this country or of Canada to enjoy his favorite pastime ; and long
will he be held in grateful remembrance by many of the rude children
of the forest, who gathered together on the Sabbath to listen to his
fervent and eloquent exhortations.

In an oration entitled, "A Plea for Study," delivered before the
literary societies of Yale College, in 1845, he urges that, among out-
door recreations, none has been a greater favorite with studious men
of Great Britain, because none is more suited to quiet habits, fond-
ness for retirement, and love of nature, than angling, — not in the
sea, but in brooks or rivers, where the genus Sahno abounds; and he
cites from the catalogue of men illustrious in every department of
knowledge, who have refreshed themselves for fiirther useful toil
by this '' gentle art," — as its admirers delight to call it, — the name
of Izaak Walton, ''the pious biographer of pious men;" Dryden,
Thomson, Wordsworth, among the poets ; Paley, Wollaston, and
Nowell, among the theologians; Henry Mackenzie, author of the
"Man of Feeling;" Professor Wilson, the poet, scholar, and es-
sayist ; Sir Humphry Davy, the chemist, and author of " Salmo-
nia;" Emerson, the geometrician; Rennie, the zoologist; and Chan-
try, the sculptor, to prove that the taste is not inconsistent with
religion, genius, industry, or usefulness to mankind.

1862.] '^^ [Dunglison.

Dr. Bethune's fondness for the sport continued unabated to the
last, and even when harassed during the summer of 18(31, by the
consequences of an attack of the malady, which ultimately proved
fatal to him, he sighed for a brief return of his wonted enjoyment.

An excellent photograph was taken of him a few years ago, at
the request of a small association of gentlemen in Brooklyn, in
which he is represented in his habiliments of study, with his books
of reference — as was his habit — distributed over the floor of his li-
brary, and the implements of his favorite sport hung around on the
walls.

With a mind so eminently aesthetical, so appreciative of the sub-
lime and the beautiful, it is not to be wondered at that Dr. Eethune
should have wandered into the realms of poetry, and enriched its
domain by many choice flowers.

From an early period he had given evidences of poetic taste, and
in the year 1848 had incorporated many of his effusions into an
elegant volume, entitled, " Lays of Love and Faith, with other Fugi-
tive Poems." His object in publishing these is thus stated by him
in a dedicatory sonnet.

" As one arranges in a simple vase

A little store of unpretending flowers,

So gathered I some records of past hours,
And trust them, gentle reader, to thy grace ;
Nor hope that in my pages thou wilt trace

The brilliant proof of high poetic powers,
But dear memorials of my happj' days.

When heaven shed blessings on my heart like showers.
Clothing with beauty e'en the desert place;

Till I, with thankful gladness in my looks,
Turned me to God, sweet nature, loving friends,

Christ's little children, well-worn ancient books,
The charm of art, the rapture music sends,
And sang away the grief that on man's lot attends."

IMany of these lays were tributes of affection to those most dear to
their author; whilst others were devotional, epigrammatic, patriotic,
or miscellaneous; and all exhibit a rich and vivid imagination, much
delicacy of sentiment and expression, and melody of versification.

In the same year he edited " The British Female Poets, with Bio-
graphical and Critical Notices." The specimens which he gives are
well chosen, the biographical sketches ably written, and the charac-
teristics of each writer skilfully discriminated.

Dr. Bethune's musical appreciation, too, was considerable; and

Dunglison.] '^Q [October.

there were few ministers who paid so much attention to the impor-
tant subject of church music.

During his residence in Philadelphia, he delivered various orations
and occasional discourses, many of which were collected together in
one volume, and published in New York in the year 1850. These
were, " Genius," delivered before the Literary Societies of Union
College, Schenectady; "True Glory,'^ a sermon on the death of
Stephen Van Rensselaer; "Leisure: its Uses and Abuses," before
the New York Mercantile Library Association ; " The Age of Peri-
cles," before the Athenian Institute, of Philadelphia; Oration be-
fore the Literary Societies of the University of Pennsylvania ; " The
Prospects of Art in the United States," before the Artists' Fund, of
Philadelphia; "Discourse on the Death of William H. Harrison,
President of the United States;" "The Eloquence of the Pulpit,"
before the Porter Rhetorical Society of the Andover Theological
Seminary; "The Duties of Educated Men," before the Literary So-
cieties of Dickinson College; "The Duty of a Patriot; with allusions
to the Life and Death of Andrew Jackson;" "A Plea for Study,"
before the Literary Societies of Yale College ; and " The Claims of
our Country upon the Literary Men," before the Phi Beta Kappa
Society of Harvard University.

But satisfactory in all respects as were the various emanations from
his polished pen, they were, perhaps, on the whole, less eifective than
his extemporaneous speeches, whether casual or prepared.

Always on such occasions self-possessed, his well-poised and forci-
bly expressed sentiments gushed forth in exuberance, with a frank-
ness and fearlessness, and with a suitableness of action that told on
his auditors, whether the topic concerned the sufferer from religious
or political tyranny, the claims of African colonization, of which he
was an ardent and staunch supporter, the promotion of charitable
and literary associations and undertakings of all kinds, or the exten-
sion of discovery into remote and unexplored regions.

With so many claims to honorable distinction, it is not surprising
that numerous philanthropic and literary associations should have
hastened to enrol him amongst their members.

In the year 1849, for reasons before mentioned. Dr. Bethune re-
moved to Brooklyn, and a short time afterwards was appointed pastor
to the Middle Dutch Church there, which was soon merged in a
fresh organization styled the " Church on the Heights." A new
edifice was built for him, and a parsonage, both admirably arranged
under his tasteful suggestions and immediate supervision, and in

1862.] "YT [Dunglison.

such a manner that, by means of a simple acoustic arrangement,
Mrs. Bethune, on her invalid couch, could hear the services of the
church.

For ten years he continued his ministrations there to a large aud
increasing congregation, and during this time received the appoint-
ment to the Chancellorship of the University of New York, which
he declined, unwilling to separate himself from the active exercise
of his pastoral oflSce. For a like reason he declined the Chaplaincy
of the Military x\cademy at West Point; but did, for a short time,
execute the duties of a Professorship of Pulpit Eloquence in the
Theological Seminary at New Brunswick, which he visited weekly,
until, Indeed, his falling health compelled him to resign this along
with his other elevated offices.

In his new sphere of action he was repeatedly called upon, as he
had been in Philadelphia, to deliver discourses before learned bodies
or popular assemblages ; and he has doubtless left behind him many
productions of his accomplished mind, which are worthy of being put
into a permanent form. At one time, indeed, and not long before
the first attack of the malady which arrested his expanded and ex-
panding usefulness, he accepted so many invitations, and often in
parts of the country so distant from each other, that the writer re-
commended to him a wise caution, and discouraged him from so
much mental and physical labor as he was then incurring. An ex-
tract from a letter dated Brooklyn, in 1854, shows how largely his
mind was then engrossed with this matter :

" The lectures which I have i-eady are what are called jjopidar,
that is, separate lectures on miscellaneous topics, for all the world
like our quondam Athenian Institute lectures. Thus, I have one
' On Lectures and Lecturers' (an introductory), considering popular
lectures and lecturers in an amusing, but, I hope, not unserviceable
light. Another on ' Common Sense,' which, by the way, is long
enough for two, a mixture of metaphysics and familiar illustration.
A third on 'Work and Labor; the moral uses of the distinction
between them,' — the best of my lectures. Another on ' The Orator
of the Present Day,' originally a Phi Beta Kappa oration for Brown
University, inquiring into the secrets of the orator's power, etc.
Another on 'Oracles;' and another blocked, but not written, on
'Divination,' in both of which I strike at the spiritualisms (so called)
of the present day, while I give illustrations of the subject itself. I
shall try to write another during the winter, but am not sure what

Dunglison.] "^g [October.

on. Such are the lectures I have read, one or more in a season,
here, in New York, New Haven, &c., &c."

Early in 1859 Dr. Bethune experienced the first serious attack of
the disease which, in the end, was fatal to him. He was seized in
the night with apoplectic stupor, from which he did not recover
until the afternoon, when he awoke to full consciousness, his first
playful question, on witnessing a regular and a homceopathic prac-
titioner in the room, being, " Whether the north and the south pole
had come together?" Luckily, there was no resulting paralysis.
Still, his apprehensions of a recurrence, the danger of which was
not concealed from him, whilst appropriate preventive measures were
inculcated, induced him to abandon all his important and engrossing
occupations, and to seek change and repose in a clime which had
ever been his favorite, enriched as it is by those classic archaieal
associations, in which his cultivated mind, from his earliest manhood,
had delighted to revel. Early in March he sailed with iMrs. Bethune
in a bark for Naples, where, after a tedious but ordinary voyage,
they arrived in safety and improved health. He did not succeed,
however, in obtaining that quiet which he sought for. The per-
petual political agitations in that city, and elsewhere in Italy, were,
indeed, the source of much anxiety to him and to others, and tended
to neutralize the good effects which might otherwise have accrued to
him.

He returned to New York in the month of September, when his
report to the writer was, that they had had a pleasant voyage over,
and it had done them both much good ; that he found no incon-
venience except an undue excitability of nerves, which fault was be-
coming less and less. His attention had been directed to a church
at Newburg, on the Hudson, and he had, moreover, immediately
on his return, encouraging ofters in New York, but had some de-
sire to winter at the South.

During Dr. Bethune's absence in Europe, the ofiice of Provost of
the University of Pennsylvania had become vacant; and as he had
resigned his pastoral ofiice in Brooklyn, and was regarded by promi-
nent members of the Board of Trustees as signally qualified for the
office, he was written to on the subject by the writer of this notice;
but before the letter reached Liverpool he had set sail for the United
States. The writer hastened to New York to confer with Dr. Be-
thune on his arrival ; and on his return wrote to the gentlemen who
had nominated him to the Board of Trustees, expressing, in the

1862.] 19 [Dunglison.

name of Dr. Bethune, the high sentiments he entertained towards
the Board ; his opinion of the great importance of the office, and his
gratitude to Divine Providence that he should have been deemed fit
for such a distinction ; that had the appointment been given him
immediately on his return to this country, he would have been
strongly moved to accept it with pleasure, especially as it would have
enabled him to resume his residence in Philadelphia, where he had
spent fifteen of his happiest years, and where he had many friends
very dear to his heart. But it could not be. His conscientious re-
luctance to leave the pulpit as his sphere of usefulness, had been
increased by a call to a church in his native city, oifering him strong-
inducements of every kind to accept it, and he had done so.

The self-denying liberality which had been extended to him by
the excellent pastor of a church in New York, the Rev. Dr. Abra-
ham Van Nest, Jr., and by a number of enlightened persons of dif-
ferent denominations there, could not well be resisted, and he wisely
determined to remain in that ministry of which he was so distin-
guished an ornament. His nomination was consequently withdrawn.

For ten years, from September, 1839, to October, 1849, whilst a
resident of Philadelphia, he had been an active member of the Board
of Trustees of the University; and, in 1838, had received the de-
gree of Doctor of Divinity — caitsd lionoris — at their hands.

During the year 1860, Dr. Bethune pursued tranquilly his digni-
fied calling in association with his disinterested colleague, making no
allusion, in his letters to the writer, to his former attack ; observing,
as he ever strove to do, the golden rule of moderation in all things ;
and hence avoiding, so far as he was able, all undue mental and
physical excitement. In the November of that year he wrote :

" I am, thank God, very well. After my summer labors, kept up
through August, I took one of my accustomed woodland jaunts, in
consequence of which I flourished and flourish exceedingly. Mrs.
Bethune, I feared, would not do well this coming winter, after the
confinement and anxieties of her summer in town, and we projected
a winter in the Bahamas; but she is now so much better that she
does not wish to go. We are, in fact, through God's blessing, very
prosperous, and I trust very thankful, which is the best happiness
in this life. My ecclesiastical affairs go well. My admirable col-
league is all I could wish, and more than I deserve." "We are
about purchasing some acres on the Hudson, about a hundred and
twenty miles from town, to make a nest for our old years. We are

Dunglison.] QQ [October.

not ambitious, but think that we shall be pecuniarily able to build a
cottage large enough for us and the few dear friends who may visit
us there. I propose to occupy myself this winter with writing a
memoir of my mother, having just closed my care of her estate.
Thus much for my egotism."

During this year he visited more than once his friends in Phila-
delphia, who rejoiced to observe the absence of all evidences of his
former alarming seizure. He had the same characteristic geniality,
the same social charms and intellectual radiance, but the expert and
anxious observer was pained to notice a greater degree, perhaps, of
nervous impressibility, and at times undue somnolency.

Sensible, however, as he was of the absolute necessity of avoiding
all undue mental excitement, on the outbreak of the patriotic fervor
which followed the fall of Sumter, he found it impossible to remain
quiet; and although he had taken no part in the formation of the
great meeting which was held in New York in April following, he
was recognized in the street, pressed into service, and addressed the
assembled multitude several times, and it is said " with tremendous
energy and fire." He was a genuine, unalloyed patriot, the eloquent
upholder of his countiy both at home and abroad. One of the most
beautiful of the ''songs" in his "Lays of Love and Faith," was
composed years ago at midnight in an English mail coach.

"My country, oh I my country,

My heart still sighs for thee ;
And many are the longing thoughts

I send across the sea.
My weary feet have wandered far,

And far they yet must roam ;
But oh ! whatever land I tread.

My heart is with my home.

" The fields of merry England

Are spreading round me wide,
The verdant vale and castled steep

In all their ancient pride ;
But give to me my own wild land,

Beyond the salt sea's foam,
For there, amid her forests free,

My spirit is at home.

*****

" There's no home like my own home
Across the dark blue sea ;
The land of beauty and of worth,
The bright land of the free ;

1862.] g\ [Dunglison.

Where royal foot hath never trod,

Nor bigot forged a chain ;
Oh I would that I were safely back

In that bright land again."

His national hymn, ^' God for our Native Land," the words and
melody of which were composed by him in the last summer of his
existence, breathes the same elevated patriotism, and has been widely
disseminated in the hymn-books of the soldier.

It was with real apprehension that the writer heard of his friend's
imprudent participation in the prevalent excitement; and it was not
long before his sad forebodings became painfully realized. In one
month afterwards (May 20th), he wrote to say that he had observed
a sleepiness in his left hand and arm, and after a little while some-
thing of the kind in the leg of the same side, from the knee down-
wards, but much less than in the arm ; and that he had called in his
friend Dr. Hosack, of New York, under whose treatment he had
improved, but was still not as well as he could wish. " My arm,"
he says, "is pretty much the same, though far from being useless.
There seems to me, however, a slight paralysis. ' My head is clear,
and I have no pain;" and he adds: "I have, of course, felt the ex-
citement of these war times, and perhaps done more than I should."

He now moved up the Hudson to Catskill, where he had taken
for the summer a most comfortable villa, beautifully situated on that
charmingly romantic river, and immediately opposite the locality on
which he had determined to build, and to pass the remainder of his
days in blest retirement. His attention had become so alive to
every morbid feeling and phenomenon, and his anxiety to under-
stand his actual condition so great, that the writer hastened to visit
him at Catskill. He had abandoned for the time all thoughts of
building, and had been recommended to go abroad in the autumn
for a more equable climate during the winter. The probable patho-
logical condition of his brain, and the danger of its aggravation, were
not concealed from him, but he was cautioned against the evils of
brooding over it ; and whilst temporary change of air, society, and
scenery, were recommended, the writer did not withhold from him
and his excellent wife his reluctance that so brilliant an intellect
should be permitted to rust out; that he would rather see him con-
tinue "in harness," adding, that, whilst emotion of every kind ought
to be avoided, no harm could be anticipated from the tranquil and
normal exercise of the great organ of intellection.

A portion of the summer he spent at Long Branch, where he

Dunglison.] g2 [October.

found, to use his own language, "pleasant air, pleasant people, and
not unpleasant quarters." He described himself as, on the whole,
better, but still "had no courage for work, and was much worried over
the troubles of the country." "I feel strongly inclined," h€i»says,
"to escape for a while to some distant spot, where 1 can live cheaply,
in a milder climate. You say that I must avoid excitement. I can-
not preach without emotions, and those of the strongest, often the
most agitating, kind."

A few weeks afterwards he announced that Mrs. Bethune and
himself had made up their minds to go abroad again ; that her own
comfort required a milder climate than he could give her in the
United States; and that, among other reasons, he found the en-
deavor to avoid emotion in the pulpit killed his manner, and unfitted
him for the control which his constitutional energy had hitherto
given him over an audience.

Towards the end of September, he paid the writer a brief visit, to
take leave of him and other friends in Philadelphia; and although
there were few signs of impaired physical powers, and none of men-
tal decadency, the'writer could not help dreading a recurrence of his
most dangerous malady, and fearing that they might never meet
again.

Early in October Dr. "Bethune sailed, for the last time, from his
native city. The voyage, which was in a screw steamer, was safe
and quick, but not very comfortable, owing to the rolling of the
vessel, which, he said, shook them more than any paddle-wheel boat
he had ever tried. The writer was pleased, however, to learn from
him when within a few hours from Queenstown, Ireland, that he was,
to all seeming, perfectly well, with not a trace of paralytic influence,
and all his corporeal functions going on right. " I only fear," he adds,
"being too well, but try to take care of myself. We have on board
besides the ship's surgeon — an intellectual Scotchman, a Dr. Black —
Dr. Haslett of the United States Navy, a personal friend of mine, so
that I shall not want for doctors."

It had been Dr. Bethune's intention to visit the Channel Islands,
and thence to pass to Pau or to Bagnores de Bigorre to spend the
autumn, to linger some little time among the Pyrenees, and then to
proceed to Florence to winter; and his plans were carried out with
but little variation, except as to time. He spent nearly three weeks
very agreeably in Guernsey, which he found to be an economical
place, and with a good climate. "It would serve," he says, "as a
capital place of retirement for a party of people sufficiently large to

1862.J g3 [Dunglison.

make a little society of their own, — the better sort being not a little
reserved to strangers." He wrote thus from Tours, in France, which
he did not reach until near the end of November, and left imme-
diately for Bagneres, where he arrived after a journey of much
fatigue, particularly to Mrs. Bethune. Here he tarried for upwards
of two months, pleased with the climate generally, and with the
agreeable society he met with.

His health was good during the early portion of his sojourn at
Bagneres; but, subsequently, damp, chilly weather deprived him of
his usual walks, whilst the rumors of war with England, and some
other troubles, disturbed him not a little. He afterwards suffered so
much from neuralgic headaches, which had previously annoyed him,
as well as from boils, and from threatenings of his more serious
malady, that he deemed it wise to consult an old practitioner of the
place, under whose treatment he improved.

"I do not see," he says, "in what to blame myself for having
caused this attack. I have lived very moderately, and taken a good
deal of exercise, on foot and in the saddle. I had also been much
relieved of my anxiety by recent letters."

His last letter to the writer was from Florence, and was dated
April 18th, only a short time before his decease. Its tone was
cheerful, and even sportive. He spoke of his boils as having become
"beautifully less," until they had disappeared altogether, for which
he felt rather sorry, as he thought "they might serve to draw oif
attention from his head ;" that he had not had any ill turn since his
previous letter, and had been very comfortable in most respects.

The long land journey from Bagneres to Florence, beautiful and
picturesque as it is, was exceedingly trying, to Mrs. Bethune more
especially. The voyage by steamer she had to forego, in consequence
of the difficulty of getting on board. The journey occupied about a
month, and they did not reach their destination until the 15th of
March. Here he designed to rest for a couple of months, and then
proceed for the summer to the Baths of Lucca, which have the repu-
tation of being in the coolest quarter of Tuscany. Of the climate
and society of Florence he remarks : "As for the climate, what can
you say of any climate in April ? When the sun shines, it is deli-
cious; when it rains, or there is snow on the Apennines, it is trying
to the nerves. However, I have liked it on the whole. Madame
does not, although I hope the summer will make it more pleasing in
her eyes. Though the prices of things have increased, the charms
of Florence have not been diminished. The same treasures of art,

Dunglison.] g^ [October.

the snme loveliness of surrounding scenery and geniality of climate
attract the voyager from all parts of the world, giving the resident
from abroad an excellent society of whatever character he prefers ;
so that I know no place more eligible for a sojourn or a more pro-
tracted stay. There are, just now, so many pleasant American
people here, that, with the addition of a few Scotch and English,
my visiting list is a little too large for convenience. We have, also,
valuable and extensive libraries and collections; but, having been
hunting for apartments nearly all the while, I have little time for
study. I was very tranquil (so far as news about our country
throughout the Trent excitement would allow me to be) at Bagneres.
I am more interested and amused here. I brooded too much at
Bagneres. I am more active at Florence." He adds that he had not
experienced any disagreeable symptoms of late, but could not entirely
suppress the apprehensiveness so natural to one in his physical con-
dition.

Nine days after penning those lines he was no more. He died, at
the mature age of fifty-seven, in the place which, in the language of
his estimable wife, "he thought the most beautiful on God's earth."
On the last evening of his life, while watching the setting sun from
the window of her chamber, he said: "Oh, Mary, how I wish you
loved Florence as I do. It is beautiful to live in, and pleasant to
die in." To which she replied: "I do love Florence, and hope God
will spare us many years to love and serve Him here."

It was much against her will that he preached on the following
morning; for she had noticed a restlessness in his eye and manner
which, ever watchful and apprehensive as she was, she did not like ;
and was much relieved when, after the service, she heard his cheer-
ful voice in the adjoining apartment. He begged of her not to scold
him for having been preaching extemporaneously. She looked up
sorrowfully, and said: "How could you? You must be tired." He
answered, "A little," and added: "I will bring Dr. Haslett to you
when I have done with him."

From a letter with which the writer was favored by Dr. Haslett
it appears, that no sooner were the services of the church ended than
Dr. Bethune turned to him and said, in a somewhat anxious manner,
"I wish to speak with you." Dr. Haslett accompanied him home,
but could not detect any symptoms of cerebral aifection, other than
the anxious manner, which might, he thought, be attributed to his
ever present dread of its recurrence. It was not long, however, be-
fore too manifest indications of fully formed apoplexy supervened ;

1802.] g5 [DunglLson

and near midnight, "in an effort to change him to a more comfort
able position," says Dr. Haslett, "his head dropped, one spasmodic
struggle, and all was over."

Such is an inadequate notice of an accomplished member, whose
loss this Society, in company with the world of letters, deplores, and
whose merits it has determined to hold in memorid.

Iiitus et in cute the writer knew him, ardently did he admire him,
and most cordially can he adopt the sentiments, so well and so con-
cisely expressed in a touching and eloquent "Tribute" to his mem-
ory, by a friend and colleague in the pastorate, the Rev. Alexander
R. Thompson,* of New York, who equally knew and revered him.

"God does not often suffer us to look on such a man, in whom
centre at once such qualities of heart and head, and in such exquisite
balance. Born in the faith of Jesus, of pious ancestors; nurtured
in the truth and love of the Gospel; early consecrated; early called
to the service of the sanctuary; with the clear head of a logician;
thoroughly skilled in the dialectics of the schools; enjoying every
advantage of culture; with an exquisite taste, and a keen eye for
the beautiful; with wit that could strike like chain-lightning, or that
could sparkle like a star; admiring scholar of the great and good of
all time; adept in the languages of the ancients and of the moderns;
drawing to himself the friendship of men of eminence and worth,
and recognized by them as among his peers; a poet born; a giant
in forensic effort; a Christian gentleman; a man in energy and
power, with the love of a woman, with the heart of a child; con-
S'^crating everything that God had given him to the Savior of his
love; an incomparable preacher, who could play on the heartstrings
of little children; generous and genial; a lover of nature; true to
the interests of the church at whose altars he ministered, but a lover
of good men of every name; with whom patriotism was a passion,
and whose love for the land of his birth was rooted in his very life;
who, for nearly forty years, preached, not himself but Christ Jesus
the Lord, with eloquence and power and characteristic success. We
may thank God that he ever gave us such a man. His life is his
testimony."

The remains of Dr. Bethune, in accordance with one of his last
requests, were brought to New York ; and, on the 3d of Septem-
ber, were buried with unusual honors in the cemetery of Greenwood,
by the side of the mother whom he loved so well.

* A Tribute to the Memory of the Rev. George W. Bethune, D.D., Ac, &c.
New York, 18fi2.

Harris.] gg [October.

A communication for the Transactions was presented by the
Secretary, entitled "Intellectual Symbolism," by Pliny
Chase, of Philadelphia, Avhich was on motion referred to a
committee, consisting of Dr. Goodwin, Rev. Mr. Barnes, and
Professor Coppde.

Professor Bache described a model, which he presented to
the Society, as the ingenious workmanship of Mr. Engle in
the office of the United States Coast Survey. " The surface
of the plaster model was designed to illustrate the diurnal
variation of the magnetic declination, and its annual irregu-
larity, as found in the discussion of the magnetic observations
at Girard College, Philadelphia, 1840 to 1845, Part II. It
is intended to make similar models for the horizontal and
vertical forces."

Dr. Franklin Bache made some remarks on the discovery
of the new metal thallium.

Dr. Harris exhibited the skull of the Bueeros scutatus, or Helmet
Hornbill of India, upon the frontal plate of which had been carved a
beautiful Chinese intaglio by an artist in Canton. The specimen
presented was obtained from the male bird, the head of which is of
the same character with, but larger than that of the female, present-
ing a larger frontal space, and therefore more highly valued. The
bird is a species of raven, quite common in India. It is not at all
well proportioned, having a large head, thick neck, long body and
tail, and somewhat short legs. Its neck is bare of plumage, and its
head also, except at the occiput. Its prevailing color is black. Like
the other Buceri, it presents a large protuberance on the top of its
head, which is hollow, and has no connection with the cranial cavity.
This eminence presents none of tlie characteristic features of bone,
and is remarkable for the extreme thickness of its frontal plate and
its ivory-like formation. It is of a light nankeen-yellow color.

A few years ago it was discovered in China that the skull of this
bird might be used for ornamental purposes, and plates of it carved
to represent flowers, and then rendered translucent by some chemical
process, were set as breastpins and bracelets and sold to a few foreign
residents in Canton. Some of these articles were sent out to this
country, and were shown by Dr. Harris to several members of this
Society and of the Academy of Natural Sciences, all of whom doubted
the correctness of the Chinese statement that they were made from
portions of a bird's head, and one, without any hesitation, pronounced

1862.] g^Y [Harris,

it a deception, and said that he knew of no bird in the collection of
the Academy of Natural Sciences upon whose head such carvings
could be executed. To satisfy these gentlemen of the correctness of
his statement, Dr. Harris sent an order to the artist in Canton, and,
after waiting about a year and a half, had the pleasure of receiving
the skull carved as here exhibited, a convincing proof that the Chi-
nese are sometimes honest in their representations, and do even at
the present day make new discoveries. So rare are these carvings,
that very few of our residents in China have ever seen them, or even
know of their existence, and it is believed that but two or three
persons in America have as yet come into possession of the jewelry
made from them. The skull, as exhibited, is no doubt the only
specimen of the kind in existence, and shows the character of the
material of which the carvings are made, as no clarifying process has
been used to change its natural appearance.

Whether any other of the Buceri have ivory-like plates of the
same character and equal thickness, Dr. Harris is unable to state.
Some of them have very large and peculiarly shaped yellow-colored
protuberances on their heads; but many of these are quite thin. In
others the "horn," as it is called, is exceedingly light, and composed
of true bone, covered with a thin, horny plate, as in the Buceros
buccinator. The Helmet Hornbill, it is believed, is not found in
China, but is imported from India, Americans long resident in the
former country having never seen it. It may possibly exist in the
southernmost part of the empire, or may migrate thither in the hot
season.

The material of which this carving is made is very brittle, and
can only be cut during the damp, rainy season. It is no doubt this
fragility which has caused the artist to toughen them by chemical
clarification, in order to preserve them when worn as ornaments.

Pending nominations Nos. 456 to 465 were read.

Judge King oiFered the following resolution, which was
unanimously adopted : That the Vice-President of the So-
ciety now presiding, the Hon. George Sharswood, be autho-
rized to represent the Society to sign and execute all the
powers and procurations necessary to preserve and obtain the
legacy given to the Society by Andre Francois Michaux, and
to constitute Mon. Germain, notary at Pontoise, the agent
and attorney of the Society for that purpose.

And the Society was adjourned.

Powel.] gg [October.

Stated Meeting, October 17, 1862.

Present, sixteen members.

Professor Cresson, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Donations for the Library were received from the Boston
iNTatural History Society, the publishers and editors of the
American Journals of Science and of the Medical Sciences,
the Smithsonian Institution, Mr. Jules Marcou, and Dr.
Roehrig.

A letter was read from Mr. Samuel Powel, dated Bethle-
hem, Pa., October 15th, 1862, accompanying and describing
specimens of iron manufactured from the slag obtained from
the Zinc Works of the New Jersey Zinc Company, through
one of its members. Captain James Jenkins, of Elizabeth
City. Remarks upon this ore and its locality, and the his-
tory of its use were made by Professor Trego, Dr. Hays, and
Professor Lesley.

In Sussex County, New Jersey, are the mines of Franklinite ore,
from which the products are derived. In the process of nianufac-
turino; oxyd of zinc, there remains a scoria which is rich in iron.
Fronj the treatment of this scoria in the blast furnace arises the iron
which I send you.

In the first place there is a specimen of black, porous, spongy-
looking pig iron. This is the product of first blowing in the furnace
with charcoal. Although so different from the white, lustrous, and
largely crystalline specimen which accompanies it (which is the next
pi'oduct of the same furnace and ore (scoria), when it comes into foil
blast with anthracite), the black, spongy ore hfhaces in the same
peculiar way which characterizes the white pig, when it is attempted
to be made into casting.s by any process.

The uniform character of the castings made from either of these
pig metals is as follows : they are hard, white, and brittle, and
largely crystalline. Ai^o, where the furnace has an overcharge of
ore, it will produce a No 2 pig, which is very light gray, and finely
granulated, but which will still make the same sort of castings. The
appearance of the white pig is so remarkable, that I think few people
conversant with pig iron would guess it to be iron. I do not believe

1862.] g9 [Powel.

that its peculiarity depends upon the presence of zinc, but I suspect
it contains manganese. Those irons would then 'seem totally unfit
for ordinary castings, for even when mixed with other pig iron, it is
impossible to work them for castings. On one occasion, in attempt-
ing to make a roll in this way, which was afterwards broken, the
white iron had disposed itself about the surface, and it was then at-
tempted to repeat the experiment, but no such disposition of the
hard iron could again be obtained.

For the purpose of being worked as malleable cast iron, its first
remarkable and valuable properties begin to appear. I send you two
fragments of a cast iron stirrup made in this way. It is hard and
strong when cold like steel. The larger piece has been in one place
drawn out, hardened, tempered, ground, and sharpened as a knife-
blade, which has quite a good edge. Thus you see it is malleable,
and is in fact a steel. The other and smaller fragment of the same
cast iron stirrup is welded to a small piece of a nail-rod. Thus it has
all the requisites for the best quality of malleable cast iron work, with
the peculiar steel-like character, only it is not capable of bending when
cold as malleable iron.

The small, square cake of coarse-looking iron, is a piece of the
common puddled bar made from the white cast iron. Tt appears
here as already a good quality of iron in the first stage of refining.

Next I send you a loop of round bar iron, about one and a half
inch round iron, which has been, I should think, nine inches long.
Captain Jenkins saw this specimen bent in the form you see it en-
tire/^ cold. The two ends are in contact, and the opening in the
centre of the loop is about five-eighths of an inch. It is impossible to
find a more remarkable evidence of the toughness of a specimen of
wrought iron in the cold. The outer curve of the bend is perfectly
unblemished. The cut and fractured ends speak for themselves.

Next I send you a sample of octagon cast steel, which was made
from the puddled bar iron in black lead crucibles. This was done
at Sufferns or Ramapo, New Jersey. I send you also, through the
kindness of the Captain, the formula for the steel charge in black
lead crucible, viz. :

40 pounds of iron.

i oz. yellow prussiate of potash.

1 oz. sal ammoniac.

8 oz. charcoal.

1 gill of salt.
02 oz. manganese.

Powel ] 9Q [October.

I send you also the analysis of the white pig of the New Jersey
Zinc Company.

Iron, 88.30

Carbon, chemically combined, .... 5.48

Carbon, free or graphite, ..... 0.00

Silicum (sic), 0.20

Manganese, 4 50

Sulphur, 0.08

Phosphorus, 0.15

Zinc, 0.30

Loss, 0.99

100.00

This curious iron has become in my eyes still more important, since
I found a recent notice of Mr. Krupp, of Essen in Prussia, who has
sent to the London Exhibition some important productions of his
wonderful steel works, such as huge ordnance, shafting, &c. The
notice of Krupp states, that his steel is produced from a German ore
of zinc and iron, and it, doubtless, therefore must resemble this
Franklinite of New Jersey. I need make no remark in this connec-
tion, to convince you of the immense importance of a production
which may possibly enable America to enjoy the advantages of such
manufactures as those of the Essen Works, which are now without
a rival in the world.

I may add that the malleable iron stirrup was made by Messrs.
Bruen, by the same process and side by side with other castings made
of the usual Sterling white iron. The Sterling iron made cold, tough,
malleable castings, and our new iron made them all like the stirrup.
For these malleable articles, the pig iron is first melted in an air fur-
nace on the hearth, and cast into plates, which are broken up and
re-melted in a cupola for casting.

Another remarkable, and I believe, unique property of the white
pig iron, has been made the subject of a patent. The pig iron, when
coarsely pulverized, and sprinkled upon a bar of wrought iron, heated
quite red, or approaching white, melts, forms a union with the sur-
face, and flows entirely over it, producing a sort of case-hardened
enamel, which resists the edge of tools.

It occurs to me that this property might be of use in uniting such
enamelled surfaces to cast iron, poured upon them in the mould, or
for various other purposes.

Dr. Emerson referred to a pamphlet recently published by

1862.1 . 91

him, concerning the culture of cotton in the Middle States ;
and mentioned the fact, that the growth of cotton in Mary-
land, Virginia, and Delaware is no new thing, it having heen
raised there to a limited extent since 1786. Dr. Emerson
remarked, that he himself had this season raised cotton from
the seed in Kent County, Delaware, planted May 5th, and
he presented to the Society some specimens from his crop.
He believes that the culture of cotton in Northern localities
may be more successfully attempted than formerly, on account
of the use which may no^Y be made of concentrated fertilizers,
such as superphosphate of lime, &c. Dr. Emerson added,
that potash had been recently obtained by separation from
the other ingredients, in the greensand marls of New Jersey,
at a cost of four and a half cents per pound for the potash.

A letter was read describing an accompanying specimen of
jasper, from the lately discovered cave in New Hampshire,
whence the Indians of New England are supposed to have
obtained their arrow-heads and flint instruments. The cave
is an artificial excavation, tw^enty-eight feet long, twelve
"wide, and eight or ten high, with a narrow mouth in a jasper
vein, inclosed in the "granite" of a steep mountain spur, on
the banks of the Androscoggin, one and half miles from Berlin
Falls.

Pending nominations Nos. 456 to 465 were read, and there
being no further business before the meeting, the Society
proceeded to ballot for candidates for membership, after
which, the following named gentlemen were declared by the
presiding oflBcer to be duly elected.

Dr. Evan Pugh, Principal of the Farmers' H. S., Penna.

Dr. A. A. Henderson, U. S. N.

Robert Cornelius, of Philadelphia.

Dr. Prof. Rudolph Virchow, of Berlin.

Dr. Prof. Fred. Theo. Frerichs, of Berlin.

Thomas Jefferson Lee, T. E. U. S.

Dr. Prof. Louis Stromeyer, of Hanover.

Dr. Prof. Karl Rokitansky, of Vienna.

Henry Winsor, of Philadelphia.

And the Society was adjourned.

qo [November.

Stated Meeting^ November 7, 1862.

Present, seven members.

Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.

Letters accepting membership were received from P. Vol-
picelli, dated Rome, October 4th, 1862 ; J. Lothrop Motley,
dated Vienna, October 13th ; Robert Cornelius, dated Phila-
delphia, November 4th ; Evan Pugh, dated Agricultural Col-
lege, Centre County, Pa., Nov. 4tli, 1862.

Letters acknowledging receipt of the publications of the
Society were received from the American Antiquarian So-
ciety ; the New Jersey Historical Society, dated October 3d
and November 6th ; the Historical Society of Pennsylvania,
dated October 23d ; the Pennsylvania State Library, dated
October 31st, 1862 ; the Royal Academy at Brussels, dated
November, 1860.

Letters regarding donations for the Library w^ere received
from J. E. Cohen, M.D., Baltimore, October 23d ; C. F.
Loosey, New York, October 22d ; United States Treasury
Department, October 18th ; the Zool. Bot. Society, March
20th ; and Imperial Academy, August 1st, at Vienna ; and
from the Natural History Society at Riga, dated April 10th,
1862.

Donations for the Library were received from the French
Minister of Public Works ; the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic
Society, at Falmouth ; the Royal Academy and Royal Ob-
servatory, at Brussels ; the Imperial Academy, the Royal
Geological Institute, and the Zoologico-Botanical Society at
Vienna ; the Trustees of the New York State Library ; T.
W. Reeve, of New York ; Blanchard & Lea, of Philadelphia ;
and Evan Pugh, of Centre County, Pa.

The death of General 0. McKnight Mitchell, at Hilton
Head in South Carolina, October, 1862, aged 52, was an-
nounced by the Secretary, and on motion of Dr. Hays, Prof.
Kendall was appointed to prepare an obituary notice of the
deceased.

Mr. Lesley described a section of coal -measure rocks made
by him during a visit to the neighborhood of Sydney, C. B.,
and noticed other remarkable features of the British Provinces.

1862.1

93

[Lesley.

Section of Coal-measures on the Cape Breton Coast.
By J. P. Lesley.

(a.) Soft shales with a hard ft.
belt at the bottom, 20.0

Red and green alterna-
tions, 10.0

Red, 10.0

Red belt, 27 feet.

Iron,

Iron,

Iron,

(e.)
(d.)

(d.)

Coal,

Coal,

Coal,

"Hub vein," 8 feet.

Coal,

Green,

Red,

Green,

Red,

Green,
r Fire-clay with nodules
j of iron,
(b.) I Fire-clay, compact,
sandy.

Fire-clay, pure.

Red shale.

Fire-clay,

Iron ore, continuous.

Shales,

A black streak.

Shales, layers of small
nodules of iron,

A black streak.

Fire-clay,

A black streak.

Sandstone cliffs,

Sandy top shales.

Coal, good.

Fire-clay running into
sandstone.

Black slate, genuine.

Fire-clay,

Slate cliffs,

Slate,

Soft coal,

Solid coal,
V Hard coal,

Great sand rock, full of
plants,

Cannel coal-bed.

Fire clay,

Cannel coal.

Fire-clay,

2.0
l.G
.6
l.G
1.6

50 J- Mud rocks, Soi

2.0
5.0
2.0
2 0
.6
12.0

8.0

2.0

8.0
6.0
1.0

- Sand rocks, 2S 0

6.0 J

(g.
(h.

f

2.0
8.0
40.0
1.6
1.6
4.0
1.0

20.0
1.6
6.0
.0^
2.6

' Mud rocks,

58.0

Sand rocks, 20 0

Mud rocks,

10.0

Lesley.!

94

[November.

Coal,

(5-)

Iron,

Coal,

(k.)

Iron,

Sandstone,

2.0

Flaggy cliff rock.

6.0

Sandy slates, becomes

dark banded slate

rocks,

11.0

Cannel coal,

.1

Uuderclay,

3.0

Sandy clay,

3.0

Shaly clay.

6.0

Pure clay and fine yel-

low slate.

4.0

Shale,

.6

Blackish clay shales.

8.0

Soft clay shales,

2.0

Iron ore, balls, thin

plate,

.8

Sandy shales.

6.0

Soft clay shales,

3.6

Dark soft clay cliffs,

1.3

Soft shales.

7.0

Sandstone shales,

2.0

Shales, gray.

5.0

Blackish shales,

1.0

Shales, gray.

G.O

Massive, flaky shales.

2.0

Sandy, flaky clay,

9.0

Shale cliffs, sandy,

11.0

Blackish shales.

10.0

Sandy shale cliffs.

5.0

Sandy shales.

20.0

Clay, becoming at -j

bottom sandstone, V

21.0

over which 3

Seam of coal,

.0^

Top slate.

6.0

Coal, 2 in. in black

slate,

.6

Under clay shale.

5.0

Blackish soft shales,

4.0

Gray shales,

2.0

Iron ore, poor, sandy,

.6

Gray shales,

4.0

Sandstone, flinty.

1.0

Fire-clay, compact be-

low,

G.O

Sand rocks,

25

Mud rocks.

■ Sand-mud rocks, 92.0

45.0

Sand-mud rocks, 69.6

1862.1

95

[Lesley.

Coal,

Iron,

(M

(m.)

(n.)

Coal,

Sandy shales,

CO ^

Yellow shales,

0.0

Gray, blackish shales.

6.0

Gray shales, soft,

sandy,

12.0

- Sand-mud i

Soft shales (local),

5.0

Sandstone, false bed- \

ded shales, soft at I

17.0

bottom, J

Clay,

.3

Cannel coal,

.1

Soft, yellow, concret. )

7.0 ~

clay, clay slates, 3

Harder shale,

1.0

Gray shales.

2.6

Iron nodules.

Gray shales.

4.0

Soft, blackish shales,

,2.1

Sandy shales, foliated,

.3.0

• Mud rocks.

Top clay.

1.0

Gray, blackish shales,

.6

Coal slate ("Cannel"),

.6

Hard, sandy shale.

.8

Coaly matter.

.J

Hard, sandy shales,

3.0

Compact fire-clay.

s.o .

31.5

These are the lowest rocks seen before coming to the south of
Little Glace Bay. A slight break in the section takes place here.

Coal,

Soft measures, 10.0 ")

Coaly top slate, .4

Coal, bituminous, .3

Sand-rock, variable, 1.0
Green clay, including

horses of sandrock, .6

Fire-clay, 2.0

Compacter clay, 2.0
Harder sandy clay, |
Sandstone ledge, i
Compact sandstone,

with thin flag courses, 7.0

Fire-clay shale, 3.0

Fire-clay, pencil shale, 4.0

j. Mud rocks, 16.0

Sand rocks.

9.0

Mud-sand rocks, 35.6

Lesley.

96

I November.

Coal,

Coal,
Iron,

Coal,

(q

Coal,

(r.)

i

I

;p-)

Shale sandstone, 3.6

B'ire-clay, pencil shale, 6.0
Sandy shale, 15.0

Crumbling shale, 4.0

Sandstone, 8.0

Blackish shales and

fire-clay, 4.0

Sandstone, massive, 10.0
Sandy fire-clay, thin, 2.0
Shaly sandstone, with

6 inch flag courses, 7.6
Shales (dark outside), 7.6
Sandstones, flaggy, 3.0

Gray top shales, 1.6

Black bituminous slates, .5
Cannel coal, .1

Black bituminous slates, .6

Mud-sand rocks, 35.6

Sand rocks, 43.6

Fire-clay shales.

1 0

Shaly sandstone.

1.0

Sandstone,
Sandy shale.

[ Sand rocks

Fire-clay,

5.0

" Harbor vein,"

5.0 ^

Shales, foliated,

8.0

Iron ore, plate break-

ing into balls,

.3

Coal, with a centre

streak of jet,

.8

■ Mud rocks,

Shales, red, green, yel-

low.

7.6

Hard clay sandstone.

2.0

Clay shale,

5.0

Coal,

2.0 J

Sandy shales, foliated ;

~

then compact ; then

in half inch layers,

26 0

. Sand rocks,

Sandstone, then sandy

shales.

10.0 ^

Gray shales (blackish)
Shaly fireclay,

5.0 •
10.0

Mud rocks.

Greenish sandstone.
Contorted sandstone.

6.0 •

8.0 ^

Sand rocks.

Fire-clay,

2.0

Gray, green, harsh

Mud rocks,

shales.

4.0 )

15.6

30.6

36.0

150
14.0

31.0

1862.1

97

[Lesley.

Iron,
Coal,

Iron and lime,
Iron,

Coal,

Iron,

Coal,

Iron,

Red and green shales, 5.0
Very soft gray shales, 20.0
Three layers of sand-
rock, 6.0
Soft fire-clay ; top slate
with nodules, 10.0

f Coal,
I Black slate,
f Fire-clay ; thin red,
I green, and yellow
(s.) •{ shales ; then sandy,
I Shales, false-bedded,
I, Ferruginous fire-clay.
Hard, blackish slates.

6.0

12.0

2.0

8.0

(t.) Gray, rough, shaly
sandstone and dark
shales, 12.0

Massive sandstone. 6.0

Yellow sandstone ;
soon yellow shales,
and then black, 20.0

(u ) Tight blue carbonate, 1.0
Green fire-clay, full of
nodules of iron, 4.0

( Blackish top slate, 3.0

1 Coal streak.

Sandstone nodules, 1.0

Shale, yellow, then
green, full of nod-
ules of iron, 10.0
Soft fire-clay, 1
Shale, yellow ; then
sandy ; then clayey ;
then fire-clay, 8.0
Fire-clay, blackish ;

then gray, 10 0

" Boutellier's vein," (?) 2.0
Fire-clay, 2.0

(v.) Fire-clay, with nodules, 4.0
Shales, blue, 6.0

(v.) Fire-clay, full of nod-
ules of iron as large
as chestnuts, .S.O

Clays, various, 12.0

Clay, blue-black, .6

Mud rocks.
Sand rock,

31.0

6.0

Mud rocks,

38.6

Sand rocks,

18.0

Sand-mud rocks, 20.0

Mud rocks, Y0.6

Lesley.] gg [November.

Shales, red, yellow, and | ^^^ ^.^^.^^^ ^^ ^.

ereen, 3.0 )

green,
^avy,
then layered sand-

Wavy, false-bedded, 1

stone, 12.0 [- Sand-mud rocks, 21.0

becomes more of clay, 4.0
Fire-clay, blue, 5.0

Last rocks seen at the north side of Great Glace Bay mouth :

Rocks north of Little Glace Bay, 471.0

" south u u u 436.0

Total thickness of rocks in the measured section, . . 907 feet.

Beneath these rocks lie the coals (including clay masses) of the
cliffs to the east of the Great Glace Bay bar ; which I propose to
give at another time, in connection with a survey of the coast line
eastward.

A few notes to the above section are needful, as follows :

(a.) These rocks cap the square headland projecting into the Gulf of St.
Lawrence between the Burnt Head and Little Glace Bay. They are the high-
est coal-measure rocks of this basin, and perhaps the highest coal-measures
south of Sydney Bay. The cliffs are about forty feet high, and exhibit a
remarkable contour, caricaturing the hftraan face in profile, by means of
the overhanging ledge of hard sand rock at the bottom of the mass, and
about halfway of the height of the cliff. See wood-cut (a).

(b.) The upper part of this clay is crowded with small nodules of iron,
(c.) Ranging for a great distance along the cliffs. Stripping it would
yield a large quantity of good ore. The plate varies from 4 to 8 inches,
(d.d.) These streaks are not coal, although they resemble it at a distance,
(e.) These shales vary in compactness, but form essentially a homo-
geneous mass of finely levigated and foliated sandy mud, the top rock of
the great coal.

(f.) Of this, only six feet is good workable coal, on the coast, but it in-
creases westward, and with the omission of eighteen inches poorer top coal,
yields from six to seven feet of good body coal.

(g.) This mass of building stone is a rare exhibition for these coal-mea-
sures. It forms the long point on which the pier is built. Its thickness
could not be exactly determined, because like all the very sandy deposits
of the section, it is false-bedded and variable. The great sand-rocks un-
derlie all the productive coal-measures, and are seen around Sydney.

(h.) A coal shale, compactly foliated, highly bituminous, burning well,
but with much ash, and crowded with fish-scales and minute shells. It
sometimes reads thus : Cannel, S inches ; Bituminous coal, 8 inches ; Clay,
li inch ; Bituminous coal, 3 inches.

(i.) Here comes in a jet-black slate, growing compact like cannel, but

1862.]

99

[Lesley.

nowhere in the clifiF a true coal, but rather a black fire-clay, 1 inch thick
with black shales above and below ; plenty of fish-scales, but no ferns.

(k.) This becomes solid coal, 6 inches thick.

(1.) Is nipped out at water-level.

(m.) A great mass of sandstone thrown up at a steep angle not by any
general structural movement but by original oblique deposition, has here
resisted the wearing action of the waves, and left a curious and instructive
promontory.

(n.) Burns well. Plenty of fish-
scales.

(o.) The profile of this mass is
one of singular architectural
beauty.

(p.) Form bold, beetling cliffs
over the breakers.

(q.) The centre streak is char-
acteristic, for it appears in the
outcrop of the same bed at the
New Bridge.

(r.) Local false bedding dips form the point.

(s.) The two lower members are variations seen further south.

(t.) Beautifully false-bedded, scalloped in all directions like the blocks
and faces of No. X (Upper Devonian) at the viaduct on the Conemaugh,
in Cambria County, Penna.

(u.) Sometimes li feet thick, but will not average more than 10 or 11
inches. It forms a long i-eef into the sea, in the exact line of the distant
headland.

(v. y.) The appearance of these fire-clays, crowded with nodules of iron
ore, is very striking ; their gnarlly, knobby outcrops form long reefs visible
by lines of breakers far out to sea.

The above section was obtained in August, 1862, From the cliffs
between Lingan and Great Glace Bays, on the east coast of Cape
Breton, from sixteen to twenty miles east of Sydney. Part of it
was made out by means of a rope and ladder let down from the upper
edge of the cliffs, where these overhung the sea, or occupied intervals
between the short sand and gravel beaches. At the upper limit of
the section, a square headland projects into the Gulf of St. Law-
rence, along the axis of a synclinal basin, with sloping sides of 4° or
5°* From this headland southward, the section was made out by
an examination of each layer as it emerged from the sea, past the
mouth of Little Glace Bay (where the new harbor is constructing,
under the skilful and energetic direction of Captain William P. Par-
rot, Civil Engineer, of Boston, Mass.) as far as to the mouth of
Great Glace Bay.

Lesley.] ]^QQ fNoyember,

A similar section might be made, for comparison, starting from
the same headland westward, along the cliffs, past Cadougan's Creek,
which corresponds to Little Glace Bay, to the mouth of Lingan Bay,
which in like manner corresponds to Great Glace Bay. Many inte-
resting variations in the metals would appear from such a comparison.
While the general regularity and parallelism is remarkable, there are
numerous minor irregularities ; some fine instances of false bedding
and local deposition ; lenticular masses of sand separating adjacent
mud-rocks ; passages of shales into sandstones, and vice versa ; gra-
dual coalescing of scattered nodules of clay iron-stone into solid plates,
or their gradual pervading of a thick bed of fire-clay, hardening it
into so refractory a rock, that its outcrop forms a reef far out to sea.
Instances occur of the splitting of coal-beds. The Lingan bed, for
example, has, on the sea-shore, a clay parting of half an inch, which,
in a quarter of a mile inland, thickens to nine inches j and then, in
four hundred yards of gangway continued inland, thickens to nine
feet, throwing the upper member of the bed entirely beyond the
workings.* In this we have probably the explanation of the differ-
ence between the abandoned Bridgeport bed, on the south shore of
Lingan Bay, and the Lingan bed on the north shore, separated by a
wide and gentle anticlinal ; the Bridgeport bed being but 7 feet
thick, while the Lingan bed is 9.

A second repetition of the lower half of the section was actually
obtained from the cliffs to the eastward of Great Glace Bay ; in fact,
the section was completed by an examination of the lowest rocks
which rise here from the sea.

The section here represented includes the productive coal-measures
of Cape Breton, with five workable beds of coal, one of which can
hardly be called workable in this area, whatever may be its character
in others. In Mr. Brown's section of the North Sydney coal-mea-
sures, there are enumerated indeed thirty-four coal-seams ; but only
four are said to be of workable thickness : Cranberry Head, 3.8 feet;
interval (measuring downwards) 280 feet; Lloyd's Cove, 5.0; inter-
val 730 feet; Main Seam, 6.9; interval 450 feet; Indian Cove, 4.8.
Mr. Brown's whole section extends to a depth of 1860 feet, or along
5000 yards at a dip of 7° to the N. 60° E.

* The Cook Vein, at Broad Top City in Pennsylvania, has a sandrock parting
two feet thick, between two 2 foot beds of coal. At the present heading of the
long drift, this rock, after first disappearing, leaving the bed of coal 6 feet thick,
has increased to 10 feet of tough rock, between two 6 inch beds of coal. This in-
crease of ten feet takes place without crush in a distance of only three to four
yards.

1862.] IQl [Lesley.

Mr. Brown "concludes from the best information in his possession
that the productive coal-measures exceed 10,000 feet," but I saw
nothing in Cape Breton to justify the supposition. He grants that,
''owing to several extensive dislocations, it is impossible to ascertain
their total thickness with any degree of accuracy." I can only sug-
gest, with deference to his long experience and acknowledged skill,
that the structure of the east coast of Cape Breton has not been re-
garded from a right point of view, inasmuch as the coal-beds have
been always represented as members of one basin, dipping broadside
into the waters of the gulf; whereas, in fact, along that coast, they
occur with alternate northeast and southeast dips, forming a series of
basin-ends, the bodies of which lie side by side submerged beneath
the gulf. The same four or five workable beds inclosed in the same
one or two thou.sand feet of productive measures, appear on shore at
the west end of each of these basins. As the dip is commonly gen-
tle, viz., from 4° to 8°, the basins sometimes coalesce; but in one
instance at least, that of Cow Bay, the south dips are 45°, and the
basin is sharp and narrow, greatly resembling the end of one of the
anthi'acite basins of Pennsylvania. As at Sjdney, and again at
Glace Bay, so here at Cow Bay there are but four workable coal-beds
in about 1500 feet of productive measures, and they are, no doubt,
the Glace Bay beds.*

Sir William Logan, Sir Charles Lyell, Prof. Dawson, and other
geologists who have described the coal-measures of Nova Scotia and
New Brunswick, agree in assigning to them an almost incredible
thickness. "The entire section of the Joggins," writes Sir William
Logan, "contains 76 beds of coal and 90 distinct stigmaria under-
clays," with "24 bituminous limestones," in "a vertical thickness of
14,570 feet."

When we analyze the eight divisions into which this immense mass
has been distinguished, we find them thus constituted :

Nos. ], 2. Sandstones and shales ; drift-trees and erect cala-

mites, 2267 feet.

No. o. Sandstones; coal shales; uuderclays; 22 coal-beds, 2134 "
No. 4. Sandstones and shales, gray ; bituminous limestones ;

45 coal-beds ; shells and fish-scales, .... 25.39 "

* The combined thickness of the Lower, Middle, and Ujiper Coal-measures, as
determined by Mr. Jukes, in South Staffordshire, England, is 1810 feet. The
thickness of the productive coal-measures of Leicestershire does not exceed 2500
feet. In most parts of the deep Anthracite basins 2000 feet 'would be a fair ave-
rage. In Western Virginia and Pennsylvania, and in the deepest parts of the
Mississippi Valley areas, 1500 feet.
VOL. IX. — o

Lesley.] 10'^ [November.

No. 5. Sandstones and shales, red ; carbonized plants, . 2082 feet.

No. 6. Sandstones, f; shales; bituminous limestone; 9

coal-beds; shells and tish-scales, .... 3240 "

No3. 7, 8. Sandstones, conglomerates, shales, nod. lime-
stones, two beds of gypsum ; remains of plants, . 2308 "

Interval, 300 "

Massive limestone with Prod. Lyelli and other Lower Car-
boniferous fossils.

It is very evident that the Sydney, Glace Bay, or Covy Bay section
of less than 2000 feet of productive coal-measnres, can represent but
barely one of these divisions, and that it must be either No. 3, or
No. 4, or No. 6. Sir William Jjogan adds, in his resume, that "No3.
3, 4, 5, and 6,* contain the equivalents of the productive coal-mea-
sures of Pictou and Sydney, and in part of the sandstones which
separate them from the Lower Carboniferous series." Prof. Dawson
describes minutely his own section of " 2819 feet of the central part
of the Coal Formation, ""j" in approaching which, after describing
the lower parts, J he says : " We have now, after passing over beds
amounting altogether to the enormous thickness of 7636 feet, reached
the commencement of the true coal-measures. "§ By the true coal-
measures he means, therefore, Division No. 4 and the lower part of
Division No. 3, embracing less than 3000 feet of measures and con-
taining but four coal-beds which can be called workable, the rest be-
ing from one inch to eighteen inches thick. In descending order
■we have :

Nine small seams in a thickness of measures of .
Main coal seam, 3.6 ; parting, L6 ; coal, L6, .

Three minute seams in an interval of .
Coal, .3 ; clay, .5; Queen's vein, L9 ; shale, 4.4; coal, 1.0,

Ten small seams (large.>Jt 1.2) in an interval of
Coal, with three clay partings, ......

Three small seams in an interval of .
Coal,

Three small seams in an interval of .
Coal,

Interval of ........ .

Coal and bituminous shale, ......

Eleven small seams in an interval of .

The aspect of this section resembles those on the east coast of Cape
Breton, where modiol^e and fish-scales are also abundant.

* Dawson's Acadia, p. 178. f P- 1''7. \ P. 127.

kj Described in Proc. Geol. Soc. X, pp. 1—12.

53G feet.

5.

75 feet.

3.

762 feet.

2f.

206 feet.

5.

17 feet.

4.

32 feet.

5.

1153 feet.

1862.] 103 [I^esley.

The Albert or Pictou section is said also to contain but 6ve or sis
seams of coal, two of which are of unusual thickness, as follows :
From the surface, down the Success Pit, 7o feet; Main Coal, 39.11
feet thick; Interval, 157 feet; Deep Seam, 24.9. Both these coal-
beds, however, are far from presenting solid faces of coal. On the
contrary, they are built up, like the oO and 60 foot coal-beds of the
Anthracite region of Pennsylvania, of many layers separated by under-
minings. The peculiarity here is that these separations are plates of
ironstone, not more than six inches thick, instead of being layers of
fire-clay, coal-slate, or sandstone. The structure is certainly peculiar,
and evinces quietness of deposit and long-continued stability of sea-
level, unless we prefer to consider the Pictou area as an upland
swamp, unaffected by certain changes of relative land and sea level
then going on and affecting the swamps of the coal era around and
below it.

But inasmuch as the 60 foot coal at Mauch Chunk, on the Lehigh,
is identifiable with the Low Main or Mammoth bed of the Pottsville
Basin to the west, and of the Beaver Meadow, Hazleton, Buck
Mountain, and Wyoming Basins to the north of it, and through them
with still smaller and separated beds further off in the Mahanoy and
Shamokin Basins, and even with the bituminous basins of the Alle-
ghany Mountains, — there can be no reasonable doubt, a priori, that
the 25 and 40 foot beds of Pictou are identifiable with 5 and 6 foot
beds of New Brunswick on the one side, and with the 8 and 9 foot
beds of Sydney on the other,* The palaeontological unity of the
Low Main coal of the Pittsburg region with the Low Main coal of
Eastern Pennsylvania admits of no doubt. The structural evidence
is coincident and precise. Yet, wider intervals of Devonian and Si-
lurian denudation are to be bridged by the theoretical connection

* To illustrate in a still more striking manner this separation of a large bed
into several smaller ones, one has only to examine Mr. Jukeis's description of the
Thick Coal of Dudley, in England, "which, forming at that place o)te solid seam
ten yards in thickness, becomes split up into itine distinct seams by the intercala-
tion of 420 feet of strata over the northern area of the coal-field." The Main
Coal of the Warwickshire area is split up, according to Mr. Howell, mio fii-c beds
by 120 feet of intervening strata. The Main Coal of Moira is noticed by Mr. Hull
as a third instance. (See Hull's Paper on the Carboniferous Strata of England,
Vol. XVIII, No. 70, Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. p. 1.39.) Mr. Lesquereux, in his
Report on the East Kentucky Conl-Field, in the fourth volume of Owen's State
Reiwrts, p. 360, gives what he considers sufficient evidence of a similar breaking
up of the Low Main Coal of the Pittsburg area into three. This is precisely the
normal number of large beds into which the great Mauch Chunk or Mammoth
Bed separates throughout the Pottsville-Tamaqua Basin.

Lesley.] 104 [November.

tlipre, than are called for between the coal areas of the British Pro-
vinces. The general bordering of the sea-coast with coal-beds, and
the long and parallel stretches of Carboniferous rocks through the in-
teiior, are all cogent arguments for continuity of the original coal
areas, and therefore for the contemporaneity of the remaining portions
of the coal-beds. As the same coal-beds which now cap the highest
mountains of the Alleghanies in Northern Pennsylvania, and have
been swept away over wide intervals of Devonian valleys between them,
descend also into the depths beneath the beds of the lowest valleys
drained by the Swatara, the Schuylkill, the Lehigh, and the Susque-
hanna North Branch, so I have no doubt the coal-beds, whose edges
we now see only along the sea-shore of Nova Scotia, or on the sides
of the interior low lands, did once ride over the tops of its metamor-
phic Devonian mountains, whose summits, crowned with cliflPs, op-
posing anticlinal and synclinal dips, remind the Pennsylvanian geo-
logist, at every view he takes of them, of those mountains on which
the coal still lies in fragmentary patches in his native State.

What, then, are the thousands of feet of rocks included in Divi-
sions Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8, of Logan's great section ? In other words,
the 7630 feet over which Dawson climbed to reach the bottom of his
" true coal-measures ?"

What, I ask in reply, are those wide stretches of low, rolling, ara-
ble country, with a red shale soil, which the traveller sees spreading
around all the productive coal areas of Cape Breton and Nova Scotia,
especially the latter ? To the geologist from the West they afford
fiimiliar scenery. He can hardly persuade himself, sometimes, that
be is not riding through Lykens or Locust or Catawissa or Trough
Creek Valleys in Pennsylvania, over the chocolate-colored soils of
No. XL This formation, 5000 feet thick around the southern An-
thracite coal-fields, becomes, indeed, thinner and thinner northwest-
ward, until it is but 500 in the Alleghany Mountains, and not more
than 50 beneath Pittsburg. But along its thickest line it extends
from Alabama to New Jersey, a good thousand miles. It is not sur-
prising, then, to see it stretching still another thousand miles further
in the same direction, and spreading undiminished around the coal
areas of Nova Scotia.

Division No. 5 of Logan's section, consists of red shales and sand-
stones chiefly, 2012 feet thick. There is no reason why this should
not be the representative of Formation No. XI, or of its upper part.
If it be objected that Division No. 6 is in fact a coal system with
nine beds of coal and numerous bituminous limestones, the objection

1862.] 2Q5 [Lesley,

becomes an additional argument for the identification. For we see
in this No. 6 the reproduction, at this immense distance, of the
Lower or False Coal-measures of Virginia, where a productive coal
system underlies the chocolate shales of Formation No. XI, and not
only reappears, with workable beds, in Eastern Kentucky and Middle
Tennessee, but projects itself, in a recognizable shape, through West-
ern Indiana nearly to Chicago, and through Middle Pennsylvania
nearly to the Delaware Iliver. In fact, Lesquereux pronounces the
whole coal of Arkansas to belong to this lower system. It may,
therefore, very well be found in force in Nova Scotia. Throughout
Division No. 6 no bed of respectable size is mentioned. It is an
early and imperfect system.

The chief objections to this hypothesis above sustained, will come,
1, from the absence of any general representative for the Millstone
Grit or Great Fiasal Conglomerate of the True Coal-measures; 2,
from the sub-position of Divisions 7 and 8, 2308 feet of sands, peb-
ble-rocks, and limestones; and 3, from the presence at a still lower
depth of what seems to be the genuine, massive, subcarboniferous
limestone. To break the full force of these objections, I can only
remark, 1, that the Pictou coal-basin has a massive Conglomerate
under its productive coal-measures, while elsewhere no one Formation
of the whole Palaeozoic System is so variable and unreliable and un-
identifiable as Formation XII, the Great Conglomerate, technically
so called ; 2, that Nos. 7 and 8 may be identified with Formation
X; and 3, that the subcarboniferous or Archimedes Limestones of
the Western United States not only have been subdivided into five
separate formations in the Valley of the Mississippi, but wholly thin
away and disappear before crossing the Schuylkill and Lehigh Ilivers
on their way to Nova Scotia. Therefore, although the False or
Lower Coal-measures of Virginia and Southwestern Pennsylvania are
overhtid by limestones with subcarboniferous fossils, the connection,
as to llmeatone, is entirely cut away between them and the Nova
Scotia deposits, so that the massive gypseous limestones of Nova
Scotia may be at any assignable lower level. This argument is ren-
dered all the more forcible by the fact that gypsum is unknown in
the United States, except in one or two anomalous positions, appa-
rently connected with the Lower Silurian Limestones, and in the
closed basin of Michigan.

Beneath the red shale Formation No. XI, we have, in the south-
eastern ranges of the Appalachians, nearly three miles' thickness of
sedimentary deposits, separable everywhere into three great Forma-

Lesley.] 106 [November.

tions : No. X, white sandstone, 2000 feet, No. IX, red sandstone,
5000 feet. No. VIII, green and olive shale, 8000 feet; the white
sandstone including rarely a thin bed of conglomerate here and there,
and traces of coal-plants and even thin coal-beds; the red sandstone
passing downwards into red shale, and often alternating flinty sand-
rock with massive mud-rocks even in the upper part; and the olive
shale becoming near the base of it rocky, and even mountainous in
the region of the Juniata, where a system of thin coal-beds was also
developed in the midst of the sandstone and shale. The white sand-
stone of No. X becomes in the Alleghany Mountain belt less than
800 feet thick, and is there characterized by thin-bedded and very
irregularly cross-bedded sandstones of a peculiar greenish tint and
harsh, rough fracture, weathering to a surface sprinkled with small
red dots of peroxide of iron.

It is not too much to say that a geologist well accustomed to these
formations, along their great Appalachian belts of mountain and
valley, stretching from the Appalaehicola and Alabama Rivers in the
South, to the Delaware and Hudson in the North, cannot fail to re-
cognize them and distinguish them anywhere. The tout ensemble or
fades of each is sui generis. Fossils may come in afterwards as a
satisfactory confirmation ; but the eye has already determined the
respective formations. Even in the West, where Formation IX has
dwindled, like Formation XI, to an insignificant one or two hundred
feet, and scarcely separates the green sands of X from the green shales
of YIII, the characteristic features of the three formations, although
modified and harmonized by the preponderance of the argillaceous
element, are still in sufficient contrast to be recognized when fairly
seen.

To an eye thus trained among the broad outcrops of the Lower,
Middle, and Upper Devonian of the Appalachians, it is evident that
the mountains of Cape Breton and the hills of Northern Nova Scotia,
surrounding or intervening between the already-mentioned red shale
borders of the coal areas, are composed of these formations. True,
the anticipation of finding these formations has a tendency to warp
the judgment and delude the eye, especially when that anticipation
is based upon such a probability as this : that a iiiassif, three miles
thick and a thousand miles long, will maintain its thickness (and of
course its topographical height and geographical breadth) at least as
far along the prolongation of its isometric axis (to use Mr. Hull's
new and much-needed term), as will such minor formations as the
Coal over it or the Upper Silurian limestones under it. In other

1862.] 207 [Lesley.

words, if analogies between the Nova Scotia and the United States
coals compel us to consider them synchronic, if not originally conter-
minous ; and if the Clinton fossils of New York, and even the Dye-
stone* iron ore of Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Wisconsin, be found
at Arisaig, and along a well-defined outcrop in the direction of Truro;
surely the Second Mountain, Little Mountain, Orwigsburg Mountain,
and Summer Hill, upon the Schuylkill River, must be represented
by the Antigonish Mountains of Nova Scotia, and by the Sydney and
St. Peter's Range in Cape Breton : and this, whether the Nova
Scotia carboniferous rocks or subcarboniferous limestones be de-
posited upon the Devonian conformably or unconformably. The Pro-
vince is in fact a wide belt of mountains partially submerged; and
may have been to some extent in the same condition at the beginning
of the Coal era. In the Antigonish Hills we may have principally
Formation VIII, while in the country south of the Lake Bras d'Or
■we may have the full series of VIII, IX, and X. The Arisaig for-
mation, with fossils once thought by Hall and Lyell to be Hamilton
and Chemung, and now considered by Hall and Dawson to be indis-
putably Clinton, although overlaid and concealed along most of its
extent by apparently nonconformable coal-measures, gives us a fixed
lower limit for the so-called metamorphic hill country of the Province,
which makes this hill country necessarily Devonian, or Formations
VIII, IX, and X. Even if we object to the terra Devonian, and
permit the palaeontologists to carry down the term Carboniferous, or
the term Subcarboniferous, step by step, so as to include first, For-
mation X, perhaps rightly, and then the genuine Old Red IX, and
even, as the effort is in the Western States, to include Formation
VIII down to its black shale beds with coal, the change of term will
not change the lithology, — the mountains of Nova Scotia must still
be the representatives of the Catskill, Mohantongo, Terrace, and Al-
leghany Mountains of New York and Pennsylvania.

The eye can hardly be mistaken in the features of the roadside
banks between Antigonish and Merigonish ; the road defiles through
hills of VIII. Equally certain is it that the outcrops on the road
from St. Peter's to Sydney are of the reddish and greenish sand rocks
of IX and X. The road for forty miles winds along the lake shore,
and in and out of ravines descending from a group of parallel moun-
tains of these formations, made parallel by a system of parallel anti-

* Described by Dawson, p. 58, supplementary chapter to Acadian Geology,
August, 1800.

Lesley.] 108 [Xovember.

clinal and synclinal curves whicli issue from the lake and throw the
mountain dips to the north and to the south alternately, at angles
from 5° to 45°. Great rib-plates of flinty sand rock rise to the sum-
mits and form tablets with broken cliffs upon the outcrop side, fine
objects seen thus against the sky. The mountains at the head of the
east arm of the lake, and those on its northern side forming the pe-
ninsula, come down upon the shore in the same style, and belong to
the same system. On the south side of Mire Buy, in the ravines
east of the Gabarus road bridge, there is no mistaking the aspect of
masses of slates of No. VIII standing at 45° ; nor can one be con-
vinced that he is not riding through a forest grown on a soil of IX,
as he is whirled over the fine old road from IMire bridge to Louis-
burg, although the highest elevation of the plateau is but 350 feet.

Whatever impression the Devonian and subcarboniferous sedi-
ments of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton may make upon a geologist
from the Middle States, certainly his wonder will be piqued by
striking analogies between the exhibitions of the workable coal-mea-
sures at two such distant places as Sydney and Pittsburg. The
resemblance is more than general ; it has special points.

At Pittsburg there are about a thousand feet of coal-measures (to
the top coal), with a great bed 8 or 10 feet thick near the top, a 6
foot bed half way down, two small workable beds in the lower half
of the column, and a large bed (4 to 8 feet) at the bottom.

At Sydney (Glace Bay), in like manner, there are about a thou-
sand feet of coal-measures, with an 8 or 9 foot bed towards the top,
a 6 foot bed half way down, two smaller beds in the lower half of the
column, and a 7 or 8 foot bed near the bottom.

At Pittsburg, as at Glace Bay, the upper 18 inches or 2 foot of
the High Main coal is rejected.

At Pittsburg, as at Glace Bay, the middle 6 foot coal (Upper
Freeport of the Alleghany River and Cook Vein of Six Mile Run)
is famous for its solid face and excellent quality.

No one should admit that such coincidences furnish a demonstra-
tion of identity. But it must not be overlooked that the beds of the
Pittsburg area have been traced and identified from end to end of
areas with a diameter, in all, of over a thousand miles, even across
the denuded interval of Central Kentucky. The expectation may,
therefore, be pardoned, not as an amiable enthusiasm, but as a logi-
cal inference, that when the fossil groups of the individual beds of
Cape Breton shall have been thoroughly studied by Lesquereus and
other competent botanists, their identification with the beds of the

1862.] 2Q9 [Lesley.

West may be made somewhat more than possible. The zone of sedi-
ment, when taken along its isometric axis, is equal enough over a
priori incredible distances. Logan and Hunt and Murchison- are
finding the Quebec group, the Huronian and Laurentian systems in
Scotland and Scandinavia, not by fossils, but by aspect. No one
doubts the extension of the Millstone Grit and the Mountain Lime-
stone of England to Pennsylvania. Why should the remarkably
homogeneous and continuous Flora of any one of the immensely out-
spread beds of the United States not be homogeneously continuous to
Rhode Island, New Brunswick, and Cape Breton ?

One remarkable feature, however, in this resemblance of the two
coal columns at Pittsburg and Sydney, must not be forgotten. I
refer to the mass of red shales which cap the Glace Bay section. A
similar deposit occurs, at a fixed horizon, widely spread over Western
Pennsylvania, but beneath, not above, the High Main coal.

Dr. Wood noticed a visit which he and Prof. Henry had
made to Dr. Wistar's house, since the meeting of September
19th, to re-examine the lightning rod connections, and they
found this case to be no exception to the general rule, that
where the connections are perfect, the building is secure. Dr.
Bache described the connections of his house-rods at the cor-
ner of Spruce and Juniper Streets, with the city gas pipes.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, November 21, 1862.
Present, seventeen members.
Judge Sharswood, Vice-President, in the Chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from T. J. Lee,
dated Washington, November 11, 1862.

A letter announcing the decease of M. Edmi-Fran^ois Jo-
mard, at his residence in Paris, September 23d, 1862, aged
85, was received from his son and other relatives, dated Paris,
September 30, 1862.

VOL. IX. — P

11Q [November.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of Transactions, Vol.
XII, P. 1, 2, Avere received from the Massachusetts His-
torical Society ; the Academy of Sciences of St. Louis ; and
the Secretary of the Board of Trustees of the New York
State Library.

On motion of Dr. Bache, the New York State Library was
placed upon the list to receive the Transactions as well as the
Proceedings.

Donations for the Library were received from the Natural
History Societies at Riga, Berlin, Boston, New Y^'ork, and
Philadelphia ; the Royal Society in Dublin ; the Franklin
Institute ; Dr. Wolf and Dr. Zeuner, in Zurich ; Prof. Zanti-
deschi, in Padua ; M. Jomard, of Paris, and Dr. Pugh, of
Centre County, Penna.

The attention of the members was directed to the portrait
of Alexander Dallas Bache, ex-President of the Society, Su-
perintendent of the United States Coast Survey, painted by
Huntingdon, and deposited by Mr. Bache for safe-keeping in
the Rooms of the Society.

Mr. Peale read to the Society a communication from Mons.
A. Morlot, of Lausanne in Switzerland, on the copper age of
North America.

Mr. Peale mentioned certain facts of interest, in relation
to a stroke of lightning at Cape May, showing that even when
there was no break in the continuity of the conducting rod,
the fluid preferred to leap six feet from it to a gaspipe and
thence to the earth where it was more moist, than that into
which the rod was inserted at its foot.

The minutes of the Board of Officers and Council were
read.

New nominations Nos. 465 to 477 were read.

Prof. Kendall asked to be excused from preparing an
obituary notice of General Mitchell, and on his motion, Prof.
Coppee was appointed in his stead.

And the Society was adjourned.

1862.] Ill [Morlot.

On the Date of the Copper Age in the United States.
By a. Morlot.

The series of the Sinithsoniaii Confribufions to Knoiolcdge opens
with a splendid volume on the '' Ancient Monuments of the Missis-
sippi Valley," by Squier and Davis (Washington, 1848). In this
work, as glorious a monument of American science, as Bunker's Hill
is of American bravery, the authors have revealed the former exis-
tence, over a vast extent of the North American continent, of a most
singular civilization, characterized chiefly by the use of native copper,
derived from the district of Lake Superior, and spread, doubtlessly,
by commerce over the whole country. Hence we may call those
times the copper age of North America. The once prosperous civili-
zation of that age faded away, and left the field to the red man, in the
savage state in which he is still known to exist. Messrs Squier and
Davis have shown, that the virgin forests, growing on the earthworks
of the copper age, must have taken for their full development at least
one thousand years, and the Normans who visited x\merica eight cen-
turies ago, evidently only met there with savages.

Some more light seems to be thrown on the date of the copper age,
by the fact recorded in Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, Vol. I, page 103.
I have gone over the passage carefully, and I think the statement of
which I ara going to make use, bears inner evidence of being cor-
rect. Schoolcraft informs us, that at Beverly, twelve miles from
Dundas, Canada West, there were discovered about 1837, extensive
ossuaries, which he examined himself, and that among the bones
were found amulets of the red pipestone of Coteau des Prairies (Minne-
sota), copper bracelets like those of the old graves in the West, a
Pyrula s-pirata and a Pyrulapervena, both from the Gulf of Mexico,
four antique pipes used without stems, and corresponding with an
antique pipe from an ancient grave at Thunder Bay, Michigan, a
worked gorget of sea-shell, with red nacre, and shell-beads of the same
kind as those said to have been found in the gigantic mound of Grave
Creek, Virginia. All this goes to characterize the ossuaries of Be-
verly as belonging to the time of the mound-builders, that is, to the
copper age. But these ossuaries have also yielded some beads and
baldrics of glass and of colored enamel, figured by Schoolcraft on
Plate XXIV and XXV. The find is not single of its kind, for ac-
cording to Schoolcraft, beads agreeing completely with those of
Beverly, were found in 1817 in antique ladian graves at Hamburg,

Morlot.l 112 [November.

Erie County, New York.* Schoolcraft distinctly points out the beads
of Beverly as being of European origin. This is unquestionable, for
we know that the native industry of America had never produced
glass or enamel. At Copenhagen, I discovered in the archoeological
museum (Altnordisk Museum, Director, Mr. Thomsen), ahead (Fig.
1), identical both in color and in its intricate composition with Figs.
11, 12, and 13 of Plate XXIV, of Schoolcraft, only a little larger,
since it measures one and a half inch (English) in length. It
bears the number 12,390, and is put down in the catalogue as having
been found near Stockholm, in Sweden, and as bought at an auction.
A fragment of a second bead (Fig. 2) of the same workmanship, but
still larger, exists in the museum at Copenhagen. It bears the num-
ber 5211, and is noted as coming from a grave-mound near Skoer-
pinge, in the Danish province of Jutland, and as having been bought
at the sale by auction of Bishop Mynter's collection in 1839. Un-
fortunately these indications furnish no chronological date.

I bought at Hanover a baldric (Fig. 4), formed of a tube one and
a half inch long, of colorless glass, with alternate longitudinal
streaks of white and red enamel, quite of the same type as Figs. 13,
14, 15, 20, and 21 on Plate XXV of Schoolcraft. My specimen
has had a beginning of melting, and must be of the time when the
dead were burnt. But in parts of Northern Germany that custom
prevailed, along with paganism, until after the tenth century, so this
does not teach us much as to the age of these baldrics.

The beads mentioned at Copenhagen and the baldric of Hanover
are so rare, that I have not noticed any others of the sort in the large
museums of Lund, in Sweden, Copenhagen and Flensburg, in Den-
mark, Schwerin, Hanover, and Mainz, in Glermany. They are not
post-Roman. The beads of those times are very different, and of
coarser manufacture, nor can I consider them as Roman. In the
Museum at Copenhagen, there is one of these glass balls, of very
elaborate workmanship. If inch in diameter, called Mlllejiori (in
Italy also Fiori di S. Tennara and Vasia I'iori), with a sort of mo-
saic or tessellated work, of differently colored enamel inside.f The
specimen is put down simply as having been found in Denmark, and
I was told that another of the same sort had been found in the south
of Sweden. The Danish specimen shows, among the variously
colored designs of the mosaic in its inside, one bit exactly of the

* Second Part of Lead Mines of Missouri, New York, 1819.
t Mentioned at page 57 in my paper translated by P. Harry in the Smithsonian
Report, 1861,

1862.] 11^ [Moilot.

same type, consequently of the same date, as the two beads men-
tioned in the same museum. These balls, according to Minutoli's
excellent paper on the stained glass of the Ancients (Berlin, 1836),
are not of Roman origin, and are found in old Etruscan graves ; also
in Egypt, where they may have been manufactured at Alexandria,
before the Christian era, perhaps as far back as the golden times of
the Phoenicians, who were celebrated for their glassware, as well as
for their commerce, and for their extensive navigation. That they
sailed on the Atlantic is known, and it is probable that this was the
route by which their glass reached the Baltic countries, since it ap-
pears to be missing in a general manner in Southern Germany and
in Switzerland. We know besides, that the Phoenicians carried on
a regular trade with Gades (Cadiz), where they met with the traders
from the North.

It follows, that those glass beads and baldrics from the ossuaries
at Beverly are anterior to the Christian era, and that America ap-
pears to have been visited already at that remote period by Europeans,
most likely by those skilful navigators, the Phoenicians.

The discovery of America by the Phoenicians has been strongly
suspected by many, and it would account in a very natural manner
for the tradition of the Atlantis. The fact in itself is far from ap-
pearing improbable, when we reflect that long before the Christian
era, the Alexandrian astronomers knew the earth to be round, and
that one of them, Eratosthenes (third century before Christ), calculated
the circumference of the earth with a surprising degree of accuracy.
The celebrated French antiquarian, Letronne, examining this question
with his usual penetration, even comes to the conclusion, that Era-
tosthenes only applied to his own imperfect data the measurement of
a degree of the meridian, carried out long before his time.* There
are also other circumstances, indicating a remarkable degree of civi-
lization and of scientific pursuit in those remote times of the Phoeni-
cian prosperity.

The find at Beverly goes to show, that a given moment of the
American copper age coincided with a given moment of that Euro-
pean civilization, to which the enamelled beads mentioned belong,
and which can hardly reach lower down than the Christian era, while
it appears to go as far back as five, or even ten centuries earlier. Of
course it is not to be understood, that the American copper age was

* Pytheas und die Geographie seiner Zeit, von T. Lelewel. Hoffman, Leipzig,
1838. A capital little book, containing also Letronne's paper.

Morlot.] 214 [December.

wholly parallel with the Phoenician period. It may have begun
sooner, and may have lasted later.

We have thus obtained by indirect means, a chronological determi-
nation for the North American copper age. It is far from precise,
but further discoveries will correct and improve it. May the inte-
resting subject be taken up with that spirit of true scientific research,
so justly to be admired in Squier and Davis's invaluable volume !
Lausanne, Switzerland, 2Gtli June, 18G2.

Explanation of the Figures.

Fig. 1. Bead of enamel, or opaque stained glass, in the Museum at Co-
penhagen, said to have been found near Stockholm, Sweden.

Fig. 2. Fragment of bead of the same sort, in the same Museum, from
an antique grave in Denmark.

Fig. ?>. Bead of the same sort, from the ossuaries of Beverly in Canada,
as given by Schoolcraft.

Fig. 4. Baldric of glass, bought at Hanover, Germany,

Fig. 5. Baldric from Beverly. Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes, Vol. I, plate
XXV, fig. 14.

Stated Meeting^ December 5, 1862.

Present, eleven members.

Judge Sharswood, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Mr. Cornelius, a newly-elected member, was introduced
and took liis seat.

Mr. Dawson accepted membership, by letter dated McGill
College, Montreal, November 25, 1862.

A letter acknowledging receipt of Transactions XI, XII,
1, 2, was received from the Regents of the University, dated
Albany, Nov. 2, 1862.

A letter from Admiral Dupont to Mr. B. Gerhard was
read, requesting that a copy of Mills' Atlas of South Caro-
lina, captured at Beaufort in November, 1861, be presented
to the library.

NATURAL SIZE

/

.1

FiM.

Fig5.

1862.] 115

A letter from Charles Ran, New York, was read, request-
ing information respecting one of the Society's publications.

A letter from G. W. Israel, dated Philadelphia, December
5, 1862, was read, respecting certain alleged geometrical
discoveries, and requesting a committee.

Donations for the library were received from the L. and
P. Society of Manchester, the Essex Institute, the B. N. H.
Society, the Editors of the Am. Jour, of Science, the Su-
perintendent of the Census of 1860, and Admiral Dupont.

The committee to which was referred the paper of Mr.
Chase on "Intellectual Symbolism," reported in favor of its
publication in the Transactions ; and gave a critical review
of its scope and character. On motion of Mr. Fraley it was
so ordered to be published.

The Treasurer read his annual report, which was referred
to the Finance Committee.

The Publication Committee presented their annual report.

Pending nominations Nos. 465 to 477 were read.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, December 19, 1862.

Present, twenty-one members.

Professor Cresson, Vice-President, in the Chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from Dr. F.
T. Frerichs, dated Berlin, November 21st, 1862.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of publications were re-
ceived from the Society of Antiquarians of London, Novem-
ber 28th, and the Corporation of Harvard College, December
8th, 1862.

Letters respecting donations were received from Dr. Jar-
vis, Dorchester, Mass., December 12th, and Dr. George
Smith, Upper Darby, December 9th, 1862.

Donations for the Library were received from the Royal
Astronomical Society, the American Antiquarian Society,

Emerson] 116 [December.

Franklin Institute, Messrs, Isaac and M. C. Lea, Mr. R.
Vaux, and Dr. Smith.

The death of Ellwood Morris, a member of this Society,
was announced as having taken place in November last in
North Carolina, while in the service of the Confederate
States.

Dr. Emerson exhibited specimens of syrup and sugar
manufactured from the Sorghum cane, and described the
process by which the sugar was allowed to separate itself
and crystallize spontaneously.

The culture, he said, of the Sorghum Saecharatum in our Middle,
Northern, and Western States, has spread with marvellous rapidity,
and in seven years, added millions of dollars to our agricultural re-
sources. The amount for 1862 cannot be less than six millions of
dollars for the saccharine products alone. From what has been al-
ready accomplished, and the further expansion sure to follow, we are
authorized to regard the introduction of the Chinese sugar-cane of
the Northern provinces, the richest acquisition to our agricultural
resources since that of cotton. It bids fair to secure us very soon
from the tropical monopoly which has so long existed for the supply
of sugar. The short history of its introduction into Europe and
America is highly interesting.

In 1851, some seeds of various Chinese plants were sent from
Sbanghae to the Geographical Society of Paris by the Count de Mon-
tigny, the French Minister to China. These were distributed by the
Paris Geographical Society to diffei'cnt parts of France. Some went to
Toulon, where they were planted in the Marine Gardens, under the
direction of M. Robert. With all his care, he only succeeded in get-
ting one seed of the sugar-cane to germinate, and was so fortunate
as to guard the single offspring, and bring it to maturity. This
was in 1852. Some of the seed of the solitary plant fell into the
hands of a skilful gardener at Hyeres, who gathered his little crop
in 1853. Eight hundred of these seed were purchased by Vilmorin,
Andrieux & Co., seed merchants at Paris, who paid for them no less
than eight hundred francs ! M. Vilmorin planted his seed in
1854, and obtained a rich return. In the progress of their growth,
he made experiments with the plants in diflFerent stages, and at the
close of the year 1854, published his " Researches upon the Sorgo
Sucre." In November, 1854, Mr. D. Jay Browne, of the United
States Patent Ofl&ce, returned from Europe to America, bringing

1862.] J^J*! [Emerson.

some of the seed of this Chinese sugar-cane, procured from M. Vil-
morin. These were distributed throughout our country, and have
been the means of bestowing upon it the rich returns we are now en-
joy i»g-

Though so valuable as a sugar-producing plant in Northern cli-
mates, its value does not stop here. In its green state, it yields the
greatest amount of rich, succulent forage to the acre of any other
plant, being eminently adapted to resist droughts. Previous to
sugar-making, a large amount of fodder is stripped from its tall
stalks, and cured for winter forage. The seed, which are abundant,
are excellent for feeding to poultry and farm stock, and even for
making into bread. From the hull of the seed, a rich purple with
other tints have been extracted, formerly unknown in Europe. For
feeding purposes, the seed products are fully equal to an oat crop from
the same measure of gi'ound. As an alcoholic producer, nothing else
can compare with it, and this now appears to be the chief purpose
to which it is consigned in Southern Europe and Algeria, where it
is extensively cultivated. The spirit yielded by the first distillation is
fully equal, if not superior to what can be obtained by double distilla-
tion from the grape, which for this purpose it has almost superseded.
The necessity of the cereals to be used as bread, led to a prohibition
of their distillation, but their place has been unexpectedly supplied
by a fiir better alcoholic material. In the United States, the sugar
products have been mainly sought after, and common farmers are now
turning ovit the richest of syrups in millions of gallons, twelve pounds
to the gallon, each capable of furnishing seven and a half pounds of
crystallized sugar. But little capital or skill is required, and the com-
mon farm mills to press the canes, and newly invented evaporators to
reduce the fresh juice to syrup, cost comparatively little. The whole
apparatus to make one hundred to one hundred and fifty gallons of
syrup a day, can be obtained for about the price the farmer pays for
a good grain thresher, say 1200 to ^250. The improved evaporators
reduce the fresh juice to thick syrup in the almost incredible short
time of twenty to thirty minutes, and at an expense of less than
fifteen cents per gallon. The bagasse, or residue of pressed cane,
after being dried, is made into bales, and finds a ready market at the
paper mills.

Though the richest land will produce the larget canes, the saccha-
rine product is not always in proportion to the weight of the cane.
Vegetable mucilage with nitrogenous matters often take the place of
sugar. Hence, soils of moderate fertility will often yield more sugar

VOL. IX. — Q

Emerson.] 118 [December.

to the acre than much richer land. I have known land which would
not yield over twenty bushels of Indian corn per acre, give one hun-
dred gallons of the richest sorghum syrup; as much as has been pro-
duced in some other places from land yielding fifty and sixty bushels
of corn per acre. Although I have stated the produce of the sorghum
at some one hundred to one hundred and fifty gallons per acre, this is
but a moderate estimate. Mr. Lovering obtained at the rate of sixteen
hundred and twelve pounds of sugar, and eighty-two gallons of molasses
per acre, and states that he had heard of an instance where the pro-
duct near Philadelphia was at the rate of four thousand four hundred
and ninety-nine pounds of sugar, and two hundred and seventy-four
gallons of molasses to the acre ! He gives the strongest reasons to
believe, that the saccharine yield per acre of the Chinese sorghum in
the Middle States, will be fully equal to that from the tropical cane
in Louisiana.

In Europe, where they have been so extensively engaged in manu-
facturing sugar from the beet, this root has been found to furnish the
largest proportion of crystallizable sugar in the Northern provinces,
where the great manufactories now chiefly exist. Reversing this or-
der, the Chinese sorghum yields its greatest amount of crystallizable
sugar in the Southern provinces.

As yet no regular plan has been adopted in this country to sepa-
rate the sugar of the sorghum syrup from its glucose, and some ex-
pert chemists have been signally foiled in their efforts, and even
gone so far as to pronounce it impracticable. Others have succeeded
much better. Among these, I will name Mr. J. S. Lovering of this
city, an extensive sugar refiner, who has most satisfactorily demon-
strated the practicability of obtaining from sorghum raised near Phila-
delphia, all the grades of sugar, from the lowest quality of Musca-
vado to the best loaf. No fears need be entertained that this object
will not soon be attained through easy methods. Meantime there
seems to be a strong tendency in syrups well manufactured from ma-
ture cane, to deposit, under certain favorable circumstances, granulated
sugar spontaneously. Instances of this kind have come under my no-
tice, where considerable quantities of granulated sugar were obtained
without any artificial process. The field is fairly open to experiment,
and rich rewards may soon be confidently expected. The similarity
existing between the climates of the United States and China, leads
us naturally to anticipate superior advantages from the culture in
our country of the sugar-cane of the Northern provinces of China.

1862.] \\() [Morlot

Professor Trego gave liis OAvn observations of the culture
of Sorghum in Berks County, Pa.

Professor Cresson remarked upon its disposition to hybrid-
ize with broom-corn, and other varieties, and its consequent
deterioration.

Judge Hare made a verbal communication upon the pro-
bable tendencies of the modern theories of the metamorphoses
of force.

Mr. Cornelius exhibited specimens of unannealed glass,
and illustrated its brittleness.

Professor Coppee exhibited specimens of rifle, musket,
mortar, and cannon powder, and described the perforated
Rodman powder for fifteen-inch columbiads. Mr. Tilghman
explained the diiBculties once encountered, in producing a
powder so well mixed as to explode rapidly, and how the
opposite quality is now a desideratum.

Mr. Peale read the following extracts from a letter from
Mons. A. Morlot, of Lausanne, dated November 6th, 1862.

" There is certainly some similarity between the European and the
American stone age. Where the elements were so simple, great dis-
similarity could not have prevailed. But some dissimilarity does
evidently exist ; and what strikes me most in comparing the collec-
tions, is to see the superiority betrayed by the European remains.
With certain analogies with savage life, there are here decided tokens
of civilization. Then also it would appear as if the arts of peace
predominated with us, whilst your numerous tomahawks, entirely
wanting here, attest of more ferocious dispositions. But these are
only ideas, to which I do not attach any value. Much more study
and research is necessary, to see a little clearer into the matter. We
know as yet fearfully little.

"You have looked out chiefly for stone. Field study will be sure
to lead to the discovery of the sites of ancient dwellings, where
plenty of other remains than stone or pottery will be found. One
good spot, carefully examined, can teach a great deal.

"The Americans will have great trouble in establishing a stone
age anterior to the copper age, and in distinguishing it from the stone
age posterior to the copper age. And yet this distinction must be
made, if a satisfactory idea of the past is to be arrived at. You will

Morlot.] 220 [December.

have to look out chiefly for good examples of superposition. It is a
chance to find them, but then such chances will befall those who
seek. I have had special good luck with the Tiniere,* but then how
often have I examined railway cuttings in vain ! The chance con-
sisted more in finding the thing at a short hour's walk from Mon-
treux, where I often stay, so that I could visit and revisit the spot
very easily. The bones from the stone age stratum have been re-
examined by Professor Rustimeyer. From what he says, I am led
to think that they indicate the end of the stone age, or the begin-
ning of the bronze age. This would be very important, for then we
should thus get at an evaluation of the duration of the bronze age,
since the tweezers found in the bronze age stratum, at a depth of
ten feet, belong to the end of the bronze age. Hitherto we were
left without the faintest idea how long the bronze period might have
lasted.

" It would be of the greatest interest, to make a careful investiga-
tion of the ancient copper diggings on Lake Superior, before the
modern works have blotted them all out.

"Men living in a- continent so cut up by Mediterranean Seas as
Europe, can hardly form a good idea of the past of America, in as
far as commercial intercourse is concerned. Our antiquarians do
not even seem aware of the extreme advantage the features of our
continent must have lent to commerce in ancient times. I have
alluded to this at the end of the Chapter, Ancient Civilization of the
North (Smithsonian Report).

" Pretty good samples o^ fishing nets have been found in the stone
age establishment of Robenhausen (Canton of Ziirich), together with
well-preserved bows (for shooting), made of the yew {Taxus huc-
cata). Dig and dredge, and you will find !"

Dr. Le Conte denied the existence of evidences of a genuine
copper or bronze age in America, the equivalent of the so-
called copper or bronze age in Europe. The relics of copper
found in the mounds are neither fused nor alloyed, but simply
hammered, and belong, therefm-e, properly to the class of
stone implements, native argentiferous copper being acci-

* The Cone of the Tiniere is a torrential dejection at the point where that
stream enters Lake Leman at Villeneuve, and which was cut transversely by a
railway excavation.

ISfi?.

121

dentally one of the minerals at the command of the savages
who built the mounds.

Dr. Roehrig presented a photographic likeness of Mirza
Alexander Kasem Beg, a lately elected member of the Society,
and the Librarian was requested to continue the collection of
cartes de visite of the members.

The Finance Committee made their annual report, recom-
mending two resolutions, which on motion were adopted, viz.,
the payment of the bill of C. Sherman & Son, for printing
Vol. XII, Part II, of the Transactions, and the folloAving
appropriations for the ensuing year :

For Journals, . $50

Hall, 100

Binding, . . . 100

Publications, in addition to the interest on the Publica-
tion Fund, 800

General account, salary of Librarian, . . . 700

Salary of Janitor, 100

Insurance of Library and Cabinet in Hall, and paper
at Sherman's, , . . . . . . .165

Assistant Librarian, 360

Petty expenses of Librarian, 50

Commissions to Treasurer, &c. &c., .... 600

Total appropriations, . . $3025

Pending nominations Nos. 465 to 477, and new nomina-
tions Nos. 478, 479 were read.

The Senior Secretary made a verbal report that the Secre-
taries recommend the deposit of Mr. Brock's MS. in the Li-
brary among the MSS. of the Society.

And the Society was adjourned.

SURVIVING MEMBERS OF THE A. P. S.

Benjamin Silliman, New Haven.

Horace Binney, Philadelphia.

Ross Cuthbert, Lower Canada.

George W. Featherstonhaugh.

John Davis, Boston.

Charles J. Wister, Germantown.

Joseph G. Swift, New York.

Eugenius Nulty, Philadelphia.

George Ord, "

James .Jackson, Boston.

Jacob Bigelow, "

Franklin Bache, Philadelphia.

AVilliam Gibson, "

J. A. Borgnis, Paris.

M. de Montgery, Paris.

George A. Otis, Boston.

Samuel Jackson, Philadelphia.

Benjamin H. Coates, "

William Darlington, West Che.«ter, Pa.

Stephen H. Long, U. S. A.

Henry Seybert, Philadelphia.

John J. Bigsby, England.

M. Floureus, Paris.

Charles N. Bancker, Philadelphia.

Joseph R. Ingersoll, "

Charles D. Meigs, "

Lewis Cass, Michigan.

Rene La Roche, Philadelphia.

Marcus Bull, New ,York.

J. P. C. Cassado de Giraldes, Lisbon.

Jose M. Dantes Pereira, Lisbon.

Henry J. Anderson, New York.

Isaac Lea, Philadelphia.

George Tieknor, Boston.

James Renwick, New York.

William H. Delancey, Geneva, N. Y.

Hyde de Neufville, France.

Carl C. Rafn, Copenhagen.

Alexander Dallas Bache, Washington.

Josiah Quincy, Massachusetts.

George B. Wood, Philadelphia.

Francisco de P. Quadrada, Madrid.

Daniel B. Smith, Germantown.

Thomas McEuen, Philadelphia.

William B. Hodgson, Georgia.

Isaac Hayes. Philadelphia.

Andres del Rio, Mexico.

Henry Vethake, Philadelphia.

Edward Everett, Massachusetts.

William C. Rives, Virginia.

Hartman Bache, U. S. T. E.

John Bell, Philadelphia.

Robley Dunglison, Philadelphia.

Hugh L. Hodge, Philadelphia.

Theodore Lorin, Paris.

J. J. Ahert, U. S. T. E.

Juan J. Martinez, Spain.

E. S. Bring, Lund, Sweden.

Professor Bujalsky, St. Petersburg.

Matthias W. Baldwin, Philadelphia.

Edwin James, Albany.

Moncure Robinson, Philadelphia.

M. J. Labouderie, Paris.

J. Francis Fisher, Philadelphia.

Gouveneur Emerson, Philadelphia.

Henry C. Carey, "

Henry R. Schoolcraft, Washington, D. C.

Viscount Santarem, Portugal.

Titian R. Peale, Washington, D. C.

Franklin Peale, Philadelphia.

Samuel V. Merrick, "

Henry J. Williams, "

Henry D. Rogers, Glasgow, Scotland.

Charles AV. Short, Louisville, Ken.

John Torrey, New York City.

Joseph Henry, Washington, D. C.

D. Francis Condie, Philadelphia.

William B. Rogers, Boston.

Thomas Sully, Philadelphia.

C. G. C. Reinwardt, Lej'deu.

Chev. Morelli, Naples.

J. S. DaCosta Macedo, Lisbon.

Joseph G. Totten. U. S. T. E.

Mariano Galvez, Guatemala.

Jared Sparks, Boston.

William Jenks, "

Joseph Saxton, Washington, D. C.

William M. Meredith, Philadelphia.

Thomas Dunlap, "

Andrew Talcott, U. S. A.

Charles G. B. Daubeuy, Oxford, Eng.

William Norris, Philadelphia.

Robert Treat Paine, Boston.

Sylvanus Thayer, U. S. E.

Francis Wayland, Providence, R. I.

John E. Holbrook, Charleston, S. C.

John C. Cresson, Philadelphia.

James C. Booth, "

Edward Coles, "

J. F. Eneke, Berlin.

A. Quetelet, Brussels.

Humphrey Lloyd, Dublin.

Thomas U. Walter, Washington, D. C.

John Penington, Philadelphia.

Charles Riimker, Hamburg.

John Washington, R. N., England.

Elias Loomis, New Haven, Conn.

Stephen Alexander, Princeton, N. J.

Michael Faraday, London.

C. R. Demmc, Philadelphia.

Pedro de Angelis, Buenos Ayres,

George M. Dallas, Philadelphia.

Martin H. Bove, Berks Countj-, Pa.

Paul B. God<lard, Philadelphia.

W. H. C. Bartlett, West Point, N. Y.

George W. Smith, Philadelphia.

Robert Were Fox, Falmouth, England.

James D. Graham, U. S. T. E.

Frangois P. G. Guizot, France.

Bernardo Quaranta, Naples.

David Irvin, Wisconsin.

Adolph C. P. Callisen, Altona, Europe.

Benjamin Dorr, Philadelphia.

Tobias Wagner, "

Edward Sabine, Royal Army, England '

Roswell Park, Wisconsin.

Robert Christison, Edinburg.

Edward Hitchcock, Amherst, Mass.

123

George Bancroft, New York City.
Baron de Roenne, Dresden.
E. Otis Kendall, Philadelphia.
Charles Lyell, London.
E. W. Brayley, '•

D. Humphreys Storer, Boston.
Simeon Borden, "
Frederick Fraley, Philadelphia.
George Peacock, Cambridge, England.
J. I. Clark Hare, Philadelphia.
Benjamin Pierce, Cambridge, Mass.
Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany.
Louis Agassiz, Cambridge, Mass.
"William M. Gerhard, Philadelphia.
John Lenthall. Washington, D. C.
Solomon W. Roberts, Philadelphia.
Charles B. Trego, "
Charles Wilkes, U. S. N.
Stanislaus Julien, Paris.

John Downes, Springfield, Mass.

Theodore Strong, New Brnnswick, N. J.

Alfred L. Elwyn, Philadelphia.

Robert Bridges, "

John W. Draper, New York City.

W. A. Norton, New Haven, Conn.

Alonzo Potter, Philadelphia.

Roger B. Taney, Washington, D. C.

Jacob R. Eckfeldt, Philadelphia.

AVilliam E. Dubois, "

John C. Trautwine, "

John S. Hart, "

Samuel S. Haldeman, Columbia, Pa.

George W. Norris, Philadelpliia.

Joseph Carson, Philadelphia.

Richard Owen, London.

Sir James Clark, "

Prince Maximilian, Wied.

James Copland, London.

William Tell Poussin, Paris.

Frederick von Raumer, Berlin.

Edward Miller, Philadelphia.

William B. Carpenter, London.

Sir William Jardin, Scotland.

Professor Lepsius, Berlin.

Henry Holland, London.

James Buchanan, Lancaster.

Lewis Wain, Philadelphia.

Richard S. McCulloh, Philadelphia.

Ceva Grimaldi, Marquis, Naples.

A. T. KupflFer, St. Petersburg.

U. J. Leverrier, Paris.

Richard A. Tilghman, Philadelphia.

William Procter, Jr., "

John F. James, "

Robert Baird, New York.

J. Melville Gilliss. Washington, D. C.

J. C- Adams, Cambridge, England.

Asa Gray, Cambridge, Mass.

Gustav Adolph Jahn, Leipsig.

William L. Storrs, Connecticut.

Alexander H. Stevens, New York.

Ralph J. Ingersoll, New Haven, Conn.

John N. Conyngham, Luzerne Co., Pa.

E. Geddings, South Carolina.

F. A. Pouchet, Rouen.

Miers Fisher Longstreth, Del. Co., Pa.

Samuel F. B. Morse, New York City

E. N. Horsford, Cambridge, Mass.

George P. Marsh, Vermont.

John Goodsir, Edinburgh, Scotland.

John Hughes Bennett, Scotland. '

Francis Kiernan, London..

A. A. Gould, Boston, Mass.

Joseph Leid}% Philadelphia.

W. S. W. Ruschenberger, U. S. N.

Stephen Colwell, Philadelphia.

John H. Towne, "

Charles M. Wetherill,AVashington, D. C.

Thomas S. Kirkbride, Philadelphia.

Benjamin A. Gould, Jr., Camb., Mass.

George M. Totten, Panama.

Joseph W. Farnum, New York city.

William Pepper, Philadelphia.

Peter McCall,

Joseph Pancoast, "

Robert Patterson, "

Fran. Cav. Zantedeschi, Padua.

Daniel Kirkwood, Bloomington, Ind.

William Chauvenet, St. Louis, Mo.

George Sharswood, Philadelphia.

James Dundas, "

Francis Gurney Smith, "

John Forsyth Meigs, "

Edward King, "

Charles Henry Davis, U. S. N.

Michael Chevalier, Paris.

Alfred Stille, Philadelphia.

John Neill, "

J. S. Hubbard, Washington, D. C.

Thomas B. Wilson, Philadelphia.

John Cassin, "

John H. Alexander, Baltimore.

J. Liouville, Paris.

John L. Le Conte, Philadelphia.

Edward E. Law, "

John P. Kennedy, Baltimore.

Alfred Mordecai, U. S. A.

Thomas L. Patterson.

Henry Grinnell, New York City.

John B. Biddle, Philadelphia.

Alex. Fischer von AValdheim, Moscow.

Basile Sakharoflf, St. Petersburg.

Peter Strelkowsky, "

Charles Dworjak, "

Fr. Geo. Wm. de Struve, "

Charles D. Arfwedson, Stockholm.

James Paget, London.

Sir J. F. W. Herschell, London.

E. Brown-Sequard, Paris.

John H. B. Latrobe, Baltimore.

Mont. C. Meigs, Washington, D. C.

Benjamin HoUowell, Alexandria, Va.

George Harding, Philadelphia.

Francis West, "

Frederick A Genth, "

George A. McCall, "

Samuel M. Feltou, "

Samuel D. Gross, "

Charles Renard, Moscow.

C. A. Dohrn, Stettin.

William Bacon Stevens, Philadelphia.

Benjamin Gerhard, "

124

Elias Durand, Philadelphia.

William V. Keating, "

Joshua J. Cohen, Baltimore.

Lord Mahon, England.

James Lenox, New York City.

Eli K. Price, -Philadelphia.

Constant Guillou, "

James D. Dana, New Haven, Conn.

Oliver AVolcott Gibbs, New York.

James Hall, Albany.

William Parker Foiilke, Philadelphia.

Spencer F. Baird, Washington, D. C.

C. Fr. Ph. von Martins, Munich.

William Haidinger, Vienna.

V. Regnault, Paris.

Samuel Powel, Philadelphia.

Elisha J. Lewis. "

E. P. Rogers, Albany, N. Y.

Robert E. Rogers, Philadelphia.

Albert Barnes, "

Henry Coppee, '•

George Allen, "

Strickland Kneass, "

Henry William Field, London.

John P. Brown, Constantinople.

Geo. Augustus Matile, New York City.

Thomas L. Kane, Philadelphia.

William B. Reed, "

Clement A. Finley, U. S. A.

Albert S. Letchworth. Philadelphia.

Theo. Lacordaire, Liege.

Hermann Burmeister, Halle.

Samuel L. Hollingsworth, Philadelphia.

Christian Olrik, Copenhagen.

John C. Adamson, Cape Town, Africa.

J. Peter Lesley, Philadelphia.

John Leyburn, "

Hugh Blair Grigsby, Virginia.

Robert P. Harris, Philadelphia.

Thomas F. Betton. Germantown.

Theodore Cuyler, Philadelphia.

Thomas P. James, "

Nathaniel P. ShurtlefiF, Boston.

Fairman Rogers, Philadelphia.

B. Howard Rand, "

Charles M. Cresson, "

Kingston Goddard, "

J. Lawrence Smith, Louisville, Ky.

E. Spencer Miller, Philadelphia.

Andrew A. Humphreys, U. S. T. E.

Elia Lombardini, Milan.

Henry C. Wayne, U. S. A.

William H. Allen, Philadelphia.

William M. Uhler, "

Charles E. Smith,

Edward Hartshorne, "

Oswald Thompson, "

Edmund C. Evans, Chester County, Pa.

Casper Wister, Philadelphia.

Walter H. Lowrie, Pittsburg.

William S. Vau.x, Philadelphia.

William R. Palmer, U. S. T. E.

Samuel H. Dickson, Philadelphia.

Henry Carleton, "

William A. Hammond, U. S. A.

P. Angelo Secchi, Rome.

In all

Aubrey H. Smith, Philadelphia.
Francis W. Lewis, "

Francis V. Hayden, "

Sidney George Fisher, "
Sir Roderick I. Murchison, London.
Adam Sedgewick, "

Leonce Elie de Beaumont, Paris.
Henry Milne Edwards, "

Theo. L. W. Bischoff, Munchen.
Herm. von Meyer, Frankfort-on-Main.
Andreas Wagner, Miinchen.
Joseph Hyrtl, Vienna.
Sir William Logan, Montreal.
Heinrieh Rose, Berlin.
George Jager, Stuttgard.
St. Claire Deville, Paris.
William H. Harvey, Dublin.
Jean Baptiste Dumas, Paris.
Edouard Verneuil, "

Claude Bernard, '■

Daniel R. Goodwin, Philadelphia.
Leo Lesiiuereux, Columbus, Ohio.
John Lothrop Motley, Providence, R. I.
Pasqual de Guyangos, Madrid.
John Curwen, Harrisburg, Pa.
Charles Des Moulins, Bordeaux.
Thomas Sterry Hunt, Montreal.
Paolo Volpicelli, Rome.
Alexander Kasem Beg, St. Petersburg.
Otto Boehtlingk, "

G. Forchammer, Copenhagen.
J. S. Steenstrup, "

C.J. Thomsen, "

Andrew C. Ramsay, England.
Edouard Desor, Neuehatel.
L. G. de Koninck, Liege.
Joachim Barrande, Prague.
Robert W. Bunsen, Heidelburg.
William Hofmann, London.
H. R. Giippert, Breslau.
Alexander Braun, Leipsig.
William J. Hamilton, London.
Sir William J. Hooker, "
J. J. Kaup, Darmstadt.
J. A. Froude, Oxford, Eng.
Hermann Lebert, Breslau.
S. Weir Mitchell, Philadelphia.
F. L. Otto Roehrig,
H. L. Abbot, U. S. T. E.
Oswald Heer, Zurich.
John Lindley, London.
J. von Liebig, Miinchen.
Frederick Wiihler, Giittingen.
James W. Dawson, Montreal.
Samuel F. Dupont, U. S. N.
George Engelmann, St. Louis.
AVm. S. Sullivant, Columbus, Ohio.
Evan Pugh, Centre County, Pa.
Andrew A. Henderson, U. S. N.
Robert Cornelius, Philadelphia.
Rudolf Virchow, Berlin.
Fr. Theo. Frerichs, Berlin.
Thomas J. Lee, Maryland.
Louis Stromeyer, Hanover.
Karl Rokitansky, Vienna.
Henry Winsor, Philadelphia.
, 392.

PROCEEDINGS

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Vol. IX. JANUARY, 1863. No. 69.

Stated Meeting, January 2, 1863.

Present, fourteen members.
Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of publications were re-
ceived from the American Oriental Society, dated December
27th, and from the Smithsonian Institution, dated April 25th,
1862.

A letter was received from M. d'Hericourt, dated Rue
Royer-Collard, No. 9, Paris, December 15th, respecting re-
views.

Donations for the Library were received from the British
Association, the Royal Astronomical, Royal Geographical
and Geological Societies, and Society of Arts in London, the
Historical and Literary Society in Quebec, the Academies
at Boston and Philadelphia, Dr. George B. Wood, Dr. Ed-
ward Jarvis of Dorchester, and Thomas E. Blackwell, Esq.,
of London.

The death of Col. Charles Ellet, at Cairo, Illinois, June
21st, 1862, a member of the Society, was announced by the
Secretary.

Dr. Wood, the President, presented to the Society a mar-

VOL. IX. — K

126 [January.

ble bust of Franklin, on a cylindrical pedestal of dark scag-
liola. Dr. Wood gave the order to an artist of Florence, M.
Manconi, to execute this life-size reduction in marble of a
colossal plaster bust of Franklin, in the private collection
of Mr. Packingham in Florence, which was ascribed to
Houdon.

On motion of Prof. Cresson, the thanks of the Society-
were presented to Dr. Wood, for his munificent donation.

The judges and clerks of the election reported the appoint-
ment of the following officers :

President.
George B. Wood.

Vice-Presidents.
John C. Cresson,
Isaac Lea,
George Sharswood.

Secretaries.
Charles B. Trego,
E. Otis Kendall,
John L. Le Conte,
Peter Lesley.

Counsellors for Three Years.
Frederick Fraley,
Robert Patterson,
Daniel R. Goodwin,
William Parker Foulke.

Curators,
Franklin Peale,
Elias Durand,
Joseph Carson.

Treasurer.
Charles B. Trego.

1863.] 127

On motion of Mr. Fraley, Prof. Lesley was nominated
Librarian for the ensuing year.

Pending nominations Nos. 465 to 480, and new nomina-
tions Nos. 481, 482, were read.

On motion of the Librarian, the Zoological Society at
Frankfort, and the University of Bonn were ordered to be
placed on the list of correspondents to receive the Proceed-
ings, and the Observatory of Prague, and the Geological
Bureau of the Government of India, to receive the Transac-
tions and Proceedings, — the former as complete a set as pos-
sible, in exchange for their Observations.

Prof. Cresson referred to a previous discussion on electrical
phenomena, and described in his opinion the best method of
regarding the inductive agency of electricity, in preparing
its own path before it.

Dr. Wood described a new steam boiler exhibited in Eng-
land by its inventor, Mr. Harrison, of Philadelphia, who has
overcome, as he supposes, the difficulties which were en-
countered when the boiler was first tried in the workshops of
the Messrs. Sellers, of Philadelphia, a year or two ago. The
boiler is made up of numerous hollow cast-iron dumb bells,
and can be taken to pieces for transportation over difficult
ground. It has stood 400 pounds of pressure to the inch.

The Society was then adjourned.

Stated Meeting^ January 16, 1863.

Present, eighteen members.

Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.

Letters acknowledging publications received were read
from Sir John Herschel, Collingwood, December 2d ; the
Royal Horticultural Society, South Kensington, W., Decem-
ber 10th ; the Admiralty, November 29th ; the Natural His-
tory Society of Northumberland, Newcastle, December 11th,
and the Royal Society, Gcittingen, October 15th, 1862.

128 [January.

Letters announcing donations were received from the Royal
Society at Gottingen, October 15th ; the Royal Prussian
Academy, Berlin, August 15th ; the P. Jablonowski Society
at Leipsic, September 25th ; the Royal Saxon Society, July
31st and August 15th ; the Upper Lausatian Society at Gor-
litz, September 29th; the Mineralogical Society at St. Pe-
tersburg, September 10th, and the Imperial Society of Natu-
ralists at Moscow, February 15th, 1862 ; also from the Royal
Physico-Economical Society at Konigsberg, May 6th, and
the Munich Academy, May 24th, 1861,

A second letter was read, addressed to the President, from
Count d'Hericourt, Paris, November 15th, 1862, respecting
his new review.

A letter from N. Trlibner & Co., respecting future corre-
spondence, was received, dated London, December 19th,
1862.

Donations for the Library were announced from the learned
Academies and Societies at St. Petersburg, Moscow, Konigs-
berg, Berlin, Leipsic, Gottingen, Munich, Gorlitz, Mann-
heim, Em den, Haarlem, and Dijon ; M. Des Moulins at Bor-
deaux ; Hon. James Pollock, Philadelphia ; Blanchard &
Lea; Prof. Evan Pugh ; Mr. Thomas U. Walter, of Wash-
ington, and the Superintendents of the United States Coast
Survey and Nautical Observatory.

Dr. Bache announced the death of Prof. James Renwick,
January 12th, 1863, at New York, aged 70.

On motion of Mr. Fraley, Prof. Lesley was elected Libra-
rian for the ensuing year.

On motion, the following Standing Committees were chosen :

Committee on Finance. — Mr. Fraley, Mr. J. F. James, Mr.
Samuel Powel.

Conmiittee on Puhlicatio7i. — Dr. Bridges, Mr. T. P. James,
Dr. Hartshorne, Prof. Coppde, Dr. Wister.

Committee on Hall. — Mr. Peale, Judge King, Prof. Cop-
p^e.

Committee on Lihrary. — Dr. Bell, Dr. Stevens, Dr. Coates,
Mr. Price, Mr. Barnes.

The list of surviving members was read, and corrected by

1863.] 129

the announcement of the death of Captain W. R. Palmer,
U. S. T. E.

Suniviary.

On the List, Jan. 1, 1862, . . 374. U. S., 256, Foreign, 118

Elected in 1S62, U. S., 11, " 27

Deceased reported in 1862, . . . U. S., 10, '' 9

Expelled in 1862, U. S., 2.

Number of members, Dec. 31,

1862, 391. U. S., 255, '* 136

Pending nominations, Nos. 465 to 482 were read.

The ballotting for members then proceeded.

The following resolutions of the Library Committee were
read, and consideration thereof postponed to the next meeting,
on account of the lateness of the hour.

"Resolved, That this Coniniittee recommend to the Society, to dis-
tribute the Catalogue, as far as printed, to foreign correspondents.

" Resolved, That this Committee recommend to the Society, to dis-
tribute copies of the portion of the Catalogue now printed to sub-
scribers to the whole Catalogue."

No other business being before the meeting, the ballot-
boxes were opened, and the following persons were declared
duly elected members of the Society.

Dr. James Y. Simpson, of Edinburgh.

Dr. Theodore Schwann-, of Liege.

Dr. Jacques L. Grimm, of Berlin.

Prof. Franz Bopp, of Berlin.

Prof. Ernest Renan, of Paris.

Prof. Max Miiller, of Cambridge.

Prof. J. D. Whitney, of San Francisco.

Prof. A. H. Worthen, of Springfield, 111.

Prof. Daniel Wilson, of Toronto, C. W.

Prof. Frederick Troyon, of Lausanne.

M. Boucher de Perthes, of Abbeville.

Mr. Pliny E. Chase, of Philadelphia.

Dr. L I. Hayes, Supt. U. S. Hospital, West Phila.

Dr. George Smith, of Delaware County, Pa.

130 [February.

Hon. John M. Read, of Philadelphia,
Dr. Edward Jarvis, of Dorchester, Mass.
And the Society was thereupon adjourned.

Stated Meeting^ February 6, 1863.

Present, twenty-one members.
Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.

Mr. Pliny E. Chase, a newly-elected member, was intro-
duced to the President, and took his seat.

Letters accepting membership were read from the Hon.
John M. Read, of Philadelphia, January 19th ; from Dr. Ed-
ward Jarvis, Dorchester, Mass., January 20th; from Mr. A.
H. Worthen, Springfield, 111., January 21st ; from Prof.
Daniel Wilson, University College, Toronto, C. W., January
22d, and from Dr. George Smith, Upper Darby, Delaware
County, Pa., January 22d, 1863.

Letters acknowledging publications were received from the
Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, November 28th, 1861 ; from
the Society of Antiquaries, London, January 9th, 1862, and
from the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
January 20th, 1863.

Donations to the Library were received from the Ober-
Commando of the Austrian Marine ; the Royal, Royal Astro-
nomical, Royal Asiatic, and Chemical Societies, in London ;
the Royal Observatory at Greenwich ; Prof. De Morgan and
Prof. Daubeny, of Oxford ; the Boston Natural History So-
ciety ; Silliman's Journal ; the Franklin Listitute, and Prof.
Schaeflfer ; the Superintendents of the Coast Survey and
Census Bureau, and Captain Abbot, of the U. S. Top. Engs.

Prof. Trego announced the death of Col. J. J. Abort, U.
S. Top. Engs., January 27th, 1863, in the seventy-fifth year
of his age.

Dr. Bache presented a written communication from Judge
Carleton, which embodied the views expressed by him in pre-
vious discussions of the subject, as follows ;

1863.] 231 [Carleton.

LIBERTY AND NECESSITY.

On both sides of this question authors agree that the Will is the
immediate antecedent to action. The Arminians say it is a free,
self-acting power ; the Necessarians, that it is actuated by the strong-
est motive or judgment of the mind.

The controversy has been kept up for more than twenty centuries,
although it turns solely upon facts within every man's daily expe-
rience.

LIBERTY.

The most approved definition of a free, self-acting Will, is that
given by a Professor in an American University, as follows : " The
Will is a cause contingent and free, — is first cause itself. Acts of
the Will neither require nor admit of antecedent causes to explain
their action. What moves the Will to go in the direction of reason ?
Nothing moves it; it is cause per se. It goes in that direction be-
cause it has power to go in that direction. What moves the Will to
go in the direction of the sensitivity? Nothing moves it; it is cause
per se. It goes in that direction because it has power to go in that
direction. It is a power that is indifferent to the agreeableness or
disagreeableness of objects. Distinct from reason, it is not convic-
tion or belief."

The Professor is an eminent divine, the author of an elaborate
work on the mind, in which we find the above definition of the Will.

When asked what moves him to pi'ay and preach, he expUxins
himself, — Nothing moves him to pray and preach ; his Will moves
itself. He prays and preaches because he is able to pray and preach.
What moves him to eat and drink when hungry and thirsty ? No-
thing moves him ; his Will moves itself It neither requires nor
admits of antecedent causes to explain its actions, and if it moved
not of itself, the Profe.«sor might die of hunger or thirst.

That motion can begin of itself is purely a fiction, contrived to
bolster up a senseless system of free agency, that sinks the mind
below the instinct of brutes. The understanding was given to man,
as his protection in the mixed state of good and evil in which he is
placed. Without its guidance, his lawless will, if there be such an
agent, would hurry him indiscriminately upon good or evil, without
the power of choice or resistance.

Nevertheless, the late Sir William Hamilton is of opinion, that all

Carleton.] j^32 [February.

freedom of action would be destroyed, if controlled by the influence
of motive. He says : " The determination of the Will by motive
cannot, to our understanding, escape necessitation. How the Will
can possibly be free, must remain to us under the present limitation
of our faculties, wholly incomprehensible. How moral liberty is pos-
sible in man or God, we are utterly unable speculatively to under-
stand, but practically the fact that we are free, is given in the con-
sciousness of an uncompromising law of duty."

Descartes also thought that the solution of the question was be-
yond the reach of the human faculties. Mallebranche and Berkeley
got over the difficulty by resolving every determination of the Will
into the act of God. But a Professor in the University of Virginia,
a strenuous advocate of free will, affirms that the Will is not deter-
mined at all. ''It simply determines j" "is the determiner;" "that
a Will controlled by motive is no Will at all ;" " a caused volition is
no volition." It is certainly true that a Will, controlled by motive,
does not control itself, is not free.

Nevertheless every one is conscious, as is the Professor himself,
that he acts under the control of some motive or determination of
his mind, and that, when under no external restraint, his actions are
always such as he intended they should be, as they certainly were
when he committed the foregoing opinion to writing.

It is a waste of time to contend with those who are conscious that
they are in the wrong. In all prosecutions for offences, the guilt or
innocence of the accused turns upon the motive with which the act
was done. No man can know his motive so well as the agent him-
self. He acts as he thinks ; and as he thinks, so is he innocent or
guilty. Actions must vary with motives, and hence the diversity of
pursuit among mankind. Nevertheless, philosophers have labored
two thousand years to show there is but one uniform cause of action,
a free, self-acting Will, which they do not pretend can have any
judgment, opinion, or motive of its own, and is yet independent of
the motives of that mind of which it forms a part. Of all the aber-
rations of the human intellect, this is the most absurd. To such
extremities are certain writers driven, to uphold their lawless system
of free agency, lest it should be argued that if man be a necessary
agent, God who made him so would be the author of all the sin and
moral evil that afflicts our race.

But if, as some divines insist, all moral and physical evils were
visited by act of God upon man, because of the sin of Adam ; then
the origin of evil is known, and no question can arise, or ought ever
to have arisen about it.

1863.1 ]^33 [Carleton.

But as we have no right to suppose that other evils than those
mentioned in Scripture were visited upon the guilty pair, whence
then came earthquakes, volcanoes, tempests, inundations, or commo-
tions of the air, that have destroyed such multitudes of mankind ?
or whence came revenge, hate, malice, ambition, and lust, that have
reddened the earth with the blood of her children, or the diseases,
sufferings, and death of infants that have never sinned, or the op-
pressions of the weak by the strong, or the miseries of all living
things that suffer from the sport and tyranny of men, whose all-de-
vouring stomachs call for a daily sacrifice of millions at a meal ?

It was the sovereign pleasure of the Deity to create different
orders of imperfect beings from the insect up to man, all subject
alike to suffering, disease, and death, and to place them on a globe,
the imperfections of which are of a piece with their own. The ex-
istence of good and evil comes from the same Power, whose pleasure
it was to create all things as they are.

It borders on blasphemy to argue that God could be the author of
sin in any form. Sin is the transgression of a rule of conduct pre-
scribed to man. God cannot sin. He cannot make graven images
of Himself, honor His father or mother, or bear false witness against
His neighbor. He knows no law but His own good pleasure.
When He cuts off thousands by pestilence, wars, or earthquakes. He
violates no law. He is a law unto Himself; there is no standard
above Him.

NECESSITY.

It is a grievous evil that a question of fact, as is that of Liberty
and Necessity, should remain unsettled after a controversy of more
than two thousand years. The reason is plain. Unable to conceive
how a determination of the mind could be the immediate cause of
action, philosophers have invented a power they call the Will, which
they imagined might actuate a man as the spring does the machinery
of a watch, or the weights that of a clock.

This fiction is made the basis of every treatise on the mind, ac-
cording as the writer shall espouse the side of Liberty or Necessity.
One great truth, however, has been wrought out of this controversy
by President Edwards, who has shown, beyond the possibility of a
doubt, that all actions arise from "the perception of the greatest
apparent good by a law of our nature, which we could not resist if
we would, and would not if we could."

But that acute logician, yielding to the prejudice of the age.

Carleton.] 134 [February.

thought that the determination of the mind could not of itself move
a leg or an arm, without the concurrent agency of the "Will, making
two causes necessary to produce one eifect, contrary to all the known
laws of nature, wherein many effects are produced from a single
cause. The fall of bodies, the motion of fluids, and the fluxes of the
tides come of gravitation alone. Heat warms our blood, cooks our food,
melts brass, expands the air, raises clouds, reanimates plants, clothes
them with leaves, and the earth with verdure. The atmosphere is
the vehicle of sound and respiration, causes twilight, morning, and
evening, and scatters decaying substances upon the winds. Sir
Isaac Newton has said : " More causes of natural things are not to be
admitted than are necessary to explain the phenomena; for nature
is simple, and does nothing in vain." While the Necessarians re-
quire two causes to one eifect, the Arminians require only one Will
that acts of itself. The mind, by its own energy, is the real cause
of action ; there is no such intermediate agent as the Will. If phi-
losophers cannot understand how the mind can be the cause of action,
how can they conceive the Will to be the cause ? much less can they
conceive the double agency of the Will, first to move itself, and then
to move the man. That the mind is the immediate cause of action,
is a fact of every man's own experience ; for if actuated by any other
cause, he would know it as he knows he hears with his ears, and sees
with his eyes.

If metaphysicians earnestly seek the truth, they must condescend
to men of low estate, who obey the teachings of simple nature un-
sophisticated by the speculations of philosophy. The most illiterate
mechanic possesses within himself all that can be known of the
human mind.

Ask a ploughman why he eats and drinks, he will reply, "To
satisfy hunger and thirst." His answer is just and complete. Put
the same question to a philosopher. He too will reply, " To satisfy
hunger and thirst." But the ploughman acts directly under the
impulse of his wants; while the philo.sopher's motive must first move
the Will to move the man before he can eat or drink. The plough-
man is conscious that his desire is the sole motive power. He knows
of no such agent within him as the Will; whereas, the philosopher's
desire cannot move him unless through the circuit of his Will.

According to the theory of the Necessarians, when a man walks a
mile, he must repeat the operation of motive, volition, action, seven-
teen hundred and sixty times; motive, volition, action, the right
foot, motive, volition, action, the left foot; and whatever else he may

1863.] 135 [Carleton.

do or say on the way will require the repetition of the same process,
motive, volition, action.

THE WILL.

All controversies on Liberty and Necessity are made to turn upon
the supposed powers of the Will.

Locke says the only object of the Will is some action of ours, no-
thing more.

Mallebranche thinks it is the province of the W^ill to reason.

Bielfield, that its quality is that of determining.

Hume, a power by which new actions and thoughts are produced.

Cousin resolves it into attention, consciousness, or measure of time,
and says it can act against motive,

Edwards says : '' The very act of volition itself is doubtless a de-
termination of the mind," and that it does not difier from the aifec-
tions.

Luther, that the foreknowledge of God is a thunderbolt that strikes
free will into atoms.

Calvin thinks that volitions, as well as all other events, come to
pass by the decrees of God.

Hobbs, Collins, and Edwards think they are necessitated by mo-
tives.

Reed and Clarke say the Will is the last determination of the
mind.

Stewart says that it has no power over thought.

Gall and Spurzheim affirm it is merely the decision of the under-
standing.

Dr. Brown seems to identify it with desire.

Payne and Young are inclined to the same opinion.

Morrell says it is a spontaneity, or self-acting power.

Spinoza, that free will is a dream, a vulgar prejudice.

Descartes thinks that the Will is free, but cannot tell how.

Leibnitz held to necessity, in virtue of a pre-established harmony.

A hundred other instances might be adduced, from which it
would appear that no two writers agree in their definition of the
Will. The reason is plain. Its agency being purely imaginary, they
take care to invest it with attributes to suit their respective theories;
as writers of romance adapt their actors to the part they have to
play.

The Will has proved a prolific source of bookmaking to metaphysi-
cians. It is their darling theme, unexhausted and inexhaustible to

Carleton.] 236 [February.

the end of time. Every year, almost every month, the press teems
with romances on the Will, which are seldom read, never believed,
and soon drop into oblivion. Other sciences are consistent, be-
cause founded in fact; but in mental philosophy the writer is never
for two consecutive pages in harmony with himself.

The word Will is borrowed from the Scriptures, but diverted from
its appropriate meaning. The Will of God is His pleasure, or what-
ever is agreeable to Him. " Thy will be done on earth as it is in
heaven," is not a prayer for the exercise of His power, but that we
may do His pleasure on earth as it is done in heaven. Again :
" It is not every one that saith Lord, Lord, shall enter the kingdom
of heaven, but he that doeth the Will of my Father, which is in
heaven." That the word here means whatever is pleasing to God,
cannot admit of a doubt, nor can it be made to have any other mean-
ing throughout the whole body of the Scriptures.

Such is the sense, also, in which it is used in common speech
among men. " If it be the Will of God, I shall reach home in
safety," or "that I shall live until ray son arrive from Europe."
" God willing, the Sacrament will be administered in this church
next sabbath."

So every man's will means his pleasure. To one you say, " What
is your will, sir ?" " To know if you are willing to take the price
I offered you for your house." " No, I am not willing." To ano-
ther, " What is your will, sir?" " To borrow Scott's Commentary."
To a third, " W^hat is your will, sir?" " To request you to send
this letter to Liverpool."

The dynamic power of the Will is altogether a fiction. It is simply
a passive capacity to receive pleasure, from whatever affects us agree-
ably at the time. An attribute is not an agent.

CAUSES OF ACTION.

Like all things else under the sun, the mind is passive, unti*
aroused by its appropriate causes, sensations, and ideas. It is neces-
sarily passive to all sensations before they are perceived, or to truths
in science before they are known.

When not occupied by causes without, it is held in perpetual ex-
citement by its own unceasing trains of thought, a fact that has
deceived philosophers into a belief that the mind was an active prin-
ciple in itself and never at rest ; while all sound sleepers know that,

1863.] 237 [Carleton.

'ike the body, it has its periods of perfect repose. It is only when
awake that it has dominion over the body by its own immediate
energy, and never through the circuit of an imaginary Will. It is
not the body but the mind that makes the man. As he thinks, so
is he wise or foolish, good or bad, sinner or saint, Jew or Gentile,
Pagan, Mahoraedan, or Christian. The mind is the direct and sole
dynamic power in man, and does not admit of any other cause of action
than itself. It is single, not double ; does not consist of one faculty
to decree, and another, the Will, to execute its decrees ; " for na-
ture is simple, and does nothing in vain." It never employs two
causes for one effect ; on the contrary, it produces many eflfects from
one cause.

Whatever comes to pass in the external world, or in the mind, must
be attested by consciousness, the source of all knowledge, or it can-
not be known. The existence of anger, hatred, love, remorse, motive,
and all other mental phenomena, are as truly facts, as the death of a
man or the birth of a child ; and every one knows from his own
consciousness, that they are the direct and immediate causes of action.
In our most quiet moods, they rise to the surface, and betray the
workings of the spirit within. We are by turns sad, soothed,
gay, inflamed; we blush, or grow pale, by the mere power of thought.
We are convulsed with laughter at a flash of wit; eyes, mouth, nose,
chin, and cheeks, all partake of the perturbation, but instantly react
at the sight of distress. Hope disappointed, mortification, remorse,
sorrow, grief, the forebodings of evil that never happens, di.sturb the
mind, and emaciate the frame. The first convulsive movement in a
camp meeting gives rise to a second. The idea exists, and the
effects follow. Boerhaave threatened to burn with a hot iron the
next man in his hospital taken with St. Vitus's dance ; and the
fear of punishment prevented the recurrence of the evil. Von Swei-
ten relates of himself, that he passed near where a dead dog had
burst from putrefaction ; the stench made him vomit. Three years
thereafter he passed the same spot, when the recollection of the
offensive object made him vomit again. A blacksmith at his anvil
was told he had drawn thirty thousand pounds in a lottery ; the
hammer fell from his hand, and he became a maniac for life ! The
news of a sudden calamity will often overthrow the reason as effectu-
ally as a fracture of the skull from a blow. A child will shed tears at
a tale of fictitious woe, and the rudest nature will surrender to emo-
tions of pity at the complicated miseries of a tragic scene. The

Carleton.] 138 [February.

bereft mother weeps at the thought of her departed child. When
the thought is not present, her tears cease to flow.

That actions in all the above cases do proceed from the mind as the
immediate cause, and not from the Will, are matters of fact attested
by our own consciousness, from which there is no appeal.

Again : the passions, whether natural or acquired, play their part
in the drama of life. Says an elegant writer : " The passions are
the winds by which we sail, and, though they may upset our ship,
we cannot sail without them." That their power over the mind, when
excessive, often hurries us into deeds of violence, are facts that no-
body will deny.

The motive power in man that absorbs all others, is the desire of
happiness, that "light and glory of the world." Though he knows
it is unattainable on earth, he does not relax his pursuit on that
account. It is a necessity of his nature, that he should continue to
hope, to act, and to be deceived until he dies. If he obtain his object,
it often proves his destruction. He pursues what his judgment ap-
proves, and, though he may err, it is the only guide Providence has
vouchsafed to bestow.

M. Cousin affirms, that "at the moment the Will exerts itself in
a special act we are conscious it could exert itself in a special act
totally contrary, without any obstacle, without being thereby ex-
hausted ; so that having changed its acts a hundred times, the faculty
remains integrally the same, being always able to do what it does
not, and always able to do what it does. Here then, in all its pleni-
tude, is the characteristic of Liberty." That is to say, the Will can
act of itself, without or against motive, and for the truth of this f;ict,
that philosopher takes refuge behind his own consciousness, where
he knows he cannot be reached. No man is conscious of what he
cannot know. Consciousness is knowledge. He is conscious of what
he once did, or is now doing, but never of innate powers of mind
before they are brought out by experience. Milton and Pope were
not conscious they were born poets before put to the trial. Revolutions
often bring to light powers before unknown to the possessors them-
selves.

M. Cousin's doctrine can never be tested by experiment; since it
is impossible to act without motive or against motive. While going
to the east under a prevailing purpose, it is plain he could not turn
his steps to the west, unless actuated by a contrary and stronger mo-
tive. Yet this same delusion is the besetting evil of all who write
or speak on the subject of the Will. When they appeal to their

1863.] 239

(Carleton.

consciousness, they mean, if they understand themselves, that they
could do the contrary, under the influence of a contrary motive, and
not without.

He is a free agent who does as he prefers ; a higher degree of
freedom cannot exist. If he commit a crime, he does as he prefers ;
if he abstain, this also is as he prefers. His perception of the great-
est apparent good is the sole and direct spring of action, as insepara-
ble from his being as gravitation from matter. It is impossible he
should prefer pain to pleasure. It is a necessity of his nature that
he should do what he prefers. When he swallows a nauseous
drug, or undergoes the amputation of a limb, his motive is not the
drug or amputation ; he suifers a present evil from the hope of a re-
mote and greater good. In this he is a free agent, and acts as he
prefers; he cannot act otherwise.

It is now plain that Liberty and Necessity, or free agency, can be
aflBrmed of actions only, and never of the mind, whose thoughts are
governed by laws beyond the reach of outward force.

Motive is but the preference of the mind for one action rather than
another, and if a man can do what he prefers he is a free agent, but
ceases to be so, as soon as put under external restraint. Free agency
is freedom from external restraint ; necessity is restraint by external
force. A bonfire may be made of all books written on Liberty and
Necessity ; as everybody knows, from childhood upwards, when he is
at liberty, or when he is prevented from doing what he pleases.

Mr. Foulke exhibited a box of phantom leaves dissected
entirely by insects, and in a very perfect manner.

Mr. Foulke also exhibited articles of bijouterie made of
woods and minerals from the Arctic regions, brought by the
last Grinnell Expedition under Dr. Hayes.

Mr. Chase exhibited an alabaster cube or die, about seven-
tenths of an inch square, picked up by a traveller from the
floor of a Chinese temple, the angles and edges worn smooth,
and on two opposite faces two inscriptions, the other four
faces being plain. On one face the inscriptions read TA SIN
SHAN TANG, four characters, occupying four quadrants
within an octagon, and meaning Great Heart, Mountain Tem-
ple (or Mountain Plain).* The letters were in plain raised

* The character Tang has various meanings ; " a palace ; a temple; a hall ;
a wide level place on a mountain ; high ; dignified ; illustrious," &c. It is per-

Chase.]

140

[February

ridges, and of modern form.

On the reverse, in one square
area with raised sides, stand
two tall, thin, antique cha-
racters, side by side, of the
form called Chuen Shoo, or
Seal-letter, which are read
LEIH CHAE, meaning
"perfectly in order."

The four modern letters, besides their general significance, are
also embraced in the list of about four hundred characters which are
employed in proper names. The cube, therefore, probably belonged
to Mr. Ta-Sin (or Mr. Great Heart), of Shan-Tang, by whom it may
have been employed as a Hong seal. It is the custom of Chinese
merchants, to keep private seals of such a description, with which,
aided by a sponge saturated with India ink or vermilion, they stamp
their notes and other documents, as an additional evidence of genuine-
ness.

The seal is especially interesting, in consequence of the precise
resemblance in form between the character Shan, and the Chaldaic
Shin (ly). This resemblance was pointed out in the remarks on
*' Chinese and Indo-European Koots and Analogues" (see Proceed-
ings Am. Phil. Soc, volume for 1861), but in the ordinary mode of
writing Shan, there is a downward stroke at the right hand, which
is wanting in ^. It is also wanting on the seal.

The belief in the hieroglyphic origin of our alphabet has many
weighty arguments to sustain it. The interest excited by the works
of Young and Champollion, naturally directed the attention of ar-
chaeologists to the monuments and papyri of Egypt, and encouraged
the hope that among the various hieroglyphic, hieratic, and encho-
rial forms, the key to our own letters might be found. Many curious
resemblances were pointed out, but none so decisive as to command
universal assent.

M. de Guignes, in a memoir read before the Academy of Belles-
Lettres in 1758, called attention to the syllabic characters of the Chi-
nese, many of which can be readily traced to their hieroglyphic
originals, while some are used in a peculiar quasi-alphabetic manner.

haps etymologically connected with the Indo-European root, Tan or Tang, "to
extend; to spread." Shan-Tang is probably a city situated on an elevated table-
land.— The woodcut represents the stamp-mark of the seal.

1863.] 24:1 [Emerson.

But he was so imbued with a belief in the greater antiquity of
Egyptian civilization, that he supposed China to have been settled
by an Egyptian colony, and its writings to have been borrowed from
Egypt, — inferences that were not well sustained, and his arguments
were therefore generally discredited. Nevertheless, his memoir is
well worthy of perusal, and the coincidences (if they are nothing
more), that he has ingeniously pointed out, are such as to stimulate
curiosity.

The Roman, Greek, Samaritan, Phenician, and ancient Hebrew
alphabets, all bear unmistakable evidence of a common origin. The
modern Hebrew, which was borrowed from the Chaldaic, although
different in most of its forms, still presents a marked affinity to the
others in the number, arrangement, and names of its several letters,
and in a traceable gradation of successive forms. The Hebrews,
during their Egyptian bondage, may have modified their alphabet,
and perhaps borrowed some additional letters, but is it probable that
they were ignorant of writing before their captivity, or that we must
look to the narrow valley of the Nile, for the origin not only of the
civilization, but also of the monumental records of Europe and Asia?
Does it not seem more reasonable to suppose that a more encourag-
ing field for alphabetic investigation, may be found among a people
that preserves the oldest extant type of civilization, still speaking a
language and using hieroglyphic and alphabetic characters that have
remained unchanged for more than two thousand years ?*

Dr. Emerson made the following communication in relation
to the African Imphee :

In a recent communication to this Society, I brought to its notice
the introduction into Europe and the United States, of the SorglLum
Saccharafmn, or sugar-cane of the Northern provinces of China, re-
ferring to its great agricultural value, and its wonderful capacity to
extend the sugar culture far beyond the tropical latitudes, to which
and their immediate proximity, this valuable branch of industry has
heretofore been limited in the Western World. The historical sketch

* The suggestive nature of Chinese writing, on which the natives pride them-
selves, is well illustrated by the first of the Chuen Shoo characters on the seal.
The character appears to have been purposely shaped in such a way as to remind
one of the three words Leih, "to establish or confirm,'' — Chung, "truly," — and
Tsze, "self." The impression of the seal on any document, thus conveys the
idea that it was stamped by the owner himself, to firmly establish the authenticity
and validity of his signature.

VOL. IX. — T

Emerson.] 142 • [February.

of this extension of the sugar culture would be incomplete, without
some account of the almost simultaneous introduction of another kind
of cane derived from Africa, which for its sugar-making capacities,
and other valuable purposes in extra-tropical situations, stands the
rival of the Sorghum. I refer to the Iniphee, or African sugar-cane.
The introduction of the Chinese Sorghum into the Western World
appears to have been a somewhat fortuitous event. Not so, however,
with that of the African cane, or Imphee, for which Europe and
America stand indebted to the intelligence and well-directed enter-
prise of Mr. Leonard Wray, a professed sugar manufacturer, and
author of books upon the subject. He informs us that whilst engaged
in researches upon sugar-making, his mind became strongly impressed
with the idea that " the reed," " the sweet reed," made such frequent
mention of by ancient writers, as used by the natives of Morocco,
Ethiopia, Egypt, Arabia, and India, for the purpose of making sugar,
or jaggery, did not in all cases mean the tropical sugar-cane, but
that some other reed-like plant was more probably referred to. Im-
pelled by this impression, Mr. Wray at length determined to make
explorations himself in Southern Africa, and for this purpose, left
Calcutta in 1850 for the Gape of Good Hope. From thence he made
a journey to Kafl&rland, and in 1851, the very year that the seed of
the Chinese Sorghum were sent from China by Count de Montigny,
he found a species of cane, called by the Zulu Kafl&rs Imphee. This
he describes as a tall, slender, and very elegant plant, with light
and graceful leaves, and tints bright and varied in different stages of
its growth, exhaling a perfume strong and agreeable, somewhat re-
sembling that of rich new honey.

Subsequently following up his researches, he sent out the most
intelligent natives he could find, to collect seed of the different kinds
of Imphee to be met with, and thus succeeded in obtaining no less
than fifteen varieties of the plant, differing more or less from each
other in external characters, saccharine richness, and periods of ma-
turation. The several varieties of this family of plants, such as the
Durra, Kaflar corn, or Guinea corn, are cultivated by the natives of
difierent parts of Africa for their grain only, but Mr. Wray informs
us, the Iniphee is grown by the Kaffirs solely for its sweet juice, and
never, to his knowledge, for its grain. They do not make from it
either syrup or sugar, but content themselves with masticating and
sucking the juice as an article of food. Mr. Wray tells us that it
remains to be ascertained, whether we can, by adopting proper mea-
sures, obtain hybrids between the Imphee and sugar-cane.

1863.] 243 LEmerson.

Having remained long enough at Natal to ascertain the particular
habits of his fifteen varieties, to each of which he has given its Kaffir
name, and also to make sugar from them all, he left for Europe to
prosecute further experiments, and introduce to the notice of the
civilized world, the vast importance of his Imphee plants for sugar-
making. He had patches of these planted in England, France, and
Belgium. Since then, the culture has been extended by his efforts
to Turkey, Egypt, the West Indies, Brazil, and other distant coun-
tries. In the United States, some have preferred the Chinese, others
the African cane. Whilst the Imphee may be well adapted to cer-
tain localities, there can, I think, be little doubt of the superior value
of the Chinese Sorghum for general cultivation in our Middle, West-
ern, and Northern States.

Mr. Wray frankly tells us, that in looking into various botanical
works, he finds that attempts had been formerly made, by Signor
Arderino and others, to introduce varieties of this plant into Euro-
pean cultivation, for the purpose of making sugar, but from some
cause or other, all their efforts had proved unsuccessful. These fail-
ures he ascribes to want of knowledge of the kinds of Imphee best
adapted to the purpose, and want of skill to properly treat the juice.

In the course of the discussion which ensued, Mr. Fralej
stated, on the authority of the Hon. Morris Davis, who was,
in connection with Mr. Lovering, among the first to experi-
ment on the Sorghum sugar manufacture, that the annual
production of Sorghum syrup in the United States is already
seventeen millions of gallons, equivalent to eighty-five millions
of pounds of sugar ; but the demand for the syrup is so great,
that it bars for the present the sugar manufacture.

The recommendations of the Library Committee, postponed
from the last meeting, were then briefly discussed, and on
motion postponed to the next meeting.

Pending nominations Nos. 481, 482, and new nomination
No. 483, were read.

And the Society was adjourned.

]^44 [February.

Stated 3Ieetmg, February 20, 1863.

Present, twenty-four members.
Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.

A letter accepting membership, was received from Dr. I.
I. Hayes, dated United States Army Hospital, West Phila-
delphia, February 2d, 1863, and afterwards Dr. Hayes was
presented to the President, and took his seat.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of publications were re-
ceived from the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec,
dated February 9th, requesting also a set of the Transac-
tions; the Corporation of Yale College, February 11th, and
Harvard College, February 4th ; the Connecticut and New
Jersey Historical Societies, 25th and 11th; the New York
State Library, February 9th ; Captain Gilliss, National Ob-
servatory, February 3d, and the Chicago Historical Society,
February 9th, 1863.

Donations for the Library were received from the Boston
Natural History Society, Professor Hall, of Albany, the
Chief Engineer of the Philadelphia Water Works, the Colo-
nization Society, the Franklin Institute, the House of Refuge,
the Deaf and Dumb Institution, through James J. Barclay,
Esq., and the State Lunatic Hospital at Harrisburg.

The death of a member of the Society, Dr. Carl Ludwig
Rlimker, Director of the Hamburg Observatory, aged 71,
was announced by the Secretary.

Mr. Chase, referring again to the Chinese Hong seal ex-
hibited at the last meeting, made some remarks upon the
similarity and probable historical connection between the
Chinese syllabic characters, and the Hebrew and other alpha-
bets. The character Sin, on the seal, would be a proper
hieroglyph for final n, and it is often written in a form cor-
responding to an old Punic n. This coincidence in two out
of four casual characters, is curious. Out of the twenty-two
letters of the Hebrew alphabet, Mr. Chase considers that at
least fifteen can be selected, which bear meanings identical
with meanings attached to similar forms among the Chinese
root characters, and every letter of the Roman alphabet has

1863.] ]^45 [Chase.

one or more strongly marked analogues in Chinese. The
resemblances are so numerous and striking, especially between
the Chinese cursive and our running hand, that it is difficult
to resist the conviction that the parallel forms have a common
origin.

The traditions of mythology, if rightly interpreted, would perhaps
aid us in tracing alphabetic writing to its source. Although Cecrops,
the reputed founder of Athens, is said to have led a colony from
Egypt, he has never been credited with the introduction of any por-
tion of the Egyptian learning. But we are told that Cadmus, the
Phenician, brought letters into Greece, and that on his entrance
into Boeotia, he slew the dragon that guarded the fountain of Mars.
By the direction of the Goddess of Wisdom, he sowed the dragon's
teeth, and armed men immediately sprang up, of whom all but five
perished in a mutual contest. With the assistance of the remainder,
he built the city of Cadmea, or Thebes.

Morrison, in his English-Chinese Dictionary, under " Dragon,"
speaks of the draco, which was the standard of the Roman cohort,
and the draconarii, who were the standard-bearers, but he makes no
attempt to connect the Cadmean legend with the Chinese. The
Lung, or dragon, "the watcher,"* has been the Chinese imperial
emblem from time immemorial. It is not only borne on ail the royal
standards, but it is embroidered or impressed on the clothing, the
furniture, and all other articles belonging to the emperor. If we
suppose that on the arrival of Cadmus in Boeotia, he routed the Chi-
nese viceroy of the country, — that he fomented a civil war among
the Chinese colonists (or dragon's teeth), — that the war raged until
the survivors were glad to submit to the rule of the Phenician ad-
venturer, and that he was wise enough to use all the elements of educa-
tion and civilization in which the former colonists surpassed his own,
— the myth becomes intelligible, and points to the probable origin of
Greek culture, in one of the early outpourings of that Asiatic hive,
that has repeatedly sent its swarms over the plains of Europe, as
pioneers in the westward march of empire.

The horse, which Neptune is said to have presented to the Greeks,
and the fountain of Mars, may also have a possible pointing towards

* The verbs drg, and loc, in Sanscrit, both denote watchfulness. The former
is akin to the Greek itpKw, Spaxuv. and the latter may have a common origin with
the Chinese lu7ig. Compare Ch. mang, Latin magn-, Gr. jiuk- ; Ch. ping, Gr.
■nrtyv, L. pac.

l^Q [March.

Eastern Asia as the source of civilization. The root ma in Chinese,
signifies "a horse; enraged; martial-Iike," and it might easily be
presumed that the name of Mars was derived from the same root.
This coincidence of etymological forms, taken in connection with the
well-known fact, that the Phenicians had a perfect alphabet at a
time when the use of hieroglyphics in Egypt was nearly or quite
universal, may prove to be of some importance.

Prof. Booth, Mr. Foulke, Prof. Coppde, the Rev. Mr.
Barnes, Dr. Coates, Prof. Lesley, and Dr. Bache continued
the discussion of the subject.

Prof. Booth invited the attention of the members present
to the analysis of Delaware and Schuylkill water, by Profs.
Booth and Garrett, on page 75 of the lately published Report
of the Chief Engineer of the Philadelphia Water Works for
1862.

Pending nominations Nos. 481 to 483, and new nomina-
tions Nos. 484 to 490, Avere read.

The resolutions postponed from the last meeting were laid
on the table.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, March 6, 1863.

Present, eighteen members.

Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.

Letters accepting membership were received from M. J.
Boucher de Perthes, President of the Imperial Society of
Emulation, at Abbeville, in France, dated February 9th ;
from M. Frederic Troyon, of Lausanne, in Switzerland,
dated February 10th, and from Dr. A. A. Henderson, U. S.
N., dated United States Steam Sloop Richmond, New Or-
leans, February 20th, 1863.

Donations for the Library were received from Prof. Secchi,
the Royal Astronomical and American Oriental Societies,

1863.] 247 [Coppeo.

the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia, Messrs.
Blanch ard & Lea, Dr. I. I. Hayes, and Sidney George Fisher,
of Philadelphia, Dr. Lewis H. Steiner, of Baltimore, Mr.
Gowan, bookseller, of lN"ew York, Bishop Duggan, of Chicago,
and the Librarian of the University of Michigan.

A copy of the Transactions, Vol. XII, Part iii, was laid on
the table.

Prof. Coppee read the following obituary notice of General
0. McK. Mitchel.

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE.

The subject of this sketch had achieved such brilliant success in
science and in arms, that the detailed story of his life would be read
with eager interest by his admiring countrymen. It is to be hoped
that such a biography will not be withheld j not alone in eulogy of
his virtues and his achievements, but as a bright example to our-
selves and to our children. It is not, however, the purpose of the
writer, here and now, to present these details. It is only intended
to glance at the principal objective points in his eager, ardent, devout,
and energetic life.

Ormsby McKnight Mitchel was born in Union County, Kentucky,
on the 28th of August, 1810. He had the misfortune to lose his
father when he was three years old, and thus, from his early infancy,
he was left to battle with the world, and win such a place in its
esteem, as the God-given genius and indomitable energy he possessed
might secure for him. Immediately after his father's death, his
family removed to Ohio ; and at twelve years of age, he became a
clerk in a store in the town of Miami, whence, however, not long
after, he moved with his family to Lebanon. A bright and in-
quiring boy, he soon found the plodding and menial duties of a
country store tame, painful, and unsatisfactory.

Always eager in the pursuit of learning, and especially of that
practical knowledge which could clear the wilderness, and build towns
like magic in our then wild as well as far West, he bent his energies
towards procuring an appointment to the Military Academy at West
Point, where, he had been told, such instruction was given at the
expense of the Government, and an assured future lay beyond to the
honorable graduate. He was successful ; he entered the Military
Academy on the 23d of June, 1825, when not yet fifteen years old, —

Coppee.l 148 [March.

being admitted, by special favor, a year earlier tban the law allowed.
His standing while a cadet was always high, and his pursuit of know-
ledge, in all its forms, eager and persevering. Among his classmates
were the most distinguished generals at present in our own or the
rebel service ; among the latter were Lee and Joseph Johnston. His
letters to his mother and brother during this period, all represent
him as an eager student and ambitious in his aims.

In 1829, he graduated with honor, and was appointed a second
lieutenant in the Second Artillery. So favorable was the impression
produced by his novitiate, that he was very soon detailed for duty at
the Academy, as Assistant Professor of Mathematics. He was after-
wards, for a short time, stationed at St. Augustine, in Florida. But
the prospects of the army at that period could not satisfy the energy
and honorable ambition of such a man as Mitchel. He resigned on
the 30th of September, 1832, with no fortune, and no prospect but
in persevering labor, to achieve fame, usefulness, and honor.

Just after his graduation, the French Revolution broke out, —
those " three days of July " which drove the " legitimate " Bourbons
once more from the throne they were unworthy to occupy, and ele-
vated the citizen-king, Louis Philippe, to the seat of power. Many
remember the effect produced by this volcanic eruption all over
the civilized world. It is worthy of record, as illustrative of his
chai-acter, that our young soldier was not exempt from the pervading
influence. His letters to his brother expx-ess an unsettled condition
of mind, and a growing desire to go to Europe and plunge, sword in
hand, into the great wars which he believed would grow out of this
change of dynasty. This is mentioned as betokening his quickly
kindled enthusiasm, his desire to exercise his newly-acquired powers,
and his ardent but honorable ambition for distinction. The spirit of
revolution which France evoked, and which stalked for a brief space
through Europe, was soon laid, and Mitchel settled, as has been told,
into the quiet but hard-working life of a citizen.

While in the army, he had married Mrs. Trask, the widow of
Lieutenant Trask, and formerly Miss Louisa Clark, of Cornwall, on
the Hudson. In his growing family he found new incentives to
labor, and so we see him, in 1832, opening an office as counsellor-at-
law in Cincinnati. In this position he remained until the establish-
ment of the Cincinnati College, in 1834, when he was elected Pro-
fessor of Mathematics, Philosophy, and Astronomy. This post he
held until the sad and untimely destruction of the College buildings
by fire, and the consequent dissolution of the College. But what

1863.] 249 [Coppee.

seemed his misfortune was in reality a great blessing. In the routine
of academic duties he might have remained satisfied; but when once
more thrown upon his own remarkable energies, his "sleepless soul"
undertook grand and original adventures.

During the period of his professorship, he could still find time to
devote to other public duties. From 1836 to 1837, he was Chief
Engineer of the Little Miami Railroad. He had, while in the army,
acquired some experience in railway engineering, which was to prove
of value on many occasions during his life of peace, and to find bril-
liant opportunities during his brief but splendid military career. But his
principal study was astronomy, the objective science which kindled his
ardor and claimed all his devotion. Amid the drudgery of the lawyer's
oflBce; while teaching the elements of mathematics and mechanics;
in the practical, busy life of a railway engineer, the stars shone upon
him with that potent injluence with which, in earlier days, they had
been supposed to shine upon every man. For him, we may almost
believe, there was a horoscope, and that all the planets were conjoined
in its composition.

In 1842, he undertook to establish the Cincinnati Observatory,
now IMitchel's Observatory, a gigantic labor, which would have been
too much for talent, energy, and industry less than his own. Of the
difficulties which he encountered, we may best judge by his own
narrative. Writing in 1848, he says : " My attention had been for
many years directed to this subject (the erection of a great astro-
nomical observatory in the city of Cincinnati), by the duties of the
professorship, which I then held in the College. In attempting to
communicate the great truths of astronomy, there were no instru-
ments at hand to confirm and fix the wonderful facts recorded in the
books. Up to that period, our country, and the West particularly,
had given but little attention to practical astronomy. A few indivi-
duals, with a zeal and ardor deserving of all praise, had struggled on
to eminence almost without means or instruments. An isolated tele-
scope was found here and there scattered through the country; but
no regularly organized observatory, with powerful instruments, ex-
isted within the limits of the United States, so far as I know. . . .

" To ascertain whether any interest could be excited in the public
mind in favor of astronomy, in the spring of 1842, a series of lectures
was delivered in the hall of the Cincinnati College. To give an
increased effect to these discourses (which were unwritten, and in a
style of great simplicity), a mechanical contrivance was prepared, by
the aid of which the beautiful telescopic views in the heavens were

Goppee.] 150 [March.

presented to the audience, with a brilliancy and power scarcely infe-
rior to that displayed by the most powerful telescopes. To this
fortunate invention were these lectures (' The Planetary and Stellar
Worlds'), no doubt, principally indebted for the interest which they
produced, and which occasioned them to be attended by a very large
number of the intelligent persons in the city. Encouraged by the large
audiences, which continued through two months to fill the lecture-
room, and still more, by the request to repeat the last lecture of the
course in one of the great churches of the city, I matured a plan for
the building of an observatory, which it was resolved should be pre-
sented to the audience at the close of the lecture, in case circum-
stances should favor. . . .

*' Such is the history of the origin of the Cincinnati Astronomical
Society. . . .

" Under its auspices, I started for New York, and on the 16th
of June, 1842, sailed for Liverpool. Having visited many of the
best appointed observatories both in England and on the Continent
(in each and every one of which I was received with a degree of
kindness and attention, for which I acknowledge the deepest obliga-
tions), and having been unsuccessful in finding, either in London or
Paris, an object-glass of the size re(iuired, I finally determined to
visit the city of Munich. The fame of the optical institute of the
celebrated Frauenhofer had even reached the banks of the Ohio, and
it was hoped that in that great manufactory, an instrument such as
the Society desired might be obtained, if not completed, at least in
such a state of forwardness as to permit it to be furnished at an early
day. In this 1 was not disappointed. An object-glass of nearly
twelve inches diameter, and of superior finish, was found in the
cabinet of M. Mertz, the successor of Frauenhofer. This glass had
been subjected to a severe trial in the tube of the great refractor of
the Munich Observatory, by Dr. Lament, and had been pronounced
of the highest quality.

" To mount this glass would require about two years, at a cost of
nearly ten thousand dollars ; a sum considerably greater than that
appropriated at the time for an equatorial telescope. Having made
a conditional arrangement for this and other instruments, I returned
to Greenwich, England, where, at the invitation of Professor Airey,
the Astronomer Royal, I remained for some time to study. Having
accomplished the objects of my journey, I returned home, and ren-
dered a report to a very large meeting of the members of the Asso-
ciation, and other citizens of Cincinnati. . . .

1863.] 251 [Coppee.

" The principal instrument having been ordered, and the first pay-
ment on its cost made, attention was now given to the procuring of
a suitable site for the building. Fortunately for the Society, the
place of all others most perfectly adapted to their wants, was then
the property of Nicholas Longworth, Esq. It is a lofty hill-top, rising
some four hundred feet above the level of the city, and commanding
a perfect horizon in all directions. On making known to Mr. Long-
worth the prospects and wants of the Astronomical Society, the writer
was directed by him to select/ojtr acres on the hilltop, out of a tract
of some twenty-five acres, and to proceed at once to inclose it, as it
would give him great pleasure to present it to the Association. On
compliance with the conditions of the title bond, a deed has since
been received, placing the Society in full possession of this elegant
position

" At length the building was reared, and finally covered in, with-
out incurring any debt. But the conditions of the bond, by which
the lot of ground was held, required the completion of the Observa-
tory in two years from its date, and these two years would expire in
June, 1845. It was seen to be impossible to carry forward the
building fast enough to secure its completion by the required time^,
without incurring some debt. My own private resources were used,
in the hope that a short time after the finishing of the Observatory,
would be sufficient to furnish the funds to meet all engagements.
The work was pushed rapidly forward. In February, 1845, the
great telescope safely reached the city of Cincinnati, and in March
the building was ready for its reception. I had now exhausted all
my private means, and to increase the difficulty of the position in
which I was placed, the College edifice took fire, and burned to the
ground. My ordinary means of support were thus destroyed at a
single blow. I had engaged to conduct the Observatory, without
compensation from the Society, for ten years, in the hope that my
College salary would be sufficient for my wants. It was impossible
to abandon the Observatory. The College could not be rebuilt, at
least, for several years, and in this emergency, I found it necessary
to seek some means of support, least inconsistent with my duties in
the Observatory. My public lectures at home had been compara-
tively well received, and after much he.sitation, it was resolved to
make an experiment elsewhere. For five years I had been pleading
the cause of science among those little acquainted with its technical
language. I had become habituated to the use of such terms as
were easily understood; and probably to this circumstance more

Coppee.] 1^2 [March.

than to any other one thing, am I indebted for any success which
may have attended my public lectures. To the citizens of Boston,
Brooklyn, New York, and New Orleans, for the kindness with which
they were pleased to receive my imperfect efforts, I am deeply in-
debted. My lectures were never written, and no idea was enter-
tained of publishing a course, until the partiality of my friends in-
duced me to attempt this experiment."

Thus it was that, in 1842, he began his remarkable career as a
lecturer on astronomy. More than any other man in America has
he thus accomplished for his favorite science. Besides the Observa-
tory he founded, and the instruments he imported, and to which he
has greatly added by his improvements and inventions, he awakened
in thousands of minds an interest in the subject, instructed popular
assemblies, not only by his clear outlines of the gigantic science, but
by his masterly handling of its difficult and abstruse theories and
problems, and by his fiery words, which exhibiting his own know-
ledge and enthusiasm, told of its divine beauties and relations, and
kept crowded audiences all over the country in breathless and de-
lighted attention.

He found time to begin, in 1846, the publication of the Siderial
Messenger, a popular astronomical monthly, which was regularly
issued for more than a year.

He had surveyed the Ohio and Mississippi Railroad in 1844, and
when the enterprise was fairly undertaken, and the road placed
under contract, he was sent to Europe by the Company, as a confi-
dential agent on the business of the road, in 1853, and again on the
same business in 1854. For some time he was the President of the
Cincinnati division of that road, and was chiefly instrumental in
bringing it to a successful completion.

In the summer of 1860, he was appointed Director of the Dudley
Observatory, and, without a reference to the unhappy difficulties
which beset that institution at the beginning, it may be said that his
acceptance of the post restored quiet, and produced the greatest use-
fulness of which the Observatory was instrumentally and financially
capable. It was still under his direction at the time of his death.

When the war broke out, Professor Mitchel, urged singly and
purely by patriotic motives, placed his services at the disposition of
the Government, and devoted his life and military knowledge to his
country. On the 9th of August, 1861, he was appointed a Briga-
dier-General of Volunteers, and was placed in command of the De-

1863.] 253 [Coppee.

partment of the Ohio, with his headquarters at Cincinnati. While
there he carefully surveyed the approaches to the town, and built
redoubts and projected defences at the prominent points, which doubt-
less serv^ed a good purpose when, at a later day, Cincinnati was
threatened by an overwhelming rebel force.

When the Departments of the Ohio and the Cumberland were
afterward united. General Mitchel was ordered to report to General
Buell ; and he was then placed in command of a camp of rendezvous,
where he was actively receiving, organizing, and forwarding troops
for three weeks. At the expiration of this brief period, he was ap-
pointed to the command of the Third Division of the Army of the
Ohio, then stationed at Elizabethtown, Kentucky. If we particu-
larize in dates and positions, it is that the reader may trace the rapid
and energetic movements of General Mitchel the more intelligibly.

On the 9th of February, 1862, he was at Bacon Creek; on the
13th he started for Bowling Green, until then the strongest point on
the strategic line of the rebel army. Forced marches, in themselves
a wonderful feat with new troops, brought him to Bowling Green on
the 16th. On the 22d, he started with General Buell for Nash-
ville ; and it is worth recording that that city was surrendered to
Colonel Kennett, of the Fourth Ohio Calvary, for General Mitchel,
on Sunday evening, February 23d. The surrender is publicly be-
lieved to have been made to General Nelson, but that officer did not
arrive with his division to occupy the place until three days after it
had capitulated to General Mitchel. He had now entered upon
those brilliant independent movements which had escited the admi-
ration of the whole country, and which, could he have received
timely and adequate reinforcements, would have redeemed the entire
region in which they were made. Early in March, he was at Mur-
freesboro', where, putting his railroad experience in practice, he im-
provised twelve hundred feet of bridges. Leaving Murfreesboro' on
the 6th of April, he marched to Shelbyville ; on the 10th, he was at
Fayetteville ; and on the 11th, at Huntsville, in Alabama. Here,
again, the railway engineer supplied valuable generalship. Seizing
the rolling stock, he immediately sent out two railway expeditions,
east and west, the one to Decatur, and the other to Stevenson, on
the Memphis and Charleston Railroad. The expedition to Steven-
son he conducted in person. Both places were captured, and North-
ern Alabama was in Federal possession, one hundred and twenty
miles of the railroad being in running condition, and guarded by
Mitchel's troops.

Coppee] 154 [March.

For this brilliant achievement, he was made a Major-General of
Volunteers, to date from April 11th, the day of the capture of
Huntsville.

On the 2d of July, General Mitchel was ordered to report himself
at Washington. He was there in person on the 5th. From that
time he was waiting for ordei-s until September 12th, when he started
for the important command of the Tenth Army Corps, the head-
quarters of which were at Hilton Head, South Carolina. He reached
there on the 16th. His coming infused new life into the depart*
ment, and he was maturing his plans for a grand movement, when
he was called away from earth. He sent an expedition to St. John's
River, which captured the fort, with many heavy guns ', and also a
force to Pocotaligo, for the purpose of destroying the Charleston and
Savannah Railroad and telegraph, in which it was successful. He
also drew Beauregard out of Savannah with twenty-five thousand
men. What he further intended cannot be told, but every day, had
be lived, would have disclosed the character of his projects, of which
these movements were but the initiation.

While in the midst of his usefulness and rapidly maturing plans,
he was attacked by the yellow fever on Sunday, the 26th of Octo-
ber, and died on October 80th, 1862, in Beaufort, South Carolina.

Such, briefly, is the record of his life. The meagre recital is full
of valuable lessons, and leads the scholar, the patriot, the soldier, and
the Christian to moralize upon the great loss the country has sus-
tained, while they eulogize his genius, his talents, his virtues, his
piety, and his lofty achievements. Few men of our age have ex-
hibited a more extended genius, and we know of no one who has
displayed so much energy in everything he has undertaken. His
character will bear minute analysis ; in every department of labor he
was successfuhj in many he was truly eminent.

As a man of science, Professor Mitchel was an ardent investigator,
and an eminently practical inventor. Fully imbued with the poetry
of science, delighting in the lofty picturesques of astronomic thought,
abounding in the rarest imagery in his public teachings, his true
sphere was in the mechanism of the means for scientific observation
and labor. To prepare himself as director of the Observatory, he
had studied and mastered the higher astronomical mathematics, and
was thoroughly conversant with the history of the science. To
qualify himself as a public teacher, he had resolved the most diffi-
cult problems into such simple forms and such lucid language, as to
make them clear to many who had regarded it impossible to compre-

1863.1 155 [Coppee.

hend them. To give himself facility in observing, he had studied
under Professor Airey, the Asti'onomer Royal of England at Green-
wich ; and to understand the scientific relations of astronomy as they
appear in the cosmogony of the universe, he had investigated those
sister sciences which, while they are elements of the great subject,
come forward in their progTess of development to cast their tribute
at the feet of Him who dictated the record of Moses.

As a mechanical inventor, he may be best presented by placing in
this connection, some account of the principal instruments which he
created for facilitating observations.

The following description of the Declinometer is furnished through
the kindness of Mr. Gr. W. Hough, the astronomer in charge of the
Dudley Observatory :

" Method invented by Professor Mitchel for determining diflfer-
ence of declination.

" The apparatus for observing difference of declination consists of
the following :

" To the axis of the transit telescope is attached a metallic arm of
sixty inches in length ; in the lower end of this arm is screwed a
cylindrical pin, one-eighth of an inch in diameter, at right angles to
the arm and parallel to the supporting axis of the telescope. This
pin has a notch or groove (of the form which would be generated by
placing the vertices of two isosceles triangles together, and revolving
about the perpendicular), cut in the middle.

" At a distance of twenty-three inches from the pin, and in the
same horizontal plane, is mounted in Y's a small telescope of six in-
ches focal length. The supporting axis of this telescope is parallel
to that of the transit. Underneath the centre of the small telescope,
and connected with it, is a short arm two inches in length, and by
means of a joint, a rod is connected with the pin before mentioned.

" Now when the transit telescope is moved in zenith-distance, an-
gular motion is given to the small telescope, by means of the long-
arm and connecting-rod.

" The amount of this motion is read from a scale, placed at a dis-
tance of fifteen feet, and divided to single seconds of arc. It will, of
course, be understood that we must have some object in the focus of
the small telescope with which to compare the divisions of the scale.
We use either a cross formed by the intersection of two spider's
webs, or a single horizontal wire.

" In case we wish to observe a zone of greater width than the ex-
tent of the scale (30'), we have a number of pins, at distances of

Coppee.] Jgg [March.

30' apart, mounted in the arc of a circle whose radius is equal to the
length of the long arm. We readily pass from one pin to another,
by lifting one end of the connecting-rod, and attaching it to a differ-
ent one. The divisions on the scale can easily be read by estima-
tion, to two-tenths of a second of arc.

'' The time required to read the scale is much less than that em-
ployed in reading one microscope, since at the same transit of an
equatorial star we can make from ten to fifteen bisections and read-
ings. As I have found one reading of the scale nearly equal to four
microscopes, it follows that if we employ the same time in the ob-
servation of an object with the Declinometer that we do when we
use the Circle, our results in the former case will be superior to the
latter in a large ratio.

" The Zone observations with the Declinometer have been made
mostly for the investigation of the source and amount of error due to
this method. From a comparison of the observations with those
made in the ordinary way, I find the probable error, on a single ob-
servation, falls within the limits of accuracy usually assigned to ob-
servations made with the Meridian Circle. One great advantage
lies in the fact that many bisections and readings can be made at the
same transit, and in this way eliminating the ordinary errors of
observation. You will understand the rapidity with which work can
be done by this method, when I state that more than two hundred
stars have been accurately observed in one hour; and were they
equally distributed, twice that number could easily have been taken.

" This instrument is one of the great inventions of our late and
lamented directoi". Professor Mitcbel, and is the only one in the
world.

" From observations made during the last two years, and a careful
discussion of the results, I have arrived at the conviction that there
is no other hiown method equal to it, for rapidity and accuracy, in
the cataloguing of stars."

Professor Mitchel's remarkable mechanical skill, bis quickness to
perceive diflSculties, and the readiness with which he devised and
applied the remedies, are further admirably illustrated in his appa-
ratus for recording time by means of the electro-magnetic telegraphs.
These are now in use in the Cincinnati and Dudley Observatories.
His was the first thorough solution of this important problem in
instrumental astronomy. The following account of this apparatus is
in Professor Mitchel's own words :

1863.] 157 [Coppee.

" The problem of causing a clock to record its beats telegraphically,
was nothing more than to contrive some method whereby the clock
might be made (by the use of some portion of its own machinery) to
take the place of the finger of the living, intelligent operator, and
'make' or 'break' the electric circuit. The grand diflBculty did
not lie in causing the clock to play the part of an automaton in this
precise particular, but it did lie in causing the clock to act automati-
cally, and at the same time perform perfectly its great function of a
timekeeper. This became a matter of great difl&culty and delicacy ;
for to tax any portion of the clock machinery with a duty beyond the
ordinary and contemplated demands of the maker, seemed at once to
involve the machine in imperfect and irregular action. After due
reflection it was decided to apply to the pendulum for a minute
amount of power, whereby the making or breaking the electric cir-
cuit might be accomplished with the greatest chance of escaping any
injurious effects on the going of the clock. The principle which
guided in this selection was, that we ought to go to the prime mover
(which in this case was the clock weights, and which could not be
employed), and failing to reach the prime mover, we should select
the nearest piece of mechanism to it, which in the clock is the pen-
dulum. A second point early determined by experiment and reflec-
tion was this : that the making or breaking of the circuit must be
accomplished by the use of mercury, and not by a solid metallic
connection. Various methods were tried, and soon abandoned as
uncertain and irregular in their results, and the following plan was
adopted :

" A small cross of delicate wire was mounted on a short axis of
the same material, passing through the point of union of the four'
arms constituting the cross. This axis was then placed horizontal
on a metallic support in Y's, where it might vibrate, provided the
top stem of the cross could be in some way attached to the pendulum
of the clock, and the ' cross ' should thus rise and fall at its outer
stem as the pendulum swings backward and forward. The metallic
frame bearing the ' cross ' also bore a small glass tube bent at right
augles. This was filled with mercury, and into one extremity one
wire from the pole of the battery was made to dip ; the other wire
was made fast by a binding screw to the metallic stand bearing the
'cross,' and thus every time the 'cross' dipped into the mercury
in the bent tube, the electricity passed through the metallic frame,
up the vertical standards bearing the axis of the cross, along the axis
to the stem, and down the stem into the mercury, and finally through
VOL. IX. — y

Coppee.] 158 [March.

the mercury to the other pole of the battery. Thus at every swing
of the pendulum the circuit was made, and a suitable apparatus
might, by the electro-magnet, record each alternate second of time.

'' The amount of power requii-ed of the pendulum to give motion
to the delicate wire-cross was almost insensible, as the stems nearly
counterpoised each other in every position. Here, however, there
was great difficulty in procuring a fibre sufficiently minute and elastic
to constitute the physical union between the top stem of the cross
and the clock pendulum. Various materials were tried, among
others a delicate human hair, the very finest that could be obtained,
but this was too coarse and stiff. Its want of pliancy and elasticity
gave to the minute 'wire-cross' an irregular motion, and caused it
to rebound from the globule of mercury into which it should have
plunged. After many fruitless efforts, an appeal was made to an
artisan of wonderful dexterity; the assistance of the spider was in-
voked. His web, perfectly elastic and perfectly pliable, was fur-
nished, and this material connection between the wire-cross and the
clock pendulum proved to be exactly the thing required. In proof
of this remark, I need only state the flict that one single spider's
web has fulfilled the delicate duty of moving the wire-cross, lifting
it, and again permitting it to dip into the mercury every second of
time for a period of more than three years ! How much longer it
might have faithfully performed the same service I know not, as
it then became necessary to break this admirable bond, to make
some changes in the clock. Here it will be seen the same web was
expanded and contracted each second during this whole period, and
yet never, so far as could be observed, lost any portion of its elasti-
city. The clock was thus made to close the electric circuit in the
most perfect manner; and inasmuch as the resistance opposed to the
pendulum by the 'wire-cross' was a constant quantity and very
minute, thus acting precisely as does the resistance of the atmo-
sphere, the clock, once regulated with the ' cross' as a portion of its
machinery, moved with its wonted steadiness and uniformity. Thus
one grand point was gained. The clock was now ready to record its
own beats automatically and with absolute certainty, without in any
way affecting the regularity of its movement. It was early objected
to the mercurial connection just described, that in a short time the
surface of the mercury would become oxydized, and thus refuse to
transmit the current of electricity; but experiment demonstrated
that the explosion produced by the electric discharge at every dip
into the mercury threw off the oxyd formed, and left the polished

1863.] 259 [Coppee.

surface of the globule of mercury in a perfect state to receive the
next passage of the electricity.

" So far as known, all other methods are now abandoned, and the
mercurial connection is the only one in use.

*' The Time-scale. — The clock being now prepared to record its
beats accurately and uniformly, the next important step was to ob-
tain, if possible, a uniformly moving time-scale, which should be ap-
plicable to the practical demands of the astronomer.

" In case the fillet of paper used in the Morse telegraph could
have been made to flow at a uniform rate upon its surface, the clock
could now record, its beats appearing as dots separated from each
other by equal intervals. But it was soon seen that the paper could
not be made to flow uniformly; and even had this been possible, a
single night's work would demand for its record such a vast amount
of paper, that this method was inapplicable to practice. After care-
ful deliberation, the ' revolving disk ' was selected as the best possi-
ble surface on which the record of time and observation could be
made. The preference was given to the disk over the cylinder for
the following reasons : The uniform revolution of the disk could be
more readily reached. The record on the disk was always under the
eye in every part of it at the same time, while on the revolving
cylinder, a portion of the work was always invisible. One disk could
be substituted for another with greater ease, and in a shorter time,
and the measure of the fractions of seconds could be more rapidly
and accurately performed on the disk than on the cylinder.

"After much thought and experiment, it was decided to adopt 'a
make circuit ' and ' a dotted scale ' rather than a ' break circuit ' and
a 'linear scale;' and I think it will be seen hereafter that in this
selection, the choice has been fully justified in practice. These
points being settled, the mechanical problems now presented for solu-
tion were the following : First, To invent some machinery which
could give to a disk of, say twenty inches diameter, mounted on a
vertical axis, a motion such that it should revolve uniformly once in
each minute of time ; and second, to connect with this disk, the ma-
chinery which should enable the clock to record on the disk each
alternate second of time, in the shape of a delicate round dot. Third,
The apparatus which should enable the observer to record on the
same disk the exact moment of the transit of a star across the meri-
dian, or the occurrence of any other phenomenon.

" The first of these problems was by far the most difficult, and
indeed, its perfect solution remains yet to be accomplished, though

Coppee.] 260 [March.

for any practical astronomical purpose, the problem has been solved
in more than one way.

'' The plan adopted in the Cincinnati Observatory may be described
as follows : The clock-work machinery employed to give to the great
equatorial telescope a uniform motion equal to that of the earth's
rotation on its axis, offered to me the first obvious approximate solu-
tion of the problem under consideration. This machinery was ac-
cordingly applied to the motion of the disk, or rather to regulate the
motion of revolution, this motion being produced by a descending
weight, after the fashion of an ordinary clock. It was soon discovered
that the ' Frauenhofer clock,' as this machine is called, was not com-
petent to produce a motion of such uniformity as was now required.
Several modifications were made with a positive gain ; but after long
study it was finally discovered that when the machinery was brought
into perfect adjustment, the dynamical equilibrium obtained was an
equilibrium of instability ; that is, if from a motion such as produced
a revolution in one exact minute, it began to lose, this loss or decre-
ment in velocity went on increasing, or if it commenced to gain, the
increment went on increasing at each revolution of the disk. Now
all these delicate changes could be watched with the most perfect
certainty; as in case the disk revolved uniformly once a minute, then
the seconds' dots would fall in such a manner (as we shall see di-
rectly), that the dots of the same recorded seconds would radiate
from the centre of the disk in a straight line. Any deviation from
this line would be marked with the utmost delicacy down to the
thousandth of a second. By long and careful study, it was at length
discovered, that to make any change in the velocity of ihe disk, to
increase or decrease quickly its motion, in short, to restore the dy-
namical equilibrium, the winding key of the ' Frauenhofer clock '
was the point of the machinery where the extra helping force should
be applied; and it was found that a person of ordinary intelligence
stationed at the disk, and with his fingers on this key, could, when-
ever he noticed a slight deviation from uniformity, at once, by slight
assistauce, restore the equilibrium, when the machine would perhaps
continue its performance perfectly for several minutes, when again
some slight acceleration or retardation might be required from the
sentinel posted as an auxiliary.

<' The mechanical problem now demanding solution was very
clearly announced. It was this : Required to construct an automaton
which should take the place of the intelligent sentinel, watch the
going of the disk, and instantly correct any acceleration or retarda-

1863.] |g][ [Coppee.

tion. This, in fact, is the great problem in all efforts to secure uni-
form motion of rotation. This problem was resolved theoretically in
many ways, several of which methods were executed mechanically
without success, as it was found that the machine stationed as a
sentinel to regulate the going of the disk was too weak, and was
itself carried off by its too powerful antagonist. The following-
method was, however, in the end, entirely successful. Upon the
axis of the winding key already mentioned, a toothed wheel was
attached, the gearing being so adjusted that one revolution of this
wheel should produce a whole number of revolutions of the disk.
The circumference of this wheel was cut into a certain number of
notches, so that as it revolved, one of these notches would reach the
highest point once in two seconds of time. By means of an electro-
magnet, a small cylinder or roller, at the extremity of a lever arm,
was made to fall into the highest notch of the toothed wheel at the
end of every two seconds. In case the disk was revolving exactly
once a minute, the roller, driven by the sidereal clock, by means of
an electro-magnet, fell to the bottom of the notch, and performed no
service whatever ; but in case the disk began to slacken its velocity,
then the roller fell on the retreating inclined face of the notch, and
thus urged forward by a minute amount the laggard disk, while on
the contrary, should the variation from a uniform velocity present
itself in an acceleration, then the roller struck on the advancing face
of the notch, and thus tended slowly to restore ths equilibrium. Let
it be remembered that this delicate regulator has but a minute
amount of service to perform. It is ever on guard, and detecting, as
it does instantly, any disposition to change, at once applies its re-
storing power, and thus preserves an exceedingly near approach to
exact uniformity of revolution. This regulator operates through all
the wheel-work, and thus accomplishes a restoration by minute incre-
ments or decrements spread over many minutes of time.

'' With a uniformly revolving disk, stationary in position, we should
accomplish exactly and very perfectly, the record of one minute of
time, presenting on the recording surface thirty dots at equal angular
intervals on the circumference of a circle. To receive the time dots
of the next minute on a circle of larger diameter, required either that
the recording pen should change position, or that at the end of each
revolution, the disk itself should move away from the pen by a small
amount. We chose to remove the disk. To accomplish accurately
the change of position of the disk, at the end of each revolution, the
entire machine was mounted on wheels on a small railway track, and

Coppee.] \Q2 [March.

by a very delicate mechanical arrangement, accomplished its own
change of position between the fifty-ninth and sixtieth second of
every minute."

But Professor Mitchel was also a very successful observer. He
remeasured Struve's double stars south of the equator, discovered
the companion of Antares, and added many new stars to the cata-
logue.

As a lecturer, Professor Mitchel had a remarkable gift. His
fervid oratory was natural. It was the truest exemplification of the
trite but striking idea of the poet,

"Thouglits that breathe, and words that burn."

He could make a dry problem in mathematical astronomy so pleasing,
by its clear and eloquent presentation, as to enchain a popular assem-
bly, and extort their applause both for problem and lecturer. His
language, purely extemporaneous, was beautiful ; his figures and
illustrations strikingly well chosen, and his voice and manner power-
ful and overmastering. Sometimes his fervor seemed like a Delphian
inspiration, and there are few among those who heard him who can
forget the magnificent effects produced by his lectures on astronomy
in this and other cities.

As a true and whole-hearted patriot he had no superior. In-
fluenced by this spirit, he tore himself from home ties, alas ! not
capable of bearing the rude parting, for his departure cost him his
cherished wife, — and thus he gave himself up to his country. All his
energies, all his talents, his varied education, his fame, his brilliant
future, — whatever there was of power or influence in him or his
name was hers, devoted to her with a single eye and a single purpose.
And he died for her as truly, as devotedly, — shall we not say as
gloriously, — as though he had fallen leading a foi-lorn hope to turn
disaster into victory ?

But as a soldier, his whole-hearted patriotism was of great value.
Bred at West Point, and having engrafted upon that thorough ele-
mentary education the knowledge of men, of life, of practical science
and industrial arts, he was the very heau-ideal of a general. Full
of resources, he made bridges of cotton bales and fence rails, and was
the first man across to test their precarious structure. Restlessly
energetic, his mind passed like lightning over every part of a plan
or a field ; his quick glance caught the capabilities of a position ; his
experience provided whatever was needed; his surplus vitality, over-

1863. J 2g3 [Coppee.

flowing his own person, swept out among the soldiers, and put the
whole mass in motion. His great personal bravery was a constant
example and incentive to every man under his command. Wher-
ever he appeared, there was work to do, — expeditions, rapid move-
ments, concerted combinations, forced marches. Without making
too sweeping a remark, we may consider General Mitchel as among
the very best of our commanders ; and had he lived, he would have
risen to a position in public esteem and confidence second to none in
the land.

As a devout Christian, — not presented now to the world in the
mere statement of a charitable opinion, which gives '' a good con-
science " to every public man who dies, — but as a consistent, con-
scientious, devout Christian man. General Mitchel is best known to
his home and his intimate friends. Admiring, as they do, his bril-
liant qualities, his learning, his genius, his military fame, they recur
with far more comfort to the fact of his holy and fervent life,
his daily communion with his God, his practical piety, his certain
and holy hope of eternal life through the blood of Christ.

No king stood by his dying bed beseeching him,

"If thou think'st on Heaven's bliss,
Hold up thy hand, make signal of thy hope."

Prompted by the unutterable thoughts which crowded upon him,
he gave unbidden such a happy signal, literally holding up his hand,
and pointing to that world beyond the skies, which was then lifting
" its everlasting portals high " to greet him with an immortal radi-
ance, such as even his enthusiastic astronomy had never conceived.
His last words, brokenly uttered, were taken down by his aide-de-camp,
and add another to the ever-increasing and enduring testimonies,
that when the good man dies, God alone is great, and Heaven alone
is real existence.

General Mitchel had filled many offices and posts, and was, as
might be expected, the recipient of many honors due to his own
merits. A graduate of West Point, he was a lieutenant of artillery,
a lawyer, a railway engineer, an astronomer, the founder of one ob-
servatory, the director of two; a Doctor of Laws from more than one
institution ; a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society, and of
several other foreign societies; a Major-General of Volunteers.

In 1841, he was appointed by the President a member of the
Board of Visitors to the Military Academy. In 18-17 and 1848, he

Coppee.] 264 [March.

was Adjutant-General of Ohio. In 1848, he published a work
called " The Planetary and Stellar Worlds," containing a popular
exposition of the important discoveries of modern astronomy. In
1860, his "Popular Astronomy" appeared, a concise elementary
treatise on our sun, planets, satellites, and comets ; and there is now
passing through the press, to be published at an early day, a volume
called " The Astronomy of the Bible," in which he endeavors to
show that science and revelation may be made eventually to harmo-
nize perfectly.

He was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society
in 1853.

Pending nominations Nos. 481 to 490, and new nomina-
tion No. 491 were read.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, March 20, 1863.

Present, seventeen members.

Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from Josiah
D. Whitney, lately elected, dated San Francisco, February
13, 1863.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of copies of the Trans-
actions and Proceedings were received from the London So-
ciety of Antiquaries, February 27th ; the Newcastle Natural
History Society, February 24th ; the National Museum of
Scotland, January 24th ; the Massachusetts Historical So-
ciety, February 19th and March 16th ; the Austrian Consu-
late at New York, March 19th ; the Pennsylvania Historical
Society, March 13th ; Dr. Charles M. Wetherill of the Agri-

1863.] 255 [Dawson,

cultural Department, Washington, March 16th, and the St.
Louis Academy, March 17th, 1863.

Donations for the Library were received from Mr. Edward
Miller, the Bureau of Mines at Paris, the London Meteoro-
logical Society, Royal Geographical Society, and Society of
Arts, the Scottish Antiquarian Society, the Laval University
at Quebec, Mr. Henry Hall, of Rutland, Vermont, the New
Bedford Free Public Library, Silliman's Journal, the Frank-
lin Institute, the Pennsylvania Historical Society, and the
Cincinnati Young Men's Mercantile Library Association.

Professor Lesley read the folloAving communication from
President J. W. Dawson, of McGill College, Montreal.

Note on Mr. Lesley's Paper on the Coal-measures op
Cape Breton.

The new facts and general considerations on the Nova Scotia coal-
field contained in this paper, are of the highest interest to all who
have worked at the geology of Nova Scotia. I think it my duty,
however, to take exception to some of the statements, which I think
a larger collection of facts, would have induced Mr. Lesley himself
to modify. My objections may be stated under the following heads.

(1.) It is scarcely safe to institute minute comparisons between
the enormously developed coal-measures of Nova Scotia, and the
thinner contemporary deposits of the West, any more than it would
be to compare the great marine limestones of the period at the West,
with the slender representatives of the part of the group to the east-
ward.

(2.) There is the best evidence that the coal-measures of Nova
Scotia never mantled over the Devonian and Silurian hills of the
Province, but were on the contrary, deposited in more or less sepa-
rate areas on their sides.

(3.) Any one who has carefully compared the coal-measures of
the Joggins with those of Wallace and Pictou, must be convinced of
the hopelessness of comparing individual beds, even at this compara-
tively small distance. A fortiori detailed comparisons with Penn-
sylvania and more distant localities must fail.

(4.) I do not think that any previous observer has supposed that
the coal-measures of Eastern Cape Breton represent the whole of the

VOL. IX. — w

Dawson.] 166 [March.

coal formation of Nova Scotia. The " Upper coal-measures " of ray
papers on Nova Scotia are certainly wanting, and probably the
Sydney coal-field exhibits no beds higher than the middle of No. 4
of Logan's Joggin section.

(5.) The whole of the coal-beds in the Joggin section belong to
the Upper and Middle coal-measures. It is quite incorrect to iden-
tify No. 6 of Logan's section with the Lower coal-measures. These
do not occur at the Joggins, but are found in Nova Scotia, as in
Virginia and Southern Pennsylvania, at the base of the system,
under the marine limestones. The Albert beds are the equivalents
of these Lower measures, and not of the Pictou coal. In my paper
on the Lower Carboniferous coal-measures (Journal of Geological So-
ciety of London, 1858), will be found a summary of the structure of
the Lower coal-measures, as shown at Horton BluflF, and elsewhere.
The term " true coal-measures," quoted by Mr. Lesley, does not
mean in my description, the Middle coal-measures, but merely that
part of them holding the workable coal-seams.

(6.) Whatever may be the value of M. Lesquereux's applications
of the fossil flora to the identification of coal-seams in the West, I
am prepared to state, as the result of an extensive series of observa-
tions, still for the most part unpublished, that in Nova Scotia, the
flora is identical throughout the whole enormous thickness of the
Middle coal-measures, and that the diff"erences observable between
different seams, are attributable rather to difference of station and
conditions of preservation, than to lapse of time. It is, indeed, true,
as I have elsewhere explained, that the assemblages of species in the
Lower, Middle, and Upper coal-measures, may be distinguished ; but
within these groups the differences are purely local, and afford no
means for the identification of beds in distant places.

(7.) I do not desire to offer any opinion on the questions raised
by some American geologists, as to the extension of the term carbo-
niferous to the Chemung group ; but I know as certain facts, that
the flora of the Lower coal-measures, under the marine limestones
and gypsums of Nova Scotia, is wholly carboniferous, and that the
flora, on which alone I consider myself competent to decide, of the
Chemung of New York, as now understood by Professor Hall, and
others, and also of the groups in Pennsylvania, named by Rogers,
Vergent, and Ponent (? IX and X of Mr. Lesley), is as decidedly
Devonian, and quite distinct from that of the carboniferous period.*

* See Paper on Devonian Flora of Eastern America, Jour. Lond. Geol. Soc.
November, 1862.

1863.] 267 [Lesley.

For Mr. Lesley's ability as a stratigi'aphical geologist, I have the-
highest respect; and with reference to the present subject, would
merely desire to point out that he may not have possessed a sufficient
number of facts to warrant some of his generalizations, on which in
the meantime I would, for the reasons above stated, desire geologists
to suspend their judgment.

J. .W Dawson.

McGiLL College, Montreal,

February 18th, 1863\

Mr. Lesley remarked that he read this communication of
his friend, Professor Dawson, with great pleasure, as it would
prevent any mistake about the nature and importance of the
discussion, and any undue weight being attadied to his own
suggestions ; that no one was more convinced than himself
that there could be no excuse for dogmatism where so little
was known, and therefore, that he had intended rather to
suggest than to defend those opinions expressed in his paper^
which had drawn down so earnest and valuable a caveat from,
so high a source. To defend them would require long and
systematic researches on the ground, if even then, the too-
easily accepted present standpoint of pal'cTsontology would not
hide the truth from view behind immovable obstacles. So-
long as apparent specific identity in organic forms continues
to be accepted as the supreme test of stratigraphical horizon,
discord is iijevitable. When palaeontology is prepared to re-
turn under the mild dominion of her mother, lithology, which
she has at least one-half repudiated, geology will advance
more rapidly in her work.

Professor Dawson's firs-t objection is a begging of the very ques-
tion, Whether the coal-measures of Nova Scotia are " enoruiously
developed." That, in one little spot of the earth's surface like Nova
Scotia, and that too midway between the great coal areas of America
and those of Europe, wherein the thickness of coal-measures proper
range from 2000 to 5000 feet, if they even attain the latter size^
there should be an anomalous deposit of 25,000 feet, is incredible.
What the great Bohemian palaeontologist, by unerring instinct, said
to us after our thirty years' war over the Taconic system, there must
be a mistaJce somewhere, I must repeat to those who so " enor-
mously develop " the Nova Scotia coal-measures. And my inten-

Lesley.] Jgg [March.

tion in the paper on Nova Scotia coal was only to suggest one formula
on which the error might be discussed. I distinctly repudiated the
safety of instituting '' minute comparisons." My comparison of the
Cape Breton coals and the column at Pittsburg, was carefully made
in the most general manner, and the resemblance called a coincidence.
But the value of the comparison remains ; for it affords a new argu-
ment in favor of i\\Q family likeness of those parts of the general
coal-measures of different countries, which have a right to the specific
title of "productive coals." The argument also remains good, that
if 2000 feet of coal-measures in Missouri can be recognized in 2000
feet of coal-measures in Kentucky, Virginia, and Eastern Pennsyl-
vania, the very same system of beds, bed for bed, being demonstrated
first by stratigraphy, and then by palaeontology (and such is the fact),
why not in Nova Scotia? Even granting (3) that suflBcient skill
and care and opportunity combined have hitherto failed to identify
the coals of the Joggins with those of Wallace and Pictou, there is
still hope at the bottom of the box. Before Lesquereux perched
himself like a Simon Stylites on the slack heap at the mine's mouth,
our own identification of individual beds was very imperfect, and the
search for a complete system of identification had been abandoned
with the same sense of hopelessness. But how is it now ? There
certainly may be special diflSculties in Nova Scotia ; there are such
at Pottsville ; in Michigan ; but they are exceptions which prove
the rule, instead of affording an a fortiori argument against it.

I have no doubt that some of the coal-measures of the British Pro-
vinces may have been " deposited in more or less separated areas on
the sides of the Devonian and Silurian hills," as Professor Dawson
says (2). But I confess to a complete scepticism of the great extent
which has been assigned to this nonconformability of the coal-mea-
sures upon the Lower Rocks ; first, because most of the Island of Cape
Breton, and much of the surface of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick
are confessedly unstudied and almost unknown ; secondly, because the
incredible thickness assigned to the coal-measures, throws doubt
upon the positions assigned to the nonconformable horizons ; thirdly,
because the coal-beds themselves stand almost vertical in many
places round the shores ; fourthly, because the mountains of Nova
Scotia, with apparently conformable carboniferous limestones, have
apparently an Appalachian structure and aspect, have suffered vast
denudation, exhibit cliff outcrops and section ravines, and may just
as well have carried coal upon their original backs, as we can prove
that our Tussey, Black Log, Nescopec, Mahoning, Buffalo, Tuscarora,

1863. J Jgg [Lesley.

Brush, and other Silurian and Devonian mountains did. There is
an immense nonconformable chasm in the column west of the Hudson
River, and the Catskill Mountains over it have no coal upon their
backs ; but the coal conies in regularly enough on them at the Le-
high, (a less distance than from Sydney to St. Peters, or from Pictou
to Windsor), and the nonconformability in the Upper Silurian and
Devonian has already disappeared.

Professor Dawson's fourth objection would be good, if I had really
" supposed the coal-measures of Eastern Cape Breton to represent
the whole of the coal-measures of Nova Scotia." But I only sug-
gested that they may prove to be the equivalents of the system of j^ro-
ductive coal-measures ; that is all. Between the Monongahela and
the Ohio, our column of productive coals is capped by another of
barren shales and soft sandstones of unknown height, by one estimate
3000 feet thick ; and part of this column may represent the so-called
Permian measures, which, in Kansas, cap conformably the coal-mea-
sures. Having no knowledge of the fossils, I have no desire to oppose
the conclusions of Professor Dawson, as to the part of the column of
the Joggins to which the Glace Bay coals apply, but hope that his
accurate handling of them will secure some certainty about it. It
was the grouping of the beds, and not the fossils, which I wished to
bring into prominent notice j because the doctrine of isolated basins,
when unfounded or overapplied, is as injurious to lithological truth,
as the careless identification of surface aspect may at any moment
prove to palaeontology. I willingly leave to accomplished palaeontolo-
gists like Professor Dawson, the discussion of the grand generaliza-
tion embodied in his sixth objection ; but I may be permitted to
believe that it has had its birth in the doctrine of isolated basins,
and that the two must stand or fall together. It also seems to me
to involve radical inconsistencies; for if I comprehend it, it asserts, 1.
That the flora of the whole coal-measures (25,000 feet?) is identical;
that is, the vertical distribution of each and all the plants is complete
from the bottom to the top. 2. That nevertheless, there are differ-
ences observable between different coal-beds. 3. That these are attri-
butable rather to difference of station and conditions of preservation,
than to lapse of time; that is, if we could take the beds, each one in
its whole extent and its fossils in their original condition, there would
be no differences observable between different seams after all. 4.
That groups or assemblages of species in the Lower, Middle, and
Upper coal-measures may nevertheless be distinguished ; that is, while
each and every species may be found occasionally in all parts of the

Lesley.] ^70 [March.

column from bottom to top, yet this happens in such a manner as to
group some of them more abundantly, or in certain peculiar proportions
in the Lower, others in the Middle, and others iu the Upper portions
of it. 5. That, after all, however, these groups are not persistent,
but differ at different localities, and are as worthless as the specific
forms themselves for the identification of a single bed in more than
one place. — Is it possible that all this has been made out, or can be
made out, except in a country of horizontal coal-measures, well
opened for study, where the stratification can be established before-
hand, and the range of the fossils be doubtless ?

In conclusion I would say, that the want of clearly defined and
applied names is a drawback to such a discussion. The discussion
is in fact initially one of names, viz., how far down the name Car-
boniferous must be carried ; what are the Lower coiil-raeasures, &e.
But in the end, it is a question of vital importance to the value of
the palaeontological imprimatur upon stratigraphical and structural
deductions from field work. Is the discovery of specific fornvs to
keep all our geological jiiveanx in a perpetual mirage -flicker ? Are
we never to know from day to day, whether we are at work in Devo-
nian or Carboniferous, in Trias, (Dyas,) or Lias ? Why not at once
obey the marriage law of the weaker sex, and give up our names for
our lord's ? Let geology forget the virgin nomenclature of her youth,
and rewrite her books with such titles for her chapters as these :
"The Spirifeferous Formation; The Lepidodendriferous Formation;
The Lower Thecodont ; The Middle Baculite ; The Upper Pterodac-
tylian Formations." Why has this not already been done ? Simply
because it cannot be done. No palaeontologist has yet been bold
enough even to propose it. Yet as I believe, the 25,000 feet of coal-
measures in the British Provinces, will be found to be one of the
many unconscious realizations of this idea, when no one can be
found to nominate it openly. The whole palaeozoic system at its
thickest place in Southeast Pennsylvania and Middle Virginia, is but
85,000 feet. It is not unreasonable then to sixjgest, if not to afiirra,
that the vast column of so-called coal-measures in Nova Scotia will
take in all that part of the palasozoic column which has furnished
coal, and that is from the top downwards nearly to the Upper Silu-
rian, as Plate II will show.

1863.] I'^l [Wetherill.

A letter was received from Dr. C. M. Wetherill, containing
some notice of his observations on the deterioration of ether
from age, and its absorption of fusil oil in the special instance
described.

Department of Agriculture,

Washington, D. C, March 16th, 1863.

To Sec. Am. Phil. Soc, Philada.

Dear Sir : I have lately made an observation in my laboratory,
which I desire to have recorded, as throwing light upon the deterio-
ration of ether by age. I have communicated it to Dr. W. Gr. T.
Morton, who deems it very interesting in its relation to anaesthesia.
The subject is worthy of a further examination, which my official
duties at present forbid.

I brought with me from Ohio a quart bottle of ether, half of which
had been used in the course of former chemical investigations, and
which had been found pure. The bottle was stopped with cork,
tliroiKjh ivhich the evaporation was too slow to he perceptible. About
three months ago, this bottle, by a mistake of measurement by the
carpenter in the glass case provided for my chemicals, came in juxta-
position with three quart bottles of pure fusil oil. The latter was
contained in glass stoppered bottles, the stoppers covered with
bladder. One of these bottles had been opened to demonstrate the
properties of fusil oil in coaneetion with spirits, and was replaced
without restoring the bladder. After this the odor of fusil oil was
very perceptible in the neighborhood of the case. About three
months later, the ether bottle was taken, and a portion of its contents
used for determining the amount of fusil oil in wines and brandies,
when it was at once discovered that the ether itself contained fusil
oil. On permitting the spontaneous evaporation of the ether in a
watch-glass, the oil was observed in abundant globules, the odor was
that of amylic alcohol, and the irritating action upon the cuticle of
the nose accidentally touching it was very strong. Very pressing
official duties prevented a chemical examination by analysis of the
oil absorbed by the ether, but the odor was alone sufficient to trace
it to the fusil oil bottles. The ether had not been employed until
used for the wine and brandy experiments, and had certainly not
been meddled with by anybody. The only explanation I can give
of the phenomena is, that the bottle of ether standing in an atmo-
sphere of amylic alcohol vapor, had received the latter through the

Chase.] |72 IMarch.

pores of the cork, according to the laws of the diifusion of gases. If
this view of the matter be correct, I can readily imagine how a bottle
of ether might come into a position to absorb substances which
might prove very injurious in cases of anaesthesia.
Yours, very respectfully,

Charles M. Wetherill,

Chemist, Department of Agriculture.

Mr. Chase resumed the discussion of similar forms and
meanings between the Chinese characters and the classical
alphabets. While admitting that some of the resemblances
might be accidental, he could not believe that they were all
so. The pointings in a uniform direction are so numerous,
that if the attention of scholars who are able to study the
Chinese movements on their own soil could be fully aroused,
important results might reasonably be looked for. The
general character of these pointings was illustrated by the
following remarks.

a. Most of the Chinese syllables that end in the sound of ^ (En-
glish e), are pronounced i by some of the natives, and at (English i)
by others, thus indicating the possible provincialism, that established
the peculiar sound of the letter i in our language. One of the Chi-
nese characters that represent this sound, resembles a small e in its
ordinary form, while in the running hand it has the two forms of
our written I and E. [See Plate I, fig. 1.]

b. Some of the Chinese hieroglyphs have both the form and the
phonetic value of the modern script. Thus the radical for tooth, Ya^
has the form of Y, Tsze, of Z (German tsetJt) ; Shan, of Hebrew
shin, and Russian sha ; Fow, of German foiv ; &c. [PI. I, fig. 2.]

c. Not only are isolated letters found in Chinese, but also combi-
nations of letters in syllables that retain a pronunciation similar to
that indicated by the phonetic value of the letters. For example,
the syllable ki (Eng. ke, or ki), is sometimes written in the follow-
ing ways, to indicate three difi'erent meanings ; u^ or n^^ XxQ^ or
O, ItN, [PI. I, fig. 3], and each of these forms can be readily
traced to the primitive radicals of which it is composed. The re-
semblance of the last form to the German KN, as well as the reten-
tion of Chinese names for German letters, is suggestive of the resem-
bclane that exists in the angular character of the Chinese and German
texts.

1863.] 273 [Chase.

d. The phonetic values of the primitive hieroglyphs, are some-
times apparently retained through a succession of different forms.
The Chinese radical Tu, for example, which denotes " the earth,"
may be analyzed into two simple radicals, one of which corresponds
to an ancient form of T, and the other is De Guignes' supposed
representative for U, which resembles one of the Egyptian hiero-
glyphs for 0 and U. [PI. I, fig. 13.] This radical is sometimes
written in the form of T placed in U, and sometimes like a t con-
nected with a V in such a way as to make an Arabic figure 2. [PI.
I, fig. 4.] Moreover, the root tu, in Chinese as well as in Sanscrit,
embraced the idea of division among its meanings.

e. Some of the radicals are represented by two or more different
forms that are found in two or more different alphabets. Thus the
"mouth" radical is sometimes written in the form of Roman y,
sometimes of the Grreek A. The word pi, " to assist," is written
with two Greek ;r's, accompanied by a Roman P. [PI. I, fig. 5.]

f. In most alphabets, forms nearly identical are employed to repre-
sent different letters, as in English E F; d b; p q; n u; Roman P,
Greek P, and Hebrew p. Many of these resemblances are found in
Chinese, and a reference to the original hieroglyphs often suggests a
plausible explanation of the resemblances.

g. If the fertility of resemblance between the Chinese and other
alphabetic forms, is often confusing and puzzling, it is no more so
than the similar fertility in systems that are purely alphabetic. Such
instances as the employment of X to represent the sounds of T, Ch,
and X in the Phenician, Greek, and Roman alphabets respectively,
— of P for the sounds of P, Ts, Q, and R, &c., — are so numerous
that there is probably not a single alphabetic form that has not been
appropriated at different times to several diffei'ent letters, and there
is not a single letter that does not present in its various forms, analo-
gies to nearly half the other letters of the alphabet.

h. These resemblances are sometimes readily accounted for by
their phonetic analogies. Thus L and R, B and P, C and G, sound
so nearly alike, and are so often confounded, that one would natu-
rally expect them to be represented by similar forms. But there are
some curious instances of remoter affinity. For example, among the
oldest Phenician inscriptions, the outline of something like a stone
hatchet, is used to represent both D and R. These two sounds are
to this day confounded by some of our Indian tribes. Most of the
Dakotahs are unable to sound either L or R, and they invariably
substitute D for each of those letters. The Chinese Taou, a knife,

VOL. IX. — X

Chase.] ][74. [March.

with an outline resembling the Hebrew n, seems naturally connected,
both by its form and phonetic value, with the Phenician hatchet-
shaped D and R.

i. The use of similar symbols for different radicals, seems some-
times to point to a still older primitive. In this way the supposed
Egyptian equivalent for the V!, is connected with the Chinese sym-
bols for Mountain, Mouth, Tooth, and Hand, perhaps through the
intermediate idea of piercing, or projecting. [PL I, fig. 6. The
first symbol is Egyptian, the others Chinese. The third form is em-
ployed by the Chinese, both for '' mountain," and for " mouth."]

k. An apparent association with other supposed hieroglyphics, may
be indirectly traced in some Chinese compounds, when such a con-
nection would hardly be suspected in the simple elements. Thus
the letter y in Chinese represents a wheeled vehicle. The Hebrew
J is supposed to have been derived from the outline of a camel's
head and neck. The Chinese have a character Ko, which when
joined to the radical Ma, " a horse," is pronounced Lo, and signifies
"a camel." The same character Ko, when joined to the radical
Chay (which is represented by G), signifies " wagon." The form G
can be derived even more easily from the Chinese hieroglyphic re-
presentation of a vehicle [PI. I, fig. 7], than the form j from the
hieroglyphic of a camel. There are many other indications that the
third letter of the alphabet at first signified " a carrier."

I. Some of the Chinese literal analogues appear to furnish an ono-
matopoetic clue to the shape of the letters, that is wanting in the
significance usually attached to the various ancient alphabets. When
we are told that iv means " hand," and £3D " hollow hand," there
seems to be no natural connection between the sound and sense. But
when we find that in Chinese, Ya signifies '' teeth ; the parting
branches of a tree; anything forked;" and that its hieroglyphic re-
presentative is Y, while Keen, *'to gape," is represented by K, the
natural position of the mouth when one is gaping, or calling atten-
tion to the teeth by signs is represented by the forked portions of
those letters.

m. The Chinese characters are not all ideographic. Some of them
are evidently combined phonetically, according to fixed rules of spell-
ing, and others may probably, as M. de Guignes suggests, be com-
posed of a number of alphabetic elements, that spell Hebrew, Pheni-
cian, and other ancient words. M. de Guignes claimed that he
could spell, according to his system, over five hundred Chinese
words, but unfortunately he appears to have left no record of any

1863.] ]^15 [Chase:

except tbe few which he introduces to illustrate his memoir. By
means of the few conjectural letters that he has given, a number of
words may easily be found that tend to corroborate his views, and
although the evidence that they give is by no means conclusive, it
is sufficiently curious and interesting to tempt one to farther investi-
gation*

n. The Chinese writing contains all the elements of the alphabetic
letters, — the horizontal line, the perpendicular, the oblique, the
hook, the curve, the point, — and to each of these efements it attaches
a special meaning. The same reason that leads us to infer the an-
tiquity of an alphabet, from the fact that each of its letters retains a
certain significance, would, a fortiori, indicate the still greater
antiquity of a system that retains a meaning not only for every letter,
but for every element of each letter.

0. Through the study of the Chinese hieroglyphs, the number of
radicals may be greatly reduced, and an alphabet might perhaps be
compiled, uo more extensive than our own, from which all the char-
acters of the language could be formed by combination, according to
simple rules. The whole number of primitive hieroglyphs does not
probably exceed eighty,t and many of these are found only in a few
words. At least two-thirds of the words that are given in the Dic-
tionaries of De Guigues and Morrison, appear to be made up of about
twenty primitives.

p. It is reasonable to suppose that the earliest efforts at speech
would be accompanied by expressive gestures, and that the earliest
writing would employ images suggested by these natural gestures.
We accordingly find, in all known systems of picture writing, that
different portions of the human body occupy a prominent position.
And all the organs which have names corresponding to those of the
Hebrew letters, — the hand, hollow hand, eye, mouth, ear, head,

* Sir William Jones (Asiatic Researches, Vol. II, p. 373), says: "As to the
fancy of M. de Guignes, that the complicated symbols of China were at first no
more than Phenician monograms, let us hope that he has abandoned so wild a
conceit, which he started probably with no other view than to display his inge-
nuity and learning." This criticism, flippant as it seems in view of the distin-
guished scholarship of the French savant, is perhaps justifiable, but the curious
coincidences that M. de Guignes has pointed out, especially those between the
names of the early Chinese and Egyptian kings, are such as to render it still an
open question, not whether all the Chinese symbols were Phenician monograms
(which no one probably ever imagined), but whether any of them may have been
originally formed after the manner of the Egyptian cartouches.

t All the most important ones are given in PI. I, figs. 19 to 90.

Chase.] J'^g [March.

tooth, — are represented in the Chinese hieroglyphics, under a grada-
tion of forms, some of which agree with common forms of the corre-
sponding alphabetic letters.

q. The hand was a prominent hieroglyph with the Egyptians as
well as with the Chinese, and in each language it appears to have
been employed in some form to represent the sounds of C, G, K, E,
andT.

r. The most ancient alphabets exhibit either an entire absence or
a dearth of vowef sounds, and it seems probable that the characters
that subsequently became vocal were all at first consonantal. The
alphabet that was carried by the Pelasgi into Italy, probably about
1400 B. C. [See PI. I], contained only the vowels A, E, I; hence
it has been inferred that these were the oldest vowels. As their
forms may all be derived from Chinese characters signifying '^founda-
tion " or "support," the idea seems plausible that they were intro-
duced after the invention of other letters, as supports or foundations
for the sounds of the mute consonants.

s. Many of the Egyptian and Chinese hieroglyphics exhibit a close
resemblance that appears to indicate a common origin. Instances of
this resemblance may be found in the Chinese Had. 8, Tow, denoting
"top," or "head;" Rad. 10, Jin, which is usually interpreted
"man;" Rad. 14, Meih, "a cover;" Rad. 17, Kan, "gaping;"
Rad. 75, Muh, "tree;" Rad. 102, Teen, "field;" Rad. 119, Me,
"rice." In nearly every case where both the Egyptian hieroglyphs
and the Chinese characters exhibit an alphabetic resemblance, the
Chinese resemblance appears to be the closer of the two.

t. Some of the hieroglyphs would represent the same letter in
Egyptian and Chinese. Thus the Chinese Kan might be substituted
for an Egyptian K [PL I, fig. 10]; one of the Egyptian representa-
tives of M, resembles the Chinese Muh, "a tree" [PI. I, fig. 12,
No. 1], or Me, "rice" [PI. I, fig. 12, Nos. 2, 3, 4]; the serpent L
of Egypt [PI. I, fig, 16], reminds one of the dragon Lung of China;
the ieafy Sh [PI. I, fig. 14, No. 2], and the star S, find marked
analogues in the Chinese Show [PI. I, fig. 14, No. 1], and Sing. In
one instance at least, two of the Egyptian forms for the letter M [PI.
I, fig. 12, Nos. 5, 6], seem to be accounted for by two forms of the
Chinese Rad. 119, Me, "rice." [Do., Nos. 3, 4.]

u. If the supposed derivation of // and 6 from the image of the
sun (see Proceedings A. P. S., 1861, p. 8), is correct, an inte-
resting harmony is traceable in the Egyptian, Greek, and Chinese,
through the scarab^eus which represented the sun, and was also used

1863.] 277 [Chase.

for the letters t and 0, — the rising sun, which was employed both for
H and 9, — the Greek words "HXioq, 0e6^j — and the Chinese figure of
the sun, which resembled the 0 in form. [PI. I, fig. 32,]

X. The rounded shape of the mouth in pronouncing. 0 and U,
makes the open mouth, or the eye, or any other round object, a
natural symbol for those sounds. In the Chinese forms that repre-
sent mouth, eye, and revolving, may be found fac-similes for nearly
all the alphabetic representatives of 0, U, and V. Even the curve
or hook, which the Hebrew 1 was supposed to denote, was represented
in Chinese by one of the characters for mouth.

1/. The Chinese may perhaps furnish a clue to some lost alphabetic
forms, and some unexplained Egyptian symbols. Thus the ancient
form of Z is said to have been ffl. These two forms are both em-
ployed in writing the Chinese Kung, Rad. 48. [PI. II, line 7, Nos.
3, 4.] The Egyptian symbol of life, the crux ansata, may be
readily formed by placing the Chinese Sze, " self" (0), upon Ting,
" to support " (T), as if to imply that which is living or self-support-
ing. This combination is actually employed in the Chinese Yu, ''to
give mutually." [PI. I, fig. 15, Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5.] The Chinese
characters, Shih, "tongue," [Do., No. 1], and Tsze, "child" [Do.,
Nos. 6, 7], have analogous forms, and the former is added to the
radical Shwuy, " water," to form the word Hwo, " living ; to vivify."
The Egyptian winged sun [PI. I, fig. 18, No. 4], may perhaps be
etymologically connected with the Chinese Seih, " what existed in
time past; anciently;" " custom; habit." [Do., Nos. 1, 2, 3.] The
Chinese open mouth, " Kow" [PI. I, fig. 17, Nos. 1, 2], has the
same phonetic value, and nearly the same form as the Egyptian K.
[Do., No. 3.]

z. In attempting to penetrate the mists of the pre-historical past,
it is desirable to make use of every clue that may promise to fur-
nish any guidance. Such a clue has been given us in the names of
the Hebrew and Greek letters, and the significance, — partly well es-
tablished, partly hypothetical, — that has been attached to those
names. Plate II exhibits a few of the Chinese forms, which
seem, both by shape and meaning, to have the most obvious connec-
tion with those employed by other nations.

1.* N. The Hebrew Aleph is said to have denoted "an ox; a
leader; a prince." Some writers have supposed that the letter was

* The figures in the following paragraphs refer to the lines that are similarly
numbered in Plate II.

Chase. 1 2>|g [March.

modelled from the outline of an ox's head, a supposition that seems
somewhat plausible, if we examine the head of the hieroglyphic ox-
hide in PI. I, fig. 72. But the Chinese archetypes in PI. 11, line 1,
all of which appear to denote either foundation, beginning or head,
seem to furnish a more marked correspondence with the most an-
cient forms of the first letter of the alphabet.

2. 3. Beth, "a house; a place; a box." The Chinese arche-
types in the second line denote, 1, " a receptacle ;" 2, " an inclo-
sure ;" 3, 4, 5, 7, " a mound f 6, '' a house."

3. J. Gimel, " a camel." The 8th, 9th, and 10th forms in line
3 of the archetypes, are derived from Bad. 16, ''a support," and
Bad. 8, "a top, or head," denoting " that which supports the head ;
the human neck; the throat; strong; unbending;" &c. The re-
maining forms denote either Ting, " to carry," or Keu, " a carriage."

4. -I, Daleth, " a door." The 5th and 6th of the Archetypal
forms represent a door; the 1st and 7th appear to have been de-
rived from the outline of a knife or hatchet ; the 2d, 3d, and 4th
denote a mouth or opening. The 18th Chinese radical is Taou,
"sword ; knife." [PL II, 1. 22, fig. 6]. The form of the radical is
strikingly like that of the Hebrew Tau, and its name furnishes the
nearest monosyllabic approach that the Chinese can make to the pro-
nunciation of the Sanscrit root dal, ''to cut; to divide."* The He-
brew yh^, " to cleave," appears to connect these several meanings,
and to render it probable that the earliest hieroglyphic representative
of the dental sounds was either " a cleaver," or '' a cleft."

5. n. He, " hollow." The archetypes appear to be all traceable
to difi'erent modifications of Bad. 16, Ke, " niche ; support ;" and
Bad. 21, Pe, " ladle."

6. 1. Vau, "hook." The Chinese forms signify either " hand,"
"claw," "angular," or "hooked."

7. \. Zayin, "armor." The 3d and 4th archetypes are forms of
Bad. 48, Kung, "work; art." This radical is sometimes represented
by a hand. The others may be derived either from the hieroglyph
of a hand, or of something carried in the hands, — as a bow, a child,
or a shield. That the primitive idea was that of carrying, is ren-
dered the more probable from the relative positions of the Latin, He-
brew, and Greek letters, C, J, /', and 6, |, Z.

8. n. Hheth ; meaning doubtful. The Chinese forms may be de-
rived from " table," and " sun."

=* Compare Ger. thai ; Eng. tale, deal.

1863.] ]_'J9 [Chase.

9. £3. Tetli, meaning unknown. The archetypes are all employ-
ed to represent the sun.* Forms somewhat similar are sometimes
used for the mouth. The Egyptian character for "splendor," is
sometimes written nearly like D, and sometimes nearly like the fourth
archetype.

10. \ Yodh, " hand." The third archetype sometimes signifies
" to put aside ; to reject." The other three are different forms of the
hieroglyphic hand.

11. 2. Kaph, "hollow hand." The Chinese characters signify
" hollow ; opening or separating ; branching." The first and second
forms are sometimes used for a hand in the act of grasping; the
fifth, which is one of the modifications of Had. 75, Muh, "a tree,"
appears to be the archetype of the sixth and seventh alphabetic K's.

12. 4. Lamedh, "to instruct; expert." The archetypes are all
forms of Rads. 9 and 10, which are both called Jin, and are both
evidently modifications of a single radical. The ordinary definitions
are "man; high;" but "top; head or covering," appears probably
to have been the primitive meaning. The same primitive often
assumes the form of R [PI. II, 1. 20, figs. 1, 3]. The phonetic con-
nection of L and R, renders it probable that the ideas of " instruc-
tion " and " head " may have been associated in the minds of the
inventors of the alphabet.

13. 0. Mem, " water." The first three Chinese forms denote
''water" or "a channel." The fourth and fifth represent a bud or
shoot. The sixth is one of the forms of Rad. 119, Me, "rice," to
which reference has already been made.

14. J. Nun, "fish; snake." Archetypes 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6, are
different forms of the Chinese character Nae. M. Abel-Remusat,f
in a letter to Baron Humboldt, treats somewhat fully of its various
meanings, all of which seem to involve the idea of flowing, connec-
tion, or continuance. The third and fourth forms might easily be
imagined to represent fishes or snakes, but it seems more probable
that they were derived from the hieroglyph for " water," which is
one of most common Egyptian representatives for the sound of n. In
some Chinese words (the word King, for instance), water is depicted
under a gradation of forms, some of which are precisely like the
Egyptian. The Egyptian hieroglyph for " Nile" or " river," is made
up of two characters, one of which resembles the Chinese Nae, and

* v. ajite, n.

t Nouveau Journal Asiatique, Vol. XI, pp. 273-282.

Chase.] JgQ [March.

the other may have been intended for a receptacle or mouth (Coptic
Lo). It may, therefore, have been designed to express phonetically
the Greek word NetXog. The curved stroke at the right of the sixth
form, which corresponds precisely with some of the most common
alphabetic N's, forms also the principal part of the Chinese charac-
ters Kaou, " air, vapor," and Yen, " a long journey." The fifth
figure. Sin, "a heart," would, according to the rules of Chinese or-
thography, represent a final N, and it may be the archetype of the
heart-shaped N in the Punic inscriptions.

15. D. Saraech, "prop." The first figure in line 15 represents
a prop or support; the others are forms of the word San or Sam,
" three."

16. ;r. 'Ayin, "eye." The Chinese word Yen, "an eye," may
be the root of 'Ayin. The third archetype is one of the most com-
mon hieroglyphs for the eye ; the others denote either the mouth, or
whatever is round or rolling.

17. D. Pe, "mouth." All of the Chinese forms in line 17 are
employed to represent the mouth. In the Chinese word Too, the
primitive which denotes "mouth" or " inclosure," is written in the
various forms of 2, £3, P, B.

18. y. Tsadhi, "locust?" Tsaou Chung, in Chinese, signifies
"a locust." The archetypal forms represent a sharp, shrill, "cut-
ting" sound.

19. p. Koph, " ear." The Chinese characters represent either
" ear " or " orifice."

20. "\. Kesh, " head." The archetypes are all found either
among the forms of Rad. 181, Hee, "head," or in the outlined
heads of animal hieroglyphs. [PI. I, figs. 63, 64, 78.] The word
Hee is as near an approach as the Chinese can make by a single ut-
terance, to the pronunciation of the Hebrew monosyllable Resh.
The character P, which is found in lines 17, 18, 19, and 20, is
usually employed to represent Rad. 26, Tsee. The Tsee was an in-
strument of stone, horn, or bamboo, by which officers were appointed
or authorized to act. After having letters engraved upon it, it was
cut through the middle ; one half was retained at court, and the
other given to the person appointed. The same character is some-
times employed for Fow, " a mound," and for Chung, " the middle ;
within ; half," and it forms the principal part of the word Ling, "to
order; to enjoin." Chung is commonly represented by a mouth di-
vided by a line passing through its centre.

21. cy. Shin, " tooth." The archetypal resemblances do not point

1863.]

181

[Chase.

SO strongly to a single primitive, as in the case of some of the other
letters. Analogues are found in the characters which represent
mountain, mouth, teeth, arm, and water. The alphabetic resemblances
between the various forms of M and Sh (lines 13 and 21), would
seem to point to '' water " as the earliest symbol of the two sounds.

22. n. Tau, meaning doubtful. The idea of cutting or piercing,
appears to be conveyed by each of the Chinese forms. (See remarks
on line 4 above.)

EXPLANATION OF THE HIEROGLYPHS ON PLATE I.

(For Nos. 1 to ]8, see references above.)

19.

Taou. A knife.

53.

Yu. Wings.

20.

Tseih. A battle-axe.

54.

Urh. Ear.

21.

Kow. A mouth.

55.

Juh. Flesh.

22.

Yew. Hand.

56.

Chin. Official cap.

23,

24. Yue. Moon.

57.

Pe. Nose.

25.

Neu. Woman.

58.

Kew. Mortar (v. 86).

26.

Tsze. Child.

59.

Shih. Tongue.

27.

Shan. Mountain.

60.

Tsaou. Herbs.

28.

Chuen. Channel.

61.

Chuen.* Boat.

29.

Kung. Bow.

62.

Yen. To speak.

30.

Sin. Heart.

63,

64. Shin. A body.

31.

Wan. A painting.

65.

Keu. A carriage.

32.

Jih. Sun.

66.

Yew. Liquor.

33.

Muh. Wood.

67.

Mun. Doors.

34.

Moo. Mother.

68,

69. Chuy. A short-tailed bird,

35.

Ke. Vapor; spirit.

70.

Yu. Rain.

36.

Shwuy. Water.

71.

Fe. False (v. 74).

37.

Ho. Fire.

72.

Kih. A hide.

38.

Pan. A support.

73.

Hee. Head.

39.

Ya. Tooth, tusk.

74.

Fe. To fly.

40.

Neu. Ox.

75,

76. Show. Head.

41.

Wa. A tile.

77.

Heang. Fragrance.

42.

Teen. Field.

78,

79. Yu. Fish.

43.

Pih. White; pure.

80.

Neaou. Bird.

44.

Ming. Dishes.

81.

Mang. Frog.

45.

Muh. The eye.

82.

Ting. A tripod.

46.

Ho. Grain.

83,

84. Tseo. Sacrificial cup.

47.

Leih. To erect.

85,

86. Che. Teeth.

48.

Me. Rice.

87,

88. Lung. Dragon.

49.

Chuh. Bamboo.

89,

90. Kwei. Tortoise.

50,

51, 52. Wang. Net.

* The first form is Chinese, the second Egyptian.

VOL. IX. Y

Chase.] Ig2 [March.

In the varied character of the resemblances that have been thus
briefly pointed out, extending, as they do, not only to all the customary
forms that are found in memorial inscriptions, but also to the modern
running hand, there seems to be a mass of circumstantial evidence,
which leads almost irresistibly to the conclusion that the whole his-
tory of the invention and gradual perfection of alphabetic writing,
must be still preserved in the literature and monuments of China.
Of the antiquity of the Chinese Tsaou Shoo, or cursive script, and
the recent introduction of similar forms into our own writing, there
can be little doubt. It seems to be established beyond any reasona-
ble cavil, that the former has been in use for at least two thousand
years. There is a noteworthy coincidence between the date of the
Saxon running hand (in the eighth or ninth century), and the Au-
gustan age of Saracen literature and empire, which renders it pro-
bable that the learned Mahometans may have communicated to the
scholars of Europe, a knowledge of the rapidly-formed Jetters that
had long been used in Asia, and that the advantages arising from
their use were so evident as to lead to their speedy general adoption.

Extracts from a letter were read from Prof. J. D. Whitney,
geologist of California, relating to the survey of that State,
promising the publication soon of one or two valuable volumes
of reconnoissance, to be followed by special reports in due
time, at the order of the Legislature. " Our results," Mr.
Whitney writes, " are, I think, likely to interest the geologi-
cal world quite strongly. We have found the geology of
California to be very different from what it had been repre-
sented to be by the Pacific Railroad geologists." Mr. Whit-
ney expects to spend the spring months in additional field-
work in the Sierra Nevada, before publishing.

1863.] Ig3 LL^^l^y-

Professor Lesley communicated a notice of a remarkable
coal mine or Asphalt vein, cutting the horizontal Coal-mea-
sures of Wood County, Western Virginia.

Mr. Lesley said, that through the kindness of R. H. Gratz, Esq.,
of Philadelphia, a descriptive letter and a map had been submitted
to him, which exhibited geological facts of more than ordinary interest
to those who are studying the origin of the rock-oil deposits of the
West. This letter agrees with previously received, but vague, reports
of a true vein of bituminous coal or bitumen. The curious points of
the case require careful investigation ; but there seems to be no good
reason to doubt the essential correctness of the statement.

The mine is situated on a four hundred acre tract of woodland
(oak, elm, maple, walnut, &c.), the position of which, in relation to
the rivers and railroad of the neighborhood, will be best shown by
the accompanying map. Plate III. It may be well to premise a few
words about the coal-measure region in the heart of which it lies.

By referring to any map of all Virginia, it will appear that the
North and South Branches of Hughes River unite and flow into the
Little Kanawha about thirteen miles (in a direct line) above its junc-
tion with the Ohio at Parkersburg. The mine itself is somewhat
over twenty miles (in an air line) southeast of Parkersburg, and a
little under eight miles in an air line, south 4° west (both true and
magnetic), from the bridge of the Parkersburg Branch of the Balti-
more and Ohio Railroad over the North Branch of Hughes River.

Two peculiarities mark this '^ coal vein." 1. It is vertical, while
all the stratification of the country is nearly horizontal ; and strikes
S. 78° W. (N. 78° E.), whereas the strike of the country is S. 35°
to 40° W. (N. 35° to 40° E.) 2. It is a solid bitumen-vein rather
than a coal-bed.

1. The country of the neighborhood is that of the central part of
the great synclinal, which crosses the Ohio below Pittsburg, and
stretches down through Western Virginia parallel to the Ohio River,
into Eastern Kentucky. Across this broad and flat synclinal of coal-
measure rocks there flow from southeast to northwest, to fall into
the Ohio successively, -beginning at the north, the branches of the
Little Kanawha, of the Great Kanawha, the Guyandot, the forked
branches of the Great Sandy, (and then in Kentucky) the head-
waters of the Kentucky, the headwaters of the Cumberland, and
finally in Tennessee, the headwaters of the Caney. All these fan-
shaped water-basins have their highest or southeastern limit defined

Lesley.] 184 [March.

by the strike (N. E. and S. W.) of the more upturned rocks of the
southeastern side of the synclinal. With the exception of the Great
Kanawha main stream, a line drawn along so as just to touch the ex-
treme tips of all the outermost twigs of these water-trees, will give
the southeastern limit of the great Alleghany Mountain or Cumber-
land Mountain coal area. Their waters collect in flowing northwest,
break through the central measures and higher coals of the synclinal,
and either join the Ohio (which flows along the depression between
the upper and lower coal systems of the True Carboniferous), or the
Kentucky and Cumberland Rivers further south.

From this short description it may be inferred, and it is a correct
inference, that this belt of synclinal, is in great measure an irre-
claimable mountain wilderness; a labyrinth of narrow hog-back
ridges and steep, deep, winding vales, providing spaces for agricul-
ture only along the narrow margins of the principal streams, and at
here and there a little upland plain, caught in between the head-
waters of half a dozen fan-shaped systems of drainage ; but all the
rest covered with an everlasting forest, folding over the furrowed
face of the earth. The region consists in fact of myriads of secluded
glens, surrounded by stair-like cliff's from four to eight hundred feet
in height, and separated by spiculse of mountain, which shoot out
from the more central water-divides, like crystals of ice over the sur-
face of a pool. The extremely tortuous course of the principal
streams is illustrated by the map. They do not flow from side to side
of wide, flat valleys, but around sharp mountain prongs, which point
across towards opposite open ravines or valleys of considerable
length. These prongs descend from the dividing high lands, like
the spurs of the Pyrenees from the central ridge, but in long steps,
the strata being nearly horizontal, and each sandrock in the descending
order carrying the nose out further than the one above it. Narrow
terraces carry the outcrops of the long steps of the nose, round each
side of the prong along the steep side of the valley.

The coal-beds pass horizontally through the pronglike ridges from
valley to valley. Some of these ridges run as narrow on top and
as regular as railroad embankments, for three or four miles, and in
nearly straight" lines, between equally straight vales terminating bowl-
shaped against some cross ridge.

It is across such vales and dividing ridges, that the Asphaltum
vein of Wood County makes a straight course, A B upon the map,
"2323 feet long, as at first measured, but since then traced in both
directions still further, so that now it is known to extend more than

1863.1 185 [Lesley.

two-thirds of a mile." Explorations beyond this line have failed to
find it. Its outcrop, four feet ten inches thick, was discovered cross-
ing a ravine fifty feet wide at the bottom, and rising on each side
with slopes of nearly forty-five degrees. On one of these hillsides at
a height of ninety feet, the outcrop showed the same thickness, but
at a height of one hundred and eighty-five feet, it was found to be
but two feet six inches thick. It is not certain that this diminution
is in a vertical direction ; it may be lateral ; for the slope between
the ninety and the hundred and eighty-five feet levels is more gra.
dual, especially upon the western side.

In the bottom of the ravine, a vertical shaft was sunk to a depth
of thirty-four feet upon the vein, which continued uniformly four
feet ten inches thick, the asphaltum being filled in, pure and clean,
without the least admixture of earthy or foreign ingredients, between
the smooth and almost perfectly vertical walls of yellowish-greenish
sandstone, lying in horizontal layers, through which this gash or fault
was once no doubt an open fissure, communicating with some reservoir
of coal oil, which still, it may be, lies beneath it undisturbed. The
most interesting part of the phenomenon for structural geologists is
this gash.

2. The substance which fills this gash-fault in the coal-measures of
Northwestern Virginia, resembles the glossiest, fattest caking coals,
and has a decidedly prismatic structure; breaks up into pencils, with
flat, lustrous faces and sharp edges, but the faces not set at any fixed
angles to each other; so that the effect upon the eye is rather that
of a fibrous than of a prismatic structure. At the same time there
is not the slightest appearance of layers, but the aspect of complete
uniformity or homogeneity. Pieces are taken out, it seems, a foot
in diameter; and that portion of one of these pieces which I have,
shows a plain face on one side, as if it had encountered one of the
walls, and is covered with a delicate film of a dead black substance
like charcoal dust, which is probably the dust of the vein substance
itself.

"Pieces lying at the surface of the ground are said to yield as much
oil as specimens taken out six or eight feet down. By the ordinary
dry distillation, the substance is reported to yield as much oil as the
Albert coal. By a different process, the first and only trial, at which
600 pounds in one charge was used, 44^ gallons of superior oil was
obtained. Retorts are now upon the ground."

By an assay made by Mr. B. S. Lyman, of Philadelphia (the
amount of hydrocarbon soluble in benzole being about one-half of the

Lesley.] 286 [March.

whole) the volatile matter (mean of two assays) was 47.11 per cent.,
Coke (52.71, 53.07) 52.89; Ash (1.65, 1.81) 1.73.

There seems to be no escape from the conclusion that the sub-
stance filling this vertical vein is a product of the gradual oxidation
of coal oil once filling the open fissure. It is not impossible there-
fore that the lower regions of the fissure are still filled with liquid
oil; and that we may see in this instance an illustration of the con-
dition of things far beneath the surface of the coal oil regions of
Western Pennsylvania and Eastern Ohio. The vast quantities of oil
delivered by the flowing, the blowing, and the spouting wells require
fissures of this kind, either never opened up clear to the surface, or
else once opened and now reclosed, or else filled in with detritus.
The diff"erent depths at which closely neighboring wells begin to
spout or to flow, oblige us to imagine similar fissures at oblique an-
gles. If Sterry Hunt's hypothesis be accepted, that the Corniferous
Limestone is the mother rock of the oil, such fissures become still
more needful to bring the oil to the surface, from the vast depths at
which the Corniferous Limestone underlies the True Coal-measures.

Vanuxem first described the films and buttons of " anthracite," as
he called it, with and in the quartz crystals of the Calciferous Sand-
rock of New York, at the base of the Silurian system. Mr. Hunt
describes the veins and fissures of all the limestone, shale, and sand-
stone members of the great Quebec Group (which is the enlarged
equivalent of the Calciferous in New England and Canada) as fre-
quently either lined or filled with a similar substance. Sometimes
the varnish lining has cracked in shrinking; sometimes botryoidal
masses of it have been left; sometimes hundreds of pounds of it are
packed away solid in the crevices. In one exceedingly instructive
case the vein of bitumen, inclosed in walls of rock crystal, is itself
cut by thin seams of quartz.*

* Hunt in Amer. Journal, March, 1S63, p. 163. The force of the argument
deducible from this fact, against the igneous, and in favor of the aqueous produc-
tion of our quartz veins, will he felt at a glance. I cannot but express my sur-
prise that Sir David Brewster should continue to claim as an argument for the
igneous theory, the presence of two different elastic hydrocarbon fluids in cavi-
ties in topaz, beryl, and diamond, especially in regard to the permanent compres-
sion they have effected in the molecular structure of the walls of the cavities, as
detected by polarized light. (Trans. R. S. Edinb., XXIII, i.) Yet M. Fournet
supports his argument. (Comptes-rendus, LI, p. 42, LIII, pp. 83, 610 ; Geol.
Lyonnaise, Lyons. 18C1, pp. 633, 715, quoted by Sir David Brewster.) While M.
Elie de Beaumont rests for its refutation on the volatility of the fluids, and the
frequency of fluid-cavities in all quartz gangue rock. (Comptes-rendus, LIII, p.
83.) Sir David Brew-titer says that M. Fournet "has removed this difiiculty "
(Geol. Lyon., p. 536), but does not say how.

1863.1 ]_g7 [Lesley.

In these older instances of bitumen veins, we see small prototypes
of the large vein under consideration.

The point of the phenomenon most interesting to structural geolo-
gists is this : Two opposite deductions are possible from the facts as
made known, on the one side in favor of the vast antiquity of the
coal oil, and on the other side in favor of the recent denudation of
the surface. If we have in this vein a deposit of coal oil hardened
by time and the absorption of oxygen, it is certain that the cutting
out of the ravines across which it lies, must have taken place subse-
quently ; for the outcrop rises to a height of nearly two hundred feet on
each side of the bottom of the ravine in which the shaft is sunk. I
do not learn from the report whether detached blocks or pieces of the
bitumen occur upon the surface, or in the alluvium of the vale below
the crossing of the vein. But that is of no consequence to the prin-
ciple. The valleys which it crosses must be younger than the vein,
if the vein was filled with fluid oil. Hunt shows plainly (see Sill.
Journ., March, I860, p. 107), that the oil wliich fills the fossil casts
of particular exceptional strata in the Lower Devonian Formation (as
in Bertee Township on the Niagara River opposite Buffalo), must
be an original deposit, and not a subsequent infiltration or exudation,
inasmuch as it has lined with oxidized bitumen the cavities of the
fossil casts in this stratum, and not those in similar strata above and
below.

All that we know of the grooving of the surface of our palseozoic
areas consents to the great antiquity of the action, whatever that
action may have been. To demonstrate the antiquity of the Corni-
ferous coal oil, is merely to give more room for the antiquity of the
oil. Yet, the denudation, however ancient we may make it, must
still be kept more modern than the antecedent formation of the coal
oil and its change to bitumen.

The date of the formation of the oil may be placed anywhere be-
yond the close of the Paleeozoic era, even as far back as the begin-
ning of the Devonian, or even in Lower Silurian times ; since the
Quebec Group is also the home of oil. The denudation of the sur-
face of the coal areas, cannot of course be put back beyond the uplift
of that area into the air.

There remain two hypotheses for dating this denudation. One
class of geologists, the Cataclysmists, give the date of the uplift as the
date of the denudation ; make the two phenomena related and depen-
dent parts of one great action. The other class, the Secularists, re-
gard the present face of the country as but the latest phase of an

Lesley.] 188 [March.

infinite series, beginning at the uplift and still in progress. An
intermediate view, held perhaps by some eclectics, supposes a succes-
sion of denuding actions of unknown force and indefinite number.

As to the Appalachian region of the United States, I think that
the principal special objection to the theory of one cataclysm (apart
from general considerations) has not been mentioned, or at least
clearly stated. And yet it seems to me of great force. It is a de-
duction from the fact that the estuary bed of the New Red deposit,
taken as a grand whole, can hardly be regarded otherwise than as a
part of the Post Carboniferous denuded surface, and therefore subse-
quently formed to the great cataclysm supposed by that theory to
have produced that surface. For the surface of the New Red is
eroded exactly in the style, and in the direction of, and in entire
harmony with the erosion of the surface of the Coal ; which of course
would make the supposed cataclysm subsequent to both. Two cata-
clysms being therefore required, a new difficulty appears.

Supposing the first cataclysm to have eroded the palaeozoic areas,
so that the deepest valleys of erosion nearest the Atlantic seaboard
could be filled in with New Red deposits, why were these deposits
restricted to the New Red estuaries, so well known as to need no
description here ? Every one is aware that New Red is nowhere
seen behind the range of the South Mountain or Blue Ridge. Yet
there are plenty of gaps wide and deep enough to let it through. If
it had ever been deposited in the great Lower Silurian Valley behind
that range, no cataclysm can be supposed to have acted with such
consummate skill and completeness, that not a hillock or corner bit
should have remained to tell the story of where its outspread masses
bad originally lain.

If now, to meet this difficulty, the Cataclysmist brings down the
date of his first agency to Post Secondary days, and imagines the
New Red rocks to have been excluded from the Great Valley because
in fact, no such valley, and no gaps leading into it, had as yet been
formed, he not only encounters the old difficulty of providing its es-
tuary bed for the New Red, but in addition to that, the awkward
statement that the gigantic anticlinals of tha Palaeozoic age, once
made, remained, uplifting their more than Andean or Himalayan
masses in the sky, (with all the climatal consequences of such a
supposition), during all the ages through which the so-called Per-
mian of Kansas, and the New Red, and the so-called Oolite of the
Atlantic seaboard, were depositing their layers.

And when he has settled all this properly, the discussion will re-

1863.] 289 [Lesley.

open upon him in the same form anew, so soon as the denudation of
the Cretaceous and Tertiary surfaces come to be regarded as in like
manner in harmony with those of older dates.

At Cornwall, sis miles south of Lebanon, hills of New Red Sand-
stone, three, four, and perhaps five hundred feet high, stand, looking
in upon the great Silurian plain, like Peris at the gates of a Paradise
they cannot enter. If along this line ?i fault, has in fact carried the
New Red down to the present level of the Silurian plain, the denu-
dation of the two surfaces is nevertheless so far one phenomenon,
that in its present condition it is to be explained by reference to
actions subsequent to the deposit of the Conglomerate, or upper-
most New Red layer, the so-called Potomac marble. But the hypo-
thesis of a fault along the south base of the South Mountain is a
pure fiction of embarrassment. If it existed anywhere, it must ex-
tend several hundred miles, and be approximately a straight line.
The most cursory glance at the geological map of Pennsylvania will
satisfy any one that no such fault exists. The succession of spurs of
the mountain range forbids it. The gophered edge of the New Red
on the Lancaster County limestone forbids it, and shows how entirely
superficial the New Red is. No river section shows the fault. It
is a pure fiction. The northwest dip of the New Red against the
Azoic mountain range is still a problem to be solved.

The hypothesis of suboceanic erosion, contended against by the
geologists of the United States almost from the beginning, is fast
losing, if it has not lost altogether its hold upon the European mind.
The conviction is well established, which we freely expressed years
ago, that the ocean is a builder and not a leveller. Like the quie-
tistic and subjective letter M, which was its symbol in ancient litera-
ture, the main, the murmuring Typhon, has always been the absorber,
and the mother of multitudes. While the fringe of foaming breakers,
the Herculean Hydra, and in fact all river water, the rushing and
hissing Typhon, of which the letter S was symbolic, has always been
the destroyer, the enemy of the established, the ravager of the sur-
face. It was upon this basis that some subaerial cataclysmic hypo-
thesis like that of Professor Rogers came to be favored by those
who knew the grandeur of the work which had been done by the
denuding force whatever it was, among the paloeozoic anticlinals of
America; and who felt the perfect harmony which reigned over the
whole expanse of the phenomenon, from the Tertiary seaboard of the
Atlantic and the Gulf, past the beds of the great freshwater Devo-

VOL. IX. — z

Lesley.] J^QQ [March

nian and Silurian lakes, to the original shores of the Laurentian Con-
tinent.

We cannot regard, therefore, without some natural chagrin, the
latest treatment of the subject by Professor Tyndale and Professor
Ramsay, of England ; for these accomplished observers not only take
up our own old views with all the empressement of new discoveries,
but make what seems to us the very absurd attempt to carry the
petty energies of mountain floods and local glaciers up to the
work of excavating, not merely lakes like those of Como, Constance,
and Geneva, but such seas as Lake Huron and Lake Superior. It
is gratifying, however, to see that such views can be refuted by
European observers, who have never encountered the phenomenal
problems of America. The impossibility that a moving glacier after
descending to sea level, should excavate the bed of a lake, and con-
tinue to move up and over its farther end, even taking the smallest
Alpine lake known for an example, is admirably demonstrated by Mr.
Ball in the February number of the London, Edinburgh, and Dublin
Philosophical Magazine for 1863. If this be not possible for the
tarns among the valleys where glaciers are at home, how can it be
possible for lakes and seas, where the existence of glaciers at any
epoch is a theory ? And how reckless of all consequences must that
theory be, which reads an incantation to these icy demons, to accom-
plish the symmetrical erosion of a triangular area of earth-surface a
thousand miles on each side long, the southern angle of which touches
the parallel of 33° !

Professor Ramsay calls attention to the remarkable fact that the
lakes of Europe and America seem to be confined to the scratched
and grooved portion of the hemisphere, and that they are not found
further south than the drift, except in Alpine, that is to say, in gla-
cial regions. This is a coincidence, indeed, which ought to harmonize
the two phenomena under some theory ; but not necessarily subordi-
nate the one to the other as effect and cause. I have no satisfactory
explanation to give for the coincidence. The special reasons for the
existence of each separate lake can be easily pointed out. The dam-
ming back of the waters of the New York Devonian lakes, including
Erie and Huron, are due to the gentle northward rise of their floor-
rock. Lakes in the same soft Devonian measures, are numerous
along the valley of Pennsylvania, at the foot of the Alleghany Moun-
tain, but only where the measures are gently inclined. Lakes dis-
appear from the map as the eye passes southeastward over the more
upturned regions. Steepness of dip is hostile to deep excavation.

1863.] 291 [Lesley.

The reverse is true of erosion above water-level. Steepness of dip is
favorable to aerial disintegration, to the dissection of stratification, to
the subdivision of one massif into several, and of one hillock into
many ; hence to the general degradation of the surface under air.
But under water the reverse is true.

In the Laurentian and Huronian, Scandinavian or Azoic regions of
the North, where distortion and plication have revelled from the be-
ginning to reduce things to anarchy, and where alternate potash
rocks and limestones form the boldest contrast of endurance and
decay, lakes abound. A clean, smooth drainage system, worked out
so completely (without stating the agency) as to leave no holes, nor
cul de sacs pointing in the wrong direction, nor crooked lakes, is
possible only when the .stratification is clean and in good order, cut-
ting equally and smoothly in all directions according to the force,
and permitting the law of compensation to have free course in the
establishment of a common and gently declining niveau of reference
to water-level. But any conceivable erosive agency, cataclysmic or
secular, must encounter a million contretemps, in smoothing oif its
work over a country like Canada, where no outcrop runs fir without
doubling like a hare. Sir William Logan has shown that the crooked
lakes and lake-like rivers of that country conform to the plications
of the primary limestone belts.

Mr. Ball's own hypothesis of an original fault structure for the
lake system of the Alps is not new, and is open to as much objection
on other grounds, as the theory of Professor Bamsay which he over-
throws. If applied to the Devonian lake system of New York and
Pennsylvania, and therefore, of course, to the thorough-cut valley sys-
tem of the Carboniferous plateau of the Alleghany Mountains of
Northern Pennsylvania, it will not find a fact to stand upon. Not a
trace of fault structure is to be seen over all that immense region ;
yet the erosion is in straight lines, north and south, and from five
hundred to a thousand feet deep. Also not a trace of original glacial
action can be found. Diluvial striae are rare ; moraines and taluses
are wanting. Not one has yet been recorded, if any exist, nor have
I ever seen throughout that region, any resemblance to one which
did not resolve itself on examination into a barrier outcrop, slightly
masked by soil or local drift; and even instances of this kind are
rare.

On the other hand, throughout that whole region, the Lyellist
can find no evidence of a slow wear and tear through the ages. The
region is swept too clean for that. There are no piles of detritus, no

Lesley.] 192 [March.

cones at the mouths of ravines, no plains of sand and clay, no deltas
at the embouchures of streams and heads of lakes, such as, in the
Auvergne, and in the Alps and Pyrenees, impress the traveller with
an instantaneous and irresistible conviction of slow wear and tear. On
the contrary, the walls of the valleys, high as they are, are vertical
bluffs, alternating with taluses of angular blocks fallen from them ;
the bottoms of the valleys are clean ; the lakes have steep shores, and
the plains are covered with the disintegration of their own rocks.
Everything one sees tells one story, and that the story of a cataclysm
which, at one sweep, accomplished valleys, plains, and lakes, leaving
next to nothing for all coming time to do, but to protect the surface
with vegetation, and to send an annual contribution of the meanest
value by the rivers to the sea.

Two systems of valleys characterize the result, as we now study
it. One parallel with the coast, and produced by the sweeping away
of the tops of anticlinals from one to twenty miles wide and miles
in height; the other a transverse system of river bottoms, sunk some
few feet or yards below the longitudinal valley which they cross, and
of deep, clean, straight gaps through the bounding mountains. It
is demonstrable that these two systems are but two parts of one, and
owe their origin to the same agency, and at essentially the same
time. The peculiar relationship of the rivers to the gaps is sufficient
of itself to prove this. Not a foult has been demonstrated in any of
these gaps. One fault transverse to the Tussey Mountain occurs
near one gap, that of the Juniata, and as if, by its loneliness and ex-
centric position, for the express purpose of excepting to such a theory,
if at any time one should be presented. . It is not until the geologist
has passed through the whole region, and has reached its southeast-
ern limit, that he suspects a faulty gap. The Kittatinny or North
Mountain is said to be foulted at the Delaware Water Gap, and at the
Susquehanna; but so the Sharp Mountain was said to be faulted at
the Swatara Gap, until careful in.strumental work proved that the
coal-beds on each side of the gap were not a hair's breadth out of
line. A fault at the Susquehanna is evidently absent, for the very
outcrops of the different sandrocks can be traced, at low water,
from side to side. And the foult at the Delaware Water Gap is, I
believe, nothing but an effect of perspective upon the eye, produced
by the inclined lines of cliff, unsymmetrically wrought out on the
two sides of the gap, because the cutting force worked in a curve,
produced by the presence of the expiring lied Hill anticlinal on its
northern slope.

1863.] 293 ■ [Lesley.

No. The excavation of the Appalachian surface has not been
determined by transverse faults; but entirely by longitudinal flex-
ures ; and has not been accomplished by glaciers ; nor by rain and
river water; still less sub oceano. By what then? I think much
must be discovered before the question can -be answered, if we reject
subaerial deluge action. What for example do we know yet of the
internal structure of those deep diluvions or alluvions which occur in
our transverse river-bottoms, where they cross the longitudinal valleys
of Devonian olive shale ? They seem to be ancient lakes, excavated
at the time the topography of the valleys and mountains was deter-
mined, and filled with river tra.sh. As they occur in the transverse
river valleys, they seem to own the rivers for progenitors. But being
in line with the gaps, the occupation of them by the rivers seems, on
the contrary, to be as fortuitous as the river-occupation of the gaps.
Moreover, the present rivers are evidently the degenerate representa-
tives of grander floods, and the silt of these depressions, judging by
the surface, is of too gross and hasty a nature for collection by less
than such original deluges. But supposing this also to be a fancy,
what relation does the glacial hypothesis, which presumes to annul
the necessity for a cataclysmic eroding agent, propose to bear to
parallels of latitude ?

Wherein does the valley of the New River or Kanawha difi"er from
that of the Susquehanna or Delaware, except in having no New York
corals or Canada syenites among its pebbles. In every structural
feature they are alike; and like the valley of the Tennessee in Ala-
bama. There is no change in the height or constitution or form of
the mountain plateau through which they cut. There is no change
in the range to the southeast of them which can aff'ect the question;
for the Black Mountains of North Carolina, even if liable to suspi-
cion as glacier-bearers, are far enough removed from the New River
on the north, and the Tennessee on the south, to be of no account in
this discussion. Is the glacial hypothesis prepared to defend its
claims in Middle Alabama under the parallel of 33° ? If not, then
it has no claims to any feature of the Catskill Mountains under the
parallel of 43°, except their scratches; to which, so far as the gene-
sis of mountains and valleys is concerned, it is quite welcome. Yet
precisely this bonbon Professor Ramsay refuses it ; for he maintains
(against Dana), that the striae at the Catskill Mountain House were
made by icebergs floating down the Hudson estuary, and not at all
by glaciers. There is a disposition manifested of late among the
American geologists, of the New England school, to fill each of the

Lesley.] 194 [March.

great valleys of the North with a great glacier of its own, naming
them the Penobscot Glacier, the Connecticut Glacier, the Hudson
Glacier, the Mohawk Glacier, the Susquehanna Glacier, &c. In view
of Kane and Hayes's discoveries of the present state of things in Green-
land, and for easy accounting not only for such groups of east and
west and north and south striae as appear at Cherry Valley, the Cats-
kill House, and Wilkesbarre, but also for those which cross the pol-
ished summits of our highest mountain tops, such as the Penobscot
Knob which looks down upon the valley of Wyoming, there is
not the same objection felt now as was at first expressed against the
Agassizan cope of ice for the hemisphere. President Hitchcock
finds its reliquial glaciers in the valleys of Hampshire and Berkshire,
and Professor Dana explains the absence of moraines now by the
absence of any aiguilles to overhang and shed their stone-slides upon
the back, or upon the edges of its subdivided streams.

The thus admitted absence of moraines, and the excuse advanced
for it, return us unexpectedly to the starting-point of the discussion,
the question. Could ice have fashioned our topography? No one
doubts its ability to scratch and groove and polish. Can it excavate ?
And if it can, what is the limit of its excavating power? Leaving
the glacialists of the fixed-ice school and the floating-ice school to settle
between them the force, frequency, direction, and exact modus operandi
of striation, quite sure that they will at least agree on the date of the
phenomenon as very recent, we are left at liberty to revert to those
more remote days, when the broad-backed anticlinals rose into the
sky higher than any Alpine aiguilles or Andean volcanic cones; to
speculate on, 1, Whether they were unbroken vaults; or split along
their axes ; 2. If split, whether split completely down to water-level,
or how far; 3. Whether glaciers could have been then formed at all ;
4. Whether, if formed, they could excavate a valley five or ten miles
deep into the heart of an unbroken anticlinal; or 5, Do more than
polish the central gorge, if the anticlinal were broken ; 6. How such
a central glacier could escape from such a gorge sideways, or in any
direction but endwise, at the limits of the crack; or 7. Fail to leave
high walls, alpine ranges, peaks, aiguilles, and moraines behind it
when it disappeared.

Surely the glacialist must startle back from such an incredible pic-
ture. The great obstacle in the way of topographical science among
geologists, has been an innocent ignorance of the titanic postulates
upon the ground ; and therefore, an inability to reconstruct in imagi-
nation the awful vaults of rock which have been removed from over

186.3.] ;[95 [Lesley.

at least fifty thousand square miles of the surface of the United
States, merely along the one belt of the Appalachian Mountains, be-
tween the great coal area and the Blue Ridge range. What has re-
moved these massifs ? The excavation of a hundred Lake Superiors
to the depth of two thousand feet would not present the same diffi-
culties. Either a cataclysmic subaerial deluge mighty enough to do
the work, or a series of such deluges following each other until the
work was done, or the atmospheric agencies at work on every square
inch of the whole area for almost an infinity of ages, — one or other of
these three must be the accepted force. Ice may come in for its share
of the byplay, at various and very early times (as Ramsay has made
probable in Shropshire) as well as in the last days of its glory, the
stamp of which we see left upon our outcrop surfaces; but to make it
the initial agency of such erosion is absurd. The power of ice could no
more have swept those symmetrical palaeozoic arches into the Atlan-
tic, than a child could have flown to Loretto with its church. But
whatever did accomplish that work, did it all ; established the gene-
ral register of heights; made every mountain a consistent part of the
harmonious whole; worked out all the Lower Silurian valleys pre-
cisely on one pattern ; excavated every Devonian lake from Harvey's
Pond to Lake Huron alike; and cut to the same contour the subcar-
boniferous cliffs along the whole line from the icy Delaware to the
sunny Alabama.

Of the seven or more chief points of speculation cited above, that
of the split anticlinal is of course the most important. The admira-
ble illustrations of the Austrian survey, which Haidinger and his
noble coadjutors have been giving us for several years, repeat with
variations all the curiosities of our Appalachian anticlinal structure,
which were prepared for publication twenty years ago by the State
Survey of Pennsylvania. But being chiefly sections of younger rocks
than ours, the Austrian diagrams exhibit a more disturbed surface,
so far as regards faults and slips, snapped anticlinals, upshoved syn-
clinals, lapped folds, insertions or knife-edge intrusions of fragmen-
tary strata, &c., while the main features are all the same. This may
hereafter be adduced by some one as an evidence of the necessity of
assigning quite a modern date to our contortions ; inasmuch as dis-
turbances, relatively as old (that is, occurring when the palaeozoic rocks
had as yet obtained no greater consistency and compactness than the
newer secondaries or tertiaries of the Alps) ought to have dealt as
hardly with those, as the Austrian subterranean forces have dealt
with these. But that would be a hazardous conclusion ; for the na-

Lesley.] jgg [March.

ture of the bottom on which they lie probably determines, more than
any other determining cause, the amount of disturbance in the
normal curves of an uplift. The lateral thrust of horizontal tertiaries
over a ragged bed of already upturned secondaries, or of fiat and soft
kainozoic strata over an already formed palaeozoic topography, cannot
result in symmetrical anticllnals and synclinals; and the amount of
hitch and catch below, and therefore of crack and shove above, must be
proportional, (1) to the roughnessof the old surface, and (2) to the thin-
ness of the new formation. But in the case of the Appalachians, both
these proportionals are in the lowest ratio : (1) The palaeozoic mass is
seven miles thick, and (2) It lies conformably on the " azoic," if not
on the " hypazoic " surfaces, so far as we can see, or with local ex-
ceptions; and there is reason to believe that where this is not the
case geologically, it is the case practically ; for the Potsdam sandstone,
Quebec group, Taconic system or Primal Formation (whichever
name we prefer), probably lies upon an already planed off surface of
Laurentian primaries. Hence the wonderful symmetry of the palaeo-
zoic vaults and basins, the almost total absence of faults (until one
goes far south), and the infre(juency and smallness of earthquakes.

Hence also the high probability that the anticlinals were unbroken
at the crest. A broken anticlinal mvist, in ninety-nine cases in a
hundred, develop a fault. In the south, a system of broken anticli-
nals have developed a magnificent system of parallel faults. If the
symmetry of our northern anticlinals is the first argument against
their being originally broken, the absence of faults is a second ; a
third is to be found in the many instances of unbroken small anticli-
nals, unbroken even when overturned and collapsed ; a fourth is to
be found in the absence of any trace of a break in the symmetrical
end mountains, formed by the closing of the outcrop walls of an anti-
clinal valley at both ends of it; a/i/th is to be found in the side gap
structure, which universally accompanies and characterizes the anti-
clinal structure ; a sixth is to be found in the total absence of lakes
along the anticlinal axis; a seventh is to be found in the evident com-
pensation for room lost by room gained along any given cross section.

At this last point I think lies the solution of the problem. A true
section of the crust, transverse to the waved structure, would show a
perfect compensation between the sum of the outside and inside
curves of the side by side lying anticlinals and synclinals; such a
compensation as would distribute the slip between the rock faces, or
back-and-belly planes of the stratification, through the whole mass,
and thereby reduce it at any given point to a minimum. This dis-

1863. J 297 [Lesley.

tribution of the slickensides movement, taken into connection with
the crumpling up into subanticlinals, and the tongue-shaped crimp-
ling of the softer measures inside of these*, must have relieved the
strain upon the outside of the synclinals below and anticlinals above,
and set quite aside the necessity for those yawning gaps which are
supposed by many to have occurred along all the great anticlinal axes
of the region. It may be safely taken for granted, that had such oc-
curred on the upper side of the anticlinals, similar ones would have
occurred on the under sides of the synclinals, of which we see no
trace. That the slipping of stratum upon stratum has gone on every-
where is everywhere evident. The softer formations have been
most injured by it, and are penetrated by crumplings when the
harder strata have splintered and fissured. But, as a whole, the pli-
cating energy must have acted with a steady evenness of thrust,
which carried up the anticlinal waves of the crust unbroken, and in
some cases to a height of between five and ten miles above the pre-
sent surface level.

By what agency could these masses have been removed, without
leaving Alpine ranges, with serrated summits and protuberant spurs ?
Can we imagine the Pyrenees to be reduced by ordinary atmospheric
erosion to the condition of the Jura ? Giving even infinite time,
will the desired result be ever attained ? On the other hand, given
a homogeneous element with suiEcient force, acting either by one or
by repeated blows, the result as we now see it on the present ground
was demonstrably certain to come from the conditions which we see
to have existed on the former ground. No one will deny that water,
if obtained in sufficient quantity at a suflBcient velocity, would be
such an agent. In the acknowledged instability of the crust of the
earth, and in its acknowledged less stability in ancient times than
now, we find the possibility, nay, we feel the certainty, that the
oceans have at times been launched across the continents, and we
Deed nothing more to satisfy all the conditions for an explanation of
Appalachian topography.

Parts of a private letter from Leo Lesquereux, Esq., of
Columbus, Ohio, were read respecting the fossil botany of the
coal, and the publication of manuscript memoirs in prepara-

* See Plate V for a few instances of this structure as yet unpublished. Many
others, even more instructive, can be obtained in our various collieries. The
western edge of the Broad Top basin is remarkable for the number, symmetry and
regular sequence of these tongues ; but they are common to all the anthracite
basins. Fig. 6 is an accurate representation of one ngar Beaver Meadow.
VOL. IX. — 2a

Xesquereux.] 198 [March.

tion to illustrate it ; and also respecting the character of the
Millstone Grit or Subcarboniferous Conglomerate in the Far
West. Of the first he says :

If it is finished according to my original plan, it should have at
least one hundred and fifty plates. There is no fossil flora of the
coal; that is, there is no work on the subject, where one can find
figured and described all the species of any coal-field. All has been
made by fragments, Brogniart's fossil flora is not half finished, and
will not be continued. Lindley and Ilutton have published plants
of all the palaeozoic rocks of England, but all is mixed there, and no
part is complete. Gijppert has all his published fossil plants dis-
seminated through a number of books, of which no one contains a
complete series. Now, for the fossil flora of our coal-measures, I
would like to publish drawings and descriptions of all the species,
even if these species are already known and published from the coal
of Europe ; for a double purpose : firstly, in order to enable the
student to proceed in the study of our fossil plants without the cost
and incumbrance of a large library, which is now impossible ; and
secondly, to show from the beginning of the vegetation of our earth,
the remarkable similitude of American with European types, always
broken by characters of dissimilarity as diSicult to appreciate now, as
they were at the epoch of the coal. ... It is an entirely American
and original work. . . . You well know that everything has been, so
to say, put in my hand for such a work. After the Pennsylvania
survey, I have had those of Kentucky, of Arkansas, of Illinois, In-
diana, Ohio ; this last on my own cost. All the best collections of
fossil plants of the United States have been sent to me for examina-
tion and classification, and thus I have seen an immense number of
specimens, without counting those which I have collected myself.
Would it not be wrong to abandon and lose the result of a work of
so many years, and the advantage of so fine an opportunity for study,
and leave the work unfinished, merely because I do not know how or
when it can be published ? I will go through if I can, or as long
as I can, and if the work is good, it will come out in some way, even
if I am not more of this world. . . .

I do not send you now the plates of the fossil plants of the Ter-
tiary, ten in number. . . . All the Tertiary fossil plants that I
have had under my examination, those of Mississippi, of Ken-
tucky, and of Vancouver's Island, would make about fifteen
plates. . . . Some questions of true scientific importance might

1863.] 299 [Lesquereux.

be discussed with their publication : 1st. The relation of the
actual flora with that of the Tertiary. 2d. The comparative
identity of typical forms both on the Pacific and Atlantic shores.
By comparative identity I understand relation of the now living
plants on both the Atlantic and the Pacific shore, with the fossil flora
of the same country; the relation of the Vancouver Tertiary with the
California flora, and the relation of the Tertiary of Mississippi, &c.,
with the Atlantic flora. Of course this does not indicate a relation
of vegetation between both sides of the continent, either at the Ter-
tiary epoch or now; on the contrary. 3d. The difi"erence of flora of
Europe and of America, at the epoch of the Tertiary, showing the
separation of both continents. You know that Heer argues, on a
supposed but unreal identity of typical forms at the Tertiary time,
and concludes in favor of a Continental connection, either by an
Atlantide, or something of this kind. 4th. The relation of forms of
the Tertiary and Cretaceous floras, &c., &c. . . .

With this letter I send you two sections of the Arkansas conglo-
merate measures, and the underlying subcarboniferous measures. I
am, indeed, very sorry that my sections were not made with more
details and exact measurements ; but I am not answerable for the
deficiency. My assistant, Mr. Cos, had charge of the geological part
of our explorations, and ... we had for our measurements only an
aneroid barometer, which, though pretty good, gave us only approxi-
mate altitudes.

The first general section, showing the true position of the coal in
relation to the inferior strata, was taken fourteen miles southwest of
Fayetteville, in Washington County, on the high waters of Middle
Fork of White Kiver.

FEET. INCHES.

1. Millstone grit in alternating beds of coarse, gritty sandstone,
conglomerate hard sandstone with small pebbles, ferrugi-
nous hard bands, and soft shaly sandstone and shale, . 300

2. Gray laminated shales passing at some places to ferrugi-
nous, very hard conglomerate. Shale band, ... 2

3. Coal, 16

4. Hard, black fire-clay full of stigmaria, passing at the base

to clay-iron ore, ......... 6

5. Hard limestone with Encrinites, Terebratulae, Archimedes,
&c., &c. Upper Archimede limestone. It appears to be
united with the lower bed sometimes, and then thickens to

20 feet, 10

6. Blue soft shales with pebbles of carbonate of iron, . . 20

7. Shaly sandstone (gray metal of the miners), ... 30

Lesquereux.] 200 [March.

8. Hard coarse limestone, with great abundance of the same
fossils as the upper one, . . . . . . .10

9. Cherty limestone, mostly hard silex, .... 6

10. Coarse sandstone with plants, Stigmaria, Sigillaria, Le-
pidodendron, &c.,* . 60

11. Coarse limestone, lower Archimedes bed or middle bed? 30

12. Coarse and soft brown sandstone with a great number

of fossil shells (Knob sandstone ?) ..... 100

13. Hard black limestones with fossils, .... 40

14. Black and yellow shales with carbonate of iron (Devo-
nian?) 40

The second section is that of the Millstone Grit, and is taken from
the base to the top of the Horsehead Mountain, a part of the Boston
Mountain in Johnson County. It is,

FEET. INCHES.

1. Calcareous shales and argillous sandstone, containing a
quantity of fossil shells. The top of the hill is covered,
and apparently has a stratum of conglomerate ; at least
loose pieces of conglomerate are found above the exposed
fossiliferous shaly sandstone. From top of hill down, . 30

2. Compact and shaly sandstones in alternating beds, . . 120

3. Massive, coarse, gritty sandstone, ..... 80

4. Shaly sandstone, sometimes in banks, covered with ver-
micular impressions, and cut by hard bauds (ferruginous
shales), 120

5. Coarse, gritty sandstone, with conglomerate at the upper
part. The pebbles are small, not larger than a bean, . 20

6. Hard, compact, gritty sandstone in banks, alternating
with shales and shaly sandstone, ..... 520

7. Red, yellow, and soft ferruginous shales and shaly sand-
stone, 150

8. Gray, hard, micaceous shales, mixed with pebbles of car-
bonate of iron, and having fossil plants especially near the
base, from 10 to TO

(These shales at Horsehead have at some banks only six
feet, at others as high as seventy feet. They pass to sand-
stone at the upper part.)

9. Black, soft, earthy shales, 1

10. Coal, 10 inches to 1 6

11. Fireclay, black, hard, full of stigmaria to. level of the
creeks.

* In Illinois, the sandstone has the same plants, and is overlaid by one bed
only of the Archimedes limestone. In Indiana, where this sandstone is absent, it
is replaced by a thin bed of coal just under the upper Archimedes.

1863.] 201 [Lesquereux.

Remarks concerning the nature and variety of the Millstone Grit of
Arkansas, are noted many times in my diary. Thus, I read : Pass-
ing the hills or divide between the affluents of White River, I find
the Millstone G-rit of still more varied appearance. Sometimes it is
a coarse, hard sandstone, a compound of fine grains of quartz, true
millstone grit very hard, and in thick banks. These are separated
or underlaid by soft, easily disintegrated, shaly sandstone, and thus
they break in large massive banks or pieces thrown down along the
slopes of the hills, or in the narrow valleys. Sometimes the same
formation is mostly a compound of shaly sandstone, alternating with
ferruginous shales, separated by thin beds of clay iron ore, or even
of hard fireclay, without any trace of conglomerate. Sometimes the
sandstone becomes black, ferruginous, and is here and there cut by
a narrow streak of conglomerate, whose quartz pebbles are rarely
larger than a small hazel-nut, generally much smaller. The Millstone
Grit-measures are for more persistent in their thickness in Arkansas
than in the East, and as the top of it has not been seen anywhere,
the highest mountains being too low, it may be supposed that its
thickness is greater than it has been measured at Horsehead Moun-
tain.

Of course, though the variety of appearance and the great thick-
ness of the Millstone Grit of Arkansas can be compared with some
parts of the coal-measures of Nova Scotia, referred by geologists of
that State to true coal-measures, we cannot conclude an identity of
formations. From what you published in the Proceedings of the
Society, I agree with you, and readily believe that the Nova Scotian
basin is a separated member of our great American coal-fields. The
flora of both the Canadian and the United States coal-fields is appa-
rently the same. At least, of all the plants published by Bunbury,
too few in number, indeed, to permit a satisfactory comparison, there
is now no one that has not been found in our coal-fields. Odontop-
teris cimeafa, Bunb., was for many years unknown in our coal-mea-
sures, but I have found it in plenty two years ago at Murphysboro',
Illinois. This and a few other of Bunbury's species have not been
found in Europe. But contrary to our opinion, we have these facts,
that the anthracite basin of Pennsylvania is from all appearance the
shores of a coal-basin. That Dawson finds in Canada an abundance
of fossil coniferous wood ; that the English naturalists assert that
such wood is also in plenty in the coal-measures of England, while I
can find none in ours ; that also from Dana's assertion, the fauna of
the coal-measures of Nova Scotia is rather related to that of Endand

Lesquereux.] 202 [March.

than to ours. If it is so, we would have on our continent an ano-
maly of relation contradicted by what we know from the other forma-
tions. Good and long palseontological researches may help to settle
the question

It is certain that our coal-measures are increasing in thickness
eastward, especially for the sandstone and the shale strata. Admit-
ting, if not a continuity, at least a contemporaneity of formation
under the same influences, and a continuation of increase of thick-
ness in the same direction and the same proportion, this would already
give us many hundred feet of difference for Canada. I understand
moreover, that a shore formation of the coal has been necessarily
subjected to a great many local variations, which could not reach an
inland one. It is clear that the invasion of the sea, bearing with it
sand and other materials, could not always penetrate the inland part
of the basin, and cover the whole of it. This accounts for the multi-
plication of strata, and the dividing of coal strata into thin and nume-
rous seams. Of course, if such divisions did happen on the shores,
while the internal part of the basin continued in the same state of a
continual peat growing, boggy marshes, the vegetation of these partial
coal-seams cannot be variable. So local vegetation is always affected
or directed by the general one, and the difference of vegetation of
our coal strata becomes especially evident, after such cataclysms or
such changes of level under the influence of which the whole extent
of the coal-measures was covered with deposits, brought by water or
formed under it, viz., sandstone or limestone.

It is therefore evident, that even if it was based on well ascertained
facts, the sixth objection of Professor Dawson would be of little im-
portance, especially in its application to our coal-measures. But I
fiud it extraordinary to say the least, when compared to other asser-
tions of the same author. In his last valuable paper on the flora of
the Devonian period (Quarterly Journal, November, 1862), he says,
page 328 : '' Some species which appear early in the Devonian period,
continue to its close without entering the Cai-boniferous; and the
great majority of the species, even of the Upper Devonian, do not
reappear in the Carboniferous period, but a few species extend from
the Upper Devonian into the Lower Carboniferous, and thus estab-
lish a real passage from the earlier to the later flora. The connec-
tion thus established between the Upper Devonian and the Lower
Carboniferous, is much less intimate than that which subsists between
the latter and the true coal-measures. Another way of stating this
is, that there is a constant gain in the number of genera and species,

1863.] 203 [Lesquereux.

from the Lower to the Upper Devonian, but that at the close of the
Devonian, many species and some genera disappear. In the hower
Carboniferous, the flora is again poor, though retaining some of the
Devonian species, and it goes on increasing up to the period of the
Middle coal-measures, and this hy the addition of species quite dis-
tinct from those of the Devonian period^ Is not this acknowledging
a continual change in the vegetation of the coal epoch, from its be-
ginning to its end ? for we cannot admit of course that according to
the views of Professor Dawson, such a change has taken place in the
Lower Carboniferous, to stop at once at what he calls the Middle
coal-measures. And can we not then conclude that with careful and
long researches, at such places where the stratification is perfectly
well fixed, these changes of vegetation may be recognized in strata
of diiferent horizon, and thus used for comparison at other localities ?
The discussion concerning the true Garhoniftrous measures is, as
you say, tedious and useless, at least when it is made without com-
parison with what we have around us It is certain that the

plants of the red shales (Vespertine or Ponent of Rogers), are differ-
ent from those of the coal-hearing measures. There is, indeed, a gap
in the vegetation between the Red shales and the Conglomerate, even
near their horizontal line of union at Pottsville, while in the West,
the true coal vegetation descends as low as the Upper Archimedes
limestone, or even lower. This anomaly is to my persuasion merely
apparent, or the result of causes without connection with the stratifi-
cation. The vegetation of the coal must be always considered as a
peculiar, and if I can say so, as a local one, born and continued under
peculiar influences, and thus without a necessary specific connection
with that of tbe open and dry land; a true peat or bog vegetation.
I have many times taken the trouble to compare the vegetation of
our peat bogs with that of the country at large, to show how the first
one would be insufficient to give us even a slight idea of the last.
Now the shales of the Old Red sandstone were evidently formed by
open extensive flats, alternately covered with water or left dry, and
thus, having a peculiar vegetation far different from that of the Bogs,
which were always under the influence of a continual internal and
external humidity. Compare, for example, the vegetation of the
flats of Holland around Groningue, with that of the peat bogs of the
same country, and seen just near the border of the same flats. There
is not a single species common to both formations. The same can
be said of our coast flats, and in New Jersey, you have the same
peculiar difference of vegetation near the shores ; the one covering

204 [Ap'""-

all the part that is reached by marine water, or rather by the tides;
the others beginning in lagoons, where the water ceases to be sub-
jected to alternate changes. Thus it has happened, to my persuasion
at least, that there has been formed at some place red sandstone, with
peculiar remains of vegetation and coal shales, though inferior in
geological horizon with true coal plants. And for this reason, I say,
that we have to admit the vegetation of the Old Red and that of the
Coal, without putting too great reliance in the data fui'nished by
palaeontological botany concerning the age of stratification. But re-
mark that I say this only of the red shales, compared with the coal
formation ; for indeed, as Professor Dawson says it, the slow change
of vegetation in the coal-measures (putting aside the Old Red), is
apparent from the lowest coal under the Archimedes limestone, to
the highest strata of the coal-measures.

Pending nominations Nos. 481 to 491, and new nominations
Nos. 492, 493 were read.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, April 3, 1863.

Present, eleven members.

Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.

Letters accepting membership were received from F.
Forchhammer, dated Copenhagen, March 11th, 1863, and
from Max MUller, dated 64 High Street, Oxford, March
14th, 1863.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of publications were re-
ceived from the Royal Society at Upsal, September 15th ;
the Royal Geographical Society at Vienna, October 15tli ;
the Royal Geological Institute at Vienna, October 4th ;
the Society at Wiesbaden, November 1st ; the Geological So-
ciety at London, January 7th ; and the Antiquarian Society
at Worcester, March 2d, 1863.

1863.] 205

A letter accepting correspondence and exchange of publi-
cations was read from the German Geological Society at
Berlin, November 6th, 1862.

Letters informing the Society of the transmission of dona-
tions for the Library, were received from the C. Observatory
of Russia, August 1st ; the Royal Society at Upsal, Septem-
ber 15th ; the Prince Jablonowski Society at Leipsic, Janu-
ary 6th ; and the Society at Wiesbaden, November 11th.

Donations for the Library were received from the Central
Observatory, St. Petersburg ; Royal Society, Upsal ; Royal
University, Christiania ; Geological and Horticultural Socie-
ties, Berlin ; Prince Jablonowski Society, Leipsic ; Geogra-
phical Society and Geological Listitute, Vienna ; Royal
Academy, Munich ; Natural History Societies at St. Gall,
Wiesbaden, Lausanne, and Strasburg ; Pontifical Academy,
Rome; S. Bellardi, Turin; S. Bianconi, Bologna; M. Des
Moulins, Bordeaux ; Geographical Society, Paris ; Royal,
Royal Astronomical, Royal Asiatic, Chemical, and Geological
Societies, London ; Royal Society, Edinburgh ; Royal Irish
Academy ; Rev. E. E. Adams, of Philadelphia, and the Bu-
reau of Topographical Engineers, Washington.

Dr. Bache announced the death of a member. Judge Carle-
ton, of Philadelphia, aged 76, on the 28th ultimo; and on
motion of Dr. Bache, Mr. H. C. Carey was appointed to pre-
pare an obituary notice of the deceased.

Pending nominations Nos. 481 to 493 were read.

On motion of the Librarian, the following names were
placed on the list of corresponding societies : La Soci^td
Gdographique de Russie, Die Deutsche Morgenlandische
Gesellschaft, and the Palseontological Society at London.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, April 17, 1863.
Present, thirteen members.
Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.
A letter acknowledging the receipt of publications was re-

TOL. IX. — 2b

206 t^p"!-

ceived from the Imperial Institute of France, dated Paris,
October 20tli, 1862.

A letter was received from Henry C. Carey, Esq., dated
Philadelphia, April 16th, accepting the appointment to pre-
pare an obituary notice of Judge Carleton lately deceased.

Donations for the Library Avere received from the Young
Men's Association at Buffalo, the Franklin Institute, the
Pennsylvania Colonization Society, Blanchard & Lea, Mr.
Isaac Lea, Surgeon-General Hammond, and Mr. Leipoldt,
bookseller.

Dr. Bache announced the death of Dr. Charles W. Short,
on the 7th of March last, aged 68.

The Secretary made some remarks upon the organization
of a National Academy of Science, which led the Avay to a
general discussion by the members present of the importance
of that class of subjects, which relate to the welfare and im-
provement of society ; such as the trial by jury, the giving
of evidence by parties interested, and the proper representa-
tion of classes rather than masses in legislation. Mr. Fraley,
Mr. Price, and Prof. Coppee spoke at some length upon
these points.

Pending nominations Nos. 481 to 493 were read and bal-
loted for.

No further business being before the Society, the ballot
boxes were examined, and the following persons declared by
the President duly elected members of the Society :

J. E. Hilgard, Assistant in the U. S. Coast Survey,

Charles A. Schott, "

Thomas E. Blackwell, C E., London, England.

B. W. Richardson, M.D., London.

Thomas Hill, D.D., President of Harvard College.

William D. Whitney, Yale College, New Haven.

Chester Dewey, D.D., Rochester University, N. Y.

William Henry Green, D.D., Theological Seminary, Prince-
ton, N. J.

James Pollock, Director of the United States Mint, Phila-
delphia.

1863.] 207

E. A. Washbuvne, D.D., Rector of St. Mark's, Philadel-
phia.

James McClune, Central High School, Philadelphia.

Calvin Pease, D.D., First Presbyterian .Church, Rochester,
N. Y.

New nomination No. 494 was read.
And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, May 1, 1863.

Present, tw^enty-six members.

Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.

Letters accepting membership were received from Chester
Dewey, dated University of Rochester, April 22d ; William
Henry Green, dated Princeton, April 26th, and Charles A.
Schott, dated Washington, D. C, April 22d, 1863.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of publications were re-
ceived from Prof. Hyrtl, and the Secretary of the Imperial
Academy at Vienna, dated November 1862 ; the Royal
Academy at Munich, October, 1862 ; the Batavian Academy
at Rotterdam, January 21st, 1863 ; the Bureau des Longi-
tudes at Paris, December 5th, 1862 ; the Leeds Philosophical
and Literary Society, December 31st, 1862 ; the Library of
Congress, April 22d, 1863 ; and the Smithsonian Institution,
July 22d and October 20th, 1862.

Donations for the Library were received from the Royal
Astronomical and Chemical Societies in London ; the Geo-
logical Society of Dublin ; the Massachusetts Historical So-
ciety, Dr. Dewey, of Rochester, Mr. William Vaux, Prof.
Cresson, Prof. Lesley and Mr. Leipoldt, of Philadelphia, and
the Smithsonian Institution.

The decease of a member of the Society, Dr. William Dar-
lington, on the 23d of April, at West Chester, aged eighty-

Dawson.] 208 [May.

one (within five days), was announced by Mr. T. P. James,
who, on motion of Dr. Coates, was appointed to prepare an
obituary notice of the deceased.

The Secretary presented the following communication from
Prof. Dawson, of Montreal, and, on account of the notice
given of an address by Mr. Price upon another subject to
which the evening would probably be devoted, moved the
postponement of its consideration until the next meeting,
which was so ordered.

Dr. Dawson desires, with reference to the rejoinder of Mr. Lesley
to his objection to the views of the latter, on the Coal Formation of
Nova Scotia, to make the following explanations.

1. Dr. Dawson is not aware that he has, at any time, maintained
that the '^ coal-measures proper " of Nova Scotia are 25,000 feet in
thickness. In speaking of their enormous thickness, he referred to
the actual measurements of Sir W. E. Logan at the Joggins, which
give for the whole of the Carboniferous rocks seen in that section,
a vertical thickness of 15,570 feet, and for the coal-measures proper,
or Middle Coal Formation, a thickness of rather less than 10,000
feet. The objections based by Mr. Lesley on this supposed thick-
ness of 25,000 feet, are therefore quite inapplicable to the views of
Dr. Dawson.

2. Dr. Dawson does not admit the interpretation of his views as
to the unity of the coal flora given by Mr. Lesley. The " inconsis-
tencies" alleged by the latter, depend in part on the imaginary thick-
ness of 25,000 feet attributed to the Middle coal-measures. The
identity of the flora throughout the Middle coal formation, and the
distinctions between this and the assemblages of plants in the Lower
and Upper coal formation, admit of being readily ascertained, where
good exposures exist, as in Nova Scotia ; and it is to be borne in

>mind that the investigations of Dr. Dawson on this subject have ex-
tended over more than twenty years, though many of the details
ascertained have not yet been published.

3. It should be understood that the Carboniferous system in
Nova Scotia consists of the following members :

(I.) The Upj)er coal formation, containing coal formation
plants, but not productive coals.

(2.) The 31icldle coal formation, or coal formation proper, con-
taining the productive coal-beds.

1863.] 209 [Dawson.

(3.) The 31iIhtone grit scries, represented in Nova Scotia by
red and gray sandstone, shale, and conglomerate, with a
few fossil plants and thin coal seams, not productive.

(4.) The Carboniferous limestone, with the associated sand-
stones, marls, gypsum, &c., and holding marine fossils,
recognized by all palaeontologists, who have examined them,
as Carboniferous.

(5.) The Lower coal-measures holding some but not all of the
fossils of the Middle coal formation, and thin coals, not pro-
ductive; but differing both in flora and fauna from the
Upper Devonian,, which in New Brunswick they overlie
unconformably.

The principal, though not the only point in which Mr. Lesley
differs from Logan, Lyell, Brown, and Dawson, is his entire omission
of No. 5 of the above series, and placing No. 3 of the above series
in its room, as the representatives of the Low'er coal-measures of Vir-
ginia and Pennsylvania. I have, I think, already made this suffi-
ciently plain, in the fifth of my objections, already published; but
may add here that fossils as well as stratigraphical position establish
the real equivalency of No. 5, and not No. 3, to the Lower coal for-
mation, as described by Lesquereux in America, and by Geoppert in
Europe; and that it seems strange that Mr. Lesley, while suggest-
ing minor and more dubious parallelisms, declines to admit this
identification, established by long and careful investigations of several
competent observers, and confirmed by the evidence of fossils.

It is impossible now to enter into the evidence of the conclusions
which I have stated in reply to Mr. Lesley. This is, however, in
great part before the world, more especially in memoirs published in
the Proceedings of the Geological Society of London; and I have,
for several years, been engaged in making up for publication the
fossil plants collected from all the members of the Carboniferous sys-
tem of Nova Scotia. This I trust to be able to publish in the course
of this year or next, when I think the actual parallelism, as above
stated, will be more fully apparent than it can be made at present.

Mr. Price then read a communication upon the subject of
trial by jury.

The Constitution of the United States declares, " The right of trial
by jury shall be preserved;" and the Constitution of Pennsylvania,

Price.] 210 t^^y=

"That trial by jury shall be as heretofore, and the right thereof re-
main inviolate."

This time-honored institution, as known to us, peculiar to British
and American jurisprudence, had the germ of its origin in the forests
of Grermany, whence it is traced with other features of the Constitu-
tions of England and of these States. It must have been felt to be
a bulwark of liberty and justice, otherwise it could not have been so
long and so sacredly preserved as our inheritance, through successive
invasions and conquests of England, and revolutions there and here,
and many usurpations of arbitrary power, to be here made funda-
mental in the Declarations of Rights contained in our Constitutions.

" Whoever," says Montesquieu, " shall read the admirable treatise
of Tacitus on the manners of the Germans, will find that it is from
them the English have borrowed the idea of their political govern-
ment. This beautiful system was invented first in the woods." (Bk.
XI, Ch. VI.) Tacitus, after speaking of those general councils of
the whole community, which must have been the origin of the Wit-
tenagemote, or British Parliament, says, " It is in these assemblies
that princes are chosen, and chiefs elected to act as magistrates in
the several cantons of the State. To each of these judicial ofiicers,
assistants are appointed from the body of the people, to the number
of a hundred, who attend to give their advice, and strengthen the
hands of justice." (Sec. XIII.) Divisions of the freemen into
hundreds, who attended the hundred court, are of frequent mention
in the early laws of France and Lombardy, and they became under
King Alfred and his successors, the prevailing system over England ;
and the name is yet familiar in portions of our own country.

Some have traced the origin of juries to Athens and Rome; but
these were more popular assemblages, sworn, it is true, in the cause,
but deciding by majorities; and such may have been the character
of the Saxon and Roman assemblages, who aided in the administra-
tion of justice, and the conservation of the peace. Selden ascribes to
the reign of one of the Ethelreds the first mention of a jury of twelve.
The law is in these words : "In every hundred let there be a court;
and let twelve freemen of mature age, together with their foreman,
swear upon the holy relicks, that they will condemn no innocent,
and will absolve no guilty person." Selden refers this law to the
period of Ethelred who began his reign in 961 ; but Reeves, in his
History of English Law, to a king of that name who next preceded
Alfred the Great, a hundred years prior, whom Hume calls Ethered.
The transactions of the reign of Alfred, which began in 871, show

1863.] 211 [Price.

that trial by twelve jurors existed in bis time, and that an unanimous
finding; was then required. The Mirror of Justice, written long be-
fore the Norman conquest of 1066, reports the following doings by
that renowned monarch : " He hanged Cadwine, because that he
judged Hackway to death without the consent of all the jurors; and
whereas he stood upon the jury of twelve men, and because that
three would have saved him against the nine, Cadwine removed the
three, and put others upon the jury, upon whom Hackway put not
himself." '' He hanged Freehurne, because he judged Hai-pin to
die, whereas the jury were in doubt of their verdict; for in doubtful
causes, one ought rather to save than condemn." Here, a thousand
years ago, in distinct lineaments, is seen the jury of our day, with
the feature of unanimity of decision, and a sternly purposed immu-
nity from judicial encroachment. (Mirror, 839-40.)

John Reeves, a high Tory historian, ascribes the trial by twelve
jurors to Norman introduction after 1066 ; admits that it had obtained
in Scandinavia, at a, very early period; went into disuse, was revived
about 820, carried by Hollo into Normandy, and thence by the Nor-
man conquest into England. He speaks of a lost act of Henry II,
enacting that all questions of seisin of land should be tried by twelve
good and lawful men, sworn to speak the truth. (1 Reeves, 84, 86.)
But the Mirror of Justice shows that it existed in full vigor nearly
two hundred years before, and it is probable that it existed there
long before King Alfred's reign.

Hallam says, "It has been justly remarked by Hume, that among
a people who lived in so simple a manner as the Anglo-Saxons, the
judicial power is always of more consequence than the legislative.
The liberties of these Anglo-Saxon thanes were chiefly secured, next
to their swords and their free spii'its, by the inestimable right of de-
ciding civil and criminal suits in their own County Court; an insti-
tution which, having survived the conquest, and contributed in no
small degree to fix the liberties of England upon a broad and popu-
lar basis, by limiting the feudal aristocracy, deserves attention in fol-
lowing the history of the British Constitution." (2 Mid. Ages, 9.)

Magna Charta was extorted from successive kings of England,
in the thirteenth century, and they were made to declare that, " No
freeman shall be taken or imprisoned, or disseized of his freehold or
liberties, or free customs; or be outlawed or exiled, or any otherwise
destroyed; nor will we pass upon him, nor condemn him, but by
lawful judynicnt of his jJec/is, or by the law of the land." (Chap.
29.) '' By lawful judgment of his peers," means a trial by those of

Price.l 212 fMay.

equal rank and condition ; peers of the realm by such peers ; freemen
of the hundred by other freemen thereof. Such an immunity in ages
of violence and insecurity, must have been regarded as of inestimable
value, and as no age or country is exempt from the violence of jDre-
judice and excitement, and the partialities of similar social condition,
this security of trial by one's peers should forever be regarded as an
inappreciable inheritance.

Justice is always administered with the highest satisfaction to the
citizen, when he is satisfied with those who are to adjudge his rights.
When assured that the jury are his equals, possessing a common in-
terest with himself in the laws to which they are to give effect, he
is best prepared to yield his confidence, and to abide by their verdict.
Add to this his privilege of striking from the panel so many as mea-
surably to make the residue to be persons of his choice, and he be-
comes the better satisfied to submit his rights to their decision.

This institution of trial by jury, which since an unknown antiquity
has been consecrated in the affections of the only nations of the earth
truly free, it is suggested in this age of free inquiry, that spares not
the most sacred subjects, may be dispensed with, or essentially modi-
fied in its procedure. The first objection to be made to any change
of the trial by jury, is that change in itself incurs some risk of loosen-
ing a conservative dependence upon long-established and venerated
practice, and that the work of reform once begun may be carried to
a dangerous excess.

This concession, it is believed, may be safely made : that the par-
ties litigant, when both are agreed, should have the privilege of sub-
mitting the facts and the law to the Judge or Judges who are sit-
ting on the bench. This is, indeed, done whenever the party
complainant files a bill in equity, or libel in the Admiralty or Con-
sistory or Probate Court, and parties dispense with a jury when they
agree upon the facts, and submit them to the Judges to pronounce
the law that arises upon them. As parties may agree to refer their
controversies to referees or arbitrators, both as to facts and law, so
they should be at liberty to make the Judges their referees of both
facts and law. To make provision for this would be no invasion of
the Constitution, and would demand no change of that fundamental
law. By consent, except in capital cases, a party may waive a benefit
secured to him by law.

To go further, it is submitted, would be unwise and unsafe, as well
as require a change of our Constitutions; and this will further appear
by other reasons for trial by jury yet to be noticed. While it is ad-

1863.J 213 [Price.

mitted that it is very important that the parties litigant should have
confidence in their Judges, and be willing to hold or lose their sup-
posed rights by their arbitrament, and also that exact justice, as
nearly as practicable, should be administered, there are public objects
to be attained by this method of trial by jury, of a political bearing,
of even greater importance than the interests of the parties litigant.

Trial by jury is necessarily a public proceeding, and that publicity
is the strongest guarantee against judicial favoritism and corruption.
The bystanders witness the whole proceeding, and not only they,
but through the press, the whole public are the observant critics of
every important trial. Thus are the Judges and jury the "observed
of all observers," and are undergoing a trial, as well as the accused,
or the parties litigant. And thus too, not only the jurors in attend-
ance, but the whole public, are constantly deriving an education in
public affairs, and are learning the principles of law by which they
hold their property, and enjoy all their rights. This to the mass of
the business community is probably the most important of all the
education they receive. It is important to themselves in their busi-
ness affairs ; it is more important in their capacity of constituents in
a representative government, and in their capacity of possessors of
the ultimate sovereignty of their country. It is their needed training
as a free people, to enable them to appreciate and maintain a free
government ; and to perpetuate it, as they have inherited it, to future
times. Supersede this system by cheaper modes, and more secret
proceedings, then all this participation of the people in the adminis-
tration of justice, so fraught with useful instruction to them, and we
shall be on the road to national declension, and soon lose those cha-
racteristics which make us a nation of freemen.

Again, Judges who are not the appointees of a power, absolute by
the standing armies it controls, could not sustain themselves in the
public confidence, if under a compulsion to decide both facts and
law, and especially if their proceedings were in written depositions
and pleadings, and but little discussed before the public. Too many
parties would be disappointed litigants, conceiving themselves in-
jured, not to make a large aggregate of hostile feeling against Judges,
who must decide many hundred causes in each year, and in each
cause making one party unfriendly if not hostile. With the assist-
ance of juries, the Judges escape this injustice which proceeds from
disappointed expectations. The jurors are suddenly called from the
mass of the citizens, for a few weeks exercise this terrible power of

VOL. IX. — 2c

Price.] 214 t^^^y-

deciding upon tlie rights, reputations, fortunes, and lives of their
fellow-citizens, are dismissed, and become invisible in the commu-
nity. Thus the whole qualified male citizens in turn perform this
high function, and the whole in turn share this fearful responsibility,
and divide the resentment that follows disappointed litigation. It
then results, as stated by the profound and philosophical Montesquieu,
"By this means the power of judging, a power so terrible to man-
kind, not being annexed to any particular state or profession, becomes,
as it were, invisible. The people have not then the judges continu-
ally present to their view ; they fear the office, but not the magistrate."
(Bk. XI, Ch. VI.) This is all the more important where we have in
operation a system not only to elect the judiciary after a term of
years, but have also constituted some of our Courts judges of elec-
tions, and their decisions necessarily become the subject of partisan
censure and hostility. To such feeling have some of the best judges
been sacrificed, or put in peril of failure in their re-election.

And are not jurors an important assistance in the administration
of justice? The best Judges bear testimony that they are. If jus-
tice be done to the wheel by placing in it the most intelligent citi-
zens of all occupations, every traverse jury of twelve men should
possess an aggregate of practical information, that should be greater
than that of the Judge on the bench, however good his legal infor-
mation, and as a rule, Judges admit this to be their experience as to
jury trials. Yet in our city, though the Legislature has sought to
remedy the evil, and to place that remedy in the hands of the Judges,
there is a failure to get into our jury-boxes the full average of the
intelligence of the community. There is an unpatriotic evasion of
this most important duty by many citizens, who are willing enough
to complain of the delinquency of others, when it becomes their own
misfortune to be litigating parties.

Another suggested reform it is that jurors should be authorized to
decide by some number less than the whole. The wisdom of co-
ercing a unanimity of decision is spoken of as a relic of the barba-
rous age in which the trial by jury had its origin. It is said that
it is to bring about a verdict, which should be the result of an en-
lightened intelligence only, by the powers of the -respective jurors to
undergo physical endurance. This requirement of a unanimous
verdict, it is believed, must have proceeded from that jealousy of
liberty and desire of security, which influenced the minds of the
people who instituted the trial by jury. They thought it best that
the accused should not be convicted, unless the case was so clearly

ISfiS.] 215 [Price.

made out as to command a unanimity of decision ; and that the plain-
tiff asserting a claim of property, should not disturb the existing- pos-
session, unless he could prove a clear and certain right to recover.
It is better to do nothing in a case so obscure as to leave an apparent
risk of doing injustice and wrong. The idea is a conservative one.

The evils incident to jury trial, which constitute the objections
to it, are reasons against accepting any verdict from less than the
twelve. The number of twelve is so great, that it is said too much
to divide the responsibility, but when all must agree, each is held to
his full responsibility. The ignorance of jurors is so great, it is said,
they cannot be relied upon ; if so, then a majority vote would surely
be the product of that ignorance, while a unanimous vote must in-
clude the assent of the most intelligent. It is said different jurors
may proceed upon different grounds, each of which by itself would
be insufficient, and thus they unite upon a verdict; but a majority
verdict would only be so much the more likely to rest upon such in-
sufficient grounds, and to be carried over the heads of those who are
acting upon good grounds. A vicious accumulation of different mi-
nority views is much less likely to attain a unanimity than to attain
a bare majority. It is said jurors are carried away by vulgar and
artful advocates, who stoop to practise upon their prejudice, and that
large corporations, insurance offices, rich landlords, lawyers, doctors,
gentlemen of wealth, or unpopular persons, have little chance of jus-
tice with the mass of jurors ; then, that they may not suffer actual
wrong at their hands, it is of great importance that jurors thus sus-
ceptible of being swayed by prejudice, should be required to be
unanimous, by which all the dispassionate conservatism to be found
in the twelve will be obliged to concur in the verdict. And against
the wilful or erroneous action of the jui-y from the objected liability
to bias and prejudice, the power of the court to set aside verdicts is
readily exercised to prevent injustice. As the jury in criminal cases
is the antagonistic power, to bold in check judges, when too closely
sympathizing with an arbitrary executive, so is the court the supervis-
ing power, to correct the excesses of the jury. It results, that causes
are tried hy Judges and jury. And though there be evils and incon-
veniences incident to this, as to all other human institutions, and it
affords but an approximation to perfect justice, it is believed to be,
for the causes to be tried, and the other purposes of its creation, the
most perfect and safe that human experience and wisdom have de-
vised. In the unhistorical period that preceded the Christian era,
it had its beginning, and ever since has had its growth, and by

Price.] 216 t^^y-

gradual usage been improved, and since it is the great distinguishing
feature in the administration of justice in the only truly free nations
of the earth, and has most essentially contributed to the consumma-
tion of that freedom, it should now, it is submitted, be so sacredly
regarded as not to be touched by the irreverent hand of legislative
innovation. If it can be improved, let that improvement come, as in
the past unnumbered centuries, by tho.se changes which practice and
usage insensibly produce in all human aifairs. Perfect justice is not
of human attainment. Pei'fection is the attribute of Him alone to
whom is known all truth.

It is admitted that there have been periods in English history,
when the rights of juries were most seriously invaded, and their pur-
pose perverted ; when they have been coerced by denial of food and
drink, by fines and imprisonment; and when the verdicts rendered
by less than the whole twelve have been received by the court, or a re-
cusant minority has been removed and replaced by others. The evil
precedents of such times, the friends of irresponsible power endea-
vored in vain to perpetuate as authority. In the reign of Edward I,
extending from 1272 to 1307, the writer of Fleta lays it down for
law, that when there was a difference of opinion among the jurors,
it was at the election of the judge either to aflForce the assise, by
adding others until twelve were found who were unanimous, or to
compel the assise to agree among themselves, by directing the sheriff
to keep them without meat or drink till they all agreed in their ver-
dict. Another method was to enter the verdict of the major and
lesser part of the jurors, and the judgment was given according to
the verdict of the majority. (2 Reeves, 268 ; 2 Hale's Pleas of the
Crown, 297, note.)

Hallam, when speaking of the prosecutions of the Crown, in the
reign of Elizabeth, says, " There is no room for wonder at any ver-
dict that could be returned by a jury, when we consider what means
the government possessed of securing it. The sheriff returned a
panel, either according to express directions, of which we have proofs,
or to what he judged himself of the Crown's intention and interest.
If a verdict had gone against the prosecution in a matter of moment,
the jurors must have laid their account with appearing before the
Star-chamber; lucky, if they should escape, on humble retractation,
with sharp words, instead of enormous fines and indefinite imprison-
ment. The control of this arbitrary tribunal bound down and ren-
dered impotent all the minor jurisdictions. That primeval institu-
tion, those inquests by twelve true men, the unadulterated voice of

1863.] 217 [Price.

the people, responsible alone to God and their conscience, which
should have been heard in the sanctuaries of justice, as fountains
springing fresh from the lap of earth, became like waters constrained
in their course by art, stagnant and impure. Until this weight hung
upon the Constitution should be taken off, there was literally no
prospect of enjoying with security those civil privileges which it held
forth." (1 Const. Hist, of Eng. 315.) He further says, "I have
found it impossible not to anticipate, in more places than one, some
of those glaring transgressions of natural as well as positive law, that
rendered our courts of justice in cases of treason, little better than
the caverns of murderers. Whoever was arraigned at their bar was
almost certain to meet a virulent prosecutor, a judge hardly distin-
guishable from the prosecutor, except by his ermine, and a passive,
pusillanimous jury. Those who are acquainted only with our modern
decent and dignified procedure, can form little conception of the
irregularity of ancient trials, the perpetual interrogation of the
prisoner, which justly gives us so much offence at this day in the
tribunals of a neighboring kingdom, and the want of all evidence ex-
cept written, and perhaps unattested examinations or confessions."
(1 Const. Hist, of Eng. 312.)

It was under the reigns of the arbitrary Tudors and Stuarts that
bad precedents were most made and followed, and juries were most
coerced by hunger, thirst, fines, and imprisonment, but this course
of tyrannical procedure was in a great measure brought to an end by
the trial of William Penn and William Mead, at an Oyer and Ter-
miner Court, held in the Old Bailey in London, in 1670, and in the
hearing of Edward Bushel, one of the jurors, brought up from prison
on Habeas Corpus, before the Judges of the Common Pleas. On
the trial of Penn and Mead, they were rudely and insolently treated
by the Court, but they as resolutely maintained their rights, and
those of the jury under Magna Charta. The charge against those
Friends was the holding an unlawful and tumultuous assembly in
Grace Church Street; where they had but assembled to worship God
as near as they could to their meeting-house, which the civil authority
had closed against them. The jury, some of whom had caught the
liberty-loving spirit of Penn, after deliberation, declared that they
could not agree. The uncomplying four were ordered into court, one
of whom was Bushel, and after being roundly abused, retired again
to deliberate, and returned with the verdict as to Penn, '• Guilty of
speaking in Grace Church Street;" and as to Mead, "Not guilty."
This was an unavailable verdict as to Penn. The recorder abused

Price.] 218 [M-Ej.

the jury for being' led by Bushel, and said to them, "You shall not
be dismissed till you bring in a verdict which the court will accept.
You shall be locked up, without meat, drink, fire, and tobacco. We
will have a verdict by the help of God, or you shall starve for it."
The contest lasted from the 1st to the 5th of September, and ended
in the jury finding a verdict as to both prisoners of not guilty; in
the prisoners and jurors being amerced by the court forty marks a
man, and the commitment of the jurors to Newgate. After long and
learned discussion of the rights of jurors upon the Habeas Corpus,
Chief Justice Vaughan " delivered the opinion of the greatest part
of the judges," '' that the prisoners ought to be discharged," " be-
cause the jurors may know that of their own knowledge, which might
guide them to give their verdict contrary to the sense of the court."
(Freeman's Reps. 5.)

It is true, that in ancient times, according to the ground of this
decision, jurors were taken from the vicinage, that they might act
upon their own knowledge, as well as upon the evidence they heard
in court ; but in this age, of an improved system, it is intended that
every cause shall be tried on the evidence heard in court in presence
of the parties, yet if jurors have knowledge of facts pertinent to the
issue in trial, it is their duty to state such knowledge, and testify as
witnesses as well as try the cause. The reason given in Bushel's
case, for the right of the jury to find against the views of the court
is never heard in the present age ; nor would any one deny in this
age, the power of the jury over the whole cause, after hearing the
charge of the court in criminal causes.

This victory of Penu's jury was gained by a minority of one-third
the jurors; first over their eight fellow-members, next over their
judges and the Crown prosecution ; a victory worth more to human
liberty than many ordinary well-fought battles in which thousands
are slain.

While yet the Stuarts reigned. Lord Hale, in his Pleas of the
Crown, stated the rule as to verdicts to be this : " If there be eleven
agreed, and but one dissenting, who says he will rather die in
prison, yet the verdict shall not be taken by eleven ; nor yet the re-
fuser fined or imprisoned, and therefore, where such a verdict was
taken by eleven, and the twelfth fined and imprisoned, it was upon
great advice ruled the verdict was void, and the twelfth man de-
livered, and a new venire awarded; for men are not to be forced to
give their verdict against their judgment." (2 Hale's P. C. 297.)
This decision " upon great advice," was made in the 41 Edward III,

1863.] 219 [Price

or in 1368 ; and was thus pronounced to be the continuing law of
England by Chief Justice Hale, in the same reign of Charles II,
when Penn and Mead were tried, and Bushel discharged ; conse-
quently, that all arbitrary proceedings in intermediate reigns at vari-
ance with it, had been usurpations.

Unanimity is to be attained, or no verdict results. The jury is to
be kept together until they have made earnest efforts at a reconciliation
of opinion ; but what their verdict shall be, or whether there be any,
must depend upon themselves alone. They may be unable to agree,
and after due effort, they will in civil cases be discharged by the
court, or they may give an erroneous verdict against the weight of
evidence, or contrary to the direction of the court in law, and then
their verdict in a civil case will be set aside, and the issue be tried
by another jury. But the opinion of the jury cannot be coerced.

In the trial of persons charged with the higher degrees of crimes,
there is more ground for a charge of a physical coercion upon the
jurors. In civil cases, the judge is expressly authorized by statute
to discharge the jury because they cannot agree. In capital cases,
be cannot merely for that reason discharge them. (6 S. & B. 577 ; 3
R. 498.) Our Constitution declares, in consonance with the conunon
law, that " no person for the same offence shall be twice put in jeopardy
of life or limb;" and to commit his case to two juries is to put him
twice in jeopardy. To discharge the jury is, therefore, to discharge
the prisoner. This is a discretion that judges disclaim, and it is ob-
viously a dangerous one. But although the jury cannot be discharged
because they cannot agree to convict or acquit the prisoner, the judge
must act to discharge the jury trying a capital charge, in a case of
absolute necessity ; and that necessity arises when the health or life
of a juror is in peril. Chief Justice Tilghman says, " No one can
think for a moment that they are to be starved to death. God forbid
that so absurd and inhuman a principle should be contended for.
Very far from it. The moment it is made to appear to the court,
by satisfactory evidence, that the health of a single juryman is so
affected as to incapacitate him to do his duty, a case of necessity has
arisen which authorizes the court to discharge the jury." (6 S. &
R. 587.) And that such necessity may not arise, the court will
allow a reasonable supply of food and nourishment, as a right of the
jurors. (3 Rawle, 503.) There exists, therefore, in the trial of
high crimes, a pressure of physical bearing, namely, of only a seclu-
sion under the charge of a sworn officer, until they agree, or health
gives way. And is not this better and safer than that a majority

Price.l 220 f^*y-

should quickly find tbe prisoner guilty of a capital offence, while the
minority held a different opinion, or had doubts of his guilt ? Is it
not better that several guilty persons should escape, than that one
innocent should be sacrificed ? And what duty is there that is not
better performed by some physical sacrifice, and more willingly en-
dured, that the duty is a most responsible one ? There are few
moral, religious, or legal duties performed under sacrifice of comfort
and through abstinence, that are not performed with clearer intellects
and a more exalted sense of duty. And when jurors are charged
with the life of a fellow-being, Avhat is the suffering of confinement
or abstinence compared with their faithful discharge of duty towards
him and the Commonwealth, on the one hand, to protect society
from the return to it of the guilty, again to commit wrongs upon itj
on the other, to save innocence from an ignominious and suffering
death? Conscientious men, in case of difficulty, would rather wish
to test their fidelity to their consciences and their country, by an
ordeal of suffering, than to act with a doubtful precipitancy. How
earnestly and fliith fully jurors act, and how much they will sacrifice
to the Divine sense of duty implanted in the human breast, we often
see exemplified, and in the case from which has just been cited the
expression of Chief Justice Tilghman, one of our former wealthiest
and most public-spirited fellow-citizens, Henry Pratt, the foreman of
the jury, who possessed everything that could contribute to the happi-
ness of life, declared to the court that he " would perish before he
agreed to a verdict that was against his judgment." (6 S. & R.
578.)

The late Judge James Wilson, in his course of lectures on law,
with a benevolent sympathy for jurors placed under a strong obliga-
tion of attaining a unanimous result, has endeavored to state those
principles of action which should or may govern them, and facilitate
their conclusion. He says, " To the conviction of a crime, the un-
doubting and unanimous sentiment of the twelve jurors is of indis-
pensable necessity. In civil causes, the sentiment of a majority of
the jurors forms the verdict of the jury, in the same manner as the
sentiment of a majority of the judges forms the judgment of the
court." He means by this, that when the genuine sentiment of a
majority of the twelve is ascertained, the minority should acquiesce,
and take the opinion of the majority as the verdict of the whole, as
the opinion of a majority of the judges is the decision of the court.
But the cases are not parallel. The dissentient judges express their
dissent, and are in nowise responsible for the judgment. But the

1863.1 221 LPrice.

conscience and oath of each juror who joins in the verdict, is pledged
for its truth and justice to the parties, to society, and to God.- He
is bound to strive for the reconcilement of truth, justice, and una-
nimity, or to refuse his consent to the verdict, and leave the whole
matter to the trial of other jurors, or to acquit the accused, if there
be a doubt of his guilt. Each juror in acquitting his conscience of
the incumbent duty, must judge for himself, as he will answer to
man and to God, and acting under the most solemn sense of duty,
his mind must be felt in the result. He cannot acquit himself to
himself or his Maker by adopting the opinion of others. He may
modify and make concession as his conviction is changed, but not
because seven others differ from him. Majorities upon continued
effort are often convinced that they have been in error, and join the
minority. The rule of unanimity imposes the necessity of an effort
to convince, since a wilful majority cannot carry the verdict upon
the mere strength of numbers.

The power of the Legislature to change the number and principle
of unanimity in the finding of juries, was submitted to the Judges of
the Supreme Judicial Court of New Hampshire, who in June, 1860,
in their opinion say, at the date of the adoption of the Constitu-
tion, " Such a thing as a jury of less than twelve men, or a jury de-
ciding by a less number than twelve voices, had never been known,
or ever been the subject of discussion in any country of the common
law. Upon these views we are of opinion that no body less than
twelve men, though they should by law be denominated a jui-y,
would be a jury within the meaning of the Constitution; nor would
a trial by such a body, though called a trial by jury, be such within
the meaning of that instrument. We think, therefore, that the
Legislature have no power so to change the law in relation to juries,
as to provide that petit juries maybe composed of a less number
than twelve, nor to provide that a number of the petit jury less than
the whole number, can render a verdict in any case where the Con-
stitution gives to the party a right to a trial by jury. They say that
four States by their highest courts had decided in the same way."
(23 Law Reports, 460.) These judges and those courts thus em-
phatically say, that an institution and a principle which the Consti-
tutions of the Union and the States have made fundamental and
sacred, for liberty and security, are not lightly to be touched by un-
hallowed hands. The former seem, indeed, not to have been aware
of the efforts made in former bad times to make available the voice

VOL, IX. — 2d

Price.] 222 [May.

of the majority, or to " afForce the assise," by abstractina^ the recu-
sant, and adding in their phice tlie willing tools of power j but their
judgment as to all right and lawful proceedings, standing as authori-
tative precedents in the law, was sound, just, true, and in accord
with their fealty to this inestimable institution of English and Ameri-
can common law.

And when such an attempt at innovation and reform was made in
the British Parliament, it was opposed by Lord Lyndhurst, in lan-
guage in which he contrasted the present milder and juster proceed-
ings in trials for political offences, with those he had witnessed at
the beginning of this century. "We may," said he, "be perfectl}'
satisfied with our present, but unfortunately, I have lived in times of
a different character. I have seen the time when the government
was carried on upon arbitrary, and even tyrannical principles; when
political prosecutions were of constant occun'ence, and were conducted
with extreme harshness, and punishments of great severity were in-
flicted for political offences. I have been myself, to a certain extent,
not merely a witness, but an actor in those times. The growing
prosperity of the country, producing a greater amount of content,
has caused a change from the feelings that then prevailed. But, my
lords, we must not so far delude ourselves as to suppose that such ai
state of things can never again arise. Violent political feelings may
again be excited, and who can venture to say that a similar state of
things may not again occur? At all events, let us not, acting
under such a delusion, take any steps towards destroying the bars
and fences the Constitution has given against the exercise of arbi-
trary power." This solemnly warning language of an English peer,
of American birth, is as applicable in republican America as in mo-
narchical England.

A verdict by majority would be dangerous from the too ready
facility of attaining it. It would then be but the product of the first;
impression, and that often the impulse of feeling. The minority
would be disregarded, and could not check undue impulsiveness, nor
command a prolonged or mature deliberation. This would be the
result in mere questions of property, and in the assessment of
damages, where the feelings have been excited by artful and eloquent
counsel, would be fearfully dangerous. But it would, in cases of a
political cast, in times of high political excitement, be unendurable
and fatal to liberty. It would be better that there should be no
political convictions, than that they should be attained at such a
cost. It is in this aspect that the institution has received its highest

1863.] 223 [Price.

encomiums, as a power resistant to tyranny. Our Judge Addison
said : " Jury trials may be disused, from disuse may be forgotten,
and this pillar of our liberties being removed, we may forget that we
were free." (57.) Judge Blackstone explained the antiquity and
praised the excellence of this trial for settling questions of property,
and then proceeds to say, as to its value to liberty and security, " It
will hold much stronger in criminal cases ; since in times of difficulty
and danger, more is to be apprehended from the violence and par-
tiality of judges appointed by the Crown, in suits between the king
and the subject, than in suits between one individual and another,
to settle the metes and bounds of private property. Our law has,
therefore, wisely placed this strong and twofold barrier, of a pre-
sentment and a trial by jury, between the liberties of the people and
the prerogative of the Crown." "The founders of the English law
have with excellent forecast contrived that no man should be called
to answer to the King for any capital crime, unless upon the prepara-
tory accusation of twelve or more of his fellow-subjects, the grand
jury; and that the truth of every accusation, whether preferred in
the shape of an indictment, information, or appeal, should afterwards
be confirmed by the unanimous suffrage of twelve of his equals and
neighbors, indifferently chosen and superior to all suspicion. So
that the liberties of England cannot but subsist so long as this palla-
dium remains sacred and inviolate, not only from all open attacks,
which none will be so hardy as to make, but also from all secret ma-
chinations which may sap and undermine it, by introducing new and
arbitrary methods of trial, by justices of the peace, commissioners of
the revenue, and courts of conscience." (4 Com. 349.)

Judge Story, in his Commentaries upon the Constitution, quotes
with high approval these sentiments of Blackstone upon trial by jury,
and proceeds to say, "Mr. Justice Blackstone, with the warmth and
pride of an Englishman living under its blessed protection, has said :
* A celebrated French writer, who concludes that because Rome,
Sparta, and Carthage have lost their liberties, therefore those of Eng-
land in time must perish, should have recollected that Rome, Sparta,
and Carthage, at a time when their liberties were lost, were strangers
to the trial by jury.' " (2 Story on Con. § 1780.) The writer thus
referred to was Montesquieu, who after dwelling upon the English
Constitution with an enthusiastic admiration, pauses in sadness to
make this solemn reflection : " As all human things have an end,
the state we are speaking of will lose its liberty ; it will perish.
Have not Rome, Sparta, and Carthage perished? It will perish

Price.] 224 f^^^'

when the legislative power shall be more corrupted than the execu-
tive." This melancholy warning is at this moment as applicable to
us, as ever it was to England ; and if the trial by jury be the main
bulwark for the defence of our liberties, God grant in His goodness
that, in the words of our Constitution, it may forever remain inviolate ;
and to remain inviolate, it must be untouched in any of its principles.
We have, I believe, and with the deepest humiliation I make the ad-
mission in the hope of the remedy, already in our brief history lite-
rally fulfilled that only condition which the French philosopher and
patriot places before a national downfall ; for already our legislatures
are more corrupt than our executives, and our only hope of rescue
remains in our executives, more pure than the legislative power, in
the untouched integrity of our judiciaries, and in the virtue of the
body of the people, who give that virtue expression more surely through
the verdicts of their juries, than in the exercise of their elective
franchise, or by their legislative action.

Mr. Peale presented to the notice of the Society, a box of
stone implements, taken by Mr. John Evans of England,
with his own hands, from the gravel-pits of St. Acheuil, near
Amiens ; and also, for comparison, a number of specimens
from his own collection of American Indian remains. It was
evidently characteristic of the European specimens, that they
were of larger size, and all of them formed from the flints of
the Cretaceous formation. Members present expressed their
conviction that the forms were artificial.

Mr. Foulke exhibited a copy of the "Pharmacopoeia Lon-
dinensis Collegarum. Hodie viventium studiis ac Symholis
ornatior. Londini. Typis W. Bentley, impensis L. Sadler,
et R. Beaumont. An. 1668," a curious 16° (about 4 inches
by 2) of 349 pages, with an Index Reryiediorum, which he
presented for the Library of the Society.

Mr. Foulke stated that he had designed to offer some re-
marks suggested by the formulae of this Pharmacopoeia, re-
specting the relations of medical science and art to the general
condition of science and art in England at the date of the

1863.] 225 [Foulke.

little volume (1668), but that he had been prevented hj ill
health.*

Mr. Foulke invited the attention of the Society to the
impressive contrast afforded by the "Dispensatory of the

* Opposite the title is written "Ex libris Johannis Foulke." Dr.
Foulke (the same gentleman who was subsequently one of the officers
of this Society) probably obtained the book during his visit to London,
at the date of his letters of introduction to Dr. Franklin, which are
now in the FrankHn MSS. collection of the Society.

On the fly-leaf is the autograph of Peter Renaudet, London, 1749.
This was four years after the publication of the "Plan of a new
London Pharmacopoeia, proposed to the College of Physicians by
their committee appointed for that pui'pose, Lond. 1745;" and two
years after the publication of " Pharmacopoeia Collegii Regalis Medi-
corum Londinensis. Lond. 1747" (both in the Pennsylvania Hos-
pital Library). The Leyden Pharmacopoeia followed in 1751; but
Amsterdam had already published one in 1726. Fuller's P. Extem-
poranea, P. Bateana, and P. Domestica had appeared (the second
time) in 1702, 1719, and 1723. Radcliff's Practical Dispensatory
(4th ed.) appeared in 1721.

Quincy's P. Officinalis et extemporanea, or Complete English Dis-
pensatory, appeared the third time in 1720, (eleven editions following
before 1769, Claudier translating it in Paris in 1749), the same year
with the second edition of Boerhaave's Materia Medica.

Salmon's London translation of Bates appeared the third time in
1706. Shipton's London edition of the P. Bateana was as early as
1688. Staphorst's Officina Chymica Londinensis appeared in 1685;
and Labrosse's P. Persica in Paris in 1681. LaTheriaque d'Andro-
machus par Charas had appeared at Paris in 1668 (the year of the
Pharmacopoeia presented by Mr. Foulke). Mynsicht had published
a similar "Thesaurus" at Lubeck in 1662, and Hernandes at Rome
in 1651.

Culpeper's "Physical Directory, or translation of the Dispensatory
made by the College of Physicians in London, and by them imposed
upon all the apothecaries of England, to make up their medicines
by," had reached its second edition in 1650. About the same time
(1653), at Rotterdam, appeared Zwelfer's P. Augustana Reformata.
But we must go back to 1567 for the appearance of the Q. Sereni
Samonici de Medicina Prsecepta Saluberrima, at London; and to
1537 for the Villanovani Syruporum Universa Ratio, at Paris.

Dubois. I 226 I'^'^y-

United States," prepared by Drs. Wood and Bache, two of
the Presidents of the Society. The progress during the last
two centuries, not only of Botany and Mineralogy and other
sources of the Materia Medica, but of the general methods
of science, is remarkably illustrated by a comparison of the
two books.

Pending nomination No. 494 was read :

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, May 15, 1863.

Present, seventeen members.

Dr. Wood, President, in the chair.

Letters accepting membership were received from William
Dwight Whitney, dated New Haven, April 2 1st; from E. A.
Washburne, dated Philadelphia, May 2d ; and from James
Pollock, dated Philadelphia, May 14th, 1863.

Letters to the Librarian, inclosing photographs of the
writers, were read, from B. Silliman, Sr., of New Haven,
Josiah Quincy, of Boston, and Gen. Swift, of Geneseo, in the
State of New York.

Donations for the Library were announced from the Essex
Listitute, the Museum of Comparative Zoology, in Boston;
the American Journal of Science and Art, Blanchard & Lea,
and Dr. Parrish, of Philadelphia; Professor J. H. Alexander,
of Baltimore, and the Academy of Sciences in St. Louis.

Mr. Dubois communicated the following remarks on assay-
balances :

The recent receipt of two assay-beams at the Mint, procured for
the use of Dr. Munson, assayer of the new branch Mint at Denver,
in the Territory of Colorado, furnishes occasion for a few remarks
on the progress of this delicate branch of art.

Thirty-one years ago, when Mr. Eckfeldt, the present assayer of
the Mint, entered upon that office, he found that the beam on which
all his operations were to turn, would not itself turn with a less
weight than about the one-fiftieth part of a grain. Consequently,
the nearest report of the fineness of gold was by gradations of one

1863.] 227 LI>«boi3.

thirty-second (o'j) part of a carat, which was about 1 ,^g thousandths,
according to the present notation. The reports of the British assay-
ers were not in those days more exact, whatever their apparatus
might have been.

About three years later, Mr. Peale brought from Paris, for the
use of the Mint, a beam of superior finish and much greater delicacy^
in which, among other improvements, stirrups were substituted for
silk cords, although there was still a cord for lifting.

Two years farther on, we had Mr. Saston restored from England
to his own country, and employed in the Mint in this branch of art^
in which he had already become famous. Various decided improve-
ments were introduced by him, in the beams made for the Mint and
Branch Mints.

After this artist had been claimed by Prof. A. D. Bache, for the
Bureau of Weights and Measures, and was transferred to Washing-
ton, our assay department had recourse to the manufactory of Oert-
ling, in London. His beams, although rather complicated, and of
many parts, are admirable for delicacy and beauty, and for a com-
bination of the most desirable qualities.

The establishment of the Branch Mint, already referred to, made
a fresh call for assay balances. We were about to resort to the last-
named maker, when Dr. Torrey, of the United States Assay Office
at New York, made a favorable mention of the manufactoiy of Becker
& Son, at Brooklyn, from his own experience of what they could do.
Any less authority would perhaps have been held in.sufficient, on the
narrow but venerable principle of questioning whether "any good
thing can come out of Nazareth." The order was consequently
given by Gov. Pollock, Director of the Mint; and in a very short
time two balances, with sets of weights, were made and delivered at
the Mint.

It is not at all the purpose of this notice to enter into a detailed
description of the parts and peculiarities of the different kinds of
assay-beams. There is nothing like an actual inspection of them, to
give a just idea of their merits; and persons who take a special
interest, can easily have the opportunity. Suffice it to say, that this
instrument compares favorably with any other, in respect to delicacy,
philosophic propriety, good taste, and fine finish. In respect to sim-
plicity and stability, two very important features, it may be said to
excel.

There is one point of considerable account, in regard to this
beam, — that its cost is about one-third of the London make, namely,

Briggs.l 228 IMay.

seventy-five dollars against two hundred and twenty-five, counting
the present cost of a bill of exchange. It is difficult to understand
how the Messrs. Becker can do justice to themselves, at such a price.
And not only was there a saving of money, but of time also.

There is one other point worthy of a few words, — that we have here
a further development of the progress of delicate workmanship in our
own country. We proceed from clocks to watches, from reapers to
penknives. And in regard to philosophical apparatus, if we may
introduce names, it is well known that our Ritchie, at Boston, has
so improved upon RuhmkoriF, of Paris, in the powerful induction-
coil (the most splendid instrument of the day), as to entitle it to be
called by his own name, and to be counted American.

It should be stated, that the balance will indicate the tenth of a
thousandth of the demi-gramme, which is our normal weight in the
gold assay; that is, it will turn with yg'oQth part of a grain. As
the beam and appendages are quite heavy, and capable of bearing
twenty times tbe largest weight ordinarily used, it might be made
much more sensitive by lightening the parts; but for woi'king pur-
poses, this is not desirable. Such a sensibility would serve to gratify
curiosity, or to make a boast of, but would not be in keeping with
the amount of deviation which is to be expected in other parts of the
assay — the cupellation and parting. It would be too much like the
exquisite refinement of some who report specific gravities : their
apparatus carries them safely to the second decimal, but their arith-
metic extends to the fourth or fifth.

Dr. Wood made a verbal communication respecting Mr.
Harrison's steam boiler.

Dr. Dawson's communication on the Coal of Nova Scotia
was read.

Mr. Robert Briggs of Philadelphia, communicated through
the Secretary, extracts from a private professional statement
of his views of the true seat of reserved power in rolling-mill
machinery, and of the importance of using boilers of the
largest possible ivater capacity, for accumulating and storing
up the force to be expended, at intervals, with great rapidity,
in the passing of the iron through the rolls.

Firstly. It is clear that in an extended mill, the waste heat of the
furnaces is far in excess of what is required to supply steam for

1863.] 229 ['BTiggs.

working the iron; and that in some way the heat is, by the. many
boilers, available when wanted. When working out one furnace,
several others are supplying heat, more or less ', and yet each fur-
nace, in a day's work, only furnishes what suffices for itself. Con-
sequently, the question resolves itself, in this case, into, — how can
you so store up heat (or power) that your three or four furnaces
should be upon the same ground with three or four out of twelve or
twenty ?

I will consider the store-rooms of power you have. Take your fly-
wheel. I assume that to be 18 feet diameter, and to weigh 32,000
pounds ; then assuming the diameter of centre of rotary mass to be
16 feet, and the number of revolutions per minute, &c., as follows :
65 rev. per rain, gives a vel'y per sec, with 16 ft. diam, = 54.5 ft.
50 " " " " " " " " = 41.9 ft.

Now if you consider how far a body must fall to have these velo-
cities, (V- = 64.3 h.)

When V = 54.5 .-. h. =46.2 ft. x 32,000 lbs. = 1,478,400 ft. lbs.
V = 41.9 .-. h. = 27.5 ft. X 32,000 lbs. = 880,000 " ''

Difference, 598,400 " "

In other words, if the weight of the fly-wheel were permitted to
fall from the heights of 46.2 and 27.5 feet, the same velocities would
have been attained that 65 and 50 revolutions per minute gives, and
the mechanical work given out by slowing the fly-wheel (from 65 to
50 revolutions) is 600,000 ft. lbs., (very nearly.)

Suppose this slowing to take place while rolling a long thin plate,
which would be g'^th of a minute in passing the rolls. (That is

65-1-50

taking the mean velocity assumed of "^^ = 57i revolutions per

minute, and taking the rolls at 18 inches diameter or 4 feet 8* inches
circumference, then the speed of the periphery of the rolls is 260
feet per minute; whence, in g'^th minute a plate 8f feet long would
pass the rolls.) Then the fly-wheel will have developed a force
represented by 600,000 x 30 ft. lbs. for one minute, or 18,000,000

lbs. in one minute, equal to ' "^n — =^ ^^^ horse-power, ivhilst

the force lasts.

Or, in other words, the fly-wheel will have performed the work
which a 540 h. p. engine would have been needed to do. On the
other hand, to restore the speed of the fly-wheel in haJf a minute,
would only take at the rate of 1,200,000 ft. lbs. per minute, or the

VOL. IX. — 2e

Briggs] 230 t^*y-

work of a 36 h. p. engine. These calculations show that the force
of the fly-wheel is only available for the exigency of part of a minute,
and not as a store of force in working out a heat.

Admitting that we cannot rely upon the making of steam on the
instant of rolling, as sufficient for working out the heat (even when
we consider the waste-heat of your four furnaces to be employed in the
formation at the time of rolling), what is the next source of force?

The following figures will demonstrate that the quantity of heated
water in the boilers must supply the deficiency.

Suppose the blow-off point of the boilers to be 85 lbs., suppose
the minimum working pressure of steam (to insure the proper acce-
leration of the fly-wheel between the passes) to be 60 lbs., then I
estimate (somewhat approximately) as follows :

Pressure. Temperature. Volume of steam per Weight of cub. ft. of

lb. of water. water at 318°.

85 328° 4.2 cub. ft.

60 307° 5.8 '' "

56.7 lbs.

56.7 lbs. at 21° = 1191°, div. by lat. heat of water at 60 lbs.

~900°

Giving lySg-jjths lbs. of water transformed to steam (or 7 J cub. ft. of
60 lbs. steam made) out of each cub. ft. of water in the boiler.

Suppose the governor to regulate so that 60 lbs. is the highest
pressure which enters the cylinder, then each cub. ft. of steam the
boilers may hold at 85 lbs. will have supplied || = 1.38- cub. ft. of
steam to the engine. Showing that as a store of power, water con-
tents are about five times as valuable as steam contents in the
boilers.

The above indicates the ground on which is based the EngHsh
practice of elephant boilers; and aside from the consideration of
safety from abundance of water, and of ease of getting at the inte-
rior, to remove scale or sediment, it still further demonstrates the
propriety of the objection I urged, to the abstraction of water-space
by flues or tubes, in rolling-mill practice. ....

Secondly. To get the largest result (for combustion of coal under
boilers), there is used, in tubular boilers of the best type, 3 feet of
surface for each pound of coal burnt per hour.

For mill practice, with cylinder boilers, about 18 feet of surface
per square foot of grate is used.

If I had but few furnaces, I should prefer to increase this to about
24 feet of surface (or even 30) per square foot of grate. This is

1863.] 231 [Chase.

from 270 to 337 feet of surface for each of the grates under present
consideration. ......•••

Were I limited for room, so that long cylinder boilers were imprac-
ticable, I would advise the use of French boilers in place of flue
boilers. I am satisfied the French universal practice, of putting the
flues outside, is superior to ours, of putting them inside, in similar
cases.

I do not wish you to assume, from all this,
that I look upon a well-built two-flued boiler as seriously objection-
able in a mill, only that T prefer the same extent of surface, with
greater capacity of water, in a cylindrical form.

Mr. Chase paid a tribute to the genius and merits of M.
Des Guignes, as an orientalist and etymologist, having an
insight into the true relationships of the languages and histo-
ries of the east and west of Asia not sufficiently acknow-
ledged or appreciated.

Philologists are peculiarly exposed to pert and arrogant criticism.
Their favorite studies lead them into unexplored fields, and among
the many hypotheses that they are obliged to hazard in their en-
deavors to explain the laws and phenomena of language, it is reason-
able to expect that some will be overthrown by subsequent investiga-
tion. It then becomes an easy matter for sciolists to talk of seeming
and fanciful resemblances, and thus throw discredit on the whole
science of Etymology, while they gain a cheaply bought reputation
for critical acumen. It is therefore particularly gratifying to find
that many of the shrewd surmises of a true scholar, like M. de
Guignes, after enduring the unstinted ridicule of his contempo-
raries, are confirmed by the discoveries of a later generation.

To Zoega the credit is generally given, of first forming the happy
conjecture that several of the Egyptian hieroglyphs were employed
merely as phonetic or alphabetic characters. But more than thirty
years before he announced his views, he had been anticipated by M.
de Guignes, who, in the very Memoirs that were most mercilessly
criticized, not only declared his belief in the phonetic use of most of
the Egyptian hieroglyphs, but also, arguing from the supposed com-
mon origin of the Chinese and Egyptian systems of writing, he sur-
mised that the cartouches contained royal names and titles, and that
the Egyptian, as well as the Chinese characters, might all be grouped
under the three classes of ideographs, determinatives, and phonetics.

Chase.] 232 ^'^^y-

These three conjectures, as well as some others of minor import-
ance, have been most completely and satisfactorily substantiated by
the discoveries of the modern English, French, and German Egyp-
tologists. In one important particular, the analogy between the two
systems appears to be even closer than M. de Guignes anticipated.
He considered the use of phonetics in Chinese to be more infrequent
and imperfect than in Egyptian, but the conclusions of Bunsen in
regard to syllabic hieroglyphs, and Sharpe's groupings of supposed
hieroglyphic equivalents, render it probable that the resemblance was
carried out into the minutest details, — even to the occasional em-
ployment of final characters to represent the final sounds of a word,
as well as of initial characters to represent the initial sounds.

Sir Wm. Jones early announced his reasons for believing in a
common origin of the Chinese, Egyptian, Shemitic, and Aryan types
of civilization, and many other eminent antiquarians and ethnologists
have been led by different paths to the same conclusion. My own
studies have tended at nearly every step to impress me with a similar
belief, and I hope at some future meeting to lay before the Society
some farther results of my own investigations, as well as some con-
firmations of the most important hypotheses of M. de Guignes. To
him will ever belong the honor, of having been one of the first to
suggest that the evidences of a common oi'igin are still traceable in the
records of two of the oldest known forms of civilization, and though
he may have erred in supposing that the relation of China to
Egypt was filial, rather than fraternal, the error was natural, excus-
able, and comparatively unimportant.

Mr. Lesley, at the request of the members present at the
meeting of the Board of Officers, gave a verbal narrative of
the organization of the National Academy of Sciences, on the
22d-24th April, in the Chapel of the University, in the City
of New York,

The Minutes of the last meeting of the Board of Officers
and Members of Council were read.

Pending nomination No. 494, and new nominations Nos.
495 to 505, were read.

And the Society was adjourned.

Procee<iin4s of Am. Phil. Soc.) (Origin of AlpkaLet.)

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PROCEEDINGS OF THE

AMEKICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

HELD AT PHILADELPHIA, FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

VOL. IX. JNo. 70.

CONTENTS.

June 19, 1863. page

On Solar Spots. By Dr. 0. Reich enbach 234

September 18, 18G3.
Catalogue of a Collection of Trade Tokens. By P. E. Chase . . 242

October 2, 1863.

Biographical Notice of Charles Jared Ingersoll. By G. Sharswood 260
Note on possible Vowel Sounds not used in any Language. By P,

E. Chase 271

December 4, 1 863.
On the Application of Forces to the Screw Bolt. By R. Briggs . 278

December 18, 1863.

Letter on Photography. By Prof. Zantedkschi 281

On the Diurnal Variation of the Barometer. By P. E. Chase . . 283

Note. — With the next number will be issued to such Corres-
pondents as signify their desire for it, the Title page and wanting
numbers of Vol. I. of the Proceedings of the American Philoso-
q)hical Society, in order to permit the set to be bound.

PROCEEDINGS

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Vol. IX. JUNE, 1863. No. 70.

Stated Meeting, June 19, 1863.

Present, thirteen members.

Dr. G. B. Wood, President, in the Chair.

Letters accepting membership were read from J. E. Hil-
gard, dated Washington, April 30th ; Thomas Hill, dated
Cambridge, Massachusetts, May 1st ; and Calvin Pease, dated
Rochester, Maj 18th, 1863.

Letters acknowledging publications received were read from
the Physical Society, dated Berlin, January 13th, and the
Imperial Academy, Vienna, January 24th, 1863 ; the Royal
Academy, Amsterdam, October 25th, and the Society of Arts,
London, December 4th, 1862 ; the Society of Antiquaries,
London, May 15th, the Royal Dublin Society, April 2d, and
the Public Library, Boston, February 17th and March 17th,
1863.

A letter announcing the transmission of publications was
read from the Royal Academy, dated Vienna, October 23d,
1862.

Donations for the Library were received from the Acade-
mies at Vienna and Amsterdam ; the Royal Societies at Lon-
don and Dublin ; the Royal Geological Societies at Berlin
and Vienna ; the Natural History Societies at Bonn and
Boston ; the Society at Luxembourg ; the Royal Institution,
Royal Astronomical, Royal Geographical, British Meteoro-

VOL. IX. — 2f

Reiclienbach ] 234 [June.

logical Societies, and Society of Arts, of London ; the Bu-
reau des Fonts et Cliauss^es in Paris ; the San Fernando
Observatory ; Dr. Koch and R. Friedlander & Son, of Ber-
lin ; J. Kreittmeyer, of Munich ; Professor Agassiz, of Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts; Professor Hall, of Albany; the New
Jersey Historical Society ; the Franklin Institute ; Messrs.
Blanchard & Lea, J. F. Fisher, T. P. James, C. B. Trego,
0. Reichenbach, and F. Leypoldt, of Philadelphia ; Mr. J.
Lacey Darlington, of Westchester ; and the Wilmington In-
stitute.

No. 69 of Volume IX of the Proceedings, just published,
was laid on the table by the Secretary.

The death of C. G. C. Reinhardt, of Leyden, a member of
the Society, was reported by the Secretary.

A communication intended for publication in the Transac-
tions was presented by Mr. T. P. James, entitled, "On the
Mosses of California," by Leo Lesquereux, of Columbus,
Ohio, and referred to a committee, consisting of Mr. James,
Mr. Durand, and Dr. Bridges, with instructions to report at
their earliest convenience.

Communications " On Solar Spots," and " On Breaks in
tlie Visible Record of History of the Variation of Species,"
by Dr. Reichenbach, were read by the Secretary.

SOLAR SPOTS.

Br Dk. 0. Reichenbach, Philadelphia.

Going over the last volumes of the '' London, Edinburgh, and
Dublin Magazine of Sciences," 1 remarked in the number for Decem-
ber, 1860, an article by J. Gregg, F.G S., on solar spots, in which
he mentions that Mr. Wolf has in the " Coraptes Rendus," January,
1859, renounced the idea that this phenomenon might be connected
with the planetary motions. He finds the hypothesis likely, but
must admit that the period of spots, which he presumes to be 11.1
years, is not in accordance with that of the revolution of Jupiter,
that the maximum does not at all coincide with the perihelion of
that planet — rather the contrary — and that he has not been able to
lind amongst astronomical combinations a period of 11.1 years.

1863.] 235 [Reichenbiic

" Silliman's American Journal," volume 25, 1858, page 295 (prior
to Mr. Wolf's opinion), contains a note, dated 13th January, 1858,
in whicli I say, that the period of spots depends on the revolution of
Jupiter, and varies principally by the influence of Saturn, as the
effects of the other eight planets (I assert the existence of so many)
being inferior to that of Saturn, must all fall inside the oscillation
produced by the latter. I have farther shown that the maximum of
spots corresponds to the aphelion of Jupiter.

The revolution of Jupiter is 11.86 years. I do not see how the
period of spots is shown to be 11.1 years. The time since 1828, the
first maximum proved by constant observation, is too short for de-
ducing the exact period, which must be variable. Only a long
observation can show it to be identical with that of Jupiter, 11.86.

Remark. As the exact period has not been ascertained, we can in-
dulge in the hypothesis, which I, however, feel disposed to reject, that
there occur seven maxima within six revolutions of Jupiter, if Saturn
steadily advances, and not in the long equally delays the period. For
if J/ the mass of Jupiter, m of Saturn, D and d their respective dis-
tances from the sun, ^^=; 6, or the tide-creating force of Saturn being
i of that of Jupiter, in the sun there will be 7 maxima instead of 6,
if there is only acceleration. The period of spots would be 10.17
years, and the maxima could oscillate two years before and after the
aphelion passage of Jupiter, as in the case of an average period of
11.86 they can oscillate 2.4 years.

We can draw some inferences from the time before 1828.

In 1779 the attention of William Herschel was turned to the sub-
ject of " spots" by a spot visible with the naked eye. We will sup-
pose that year one of maximum. The aphelion of Jupiter fell in
1780, or the time from 1779 to 1828, the aphelion passage of Jupiter
having occurred May, 1827, occupies four revolutions and seventeen
months, the maximum having occurred an equal time first before
than after the aphelion passage of Jupiter. The period exceeded
11.86 years, as afterwards it has been shorter, a circumstance in favor
of the average of 11.86 years. The arbitrary period mentioned by
Mr. Gregg gives four periods and 4.5 years, a quite unfavorable result.

Baron Humboldt, in speaking of solar spots, gives a series of ob-
servations of different kinds :

43 a. C. n. Death of Caesar. Dim, cool weather, one year after,
political superstition. Falls, however, not two years before the aphe»
lion of Jupiter, and coincides with that of Saturn, and can have been
a maxiiiuim.

Reichenbach.] 236 [June.

35 p. C. n. Death of the Saviour. No characteristics of sun si^ots;
terrestrian phenomenon.

358 p. C. n. Local, terrestrian.

360. Local, terrestrian,

409. More like an eclipse.

530. One year and a half after the aphelion of Jupiter, and as
long after that of Saturn 5 favorable to theory.

567. Somewhat over two years before the aphelion of Jupiter, but
coincident with that of Saturn ; most likely a maximum, which is,
however, not described by the occurrence.

626. According to the intelh'ycnt and carefid Arabian observers,
half the disc of the sun remained obscured during eight months.
It is evidently the sun which is obscured. The evidence indicates a
most intense maximum. In this year coincide the aphelia of Jupiter
and of Saturn. This case alone seems fully to confirm the theory.
The period 11.86 coincides from 1828 downward.

807. Coincides with the aphelion of Jupiter, and three years after
that of Saturn ; favorable to theory.

840. A little over two years before the aphelion of Jupiter, but
coincident with that of Saturn. The small angular distance of the
two planets increased the maximum.

934. Local, terrestrian.

1091. A few months before the aphelion of Jupiter.

1096. Could not be a maximum if 1091 was one.

1206. A local phenomenon, terrestrian.

1241. Equally local, terrestrian.

Pendins nominations ITos. 494 to 505 v^^ere read.

The Committee on Mr. Lesquereux's communication re-
ported in favor of its publication in the Transactions, which
on motion was so ordered.

Bills were presented from C. Sherman, Son k Co. for
printing the Catalogue, $411 75, and Proceedings, No. 69,
$227 70, which, on motion of Mr. Fraley, Avere referred to
the Finance Committee, with power to take order thereon.

On motion of Mr. Fraley, the following resolution was
adopted :

'< Resolved, That a committee, to consist of the Committee on Fi-
nance and the Committee on the Hall, be appointed to take in charge

1863.] 237

the lease of part or the sale of the whole of the Hall of the Society,
and to report to the Society on such propositions as they may receive
in the premises."

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, July 17, 1863.

Present, eight members.

Professor Cresson, Vice-President, in the Chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from James
McChme, dated Philadelphia, May 30th, 1863.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of publications were re-
ceived from the Royal Academy at Gottingen, dated May 7th ;
the New York State Library, June 22d ; the Boston Public
Library, June 6th ; Captain Gilliss, United States Navy,
June 22d ; and the Chicago Historical Society, June 23d,
1863.

Letters announcing donations for the Library were received
from 0. Reichenbach, dated Philadelphia, June 10th, and
from the Bureau of Navigation, dated Washington, June 11th,
1863.

Donations for the Library were received from the Smith-
sonian Institution ; the Chicago Historical Society ; F. Ley-
poldt ; Blanchard & Lea ; the Academy of Natural Sciences
of Philadelphia; the California Academy of Natural Sciences ;
the Franklin Institute ; the American Antiquarian Society ;
American Oriental Society ; New York University ; Connec-
ticut Historical Society ; Dr. 0. Reichenbach ; Bath and
West of England Society ; Prince Maximilian ; Royal As-
tronomical Society at Gottingen ; Imperial Society of Natu-
ralists at Moscow ; German Geological Society ; and Society
of Sciences at Haarlem.

The death of George Alexander Otis, of Boston, a late

238 [J»iy-

member of the Society, on the 23d of June, 18G3, aged 81,
was announced by Dr. Bache.

Pending nominations Nos. 494 to 505 Avere read.

On motion of Dr. Baclie, ISTos. 503 and 504 were postponed
on account of the absence of the proposers. The balloting
was then proceeded with.

On the report of the Finance Committee, an appropriation
for paying the bill of C. Sherman, Son & Co. was passed.

The Special Committee on the lease or sale of the Hall,
appointed at the last meeting, presented the following report
and resolutions :

"■ The Special Committee appointed for the purpose of receivino-
and reporting any propositions that mny be made for the lease of
a part, or the purchase of the whole of the Hall of the Societ}', re-
spectfully state :

" That after several conferences wath parties representing the City
authorities, the following ordinance has been passed by the Select
and Common Councils of Philadelphia, and approved by the Mayor.

"An ordinance authorizing tlie Mayor to lease the building from
the American Philosophical Society for the use of the Departments.

"Section 1. The Select and Common Councils of the City of
Philadelphia do ordain. That the Mayor be and he is hereby directed
to lease, for a term of five years, from the American Philosophical
Society, the two lower stories of their building on the west side of
Fifth Street, below Chestnut Street, at an annual rent of three thou-
sand dollars, payable quarterly. Provided that the said American
Philosophical Society will agree to sell the same to the City for a
sum not exceeding seventy-eight thousand dollars any time within
the said period of five years.

" Section 2. That the sum of fifteen hundred dollars is hereby
appropriated to the Commissioner of City Property to pay the rent
of said building for the year 18Go, the warrants for which shall be
drawn in conformity with existing ordinances.

" The Committee have in the negotiations agreed that in the event
of the acceptance of the terms of the ordinance by the Society, the
sum of four hundred dollars shall be allowed out of the first quarter's
s-ent for the purpose of making such repairs and alterations as will
fit the preuases for the use of tlie City.

1863.] 239

"They submit the following resolutions for the action of the
Society.

" Resolved, That the Society agree to the terms of the ordinance of
the City of PhiladeljDhia, entitled An ordinance authorizing the Mayor
to lease the building belonging to the American Philosophical Society
for the use of the Departments, approved July 1, 1863, and that the
President and Treasurer be authorized to execute and deliver to the
City such contracts and agreements as may be necessary to carry the
same into effect on the part of the Society.

" Resolved, That the Treasurer be and he is hereby authorized to
deduct from the first quarter's rent payable by the City under said
ordinance, the sum of four hundred dollars as an allowance for such
repairs and alterations as the City may desire to make in the pre-
mises for the purpose of fitting them for its use.

" ^cso/i-W, That any repairs or alterations in the premises shall
be made under the direction and with the consent of the Hall Com-
mittee."

The report was considered, and the resolutions thereto
attached Avere unanimously adopted, and ordered to be pre-
sented to the Society at its next meeting for confirmation.

On motion, the Special Committee was continued for the
purpose of superintending the preparation of the papers.

All other business having been concluded, the ballot-boxes
were opened by the presiding officer, and the following named
persons were declared duly elected members of the Society.

Dr. R. A. F. Penrose, of Philadelphia.

Dr. R. M. S. Jackson, U. S. A., of Cresson, Cambria Co.,
Pennsylvania.

Mr. Peter W. Sheafer, of Pottsville, Pa.

Mr. John Biddle, of Philadelphia.

Dr. Henry Hartshorne, of Philadelphia,

Dr. D. F. Eschricht, of Copenhagen.

Dr. C. G. N. David, of Copenhagen.

Dr. Frederick Keller, of Zurich.

Prof. A. Delesse, of Paris.

Prof. A. Daubree, of Strasbourg.

And the Society was adjourned.

240 [August.

Stated Meeting^ August 21, 1863.

Present, eleven members.

Professor Cresson, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Letters accepting membership were received from Peter
W. Sheafer, dated Pottsville, August 19th, and from R. W.
Bunsen, dated Heidelburg, 21st May, 1863.

Letters acknowledging publications were received from
Professor Haidinger, of Vienna, July 15th, and the London
Geological Society, March 4th, 1863.

A letter was received from M. A. Quetelet in respect to
publications sent to this and other societies for distribution.

Donations to the Library were received from the Society
of Sciences at Haarlem ; the Society of Antiquaries and
Royal Geographical Society at London : the British Ameri-
can at Toronto ; the Essex Institute ; the Boston Natural
History Society ; the American Journal of Science; the New
York Mercantile Library Association ; the Franklin Insti-
tute ; Blanchard & Lea ; the Colonization Society ; Frederick
Leypoldt ; and the Library of Congress ; also, from Mr. Du-
bois, photographs of Messrs. Hoffman, Field, Farnum, and
Faraday, of London, with autograph signatures.

Agreeably to the laws, the Society then proceeded to the
consideration of the resolution for the lease and sale of the
Hall, reported by the Committee on the subject at the last
stated meeting. After discussion of the same, the resolu-
tions, as reported by the Committee, were again adopted.

And the Society was adjourned.

1863.] 241

Stated Meeting^ September 18, 1863.

Present, ten members.

Judge Sharswood, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Dr. Henderson, a recently elected member, was introduced
to the presiding officer by Dr. Bridges, and took his seat.

A letter accepting membership was received from Dr. F.
Wbhler, dated Gottingen, July 27th, 1863.

Letters announcing donations to the Library were received
from the regents of the University, dated Albany, August
24th, 1863.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of publications were re-
ceived from the Royal Asiatic Society, dated London, Janu-
ary 26th ; the Corporation of Yale College, dated August 3d ;
and the Public Library of Boston, dated July 21st, 1863.

A letter from Ovide Brunet, Professor of Botany at the
University of Laval, Canada, was read, requesting permission
to copy that part of Michaux's Journal which relates to
Canada. On motion, the subject of the letter was referred
to Mr. Durand, with power to have a copy of the MSS. made
for Professor Brunet in the Hall of the Society.

A list of the deficiencies in the set of the Society's publica-
tions, left in the Congressional Library at Washington, was
received from the Librarian of Congress, and on motion the
Librarian was authorized to make up the deficiencies, and
forward them to Washington.

Donations for the Library were received from Dr. Wohler,
of Gottingen; M. Boucher de Perthes, of Abbeville; the
Royal Astronomical and Royal Asiatic Societies, and Society
of Arts, in London ; the Royal Dublin Society ; the New
Hampshire Asylum for the Insane ; the American Academy ;
Dr. Jarvis, of Dorchester ; the Regents of the New York
University ; Messrs. Blanchard & Lea ; the Franklin Insti-
tute ; and Mr. Leypoldt, of Philadelphia.

VOL. IX. — 2g

Chase.] 242 [September.

Mr. Chase presented for the Cabinet a collection of tokens,
illustrating the trade currency illicitly circulating during the
war, together with a catalogue.

Collectors and others who may wish to assist in completing the
collection of Token currency in the Cabinet of the American Philo-
sophical Society, may send specimens, duplicates, or descriptions of
such varieties as are not mentioned in this catalogue, to the Curators,
Mr. Fr. Peale, or to the Librarian of the Society.

The star (*) denotes such varieties as are described from other
collections, but are wanting in the Society's collection.

B, brass ; C, copper; L, lead. Where no letter is given, tbe token
is of copper.

The sizes are given in sixteenths of an inch. Thus, size 12 de-
notes that the diameter is -j-g of an inch.

The average weight of the tokens examined by Mr. William E.
Dubois, Assistant Assayer, United States Mint, is 51 grains. At 32
cents per pound (the average price of copper), their intrinsic average
value is -fQ\ of a cent.

The following descriptive list of varieties that are frequently used
in " muling" is given for reference.

I. Wreath. " Not one cent."

a. " 1863." Wreath unbroken,

b. Wreath without arrows, "not" small. "J. G. W."

c. No arrows. "NOT" large.

d. Arrows in wreath, "not" small.

e. Same. " NOT" large, and in antique letters.
/. Same. " not " medium.

g. " H" in wreath.

h. Eagle's head in wreath. " NOT " small.
i. Tie of wreath in a large bow.
k. Tie in a small bow. "not" small.
I. Same. " NOT" large, in antique letters,
m. Resembles k, but " NOT " in common letters. Wreath of a
different character.

n. " Not one cent for the widows." Star in opening of wreath.
0. Two stars in wreath.

p. Unbroken wreath. " N O T " in antique letters. " L. Roloff."
q. Same, without " L. Roloff."

1863.] 243 tc^»'«-

r. Unbroken wreath. Rosette in bottom of wreath.
s. Resembles n, but " not " small, in common letters,
t. " H " in wreath.

II. Wreath. " Army and Navy."

a. Wreath, with crossed swords and anchor. Star, with rays, in
opening of wreath at top. Hilt of each sword touching the wreath.
Flukes of anchor covering the ends of the branches that compose the
wreath.

b. Same, but ends of branches not covered by flukes of anchor.

c. Resembles a, but " and " in smaller letters, and nearly straight.
A slight space between sword-hilt and wreath, on the left.

d. Same, with larger space between left hand sword-hilt and wreath.
Left side of wreath somewhat denser.

e. Same. Swords with smaller hilts, and die not so deeply en-
graved. More space between the words of the inscription.

III. Wreath. " Army & Navy."

a. Wreath, with crossed swords, tied somewhat loosely.

b. Same. Swords with large hilts. Wreath straggling and coarse.

c. Wreath of two branches, with crossed stems, but no swords or
tie. Letters irregular. Period after army.

d. Resembles a, with star in opening of wreath at top.

e. Resembles d, but star larger. Swords more slender, workman-
ship coarser, and lettering larger.

/. Left side of wreath sharp-pointed. Ribbon close over right
sword.

(/. Wreath slightly broader-pointed. Ribbon loose over right sword,
and partly over left sword. Tie close.

h. Like g, with band extending from handle of right sword over
the wreath. Probably from defect in die.

i. Much like g, but tie more open, and extending under left sword.

k. Like i, but wreath broader, and somewhat three-pointed. Work-
manship coarser.

I. Wreath like k, but right end of wreath-tie bent towards the left.
Workmanship fine.

m. Resembles /in wreath-tie, but wreath broader-pointed. Coarse.

n. Resembles/, but has a portion of tie coming from hilt of right
sword towards the left.

Chase.] 244 [September.

o. Right end of tie extends over both swords.
p. Wreath so elaborately wrought that the general effect of the
two sides is similar.

CATALOGUE.

Class I. — Business Cards.

*1. "J. L. Agens & Co., No. 1 Commerce St., Newark, N. J.
Newspapers." Rev. Eagle on globe. " Union forever." Size 13.
*2. Same. Rev. Two stars. " Good for 1 Cent." Size 13.

3. "Atlantic Garden, 50 Bowery, New York, 1863." Rev.
Harp and wreath. "Grand Concert Every Night. Admission
Free." Size 14—.

4. " C. Bahr, cor. Cliff and Frankfort Sts., New York." Rev.
Wreath. "Not One Cent. L. Roloff." Size 12+.

5. Same; but the word "not" in larger letters. Size 12+.

6. Same, without L. EoloflF's name. Size 12+.

7. Same obv. Rev. " p]rinnerung an 1863." Size 12+.

8. Same obv. Rev. Eagle on shield, with motto " E Pluribus
Unum. United States of America, 1863." Size 12 + .

9. "J. C. Bailey, City Hotel, Jersey City" Wreath and two
stars. Rev. " Thos. Bennett, 213 Fulton St., N. Y." Wreath.
Size 16.

10. "H. J. Bang, Restaurant, 231 Broadway." Rev. "Importer
of Rhine Wines." Bunch of grapes. " Glaubrecht." Size 14.

*11. " Barker & Illsley, Hardware, Nails & Stoves, 277 State St.
Chicago." Rev. Wreath. " Business Card." Size 12 J.

12. " M. F. Beirn, Magnolia Hotel, 100 So. 8th St., and 416
Library St., Philadelphia." Rev. Head with liberty cap, and thir-
teen stars. Size 12.

*13. " Benjamin & Herrick, Fruit Dealers, Albany, N. Y." Rev.
" Redeemed at 427 Broadway, 1863." Corner of figure seven nearly
touching the D in "Redeemed." Size 12 + .

14. Same. Corner of figure seven nearly touching the A in
^'At." Size 12 + .

15. "V. Benner & Ch. Bendinger, 1863." Two stars, head with
f«ather crown; " L. Ruloff." Rev. Bottle and wreath. " Lu porters
of Wines & Liquors, No. 1. Ave. A." Size 15 + .

16. "J. L. Bode, Birdstuffer, 1863." Stag's head. Rev. "Bo-
hemian Fancy Glass Work, 16 N. William St., N. Y." Size 15+.

1863.] 245 [Chase.

*17. " Oliver Boutwell, xMiller, Troy, N. Y." Two stars. Rev.
"Redeemed in bills at my ofBce." Four stars. Size 12 + .

18. Same. /?ey. " Redeemed at my ofSce, 1863." Extremity of
upper scroll over C in " office." Size 12.

*19. Resembles 17, but has no stars on the obverse Size 12 -J- .

*20. Resembles 18, but point of scroll nearly touches the I in
"office." Size 12 + .

*21. Resembles 18, but has no stars on obverse. Size 12 + .

*22. Resembles 18, but points of scroll are outside of M and R
in "Miller," instead of underneath those letters. Size 12 + .

*23. " Jas. Brennan, 37 Nassau St., Foreign & U. S. Postage.
Stamps." Rev. Eagle. " Union for Ever." Size 12^.

24. Same. Rev. Head of McClellan. "General G. B. Mc-
Clellan." Size 12 + .

*25. "T. Brimelow, Druggist, 432 Third Avenue, N. Y. 1,
1863." Mortar and wreath. Rev. Head of Washington, and six
and seven stars. " Geo. Washington, President." Size 15.

*26. "T. Brimelow, (2) 432 3d Ave., N. Y." Rev. as in 25.
Size 15.

*27. Like 25 on obv. Rev. Head of Washington and eight stars.
"Geo. Washington, President." Size 15.

*28. "Broas, Pie Baker. One Country. 131 41st St., N. Y."
One star, with " H " underneath. Rev. same as obv. C. Size 12^.

29. Like 28, but in brass. Size 12J.

30. Same obv. Rev. Head with feather crown. " United we
Stand. 1863." C. Size 12 + .

81. Same in brass. Size 12 + .

32. Same in lead. Star without " H." Size 12 + .

33. "Broas Brothers, Pie Bakers. Our Country." Wreath and
two stars. Rev. Head of Washington and flags. "United we
Stand. 1863." C. Size 12 + .

34. Same in brass. Size 12 + .

*35. "Broas Bros. New York. Army and Navy." Wreath and
two stars. Rev. as in 30. Size 12^.

36. " M. S. Brown. 1863." Letters of uniform size. Wreath
and shield. Tie of wreath close over arrows. Rev. " Eureka.
2 Warren St., New York." Size 13.

37. Same, but initial letters M. S. B. larger than rown. Size 13.
*38. Like 36, but tie loose over arrows. Size 13.

39. "Cafe Autenrieth, 85 Chatham St., N. Y. 1863." The

Chase.] 246 [September.

words " Chatham St." in a curved line. Eev. Head with feather crown.
Size 12.

40. Same. Eev. Wreath. ''Not One Cent." The word "Not"
in medium-sized letters. Maker's name, "L. Roloif," in small
letters. Size 12.

*41. Same, but word "not" in small letters. Size 12.

42. Same, without maker's name. " NOT" in antique condensed
letters. Size 12.

43. Like 40, except "not," which is as in 42. Size 12.

44. Same as 40, but "Chatham St." in a straight line, and two
stars added on obv. Size 12.

45. " Garland's, 95 Bowery, cor. of Hester St., N, Y." Rev.
" Fine Ale drawn from Wood." Two stars. Size 12 -f.

*46. "Charnley, No. 11 Orange St., Providence, R. I." Anchor
on shield, and thirteen stars. Eev. Wreath. C. " Union. 1863."
Size 12.

*47. " R. H. Countiss, Grocer & Tea Dealer, Clark St., cor. Van
Buren, Chicago,^IIl." Eev. Wreath. " Business Card." Size 12J.

48. "Coutts & 'Bro., Dry Goods & Groceries, P. Amboy, N. J."
Eev. " Good for 1 Cent." Two stars. Size 13.

*49. "Tom Cullen, Liquors, 609 Grand St., N. Y." Eev.
Wreath. " Not One Cent." "Not " in small letters. Size 12.

50. Same. "Not" as in 42. Size 12.
'51. "J. J. Diehl, Undertaker, 133 Essex St., New York."
Coffin, wreath, and two stars. Eev. Head with feather crown, and
thirteen stars. "1863." Size 15 + -

52. " C. Doscher, 241 Washington St., N. Y. Not One Cent.
H." Wreath, and two stars. Eev. Head with feather crown, and
six and seven stars. " 1863." Upper star over second feather.
Size 12+.

53. Same, upper star over third feather. Size 12 -|-.

54. "C. Doscher, 241 Washn St., N. Y., 1863." Head of
Washington. Eev. Wreath. "Not One Cent. H." Size 12 -f.

=^55. " John Engel, Merchant Tailor, 52 First St., Elizabethpt,
N. J." Eev. Sun-rays; two small heads. "I-O-U 1 Cent. Pure
Copper." Size 13.

56. " Felix ^-^2 Dining Saloon, 256 Broadway, New York." Two
stars. Eev. Head with feather crown, and thirteen stars. " 1863."
Size 12.

*57. "Flagg & MacDonald, Boots & Shoes, 181 Lake St., Chicago,
111." i?ev. Wreath. " Business Card." Size 12 J.

*58. "R. Flanigan's Punch. 112, 156 North 6th St." Punch-

1863.] 247 [Chase

bowl and two stars. Rev. " Pure copper preferable to paper.
Philada." Size 13.

59. '' Fox's Casino." One star. Eev. " Chesnut St., 620, Pliila."
Size 12J.

*60. " Freedman, Goodkind & Co., Dry Goods, 135 Lake St.,
Chicago, 111." Rev. Wreath. " Business Card."

61. ^'Fr. Freise, Undertaker, 12 Av. A, New York, 1863."
Coffin and wreath. Rev. " Fr. Freise, Leichenbesorger, 12 Ave. A,
New York." Two stars. Head with feather crown. Size 15 + .

62. " J. F. Gardner, 55 Henry St., N. Y." Two stars. Rev.
Head with feather crown, and thirteen stars. " 1863." Size 12.

63. " A. Gavron, 213 Bowery & 102 Pitt St., N. Y. Sausages."
Rev. "Good for 1 Cent." Two stars. Size 13.

*64. Same, with ornaments added at each side of each star.
Size 13.

65. Same obv. Rev. " I-O-U 1 Cent." " Pure Copper." Sun
with rays; two small heads. Size 12-f-.

66. " Charles Gentsch. 1863." Head with feather crown ; four
stars. Rev. " Cafe Restaurant du Commerce, No. 426 Broadway,
N. Y." Size 12.

67. " H. D. Gerdts, Broker & Coin Dealer, 240 Greenwich St.,
N. Y." Rev. Man with bundle, and motto, "Go it buttons."
"Money makes the mare go. 1863." Size 12.

68. " G. Graham, Liquors, cor. Henry & Montgomery Sts., cor.
Bleecker & Tenth Sts." Rev. Wreath. "NOT One Cent."
Size 13.

69. " J. A. C. Grube. Segars and Tobacco, 7 Bowery 7, New
York." i^ey. Wreath. " NOT One Cent." Size 12.

*70. Same. ^ei;. "Erinnerung an 1863." Size 12.

71. " John P. Gruber, New York." Pair of scales. Rev. " Apoth.
Weight One Dram. 1863." Eagle and two olive branches. Size 13.

72. " John P. Gruber, 178 Chatham Sq." Pair of scales. Rev.
" 1863." Head with feather crown, thirteen stars. Size 12.

*73. " M. Hartzel, Grocer & Commission Merct., N. W. cor. 3d
& Elm Sts., Cincinnati." Rev. "1862." Head with feather crown,
thirteen stars. Size 12.

74. " William Hastings. 1863." Head with feather crown. Rev.
Wreath. " Imported Liquors." L. Size 12 + .

75. "C. J. Hauck, 108 Leonard St., Brooklyn, E. D., N. Y."
Rev. Wreath. " Not One Cent. L. Roloff." Size 12.

Chase.] 248 [September.

76. "Chr. F. Hetzel, Roofer, New York." Rev. '^863. B.
& K." Press. Size 13.

77. '' Hussey's Special Message Post, 50 William St., New York."
One star. Rev. Man on horseback. "Time is Money. 1863.
Exigency." B. Size 12 + .

78. Same, in copper. Size 12 + .

79. " Hussey's Special Message Post, 50 Wra. St., N. York."
Locomotive and two stars. Rev. Man on horseback. " Time is
Money. 1863. Expediency." B. Size 12 + .

80. " George Hyenlein, 23 Chrystie St., N. Y." One star. Rev.
Wreath. '' Not One Cent. L. Roloff." The word " not" in small
letters. Size 12.

81. Same, without L. Roloff's name on rev. " NOT" in an-
tique letters. Size 12.

82. Same obv. Rev. Head of Washington in star, with wreath.
Size 12.

83. Same olv. Rev. Head with feather crown. Thirteen stars.
"1863" in small figures. Size 12+.

84. Same, but "1863" larger. Size 12 + .

*85. "T. Ivory, cor. Fulton and Orange Sts., Brooklyn. Billiard
Saloon." i?et;. " I-O-U 1 Cent. Pure Copper." Two small heads,
solar rays. Size 13.

*86. "John Joergens, North Second St., Brooklyn, E. D., L. I."
One star. Rev. Wreath. " Not One Cent. L. Roloff." Size 12.

87. " W. Johnston, Die Sinker, 154 Everett St., Cin., 0." One
star. Rev. Head with feather crown. Thirteen stars. " 1863."
Size 12 + .

88. "W.Johnston, Die Sinker, Cin., 0." One star. Rev. Shield.
Thirteen stars. " Union." Size 12+.

89. "Christoph Karl, 42 Avenue A, New York." Harp, star,
and wreath. Rev. Columbia seated. "1863." Size 15.

90. "R. T. Kelly, 1319 Third Av., New York. 1863." Hat.
^'E. S." Rev. "Constitution and the Union." Shield, wreath,
.and one star. " E. S." C. Size 12+.

*91. Same in brass.

*92. "A. Killeen, No. 1 and 16 Ferry St., Greenpoint." Rev.
•"•Good for 1 cent." Two stars. Size 12 5.

93. "Knoop's Segars and Tobacco, 131 Bowery, New York.
1863." Two stars. Rev. Wreath. " Not One Cent. L. Roloff."
.Size 12 + .

1863.] 249 [Chase

94. Same. "Not" in smaller letters. Size 12+ .

95. Same, without L. Euloff's name. " NOT" in antique let-
ters. Size 12-j-.

1)6. Same ohv. Rev. " Erinnerung an 18G3." Size V2^.

97. "Charles Kolb, Restaurant, 102 Market St." Rev. Head
with feather crown. Thirteen stars. " 1863." Size 13.

98. "F. & L. Ladner, North Military Hall, 532 N. Third St."
Harp, two stars. Rev. Two females supporting a shield. Arm
holding scales. Plough, ship, thirteen stars. " 1863. Philada.-"
Size 13+.

99. " H. M. Lane, Lamps, Kerosene Oil, &c., 18 Spring St.,
N. Y." Rev. Wreath, open at top, tied at bottom. "Not One Cent."
Size 12 + .

100. Same, but wreath closed, and without tie. "Not" small.
Size 12 + .

101. Same as 99, with addition of maker's name. " L. Ruloff."
" NOT " antique. Size 12 + .

102. Same o^tj. i?^y. " Erinnerung an 1863." Size 12 + .

103. Same. Rev. Wreath, with head of Washington in star.
Size 12+.

104. Same. Rew. Shield and eagle, with motto, "E Pluribus
Unum. United States of America. 1863." Size 12+.

105. Same. Rev. Head with feather crown. Thirteen stars.
"1863." Size 12+.

*106. "Charles Lang. 1863." Head and sis stars. Rev. "Die
Sinker and Gen'l Engraver, Worcester, Mass." Three stars. B.
Size 14.

*107. Same, in copper. Size 14.

*108. "S. Lasurs, Dealer in Rags and Metals, 26 15 St.,
Cin., 0." One star. Rev. Head with feather crown, thirteen stars.
" 1863." Size 12+.

109. Same. Rev. Shield and thirteen stars. "Union." Size
12+.

110. "H. Lasares.s, Dealer in Rags and Metals, 26 15th St.,
Cin., 0." Rev. as in 105. Size 12+.

*111. "F. A. Leavitt, Family Groceries, Crockery, &c.. Wholesale
and Retail, 355 State St., Chicago, 111." Rev. Wreath. " Business
Card." Size 12J.

112. " Gustavus Lindenmueller, New-York." Wreath and beer
mug. Rev. Bearded head and thirteen six-pointed stars. "1863."
Size 16.

VOL. IX. — 2h

Chase.] 250 [September.

113. Same, but inscription on ohv. nearer the wreath, and ''New
York," in closer letters. Size 16.

114. "Gustavus Lindenmueller, New York. Odeon." Wrenth.
Rev. as in 112, except the stars, which are five-pointed. Size 16.

115. "Charles A. Liihrs, 77 Pike Slip, cor. of Water St., New
York." Rev. Goblet and wreath. "Pike Slip Shades. 1863."
Size 13.

*116. " C. Magnus' National Printing Establishment, New York."
Shield and eagle, with motto, " E Pluribus Unum." Rev. " 100
entitle to a $2.00 view of New York City." Head of Washington,
and three stars. Size 12.

117. "J. Mahnken, 19 and 22 West St., N. Y. Liquors and
Segars." Rev. Head of McClellan. " General G. B. McClellan."
Size \n.

118. Same. Rev. " Good for 1 cent." Two stars. Size 13.

119. Same. Rev. Head with liberty cap. "For Public Accom-
modation. 1863." Size 12J.

120. Same. Rev. Eagle. " Union forever." Size 13.

121. Same. Rev. "I-O-U 1 Cent. Pure Copper." Sun's rays,
two small heads. Size 13.

122. " B. Maloney, Proprietor." Head with feather crown, two
stars. Rev. " National, 499 Third Avenue. 1863." Four stars.
Size 12.

123. "Jos. H. Merriam, Medalist, Die Sinker and Letter Cutter.
Established 1850. No. 18 Brattle Square, Boston." Rev. Two
stars. Dog's head, with " Merriam," on collar. " Good for a
scent. 1863." Size 12.

*124. Same. i?ei;. Wreath. "Jos. H. Merriam, Boston. 1863.
Not one cent." Size 12.

125. "Edward Miehling's iMeat Market, 85 Ave. B., N. Y."
Rev. Head with feather crown. Thirteen stars. "1863." Size
15+.

126. "Use Miller's 50 cents N. Y. Hair Dye." Rev. "Use Mil-
ler's 25 cents Hair Invigorator." Size 12.

127. "G.M. Mittnacht's Eagle Safe." Safe. i^ey. "23 Spring
St., New York." Meat-cutter and block, four stars. Size 12+.

128. Same, with three stars before the word "Eagle." Size 12+.

129. "Monk's Metal Signs." Wreath of stars. Rev. Head of
Liberty and thirteen stars. " 1863." B. Size 12.

*loO. Same in copper. Size 12.

1863.] 251 [Chase.

131. Same ohv. Rev. Head of Washington in wreath, and six
stars. "399 B. Way, N. Y., 1863." Size 12.

182. "Henry C. Montz. Orpheus Hall." Head, ring, two stars.
Rev. "A token of the War for the Union. 1863." Size 16.

*133. " New York & Albany People's Line of Steamboats." Five
stars. Rev. " Time Table. Leave N. Y. 6 P.M. Leave Albany
Ih P.M." Size 12.

134. " G. Parsons, 24 John St., N. Y., Fire Works." Two stars.
Rev. Head with feather crown and thirteen stars. "1863."
Size 12 + .

135. "Ches Pfaif. Restaurant, 647 Broadway, N. Y." Rev.
Full-length figure of a monk. Size 12.

136. " Pulmonales for Coughs and Colds." Six stars. Rev.
Wreath and star. "Union & Liberty." Size 12+.

137. "John Quinn, Grocer, cor. 26 St., Lexington Av." Small
eagle. Rev. " I-O-U 1 Cent. Pure copper." Sun's rays, two
small heads. Size 13.

138. "I. Bees, 401 Central Av., Cincinnati, 0." Six stars.
Rev. Eagle flying and twelve stars. "1863." Size 12 + .

139. " Bobinson & Ballou, Grocers, Troy, N. Y." Scrollwork
and two stars. Rev. "Bedeemed at our store. 1863." Scroll-
work. Brass. Size 12.

140. " F. P. Bogers, 937 Sth. 10th St., Philada., Pa., 1863."
Milk can. Rev. " Manufacturer of Milk Cans, Dairy Fixtures,
Boofing and Gutter Tin." Size 12.

141. " Frederick Bollwagen, Jr. 1863." Head with feather
crown. Rev. " 587 Third Avenue, and 20 & 21 Centre Market,
N. Y." Size 12.

*142. "St. Charles Billiard Booms, 584 & 586 Sth Av,, N. Y."
One star. Rev. Close wreath. " Not one cent." Size 12 + .

*143. Same, with addition of maker's name. " L. Boloff."
Size 12+.

*144. Same ohv. Rev. Head with feather crown. Size 12 + .

145. "Edw. Schaaf, 14 & 16 Division St." Rev. Anchor on
shield, two stars. " New York, 1863." Size 12.

146. Same. Rev. Thirteen stars. "New York, 1863." Size 12.

147. Besembles 145, with ten stars on ohv. Size 12.

148. "John Schuh's Saloon, 88 First Ave., N. Y." Two stars.
Rev. Head with feather crown, thirteen stars. " 1863." Size
15+.

149. "Edwd. Schulze's Bestaurant, 24 William Street." Three

Chase.] 252 [September.

Stars. Rev. Stag's head. '' 26 k 28 Exchange Place, N. Y., 1863."
Size 13j.

150. "■ Ph. J. Salter's Market." Cow's head and four stars. Rev.
" Redeemed at my market, 102 Third Ave., N. Y." B. Size
12+.

*151. "Smick's." Wreath. Rev. "Neptune House, Atlantic
City, 1863." Thirteen stars. Size 12^.

152. "I. Sommers, Jones Wood Hotel, N. Y." Rev. Tree,
thirteen stars. " Horter, 1863." Size 14.

153. " Staudinger's, 116 Broadway, N. Y." Two stars. Rev.
Shield, with motto, '' E Pluribus Unum, 1863." Size 15+.

154. Same, but smaller. Size 12_{-.

155. " S. Steinfeld, Sole Agent for the U. S." French Imperial
coat of arms. Rev. " Principal depot 1863 of the French Cognac
Bitters, 70 Nassau St., N. Y." Size 15 + .

156. "Steppacher, Agt., Orleans House, 531 Chestnut St.,
Phila." Rev. Two flags, rising sun, and thirteen stars. " 1863."
Size 13.

157. " Story & Southworth, Grocers, 53 Vesey St., N. Y." Two
stars. Rev. Head with feather crown, thirteen stars. "1863."
Size 12+.

158. Same. Rev. Eagle seated on shield, with motto, " E Pluri-
bus Unum, United States of America, 1863" Size 12+.

*159. Same. Rev. Wreath. "Not one cent. L. Roloff." Size
12+.

*160. "Terhune Brothers, 71 & 73 Newark Av., Jersey City,
N. J., Hardware." Rev. Eagle on globe. " United States cop-
per." Size 12J.

161. " Wm. Thierbach, 142 Elm St., 1863." Head with feather
crown. Rev. Wreath and one star. " Grocer." L. Size 12+.

162. Same ; but " Gro Ckr," in two lines. L. Size 12+.

163. "B. W. Titus, 20 E. State St., Trenton, N.J" Scroll-
work. Rev. " Dry Goods, Oil Cloths, Carpets, &c." Scrollwork.
B. Size 12+.

*164. "C. Tollner & Hammacher, Hardware, 209 Bowery, New
York." Two stars. Rev. Wreath. " Noi one cent. L. Roloff."
Size 12+.

165. Same. " NOT" in antique letters. Size 12+.

*166. "Buy Meat of Van Wunder in Market." Rev. Head
with feather crown, thirteen stars. " 1863." Size 12.

167. "Peter Warmkessel, 8 Duane St, New York." Rev,

1863.] 253 [Chase.

"Established A. D. 1850." Store with sign '' Warmkessei."
Size 13.

168. "Wm. F. Warner, No. 1 Catharine Market." Small
eagle and small head. Rev. Head with liberty cap. "For Public
Accommodation. 1863." Size 12|.

169. Same. Rev. '' I-O-U 1 cent. Pure copper." Sun's rajS;,
two small heads. Size 12|-.

170. " Washington Market Exchange." Turkey-buzzard with
.spread tail : two stars. Rev. " Live and Let Live. 1863." Bunch
of vegetables. Size 14.

171. "Washington Kestaurant, No. 1 Broadway, N. Y." Rev,
as in 169. Size 12i

*172. "John Watson, 381 Bowery, N. Y. 1863." Head with
feather crown. Rev. Wreath: two stars. "Union Tea Store."
Size 12 + .

173. "Thomas White. 1863." Head with feather crown. Rev.
"Butcher, No. 13 and 14, Abattoir Place, West 39th St. N. Y."
Two stars. Size 12.

174. " White, Hatter, 216 Broadway." Rev. Head with feather
crown, nine stars. " 1863." Size 12.

175. "J. Wightman, 188 Washington St., Newark, N. J."
Rev. Head with feather crown, thirteen stars. "1863." Size 12 + .

176. " Daniel Williams, Grocer, corner Court & Warren Sts ,
Brooklyn." .Kew. " Good for 1 cent." Two stars. Size 12J.

*177. Same, with ornaments at each side of each star. Size
12 i.

*178. "Wilson's 1 Medal, H." Wreath. Rev. Head with
liberty cap, thirteen stars. " 1863." B. Size 12 + .

179. Same, in copper. Size 12 + .

180. Sameoi«. Rev. Head of Washington ; 6 + 6 stars. "1863.''
Size 12 + .

181. "D. L. Wing & Co., 318 Broadway, Albany, N. Y."
Scrollwork; two large and three small stars. Rev. Wreath.
" Union Flour," Size 12 + .

182. "Wright, Cincinnati, 1863." Ten stars. Rev. Eagle
flying, twelve stars. "1863." Size 12 + .

*183. " H. B. Xelar, Wine and Beer Saloon." Four stars. Rev.
Thick wreath, with two crossed large-hilted swords. "Army &
Navy." Size 12.

*184. Same, but wreath formed of two branches with crossed
stems, but no sword or ties. Size 12.

Chase.] 254 [September.

*185. Same, but wreath somewhat as in 183, with star in opening
at top. Size 12.

186. Same ohv. Rev. Wreath, open at top and tied at bottom.
"1863." Size 12.

Class II. — Portraits.

187. Head of Washington, 6+7 stars. '^863." J?ez>. Shield,
banners, liberty cap and pole, wreath and thirteen stars. Size 12.

188. Head of Washington, 6 + 6 stars. "1863." Rev. "New
York." Wreath and stars. Size 12 + .

*189. Head of Washington, two crossed flags and thirteen stars.
"1863." i^ey. "Exchange." Wreath. B. Size 12 + .

190. Same, in copper. Size 12 + .

191. Same ohv., but stars crowded between the banners. Rev.
Wreath and clasped hands. "Peace forever." Size 12+.

192. Head of Washington, two olive branches crossed, and thir-
teen stars. " 1863." Rev. Wreath and star, with shield in centre.
Size 12 + .

*193, Head of Washington. "General Washington." Rev.
Eagle with arrows. "In unitate fortitudo. Spielratinze." Size 12.

191. Small head of Washington on star, inclosed in wreath.
Rev. Wreath open at top, tied at bottom. " Not one cent." Var. k.
Size 12 J.

*195. Head of Washington. " George Washington." Rev.
"■ Avoid the extremes of party spirit." Wreath open at top.
Size 12.

196. Head of Franklin. " Benjamin Franklin." Rev. "Penny
saved is a penny earned." Wreath and star. Size 12 j.

197. Head of Jackson ; one star. " The Union must and shall
be preserved." Rev. Wreath. " This medal, price one cent." Size
12 + .

198. Same. Rev. Rattlesnake and stars. "Beware. 1863."
Size 12.

199. Head of Jackson, two stars. "For our Country. A Com-
mon Cause." Rev. " Now and Forever." Size 12.

200. Head of McClellan. " Geo. B. McClellan. 1863." Rev.
Wreath. "Army and Navy." Var. p. Size 12 + .

201. Head of McClellan, with wreath and thirteen stars. " Little
Mack. 1863." Rev. Two stars. " McClellan medal for one cent."
Size 12|.

202. Head of McClellan. "General G. B. McClellan." Rev.
Eagle. " United States Copper." Size 12 J.

1863.] 255 [Chase.

203. Head of McClellan. "This Medal of G. B. McCiellan
Price." i?ei;. "One Cent." Wreath and shield. Size 12-f-.

204. Like 202 on ohv. Rev. Man with cane. " Knickerbocker
Currency." Size 13.

Class III. — Equestrian Statues, Fancy Heads, and Human

Figures.

a. Equestrian Statues.

205. "1863. First in War, First in Peace." The date extends
too far to the left to be symmetrical. Rev. Wreath, shield, and
flags. " Union forever." Size 12-|-.

206. Same. Date more symmetrical. Figure of man somewhat
larger. Size 12-|-.

h. Head with liberty cap.

207. " For Public Accommodation. 1863." Rev. " Horrors of
War, Blessings of Peace. 1863." Female head. Two crossed
cornucopias. Size 12-(-.

208. Same. Rev. Eagle on globe. "United States Copper."
Size 12+.

209. Same. Rev. Man with cane. " Knickerbocker Currency."
Size 12+.

210. Thirteen stars. "1863." Rev. Wreath. "Millions for
Defence, Not one cent for Tribute." Size 12 j.

211. Same. Rev! Wreath with shield at bottom. "I-O-U
1 cent." B. Size 12 + .

212. Same, in copper. Size 12 + .

213. Same. Rev. Wreath, two stars and shield. " God Pro-
tect the Union." The stars on obv. are arranged 6 + 7. Size 12 + .

214. Same. Rev. Wreath. "Union forever." Size 12 + .

215. Same. Rev. Wreath and clasped hands. " Peace for-
ever." Size 12.

*216. Same. Rev. Wreath and star. " New York." Size 12.

217. Same. Rev. Wreath. " Not one cent." Size 12.

218. Same. Rev. " In remembrance of the war of 1861, '62,
'63." Size 12.

219. Same. Rev. Flags, cannons, drum, liberty cap and pole.
Size 12 + .

220. Same. Rev. Wreath. " Not one cent." Size 12^.
221-231. Same. Rev. Wreath. "Army and Navy." Variety

(/ in C and B, and varieties /to o, in C. Size 12.

232. Same. A'ey. Wreath. "Not one cent." Yav. r. Size 12.

Chase.] 256 [September.

c. Head with feather crown.

233. No inscription on ahv. Rev. Wreath. ''Not one cent."
1863. Var. a. Size 12.

234. "Millions for contractors, 1863." Rev. "Not one cent
for the widows." Var. u. Wreath and star. Size 12-}--

235. "Union and Liberty. 1863." Two stars. R^iv. "One
Country." Wreath. Size 12 + .

236. Stars in raised ring. " 1863." Rev. Wreath. " Not
one cent." Var. e. Size 12 + .

237. Thirteen stars. "1863." R,v. "City of New York. 1863.
I. 0. U. One Cent." Two stars. Size 1.5 + .

238. Thirteen stars. "1868." "Liberty," on fillet. Rev.
Wreath, flags, cannons, drum, liberty cap and pole. Size 12.

239. Same ars preceding, except dots on fillet, instead of
^'Liberty." Size 12.

240-245. Thirteen stars. "1863." Set-. Wreath. " Not one
cent." Varieties 6, c, d, e, /", I. Size 12.

246. Nine stars. "1863." Rev. "Army & Navy." Var. c.
Size 12.

247. 6 + 7 stars. "1863." Rev. " McClellan medal for one
cent." Two stars. Size 12+.

248-254. Same. Rev. Wreath and star. " Army and Navy."
Varieties i, r/, g, h, i, k, n. Size 12.

255-257. Same. Rev. Wreath. "Not one Cent." Varieties
h, i, m. Size 12.

d. Fancy Heads.

258. Head and thirteen stars. " L. Leiehtweis. 1863." Rev.
Wreath. " Millions for defence, Not one cent for tribute." Size
12^.

259. Head, two arrow-points. " Liberty and no Skvery. 1863."
Rev. Wreath, shield, flags, thirteen stars, liberty cap and pole. Size
12.

e. Human Figures.

260. Man with cane. " Knickerbocker Currency." Rev. As
in No. 169. Size 12+.

261. 262. Same. i?ey. " Good for 1 cent." Two stars. B. & G.
Size 13.

*263. Same. Rev. Eagle. "Union forever." Size 12+.
264. Same. Rev. Man with bundle. " Go it buttons. Money
snakes the mare go. 1863." Size 12+.

1S63.1 257 [Chase.

*265. Obverse like rev. of preceding. Rev. Eagle on globe.
''United States copper." Size 12i.

266. Man with sword, flag, Monitor, and ornamental border.
Rev. Wreath open at top; two swords. "Army & Navy." Size 12.

Class IV. — Animals.

*267. Eagle. " United States copper." Rev. " Good for 1 cent."
Two stars. Size 12+.

*268. Same. Rev. "I-O-U 1 Cent. Pure copper." Size 12+.

269. Eagle on globe. "Union forever." Rev Female head;
two horns of plenty. " Horrors of War, Blessings of Peace. 1863."
Size 12+.

270. Same. Rev. Shield and two stars. " Tradesmen's currency.
Good for one cent." Size 12J.

271. 272. Eagle standing on shield, with motto, "E Pluribus
Ununi. United States of America. 1863." Rev. Wreath. "Not
one cent." Var. I, q. Size 12+.

273. Eagle on shield, flags, and wreath. "Union" on shield.
Rev. Wreath, flags, cannons, drum, liberty cap and pole. Size 12.

274. Bees and hive. "Industry, CD. H., 1863." Rev. Wreath.
"Not one cent." Var. r. Size 12+.

Class V. — Flags.

275. Wreath, U. S. flag, and thirteen stars. Rev. Bays. "No
North, No East, No South, No West. One Country." Size 12.

276. U. S. flag, thirteen stars, and liberty cap. " The Flag of
our Union. 1863." Rev. " If any body attempts to tear it down,
shoot him on the spot. Dix." Five stars, two rings within the
border. B. Size 12 + .

*277. Same, with only one central ring, and one star. " 1863,"
omitted on ohv. B. Size 12+.

278. Same, in copper. Size 12+.

279. Same ohv. "1863." Rev. Wreath. " Army and Navy."
Var. c. Size 12+.

280. Fourflags grouped, rays, and thirteen stars. "Union. 1863."
Rev. Wreath, star, and rays. Size 12.

281. Wreath, flags, cannons, drum, liberty cap and pole. Rev.
Wreath and shield. " Our Country." Size 12.

VOL. IX. — 2i

Chase.] 258 [September.

Class VI. — MisceUaneouf. Devices.

282. Monitor. Thirteen stars. " C. D. H. 1863." Rev. Wreath.
"Our Navy." Size 12.

283. Monitor. " Our Little Monitor." Lower line of water
nearly straight. Rev. Wreath, cannons, three cannon-balls, and
anchor. "1863." Size 12 + .

281. Same, but water-line curving. Wreath on rev. not so finely
wrought. No cannon-balls. Size 12+.

285. Ship and six stars. " Trade & Commerce." itcy. " Coppers
20 per ct. Premium." Size 14.

286. U. S. Capitol, and eight stars. "United States. 1863."
Rev. Wreath. "Army & Navy." Var. a. Size 12.

287. Thistle. "United we stand, divided we fall." Two stars.
Rev. "Drugs, Dry Goods, Groceries, Hardware & Notions." Four
stars and six crosses. Size 12+.

288. Same. Rev. " Pittsburg. Dry Goods, Groceries, Hardware
& Notions." Two large and three small stars. Size 12+.

289. Cannon on wheels, with pile of shot, and thirteen stars.
" 1863." Rev. Wreath. " Army & Navy." Var. h. Size 12.

290. Cannon of a different design ; thirteen stars. " Peace
Maker." Rev. Flag, with liberty cap. " Stand by the flag. 1863."
Size 12 + .

291. Shield on star. " Pro Bono Publico. E. S. 1863." ^^«.
Wreath. " New York." Size 12+.

Class VII. — Mottos.
292-295. "Army and Navy." Var. n, b, c, d. Wreath. Rev.
" The Federal Union, it must and shall be preserved." Thirteen
stars. Size 12 5.

296. " Constitution forever." Rev. Wreath. "Not one cent."
Var. n. Two stars on each face. Size 12+.

297, 298. Same, without stars. Var. p^ q. Size 12.

299. Same o/)v. 2?'"y. " Erinnerung an 1863." Size 12 + .

300. " Erinnerung an 1863." Rev. Wreath. " NOT One Cent.
L. EoloflF." Var. s. Size 12 + .

301. "Liberty. 1863." Wreath. Rev. Wreath. "Union."
Size 12.

302. "Remembrance of 1863." Rev. Wreath. "Not one
cent." Var. q. Size 12 + .

303. Same. Rev. Wreath. " One Coutkry." Size 12.

1863.J 259

The death of a member, the Rev. C. R. Demme, on the
1st of September, at Philadelphia, aged 68 years, was an-
nounced by the Secretary.

The death of another member, the Rev. Calvin Pease, on
the 17th instant, at Burlington, Vermont, was announced by
Mr. Chase.

A communication was offered for publication in the Trans-
actions, entitled, " On the Mathematical Probability of Acci-
dental Linguistic Resemblances," by Pliny E. Chase, and re-
ferred to a committee, consisting of Professor Kendall, Pro-
fessor Haldeman, and Dr. Coates.

A communication was offered for publication in the Trans-
actions, entitled, " On the Comparative Etymology of the
Yoruba Language," by Pliny E. Chase, and referred to a
committee consisting of Professor Alexander, of Baltimore,
Professor Haldeman, and Dr. Coates.

Pending nominations Nos. 503, 504 were read.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, October 2, 1863.

Present, twelve members.

Judge Sharswood, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Dr. Henry Hartshorne, a recently elected member, was
introduced to the President, and took his seat. Letters ac-
cepting membership were received from Professor Von Lie-
big, dated Munich, August 17th, and from Dr. R. M. S.
Jackson, dated Knoxville, Tennessee, September 23d, 1863.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of publications were re-
ceived from the Royal Academy of Brussels, May 16th and
October ISth, 1862 ; from the Imperial Soc. Nat., Moscow,
April 10th and 22d, and from the Maryland Historical
Society, Baltimore, September 8th, 1863. A letter was re-

Sharswood.l 260 [October.

ceived from Professor A. D. Bache, inclosing a photograph

of the Chevalier Lombai'dini, and a request for No. of

the Proceedings.

Donations for the Library were received from the Essex In-
stitute, the Royal Observatory, Brussels, the Royal Academy,
Belgium, Prof. A. Quetelet, Prof. A. D. Bache, Messrs. Silli-
man and Dana, E.. and F. N. Spon, Samuel Breck, Assistant
Adjutant-General, United States, and from the City Council.

Donations to the Album were received of the photographs
of the Chevalier Lombardini, from Gen. A. A. Humphreys,
and of Mr. C. N. Bancker.

The committee on Mr. Chase's paper, entitled " On the
Mathematical Probability of Accidental Linguistic Resem-
blances," reported in favor of its publication in the Transac-
tions, which, on motion, was so ordered.

An obituary notice of the late member, Charles J. Inger-
soll, was read by Judge Sharswood.

A complete biography of Charles Jared Tngersoll, would re-
quire to a considerable extent, a political history of the period during
which he lived. His earnest action and patriotic spirit led him to
take a part, and his ability and eloquence made that a prominent
part, in all the events which were transpiring around him. But such
is not the purpose of the obituary notices ordered by the American
Philosophical Society of its deceased members. It is not an eulogium
nor an extended memoir which they require, but a brief sketch, to be
preserved in their archives, of the prominent facts of the life of the
subject, and of the most striking traits of his character.

Mr. Ingersoll was born, on the .3d of October, 1782, in the city of
Philadelphia. His father was one of the most distinguished of the
leaders of the Old Bar of Pliiladelphia — a bar to be a member of
which was itself a high distinction. He was also a delegate from
the State of Pennsylvania to the Federal Convention of 1787, which
formed the Constitution of the United States. His mother was the
daughter of Charles Pettit, a member of Congress under the Articles
of Confederation, and Commissary-General of Purchases to the Con-
tinental Army during the war of Independence.

Having completed his studies in preparation for the bar, under
the direction of his father, he went abroad attached to the American
Legation at the Court of St. James, and part of the family of Rufus

1863.] 261 [Sharswood.

King, the minister. With him he travelled through Holland, Bel-
gium, Switzerland, Germany, and France. Many years afterwards,
in 1839, he wrote and published in a periodical an article headed
" Europe Long Ago," a vivid though brief sketch of some of his
recollections of England and France. In it are to be found
crayon-like portraits of Fox, Erskine, and Napoleon, drawn from life
by a keen observer, though with here and there a dash of caricature,
interspersed amidst lively descriptions, in his own terse language, of
" remarkable Holland, classic Flanders, romantic Switzerland, and
transcendental Germany, left to a long repose in my old portfolio."

When he returned from Europe, he brought with him, as he after-
wards stated on the floor of Congress in 1844, intelligence of the
conclusion of the treaty by which the First Consul of France ceded
to the United States, the extensive territory of Louisiana, — an event
for good and for evil, reaching far and wide into future history. He
saw in it then none but unmixed good ; for he was one of those men
of ardent patriotism and expanded views, who placed no limits to
republican institutions under a Federal system, but the bounds of the
continent itself.

He entered upon the practice of his profession, and soon established
a character at the bar which insured him large business, and what
he prized more, extended reputation. His first case in the Supreme
Court of the United States, was in 1810, King vs. Delaware In-
surance Company, 6 Cranch, 71, — an important insurance cause;
and thence down to the period of his retiring from the bar, scarcely
a volume of the reports of the decisions of the highest Federal tri-
bunal is without contributions from his learning and ability. Sub-
jects of mercantile and prize law largely engaged his attention, and the
case of Evans vs. Eaton, o Wheaton, 404, upon a very difficult and
nice question, arising under the patent laws of Congress, would, if it
stood alone, be a lasting monument to his learning, ingenuity and
legal acumen. The reports of the Federal Courts of this Circuit,
as well of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, are replete with
evidences of an extensive and important practice, sustained on his
part by unwearied industry and patient research. It may be stated
as a matter of curiosity, that the first case argued by him as counsel,
which appears in the Reports of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania,
is Fox vs. Wilcocks, 1 Binn. 194, decided in 1806. Occasionally,
too, his services were called for in the highest tribunals of our sister
and neighbor States. But it was in the Federal Courts of this Cir-
cuit, under the presidency of those distinguished jurists Bushrod

Sharswood.l 262 [October.

Washington, Henry Baldwin, Richard Peters, and Joseph Hopkinson,
that his severest professional labors were undergone, and his richest
rewards earned.

In 1815, he was appointed Attorney of the United States for
the Eastern District of Pennsylvauia, under the administration of
Mr. Madison, and continued to hold that office during the succeeding
administrations of Mr. Monroe and Mr. John Quincy Adams, for
the space of fourteen years.

The pages of Report books, however, furnish but scanty and un-
satisfactory evidence of the professional career of a lawyer. It
often happens that his most remarkable efforts, his most eloquent
appeals, as well as his most able and learned arguments live only in
the memory of contemporaries, who have had the good fortune to be
present on the occasion which called them forth. Those only who
have witnessed Mr. Ingersoll in the trial of an important cause, ex-
tending, as often happened, through several days — his tact in so
opening it as to produce a favorable impression on the jury — the ad-
mirable order and arrangement with which the testimony was brought
forward — his skill in skirmishing with his antagonist on questions of
evidence — and the earnest, faithful and exhaustive summing up of
the merits of his client's case — the humor, sarcasm, irony and invec-
tive with which he assailed the positions of his adversary, can have
any adequate idea of Mr. IngersoU's power as an advocate. The
writer of this notice was present on an occasion when, at the con-
clusion of one of his most brilliant efforts, a crowded bar could not
be restrained by the proprieties of the place from a momentary ex-
pression of admiration and applause.

Mr. IngersoU's attention during all this period was largely de-
voted to the politics of the times. A remarkable characteristic of
his entire course as a public man was what may be termed intense
Americanism. His country, its institutions and men, as they had
his warmest affection, naturally commanded with it his full approba-
tion and confidence. It was not, however, a mere sentiment. He
had seen with his own eyes other countries, observed the working of
other systems, and been thrown in personal contact with their most
distinguished men. He had scanned and studied the whole field
with the pages of history, and the interpretation of Montesquieu, her
minister and oracle, open before him. This is his response : " If a
republic is small, it is destroyed by foreign enemies; if large, by in-
ternal corruption. This double inconvenience infects alike democra-
cies and aristocracies, whether good or bad. The evil is in the thing

1863.] 263 [Sharswood.

itself. There is no way in which it can be remedied. So it would
seem that men must in the end be obliged to live under the govern-
ment of one, if a species of constitution had not been devised
which has all the internal advantages of a republic and external
force of a monarchy. I speak of a Federal Republic." (Montesq.
De I'Esprit des Lois, lib. ix, chap. 1.) Tliis was the deliberate con-
clusion of Mr. Ingersoll's judgment; that sovereign states, each small
in territory, and organized as a Representative Democracy, but com-
bined together in a Federal Union, was the system most adapted to
educate the individual citizen, develop the resources, secure the in-
dustry, and strengthen the defences of a country. This seemed to
him the voice of history; for what form of government has stood
longer, borne the storms of faction, weathered the tempests of foreign
war, and at the same time afforded the citizen the political education
which elevated his character, and made nations of great men, like
the Federal League of Achaia, the Confederation of the Swiss Can-
tons, and the United Provinces of Holland ? Right or wrong, this was
the principle of Mr. Ingersoll's political life He cherished an un-
shaken confidence in the power of a Federal Union of States to ex-
tend the benefits of republican institutions over the widest extent of
territory. He gave his cordial support to the Constitution of the
United States, as on the whole the best compromise that could have
been devised, and kept steadily in view as his polar star, " the sup-
port of the State governments in all their rights, as the most com-
petent administrations for our domestic concerns, and the surest bul-
warks against anti-republican tendencies; the preservation -of the
General Government in its whole eon.stitutional vigor, as the sheet
anchor of our peace at home and safety abroad." (Mr. Jeiferson's
Inaugural, March 4th, 1801.)

In 1808, Mr. Ingersoll published "A View of the Rights and
Wrongs, Power and Policy of the United States of America." It
was an elaborate and extended vindication of the rights of neutral
commerce, on the subjects of contraband, paper blockade, and impress-
ment, and plainly declared his conviction of the result to which the
civilized nations of the world must come at last in the progress of
reason and religion, — the immunity of all private property in war on the
ocean, as it had already been well established in war on land. " If,"
said he, " a concert with Russia, France, Holland and Spain, all of
whom with Denmark must desire it, could be effectuated for freeing
the ocean of privateers and search ships, and directing by common
agreement the operations of war against ships of war, leaving the

Sharswood.] 264 [October.

merchantman to the peaceable pursuit of his traffic, and if such a
system could be secured without our being drawn into hostilities, it
certainly were a consummation devoutly to be wished."

In 1809, appeared anonymously from his pen, Inchiquin, or The
Jesuit's Letters ; purporting to be the correspondence of a young
Irishman educated at St. Omer's, banished on account of complicity
in the rebellion of 1793, and temporarily sojourning in the United
States. With some lively hits at the manners, amusements and style
of living, as well as the plan of the Federal capital, then even more
truly than now described as the City of Magnificent Distances, were
joined interesting, impartial and life-like sketches of Washington,
the elder Adams and JeiFerson, the three first Presidents. The
main design of the publication, pursued with a bold and manly in-
dependence of thought and criticism, then new in American writers,
was the vindication of the character, politics, literature, and science of
this country against the slanders of the English tourists and scribblers.

Inchiquin was severely handled in the Quarterly Review for
January, 1814, and this produced a reply published anonymously by
J. K. Paulding, New York, 1815.

In the early part of 1812, Mr. Ingersoll came forward at a town
meeting in Philadelphia, with resolutions, supported by a strong and
eifective speech, in favor of war with Great Britain, which was de-
clared in the following June. In October, of the same year, he was
elected a member of the Thirteenth Congress, whose term commenced
March 4th, 1813. An extra session was called for May 24th, 1813,
and that Congress sat almost continuously from that time until March
3d, 1815. It was an illustrious body. Without referring to the Sen-
ate at all, nor pi-etending to call over the full roll of great men who
stood on the floor of the House of Representatives with Mr. Inger-
soll, there were John Randolph, Henry Clay, William Lowndes, John
C. Calhoun, Nathaniel Macon, and John W. Eppes. Mr. Ingersoll's
first efibrt was in Committee of the Whole, June 29th, 1813, on a
resolution submitted by him to impose a tax on incomes and inheri-
tances. His great speech in defence of the policy of the war, into
which he seemed to throw all his powers of logic, sarcasm and rhetoric,
was delivered in Committee of the Whole, on the Loan Bill, February
14th and 15th, lbl4. Nothing in the annals of parliamentary
eloquence exceeds the weight of the torrent with which he bore
down upon the employment by the British of Indian savages as
auxiliaries. " So long ago as 1792 was this iniquity in preparation.
Within the last two years, every disguise has been thrown oflf and

1863.] 265 [Sharswood.

it Stands forward before the world in all its horrid incarnation of
avowal. Before General Hull's capitulation, the first blow that was
struck in the present hostilities came from the Indians deep in the
Northwest, against the post of Mackinaw. And what was that unhappy
man's extenuation of his surrender ? That the savages were swarming
for his destruction, pouring down upon his army from the west and
north, and hastening to their annihilation." "I solemnly protest," he
exclaimed, "that my inconsiderable knowledge suggests no oblation
ever kid on the altar of human malignity and vindictiveness to be com-
pared with this subornation of our Indians by the English, who boast
of their superior religion and charity, who have sent out more mis-
sionaries of late for the salvation of distant hemispheres, than all the
rest of the world put together, against us Americans, their descendants,
their flesh and blood, through the instrumentality of those savages,
whom by every liberality and study, we have labored to humanize
and ameliorate, and whom we could at any moment either extirpate
or expel from the neighborhood of our frontier. It is, sir, an excess
of wrong, which absolutely flings the hurdle and guillotine behind,
and occupies the most conspicuous place in the representation of our
most unnatural passions."

We cannot pretend to follow Mr. Ingersoll through his entire
career in that Congress, in which among the men, tallest in intellec-
tual stature which the Union has ever produced, he exercised a wide
and commanding influence, and bore his share in all the most im-
portant debates. He occupied, by the appointment of the Speaker,
Mr. Clay, the position of Chairman of the Judiciary Committee, and
was a member also of the Committee of Foreign Relations, of which
Mr. Calhoun was the Chairman.

After the close of this Congress, Mr. Ingersoll did not occupy a
seat in any public deliberative body until ISoO, when he was elected
a Representative of the City of Philadelphia in the General Assembly
of this Commonwealth. He had indeed, in the year 1825, attended
what in our practical politics may be termed a quasi public body — a
convention of delegates from all parts of the Commonwealth — to con-
sider and adopt measures for the improvement of the State by the
construction of navigable canals. In this convention, Mr. Ingersoll
introduced a resolution in favor of the use of railroads, with locomo-
tive steam-engines, in which he was seconded by Mr. Henry Vethake;
but the motion was voted down by a large majority. In the Legisla-
ture he occupied the post of Chairman of the Standing Committee

VOL. IX. — 2k

Sharswood.] QQQ [October.

on Internal Improvements, and made an able report on the subject.
He introduced resolutions relative to the principles of the commercial
intercourse of the United States with foreign countries, arguing that
a system should be inaugurated by treaties on the great principle of
national equality and equal reciprocity, reducing or abolishing im-
posts, and allowing the products of one country to find free ingress
to every other.

He was, in the first instance, warmly in favor of the protection of
domestic manufactures by the imposition of discriminating duties on
imports by the Federal Congress, under the power contained in the
Constitution. In this view, he attended and took an active part in the
proceedings of several conventions, one at Harrisburg, in 1827, an-
other at New York, in 1829, and still another at the last-named place,
in 1831. At this convention of 1831 he was one of a sub-committee
of three to prepare the address to the people. " This address, as far
as the last paragraph on page 21, was composed by Warren Button,
of Boston, with some parts contributed by John P. Kennedy, of Bal-
timore ; from that pai-agraph to the end by C J. I., with some con-
tributions by Mr. Kennedy." (Note in Mr. IngersoU's writing on
his copy of the address.) That he regarded such governmental pro-
tection as necessary only for the first beginning of manufactures is
evident from his urging at the New York convention the withdrawal
of the duties upon coarse cottons, a proposition by no means agree-
able to those interested. In a discourse delivered by him before the
New York Institute, in 1835, he maintained that liberty. Union, and
labor, protected everywhere by equal and just laws, are the most effec-
tual encouragement of domestic industry.

It may be noticed that upon a kindred question of political
economy Mr. Ingersoll was very explicit in his views. He was a
decided bullionist. He looked at banks and paper money as ini-
mical to the purity of our political institutions, and as paving the
way for a kind of government which, under the forms of a represen-
tative democracy, would in truth be a plutocratic oligarchy, — the
worst because the most selfish of all governments. For this reason
he took an active part in favor of the measures of the administration
against the Bank of the United States, though upon terms of the
kindest friendship with Mr. Nicholas Biddle, and at a time when to
do so in Phihidelphia, required a gentleman to go through no common
social ordeal.

We must rapidly run over the succeeding events of Mr. IngersoU's
political career. It having been determined by a vote of the people

1863.] 267 [Sharswood.

that a Convention should be called for the purpose of proposing
amendments to the State Constitution, he was elected a delegate to
that body from the County of Philadelphia, in November, 183(5, and
took his seat at the opening of its sessions, May '2d, 1837. Here,
as in every other deliberative body with which he was ever connected,
he entered upon and performed his duties with a zeal, ability, and
eloquence, which ranked him amongst the foremost of its members.
Each party had carefully put forward its best and most popular men
for election, and an amount of talent was congregated on its floor,
certainly not to be found or expected in ordinary legislative assem-
blies. Its importance in all its aspects upon the futui'e of the Com-
monwealth was fully appreciated, and what added much to the in-
terest of its proceedings was, that upon coming together it appeared
that the members stood, on a party vote, equally divided ; one being
neutral. The sessions of the Convention continued at Harrisburg
until November 23d, 1837, and at Philadelphia from November 28th,
1837, until February 22d, 1838, when its labors were brought to a
close. During this long period every topic which either directly or
indirectly bore upon economy, legislation or government underwent
full discussion. Mr. Ingersoll seems to have specially devoted his
attention to the subjects of Currency and Education. His reports on
these two subjects were elaborate and full. His speech on the Judi-
cial Tenure was one in which he was able, with a large mass of anec-
dote and information, to join a striking display of the peculiar charac-
teristics of his oratory.

Mr. Ingersoll, in October, 1810, was elected a member of the 27th
Congress of the United States, and successively of the 28th, 29th
and 30th Congresses, serving a period of eight years in that body.
Thus, as his first service in Congress had been during the war of 1812,
it was his fortune to be a member of the same body during another
period of foreign war. He made many distinguished efforts during
this long period of Congressional service. A part of the time he
occupied one of the most important positions in the House, that of
Chairman of the Standing Committee on Foreign Relations, and
made several able reports in that capacity. After his retirement
from Congress, he still continued to take an active interest in politi-
cal affairs, and from time to time, to give his views of the great ques-
tions agitating the country. These are entirely too numerous to be
here noticed in detail.

Let us turn to the more purely literary productions of Mr. Inger-
soll's pen, and for this purpose we must revert to an earlier period of

Sharswood.] 268 [October.

his career. One of his first essays was a tragedy, ''Edwin and
Elgiva," which was performed with some success and published;
and subsequently, a production of the same kind, '' Julian, the
Apostate," much more elaborate, was committed by him to the
press.

On the 18th of October, 1823, he delivered the annual oration be-
fore this Society, being a Philosophical Discourse on the Influence of
America on the Mind. It attracted extensive notice abroad, and
was reviewed in the Revue Encyclopedique of France. On the 1st
of October, 1824, at the memorable meeting of the Society, which was
attended by our illustrious fellow-member General Lafayette, during
(hat last visit of his to the United States, so remarkable an ovation to
the hero of republican liberty in two worlds, a communication was read
by Mr. Ingersoll, On the Improvement of Government. At a much
later period, January 5th, 1855, he read before the Society, by appoint-
ment, a short and very interesting obituary notice of Joseph Bonaparte.
On the 4th of July, 1832, he delivered an oration before the Phila-
delphia Association for celebrating the Anniversary of our Indepen-
dence without Distinction of Party. It was a vivid sketch of the
effects of the American revolution on the mind, manners, wealth and
progress of the United States. This also attracted attention abroad,
and was quoted by Bulwer in his novel of Rienzi.

In 1817, Mr. Ingersoll translated from the French, and published
in Hall's Law Journal, a tract upon the freedom of the navigation
and commerce of neutral nations during war, considered accord-
ing to the laws of all nations, that of Europe and treaties ; an histori-
cal and juridical essay to serve as an explanation of the disputes be-
tween belligerent powers and neutral states, on the subject of the
freedom of maritime commerce. This was a subject which he
always had much at heart, and to which at diiferent periods of his
life he gave great attention. In January, 1845, he published in the
American Law Magazine, then edited by the writer of this notice, an
article on the Law of Foreign Missions. In explanation of its
origin and design, he said : " Several years ago, by way of evening
employment in the country, I translated Bynkershoed's twenty-four
books de Foro Legatorum, assisted by Barbeyrac's paraphrase, in
turning very unclassical and difficult modern Latin into English.
Finding my work when done but an imperfect view of the subject,
and becoming pleased with it, I consulted Wicquefort, Bielfield,
Vattel, Grotius, Merlin, Martin, and whatever other writers upon it I
could lay my hands on. Finally, the following introduction was

1863.] 269 [Sharswood.

composed to the knowledge of an important branch of jurisdiction,
but little cultivated, whose principles and practice, fully presented,
form a useful and interesting portion of law, seeming to supplant all
other law and to exist without law." In this introduction, after
tracing the history of the law of legations to the earliest times, and
discussing in a succinct and clear method the well-established prin-
ciples in regard to the inviolability of ambassadors and other public
ministers, he concludes as follows: "It has long been among my
fondest fancies, that this tran.satlantic country, with its free, benign,
and pacific institutions, should deem it a part of American destiny
to meliorate the law of nations by giving greater liberty to the sea,
greater exten.sion to commerce, and thereby diminishing the occasions
of war. In this amelioration, foreign missions must perform impor-
tant parts. The Federal Constitution, by elevating consuls to the rank
of diplomatic agents as respects jurisdiction, made a first and important
step towards this great change. Government, especially the Federal
judiciary, may accomplish the rest. In nothing is the literature of
English law so deficient as that of nations. America must make
amends for it. Independence of bad precedents, offspring of angry
conflicts, recurrence to first principles, restoration without innovation,
by American judges and foreign ministers, may render this country
the renovator, the arbiter and founder of a law of nations promoting
general peace."

In 1835, a dispute, which arose between the City of Philadelphia
and the Schuylkill Navigation Company, turned his attention to a
subject of the class in which he especially delighted, and he pub-
lished a short work on "River Rights," in which he discussed that
important head of law with his accustomed research and ability.

In the year 1845, Mr. IngersoU committed to the press the first
volume of his " Historical Sketch of the Second War between the
United States of America and Great Britain, declared by Act of
Congress the 18th of June, 1812, and concluded by peace the 15th
February, 1815," followed by a second volume in 1849, and completed
by two additional volumes in 1852. In the preparation of this work
he engaged con amove. He was not only a contemporary and interested
spectator of all the events of the period, but could say with truth,
Quorum pars magna fui. He knew personally the principal actors
in the scene ; he had studied closely the political complications of
the plot, and wrote his history not during the heat of the contest,
but thirty years afterwards, in the spirit of a calm, unimpassioned
judge. It is this which gives the greatest interest and importance

Sharswood.] 270 [October.

to this contribution to American literature. Throughout the work
appears and reappears strongly that intense Americanism to which
we have before i-eferred, showing that with the most ardent attach-
ment to popular democratic forms of government, there went hand
and hand, the sincere and deep convictions of his judgment, that
with so vast a territory such institutions could only be permanent
upon the basis of a Federal Union.

After the publication of this work, Mr. Ingersoll projected a His-
tory of the Territorial Acquisitions of the United States, and had
made some progress in it when he was arrested by the hand of death.
This event occurred after a short illness of inflammation of the lungs
on the 14th of May, 1862, in the eightieth year of his age.

It will not be easy to add anything like a portraiture of Mr. Inger-
soll within the limits proper for such a notice as the laws of the
Society contemplate. Physically, he was slightly made, but of well-
turned form and most gentlemanlike appearance. It is said, though I
cannot vouch for the fact, that when elected to Congress in 1813,
then thirty-one years of age, his appearance was so youthful that the
doorkeeper at first discredited his assertion that he was a member,
and refused him admittance. He looked all his life many years
younger than he really was. In his eightieth year he might well
have passed for a man of fifty, erect, agile, scarce a hair turned gi'ay
or tooth lost. He possessed indeed a most excellent constitution,
which he had preserved by the strictest temperance in meat and
drink, and by regular exercise. That he was an industrious student
and constant reader all his life, the foregoing sketch, not pretend-
ing to give an account of all or even the greater part of his literary,
political, and professional labors, will amply evince. He retained his
intellectual faculties in full vigor up to the time of his death. He
was a free and attractive conversationist, and one could rarely leave a
company of which he had been a part, without carrying with him
something well thought or well said by him. An Ex-President of
the United States, who had represented this country at two foreign
courts, and who largely cultivated the society of distinguished men
at home and abroad, used to say that, when in the vein, Mr. Inger-
soll was the most agreeable man he had ever met at a dinner-table.
He was affable and courteous to all who approached him ; in this re-
spect agreeably disappointing those who had formed wrong notions of
him from the partisan scribblers of the day. He was ardent and out-
spoken as to his political opinions, and thereby gave a handle to his op-
ponents to represent him as radical and extreme, which he never was.

1863.] 271 [Sharswood.

While his freedom and boldness won the affection and confidence of
those who sympathized in his views, it aroused the ire of adverse parti-
sans, and embittered the opposition to him. Hence he had to exer-
cise to a large degree a virtue very essential in a statesman depending
for his position and influence upon the popular will, and which on
one occasion' he himself called " the endurance of manurance."

As a writer, while all his earlier compositions are distinguished by
great purity, tenderness, and elegance of language, a style gradually
grew upon him, which cannot please a correct taste. It is, however,
entirely original. In his speeches and conversation it was easy and
difi"use. In writing and re-writing, which was always his habit, with
an anxiety to condense, he was not able wholly to reject the collateral
subjects of illustration, which presented themselves. His style is not
a compound of artificial epithets and complicated convolutions, but
rapid, broken, and rugged, as the result of an effort to press too much
in a given space.

In his private relations, Mr. Ingersoll possessed the affection and
veneration of all about him. He had a warm and affectionate nature,
though a stranger would be apt to conclude from his exterior that he
was cold. He was sensitive upon such subjects, and shrank from
observation. It was so too as to his religious feelings and opinions, —
he obtruded them upon no one. He was a sincere and firm believer
in the truth of Christianity, without the slightest taint of bigotry or
fanaticism, and attached to the forms and worship of the Protestant
Episcopal Church, in the communion of which he died.

Mr. Chase made a communication in reply to the following
questions of Mr. Dubois.

" What number of vowel-sounds are there in other lan-
guages, which are foreign to the English language ?

"Are there any possible voAvel-sounds, which are not used
in any language ?"

No writer that I have ever met with, has treated of the various
sounds of speech so fully and satisfactorily, as Professor Haldeman
in his Analytic Orthography, and in framing answers to the two
questions, I shall be largely indebted to his work. (Trans. A. P.
S., Vol. XL)

According to his definitions, "Vowels are sounds of the uninter-
rupted voice, the distinction between them being due to slight

Chase.] 272 [October.

modifications, chiefly of the cavity of the mouth and pharynx.
Vowels are pure or normal ; nasal, as some of the French, Portu-
guese, and Polish vowels are; tchispered, of which some of the
aboriginal American languages afford examples; independent (of
expiration, inspiration, or voice), being a vowel effect succeeding a
clack ; and glottal, in which the vowel is accompanied by a scraping
effect along the rather close glottis. Its type is the Hebrew and
Arabic ain. Consonants are the results of interrupting the vocalized
or unvocalized breath." (Hald. § 15G-7.)

Grammarians have usually admitted an intermediate class of semi-
vowels, and the gradation is so imperceptible from the pure to the
impure vowels, and from the impure vowels to the consonants, that
a consideration of the consonant sounds is almost necessarily involved
in any inquiry about the vowels.

The Sanscrit grammarians recognized three primary or pure
vowels: 1. The full a (a); 2. The glottally interrupted i (i) ; 3.
The labially interrupted li (u). Of these the a or u is the purest,
and, perhaps, the only one that is strictly entitled to the name of
vowel. The u glides imperceptibly into the o, the i into the e, the
a into a and u, thus giving Haldeman's groups of 1, i e a o u; 2,
i e u or a ou.

The three primitives, i a u, with the modifications of a (a and u),
are spoken with tolerable uniformity; the others tend to become
diphthongal ei or eti, ou or oii. This tendency in the English a
and 0, was happily noticed by Dr. B. H. Coates, in the note to
Professor Tafel's communication on the Laws of English Orthography
and Pronunciation. (Proc. A. P. S., V. IX., p. 54.)

The Sanscrit grammarians were aware of the same peculiarity in
their own language, but their delicacy of analysis has not been
generally appreciated by others. Thus Wilkins says (p. 5) :

" e, though classed among diphthongs, differs not from the
simple sound of e in where (a u) It is said to be a com-
pound of a and /.

" 0 differs not from our o held long, as in stone (o u) ; though
it is said to be a diphthong composed of a and ?t."

Even our Saxon ancestors showed their perception of vocal com-
binations, by expressing with two letters sounds that the mistaken
reformers of our day would fain denote by a single character, e. g.,
they, their. There are undoubtedly vowel-sounds analogous to our a,
o, and even to our i, which are not diphthongs, but such is the
flexibility of our vocal organs, and so fixed is the habit of rapid

1863.] 273 [Chase.

change, that it requires a strong effort to sustain them without corrup-
tion by a leaning either to a closer or to a more open sound. And
when they are combined with consonants of a different contact from
their own, it is often absolutely impossible to avoid giving them
a diphthongal character, except by the trick of an intervening nasal,
or by an abrupt staccato like the Chinese ji or yap shing. The
reasons for this impossibility may be easily shown.

U is a labial vowel, — A, a palatal, — and I, a guttural. [Halde-
man, § 159.] As long as there is suflScient opening between the
lips to allow of the formation of the u sound, or of any nasal sound,
the consonants of any contact, labial, dental, palatal, or guttural,
can be formed without difficulty. U and English vg ca.n therefore be
combined with any consonant whatever, without losing their distinctive
character.

But if we attempt to combine any other vowel with any except
its cognate consonants, just before the consonantal interruption is
made, either the corresponding vowel, or a nasal, or a «, must be
produced. Ape thus becomes aup, ache aek, or auk, ode oud, eat
eut, eve euv, &c. It is often difficult to discover the precise com-
bination of sounds, but I think it will always be found that such a
combination exists.

The number of possible secondary or intermediate vowels between
the broad open a, and the close i and li, is infinite ; but by making a
limited number of divisions, the vowel sounds of different languages
can be compared with sufficient accuracy. Professor Haldeman
makes fourteen such divisions on each side of li, indicating twenty-
nine distinct pure vowel sounds, thirteen of which are foreign to
the English language, and, perhaps, four out of the thirteen are not
represented in any language. [§ 369, sqq] These thirteen foreign
vowels are :

1. The Italian ^' o aperto,^' between bald and bold, as in poco.

2. French o between owe and the o aperto, as in poste, note.
8-4. Two unrepresented sounds between obey and 5.

5. Italian " o chiuso," as in conca. [o approaching u.]

6. Ossetiscb V, between 5 and Ger. ii or ii.

7. Ostjak and Iroquoi lo, somewhat like o in moi.

8. Suabian a, perhaps corresponding to Sanscrit a, between urn
and add.

9-10. Two unrepresented sounds between add and No. 11.

11. Suabian €,a little more open than th<:>re.

12. Gudjrat'hi £", between ebb and eight.

VOL. IX. — 2l

Chase.] 274 [October.

13. Hungarian e, between judgment and it.

There are also ten foreign vowels intermediate " between those of
the throat and the lip side of the scale, and akin to both." [§ 430.]
The extremes are o in konig, and ii in libel. Of these sounds two
are common to French and German, one is French, one Russian,
one Swedish, one Samojedic, one Alsacian, and three are unrepre-
sented.

Perhaps the simplest of the impure vowels (or sounds which are
otherwise modified than by the size and shape of the oral cavitj),
are the guttural ch, and Welsh u (y), akin to French u, but made
"with the tongue between the teeth" [§ 439], and related to Welsh
11, nearly as u to v.

In the class of tongue-modified vowels should also be included
the Sanscrit r and Ir.

Gary, in his " Sungskirt Grammar," represents the r sound by
tr instead of ri, which is the substitute adopted by most of the more
recent writers upon the Sanscrit language. Dr. Joseph Thomas,
who visited India for the purpose of studying the pronunciation of
the natives, says that r is neither ir nor ri, but a simple soft burr,
or rolled vowel. The 1/' appears to be a kind of palatal u. The
affinity of u, r, and 1, is shown by the various attempts of the
Chinese and of children to pronounce sounds that they are unable to
form.

If the number of possible pure vowels is infinite, the same must
be true a fortiori of the modified vowels, and among the vocalized
or semi-vocalized aspirates, sibilants, nasals, and liquids, an im-
mense number of sounds might readily be found, which are used
neither in our own nor in any other language.

Professor Haldeman made some remarks upon the same
subject, giving illustrations of whispered vowels.

Pending nominations l^os. 503, 504, were read.

Dr. Coates called the attention of the Society to the part
of the Catalogue already printed, and moved that copies be
presented to corresponding Societies. On motion of Prof.
Cresson, the motion of Dr. Coates was laid on the table.
Mr. Chase moved that the Catalogue as far as printed, be
distributed to subscribers. On motion of Prof. Cresson, it
was referred to the Committee on the Library, with instruc-
tions to report.

And the Society was adjourned.

1863. , 275

Stated Meeting, October 16, 1868.

Present, seven members.
Prof. A. D. Bache, in the Chair.

Letters acknowledging publications, were received from
John S. Stevenson, Librarian of Congress, and Richard
Kippist ; from J. H. Cook, asking information ; and from
John Penington & Son, with a notice of new publications.

Donations for the Library were received from the British
Association, Royal Geographical, Linnean, and Geological
Societies of London, the Geological Society of Dublin, the
Rev. S. Haughton, J. W. Dawson, of Montreal, the Connec-
ticut Historical Society, the Academy of Natural Sciences,
and Blanchard & Lea, of Philadelphia.

Mr. Peale laid before the Society several specimens of the
Creastru7n hygrometricum, both in the living and in the dried
states, and described the growth and habits of the plant-
He also exhibited minute cryptogams resembling bird's nests
and eggs.

The following persons were then duly elected members of
the Society.

Robert Briggs, Civil Engineer, of Philadelphia.

Joseph Lesley, Geologist, of Philadelphia.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, November 6, 1863.

Present, sixteen members.
Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.

Mr. Briggs, Dr. Washburne, and Dr. Penrose, recently
elected members, were introduced to the President, and took
their seats.

Letters announcing donations to this Society were read

276 [November.

from the Royal Academy of Lisbon, July ISth ; the Imperial
Society of Naturalists at Moscow, June 1-13 ; the Natural
Historical Union at Riga, April 3-15 ; and the Royal Danish
Society, February 1st, 1863.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of publications were
received from the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, Dec.
1862, and March, 1863 ; the Imperial Observatory at Pul-
kowa, July 15th ; the Royal Society, London, August 13tli;
the Society of Antiquaries, Loudon, October 16th, 1863.

A letter was read from the Geological Society of Dublin,
October 3d, asking to be supplied with missing numbers of
the Transactions and Proceedings.

A letter was received from Dr. Renard of Moscow, request-
ing that the publications of this Society may be sent to the
Public Museum of that city. On motion, the Librarian was
instructed to place the Museum upon the list of corresponding
Societies.

Donations for the Library were announced from Colonel
Sir Henry James, the Royal Society at London, the Chemical
Society, the British Meteorological Society, the* Imperial
Academy at St. Petersburg, the Central Observatory of Rus-
sia, the Physico-Oekonom. Society in Konigsberg, the Royal
Danish Society, the Imperial Society of Naturalists in Mos-
cow, the Royal Academy at Lisbon, the Geological Institute
at Vienna, the Royal Academy at Berlin, the Upper Lausatian
Society at Gorlitz, the Natural History Union at Riga, the
Ecole des Mines, Professor Delesse of Paris, the Horticultural
Society at Berlin, the Franklin Institute, Dr. F. Bache,
J. W. Bouton, of New York, and Dr. Roerig.

And the Society was adjourned.

1863. 277

Stated Meeting, November 20, 1863.

Present, fifteen members.

Prof. Cresson, Vice-President, in the Cliair.

A letter accepting membership was received from Prof.
A. Delesse, dated Paris, November 3d, 1863.

Donations to the Library were received from the Royal
Astronomical Society at London, the Department of Agricul-
ture at Washington, the Franklin Institute, and Blanehard
& Lea of Philadelphia.

The Secretary announced the deatlis of T. E. Blackwell, of
London, and Jacob Grimm, of Berlin, late members of the
Society.

Mr. Cornelius exhibited and explained to the Society his
three instruments for lighting gas by means of the Electro-
phorus, and also his arrangements for rendering uniform the
supply of gas to the burners.

Messrs'. Cornelius and Briggs made some remarks upon the
manufacture of hard rubber, and its use for electrical and
other purposes.

Dr. Coates called the attention of the Society to the so-
called tea 'plant of Pennsylvania, and quoted the investiga-
tions of M. Maische, to prove that it contained no substance
resembling thein. Mr. James said that the plant was doubt-
less the Ceanothus Americanus. The discussion of the sub-
ject was continued by other members present.

The minutes of the last meeting of officers and members of
Council were read.

On motion of Mr. Peale, the Curators were authorized to
exchange the intestinal calculus in the Cabinet of the Society,
for certain stone implements in the Museum of the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania.

And the Society was adjourned.

Briggs.] 278 [December.

Stated Meeting, December 4:th, 1863.

Present, eighteen members.
President, Dr. Wood, in the Chair.

Professor McClune, recently elected a member, was intro-
duced to the President, and took his seat.

Letters were received from the Massachusetts Historical
Society, acknowledging publications, and from M. Boucher
de Perthes, of Abbeville, in France, announcing a donation
to the Society.

Donations for the Library were received from Profs. Silli-
man and Dana, the Essex Institute, Prof. Geo. Ticknor, and
the London Reader.

Mr. Briggs made a communication on the application of
mathematics to the screw, pointing out certain striking coin-
cidences between the results as computed and as obtained by
experiment.

Mr. Briggs wished to communicate to the Society some curious
results which had been obtained in an investigation he had made of
the strength and the application of forces to the screw-bolt as ordi-
narily in use by mechanics. He had found first, that the propor-
tions established h^ practice as to the number of threads upon any
given diameter of bolt, were those which could be derived from a
straight line formula. Thus, Mr. Whitworth's result in collating
the practice of English engineers in this respect, could be (with the
exception of the half inch bolt, which was too coarse), expressed

1

by the formula — j-r — , where,

d = diameter of belt,
a = a coefficient,
c :=: a constant.

On proceeding further in the investigation of the subject, he found
that every part of the bolt, the diameter of the root of the threads,
the heads, the proportions of the nut, &c., was capable of being
expressed in a general formula, instead of taking each particular size
in the calculations he was desirous of instituting. The general
formula of the screw is laid down in most works on applied mechan-
ics, and has the following cumbrous shape.

Pa=(

1863. 279 [Briggs.

Let P = the force expended on the arm of the wrench.

a = the length of arm of wrench.

a. = the angle of inclination of thread or the developed inclined
plane of the screw.

/?r= one half the angle of the thread itself.

<p = the coefficient of friction on the thread surface.

^' = the " " " nut "

D = diameter of nut outside.

d== " " bolt.

dj = " " root of thread.

Q := load on screw parallel to axis, or in other words, the strain on
the bolt, thus :

( rtan d =b 9P v 1 + Cos^ a. tan^ /J-i j i rX)3-d3"l f

I Ll zp ^ tan d N/1 + Cos^d. tail^jT" + ^ 'S'Ld^tJ )

the first member of the cocflacient of Q being derived from the in-
clined plane and the friction of the thread, and the second part from
the friction of the nut on its seat.

This cumbrous equation, by having inserted in it definite values for
^ and f ' and for /3, and the values given by the general formula
functions of ad-fc before alluded to, underwent the most astonishing
reduction to the form

Pa = Q(Ad + C).
where A = a coefficient and C a constant.

Of course, A and C have values difi"ering with different values of
<p, tp' and /? and also changed by the zp ± terms for screwing and un-
screwing. But as, in practice, the value of angle
/3 is fixed at 30°
(p is fixed at about 0.1
ip' " " 0.15

and the value of a in the first formula is established at 0.096
" " cat 0.026 .-.

_ 1

^~ 0l)96~d + 0^026
and the value of D = 1.734 d+0.1445
it results that the formula for summing up becomes

^-^= 0.164 d +0.008
Q

and for unscrewino-

o

Pa

— - = 0.133 d — a constant so small that it can be neglected.
^{
The investigation went further into the whole consideration of

280 [December.

forces on a bolt, comparison of load per square inch with friction,
torsion, combined torsion and tension, strength of nuts, &c. &c. The
above gives the result in the more striking and important par-
ticulars.

Dr. Wood having requested Judge Sliarswood to take the
chair, gave a sketch of the water-works of Madrid. Mr.
Fraley discussed the subject of an increased supply of water
for the city of Philadelphia, advocating the construction of
additional reservoirs at various points on the Schuylkill
Heights, to be filled from the river by steam-engines. Mr.
Trego followed with remarks on the same subject, and Dr.
Hays with others, upon the degree of purity of the river
water.

The Treasurer's annual report was read and referred to the
Finance Committee.

The Publication Committee presented their annual report,
as follows : " Since the last report, Part Three (3) of Volume
XII has been printed and distributed. The number of sub-
scribers has not materially altered during the past year. The
amount received from subscription to the Transactions has
been in excess of last year ; nevertheless the arrears due are
on the increase. The amount paid on publications for the
past year is fourteen hundred and thirty dollars and fifty-three
cents ($1480 53), of which nine hundred and eighty-six dol-
lars and ninety-two cents ($986 92),* was on account of the
Transactions for the last and previous numbers. The receipts
amount to one hundred and fifty-two dollars and ninety-two
cents ($152 92)."

The report was accepted, and the Society was adjourned.

* Viz., $.354 02, cost of Part III, Vol. XII. $632 90, see report Oct. 25th, 1802.

1863.

281

Stated Meeting, December 18fA, 1863.

Present, fourteen members.

Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.

Letters acknowledging publications were received from the
British Museum, November 26, and the Society of Antiquaries,
London, November 20th, 1863.

A letter from the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,
December 12th, was received, asking for the loan of ethno-
logical specimens in the cabinet, for the purpose of having
plaster casts of them made for the cabinet of the Institution.
On motion, this communication was referred to the Curators,
with power to grant the request.

A letter from Prof. Zantedeschi, dated Padua, November
20, was received, together with a copy of an extract from the
proceedings of the Institute of Science of Venice, containing
an inedited letter of Carlini. The communication was, on
motion, referred to the Secretaries.

Alia Celebre Societa' Filosojica Americana in Filadeljia.
Delia Fotografia dei protoiipi del mondo esieriore.

Neir adunanza del 24 Noverabre, 1862, io aveva I'onore di comu-
nicare all' I. R. Istituto Veiieto una lettera inedita direttami dall'
astronomo e geometra Francesco Carlini intorno ad un piano di di
meteorologia ed. alV applicazione delta camera lucida al cannocchiale
per ottenere dei panor amid i monti in grande scala e della maygiore
esottczza, e poneva fine alia mia comunicazione con queste precise
parole: " I fotografi amora troveranno utilissinia Tapplicazione della
camera lucida al cannocchiale pei panorami delle vedute lontane, con
tutte quelle degradazioni della prospettiva aerea, che solo la natura
geometricamente sa dare. Alia carta comune de' disegni non hanno
che a sostituiie la carta Kensihilizzata."

A proporre questa applicazione io sono stato condotto dal principio
filosofieo : I'immagine obbiettiva non e' che I'imuiagine subbiettiva
riflessa, rifersta dallo spirito all' oggetto, dal quale si deriva I'eccitta-
mento delle irradiazioni. E percio' fotografando I'immagine subbi-
ettiva, si fotografa I'imraagine subbiettiva, o della retina. Applicato
r occhio alia camera lucida, esse invia dal suo fondo i razzi chimici
sul piano della carta fotografica, che vi producouo un' impressone,

VOL. IX. — 2m

2§2 [December.

ad una immagine, la quale altro non a' che quella della retina diret-
tamente fotografata. II dubbio, che potrebbe insorgere contro di
questa applicazione, devesi ripetere dalla possibilita' di fotografare un'
immagine esistente sulla retina dell' occhio. E noto ai fisiologi, che
I'impressione del raggio sulla retina dell' occhio non 6 istantanea, ma
persistente per qualite frazione di niinuto secondo. Rimaneva a
ricercarsi, se questa persistenza fosse duratura anche dopo la morte
deir uomo. Dalle dottrine fisiologiche si poteva argomentare afferma-
tivamente ; perch^, estinta la vita sensitiva, le forze chimiche riessono
prevalent! alle fisiologiche. Ma e merito del Sigr. Dottor Sandford
di Boston di avere per il primo fotografata riramagine persistente nella
retina di un uomo di fresco ucciso. Ecco come viene narrata dai
Giornali questa maravigliosa scoperta. Si trattava di procurarsi I'im-
magine di un assassino rimasto sconoscinto, facendo, il piu' presto
possibile dopo il delitto, la fotografia degli' occhi della vittima.
Venne ucciso un certo Beardsley da ignoto assassino. H. Dr. Sand-
ford con una leggera soluzione di atropa belladonna, sriluppo' la pu-
pilla e tosto fere fotografare I'occhio ed appresso con un microscopio
esamino' la carta fotografata e vi discopri la figura e le vesti dell' uc-
cissore. Quantunque impertanto sul piano della carta fotografica non
giunga, a mezzo della camera lucida di Wollaston applicata al can-
nocchiale, alcun raggio proveniente direttamente dall' oculare del can-
nocchiale, vi giungono tuttavia quelli dell' immagine persistente sulla
retina dell' occhio. Dopo cio' sembra potersi fotografare anche colla
semplice camera lucida non applicata al cannocchiale ; perche si foto-
grafa sempre I'immagine impressa sulla retina, nell' atto che si ri-
ferisce sulla carta preparata I'immagine di unavedata; come evi-
dentemente e dimostrato dalla posizione dell' immagine detta obbiet-
tiva, che e sempre rivolta all'occhio, o alia immagine subbiettiva della
retina, originale tipo del mondo esteriore.

L'argomento mi sembra della piu' alta importanza pei filosofi, fisio-
logi e fotografi; e percio' non dubito punto, ch'esso richiamera I'at-
tenzione della nostra Societa'.

Sono co' sensi di altissima stima e profondo rispetto.

Padova, il 20 di Novembre, 1863.

Donations for the library were received from Prof. Morlot,
of Lausanne, the Royal Astronomical Society, the British
Meteorological Society, and the Society of Arts, in London,
Blanchard & Lea, and the Colonization Herald.

1863.] 283 [Chase.

Mr. Chase made some remarks on the diurnal variations of
the barometer :

The existence of daily barometric tides has been known for more
than a hundred and fifty years ; but their cause is still a matter of
dispute. The principal theories that have been brought forward for
their explanation attribute them to —

1. Variations of temperature.

2. Variations of moisture.

3. Foi'mation and dissipation of clouds.

4. Electrical action of the sun.

5. Gravitation.

6. Centrifugal force.

7. *' Rotation of the earth and its connection with the solar sys-
tem." [>r. C. Redfield, in Silliman's Journal, vol. 25, p. 129.]

No one has attempted to point out any minute or precise corre-
spondence between theory and observation, nor to furnish any satis-
factory demonstration of the connection between the observed phe-
nomena and their supposed causes.

The prevailing sentiment of the day appears to incline towards the
temperature-theory, notwithstanding the confessedly inexplicable dif-
ficulties that attend it. James Hudson (London Phil. Trans., 1832)
points out " the general relation between the barometrical changes
and the variations of temperature ;" but he admits that the relation
"appears to be direct during the morning hours, and inverse
during those of the day and evening." Sir John Herschel says
that "heat causes diurnal variations; but the effects surpass the
natural operation of those causes." Prof. Espy (4th Meteorol. Report,
p. 12) attempts to reconcile the American observations with his
view of the heat-theory. His explanations, though plausible, are
unsatisfactory, and will not bear the test of rigid scrutiny. It seems
evident, therefore, that the variations of the barometer cannot be
accounted for by variations of temperature ; for, 1st, their regularity
is not perceived until all the Jmown effects of temperature have been
eliminated ; 2d, they occur in all climates and at all seasons ; od, oppo-
site effects are produced at different times, under the same average
temperature. Thus, at St. Helena, the mean of three years' hourly
observations gives the following average barometric heights :

From 12h. to Oh. 28-2801 in. From 6h. to 18h. 28-2838 in.
From Oh. to 12h. 282861 in. From 18h. to 6h. 28 2784 in.

Chase.] 284 [December.

The upper lines evidently embrace the warmest parts of the day,
and the lower lines the coolest. Dividing the day from noon to mid-
night, the barometer is highest when the thermometer is highest ;
but in the second division the high barometer prevails during the
coolest half of the day.

Each of the other enumerated causes undoubtedly exerts an influ-
ence which must be carefully investigated before we can obtain a
thorough knowledge of the laws which control the atmosphere.
Such an investigation will probably show a mutual connection,
through which all the secondary causes may be referred to a single
force. Mr. Redfield's hypothesis, which is sufficiently indefinite and
general to include all the rest, was anticipated by Galileo, who
attributed the ocean tides " to the rotation of the earth, combined
with its revolution about the sun." It appears that Galileo's opinion
attracted little attention and led to no special investigation, partly,
perhaps, because it was difficult to reconcile it with the tidal inter-
vals, and partly because a literal as well as figurative reasoning in
a circle apparently demonstrated that the motions in question could
produce no disturbing force. I will endeavor to point out the fal-
lacy of this conclusion by deducing, from a reference of the aerial
motions to a supposed stationary earth, a law of tidal variation nearly
identical with the law that is derived from a consideration of the
relative attractions of two bodies revolving about their common
centre of gravity.

On account of the combined effects of the earth's rotation and
revolution, each particle of air has a velocity in the direction of its
orbit, varying at the equator from about 65,000 miles per hour, at
noon, to 07,000 miles per hour at midnight. The force of rotation
may be readily compared with that of gravity by observing the
effects produced by each in twenty-four hours, the interval that
elapses between two successive returns of any point to the same
relative position witli the sun. The force of rotation producing a
daily motion of 24,895 miles, and the force of terrestrial gravity a
motion of 22,738,900 miles, the ratio of the former to the latter is
saVs^Voo' *^^ "00109. This ratio represents the proportionate eleva-
tion or depression of the barometer above or below its mean height,
that should be caused by the earth's rotation, and it corresponds
very nearly with the actual disturbance at stations near the equator.

From Oh. to 6h. the air has a forward motion greater than that of
the earth, so that it tends to fly away; its pressure is therefore
diminished, and the mercury falls. From 6h. to 12h. the earth's

1863.] 285 IChase,

motion is greatest ; it therefore presses ngainst the lagging air, and
the barometer rises. From 12h. to ISh. the earth moves away from
the air, and the barometer falls ; while from 18h. to 24h. the .in-
creasing velocity of the air urges it against the earth, and the
barometer rises.

If the force of rotation at each instant be resolved into two com-
ponents, one in the direction of the radius vector, and the other
parallel to the earth's orbit, it will be readily perceived that when-
ever the latter tends to increase the aerial pressure, the former tends
to diminish it, and vice versa. Let B = the height of the barometer
at any given instant; M=the mean height at the place of observa-
tion; 0 — 90° = the hour angle; C= the earth's circumference at
the equator; ^ = 24 hours; ^=^ the terrestrial gravity; Z= the lati-
tude ; and a simple integration gives the tjjeoretical formula,
r sin. 0. cos. 0. COS. I 2c-\

^=<i+ s ,tO-*

This formula gives a maximum height at 9h. and 21h., and a
minimum at 3h. and 15h. The St. Helena observations place the
maximum at lOh. and 22h., and the minimum at 4h. and 16h., an
hour later in each instance than the theoretical time. This is the
precise amount of retardation caused by the inertia of the mercury,
as indicated by the comparisons with the water barometer of the
Royal Society of London.

Aerial currents, variations of temperature, moisture, and centri-
fugal force, solar and lunar attraction, the obliquity of the ecliptic,
and various other disturbing causes, produce, as might be naturally
expected, great differences between the results of theory and ob-
servation. But, by taking the grand mean of a series of observa-
tions, sufficiently extended to balance and eliminate the principal
opposing inequalities, the two results present a wonderful coinci-
dence.

According to our formula, the diiferences of altitude at 1, 2, and
3 hours from the mean, should be in the respective ratios of -5 *866,
and L The actual differences, according to the mean of the St.
Helena observations, are as follows :

c

* -- represents the effective ratio of an entire day. But there is in each day
a half day of acceleration, and a half day of retardation, and the ratio for each

half day is — s-^ =

2-4 gr-

Chase.]

286

[December.

DiflFerences of Barometer.

Ratios.

Difference of time.

Ih.

2h.

3h.

Ih.

2h.

3h.

Before Ih.

After Ih.
Before 7h.
After 7h.
Before 13h.
After 13h.
Before 19h.
After 19h.
Mean,

•0166
•0159
•0122
•0135
•0136
•0131
•0161
•0150
•0145

•0298
•0266
•0202
•0239
•0248
•0215
•0287
•0265
•0252

■0365
•0298
•0243
•0297
•0284
•0227
•0348
•0286
■0293

•455
•534
•502
•455
•479
•677
•463
•524
•495

•816
■893
•831
•805
•873
•947
•825
•927
•860

The mean of tlie above differences varies from the theoretical
mean, less than g ^'q q of an inch. If we take the mean of the ratios,
instead of the ratios of the means of the observed differences, the
coincidence is still more strikinsf.

Difference of Time,

Ih.

2h.

3h.

Means of observed Ratios,

•498625

•864625

1-000000

Theoretical Means,

•500000

•866025

1-000000

The calculated time for the above observed means, differs less than
20" from the actual time.

Observed Means,

Theoret. Difference of Time,

Observed Difference of Time,

•498625 -864625 1-000000
59^ 48'^ 119^ 40'^ 180'
60' C' 120' 0" 180'

The varying centrifugal force to which the earth is subjected by
the ellipticity of its orbit, must, in like manner, produce annual tides.
The disturbing elements render it impossible to determine the ave-
rage monthly height of the barometer with any degree of accuracy,
from any observations that have hitherto been made. We may,
however, make an interesting approximation to the annual range,
still using the St. Helena records, which are the most complete that
have yet been published for any station near the equator. Com-
paring the mean daily range, as determined by the average of the
observations at each hour, with the mean yearly range, as determined
by the monthly averages, we obtain the following results :

1863.]

287

[Chase.

Year.

Daily
Range.

Annual
Range.

Ratio.

Approximate
Solar Distance.

1844

•0672 in.

•1650 in.

2^4553

137,070,000 m.

1845

•0646 in.

•1214 in.

1-8793

80,300,000 m

1846

•0670 in.

•1214 in.

1-8120

74,650,000 m

3)-1988

3)-4078

3)6-1466
2-0489

•0663

•1359

95,446,000 m

Mean,

•0663

•1290

1-9457

86,056,000 m

2)-1326

2)-2649

2)3-9946

•0663

•1324

1-9973

90,702,000 m

The approximate estimates of the solar distance are based on the
following hypothesis :

Let e = effective ratio of daily rotation to gravity.

a = arc described by force of rotation in a given time t.
r = radius of relative sphere of attraction, or distance through
which a body would fail by gravity, during the disturbance of its
equilibrium by rotation.

A =area described by radius vector in time t.
Let e', a' , r' , a', represent corresponding elements of the annual
revolution. Then,

A. : a! : : ar : a! r' : : e- : e'"'-
But the forces of rotation and revolution are so connected, that a
differs but slightly from a!

e^ : e'^ : : r : /■' ^

^J^ r very nearly.

t'= e' )

It may be interesting to observe how nearly r (22,738,900 m.)

D
corresponds with Kirkwood's value of (. (24,932,000 m.). A more

thorough comprehension of all the various effects of gravity and
rotation on the atmosphere, would probably lead to modifications of
our formulae that would show a still closer correspondence.

There is a great discrepancy between the determinations of the
solar distance that are based on the records of 1844 and 1846; but
it is no greater than we might reasonably have anticipated. On the
other hand, it could hardly have been expected that any comparisons
based on the observations of so short a period as three years, would
have furnished so near an approximation to the most recent and
most accurate determination of the earth's mean radius vector. In

Chase.]

288

[December.

order to obtain that approximation, it will be seen that I took, 1st,
the mean of the ranges and ratios for the three successive years ; 2d,
the ranges and ratios of the mean results of the three years ; 3d, the
grand mean of these two primary means. I could think of no other
method which would be so likely to destroy the eifects of changing
seasons and other accidental disturbances.

The following table exhibits the eiFects of latitude on the aero-
baric tides. The differences between the theoretical and observed
ranges may be owing partly to the equatorial-polar currents, and
partly to insufficient observations :

Station.

Arctic Ocean,

Girard College,
Washington,
St. Helena,
Equator,

Lat.
78°37'

Mean
Height.

29-739 in.

.S9 58

29-938

.SB 53

30-020

15 57

28-282

0

30-709

Mean
Range.

•012 in.

•060

•062

•066

•082

Ratio.

Theoret.

Ratio.

•000404

•000527

002004

•002046

002065

•002079

002344

-002567

002670

•002670

torial ratios bv

•' R

The theoretical ratios are determined by multiplying the equa-
The formula, p=z . — , (p indicating

the ratio of the mean range to the mean height), gives

Theoretical Ratio. Observed Ratio.
Latitude, 0° ^002 190 '002670

Latitude, 78 37^ '000432 ^000404

showing that the ratio is less near the pole and greater near the
equator than our theory indicates, a natural consequence of the cen-
trifugal force at the equator and the cold surface currents that pro-
duce the trade winds.

The revolution of the sun around the great Central Sun must also
cause barometric'fluctuations that may possibly be measured by deli-
cate instruments and long and patient observation. The Torricellian
column may thus become a valuable auxiliary in verifying or rectify-
ing our estimates of the distances and masses of the principal hea-
venly bodies.

Dr. Wood, requesting Prof. Cresson to take the Chair,
described the peculiarities of the growth of the olive tree in
Spain and its method of cultivation, reading from his journal
an interesting account of his tour through the olive-planting
districts.

The following jyhotograjyhic portraits of members have been received
into the Album of the Society. Members whose names do not
appear in the list are requested to favor the Society with their
Cartes-de-visite or Fhotographies^ indorsed with their autograph
signatures.

Bache, A. D.
Bancker, C. N.
Bancroft, G.
Barnes, Al.
Bigelow, J.
Blackwell, T. E.
Bridges, R.
Buch, L. Von
Carey, H. C
Carson, J.
Casern Beg. A.
Chase, P. E.
Coates, B. H.
Coles, E.
Cohen, J. J.
Condie, D. F.
Coppee, H.
Crevecceur, J.B. de
Dana, J. D.
Darlington, W.
Dawson, J. W.
Delesse, A.
Desor, E.
Dorr, B.
Durand, E.
Elvvyn, A. L.
Emerson, Geo.

Encke, J. F.
Faraday, M.
Farnham, J. W.
Field, H. W.
Fisher, S. G.
Fraley, F.
Genth, F. A.
Gross, S. D.
Haidinger, W.
Harris, R. P.
Henderson, A. A.
Hill, T.
Hitchcock, E.
Hofmann, A. W.
Humboldt, A.
Hunt, T. S.
Hyrtl, J.
Jackson, J.
Jackson, E.. M. S.
Kneass, S.
Koninck, L de
Lea, I.

Le Conte, J. L.
Lepsius, E..
Lesley, P.
Lesquereux, L.
Logan, Sir W. E.

Lombardini, E.
Loom is, E.
Miller, E.
Moore, S.
Morlot, A.
Ord, G.
Peale, F.
Pennington, J.
Price, E. K.
Quetelet, A.
Quincey, J.
Rand, B. H.
Roberts, S. W.
Robinson, M.
Rohrig, F. L. 0.
Rokitansky, C.
Sharswood, G.
Smith, F. G.
Stevens, W. B.
Swift, J. G.
Silliman B.
Troyon, F.
Wilkes, C.
Wister, C. L
West, F.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPIIICAL SOCIETY.

UELD AT PlllLADELrHIA, FOR rROIIOTING USEFUL mUfMl

VOL. IX.

No. 71.

CONTENTS.

January 1, 18G4.

PAGE

290
291
294

295
328

830

Election of Officers

On the Height of the Tides. By P. E. Chase

On the Danish Element in England. By H. Coppee

January 19, 1864.

On the Family as an Element of Government. By E. K. Price
Appointment of Committees

Fchrvary 19, 1SG4.

An Obituary Notice of Dr. W. Darlington. By T. P. James .

March 4, 1864.

Catalogue of Scientific Memoirs by the Royal Society . . . 344
On Barometric Fluctuations and Temperature. By P. E. Chase . 345

March 18, 1864.

On the County Maps of the United States by R. Peausam, Smith, . 350
Transfer of Cabinet Specimens .'!53

April 1, 1864.

On Heat and Muscular Energy. By P. E. Chase .... 355

On the Manufacture of Paper Pulp from Wood. By R. Briggs . 360

On the New Flax Fibre Machine. By Dr. Emersox . . . 360

On the Hundredth Voyage of the Canada. By J. P, Lesley . . 360

April 15, 1864.

On Magnetic Currents. By P. E. Chase 367

On Stone Implements. By F. Peale. (Sec page 401.) . . 371
Election of New Members 371

May 6, 1864.
Letter of Professor Zantedeschi 372

May 20, 1864.

Catalogue of Books, deposited by J. L. Lecoxte .... 377
Synopsis of Paper on the Influence of Ether in the Solar System.

By Ai.EX. WiEC'ocKs 384

On the Abbeville Quarries. By J. P. Lesley .... 388

June 17, 1864.

On the Effects of Rotation upon the Barometer. By P. E. Chase . 395
On the Ancient Sea-Level. By J. P. Lesley .... 399

\

1863.1

289

Mr. Durand then obtained permission to read an obituary
notice of tlie late Dr. Short, of Louisville, prepared by Dr.
Gray, of Cambridge, Mass. Mr. Durand stated that the
admirable Herbarium of Dr. Short would be deposited in the
Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia. On motion
of Mr. Durand, Dr. Gray was appointed to prepare an obitu-
ary notice of the late Dr. Short, for this Society.

The Finance Committee presented their annual report,
and recommended the following appropriations to be made
for the coming year, which on motion was accordingly done,
viz. :

Journals, . . . .

$50

Hall, ....

600

Binding,

100

Publication, .

800

Salary of Librarian,

700

Salary of Assistant,

360

Salary of Janitor, .

100

Petty expenses of Library,

50

Lisurance,

200

General expenses, .

500

5,460

New nominations Nos. 506, 507, were read.
And the Society was adjourned.

VOL. IX. — 2n

290 [January.

Stated Meeting, January 1, 1864.

Present, seventeen members.

The judges and clerks of the annual election held this day,
reported the following officers as duly elected :

President.
George B. Wood.

Viee-Preside7its .
John C. Cresson,
Isaac Lea,
George Sharswood.

Secretaries.
Charles B. Trego,
E. Otis Kendall,
John L. Le Conte,
J. Peter Lesley.

Curators.
Franklin Peale,
Elias Durand,
Joseph Carson.

Members of the Council for Three Years.
Alfred L. Elwyn,
John Bell,
Henry Coppde,
Oswald Thompson.

Treasurer.
Charles B. Trego.

Photographic portraits of Dr. Hyrtl and Dr. Rokitansky,
of Vienna, and of Dr. D. Francis Condie, of Philadelphia,
were presented to the Society.

Donations for the Library were received from the Royal

1S64.]

291

[Chase,

Astronomical Society, the Essex Institute, the Franklin In-
stitute, Dr. Roehrig, and Prof. A. D. Bache.

The death of Lewis Wain, a member of the Society, on
the 20th ult., aged 68, was announced by Prof. Trego, and
Prof. Cresson was appointed to prepare an obituary notice of
the deceased.

Mr. Chase made a communication, in relation to the height
of the tides, as connected with atmospherical phenomena, and
the diurnal and annual motions of the earth.

The following table furnishes material for many instructive com-
parisons, some of which deserve special notice on account of the addi-
tional confirmations that they furnish to the rotation theory. The
column headed " Observed Height of Barometer," gives the grand
mean of three years' observations at St. Helena : A represents the
theoretical height as computed by our formula ; B introduces such
modifications as would result from assuming the mean of the equa-
torial observations as a normal equatorial altitule.

Table

OF Mean Barometrical Results, Theorstical

AKD Observed.

Ratio

Observed

Theoret.

Theoret.

Diff. of

Time.

of observed

height of bar

height A

Error A.

height B

Error B.'

Errors.

heights.

28 in. +

28 in. +

28in.+

Oh

l-000(iO

-2985

•2970

—15

•3002

17

—32

1

1-00000

•2819

•2821

2

-2821

2

0

2

•99915

•2660

•2672

12

•2640

—20

32

3

•99'905

-2553

•2563

10

•2507

—46

56

4

•99894

•2521

•2523

2

•2458

—63

65

5

•99908

•2562

•2563

1

•2507

—55

56

6

•99938

•2642

-2672

30

•2640

— 2

32

7

•99982

•2764

•2821

57

•2821

57

0

8

r00028

•2899

•2970

71

•3002

103

—32

9

1-00065

•3003

•3079

76

•3135

132

—56

10

1-00086

•3061

•3119

58

•3184

123

—65

11

1^00074

•3025

•3079

54

•3135

110

—56

12

1^00033

•2913

•2970

57

•3002

89

—32

13

•99988

•2777

-2821

44

-2821

44

0

14

-99938

•2646

•2672

26

-2640

— 6

32

15

•99908

•2562

-2563

1

•2507

—55

56

16

•99905

•2550

•2523

—27

•2458

—92

65

17

•99926

•2611

•2563

—48

•2507

—104

56

18

•99973

•2737

•2672

—65

•2640

—97

32

19

1-00028

•2898

•2821

—77

•2821

—77

0

20

1-00081

•3048

•2970

—78

•3002

—46

—32

21

1-00120

•3163

•3079

—84

•3135

—28

—56

22

1-00130

•3184

•3119

—65

•3184

0

—65

23

1-00107

•3117

•3079

—38

•3135

18

—56

Chase.] 29 '^ [January.

It will be seen that the purely theoretical height A corresponds
more nearly with the observations than the mixed height B. It is
therefore evident that there is a slight disturbance (which may per-
haps be owing either to variations of temperature, or to a resisting
medium), which follows a different law from the principal disturbance.

The changes are least near the times of high and low tide, and
greatest midway between the two tides. If we compare the average
high and low tides, we see that the observed height is somewhat less
at high tide, and somewhat greater at low tide, than theory would
give. These results would naturally follow from the combined fluid-
ity and gravitation of the air.

From Ih. to 15h. inclusive (during most of which time the radius
vector of each particle of air is increasing), the observed height of
the barometer is less than the theoretical height.

From 16h. to Oh. inclusive (radius vector diminishing), the ob-
served height is greater than the theoretical height.

The greater pressure before noon than before midnight, is precisely
the result which would follow from the passage of the earth through
a resisting medium, but it is directly opposed to the supposed ten-
dencies of varying temperature.

The apparent difference in the laws that govern the aerial and
ocean tides may be partially, if not wholly, accounted for by con-
sidering the difference of constitution in the two media, and the re-
lative positions of the observer. The air is highly elastic and com-
pressible, while water is cohesive and incompressible; the observer
is placed underneath the atmosphere, but above the ocean. The air
can therefore readily yield to any expanding or condensing force,
without much perceptible motion, while a similar force applied to
water would produce motion in the direction of least resistance; any
force that tends to throw fluids away from any given portion of the
earth, produces a high aerial tide, but a low barometric tide, and
after some interval a high oceanic tide.

The frequent coincidence of high water with a low barometer, has
been noticed by many observers, and it is strikingly presented in the
comparative drawings given by Lubbock, in his Theory of the Tides.
The prompt effect of rotation, combined with the retardation of the
cumulative action which produces the lunar tides, may perhaps ac-
count for the errors of theory in Lubbock's Table of the

1864.]

293

[Chase.

Semi-Mexstrual Inequality at London.

Apparent

IIeiobt.

solar

time of moon's

transit b.

Theory.

Observation.

Error.

h. m.

feet.

feet.

feet.

0 30

22-72

22-72

0

1 30

22-54

22-44

-f-10

2 30

22-07

21-92

+ -15

3 30

21-36

2114

+■22

4 30

2055

20-23

+ -32

5 30

19-K3

19-57

+•26

6 30

19-56

19-55

+ -01

7 30

1 9-93

20-26

—-33

8 30

20 69

21-15

—-46

9 30

21-49

21-89

— 40

10 30

22-16

22-42

—-26

11 30

22-59

22-70

—•11

The recjular recurrence of the aerial tides at stated hours, is a suffi-
cient evidence of their dependence upon the relative positions of the
earth and sun. Though the differential effect of the moon's attrac-
tion is greater than that of the sun's, the intensity of the solar attrac-
tion is much the greater. I am inclined to believe that this intensity
is manifested in a greater stability of the solar attraction-spheroid,
Vfhich prevents its yielding readily to the effects of rotation.

Lubbock quotes from Williams's Narrative of Missionary Enter-
prises, p. 172, his remarks on the " -well-known fact that the tides in
Tahiti and the Society Islands are uniform throughout the year, both
as to the time of the ebb and flow, and the height of the rise and
fall; it being high water invariably at noon and midnight, and low
water at six in the morning and evening. The total range from low
to high water seldom exceeds eighteen inches or two feet." The
earth's rotation, producing an alternate half-day's acceleration and
retardation in the eastward motion of the water, should create a ten-
dency to tides of this character, and the situation of the islands
mentioned, is peculiarly favorable for the development of that ten-
dency. Were they near a continent or at the entrance of a gradu-
ally narrowing ocean, they would feel the influence of the derivative
tide which accumulates the attractive energies of the moon for seve-
ral successive transits, and the tides would vary with the moon, as
upon our own shores : but the nearly uninterrupted ocean sweep of
80° to the eastward may give the combined rotation and solar waves
such resistless force, that they can easily overcome the weak intensity

294 [January.

of the lunar attraction. If this hypothesis is confirmed by more
accurate observations, the theory of Galileo will not only help us in
our explanations of the aerial tides, but it will also lead to the recog-
nition of a most important element in the ocean tides.

Prof. Copp^e suggested that the subject of the " Danish
Element in England," was worthy of the attention of the
Society, describing the traces, still obvious, of the original
Celtic and Teutonic occupation of the island. Dr. Washburne
spoke of the northern English types, as existing in New Eng-
land, and were deserving of farther study. Dr. Coates re-
ferred to the translation, by early emigrants, of old english
names of places to the new localities in New England, which
the emigrants occupied ; and made further observations upon
the origin of human races. Mr. Chase referred to the alleged
early settlement of America by the Northmen.

Professor Lesley was nominated Librarian for the ensuing
year.

Pending nominations Nos. 506, 507, were read.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, January 15, 1864.

Present, eighteen members.
Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from Dr.
Theodore Schwann, of Liege.

A communication from Mr. H. Stephens, of London, was
read, proposing to act as general book agent, in Europe.

Donations for the Library were received from Prof. Zan-
tedeschi, the Hon. J. D. Baldwin, Messrs. Blanchard & Lea,
and Mr. C. H. Hart.

Dr. Emerson communicated the following fact, respecting
the propagation of atmospheric vibrations to great distances.

1864.1 295 [?"<=«•

He was at a place in the State of Delaware, on the night of
the great explosion at Yorktown, Va., and one hundred and
fifty miles distant from that city. The windows of his house
were shaken in so remarkable a manner, that he could assign
no other cause, but that of the explosion of the Yorktown
powder magazines. Prof. Cresson mentioned an instance of
a similar nature, which had come under his own observation,
and, apparently, confirming Dr. Emerson's views.

Mr. Price read part of a paper entitled, " The Family, as
an Element of Government."

THE FAMILY AS AN ELEMENT OF GOVERNMENT.

" God settetli the solitary in families." — Psalm 68 : 6.

It is with hesitation and misgiving that I bring this subject before
you; fearing to detain your attention too long, and apprehensive that
it may not be thought strictly appropriate for our discussion. That
the subject most nearly relates to man and his well-being, and is to
disclose the design of the Creator in regard to him, should not make
it the less one, it seems to me, of philosophical inquiry and interest.
And if from the physical we should rise, in our investigations, to the
moral and social welfare of man, still the subject will retain all its
philosophical fitness, and deserve our attention. Permit me, then, to
confess at the outset that I cherish the design to do a moral good,
in my limited ability, and the better to do it, I wish to borrow your
prestige. I have thought that if you would listen with approbation,
others will think it worth while to read, and that ideas deemed salu-
tary to society, though familiar to you, may thus more favorably reach
those to whom they are less known. I cannot promise you novelty,
for in constantly observed human nature, law, and morals, there is not
so much opportunity to discover anything new, as there is a duty to
insist upon what is already known for our good; and as law and morals
have for their object but to state and impress a sound rule of conduct
in life, sound practical sense is the highest merit that a writer upon
these subjects can hope to attain.

I am conscious of addressing some, who, as naturalists, are accus-
tomed to study the nature and habits of living creatures lower in the
scale of beings than man. These are studied with a laborious care,
minuteness, and skill, and an exactness of classification, that is abso-
lutely surprising to others who are differently occupied. And for

Price.] 296 [January.

what is all this self-sacrificing patience of intellectual labor? Chiefly
but to gratify a scientific curiosity, and to penetrate into the intents
and wisdom of the Creator, as displayed in his works. It is but to
elevate and advance our views in the same course of study, to con-
sider man in his domestic, social, and political relations; but with
this higher interest, that it is to study our own nature and highest
welfare.

It is when legislation grows out of human wants, and accords most
closely with nature, that it is most useful and enduring. We begin,
therefore, at the right point, when we study the nature and needs of
man, with purpose to legislate for his welfare. I propose, in this dis-
course, that we shall consider the human family, that we may duly
estimate its importance as an element of government, and consider
how much it should be favored by our personal influences, by judi-
cial decision, by legislation, and in all our social regulations.

To sketch the history and formation of the family, is to go back to
the origin of all society, and see it in its inception. "Male and fe-
male," God created the first parents ; and these becoming the parents
of children, the family is formed and bound together by ties inherent
in our nature, and the strongest in nature. These partake of the
character of an instinct, but are more than the instinct that rules
inferior beings, for the parental and filial aff"ections endure beyond
any physical necessity, and end only with life, and not then without
the earnest hope and passionate desire of the family reunion.

As the family increases, and the descendants multiply and marry,
and again increase, the grandfather becomes the patriarch of a tribe.
Tribes grow to be a people. In the lowest stage of society they live
by hunting, fishing, and upon the spontaneous fruits of the earth;
thence rise to be shepherds, and to feed their flocks, move from place
to place. In pursuit of game and pasturage they come into contact,
and contesting for the territory that yields the needed supplies, they
make war, and the men become warriors, and then the chief burden
is cast upon women to support the family. The American Indians,
when found in the north, were in this hunter state; Abraham and
Lot were in the pastoral stage; and the Germans, in the time of
Caesar and Tacitus, were in the same stage, only cultivating the soil
where the nation rested for a season, without any permanent division
or ownership in it. In this condition families followed their military
leaders; and as war was the principal business of each people, there
was but slight development of the family institution, as we see it in
civilized society. The separate home, with its sacred seclusion, ex-

1864.1 297 i Price.

cept ns the door is opened by hospitality, was yet wanting to the
civilization and happiness of mankind.

The earliest known occupation of our ancestral communities of
Northern Europe, was that of shifting masses, moving forward as
they had the desire and the strength, regardless of the rights of
neighboring communities, except as the latter had power, for a time,
to resist the ever onward pressure westward and southward. When
these moving masses began to appropriate the soil, and to settle in
fixed localities, it was under the feudal system, by which lands were
temporarily allotted to military followers, upon condition of rendering
military service, or needed supplies in kind. Hence titles came to
be held upon tenures which only expired in onr revolution. This
degree of settlement ripened into greater certainty and duration of
title, and the commutation of rents for njilitary services. Villages
and towns were built, but at first only at the base of hills, crowned by
the castle of the military chieftain, who was their needed protector,
as the inhabitants were his necessary retainers. Centuries passed be-
fore life and property became so secure as to admit of spiirse habita-
tions over the face of the country; and at this moment all Europe
retains the features formed by the insecurity of the middle and prior
ages of its history. There everywhere are yet seen the heights
crowned by often crumbling castles, with the village or town beneath,
while wide and distant tracts are cultivated, in small subdivisions, bj
villagers who each night return to their village homes.

As the arts advanced and towns grew into importance, and the
military lords borrowed of the rich burghers, or sold them lands to
obtain money to enter upon the crusade to Jerusalem, and commer-
cial cities arose under royal charters, and formed leagues against the
chiefs who had levied tribute on travellers and trade, a greater de-
pendence was placed upon the central government or crown, and the
people gradually became disenthralled of the local military despotisms.
With a general government of law pervading a national territory,
came security to families, and thence arose the modern civilization of
Europe and America, the highest and most intelligent the world has
yet known. In ancient Jerusalem, and Athens, and Rome, a high
civilization and refinement had indeed been known, but that refine-
ment became steeped in corruption ■ for the world had not then
known the true source of the highest refinement of human manners;
and when Christianity first spread over Southern Europe, while yet
under Roman rule, it was slow to produce its legitimate effects, by
reason of the previous deep corruption ; so deep, indeed, that it could

VOL. IX. — 2o

Price.] 298 [January.

only be cured by a fresh infusion of barbarian vigor, and the eradica-
tion of degenerate men. But the infusion of Huns, Goths, and
Vandals, were rough materials for Christianity to mould into civiliza-
tion.

Though rude and warlike, these invading hordes from the great
Northern hive supplied the needed elements for the renovation of
the corrupt descendants, now the fragments of the Roman Empire.
These conquerors of the Empire became themselves captives to the
Christianity of the conquered ; and that faith, a milder climate, and
the more refined manners of the South, had their natural civilizing
influences upon the new settlers in Southern Europe and Northern
Africa. These brought not only their fresh and uncorrupted natures
from the forests of Germany, but they also brought with them a
characteristic peculiar to themselves, worth more than all the civil-
ized effeminacy they displaced, — they brought with them a profound
reverence for woman. Let us remember this, for it is the element of
the world's highest civilization, next to Christianity, for nearly two
thousand years, and is to co-operate with that faith in the indefinite
future.

Of their earliest written history Tacitus gives the best account,
and in this wise speaks of the sentiment of the ancient German mind
towards their women, in whose presence they fought their battles,
with the dreadful alternative that defeat would destine wives and
daughters to the horrors of slavery: "There is, in their opinion,
something sacred in the female sex, and even the power of foresee-
ing future events. Their advice is, therefore, always heard ; they
are frequently consulted, and their responses are deemed oracular.
We have seen in the reign of Vespasian, the famous Veleda revered
as a divinity by her countrymen. Before her time, Aurinia and
others were held in equal veneration ; but a veneration founded on
sentiment and superstition, free from that servile adulation which
pretends to people heaven with human deities." (Sec. viii.) Tacitus
further says, " 3Iarriage is considered as a strict and sacred institu-
tion. In the national character there is nothing so truly commenda-
ble. To be contented with one wife is peculiar to the Germans.
They differ in this respect from all savage nations." (xviii.) "In
consequence of these manners, the marriage state is a life of affection
and female constancy. The virtue of the woman is guarded from
seduction. No public spectacles to seduce her; no banquets to in-
flame her passions; no baits of pleasure to disarm her virtue." Her

1864.] 299 [P"°«-

very infrequent infidelity to the marriage vow was instantly visited
by ignominious punishment, and unpardonable dishonor, (xix.)

This praise of the philosophical historian and censor of Homan
morals, is given in manner to point the contrast with the corrupt
manners of his own country. He had witnessed the effects of the
vices that had largely brought marriage into disuse, at a period when
Eome had been greatly depopulated by foreign and domestic wars;
an evil which Augustus had sought to remedy by bringing marriages
into credit by rewards and privileges, and celibacy into discredit by
disfavor and penalties; and the censures of Tacitus stand in accord
with those of Horace, and Juvenal, and St. Paul. In Asia the con-
dition of woman was that of constrained seclusion ; and, where not
under restraint in Southern Europe, she enjoyed to abuse her liberty;
led to do so by he who should have been the protector of her virtue.
It was only when Christianity met the uncorrupted manners and
better natural character of the uncivilized German nations, that came
together the fitting elements needed to reconcile the European freedom
of woman with her inviolate purity ; and to make woman and the family
instruments of the world's most perfect civilization and happiness. Yet
we must never forget that Rome in her better days had her Lucretia^
Cornelia, Portia, and even in evil times had her Agrippina, Arria, Cae-
cina, Fannia, Sophronia, Valeria, Paulina. Even then woman had the
glory of resisting the tide of corruption, as she soon after had the glory
of martyrdom in the establishment of the Christian faith, that was to do
more than restore her to her former virtue and influential position.

Greece, the most cultivated of ancient nations, placed woman in a
higher position than the Asiatics, yet placed her not so high as we
see her, as the trusted counsellor and friend of her husband, as well
as influential matron of the hou.sehold. "The wife is housewife and
nothing more," says Heeren. "Even the sublime Andromache,
after that parting which will draw tears as long as there are eyes
which can weep and hearts which can feel, is sent back to the
apartments of the women, to superintend the labors of the maid-
servants." " We meet with no trace of those elevated feelings, that
romantic love, as it is very improperly termed, which results from a
higher regard for the female sex. That love and that regard are traits
peculiar to the Germanic nations, a result of the spirit of gallantry,
but which we vainly look fur in Greece. Yet here the Greeks stand
between the East and the West. Although he was never to revere
the female sex as beings of a higher order, he did not, like the Asiatic,
imprison them by troops in a harem." (Heeren's Greece, 95.)

Price.] 2QQ [January.

In speaking of peoples having a Germanic origin, those of Eng-
land and Gaul are included, for these countries, before, as we know
after their historic ages, had no doubt received accessions, or suf-
fered conquests from the north of Germany, called the " womb of na-
tions." Tacitus conjectui'cd the Britons to have come from the neigh-
boring continent. "You will find," he says, "in both nations the
same religious rites, and the same superstition. The two languages
differ but little;" hesays,speaking of the Britons andtheGauls. (Life
of Agricola, Isi.) After the Roman armies had been withdrawn, and
the Picts and Scots made inroads, the Saxons, including the Ensiles,
who gave name to England, were called in from the north of Ger-
many; to whom succeeded the Danes, and afterwards the Normans,
all of whom sprang from the same prolific source. Normans, though
last from Normandy, meant Northmen ; as Germans meant r/e^-e-men,
or warmen ; a generic name that described, by their most striking
characteristic, the many peoples of Germany, who, under various
names, bore down upon every country of Western and Southern
Europe.

The Germans had no doubt a previous Eastern origin, since phi-
lology and other traces indicate tiiat the stream of population had
flowed from Central Asia, the real source of the German nations.
Whatever had been their original condition, the masses moved west-
ward, as hunting, pastoral, and warlike nations ; conditions incom-
patible with the jealous seclusion of women, which has always cha-
racterized Southern Asia. Under the necessity of sharing the toils,
hardships and dangers of husbands, fathers, and sons, who passed all
of life in moving camps, seclusion and effeminacy were not the traits
either of the sons of Tuisto or Odin, or of the daughters of Freya.
Exposed to common dangers, and liable to be separated from hus-
band and children by the fate of battle, and to become the slaves of
the conquerors, a fate more terrible than death, their anxieties quick-
ened their perceptions and foresight, and they became, beyond their
husbands, thoughtful, astute, prophetic of the future ; became their
assistants in battle, the nurses of the wounded, the providers for the
family ; man's truest friend and counsellor. Life then was nearly
a constant warfare; the soil was without fixed ownership; was
sparsely appropriated, but while the crop of the season should mature
and be gathered. By the law that sprang from their profound reve-
rence for woman and the marriage relation, the husband was allowed
no second wife to share with her his affections; nor was she permitted
to take a second husband even after his death. Under this stern

1864.] gQj^ [Price.

abstemiousness, so different from the husband of Asiatic habits, or
of Roman customs and manners, with their shockinp; facilities of di-
vorce, the trusted and faithful wife held a most influential place in
the family, as well as became a counsellor in public affairs. Hither,
then, and to this rude age, it is believed, we may mainly trace the
origin of that different treatment of women which has distinguished
Northern and Western Europe, during all her historic period, from
all the rest of the world, and which has largely contributed to place
that smallest of the four continents in the front rank of the world's
civilization; a sentiment and treatment which must continue to in-
fluence the world while the human race shall last.

It could not be otherwise than that woman should have attained
to an exalted influence among the ancient inhabitants of Germany,
when we further read from Tacitus how closely her ftite was allied
to her husband's and what was her participation in his achievements.
"They fight in clans, he says, united by consanguinity, a family of
warriors. Their tenderest pledges are near them in the field. In the
heat of the engagement, the soldier hears the shrieks of his wife and
the cries of his children. These are the darling witnesses of his con-
duct, the applauders of his valor, at once beloved and valued. The
wounded seek their mothers and their wives. Undismayed at the
sight, the women count each honorable sear, and suck the gushing
blood. They are even hardy enough to mix with the combatants,
administering refreshment, and exhorting them to deeds of valor.
From tradition they have a variety of instances of armies put to the
rout by the interposition of their wives and daughters again incited
to renew the charge. Their women saw the ranks give way, and
rushing forward in the instant, by the vehemence of their cries and
supplication, by opposing their breasts to danger, and by representing
the horrors of slavery, restored the order of battle. To a German
mind the idea of a woman led into captivity is insupportable. In
consequence of this prevailing sentiment, the states which deliver as
hostages the daughters of illustrious families, are bound by the most
effectual obligation." (Mannersof the Germans, vii, viii.)

When the migratory nations in and from Germany, became fixed
to localities by an appropriation of the soil and its use in agriculture,
under the feudal system, and subject to its military services, which
in England were only terminated by statute in 1660, the condition
of private families became the more secure, and more subject to the
meliorating influences of the mother, wife, and sister, so long as they

Price.] OQ2 [January.

were held in respect and honor ; and that they should be so held,
there were the concurring causes of marriage to one wife, the in-
herited reverence for the sex, and the power of the Christian faith.
This sentiment of loyalty to woman was the light and the life of the
nations through the dark ages; and when ignorant and brutal men,
in the security of their feudal castles, became the tyrants and op-
pressors of men and women, that sentiment was relumed with yet
greater brightness, and produced the ages of chivalry. Then brave
and thoughtful and humane men counted it their highest happiness
and honor to relieve oppressed innocence in the championship of the
honored sex. An enthusiastic sentiment, kindred to religious devo-
tion, filled the breasts of the orders of knighthood; and woman was
loved not only for what she was, but in the highest ideal that the
enkindled imaginations of men could form of her excellence; and
men and women were alike elevated in purity and character, as they
truly cherished these exalted sentiments. The transition was easy
and natural, and the chivalry of Europe became the crusaders of the
East ; then rejoicing both in a devotion to the ideal of woman's excel-
lence and to the Cross of Christ. The Council of Clermont, which
in 1095 authorized the first Crusade, formally recognized chivalry
by declaring, "that every person of noble birth, on attaining twelve
years of age, should take a solemn oath before the bishop of his dio-
cese, to defend to the uttern)ost the oppressed, the widows and
orphans; that women of noble birth, both married and single, should
enjoy his special care ; and that nothing should be wanting in him
to render travelling safe, and to destroy the evils of tyranny." Thus
did the church and religion lend their holy sanction to the high sen-
timent of humanity that gave life to chivalry. Yet observe, that
oath was limited in its special application to " women of noble birth !"
Better this than none; yet how narrow it seems in this age, and in
a Christian republic.

How much better the sentiment I once heard from a Swedish
artisan, who gave up his seat in the coach to take one on the top in
the rain, to accommodate a plain woman who applied for a passage:
"I always remember that my mother was a woman I"

Hallara, who thoroughly surveyed the history of the Middle Ages,
says, " I am not sure that we could trace very minutely the condition
of women for the period between the subversion of the lloman Empire
and the first Crusade; but apparently man did not grossly abuse his
superiority; and in point of civil rights, and even as to the inheri-

1864.] 3Q3 [Price.

tance of property, the two sexes were placed as nearly on a level as
the nature of such warlike societies would admit." (Middle Ages,
329.) It was a necessity of the military services to be rendered
under the feudal system, that the eldest son should be preferred to
the inheritance of lands held by military tenure. Hallam acknow-
ledges that " A great respect for the female sex had always been a
remarkable characteristic of the Northern nations. The German
women were high-spirited and virtuous; qualities which might be
causes or consequences of the veneration with which they were re-
garded." He should have said these qualities were both causes and
consequences of that veneration. He speaks of the spirit of gallantry,
cherished as the animating principle of chivalry, as due to the pro-
gressive refinement of society in the twelfth century, and he might
also have acknowledged it a cause to produce that refinement; for
by action and reaction, causes and effects for good or for evil, are of
perpetual reciprocal operation ; and hence the greater encouragement
ever to strive for the good, since effects ever become causes in a
ceaseless concatenation. Can we say less, when this our age rejoices
in the beneficent effects of a sentiment that pervaded the breasts of
our rude ancestors, two thousand years ago, in the forests of Germany ?
a sentiment then peculiar to them, and destined to become yet brighter
in their descendants, and to illumine more widely the world, if men
and women will but conceive and practise the highest excellence of
which they are capable.

It is in Heeren's philosophical reflections upon Greece, that we
find the truest expression of the source of European superiority over
all other nations, howsoever much we may differ or agree as to the
effect of climate or physical causes.

Similarity of climate does traverse the circumferences of the globe,
in all its different latitudes, though the same degree of temperature
follows waving geographical lines ; yet tlie habits and manners of
every people are diversified in degrees, much beyond all that can
justly be ascribed to the single cause of the presence of heat or cold,
clouds or sunshine ; and immeasurably beyond the single cause of
climate do the civilization, intelligence and power of the Europeans
and their American descendants surpass those of all other nations.
And, if all the causes of that difference be examined and considered,
it is believed that no single one, other than religion, can justly claim
an equal influence over the formation of character with that which
results from the European family, and woman's power in the family,
as there and here constituted.

Price.] 304 [January.

After adverting to the physical causes of climate, soil, and geogra-
phical configuration, and the disadvantages of being yet in the shep-
herd state of the Tartars and IMongolians, among unsubdued forests,
Heeren proceeds to ask, " But, can we derive from this physical diifer-
ence, those moral advantages which were produced by the better
regulation of domestic society ? With this begins, in some measure,
the history of the first culture of our continent. Tradition has not
forgotten to inform us that Cecrops, when he founded his colonies
among the savage inhabitants of Attica, instituted at the same time
regular marriages ; and who has not learned of Tacitus, the holy
custom of our German ancestors ? Is it merely the character of the
climate which causes both sexes to ripen more gradually, and, at the
same time more nearly simultaneously, and a cooler blood to flow in
the veins of man; or, has a more delicate sentiment impressed upon
the European a higher moral nobility, which determines the relations
of the two sexes ? Be this as it may, who does not perceive the
decisive importance of the fact? Does not the wall of division
which separates the inhabitants of the P]ast from those of the West
repose chiefly on this basis ? And can it be doubted that this bet-
ter domestic institution was essential to the progress of our political
institutions? For, we make with confidence the remark, no nation
where polygamy was established has ever obtained a free and well-
ordered constitution. Whether these causes alone, or whether others
beside them (for, who will deny that there may have been others ?)
procured for the Europeans their superiority, thus much is certain,
that all Europe may now boast of this superiority. If the nations
of the South preceded those of the North ; if these were still wan-
dering in their forests when those already had obtained their ripe-
ness, they finally made up for their dilatoriness. 'J'heir time also
came; the time when they could look down upon their Southern breth-
ren with a just consciousness of superiority." (Heeren's Greece, 8.)

It is believed that such philosophers as Buckle are quite too
limited in their conceptions, when they ascribe to material causes all
the differences of national character. These have truly modifying
influences ; but human sentiments, thoughts, traditions, law, song,
religion, may have yet greater eff"ect to form the character of na-
tions; that is, moral, mental, and religious causes may be more poten-
tial than the differences of the physical causes pervading the world.

The first inhabitants of Northern Germany, while in their pastoral
state, could not have been influenced by physical causes essentially
difi"erent from those which influenced their Mongolian relatives in

1S64.] 305 [Price.

Asia; the elevated table land of the latter giving them the lower
temperature that belongs to a higher latitude on the western side of
that hemisphere. That is, as we go westward, we go further north-
ward to keep in the same temperature, at the same elevation. The
climate being similar, and the mode of life the same, the religion of
both derived from the Indian mythology, and woman, necessarily the
exposed companion of man, while both pursued a nomadic life, living
in temporary huts, the physical causes operating upon the kindred
people of Asia and Europe, under the same temperature, could be
little different. Nothing can be pointed to as cause for the extraor-
dinary disparity of results, except a different religion during later
centuries, so significant as the German's high respect for woman,
with a single wife and mother in his family; while his ancestral
nations in Asia had no such exalted sentiment, or lost it, and con-
tinued to live in polygamy, with a liberty to divorce their wives at
pleasure : causes heightened in effect by the acceptance of Christianity
in Germany, and of Budhism, as the religion of Central Asia. From
the rude and warlike Goths, Vandals, Huns, Lombards, Saxons, all
parts of Europe have attained the highest and most intelligent civili-
zation known to the world, while the Mongolians and Tartars have
made no considerable advances in civilization since written history
has furnished her narratives. It is true, a milder climate and the
intermingling with civilized peoples in the south, helped the process
of amelioration ; but these causes could not operate in countries bor-
dering on the Baltic and the German Ocean, which had no influx
of people from the south ; where yet may be traced a profounder
respect for woman, and a more vigorous manhood than in the south
of Europe.

The sentiment of devotion to the sex ran highest in its profes-
sion in the ages of chivalry and romance. But this was not the whole-
some and practical condition of society, which we should recommend
as best adapted for woman's true welfare and the true interest of so-
ciety. Tournaments and courtly assemblages of the nobility were
not the best school of her training. All that glittered so brightly,
was not truthfully of intrinsic purity and value. Virtue is not best
preserved where a prince and nobility enjoy by law, or privilege, or
opinion, an immunity from the common responsibilities of men.
Kings, who legally could do no wrong, became the greatest wrong-
doers, and set examples to their courtiers, sure to be followed for
evil in all the gradations of society. It was in the middle rank of

VOL. IX. — 2p

Price J ,306 [January.

society, with its fewer temptations, that virtue chiefly took refuge ;
and it was there that woman fulfilled her most useful duties in the
family, and was held in highest regard. It is consequently in the
greater equality of a republic where her power can be made to be
most pervasive and useful ; and it is there that men and law should
do all that is practicable to aid her best influences, and to sustain
the conservative power of the family. Between a republican equal-
ity and a Christianity where all are equal in the Divine sight, there
is the highest congeniality, and these double potencies should here
place woman where she shall exercise her happiest influences.

The peoples of all Europe were virtually divided into classes, dur-
ing the middle ages, and are so yet. There existed kings and queens,
lords, nobility, gentry, and freemen, and yet another numerous class
who were not freemen, and were not comprised nor secured in the
rights of England's Magna Charta. These, and their children, be-
longed to their master, and all that they could acquire belonged to
him. They were bound to his person or estate, could be reclaimed
if they escaped, had no legal redress for wrongs done their persons,
and were compelled to do the lowest work, and perform the most me-
nial offices. They were called villeins, and were slaves of the same
color and blood as their masters. The name they gave to our lan-
guage signifies how they were regarded. It is obvious that their
condition was, as all slavery is, wholly hostile to the attainment of
the highest civilization, and to the best influences of the family rela-
tions, and that as regards both master and servant. This thraldom
gradually wore out, under the beneficent influences of Christianity,
and its last vestige disappeared under the first king of the line of
Stuarts. Our own Magna Charta declared all men free and equal,
and in terms made no distinction of class; yet was there an excep-
tion understood, and described in the Federal Constitution, of the
worst phase of slavery.

In the same ages that slavery was expiring, as an effiete institution,
in England, the merchants of the same British nation and some of
her colonists this side of the Atlantic, were busy in planting it in her
colonies, and we took it as an inheritance at our Revolution ; and with-
out its recognition, the Federal Constitution could not have embraced
all the original thirteen of the United States. It was taken by part
of the North as a hard necessity, while part voted for it. Its fruits
have always been inimical to the best education, and to pure morals
in the family, and are now felt in a bitter fratricidal war. Should

1864.] gQ'Y [Price.

it expire as a consequence of that war, it will relieve the Northern
conscience of a long-endured sense of national wrong.

That a people may be happy and virtuous, all must be of equal
civil rights, and of one grade, except as talents and culture and
virtue make individual differences; otherwise it is in human nature
that the favored class or classes will degrade and oppress those of
lower rank. Woman must be protected by severe laws in all her per-
sonal rights, as with us she is, and also by a sound public opinion.
Man must not, by law or public opinion, be suffered to have an im-
punity in trampling upon the weak, or of arrogating to himself more
of God's best gift to him, than the proportion provided by the Author
of nature. Slavery and polygamy are both incompatible with a just
equality of rights, and with human happiness, and are especially de-
structive of the virtue and beneficent influences of the family. They
are evils and wrongs, whose extirpation is always a question but of
the means and time of execution.

Marriage between one man and one woman, with fidelity to the
marriage vow, is the natural order from which man and woman de-
rive their fullest happiness, and society its best welfare. The equality
in the number of the sexes, through all the centuries of time, shows
the Creative purpose that but two should become the parents of the
family, and when but two, these have the highest incentives of mu-
tual effort for the welfare of the family, without the jealousies and
strifes and degradation incident to polygamy. United in affection
and counsels, each sustaining the courage and confidence of the other,
the two attain a success greater than the aggregate of their separate
efforts; their kindly feelings towards each other and their children,
have their natural exercise, and these are happiness; and they escape
the idiosyncrasies which sometimes make singular those who pass
unwedded through life.

Those temperate observances which belong to the family thus con-
stituted, save from the severe penalties that spring from a capricious
incontinence, and from a terrible disease, that seems to have been set
as a guard to vindicate the natural law of temperance, modesty, and
discretion. Population then increases faster, children are better
nurtured, more healthy and happy, and become better citizens, for
all social and industrial purposes, and for the support of the govern-
ment. The family, too, if fidelity be observed to its relations and
duties, saves man from his worst enemy, himself; saves him from
vices that extinguish his affections, vices that cannot be habitually
followed without turning his heart to stone. When celibacy and cor-

Price.] 3Qg [January.

ruption become the rule, the state is lost : Rome would not have
fallen before the barbarians, if the Roman people had not first been
diminished and weakened by the loss of the virtues that sustain the
family. Their frequent and unscrupulous divorces and transfers by
new mnrriafres were more cruel and demoralizing than an authorized
and regulated Asiatic polygamy.

The family constituted as we see it, is the most healthy and happy
arrangement, though susceptible of some improvement in the best,
and of great improvement in the many. There only is found a mu-
tual sympathy and support, many defences against the assailing evils
of life, to which separately its members would succumb. While
writing these pages I have received the Fourteenth Annual Report
of the Mission in the Insane Hospital of our city. The experienced,
faithful, and observant chaplain says, " We must remember that the
quiet comforts of home do much to keep in tune the harp of a thou-
sand strings. And this brings up the collateral thought that the di-
vine institute of the family builds a wall around the intellect as well
as the heart. The isolation of a homeless and unsettled life has
always done much to develop morbid mental conditions. The brains
which yield are not generally those of the toilinfr heads of families;
the detached in society succumb the soonest. We think the tables
of our institutions catalogue this result. Hence, whatever in our so-
cial habits inhibits the general prevalence of the matrimonial rehition,
adds to the harvest of alienated mind. A rational home culture will
soon depopulate our asylums; but when will this culture prevail
among us?" The Rev, Edward C. Jones, who thus speaks, then
adverts to the evil of a demand for wealth before the young will risk
settlement in life, instead of being mutually willing to live simply,
exertively, and happily, as the chief cause of discouragement of
marriages.

It is in sickness and sorrow, " when pain and anguish wring the
brow," that the home becomes indispensable to human cure and
preservation. One who writes forcibly from observation, and with
a humane feeling, though too often disposed to raise a veil that
modesty should forbid, says truly, "Nature has bound up life within
a triple and absolute tie. Man, woman, child : separately they are
sure to perish, and are only saved together." (Michelet.) And
many and sad are the proofs he gives in his own country, France;
that gayest and saddest country on earth ; whose celibacy, and mar-
riage with its sacred pledges unobserved, are alike productive of
immensity of misery. Paris is at once the centre of the world's

1864.] 309 • [Price.

most brilliant displays of wealth and fashion, and of the exhibition
of the most deplorable vice and misery; here in constant and closest
contact and shocking contrast. Her levity and brilliancy cannot
mask, and, therefore, but mock her woe.

The causes operative there to produce these results, should be
beacon warnings to us. There, though there be not legal slavery,
is every inequality of rank and wealth, with laws to perpetuate that
inequality. There has long been suffered an unhappy loss of re-
ligious faith, that has dissolved the sacred attachments of fiuiiily, and
made a jest of promises that should be regarded as holy. There
abound women more than can find honest employment and adequate
remuneration ; and many more men than can obtain wages to main-
tain themselves and family. These form not families, and know not
their salutary restraints, nor enjoy their conservative happiness.
Hence the same author says of his own nation, "Woman is no longer
esteemed for the love and happiness of man, still less for maternity;
but as an operative." Let us hope this is but the darkest side of
the picture, portrayed by one who, though painting from the life,
paints with strongly contrasting colors. Yet are there writers there
who have given us perfect portraitures of women, found even ia
France.

It is to the families of the commonwealth that nearly all of moral
training is to be traced. There the sentiments and principles of
religion are effectually cherished and enforced. There spring the
impulses of charity, that often surpass in contribution the aggregate
of the public revenues. There the sentiments that give tone to
public opinion are formed ; an opinion that makes and executes the
law, and guides the national policy. The families of society are the
ballast of the commonwealth, that preserves law and order, in the
midst of excitement and disorder, and restores tranquillity after a
state has been convulsed by violence and rebellion.

And does the Government demand soldiers for its defence under
tho.se circumstances which have occurred in all history, in a world
with elements of evil as well as good? It is in the families of the
commonwealth that they are to be found in greatest numbers, with
the best physical development, and best moral training; with pa-
triotism, loyalty, and intelligent efficiency. These bring with them
a double pledge of fidelity, in the love of the family, whose eyes are
upon them, and the love of country. These act under a sense of
duty that the homeless cannot know. Though war can only spring
from evil, and no war can ever arise where one party is not in the

Price] 310 [January.

wrong, to provoke or bring it on, we must admit individuals ma}',
nay, must, act under the most exalted sense of duty, when they peril
life for the love of their country.

Professor Peabody bears strong testimony to the value of the
family in this comprehensive summary. '< While Blial obedience
alone can train worthy subjects to the state, there are yet other as-
pects in which Government depends on the home-life, and is sus-
tained by the family relation, so that, for a homeless community,
anarchy or despotism would be the alternative. To an incalculable
degree the home instinct supplies (he place of law, supersedes the
harsher ministries of government, prevents crime, anticipates want,
divides and lightens burdens, which else no public organizations
could bear. The gravitation toward home is in every nation a
stronger force than its police and armies are or can be, and accom-
plishes many purposes of prime importance which they could in no
way fulfil. The few homeless members of a community are of im-
measurably more charge, burden, and peril to its constituted au-
thorities, than the overwhelming majority that have homes." As
much then as we should hold government and law in honor, and
cherish the sentiment of loyalty to it, we owe the like regard to that
smallest civil institution, the family; for without it social order could
not exist, government could not live, except it be as a despotic force,
to rule by military restraint the chaotic elements of an unorganized
people, preferring misrule, license, and disorder. Such people could
be no law or police to themselves.

To encourage the family and its beneficent influences, we must
discourage all that militates against it. All .systems of communism
that tend to loosen the ties of family, or to dissever those ties, or to
prevent the formation of families, are to be discountenanced as nor-
mal institutions. Indeed, from the nature of man, these can never
be the general order of society. Spartan citizens may he separated
from their families, and be trained to the endurance of self-denials
and hai-dships, and to the observance of secrecy, by the iron disci-
pline of a Lycurgus; and religious orders, fleeing from the world,
repentant of their sins, may carry their self-discipline and penitential
inflictions to the extreme of human endurance, as imposed by a head
inexorable as a Loyola; but surely these results will be attained at
the fearful sacrifice of all that is genial in social life, and of all that
can make this life a happiness to its posses.sor. Modern reform
communities may be formed with the good purpose to make life
more cheerful and happy, as we have seen a number in our day; to

]864.] 321 [Price.

obtain more economically the physical means of livelihood, with
iDore of literature, science, and social amusement. Yet soch a social
coniniunity is an artificial creation ; and not resting on a natural
basis, it is formed but for a transient existence, and then to expire.
There are always in these too many heterogeneous elements brought
together; and these have not the powerful family interests and affec-
tions to preserve harmony, or to produce reconciliation. Diversify
the employments, instructions, and amusements as yoo may, the
machine, if it moves smoothly, will move monotonously; and if it
will not move smoothly, the parts will clash; and in either way will
run down, without power to wind itself up.

There are, it is true, religious communities, enjoying celibacy,
which have an enduring existence. The deeply absorbing interests
of a common faith and worship, and sometimes more potently, per-
haps, persecution, holds them together. Their members are the ex-
ceptional beings who have renounced the affections and ties of the
world, as well as sought refuge from its temptations and trials; have
also renounced in part the affections of their own nature; and, ex-
cept as they can anticipate the joys of heaven, theirs seem to us to
be but as a semi-life, or a serai-death. Yet these institutions have
a mission on earth that is touching to the sentiment of humanity.
They are places of retreat for those stricken with sorrow ; those for
whom this world's flowers of hope are blighted, its fruits been turned
to ashes; foot-sore pilgrims, who, without joy in life, dare not antici-
pate that transition they so much desire. Here these may tranquilly
rest, and waiting, not only find the consolations of devotion, but in
their visitations of mercy to the afl^licted, or in the education of
youth, may become the best of human benefactors. Yet these must
be exceptional, or the world would not be peopled, nor souls be mul-
tiplied for earth or heaven. It is the family of parents and children
that we must look to as the true source of population, of moral and
educational training, and as the natural basis of society and good
government. God has instituted it, and it must so abide forever;
and we must care for its members as we would save society.

Have I seemed to place undue importance on the power of woman
and the fomily to advance the world's well being ? Listen then to
some of the world's eminent theoretical legislators.

Jeremy Bentham, in his Theory of Legislation says, " Marriage,
considered as a contract, has drawn woman from the severest and
most humiliating servitude ; it has distributed the mass of the com-
munity into distinct families ; it has created a domestic magistracy ; it

Price.] 2]^ 2 [January.

has formed citizens ; it has extended the views of men to the future,
through affection for the rising generation ; it has multiplied social
sympathies. To perceive all its benefits, it is only necessary to ima-
gine what men would be without the institution."

The Baron William Von Humboldt, formerly Privy Councillor of
State and Minister of Worship and Public Instruction in Prussia, in
his treatise on "The Sphere and Duties of Government," speaks
upon the subject in language more closely bordering on eulogy, and
ascribes to woman a higher ideal of human excellence, both in her
conception of it, and in her practical fulfilment of that conception.
He advises against governmental interference in the formation and
regulation of a relation so delicate as that of matrimony, which must
rest, to be successful of happiness, on mutual inclinations; though
the government be most deeply interested in population, and the
early training of youth. He says, "After careful observation, it has
been found that the uninterrupted union of one man with one woman
is most conducive to population ; and it is likewise undeniable that
no other union springs from true, natural, harmonious love." He,
while disclaiming the policy of the state's interference by law that
commands, to mould the arrangements that belong to nature's myste-
rious elective affinities and to the sacred precinct of the family, bears
his testimony to the fact, that " experience frequently convinces us
that just where law has imposed no fetters, morality most surely
binds." And as it is wise for the law to forbear the exercise of its
coercive power, so long as inclination and a sense of duty rule to the
end the law most desires, so the husband, with whom is the final
family authority, should forbear to interfere so long as the wife and
mother are, with adequate intelligence, performing the functions of
domestic rule, with a wiser government of blended authority and
affection than belong to his sterner nature. Of woman's fitness for
this high task he speaks in terms of glowing eulogy, surpassing those
I would think proper before this grave audience; for in her he be-
holds concentrated "each human excellence," " the whole treasure
of morality and order;" saying, with the poet,

"Man strives for freedom, woman still for order."

That "while the former strives earnestly to remove the external bar-
riers which oppose his development, woman's careful hand prescribes
that inner restraint, within whose limits alone the fulness of power
can refine itself to perfect issues ; and she defines the circle with more
delicate precision, in that every sense is more faithful to her simple

1864.] 313 [Price.

behests, spares her that laborious subtilizing which so often tends to
enmesh and obscure the truth, and enables her to see more clearly
through the intricate confusion of human relations, and fathom at
once the innermost springs of human being." This is modern German
testimony to an inherent quality in woman, from a highly cultivated
source, in a civilized age; yet in accord with that borne by Tacitus,
as to the ancestors of the same race, living on the same spot, nearly two
thousand years before, but then, by polite Rome, called " savage."

The Baron Humboldt is evidently speaking of a woman of superior
intuitions and culture ; and unless the wife and mother be of an in-
telligence and disposition to enable her to fulfil her domestic duties
in a successful manner, all that is here averred to be her appropriate
and beneficent power and influence will be without its assumed foun-
dation. We see then what should be the endeavor, that woman may
fulfil her mission to the world ; we may also see what this should be
by countless examples; examples which should be made the prevail-
ing examples, that society may attain its highest, happiest condition.
Of such, we may agree, the poet is not extravagant in description

and praise :

" A being breathing thoughtful breath,
A traveller betwixt life and death ;
The reason fair, the temperate will.
Endurance, foresight, strength and skill."

" With yet a spirit still and bright,
With something of an angel light."

Wordsworth.

And, elevating our views above the ordinary aifairs of life, it is in
the wife and daughter, with their higher susceptibility to a religious
faith, men find the most persuasive influence to believe and act as
they, with a purer purpose and more earnest hope ; since the fruits
are so surely demonstrative of the truth of their faith, in the practi-
cally seen beauty and happiness of holiness. Whatever may be the
difficulty or obstruction in the mind of the father of the family, none
who truly loves his children, and looks forward to their welfare
through life, and in its exit, but desires that they may possess the
pure and unhesitating faith of their mother; that they may the
better resist evil, and be sustained in trials, in sickness, and in death.
And it must be conceded that it is mainly in woman's more susceptible
sympathies and intuitive initiation in Christian truth, that she has
very often been a pioneer of Christianity and the world's civilization.
For one, I confess to the long-enter.i.ined belief, that if woman had

VOL. IX. — 2(i

Price.] 314 [January.

not been constituted with more humanizing tendencies and a more
trustful faith than man, religion could have had but little hold upon
mankind, and civilization would never have been. I say this with
the same deliberate carefulness of observation and thought, with
which the naturalist gives us the result of his careful observation of
what he describes in the animal kingdom.

The family is indeed a divine institution, and beneficent in all its
influences. The first thought of it, in the mind of virtuous youth, is
highly educational, by impulses that are of Creative origin. As
sui'ely as that the pulsations of life have been given by the Creator,
so surely must have proceeded from Him the emotions that conduct
to the connubial compact; and these are, or should be, elevating and
refining. Youth has a quick perception of the comely in person,
graceful in manners, and perfect in moral excellence, and beholds these
qualities to admire and emulate them. And what they admire the
two sexes seek to be, that they may be acceptable to each other.
This saves the young man from the peril of degrading association;
and it is under the influence of love, and in obedience to its requisi-
tions, that man is inspired to dare and achieve. It is by this that
the world receives in the great aggregate, its mightiest onward im-
pulsion. Man, nor woman, would ever struggle, strive and achieve
as we witness, but to be united in happiness and to maintain and ele-
vate the family in comfort, respect, and honor. Without the family,
society would lose more than half its industry and enterprise; the
nation much more than half its resources and reliance for the main-
tenance of order and of good government.

The law calls marriage a civil contract : it is not the less a religious
one, — religious, by the law of nature, and by the law divine. The
Holy Scriptures bestow upon it their highest sanction, and in all its
relations their terse and comprehensive commands. Have said of the
husband and wife, " They shall be of one flesh." Have given the
commands, " Husbands, love your wives ;" *' Wives, submit yourselves
unto your husbands." Have bid him remember that she is " the
glory of the man." They have said to the child, " Honor thy father and
thy mother;" to *' children, obey your parents;" to "fathers, provoke
not your children to wrath;" to servants, "count their masters worthy
of all honor ;" to masters, know " that your Master is also in heaven."
And Jesus called the little ones unto him, saying, "Of such is the
kingdom of heaven." Thus on every side all those who make the
family, are the objects of the Divine regard and protection. And on
this sacred authority, in living with our children, unless we have

1864.] 315 f^""^-

marred Heaven's highest gift, we are ah-eady loving those nearest like
unto celestial beings.

In considering the members of this little community, whose repe-
titions make the commonwealth, it is unprofitable to advert to the
often contested point of the mental superiority of the sexes; for each
is incomparably superior to the other, in the respective spheres of
action most obviously assigned them by their Creator. Without
their inherent differences the family could not be made up; would
not have its sustaining attraction and interest. These differences
make the accord of the whole. Without the husband performed the
duties for the flimily he is best fitted to fulfil, or, if the wife per-
formed not those she is best qualified to perform, they never would
be well performed; and without the beautiful relations which we per-
ceive to be harmoniously maintained under the influence of the affec-
tions, the family could not continue to exist ; and with the loss of
these domestic ties and relations, all that is most humanizing and
conservative of the welfare of the race would be lost. It is very
true, as Michelet says, "To educate a daughter is to educate society
itself. Society proceeds from the family, of which the wife is the
living bond."

Are we curious to consider the nature of the government that be-
longs to the family ? Let us try the comparison then between this
and other forms of government. It is not a monarchy; nor an aris-
tocracy ; nor a republic. True, the law regards the husband as its
head ; and in relation to law and to the political government, this is
generally his position. But in the family, happily constituted, he is
not king, nor sole ruler. The wife and mother must share his rule,
and must constantly perform many the most duties of that rule.
Yet, is she not queen; at least, not queen-absolute; for his authority
is paramount, if, unhappily, they differ. But she is more than queen-
consort ; for the government is not that which He intended who set
them in faniily, if their power be not conjoint and harmonious. If
the husband be wise, and wisely mated, the ostensible rule of the
family will be hers, who is most constantly present to regulate, order,
and compose all differences. She will, therefore, be more than queen-
regent; for she exerts, not a merely delegated, but her own author-
ity, as well as his ; with the advantage of his counsel in the execu-
tive council chamber of two ; where, indeed, he may have a veto
power, to be sparingly exercised. What she is, and what she will
do, if she be prudent and wise and exertive, the mother of King
Lemuel has inimitably described : "Her price is above rubies. The

Price.! 316 [January.

heart of her husband doth safely trust her." <' She openeth her
mouth with wisdom, and in her tongue is the law of kindness. She
lookcth well to the ways of her household, and eateth not the bread
of idleness." (Prov. 31.)

This domestic rule combines powers that would be most danger-
ous, if united in the hands of a single political executive ; of one
who combines the legislative, judicial, and executive authority. But
in the institution of the family, this concentration of powers is not
dangerous, as a general rule, while it must necessarily exist. They
are virtually in one ; for in their exercise, husband and wife must
act as one. Their dual reign must have the concert of unity of coun-
sel and of action ; will be tempered by the love of children and
their love of each other; and will be restrained by the ceaseless con-
sciousness towards the residue of the family, that they who are mas-
ters on earth, "have a Master in heaven." If these influences be
forgotten, the family is not that which God intended to set together;
and he who violates that intent, is traitor both to God and his own
happiness. lie who is despot in his f;imily, must expect that family
to reflect no joy to him. And many there are who perform their
moral obligations respectably well, who know not how much more of
happiness lies unelicited within their easy reach, for want of genial
and social attractiveness to wife and children ; whose happy social
sensibilities are chilled, or not drawn forth in those reciprocations
that give home its joys and life its purest happiness.

Pardon my having so long dwelt upon that which is obvious to
you all. It is with purpose to impress upon others, and women them-
selves, how available may be made their influence and that of the
family, for the advancement of human welfare and civilization. Evi-
dently, the Creator has intended the fulfilment of a higher mission
than man or woman has yet generally fulfilled. Countless are the
examples of exalted excellence and virtue in both ; but these are to
be multiplied everywhere and constantly. Yet will the moral safety
of mankind rest mainly with woman :

"Spirits are not finely touched
But to fine issues."

So said the master observer of the human heart. And finely touched
spirits can alone reach to touch and mould the tender and impressi-
ble heart of children, and leave upon it impressions that shall endure
through life, and after life. For that duty, neither the fether nor
the teacher will adequately suffice. Their ruder appliances and tern-

1864.] o-j^'j^ [Price.

per, the rude nature of the boy resists. It is the mother only that
can soften his rugged tendencies ; and she alone is fitted to guide
and impress the gentler sex. She alone has the patient endurance
to continue the task of saving the son she has borne, when bent on
vicious ways, hoping against hope, to save him from himself, for him-
self, for his family, and for his country; and to save him for that
family union hereafter, which she ever fervently prays may be com-
plete, no one missing. It is from her maternal solicitude and cease-
less efforts, thus undespairingly exerted; to her ministrations in the
first and best temple of worship, next to the purified heart, the home,
at whose altar she is priestess, that nearly all that is good may be
traced; and especially, that influence, that after many years of aliena-
tion, during which the heart has been pierced by many sorrows, will
bring back to the native hearthstone the prodigal son. That this is
her higher mission, and that she is better fitted for it than man, he
need not be jealous; for so the Creator has willed it, and it is for the
common good. Let it be his care to aid and never to thwart these
her efforts, for they spring from sacred impulses. Their spheres are
diverse ; and though his high duties be indispensable, hers upon
the family are the more important, and the eff'ects more enduring.
A more important and elevated sphere she cannot attain and seldom
should desire; and she descends from the highest when she attempts
to leave it, and not often attempts it without disparagement to her-
self. Yet woman is not to be too closely restricted to the indoor
round of domestic cares, especially after her children have grown to
an age to share them with her. Age often sets her free to fulfil the
mission to which her generous nature prompts. In many charities,
this nation and age, more than any other, have witnessed, how invalu-
able and devoted have been her self-sacrificing services, in behalf of
the uneducated, the insane, and the poor; of the sick, the wounded,
and the dying soldier. A censorious world must not, after this age
of sacrifices, be indulged in its too great jealousy of woman's strivings
to do all the good of which she is capable, to all human sufi'erers.
Her sacred purpose, and the good accomplished, must sanctify her
deeds in the breasts of all good men.

We are not disparaged, but exalted, and society and the nation is
exalted, when woman is held in honor, and is enabled to dispense her
best influences round us. An eloquent French author says truly, "If
we wish, then, to know the political and moral condition of a state,
we must ask what rank women hold in it. Their influence embraces
the whole of life. A wife; a mother; two magical words, compris-

Price] 3]^g [January.

ing the sweetest sources of man's felicity. Theirs is the reign of
beauty, of love, of reason. Always a reign! A man takes counsel
of bis wife ; be obeys bis mother ; he obeys her long after she has
ceased to live, and the ideas which he has received from her become
principles stronger even than his passions." Aime Martin, to write
thus, must have found good women in France; women to redeem
their country from our too severe censures.

The inductions to be made from these truths are plain, and the
duty the most imperative man can know, since the welfare of his
posterity, the prosperity of his country, the enduring happiness of all
human beings, are involved. Woman is to be trained with a fuller
appreciation in herself of her high trust, and of her capacity for good
or evil ; and if she be good and worthy of her trust, man is to learn
to confide in her generosity, to honor her, and to sustain her authority
for good, as something better and greater than his own. His children
are to be kept as much and as long under her control as possible,
even while they are obtaining their school and college education, and
under her influence for life. Women are to make home the happiest
place in the world, and husbands and sons are there to find their
happiness, and to cultivate kindness and the courtesies of life. If
sometimes they seek amusements abroad, wife and sisters should share
them. Let them seek no luxuries in selfish seclusion. Let this be
their general practice, and how many drinking and gambling houses
would there not cease to exist, and club-houses exist only for the cheer-
less unfortunates who have no family. Hotels would be for travellers ;
and haunts of vice, not to be named, would be few. The city at
night would sleep in peace, its silence unprofaned by inebriate brawl-
ers; prisons and almshouses become of diminished necessity. It is
the homeless and traitors to home that cause the chief public charge.
Then a public opinion could ari.se, now too feeble to suppress or re-
strict by law these sources of countless evils and sorrows, and woman
be often saved the most terrible calamities ever inflicted upon hu-
manity, and from which death only can relieve her.

It is not for us in America to boast of our advantages, but to ex-
press an overflowing gratitude for them, and leave examples that are
good to exert their silent and enduring influences upon other peoples.
We may not be boastful, for we yet see large room for improvement,
a,nd for the expansion of the good we witness. Yet may we rejoice
in the testimony borne of us by recent travellers of the highest in-
telligence, who have marked a contrast fiivorable to us as compared
with our parental nations of Europe. *' You may estimate the mo-

18C4.] 319 [Price.

rality of any population, when you have ascertained that of the
women; and one cannot contemplate American society without admi-
ration for the respect which there encircles the tie of marriage. The
same sentiment existed to a like degree among no nations of anti-
quity; and the existing societies of Europe, in their corruption, have
not even a conception of such purity of morals." (J)e Beaumont.)
"The marriage tie is more sacred among American workmen than
among the middle classes of various countries of Europe." (Che-
vallier.) " One of the first peculiarities that must strike a foreigner
in the United States, is the deference paid universally to the sex,
without regard to rank or station." (Lyell.)

Moral and religious influences have been dwelt upon as the sources
of the welfare of the family, and through the family, of society.
What, then, has or can the law do for the same object? It has done
much, and may do more; yet the main reliance must ever be upon
moral and religious influences that have their operation in the suscep-
tibilities of the human heart. Volumes of law have been written on
the domestic relations, defining the rights and duties of husband and
wife, parent and child, guardian and ward, and master and servant.
These are well and wisely written, yet have regard chiefly to property
and government; but law cannot reach to enforce the moral and re-
ligious sentiments from which spring the highest culture and truest
civilization.

The law has done much less than it might do, because public opi-
nion, that springs from culture and civilization, has not sufiiciently
advanced to enact and maintain the laws needed for human reform.
It is owing to this, that we have not laws adequately restrictive of in-
temperance, and do not enforce laws that exist against gambling and
other vices.

The ancient and existing statutes against vagrancy are the law's
assertion of the duty of every one to be a member of a family of
fixed locality, and it provides a public habitation for all that have no
home, — the Prison, Almshouse, or Refuge.

Law, public opinion, and the habits of our people, have been most
beneficially operative in building our City of Philadelphia in an adap-
tation to the separate residence of each family, and consequently most
favorably for the best family influences. Here is provided one house
for nearly every family, and of a size and expense convenient for
almost every family. When we consider that each house now built,
of whatever size, generally has all the conveniences for fire, gas,
water, and baths, and that in each may live a family upon the

Price.] 320 [January.

moderate earnings of the artisan, independently of every other
family, with more conveniences and comforts than the most wealthy
enjoyed less than half a century ago, it is with a pleasing and grate-
ful feeling that we contemplate the expansion of this largest city of
our continent. Its expansions, too, are not like those of some cities,
in narrow and uncleanly lanes and alleys, and by mean and neglected
dwellings, but on some sides by houses of superior architectural style,
and on others by rows of smaller dwellings, neat, cleanly, and com-
plete in comfort. It is much more a cause of satisfaction to reflect
that we have the largest city, with the best accommodations for its
hundred thousand families, than to have a population of a million or
more, compelled to live two or more families in a house. And the
law provides, by supervision of inspectors and the enactment of pen-
alties, that houses shall be substantially built, secure from fire, and
with ample adjoining space for the admission of fresh air. No more
narrow alleys or courts can be built upon for dwellings, nor any dwell-
ing house without an open curtilage of 144 superficial feet. In such a
city, when the old parts shall be rebuilt, there can be but few confined
places to breed physical or moral di-sease and contagion, or riot and
rebellion. To the providence of William Penn we owe it that public
squares aff"ord places of exercise and for fresh air to all families in
the centre of our city; and the Consolidation Act makes it the duty
of Councils to continue to provide them ; a duty that is not sufiiciently
regarded, but a duty that should be fulfilled by purchases, and not
by the arbitrary power of taking the property of the citizen at a price
to be fixed by strangers to him, whom he has not selected, and would
not trust.

The law has so provided for the education of children in our city
and commonwealth, that every one may be educated at the public
charge, without any expense to parents for books or tuition. So far
as school education can make good members of the family, and good
citizens, the law has provided the means, and parents are derelict to
their duty who do not make this resource available for the improve-
ment of their children. It is true the law does not coerce the at-
tendance of the children at the schools, yet it is well for negligent
parents to know that if their children prove vicious, for want of a
proper home and school education, the public has such a paramount
interest in them, and in their preservation from vagrancy, crime, and
cost to the community, that the law has provided for their being taken
charge of, to be better trained, protected, and educated, in the Chil-
dren's Homes and Houses of Refuge, whence, as from the Almshouses,

1864.] 321 fPriee.

they are bound apprentices in families, wbile other benevolent insti-
tutions and individuals are busy in promoting a juvenile emigration
to the West, of exposed and destitute children, there to be absorbed
healthfully and usefully into the respectable population of that teem-
ing region. The right of parental control is a natural one, but is
forfeitable when parents are derelict in duty to their children and the
community, and may be superseded by the jJarenspatr ice. (4 Whar.
Rep. 11.) It is under this principle, sanctioned by the Supreme
Court of the State of Pennsylvania, that vicious youth are placed in
the House of Refuge, to be removed from temptation, and put under
training and apprenticeship, to fit them for usefulness in society.

Parents should consider that they cannot think too highly of their
privileges and responsibilities in respect to the public provisions made
for the education of their children. None can say that within their
own little family may not be cast those minds who are to be the bene-
factors of mankind and the light of the world, and that as well in the
families of the poor as of the rich. " God is no respecter of persons."
Great, then, is the privilege available to all, to have the provided
means of developing the intellect that may afterwards self-achieve an
endless good and undying renown. No parents, poor or rich, can say
that there shall not be found among their little ones a future Augus-
tine or Fenelon, a Galileo or Newton, a Luther or Latimer, a Franklin
or Washington.

The law has long entertained the highest regard for the marriage
relation, and the welfare of the family. Its policy, derived from the
Roman civil law, is to encourage marriages, and the rearing of chil-
dren, that they may become a strength to the state. As a general
rule, the law in the disposition of property, permits of no legal re-
straint upon marriages, except during minority, and that only for the
advantage of the inexperienced and the immature in judgment.
Conditions annexed to legacies against marriage, are simply void,
and the legacies absolute. The law's policy regards with disfavor the
interference of any mercenary agency, and declares void all contracts
of marriage brokage. Its policy seeks that all influences shall be pure
that are to lead to a consummation so holy as marriage; one that so
much concerns the public welfare and private happiness. The law
desires that mutual affection, alone, should be its attraction; and then
there is a natural guarantee for the mutual happiness of the parents,
and a faithful nurture and education of the children of the Republic.
In this, as in all questions of wise public policy and pure morals, the

VOL. IX. — 2r

Price.] 322 [January.

ethics of the Judiciary are perfect, and their rule inexorably applied.
No man can successfully assert a claim in a court of justice through
a wrong, or gain a case that is against sound public policy, or is in-
fected by the taint of immorality.

While the law encourages marriages, its policy is not to encourage
thriftless and unhappy marriages. These do not attain its desire any
more than that of the parties concerned. It should be its policy, and
the present improving public opinion that will in the future dictate
its poli(jy is, that women shall so share in industrial pursuits, that
those single may both feel and be so independent as not to feel co-
erced, by circumstances, into unsuitable or improvident marriages.
To this end the philanthropy of our age and country is largely engaged.
The result will naturally be, that by making women more indepen-
dent in character and circumstances, they will not only be rescued
from a temptation to err, but be rescued from the dreary inanity of
want of occupation, and become objects more worthy to be made,
therefore more sure to be made, honored companions in lawful wed-
lock.

The common law of England was so much founded in a feudal and
military policy, and in the necessity of a single head to represent the
rights and duties of the family, that the legal existence of the wife
was considered as merged in that of the husband. In the law they
were one person, so that if lands were conveyed to husband and wife
and their heirs, the survivor, as the continuation of that person, had
the fee. By marriage the husband had an estate in the wife's lands
as long as both lived, and if they had issue, he had a life estate, to
continue after her decease, by the curtesy of England; and by mar-
riage he became owner of her personal property. All this has been
defended and maintained down to a recent date, as requisite to the
necessary authority to be maintained in the head for the welfare of
the family; but it assumes that the wife could not be trusted to exer-
cise a sound discretion, or possess that affectionate interest in the
welfare of all the members of her family, to induce her to make a
wise disposition of her revenues for their common advantage and ad-
vancement. There are many instances where such distrust will be
justified, but they are the instances to be avoided by wise and dis-
creetmen, who are seeking the wife to be the mother of their children.
As the rule, it may be assumed that the wife and mother will be ever
ready to give her income for the family wants, and is often but too
ready to yield the capital also. The vicissitudes of business are
such that it often occurs that the wife's property affords the happily

1864.] 323 [Price.

retained resource for rearing the family in respectability, when the
husband's property has been swept away by the resistless tide of a
commercial crisis, or, perhaps, been lost by his own indiscretions,
not to say, his vices. Experience teaches, as the rule, that the wife's
property should be settled to the separate use of herself and children,
with such control over it, after her death, vested in the surviving
husband, as will hold a worthy father in the respect of his children,
and give him a salutary control over them.

Deeds of settlement, or trusts created by will, in times past, held
the wife's property to her separate use; and these are yet the only
safe reliance. It is true, recent legislation, in many of the States,
declares that her property shall remain hers after marriage as before,
and be subject to her own disposal by will, to which he must not be a
witness, and it is not liable for his debts, during her life. This is
well; yet is she expo.sed to an undue influence, and a coercion that
the magistrate cannot probe. She cannot convey her property by
deed without the husband joining with her, nor without herself un-
dergoing a separate judicial examination. That is, she is not to convey
without him, that she may have his protection against the imposi-
tion of others; nor without the judicial examination sepai'ate from
him, that she may have the magistrate's protection against her
husband's quite possible undue influence. The proceeds of the sale
she may give to him in the absence of a trust. Each can dispose of
his or her property separately by will, but with this exception, that
the will of a husband is subject to the widow's right of election to
reject the will, and in lieu of its provisions, take one-third of his real
estate for life, if he leave issue, and one-third of the personalty for-
ever; and if he died without any issue, her right of election will ex-
tend to one-half of his estate for such durations of time ; and the
wife's power of disposition of her property by will, is subject to his
estate for life in the whole of her realty, and to his right to take in
lieu of curtesy such share of her real and personal estate as she could
have taken of his real and personal estate; that is, one-third or one-
half, accordingly as she left issue or not, and for the same duration,
of time. But her property held in trust would only go according to
the limitations of the trust; or to the dispositions made under the
powers expressly reserved or given to her by the trust instrument.
A firm trustee is a great assistance to her in the preservation of her
property, if her dispositions be required to be made with his consent.

It has been the good fortune of the writer to be enabled to effect
legislation, to some extent, for the further benefit of the wife and

Price.] 324 [January

family. It is now the law of Pennsylvania, that whensoever any
husband, from drunkenness, profligacy, or other cause, shall neglect
or refuse to provide for his wife, or shall desert her, she shall have
all the rights and privileges of a /erne sole trader; that is, shall have
ability, as a single woman, to make contracts and carry on business;
and her property, real and personal, shall be subject to her free and
absolute disposal during life, or by will, without any liability to be
interfered with, or obtained by such husband, and in case of her in-
testacy, it shall go to her next of kin, as if he were previously dead.
The mother is substituted to his former rights over their children,
and she is to assume his duties; place them in employment and receive
their earnings, and bind them apprentices; provided she be worthy
of the trust, and the Court shall decree her this independent status;
otherwise the (^ourt is to appoint a guardian for the children. And
no such husband, who shall have refused to provide for his children,
for the year preceding his death, shall have the right to appoint for
them a testamentary guardian. (Act of May 4, 1855.) Again, it
had been tlie hardship of a deserted wife, that her own earnings might
be recovered by her worthless husband; and he might himself be, or
prompt another to be, her defamer, and yet she could maintain no
action for redress, without its being in his name and subject to his
control; for remedy whereof it is enacted, that the deserted wife, in
case of defamation, or suit for her earnings, may maintain the action ;
and if her husband be the defendant in an action of defamation, she
may sue in the name of a next friend. (Act April 11, 185(3.) Thus
the unworthy husband and father may forfeit his high position, and
the worthy wife replace him in it. This righteous legislation came
only after ages and centuries of injustice and wrong, and so far as
known to the writer, only yet exists in one of these States.

It is the unhappiness of some persons, married and unmarried, to
have no children on whom to bestow their care and a^ffections, while
others have more than they can conveniently provide for and educate;
and there are often orphans without relatives to provide for them. It is
provided by a section of the Act of 1855, that persons, by certain
judicial proceedings, may adopt a child or children, and give them
their names and all the rights of heirs, and the parties become, with
reciprocal claims and rights, subject to all the duties of parents and
child. This law may often fill a void in the fluuily needful to its
happiness, tend to equalize the blessings of life and fortune, and
prove of inestimable advantage to orphans and other children desti-
tute of provision. The natural parental and maternal love unblessed

1864.] 325 [P"'^^-

by oifspring may tluis be satisfied, and life become a higher blessing
to the adopting parents, by the consciousness of doing a present and
future good, to unprovided and helpless children.

As great as are the advantages of marriage, and sacred as are its
ties, the law cannot do less, from sheer humanity, than relieve the
innocent party by divorce, when the other has so grievously violated
the conditions of the compact, as to make the continuance of the
relation a participation in guilt, or so oppressive as to make life bur-
densome or an intolerable slavery. The wrong would in such case
be, to coerce a cohabitation, when it would be productive of conse-
quences precisely the reverse of those intended by the institution.
If either party has, by vicious habits, alienated hira or herself from
the duties that he or she engaged to fulfil, and has violated the solemn
marriage promises and obligations, he or she is no longer one joined
by God, but is already dissevered; therefore, the law says, as to
those whom the Lord doth not longer join together, let man put
asunder. In ancient times, except among the German nations, the
husband generally divorced the wife at his pleasure or caprice, by
himself giving her a writing of divorcement; a power permitted the
Jews by the law of Moses, as our Saviour said, because of the hard-
ness of their hearts; but in Christian countries the power is only
exerted by law, for causes reciprocally operative against a husband
or wife, who has forfeited the marriage rights by a violation of its
duties.

But, I repeat, it is not to law so much as to other influences that
we are to look for human improvement through the family. These
must be moral and religious influences. And is there not in these
a philosophy fittingly to be spoken of in this Hall ? The science that
teaches us how to live and how to die must be the most important of
philosophies; and the science is as sure and logical in its laws of
cause and eflPect as any other science; and is so much the more im-
portant than any other, that it the most nearly concerns human hap-
piness. It may be said, perhaps truly, that there can be little or
nothing that is new to be disclosed in morals and religion. Though
that should be conceded, one thing remains to bo certain, that as long
as we live we can always be advancing towards that standard of per-
fection, that we are bidden to strive to attain; a standard that we
may but hope to approximate; a measure of improvement which the
most civilized nation has nut yet half fulfilled. From this delin-
quency the recovery must mainly be through the better training and
education of the family.

Price.] 32(3 [January.

But following from habit and example in the steps of our prede-
cessors, we take too little thought of the capacities of improvement
in ourselves and families. And though there seems to be little scope
for an increase of learning in morals and religion, there is always
great room for practical improvement. P^aeh individual may cease-
lessly increase his knowledge and improve his social manners and
affections; and multiply the applications of known truths; and in
every step of this progress other truths will dawn upon the mind
with ceaseless increase of light and of the joy of life. Let not
then the familiarity of the subject make us forgetful of the duty of
observation, reflection, and advancement, in this small, ever present,
and always interesting centre, but of ceaselessly expanding influence
and power, the family.

In dwelling upon this familiar subject I have been led to consider
how prone are mankind to overlook the significance of things most
commonly present to them ; and though the subject in hand may not
admit of scientific discovery, yet the moral consequences to result
from a better understanding of it, may so far surpass in practical
benefits the most brilliant discoveries in physical science, as to make
our labors in this field of practically the greatest importance to man-
kind. Physical discoveries are always most valuable ; and if seemingly
for nothing else, are so in the discovery of the Creative wisdom; but
in practical purpose rise in importance as they minister to human
welfare. Let us illustrate by a few instances how blind mankind
have been to things the most familiar to them ; as to which philoso-
phers, some of them our predecessors in this Society, have made
discoveries which have conferred glory upon their names and upon
philosophy. All men, through all the lapse of time since men peo-
pled the earth, had beheld the light with adnuration, praise, and
even worship ; but thought it a simple element, until Xewton ana-
Ij'zed its rays into the prismatic colors, although they had seen their
prismatic separations as refracted by the atmosphere, before the rising
and after the setting of the sun of every unclouded day, through all
the ages of human existence. Men had always breathed this atmo-
sphere, upon which we hang at every moment for its life-giving in-
spiration, and in all time they had supposed it to be another simple
element, until our Dr. Priestley, in but the past generation, separated
its simpler elements, and found one of its gases to be that which
sustains alike combustion and life; the other to dilute that burning
oxygen that else would destroy all life. The water, which all men
drank as another necessity of life, they supposed to be another ele-

1864.] 327 [Price.

ment of nature, given as the conquering enemy of fire, was also
divided into its constituent gases, and these, as recombined by the
compound blowpipe of our Dr. Hare, produced a heat hotter than
the thrice heated anthracite furnace. The lightning, which all man-
kind, of all ages, had beheld with wonder and superstitious awe, as
it flashed through the skies, leaping from cloud to cloud and from
heaven to earth, detonating in stunning thunders, was proved by our
Dr. Franklin, as he drew it harmlessly from the sky, to be elec-
tricity; and now men make it bear their messages of bu.siness and
command, with the lightning's speed, over this globe. And we see
it, in this our day and country, performing duties of mightiest po-
tency, since from the central capital it carries the commands that
move the distant armies spread over our wide continent, in that con-
cert of action that insures victory and safety to the legitimate Go-
vernment of the nation.

These are discoveries most interesting, most useful, most brilliant;
and no such discovery and renown can reward the reflections of hiui
who devotes himself to the social, moral, and religious improvement
of his fellow men. Yet let not the legist, moralist, or the preacher,
be discouraged, but console himself in this, that whatsoever good he
may do shall achieve a success in a domain of yet higher import than
all physical discoveries ; that he may elevate the moral standard of
humanity, and create a virtue and happiness that shall belong to two
existences. If mankind shall fail in these, then will they fail in the
highest purpose of the Creator, and make creation itself a failure.
If this shall be the event, what then shall import all wealth, all
power, all science, all knowledge? what this air we breathe, this earth
we tread, and all its fruits ; its bright waters, its glorious light and
electrical coruscations; all that shall sustain all life, and all that shall
yield to the physical philosophers their rich harvests of glory ? They
become worthless all, if man shall betray his highest trust and fall.
If man prove worthless, these are worthless all ! Truly, then, there
is a philosophy that transcends and comprehends all other philoso-
phies, the philosophy that teaches man how to live and how to die.

On motion of Mr. Fraley, Mr. Lesley was chosen Libra-
rian for the ensuing year.

The Standing Committees for the year were then appointed,
as follows :

Committee on Finance. — Mr. Fraley, Mr. J. F. James, Mr.
Powel.

328 [February.

Committee on Publication. — Dr. Bridges, Mr. T. P. James,
Dr. Ed. Ilartshorne, Prof. Coppee, Dr. Wistar.

Committee on Hall. — Mr. F. Peale, Judge Kina;, Prof.
Coppee.

Committee on Library. — Dr. Bell, Rev. Dr. Stevens, Dr.
Coates, Mr. Price, Rev. Mr. Barnes.

The list of surviving members was read, and corrected by
the announcement of the death of Prof. Joseph S. Hubbard.

Summavi/.

On the List, Jan. 7, 1863, U. S., 255, Foreign, 136

Elected in the year 18G3, U. S., 24, " 16

Deceased reported in 1863, ..... U. S., 12, " 4

Number of members, Dec. 31, 1863, U. S., 267, " 148

Pending nominations, Nos. 506, 507, and new nomination
508, w^ere read.

The Society then proceeded to ballot for members, and the
ballot boxes being opened by the President, the following per-
sons were declared duly elected members of the Society.

Prof. A. Morlot, of Lausanne, Switzerland.

Prof. Thomas Chase, of Haverford, Pennsylvania.
And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, February 5, 18G4.

Present, twenty-one members.

Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.

Letters accepting membership were received from Prof.
Thompson, dated Copenhagen, November 11, 1863, and from
Prof. De Koninck, dated Liege, January 15, 18G4,

A letter was read from the Royal Society, dated London,
January 7, 1864, requesting the co-operation of this Society
in completing or making as perfect as possible the Catalogue

1864.J 329

of Scientific Memoirs, for some time in course of preparation
by the Royal Society, and now nearly ready for publication.
A list of Journals and Transactions of societies included in the
Index accompanied the letter.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of publications were
read from the London Geological Society, November 4, 1863;
the Royal Astronomical Society, London, October 17 ; the
Scientific Commission of the Royal Zoological Society of
Amsterdam, August 25 ; Mr. Troyon, of Lausanne, August
7; the Royal Academy at Turin, August 11, and the Royal
Saxon Society at Leipsig, October 10, 1863.

Letters announcing or accompanying donations for the Li-
brary were received from the Harvard Observatory, January
20, 1864 ; the Royal Geological Society, London, November
20, 1863; the Royal Zoological Society at Amsterdam, Au-
gust 25; the Royal Saxon Society, Leipsig, August 22 and
29, and the Imperial Academy at Vienna, August 25, 1863.

Donations for the Library were announced from the
Academy at St. Petersburg ; the Central Russian Observa-
tory ; the German Geological Society ; the Royal Saxon
Society ; the Imperial Geological Institute and Imperial
Academy at Vienna; the New Astronomical Society at Hei-
delburg; the Royal Zoological Society at Amsterdam; the
Geographical Society, and M. Delesse, at Paris ; M. Des
Moulins, of Bordeaux ; The Royal Academy at Turin ; the
Royal Society, Royal Institution, Royal Astronomical, Royal
Zoological, Chemical, and Linnean Societies, and Society of
Arts, of London ; the Bath Agricultural Society ; the Royal
Dublin Society ; Harvard College ; Mr. G. P. Bond ; the Ameri-
can Academy ; the Boston Society of Natural History ; the
American Journal of Science ; the Academy of Natural Sci-
ences ; Mr. F. Leypoldt, Messrs. Blanchard and Lea, and
Mr. Isaac Lea, of Philadelphia; Mr. T. U. Walter, of Wash-
ington, and Mr. A. S. Taylor, of San Francisco.

Donations of photographs for the Album were reported as
follows : two of Richard Lepsius, one of L. De Koninck, one
of David's bust of Humboldt, one of J. F. Encke, one of M.
Troyon, one of Leopold Von Buch, and one of M. Delesse.

VOL. IX. — 2s

James.] 330 [February

Mr. Price continued tlie reading of his communication upon
" The Family as an Element of Government."

Pending nomination No. 508 was read.

The letter of the Secretary of the Royal Society was then
considered, and on motion, the subject was referred to the
Secretaries, with power to act.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, February 19, 1864.

Present, fifteen members.
Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from Thomas
Chase, dated West Haverford, February 18th, 1864.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of publications were re-
ceived from the German Geological Society, Berlin, Novem-
ber 5th, and the University of Toronto, February 8th, 1864,
and a photograph of Mr. Fraley for the Album.

Donations for the Library were received from the Vaudois
Society of Sciences, and the Museum at Cambridge, Massa-
chuserts.

An obituary notice of Dr. Darlington was read by Mr. T.
P. James.

AN OBITUARY NOTICE OF DR. WILLIAM DARLINGTON,

Read before the American Philosophical Society, February 19th,
18G4, BY Mr. T. P. James.

The usual reproach charged upon scientific men, of unfitness for
the duties of practical life, cannot be urged against the subject of this
sketch, for versatility of talents, joined with great executive ability,
caused his opinion to be eagerly sought for, and his judgment highly
valued.

William Darlington in early life had few educational advantages ;
possessing, however, energy of character and great perseverance, he
was enabled by his fondness for study to enrich his mind with lore
from the writings of the best authors in most of the ancient and
modern languages. He had the rare faculty of improving every

1864.] 23]^ [James.

opportunity for acquiring knowledge; his childlike humility was
apparent even in advanced age, and he never felt himself too old to
learn or too wise to accept the gleanings of other minds.

When we consider his kind and benevolent disposition, social
habits, and genial manners, it is not surprising that his loss is deeply
mourned by numerous friends, and a large circle of acquaintances
and correspondents, not only in this country but in Europe.

He was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society
forty years ago, and was among the oldest surviving members. His
life-long devotion to science and important public services have
rendered his name honored and his memory deserving a tribute of
respect.

Our attention will be chiefly directed to his character as a botanist,
for it is that side of his full-orbed life which is most interesting to
us, and by which he has been most widely known.

Some knowledge of his history and early life may be gleaned from
the following extract from a manuscript autobiography in my posses-
sion, and will serve to illustrate the preceding remarks :

" 3Iy great grandfather, Abraham Darlington, was a contempo-
rary of William Penn ; and being of the same religious persuasion,
followed him to his province of Pennsylvania near the close of the
seventeenth century.

" He first settled near Chester, a village on the right bank of the
River Delaware, and the oldest town in Pennsylvania. His letters
from his parents in England are dated from Darn Hall in Cheshire.
He afterwards removed to the banks of the Brandywine, our classical
stream in Chester County, where he continued to reside until his
death. His son Thomas, my grandfather, married Hannah Brinton,
the daughter of a Quaker family, which also came with Willianj
Penn. Their eldest son, Edward Darlington, my father, was married
to Hannah Townsend, daughter of another old English family of
Quakers, which had sought a refuge in Penn's province.* I was
born on the 28th day of April, 1782, and so far as I can trace my

* It would not be inappropriate here to allude to an occurrence of recent date,
the sesqui-centennial gathering of the clan Darlington, which rallied at East
Bradford, Chester County, the residence of Brinton Darlington, grandson of
the first American progenitor, on the 20th August, 1853, at the call of some of
the elders of the tribe, where nearly four hundred, old and young, assembled at
the appointed time and enjoyed the happy reunion. On which occasion it was
ascertained that the total number of descendants of Abraham Darlington amount-
ed to one thousand five hundred and twenty-four.

James.] g^2 [February.

ancestry on both sides, I may say that my blood is purely Anglican,
without a cross.

" My father inherited a farm from his maternal grandfather. It is
situated in the Township of Birmingham, five miles south of West
Chester, about midway between the two localities on which the
battle of Brandywine was fought. On that farm I was born and
brought up until I nearly completed my eighteenth year. I was the
eldest son, and being designed for a farmer, I was put to all sorts of
agricultural labor as I became capable of it. I was not permitted to
go to school, except in the winter season, after I was thirteen years
old; and yet I manifested at an early age a much greater fondness
for books than hard work !

" My mother taught me to read while I was quite young; and I
recollect often hearing the dear old lady tell the neighbor women
that her Billy had read the Bible through before he was six years old.

"Before I was eighteen I had conceived such an aversion to the
uninteresting drudgery of the farm, and felt such a desire to engage
in some kind of study or scientific pursuit, that my father consented
to let me study medicine, which was the profession I selected, on ac-
count of its connection with the most interesting natural sciences.

"Accordingly, on the 1st of April, 1800, I commenced the study
of medicine, in Wilmington, Delaware, with Dr. John Vaughan, a
respectable physician of that place. In the autumn of that year
I began the study of the French language with an accomplished
scholar.

" In 1802, I became conscious of a taste for botanical researches,
which was awakened by the perusal of Darwin's Botanic Garden,
but there was no one then in Wilmington to aid me, and I made
little progress. In the autumn of that year, Wilmington was visited
by the malignant yellow fever; such was its mortality and the con-
sefpient dismay, that all the physicians, except my preceptor, inglori-
ously fled; he, and I, his humble student, were the only medical per-
sonages who staid to attend the sick ; we persevered through an ar-
duous and anxious sea.son, and were mercifully favored to escape the
disease.

" In November, 1802, I repaired to Philadelphia, to attend the me-
dical lectures in the University of Pennsylvania, where I was favored
to become familiarly acquainted with Prof. B. S. Barton, who dis-
covering in me a considerable fondness for the study of plants, took
nie under his special patronage, and by his kind attention and in-
struction gave a decided bias to my future pursuits. A society was

1864.] 333 [James.

formed that winter, called the x\nieriean Liiintean Society, of which
Prof. Barton was president, and it did me the unexpected, not to say
unmerited honor, of enrolling me amonir the members.

" At the conclusion of the course of lectures, T returned to the office
of my preceptor in Wilmington, where I passed the summer in his
service, but in the following November, went again to Philadelphia,
to attend my second course. I became a member of the Philadel-
phia Medical Society, and applied myself diligently to prepare for
the degree of Doctor of Medicine, being the first candidate from
Chester County, so far as I know, who had then aspired to that
honor.

" I passed a satisfactory examination for my degree, in March, 1804,
and as the commencement that year did not take place until the be-
ginniisg of June, I remained in the city to prepare and print my in-
augural thesis, and especially to attend a course of lectures on Bo-
tany, by Prof. Barton.

" The Professor occasionally took his small class to the Bartram
Botanic Garden, to illustrate practically some of his teachings, and
these were my earliest visits to that interesting spot. William Bar-
tram and John Bartram, Jr., were then living there, and distinctly
do I recollect the venerable men, though I little dreamt I should one
day have so much to do with the history of the family.

" The candidates for the medical degree of Doctor were publicly
examined before the Trustees and Faculty of the University, on the
merits of their several Theses.

"The subject of mine was, the ' Mutual Influence of Habit and
Disease.' It fell within the province of Prof. Hush to examine it.
As I had the good luck to advocate the favorite doctrines of the Pro-
fessor in that essay, I got off very handsomely. Instead of putting
me on the defensive, as several of my companions had been, the
Doctor called me up, and addressing the Trustees and Faculty said,
'■ This dissertation, gentlemen, is a succes.sful application of meta-
physics to the practice of physic. I have read it twice through with
attention, and have no objection to make to it.' I then had nothing
to do but make my bow and sit down. A very talented gentlemau
from Virginia, vastly my superior, who sat immediately before me,
and had just been severely questioned on some of the doctrines of
his thesis, turned round and laughingly asked, ' Darlington, is that
what you call defending your thesis V On the following day I re-
ceived my diploma, and returned to my father's dwelling to reside,
after an absence of four years. Here I loitered away my time in a

James.] S^4: [February.

limited country practice, and in the study of Latin, for, when I re-
ceived my diploma, I could not read a word of it, and my pride was
piqued and my ambition excited to get rid of that opprobrium. I
took lessons of a private tutor for a few weeks, and then set to work
myself until I made considerable progress. Thus I passed my time for
two years, moping in rural solitude over my grammar and dictionary,
when not riding to see a patient ; but I became discontented with my
humdrum existence as a country practitioner, and at length resolved
to abandon my rustic home for a life of more excitement and interest.
I therefore engaged myself as surgeua of an East India ship bound
to Calcutta. After a long and tedious voyage of five months in a leak-
ing ship we landed safely at Calcutta. I went ashore to reside, and
being curious in the study of language, I procured a grammar and
forthwith commenced the acquisition of the spoken jargon, as it is
termed, of Bengal. We remained two months in port, during
which time I spent two delightful days in the East India Company's
Botanic Garden, and made the acquaintance of Dr. Wallich, its di-
rector, the well-known botanist. After an absence of thirteen months
I reached my native land."

Some years after his return, be prepared, from his journal and me-
mory, an account of his India voyage, in a series of letters from Cal-
cutta, which may be found in the 13th and 14th volumes of the
Analectic Magazine.

Dr. Darlington in his younger days was a man of social habits,
and a cheerful companion in the several societies of which he was a
member, and much given to poetry and rhyming. Many of his songs
were written for the amusement of his avssociates, and, as he had a
good voice, were always sung by him with edat. A number of these
rhymes found their way to the public in the periodicals of the day.

On the 1st of June, 1808, he married Catharine, daughter of
General Lacey, of New Jersey, an officer of the Revolutionary War,
and settled in West Chester, at that time a small hamlet, to practise
medicine, in which pursuit he was succe.ssful, and maintained a high
position in the profession. For self- improvement he studied the Ger-
man language under a private tutor, and soon acquired a knowledge
of German literature.

In 1813, he began to devote more especially his leisure houi-s to
botanical investigations, with a view of preparing a catalogue »>f the
phaenogamous plants growing in the vicinity of West Chester, but
his peaceful occupation was interrupted by the war then raging with
Great Britain, and although educated in the tenets of the Society

1864.] 335 [James.

of Friends, he became imbued with the spirit of a soldier and actu-
ally took up arms in defence of his country, and rose to the rank of
major of a regiment. Having acquired a military taste, he aided
in keeping it alive among his associates. A few years later he was
elected a lieutenant colonel of a battalion of volunteers, and after-
wards colonel of a regiment, and commanded the escort to General
Lafayette on his visit to Chester County and the battle-fields of
the Brandywine. During his military ardor his muse took a pa-
triotic flight, and his effusions were much in vogue in those stirring
times, and served greatly to elicit enthusiasm among the yeomanry of
Chester. Their gatherings were elivened with many of his songs.

While serving in the field he received notice of his election to the
national legislature. Soon after taking his seat as a member of the
14th Congress, he composed and sung, at a dinner given on the 8th of
January, 1816, by the Pennsylvania delegation, to Commodores De-
catur and Stewart and Captain Biddle, of the Navy, the *' Yankee
Tars," — a song commemorative of our naval victories, and historic
of the deeds of the brave men of that day. This song was published
in the leading journals, and received merited encomiums.

Dr. Darlington was re-elected a member of Congress in 1818, also
in 1820, and ever faithful to his trust, was rarely absent from his
seat.

He made a memorable speech in favor of restricting slavery in the
State of Missouri, as preliminary to her admittance as a member of
the Union, which was published in the National Intelligencer, and
in Niles's Register, where he remarks, it is preserved "like a fly in
amber." This speech did infinite credit to his head and heart, and
was a subject on which he ever felt strong convictions of the truth
of his views.

In recent exciting events he took a lively interest, and at the out-
break of the rebellion his loyalty to the Union was strongly manifested,
in bringing his entire influence -to bear in upholding the position of
the Government, and he remarked, that had he been younger, he
would again have unsheathed his sword in defence of his country.

In the summer of 1817 he began in earnest to prepare his work,
and at the suggestion of his friend, Dr. Baldwin, to collect an her-
barium of the plants of Chester County, as an indispensable means of
determining the species; but his attention was much diverted from a
vigorous prosecution, by various trusts and public services. Still, his
duty to his first love would prevail, and lead him back to his agreea-
ble labor.

Jamea. ^^Q [February,

Although he commenced the Enumeration in 1813, it was not fully
elaborated for the press until the winter of 1824-25. Its issue was
retarded, in the meantime, on account of the appearance of Pursh's
valuable Flora, and subsequent publication of Nuttall's excellent
work on the North American Genera, but more especially of Dr. Bar-
ton's Flora Philadelphica, which latter comprised the greater portion
of the plants of his district ; all seeming to him to supersede the
utility of his project, and, for a time, he relinquished the idea of
printing the work.

Believing, however, in the good results of local Floras in the deve-
lopment of science, he brought his labor to a close.

In the ardor of the pursuit of his object, he had the satisfaction
of communicating a taste for botanical investigations to a number of
the intelligent gentlemen of his vicinity, who, in return, afforded him
assistance in his work.

The Enumeration was published under the title of " Florula Ces-
trica." The motto adopted for the work, a line from Horace, is charac-
teristic of the author, — " Ore trahit quodcunque potest atque addit
acervo."

In 1837 he published the Flora Cestrica, a more extended work,
being an attempt to enumerate and describe the flowering and filicoid
plants of Chester County, Pennsylvania, adopting the Linnsean ar-
rangement, whilst the modern botanical world had so generally aban-
doned it for the natural method. He considered the latter as yet not
sufficiently established in its details for his purposes, although freely
admitting that the true science of vegetables could only be attained
by a philosophical investigation of their structure, functions, and
natural affinities; yet he could not help thinking that even the super,
ficial knowledge of genera and species so readily acquired by the
Linngean system, of advantage to the learner, by exciting an early
interest and facilitating his first steps. Of this edition, it must be
admitted, that a more comprehensive description of each species of
a genus has rarely been given to the public in this country.

A third edition of the Flora Cestrica appeared in 1853, arranged
throughout according to the natural system, to which was added those
plants which had been found to exist in the County since the pre-
ceding one was published, and it was extended so as to embrace the
Anophytes and the Thallophytes. The author contemplated, when
this revised edition was commenced, to have inserted a brief descrip-
tion of all the indigenous species of the Vegetable Kingdom which
had been detected in the County, together with such introduced

1864.] 337 [James.

plants as had become naturalized, or were cultivated for useful pur-
poses, but it became apparent that the still lower orders, especially
the Fungi, which are so multitudinous, would render the volume
inconveniently large.

Of this work, we have the highest authority for asserting that it is
" one of the best local Floras ever written." It has become a hand-
book for all lovers of the "amiable science" in his native State, and
the clear and minutely accurate descriptions of the plants enumera-
ted, will always render it a valuable assistant to the botanist.

Dr. Darlington was so strongly impres.'jed with the great importance
of a knowledge of botany, to almost all classes of the community,
that he let no opportunity pass without expatiating upon its advan-
tages; he regarded its utility great, in reference to mental discipline,
intellectual qualification, and practical usefulness. He seemed to
think it impossible for any one endowed with the common attributes
of humanity to avoid being, to a partial extent, at least, a naturalist;
in his opinion, no education could be deemed complete without some
acquaintance with the rudiments or first principles of botanical sci-
ence, some rational knowledge of the multiform creation around us,
known as the Vegetable Kingdom. To the agriculturist, he consi-
dered such information indispensable; and with these views, he com-
piled and published, in 1847, an x\gricultural Botany, an enumeration
and description of the useful plants and weeds which merit the notice
or require the attention of American farmers. The beneficial influ-
ence of the circulation of this useful volume in Chester County is
evident from the disappearance of those pestiferous weeds which have
followed the footsteps of civilization from the old world to the new.
In compiling this work, he found it somewhat difficult to determine,
satisfactorily, the line of demarcation between plants entitled to a
place, and those which might properly be omitted ; but it must be
admitted that he has happily succeeded in the selection of plants for
the object he had in view.

In 1819 Dr. Darlington opened a correspondence with the veteran
botanist. Prof. De Candolle, of Geneva, and sent him a package of
American plants, which procured him a polite return, and doubtless,
in 18*24, the honor of a genus dedicated to his name; this genus was
afterwards found, by Mr. Bentham, to be a Dismanthus, and so it
was cancelled.

Many years later, Dr. Torrey, unwilling that the labors of this
Nestor of American botanists should not be suitably commemorated,

VOL. IX. — 2t

James.] 338 [February.

at first indicated a genus to his name of a Californian plant on imper-
fect specimens, but upon obtaining good flowering plants, it proved
to be only a species of Styras. (Styrax Californica, n. sp.)

Nothing daunted, however, Dr. Torrey determined that there should
be established a genus suitable to such an honor, and seized the
opportunity of dedicating a new pitcher plant, detected in Upper
Sacramento, California, which proved to be generically distinct
from Sarracenia, as well as Heliamphora, and which he remarks, ''I
take pleasure in dedicating it to my highly esteemed friend, Dr.
William Darlington, of West Chester, in Pennsylvania, whose valua-
ble botanical works have contributed so largely to the scientific
reputation of our country." And thus it now stands firmly estab-
lished, the Darlmytouia, with one species thus far known, the Cali-
fornica. He was very desirous of seeing a living specimen of this
plant, but his wish was not gatified ; he, however, had the satisfaction
of knowing, a few days prior to his decease, that Dr. Gray had suc-
ceeded in raising a plant from seed, at the botanic garden at Cam-
bridge.

Dr. Darlington projected a Natural History Society, which, in con-
junction with a few friends, was organized on the 18th of March,
1826, by the name of the Chester County Cabinet of Natural Science,
to which institution he was elected president, filling that oflSce during
his life. For thirty-seven years he labored assiduously for its welfare,
devoting much time and energy by addresses and writings to awaken
a general interest in the subjects connected with it. Drawing around
him a few congenial spirits, he hoped to illustrate thoroughly the
natural history of his native county, taking for his model White's
History of Selborne, which he particularly admired. This plan has
been partially carried out, and collections made, but only the botani-
cal portion has been published.

He bequeathed to this institution his valuable library of botanical
books and his Herbarium, containing the treasures of his life-long
labors in that science. This he rearranged only a few years ago, adding
the .synonymes of each plant, thus facilitating the research of fu-
ture botanists. He asserted that its eight thousand species were so
completely catalogued and arranged according to their natural affini-
ties, that any one of them could be promptly exhibited on demand.

He was chosen President of the Chester County Athenseum, in
1831, and by his services rendered that institution valuable assist-
ance.

Making the acquaintance of a Castilian gentleman, residing in

1864.] 330 [James.

West Chester, in 1832, he studied under his instructions the Spanish
language, and took delight in perusing many works of celebrity in
that tongue.

Dr. Dai'lington's interest in the botanists of his native State, in-
duced him to compile selections from the correspondence, with occa-
sional notes and a biographical sketch of his intimate friend and
classmate, the late William Baldwin, M.D., Surgeon in the United
States Navy, who died whilst on an expedition up the Missouri, under
Major Long, which he published in 1843, under the title of Reliquiae
Baldwinianas.

A few years afterwards, from the materials put into his hands, he
collected the correspondence of two of the early and venerable pio-
neers of botany in Pennsylvania, to which he appended a brief notice
of the life of each, and published them in 1849, in one large volume,
as the Memorials of John Bartram and Humphry Marshall, with
notices of their botanical contemporaries.

In these worthies of a former generation he was deeply interested,
and alluded to himself with his usual humility of his own name
going down to posterity as an epiphyte clinging to their sturdy
branches. Much credit must be accorded to him for the patient per-
severance in rescuing from oblivion these very interesting letters,
many of them written by the most distinguished European botanists
of Linnajus's time, and comprising some of the epistolary correspond-
ence of the two venerable Penn,«ylvanians, and which the editor per-
suades himself that the lovers of nature and admirers of native worth
amongst us will regard with interest.

Humphry Marshall, it is believed, published the first truly indi-
genous botanical essay in this Western heujisphere. It appeared in
the year 1785, in the form of a duodecimo of about two hundred
pages, under the title of Arbustum Americanum, the American
Grove, and is dedicated to the officers and members of the American
Philosophical Society.

Among Dr. Darlington's contributions to the history of his native
State must be mentioned an interesting paper on the famous "Mason
and Dixon's line." He has given an excellent account of this memor-
able controversy between Lord Baltimore and the family of Penn,
which lasted from 16s2 to 1767.

From his untiring research and extreme accuracy in detail, he was
well fitted for an antiquarian, but the ever-open book of nature,
whose hieroglyphics he tried to elucidate and expound, had higher
claims to him than old manuscripts and musty tomes.

James.] 340 [February.

During the last few years of his life he was engageJ in preparing
the " Notoe Cestrienses," a series of iiiemoirs of the men of Chester,
published in a periodical of the county. He left in the hands of his
friend J. Futhey Smith, voluminous MS. materials for the history of
Chester County, which it is to be hoped will be speedily published.

His last work, completed a few months before his death, was a
paper on "The Weeds Injurious to Agriculture in the United
States," for the Agricultural Bureau, and will appear in the next
volume of reports.

At the organization of the Chester County Medical Society in 1828,
although he had relinquished the practice of medicine for nearly twenty
years, yet such was the estimation he was held among the profession,
that he was elected president, which po.sition he held at his death.

In 1848, the degree of Doctor of Laws was conferred on him by
Yale College; and he was a member of more than forty literary and
scientific societies.

To exhibit Dr. Darlington's comprehensive talent, it would be
proper to state that he took an active part in establishing the Bank
of Chester County, and was continued a director from its origin until
his death, and president for more than tliirty years. He held various
appointments from the Governor, Prothonotary of the County, Canal
Commissioner, and for a term Pre>sident of the Board. He was the
prime mover in establishing the Agricultural and Horticultural So-
cieties of the county, and the West Chester Railroad, and for a time
a Director and President of the Company. In fact, every public
improvement projected within his native county or town, appears
to have originated with him, or found in him an active coadjutor.
He took great pains in securing beauty of design and symmetry of
form in the public buildings of West Chester, and a prominent part
in the improvement of the public park, selecting the trees with care,
and planning this small arboretum, which in time will be the resort
of those who wish to study the form and growth of our native trees.

Dr. Darlington held during his life many important political oflBces,
and the following remark in his biography, merits the attention of
office-seekers of the present day. " I have been some ten years in
public service, by election and executive appointment, and can truly
say that I never asked for an office; nor as much as insinuated to any
one that I would like to have his vote and interest for one. I always
took it for granted that every man who wished to vote for me would
do so without solicitation ; and if he did not wish it, I was too proud
to solicit it."

1864.] ;3-j|:l [James.

He was ever ready and always disposed to contribute to the ad-
vancement of any literary or scientitic enterprise by public addresses
and lectures, and he was frequently called upon for such gratuitous
labor. Wore than twenty addresses, mostly upon botanical science or
kindred subjects, were delivered by him, on various occasions, and af-
terwards published. His constant desire was to educate the public
luind to a love of scientific pursuits, he therefore lost no opportunity
of communicating his own zeal to the young around him.

In the spring of 1862, Dr. Darlington was attacked by paralysis,
from which he partially recovered, but the following winter another
stroke rendered him helpless, and he gradually declined, until the
23d of April, 1868, when he quietly expired at the advanced age of
nearly eighty one, in the town of West Chester, and only a few miles
distant from his birthplace.

Twenty years before his death, he wrote his own epitaph, as he re-
marks, in his biography, " I had a desire to prevent the partiality of
surviving friends from resorting to commonplace cemetrical eulogy,
and yet had a wish for some botanical allusion, to meet the eye of
any lover of plants who might happen to visit the spot M'hile the me-
morial remained, so I prepared the following, which is intended as
the expression of a kindly wish or ejaculation on the part of the
future botanist who may see and recite it as he rambles by. It is to
be an isolated paragraph below the name and dates, thus :

Plantae Cestrienses,

QUAS

DILEXIT ATQUE ILLUSTRAVIT,

SUPER TUMULUiM EJUS,

SEMPER FLOllEANT I"

His remains repose in a secluded part of the beautiful Oaklands
Cemetery of West Chester, to which they were borne by a crowd of
his sorrowing neighbors, on the Sunday following his decease. He
was mourned not only as a public benefactor, but as, a friend, kind,
affectionate, and charitable, a consistent communicant of theEpiscopiiS
Church, a truly Christian gentleman, in whose death each felt a per-
sonal loss. A wise man, his literary attainments and learning were
never obtrusively thrust forward; the humblest listener separated
charmed by his simplicity of manner and quaintness of conversation :
thus he made friends of all, yet in his quiet dignity he seemed the

3-42 [February.

father and patriarch of the beautiful town he had for fifty-five years
watched over, and with which his name will ever be identified.

I will close this tribute to a tried and faithful friend with a quota-
tion he has on a like occasion adopted.

" Manil)us date lilia plenis :

Pnrpureos spar^^am fiores, aniinair.que Amici
His sahera accumulem donis, et fungar inani
Muiiere,"

" Handfuls of fresh and fragrant lilies bring,
Mixed with the purple roses of the Spring:
Let me with funeral flowers his body strew;
This mournful duty to my friend I owe, —
This unavailing gift at least I may bestow."

A letter was read from Prof. Zantedeschi, of Padna, dated
January 7 6, 1864, offering for publication in the Transac-
tions of the Society an Italian manuscript, entitled " Capo III.
Dei risultamenti ottenuti da uno nuova analisi dello spectro
luminoso," which on motion of Prof. Coppee was referred to a
committee, consisting of Prof. Kendall, Prof. Lesley, and Dr.
Bridges.

A communication was read from Mr. Buckino-ham Smith,
dated New York, February 15th, 1864, addressed to Mr.
John W. Field, 243 South 18th Street, Philadelphia, and
communicated to the Society through Mr. Benjamin Gerhard,
offering for publication by the Society a communication en-
titled " Grave Creek Mound, and certain Inscriptions on
Stone, found in the Northern Atlantic States, incidental to
its History," which was read by the Secretary, and after re-
marks by Dr. Coates, Prof. Trego. Dr. Le Conte, and Prof.
Haldeman, was on motion referred to a committee consisting
of Prof. Haldeman, Mr. Chase, and Dr. Le Conte.

Prof. Haldeman presented a curiously formed pebble, taken
from the bottom of an excavation in the Valley of the Susque-
hanna, to illustrate the very artificial aspect which purely
natural objects of this kind sometimes wear.

Mr. Chase referred to a paper on caloric, lately published
by Mr. Colburn, and discussed its bold but violent hypothe-
sis of the generation of the diurnal maximum of heat from
the conversion of the earth's rotary velocity. Mr. Briggs

1864.3 343

and Prof. Cresson continued the discussion, by reference to
Tyndall's observations on the heat-absorbing capacity of
aqueous vapor, furnishing, in fact, the only sound basis for
expLaining the variations of the daily climate.

The minutes of the Board of Officers and Members in
Council were read.

Pending nominations 508, and new nominations 509 to
518 were read.

The bill of Pawson & Nicholson was referred to the Com-
mittee on Finance.

The Library Committee reported as follows :

At an adjourned meeting of the Library Committee, Feb-
ruary 19th, 1864, the resolution oftered at the stated meeting
of the Society, October 2d, 1863, and referred to the Library
Committee to report thereon, was considered, and on motion
of Mr. Price the following resolution was offered to the
Society, viz. : Resolved, That the Catalogue, as far as printed,
be distributed to such as agree, by subscription, to take the
whole volume of three parts, at the price fixed upon by the
Society, payable when the second part shall be delivered.
On motion the resolution of the Committee was agreed to by
the Society.

The Society was then adjourned.

Stated fleeting, Marcli 4, 1864.

Present, thirty-four members.

Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair,

Prof. Chase, a recently elected member, was introduced to
the President, and took his seat.

A letter acknowledging the receipt of publications was
received from the Natural History Society of Newcastle on
Tyne, dated February 4th, 1864.

A letter respecting transmitted manuscripts was received
from Prof. Zantedeschi, dated February 7th, 1864.

344 [March

A letter requesting an exchange of publications was re-
ceived from the Imperial Library at St. Petersburg, dated
January 10-22, 1864. On motion, the Imperial Library was
ordered to be placed on the list of correspondents.

A letter from Dr. Leidy to the Secretary, dated Phila-
delphia, February 23d, 1864, was read and referred to the
Curators for action.

A letter from Prof. Haidinger to the Secretary, dated
Vienna, February 9th, 1864, was read, inclosing a list of
contributors to the Von Martius Festival Medal, On motion,
the list was ordered to lie on the table, to afford members an
opportunity to subscribe.

Donations for the Library were announced from Prof.
Zantedeschi, the Royal Astronomical Society'', the Essex
Institute, the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia,
Dr. B. II. Coates, Senator Wilson, and the National Ob-
servatory,

Photographic portraits of Leo Lesquereux, Isaac Lea, and
Elias Durand, members, were presented for the Album.

The death of Prof. Edward Hitchcock, a member, at
Amherst, Massachusetts, on the 27th ult., aged 70 years,
was announced by the Secretary.

The Committee to which was referred the paper on Grave
Creek Mound reported against its publication and were dis-
charged, their report having been accepted and approved.

The report of the Board of Secretaries on the communica-
tion received from the Royal Society, was, on motion, adopt-
ed, as follows: 1. That they are prepared to furnish to the
Royal Society a supplementary list of American Journals and
Societies to complete their catalogue of scientific memoirs.
2. That they recommend to the Society to offer to prepare,
at the expense of the Royal Society, a catalogue of papers
contained in such volumes of said list as the Royal Society
may indicate.

Dr. Cresson exhibited his improved magnifying and polar-
izing oxyhydrogen apparatus. On motion of Dr. Bache, the
thanks of the Society were presented to Dr. Cresson for the

1864.] 345 [Chase.

pleasure and instruction he had given to the members by this
exhibition.

Mr. Lesley drew the attention of the members present to
the beautiful recent microscopical investigations of Prof.
Sorby into the metamorphic condition of rocks.

Mr. Chase referred to the communication which he bad
made at the last stated meeting, and made further remarks
respecting the alleged connection between the variable rate
of the earth's rotation and the mean temperature of given
parts of its surface.

Mr. Colburn's inquiry into the nature of heat suggests some in-
teresting speculations concerning other effects of rotation than those
that can be measured by the barometer. Recognizing the impossi-
bility that the sun should warm the whole solar system, as a simply
incandescent body, — the imprubability that its heat should result from
continuous combustion, and the probable approximate uniformity of
temperature in the upper regions of the atmosphere, in summer and
in winter, by day and by night, Mr. Colburn looks for the principal
sources of heat in the earth itself He supposes, 1, that the solar
attraction tends to draw into closer proximity the particles of air on
the heated side, and to separate them on the night-side of the earth,
thus producing heat of couipression, and cold of expansion : 2, that
the change of eastward velocity from 69,000 miles per hour at mid-
night, to 67,000 miles at noon, (s/c) necessarily produces a con-
version of motion into heat, and of heat into motion : and 3, that if
the earth is moving in a resisting medium, by which it is so retarded
that it approaches the sun at the rate of 1,000,000 miles in 3,000,000
years, its " lift" involves the annual abstraction of a heat-force equiva
lent to 752,665,108,390,000 horse-power!

The third hypothesis has been often broached; the indications of
a resisting ether, which, as we have seen, are furnished by the
hourly barometric means, may, perhaps, yield the data for its final
verification or rejection. The supposed separating effect of the
sun's action in the most remote portions of the atmosphere, is so
problematical that it seems hardly deserving of any consideration,
and even if it existed, it is difficult to understand how it could pro-
duce a difference of more than a fraction of a degree in the range of
the thermometer. The alternate acceleration and retardation of
orbital velocity, can produce no accumulation of heat to supply any

VOL. IX. — 2u

Chase.] g^Q [March.

loss that may arise from radiation into space, but it must modify

the distribution of heat throughout the day in a manner that may be

readily calculated. The available data are not sufficient to furnish

us with complete results, but they give curious approximations that

seem to open a wide field for profitable investigation.

"Sir John Herschell finds the direct heating effect of a vertical

sun at the sea level to be competent to melt .00754 of an inch of ice

per minute, while according to M. Pouillet, the quantity is .00703 of

an inr-h."* Taking the mean of these two estimates (.00728 in.),

multiplying by the latent heat of water (142.6° F.), and dividing

by the number of cubic inches in 1 lb. of water (28), we obtain

.00728 X 142.6 no-n-r % f i , ■ a ■ .
= .Oo/Uib units 01 heat received per minute on

28

each square inch of the earth's surface that is exposed to a vertical
sun. The weight of the aerial column being 15 lb., and its ratio of
specific heat 25, the maximum effect of the direct solar rays is suf-
ficient to heat the whole atmosphere --^ — per minute, or 7.12°

F. in 12 hours.

Now, in consequence of the earth's rotation, the difference of
atmospheric "lift" between noon and midnight, is 182,886 ft. per
minute. The average difference for the twelve hours, is one-half as
great. " Rapid rotation, without friction or resistance, cannot in
itself alone be regarded as a cause of light and heat;"f but we have
found in our barometric investigations, that the ratio of the half-
daily velocity of rotation to that which would be conferred by twelve
hours' action of terrestrial gravity, is .00109, which maybe regarded
as the modulus of heat-producing resistance. If we multiply the
average difference of lift by the weight of the atmosphere, and by
the effective resistance, dividing the product by the ratio of specific
atmospheric heat, and the number of foot-pounds raised by a unit of

, . 91108 X 15 X. 00109 .^,„^ ,

heat, we obtain — = < .74° i^ . as the amount of heat

770 X. 25

communicated to the air by rotation between midnight and noon, and

abstracted between noon and midnight.

The theoretical barometric lift is, as we have seen, .00219 of the

entire weight of the atmosphere. Estimating the height of the

aerial column when reduced to uniform surface density, at 24,000

* Tyndal, Heat considered as a Mode of Motion. N. Y. edit. p. 431.
t Dr. J. R. Mayer.

1864.] ^^'1 [Chase.

feet, the heat-producing disturbance that is indicated by the barome-
ter, is represented by a lift of 15 lb. on each square inch to a height
of .00219x24000 ft. The quarter-daily disturbance from this

. . „ 24000xl5x.00219

cause IS, therefore, — r — — ^^.l"!*.

770X.25

It is more than likely that each of these results will require im-
portant modifications when the entire influence of the several con-
ditions of the problem is better understood. I have thought it
proper to pi-esent them in their present crudity, in order to show
the true points of departure, and to prepare the way for some further
considerations.

Whatever other heat-disturbing causes there may be, there can be
little doubt that the three we have just been considering are the
most important. Dividing the astronomical day into four quadrants,
and representing the solar effect by S , rotation by R., and barometric
by B., it will be readily seen that the several positive and negative
influences must be distributed as follows :

S. R. B.

From Oh. to 6h. -f — —

" 6h. to 12h. — — +

" l'2h. to 18h. _ 4- _

" 18h. to Oh. -f + +

The tables of average temperature at any given place would there-
fore furnish us with four equations for determining the value of each
of the disturbing elements, provided those that are unknown were so
insignificant as to be safely neglected. The eff"ects of these unknown
disturbances are confined within certain limits that can be pretty
satisfactorily determined.

Our discussion of the barometric fluctuations demonstrated a ten-
dency of inertia to retard the efi'ects of rotation, so that the mean
daily altitudes are found nearer to Ih., 7h., 13h., and 19h., than to
Oh., 6h., I2h., and 18h. A like tendency is discernible in the
thermometer.

There are three, and only three, quadrantal divisions of the day,
commencing respectively at Oh., at Ih., and at 2h., for which we
could obtain approximate positive values of S., R., and B. The
maximum solar efl"ect is deduced from the first, and the minimum
from the third of these divisions; while the maximum rotative and
barometric effects are exhibited in the third, and the minimum in
the first division.

Chase.]

348

[March.

The nearest average temperatures are found in the third division,
as is shown below.

Average of temperature at 2h., 8h., 14h., and 20h., and of the en-
tire day.

Station.

Mean of the
four hours.

Baily mean.

At Girard College, . .
At St. Helena, . . .

52°.l
61°.65

52°.l

61°.69

1

The following table presents all the co-ordinate positive values of
S., R., and B., that can be obtained from the Girard College and
St. Helena means.

Station.

Dividing at

0, 6, 12, 18h.

1, 7, 13, 19h.

2, 8, 14. 20h.

S. R. B.

S. R. B.

S. R. B.

Girard College, . .
St. Helena, ....

Per ct.

45.92

25.97

Per ct.
41.32

42.96

Per ct.
12.76

31.07

Per ct. Per ct.
31.3 49.5

15.8 46.7

Perct.
19.2

37.5

Per ct. Per ct.
13.8 63.2

5.6 56.6

Per ct.

23

37.8

The percentages of the calculated values correspond very nearly
with the means of the earliest Girard College and St. Helena values.

Ciilrulated

values.

Percentage.

Mean
Percentage.

Limits.

s., . . .
R., . . .
B., . . .

7°. 12
7°.74
4°.l

87.6

40.8
21.6

85.95
42.14
21.91

5.6 45.92
40.8 68.2
12.76 37.8

It may be inferred from this comparison, that the rotation element
of daily heat is least affected, and the solar element most affected
by extraneous causes, (of which moisture is probably the chief);
that the first division gives the best, and the third division the
poorest results ; that the proportion of thermometric variation which
is attributable to rotation is between .4 and .5 of the average total
daily variation, and that the most difficult element to determine
satisfactorily is S., which is modified by many local disturbing influ-

1864.] 349

ences, such as the nature of the soil, amount of vapor, clouds, alti-
tude of the sun, &c. &c.

Pending nominations, Nos. 508 to 518, and new nomina-
tion No. 519, were read.

On motion of Mr. Peale the following resolution was con-
sidered and adopted : Resolved, That the Curators be au-
thorized to make such selection as they may deem proper, of
articles from the Cabinet of the Society, and place them at
the disposal of the Chairman of the Committee on Curiosities,
Relics, and Autographs, for the Sanitary Commission, as a
loan for exhibition during the ensuing fair.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, 3Iarch 18, 1864.

Present, twenty-three members.

Judge Sharswood, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Prof. William D. Whitney, a recently elected member, was
introduced to the presiding officer and took his seat.

Letters announcing the transmission of publications were
received from the Royal Academy at Lisbon, dated Novem-
ber 25th, 1863, and from the Engineer Department at Wash-
ington, March 17th, 1864.

Donations for the Library were announced from the Royal
Academy at Lisbon, the Royal Society at Edinburgh, the
British Meteorological Society, the Annales des Mines, the
Boston N. H. Society, the Franklin Institute, Messrs. Blan-
chard and Lea, and the Engineer Department of the United
States.

On motion of Mr. Barnes, Dr. Goodwin was appointed to
prepare an obituary notice of the late President Hitchcock.

The Secretary read a letter from Prof. Wilson, of Toronto,
offering for sale a new copy of the "Birds of Australia,"
costing originally £150, and never yet taken from its case.

Lesley.] 35Q [March,

Mr. Lesley presented for the Cabinet, a specimen ball of
sea-grass, and described the manner in which multitudes of
similar balls, of all sizes, are manufactured by the waves,
upon the shores of Nice.

Mr. Lesley then read a communication, which he had re-
ceived from Mr. R. Pearsall Smith, of Philadelphia, in reply
to inquiries, which he had made, respecting the published
county maps of the United States.

His own attention had been called to the subject anew, and very
forcibly, by the difficulties he had lately encountered in obtaining a
map of Cumberland County, at the county seat, Carlisle. At the
last invasion of the State, preceding the battle of Gettysburg, the
advance guard of the rebels swept the Great Valley clean of all its
county maps ; those of Franklin and those of Cumberland. The
same fate befell those of Adams County. For a day or two, not a
map of the seat of war was to be obtained at Harrisburg for the use
of the Governor and his staff. General Couch had but a single copy
at his headquarters. An order on Philadelphia could only be filled
by sending out a special agent, who succeeded, at great personal risk,
in procuring one or two of each county. Judge Watts, of Carlisle,
informed me that the maps were torn hastily from the walls of the
farmers' houses, and sent with the horses and other valuables for
safety, over the North Mountain, into the Juniata Valley. The
rebel visitation was very complete ; he thought it likely that not a
single house had been overlooked. The sack of the Valley would
have been most disastrous, but for the want of rolling stock on the
railroad. What they carried oflP was on their backs. The two en-
gines and trains which took the Pennsylvania troops up to the front
at Chambersburg, were telegraphed back so exactly at the right time,
that they had passed Scotland Station but four minutes before the
Rebel cavalry dashed in from the south to cut them off.

A rebel general is understood to have made a reconnoissance of
these counties previous to the invasion under the guise of a map-
peddler, and while selling some of a more general character, no doubt
bought up county maps to be used in the invasion.

It is known that the bureau at Washington was robbed of many
unique county maps before the rebellion broke out. When General
McClellan advanced upon Richmond, but one copy of the map of
Henrico County could be procured. The rebel leaders had secured,

1864.]

351

[Lesley.

also, all but one or two copies of Loudon and Jefferson and the few
other Virginia counties of which maps had been executed. General
Crawford informed me that on his advance to Culpeper, he was for-
tunate in securing two beautiful manuscript maps of that county ;
but for the long campaigns in Virginia, the utmost annoyance has
been experienced for the want of maps. The mountain country of
Virginia has never been mapped, with even the most distant approxi-
mation to topographical truth. The mountains of East Tennessee
do not form so complicated a system as those of Western Virginia,
but no map of their features worthy of the name is in existence yet.
Even the large sheets of the seats of war issued for pressing and
popular need from the United States Coast Survey Office, can scarcely
effect a reduction of the principal errors. Nor can that mountain belt
be mapped except by topographical geologists, on the plan pursued
by the geologists of the Pennsylvania survey. It is to be hoped that
on the return of peace, this greatly desired contribution to science,
the extension of the Pennsylvania Appalachian Topography south-
ward, will be made, and with an advantage not enjoyed by those who
did the work in Pennsylvania, namely, with well-constructed county
maps, done with an odometer, like those of the Northern States.

The number of these Northern county maps is now very great.
Mr. Smith has kindly colored for me a map of the United States, to

show the parts covered by these odometer surveys. They are 300
in number. They have formed the basis of the recently published
and very correct State maps of New York, Pennsylvania, and New
Jersey.

Lesley.] 352 [March.

But as the editions of the county maps are always small, seldom
exceeding 1000 copies, and after one or two dozen extra copies have
been struck off for the publisher, the stones are always destroyed,
they go out of the market, and become extremely difficult to procure.
In important cases special agents have to be despatched to the locality
to purchase copies from the walls of the farmers' houses, at a high
price.

It would be natural to expect to find complete sets of the county
maps of each State in the archives of its capitol. Strange to say,
none such is known to exist except at Albany. Stranger still, no set
of these maps, no record of all this labor done, is to be seen at the
Capitol of the Nation, neither in the Library of Congress, nor in the
Bureau of the Interior, nor at the Bureau of the Coast Survey. A
few of them, the number amounting perhaps to one-twentieth of the
whole, are on file in the Engineer Department of the United States.
And yet every day diminishes the chance of making up such a set.
AVithin the last two months the editions of thirty have been exhausted.

In striking contrast to our own conduct, the British Government
has possessed itself of a complete set of American county maps, by
giving a standing order for each, as it appears, to be sent to the British
Museum. Recent orders to send "everything in the map way rela-
ting to the United States," took the last copies of the twenty rarest
of these county maps.

For eighteen years, this slow discussion of the boundaries, streams,
roads and houses of the surface of the United States, has been carried
on by Mr. Smith* and others, with a continually improving organi-
zation, and increasing rapidity, until about two-thirds of the well-
settled North has been delineated. The fieldwork seems rude to the
physicist, engaged in discussing the figure of the earth, and to the chief
of a survey of an are of a meridian. But the results are perfectly
satisfactory to the naturalist, the county surveyor, the soldier, and
the geologist. The latter finds his canvas ready prepared, and can
lay in his picture with comfort and success. When larger areas are
to be mapped, then astronomical determinations and trigonometrical
adjustments come in place. But the compensations which rectify
magnetic work in the field, by skilled hands, carefully plotted after-
wards in the office, produce results which favorably compare with the
most careful triangulation ; and at all events may, if the needs of
society call for it, precede, in order of time, just as well as follow, the
application of the more accurate methods of the science.

* R. Pearsall Smith, 517 Minor Street, Philadelphia.

1864.] 353

Mr. Fraley spoke to the same subject, describing the early
history of the efforts made by citizens of Pennsylvania to
obtain an improved State map, and the desirableness of an
accurate astronomical and trigonometrical determination of
the principal points of the surface. ' He suggested the expe-
diency of the Secretary preparing, for the next meeting of
the Society, the draft of a memorial, which may be presented
to the Legislature, during its present session.

Pending nominations Kos. 508 to 519, and new nomina-
tions Nos. 520, 521, were read.

The Chairman of the Board of Curators presented the fol-
lowing report, as ordered at the last meeting.

Hall of the Society.

At the last stated meeting, a letter from Dr. Leidy was read, con-
taining a copy of a resolution unanimously passed by the Academy of
Natural Sciences, at the meeting of the 23d ultimo, in the follow-
ing words :

" With the view of facilitating the study of archaeology, Resolved,
That the specimens of antique art, belonging to the Academy, be
deposited in the Museum of the American Philosophical Society,
provided they shall be returned, on demand, and that the Curators of
the Society shall give a receipt for the same to the Curators of the
Academy."

The Curators of the Society have given due consideration to the
resolution quoted, and are of opinion that it is highly expedient that
the deposit should be accepted, and the specimens of the Academy
be added to the collection of the Society, already embracing a con-
siderable number and variety of articles of the "stone age" of this
country, and a magnificent collection of those of Mexico and Peru, &c.

The Curators are impressed with the conviction that it is incum-
bent upon the Society to lend their fostering countenance to this de-
partment of science, particularly as there is no institution in the city
or State which has paid any attention to the subject, or afforded any
facilities for its study or development.

With these views, the Curators beg leave to offer the following
resolutions :

1. That they be authorized to receive the deposit of the Academy,
and to give the required receipt for the same.

2. That they be authorized to exchange such duplicate specimens

VOL. IX. — 2v

354 [March.

of the collection of the Society as they may deem advantageous in
extending and increasing the variety and completeness of the Ar-
chaeological Cabinet.

On motion, the report was accepted, and the resolutions
annexed were adopted.

Mr. Peale then begged leave to make the following addi-
tional remarks, with the sanction of his colleagues, upon the
subject submitted to the Curators:

The Curators having charge of the Museum and Cabinet of the
Society, are aware of its condition, and of the wants of the Society
for room, particularly for the Library. They have, therefore, care-
fully taken the matter into consideration, and offer, respectfully and
deferentially, a few remarks as an apology and explanation for the
resolution which is appended.

Many books are now, of necessity, placed in the Museum, the
cases, however, being entirely unsuited to their proper accommodation.
These cases being sparsely occupied by the collections of minerals
and fossils, shells, fossils, and minerals are also stowed and packed
in various closets, under cases, in their present condition inaccessi-
ble to observer or student, and, therefore, in no condition to aid the
ii promotion of Icnowledge."

Bottles containing specimens in spirits are drying up, or have en-
tirely evaporated, and a case of insects contains only the reliquiae of
the contents, and has almost literally turned to the original dust from
which they were created.

With these facts before them, the members of the Society will be
able to appreciate the objects in view, and to vote understandiugly
on the resolution offered.

Resolved, That so many of the specimens of the collection of
minerals and fossils belonging to the Society, as the Curators may
select, be deposited in the Cabinet of the Academy of Natural Sci-
ences, provided, that they shall be returned, on demand, and that
the Curators of the Academy shall give a receipt for the same to the
Curators of the Society,

Mr. Fraley made honorable mention of the part which the
science and zeal of the lamented Prof. Keating had played,
in the original collecting of that Cabinet, which was after-

1864.] 355

wards made the property of the Society by the liberality of
Mr, Poinsett.

The resolution of Mr. Peale was then adopted.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, April 1, 1864.

Present, nineteen members.

Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.

A letter of acknowledgment was received from the Liver-
pool Literary and Philosophical Society, dated February 29,
1864.

Letters of envoi were received from M. the Minister of
Public Instruction, dated Paris, November 21st, M. Hector
Bossange, dated Paris, February 25, and the Liverpool Lite-
rary and Philosophical Society, dated March 17, 1864.

Donations for the Library were announced from M. Tro-
yon of Lausanne, the London Reader, the Literary and Philo-
sophical Societies of Liverpool and of Quebec, Silliman's
Journal, the Academy of Natural Sciences, Professor J. C.
Cresson, and Dr. Kirkbride of Philadelphia.

The death of Dr. Franklin Bache, at his residence in
Spruce Street, on Saturday evening, the 19th ultimo, aged 71
years, was announced by Mr. Fraley, with a feeling tribute
to his venerated character and long and varied relations to
the Society. On motion of Mr. Fraley, the President, Dr.
Wood, was requested to prepare an obituary notice, to be read
before the Society.

Mr. Chase continued his remarks upon heat and afterwards
illustrated the polarizing action of muscular energy by a
magnetic needle held in the hand, but explained the pheno-
menon as due chiefly, if not solely, to a law governing the
mechanical propagation of vibrations.

Chase.] 355 [April.

On account of the mutual dependence of all the forces of nature,
and the reasonableness of Prof. Faraday's conjecture, that they are
often, if not always, convertible more or less into each other,* it
seems probable that the disturbances of the magnetic needle may be as
closely connected with the earth's rotation, and the continually
changing position of each point relatively to the sun, as those of the
barometer and thermometer. Ampere held that the earth is an
electro-magnet, magnetized by an electric current from east to west,
the current being excited by the action of the sun's heat successively
on different parts of the earth's surface as it revolves toward the
east. The friction of trade-winds and ocean-currents and the varia-
tions of light and temperature that are produced by rotation and orbital
revolution, must exert an influence upon the magnetic needle, and
beside these indirect eff'ects, M. Arago showed that simple rotation,
in some unknown way, produces magnetism in bodies of every de-
scription. Many have supposed that this magnetism is derived from
the earth by induction, but on account of the impossibility of escap-
ing from the influence of terrestrial magnetism, it is difiicult to obtain
any conclusive evidence on the subject. f A similar impossibility
has interfered with Prof. Faraday's endeavors to connect gravity and
magnetic or electric action by experimental results. The probability
of such a connection has been shown by the electricity developed in
the dry pile of De Luc, and by Gen. Sabine's observation, that when
the sun and moon were on the meridian the magnetic variation
reached 5°, but when they were in quadrature, it fell as low as 20'.|

The great forces of nature can be measured only by their disturb-
ances or their deviations from uniformity. The action of gravity is
so nearly uniform at all times and in all parts of the globe, that it is
difl&cult to imagine any crucial experiment that could demonstrate
its relations to magnetism. Perhaps a needle, hinged at its point of
support, with the two extremities nicely balanced, might help us
towards such a demonstration, if careful experiments were tried, to
show the relative influence of gravity upon each extremity, both be-
fore and after magnetizing, and when subjected to artificial magnet-
ism, so as to produce various amounts of deviation from the normal
dip and declination. Or, centrifugal force, so applied as alternately
to assist and oppose the eff'ects of gravity, as in large fly-wheels re-
volving with various degrees of rapidity, may indicate variations of

* Phil. Mag. 4th Ser. 1, 68.

t See correspondence of M. J. Nickles, Silliman's Journal, v. 17, p. 117, &c.

J Silliman's Journal, vol. 19, p. 424.

1864.] 357 [Chase.

magnetic influence, that can be explained only by the conversion of
gi'avity into magnetism or the reverse.

Prof. Faraday, in a lecture before the Royal Institution in the
year 1857, endeavored to show that our usual conception of gravity
is not in harmony with the principle of '' conservation of force."
Prof. Brticke* and others, have tried to remove the difficulties in
which the question is involved, but I believe none of the proposed
solutions have been satisfactory to the learned philosopher who first
started the discussion.

It has even been questioned whether gravity can be properly
called a force, or whether it is anything more than a simple '' ten-
dency." Prof. Brticke has shown conclusively, that it is subject,
like heat and other recognized forces, to all the laws which regulate
the interchange of actual and potential energy; and our barometrical
investigations furnish a beautiful illustration of the manner in which
its tension is balanced by opposing forces.

We speak, indeed, of weight, as if it could be predicated only of
bodies at rest, and as if it were so entirely distinct from momentum
that no comparison could be properly instituted between the two.
Precisely the reverse is true. Absolute rest is apparently an impos-
sible condition of matter, for, to whatever extent the action of op-
posing forces may be relatively neutralized, the inconceivable rapidity
of aDthereal, planetary, and stellar motions, produces a constant change
of place. Even if we confine our attention to the earth alone, in
each instant (dt), every particle has a tangential motion (tan. d^),
and a central motion of gravity (sin. d'^^) that constitutes a vis viva
which we call its weight, and which is in equilibrium with the elas-
ticity of the molecular aether. The sum of all the instantaneous
energies is the same, whether the particle fall freely for any given
time, or remain apparently at rest. All the potential energy which
is transformed in one case into the actual energy of motion,! in the

* Phil. Mag., 4 S., 15, 81.

t The potential energy of gravity is represented by §• ^ 32 ft. per second. The
earth's rotation allowing only about ^1^ of this amount, or .1107 ft. per second, to
be converted into actual energy, the remainder must be employed in overcoming
molecular elasticity. The formula a = ( — — )i gives 26,221 miles as the

V 4;r ^ /

radius of the sphere of attraction that is in equilibrium with the molecular elas-
ticity at the earth's surface. These opposing forces must produce constant oscil-
lations, and by the study of these oscillations, it may perhaps be possible to recon-
cile the several hypotheses of Newton, Faraday, Mossotti, and Challis, respecting
the nature of gravitation. See Phil. Mag., 4 S., v. 13, p. 231-7, and v. IS, p. 447,
sqq.

Chase.] 353 [April.

other is counteracted by an equivalent and opposite centi'al energy of
elasticity. Therefore, when we compare the relative efiFects of rota-
tion and gravity, it is immaterial whether we use as the measure of
force, the integral of the vires vivae, or the respective amounts of
motion that the two forces would produce, if they were able to act
freely for the same time. The difficulty of determining the repul-
sion of molecular elasticity precluding any satisfactory use of the
former measure, I employed the other, and the precise accordance of
the results thus obtained, with the results of observation, justi6ed the
correctness of the hypothesis, in the same manner as the accurate
computation of planetary motions has confirmed the Newtonian theory
of gravity.

Gravity, therefore, with the same propriety as heat, may be con-
sidered as a '' mode of motion," whether acting merely as "dead
weight," or as an accelerating or a deflecting force. If it can be
shown that magnetism also originates in motion, we may be able to
demonstrate the mutual convertibility that Faraday suspected.

The earliest hypothesis with regard to terrestrial magnetism looked
for its cause to a powerful magnet, lying nearly in the line of the earth's
axis. Subsequent discoveries led to a modification of this view by the
supposition of another magnet, pointing towards the Siberian pole. Mr.
Barlow's idea, that the magnetism is superficial and induced,* has now
been generally adopted, and if it could be shown that solar or rotary
action is capable of developing magnetism in particles such as those
which are known to constitute our globe, the great difiiculty in the
way of a satisfactory explanation would be rembved.f Ampere's,
Barlow's, and Christie's experiments showed that simple rotation is
suQicient to affect the magnetism of a compass-needle,J and in the
oxygen of the atmosphere, which, as Faraday discovered, has a spe-
cific magnetism, variously estimated at from gg2§ to »^^\\ of that of
iron, we have a medium through which any induced magnetism may
be distributed over the entire surface of the earth. Some simple ex-
periments that can be easily repeated, seem to confirm Ampere's
views, and to indicate the manner in which the circulating electric
current is excited.

* Phil. Trans., 1831.

t Enc. Brit., Art. "Magnetism."

I The effect of rotation on the magnetic needle may be shown in a rough way,
by causing an ordinary grindstone to revolve rapidly, and bringing a compass
near its edge.

§ By M. Becquerel. || M. Pliicker.

1864.J ggg [Chase.

There is a species of mechanical polarity, of which I have never seen
any notice, that is apparently produced by motions resembling those
to which the air is continually subjected. It may be exhibited in
the following ways :

1. In the middle of a basin of water, lay a long strip of any sub-
stance (floating it by corks or otherwise, if it is heavier than water).
After the water has become still, lift the basin carefully by one hand,
and hold it at arm's length. The intermitting muscular action pro-
duces longitudinal vibrations, which tend to bring the floating strip
into a line with the outstretched arm, and the tendency may be
increased by moving the basin gently up and down.

2. Hold the gimbals of a binnacle compass so that it can swing
only in one direction, and cause it to move like a pendulum in that
direction. The needle will tend towards the line of oscillation.
Vessels may have been lost from ignorance of this fact, for it is not
unusual for compass pivots to become so worn that the needle moves
sluggishly, and in order to start it, the compass-box is shaken. If
one of the gimbal hinges should be rusty, the shaking would bring
the needle into a line perpendicular to the axis of the free gimbal,
and the captain might easily suppose that he was sailing north, when
his course was due east or west.

3. Take an ordinary pocket compass, grasp it firmly between the
thumb and finger of one hand, and move it quickly up and down
through a small arc. The needle, as in the last instance, will tend
towards the plane of motion. This experiment may be variously
modified, according to the length and directive energy of the needle,
the steadiness of the operator's nerves, &c. Sometimes a simple
grasp, with a powerful muscular contraction, will bring the needle
into line, without any other vibration than that which arises from
the irresistible nervous tremor. Sometimes the momentum acquired
by each pole in its approach to the operator, carries it forward so as
to bring the other pole under the wave-influence, and the needle is
thus made to rotate so rapidly as to become nearly invisible.

The polarity in each of the three cases here enumerated, is easily
explained upon purely mechanical principles, but there are some
indications that seem to show a close connection between the mecha-
nical vibrations and those of nervous electricity. There appears to
be a great diS"erence in the control of different individuals over the
needle. Some can bring it into line at once, with scarcely any per-
ceptible motion, while others are obliged to use considerable effort;
the needle does not seem at all times equally susceptible ; it often

Lesley.] 3g0 [April.

appears more easy to produce rotation in one direction, than in the
other. There may, therefore, be a natural connection between these
experiments and those of M. Du Bois Raymond, who attached two
strips of platinum to a very delicate galvanometer, and caused them
to dip into two cups of salt water. Dipping the fingers of each hand
into the cups, and alternately bracing the muscles of each arm, he
produced a perceptible deflection of the needle. MM. Becquerel and
Despretz repeated the experiment without obtaining very satisfactory
results, but M. Humboldt was more successful.* Add to these
phenomena the well-known evidences of a constant current, circu-
lating around magnets, and if we suppose that electricity consists
simply of vibrations, it will seem perfectly natural that the magnet
should obey the strongest vibrations.

Mr. Briggs exhibited a suite of specimens, to illustrate the
steps of the new process by which non-resinous w'oods are
converted into paper pulp, by the application of soda at high
temperatures.

Dr. Emerson embraced the opportunity to describe the suc-
cessful performance of the new machines, now employed in
cleaning out flax fibre for market, Avith little or no loss in the
form of tow, the flax, thus obtained, commanding a market
value three or four fold that of the seed; so that it hns been
stated that a profit of ^400 per acre of flax-sown ground has
been realized. The machine has three sizes and forms, and
may be called the cotton gin of the North. Mr. Briggs ex-
plained how much of the superiority of the Irish linen de-
pended on the perfection of the rotting process carried forward
under the regular humid climate of Ireland, and considered it
improbable that any successful competition could be made in
America, until some artificial chemical process shall be dis-
covered applicable to the case, like the hot soda process, which
he had described in connection with wood fibre, and by which
fine cotton-like flax had also been produced, a specimen of
which he exhibited.

Mr, Lesley described the succession of gales encountered
by the B. M. S. S. Canada, on her hundredth and longest
voyage, from Liverpool to Boston, between the 11th and 21st
of January, 1864.

* See Silliman's Journal, vol. 8.

1864.]

361

[Lesley.

The steamer left Liver-
pool, with fair weather, on
the 9th, and encountered a
smart blow in the Irish
Channel, but ran along the
Irish coast in fair weather,
touched at Queenstown for
the mails, and passed Fas-
net Rock Light in the night
of Sunday, January 10th.
It began to blow from the
westward here, and con-
tinued to blow from that
quarter, dead ahead, with
variable violence, until
Thursday night, January
21st. The steamer reach-
ed Halifax, in the face of
light west winds, Monday
evening, January 25th,
and Boston, Wednesday
afternoon, January 27th,
after a voyage of nineteen
days.

The accompanying wood-
cut shows the course of the
steamer and her position
each noon between Fasnet
Light and Halifax. In
the first eight days, that is
to say, from Sunday noon
to the second following
Monday noon, the Canada
encountered six distinct
gales, the sixth and last
raging through Sunday
night with such violence
that the steamer could
barely be kept to the
wind ; and the officers as-
serted that no sailing ves-
sel could have lived.

At the beginning of each
gale, the wind came from

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the southwest ; and at the close, from the northwest ; but in neither
case from more than a few points to the north or south of the mag-
netic west. There were but two hours during the whole voyage
during which the wind blew from any point east of south. At the
extreme of violence for each gale the wind blew dead ahead. During
the intervals of a few hours between the gales, the sky would clear,
and the wind come quietly in from the west, until its shifting to the
southwest gave the signal for the opening of the next blow.

The barometer fell rapidly and low at the beginning of each gale,
and rose more slowly afterwards. If Captain Galton's hypothesis of
a reversed descending cyclone to accompany a rising barometer after
the direct ascending cyclone with a falling barometer, be intended to
apply to all atmospheric disturbances, small as well as large, some
exhibition of this supposed phenomenon should have been made by
this series of gales. (Phil. Mag. No. 174, p. 225, Proceed. R.
S., December 18th, 1862.) " It is hardly possible," he justly urges,
" to conceive masses of air rotating in a retrograde sense in close
proximity, as cyclonogists suppose, without an intermediate area of
direct rotation, which would, to use a mechanical simile, be in gear
with both of them, and make the movements of the entire system
correlative and harmonious." But we have this very conception
realized before our eyes, habitually, in every series of eddies on the
surface of a stream. If the cyclonal columns were stationary and
contiguous, some intermediate disturbance, analogous to a pinion be-
tween two cogs, must occur; and if the interval have a diameter
equal to that of each cyclonal column, the disturbance might per-
haps assume a simple reverse columnar form and motion at its cir-
cumference, opposed as they would be by the vertical stability of its
axis. But if the two supposed stationary vorticals were nearer than
one diameter, the disturbances of the interval must become very
complicated, and hardly recognizable on a chart by any simple system
of curves.

But as, in fact, cyclonic columns, such as those under discussion,
have a forward slip, like the eddies in water, the line of motion of
any particle of one column (or of its observed ba,se) is by no means
in the curve of a volute; but, like the path described by a particle
of the earth's surface in its course round the sun, approximates a
straight line, oscillating from side to side without an epicycle. If,
therefore, in a series of cyclones of retrograde projection, the inter-
vals were filled with other cyclones of direct projection, there could
be no concealing the fact; and at least traces of such an interval

1864.J 363 [Lesley.

system would have appeared in the log-book of the Canada, in the
voyage under discussion.

Such a waved line crossing and recrossing the wake of the Canada,
twelve times in eight days, would graphically represent the forward
movement of the winds encountered. Theoretically, it would repre-
sent one of two things : either, 1st, a horizontal libration of the
fronts of successive masses of condensed atmosphere moving mag-
netic east, or north of east; a supposition which 'I imagine no me-
teorologist would accept for a moment; or, 2d, a system of curves
belonging to the southern sides of six small cyclones, following each
other along a line not quite parallel to the course of the ship, and to
the north of it, close to it at the western end, and diverging from it
eastward.

I say small cyclones, because when we landed at Halifax the in-
habitants spoke with delight of the lovely weather the people of Nova
Scotia and Newfoundland had been enjoying for more than a fort-
night. A glance at the map will show, therefore, the small radius to
be ascribed to the gales through which we had been fighting slowly
our way. We must consider it therefore probable that these gales,
however vortical in build, belong to a different system of disturbances
from the periodical storms of immense radial sweep which travel
along the Atlantic coast inland in the same direction.

The next important point to be observed, is the fact of the sudden
commencement of the system on the west, at longitude 45° west
from Greenwich, that is, where the ship's course ran out of the Gulf
Stream and approached the Banks. That we did not cut across the
axis of the system, is plain, from the fact that no soutlieast or north-
east winds were encountered. Otherwise it would be easy to con-
sider this system of gales as attached by some law to the northern
margin of the Gulf Stream, at least as to their common axis of for-
ward movement. But unless the series of gales had exhausted itself
precisely at the moment when we reached longitude 45°, or actually
commenced at that longitude, it must be allowed that the Canada
then and there sailed under the system; which, in that case, must be
regarded as descending from some region to the southwest, and in the
upper strata of the atmosphere, and impinging at that point upon the
surface of the sea, thence, continuing forward, at that level, to the
coast of Ireland.

Whether this be the best view or not, it is remarkable that these
violent disturbances are popularly confined to one particular season of
the year. Captain Moody, on consulting the record log-book of the

Lesley.] 3g4 [April.

steamer, found that the next longest voyage of the Canada had been
its first. He stated that all the voyages from Liverpool to New York,
commencing about the 9th of January, were longer and stormier than
the others. In 18G3 the corresponding voyage made by the Europa
had been one of 21 days. That of the America in 1862 had also
been one of 21 days. The succeeding voyage is always considered a
good one, not as against a prevalent west wind, but as against gales.

The avcrcKje time of endurance of each gale was 26 hours, and
the average interval of comparative calm was 6 hours. If 60 miles
an hour were given as the speed of the wind, and this were con-
sidered to mark the speed of the vortical column, we would be
obliged to consider the distance between the centres of the gales as
about 2000 miles, and there could have been but one gale traversing
at anyone time the distance between the Banks and Ireland. There
would be sufficient room, therefore, for it to assume any magnitude,
however great. But the fair weather on the British provincial
coast, as has been already said, seems to prove the small diameter of
all the gales, and we must view each one, therefore, as making its
solitary journey, as a simple eddy, nearly along the northern margin
of the Gulf Stream, and probably enlarging its area as it advanced ;
which would account for the extreme violence of the gales we en-
countered last as compared with those encountered in the first part
of the voyage.

But of course, the rate of motion of the nucleus cannot be fairly
represented by the rate of motion of any given circle on its limb,
unless that particular circle be selected at just the proper distance
from the centre, to be a mean between the dead wind at the extreme
circumference and the excessively rapid rotation at the centre. In
some one of these gales, it is probable, that the ship's course did cut
such a circle of mean motion, and got (without, of course, knowing
it) the exact rate of the vortical, in the actual rate of the blast over the
deck. It is a great mistake to draw a vortical storm with the shape
which it would have if it had no body-movement forward and moved
in vacuo. The fact must be, that most of the sections of a cyclone
move forward with its nucleus in nearly parallel lines; and that the
storm as a whole, while theoretically vortical, is in practice linear.
It practises its gyrations only near its centre.

The form of such a gale, moreover, must be merely a form, like
the form of a wave, the vortical movement being impressed on suc-
cessive portions of air, which, after being in turn set moving, are in
turn allowed to stop, fall into the rear, and come to rest.

1864.] 365 [Lesley.

Mr. H. S. Eaton remarks, in his paper on the antagonism of the polar
and equatorial currents (Art. xli, Proc. B. Met. Soc, June, 1863),
that " from some years' study of cyclonic storms and their courses
Europewards, he should say that the greater proportion of these cir-
cular storms traverse the Atlantic in zones, parallel somewhat to the
dotted line on his map of the great storm of the 18th and 19th of
May, 1863, their course, however, varying according as the sun is
north or south of the equator, their course being more northerly as
the sun approaches the tropic of Cancer, and more southerly as it
recedes therefrom." The line he draws, is one almost parallel to the
course of the Canada after leaving the coast of Ireland, or about S. 20°
W. (true). The coincidence of this course with that of the axis of
the Gulf Stream after leaving the Banks, is a marked feature. No
one yet, to my knowledge, has thoroughly discussed the action of the
mass of air warmed, and no doubt also propelled in that direction,
by the moving surfiice of the Gulf Stream, upon the wall of colder
air to the north of it, and the vault of cold air overhead ; yet we
have in their apposition and reaction a cause of great and regular dis-
turbance. Even if the mass of cold air to the north must be re-
garded as moving in the same direction, the different rates of the
two movements, and the perpetual struggle of the lower part of the
northern mass to inflow, and of the warm mass to uprise, must pro-
duce complicated movements of great regularity, and in the main
vortical in a retrograde sense.

Admiral Fitzroy considers that he has established the occur-
rence of cyclones of destructive violence but limited area, originat-
ing locally in the vicinity of the British Islands. Are we then to
look for such a spontaneous origination of vortical disturbances at any
point along the track of our cyclones between America and Great
Britain, or are they conflned in their origin to the vicinity of land ?

The principal points of interest, are the rate of the cyclones by which
their relative distances might be measured, and the question of their
generation about the 45th degree of west longitude, or their descent at
that meridian from the upper regions of the atmosphere over the At-
lantic seaboard States.

Pending nominations Nos. 508 to 521, and new nomina-
tion No. 522 were read.

Kesolutions recommended by the Publication Committee,
for the purchase of okl copies of exhausted editions of the
Transactions, old series, for the printing of No. 1, and title-

Lesley.] ^QQ [April.

page of Vol. 1, of the Proceedings, and for providing a cover
for future numbers of the Proceedings, -were adopted.

On motion, Mr. Price, Mr. Fraley, and Mr. Colwell, were
appointed a committee to take into consideration and report
at the next meeting upon the subject of providing a lot for
the future building of the Society.

And the Society Avas then adjourned.

Stated Meeting, April 15, 1864.

Present, fifteen members.

Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of publications were
received from the Natural History Society of Nuremberg,
November 14th, and the Royal Society at Upsal, September
15th, 1863.

Letters of invoice were received from the Imperial Society
of Naturalists at Moscow, September 6-12 ; the Royal So-
ciety at Upsal, October 15th ; the Royal Society at Berlin,
November 30th ; the Royal Society at Stockholm, Novem-
ber 18th ; the Royal Society at Munich, November 20th,
1868.

Donations for the Library were announced from the Royal
Academies and Societies at Stockholm, Upsal, Moscow, Ber-
lin, and Munich ; the Geological Society at Berlin, the Na-
tural History Society at Nuremberg, and the Zoological
Society at Frankfort on the Maine; the Bureau of Public
Instruction at Paris; MM. Desnoyers and Boucher de Perthes,
Prof^ Hennessy, Blanchard & Lea, and the Rev. Mr. Barnes,
of Philadelphia.

Donation for the Album, from Mr. Isaac Lea, of the por-
trait of Dr. George Jager.

On motion, the Natural History Society of Nuremberg
was placed on the list of correspondents to receive the Pro-
ceedings.

1864.] 367 [Chase.

Mr. Cliase made remarks upon the subject of magnetism,
and in further illustration of what he had advanced at pre-
vious meetings.

Barlow's and Lecount's laws for the distribution of the induced
magnetism in masses of iron, are precisely the same as would follow
from the relative centrifugal motions of different portions of the
earth, provided the magnetic axis coincided with the axis of rotation.
It is therefore reasonable to presume that they accurately represent
the superficial motions or currents on which the magnetism depends,
and to hope that a careful study will enable us to detect the cause
of the oscillations that polarize the air and all other bodies that are
capable of vibrating in harmony with it.

If the earth were stationary, the sun's heat would produce a con-
stant ascending current over the whole meridian, which would be
supplied by colder lateral currents from each side. fig.i.

These currents are represented in Fig. 1. P, is the pole; w i \ /
E, the equator ; a, h, c, the lateral currents. The light A I A
arrows represent the direction of the upper, overflowing,
warm air, and the dark ones the direction of the lower, *,^N< \*^
cool air. The effect of these several currents would be
a mechanical atmospheric polarity, precisely analogous '^ ^_^\^^^
to that which was indicated by our experiments upon the k

control of the magnetic needle by mechanical vibrations.

In consequence of the earth's rotation, the tendency shown in Fig.
1, is communicated only at the instant of noon. At all other times,
the flow of the cool air towards the equator, and of the warm air to
the coldest portions of the globe, is modified by the earth's motion,
so as to produce currents analogous to those represented in
Fig. 2. P represents, in this instance, not the true pole,
but the point of greatest cold. The warm air rises at E, and '
flows towards P until it becomes sufiiciently cooled to sink
to the earth. Still flowing onward it absorbs the heat of
the earth, until it is so rarefied as to rise again. This pro-
cess of alternate rise and fall, is continued until the air
reaches P, and then returns by the same law and in a similar man-
ner, to E.* These currents, which are flowing at all hours, and in

* Halley, in 1686 (Phil. Trans., No. 183), e.xplained the trade wind, and the
necessity of a reverse upper current, but he found it " very hard to conceive why
the limits of the trade wind should be fixt about the 30th degree of latitude

Chase.] 3g8 LApril.

all portions of the earth, produce an atmospherical directive energy
towards the poles of maximum cold, which appear, according to Sir
David Rrewstei*, to coincide with the magnetic poles.

Now, if we consider that in addition to these permanent currents,
there is a continual motion of silent convection, the warm air rising,
and the cold air descending in parallel columns, like the particles in
a vessel of boiling water,* and if we remember that the warm air is
charged with moisture which is condensed as it ascends, parting
thereby with much of its heat and electricity, we can hardly deem
it necessary to adopt Dr. Dalton's hypothesis that ferruginous matter
is the source of atmospheric magnetism. Still the existence of va-
porized iron in the air undoubtedly contributes an increased intensity
to the magnetic currents, and it may probably be an important agent
in the production of magnetic storms.

The two vibratory systems represented in Figs. 1 and 2, are con-
joined during the hours when the sun is above the horizon, and the
laws of motion applicable to the first system correspond precisely, as
we shall see hereafter, with the laws of the solar-diurnal variation
deduced from General Sabine's admirable discussions of the St.
Helena observations. It is not so easy to explain in its minute
details the comparatively insignificant lunar-diurnal variation, but I
am convinced that the aerial currents produced by lunar attraction,
will sufficiently account for all the magnetic influence that is due to
the moon exclusively. The changing barometric pressure, and the
deposition of dew during the night, modify these currents in such a
way as to disguise the simple effect of any slight disturbing cause ;
nevertheless, there is a manifest tendency underneath all the disguise,
to maxima and minima at the precise hours when they ought to occur
in consequence of the moon's attraction.

In the influence of the violet rays upon magnets, the connection of
the violet rays with the tension of brass in the polariscope, the excite-
ment of magnetic vibrations in iron by percussion and torsion, the
increase of magnetism by cold and its diminution by heat, and the

all around the globe." I am not aware that any one has ever pointed out the
combined effects of convection, absorption of heat from the earth, and the daily
superposition of the currents represented in Figs. 1 and 2.

* It is very probable that this motion of convection is a more important
agency than has generally been supposed. If we close the lower drafts of a com-
mon air-tight stove, and open a register immediately over the fire, the cold air
does not rush directly to the draft pipe ; but it falls with great velocity to the
surface of the fuel, as may be shown by dropping pieces of paper through the
register.

1864.] 369 [Chase.

general correspondence between Cballis's laws of molecular action
and the laws of attraction and rotation, we may find interesting evi-
dences of the unity of force which all modern discovery tends to
demonstrate, and in that unity a sufficient explanation of the ob-
served annual and secular variations of the magnetic needle, the
disturbing magnetic effects of auroras and solar spots, the changes of
the wind, and storms of every kind. Some of the well-known pheno-
mena of storms furnish a ready test of the principles I have attempted
to establish.

Although Fig. 2 represents the general tendency of a particle of
air, it is not probable that all the atmosphere, or even, perhaps, any
considerable portion of it, follows so regular a path. In the upper
regions, where the air is not so much affected by the radiation of
the earth, it may oscillate, as suggested by Redfield, " from centrifugal
action towards the equator, and gravitation towards the poles,"* and
between the points of decussation there are undoubtedly eddies which
have a general movement eastward or westward, in accordance with
the theory of M. Dove. These f i c, 3.

several currents are represent-
ed in Fig. o. The disturb-
ances of the aether, depend-
ent upon the relative attrac-
tions of the earth and sun,
probably produce tides corresponding in time with those of the baro-
meter, which must modify the atmospheric currents. The character
of these disturbances may be fig -n

inferred from Fig. 4, the ho- ^ — ^ Z^ — ^

rizontal arrows representing the ^ ■^'^^ ~~~^ %^ ^

course of the asther under the / / a ^^ ^ ^

I I V ^^ / / /

solar influence, and the curved ^ ^ ^"^JJ J - *■

arrows its course under the — 3^ \^^ '"^ ^^^ ^

combined attraction of the — ^ ^ *"

earth and sun.

Having thus ascertained the causes and directions of the principal
normal currents, the ordinary theory of winds enables us to understand
the effect of mountain peaks, deserts, forests, rivers, and ocean-
streams. Every point of the earth's surface that accumulates or
radiates an undue amount of heat, becomes a centre of polarity with
an attractive energy that disturbs the atmospheric equilibrium, tend-
ing to produce wind and rain. If the disturbance is confined to a

* Silliman's Journal, vol. 25, p. 130.
VOL. IX. — 2x

^ _ _> _^ ^

Chase. 1 370 [April.

limited area, there is a well-known cyclonic tendency, the portion of
the eddy which is nearest the equator, (jcni'mlly flowing eastward.
Mr. Galton* has ingeniously shown that in descending cyclones, the
direction may be reversed, and I should expect a similar reversal to
be of frequent occurrence in the neighborhood of some of the power-
ful ocean-currents, at points where they tend to produce backward
eddies. Such points are found midway between the Sandwich Is-
lands and California, about 3.5° west of Chili, near the west coast of
New Holland, in the Indian Ocean, northeast of Madagascar, and in
other places.

The efi"ect of ocean-currents in producing cyclones, and directing
their course, is well illustrated by the repeated observations that have
been made in the Gulf Stream. Prof. Lesley's interesting account of
the series of storms encountered by the Canada on her one hundredth
voyage,"!" exhibits the natural consequences of the friction of two belts
of air at different temperatures, moving in opposite directions. The
warm air over the Gulf Stream, and the cold air over the Arctic cur-
rents that flow nearer to the American continent, are both borne
very nearly in their normal directions, but with the approach of winter
their parallelism becomes almost vertical, the cold belt becomes wider
from its encroachment upon the land, and the vortices that arise from
their concurrence are frequently brought down to the surface of the
ocean, instead of taking place in the higher regions of the air, as
they usually do during summer.

While sudden, violent tempests that are occasioned by local dis-
turbances over a limited area, are almost necessarily cyclonic, I am in-
clined to adopt Espy's theory with regard to long storms, that usually
" the wind will blow in towards a line rather than towards a point,"
and in fixvor of this hypothesis as well as of the periodicity of weather-
changes, I would suggest the following explanation.

The normal currents of the atmosphere (Figs. 2, 3) are subject,
as we have seen, to a daily disturbanc(; by the sun's action (Fig. 1).
This disturbance, like the moon's tidal action, is cumulative, and
has a constantly increasing tendency to overcome the aerial polarity.
The gathering wave follows the sun until it is saturated with vapor,
and as soon as it becomes powerful enough to influence the normal
current, it must produce a shifting of the wind, and a deposition of
moisture. The equilibrium of temperature is then restored, to be
subjected anew to the same constant disturbance and the same
stormy culmination.

* Phil. Mag., Sept., 1863.

t Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc, April 1, 1864.

1864.] 371 • [Chase.

[My attention has just been called by the last number of the Jour-
nal of the Franklin Institute, to some extracts from the London
Athenaeum for January, announcing a paper on Magnetic Storms,
which was read by Mr. Airy before the Royal Society. I take this
early opportunity to acknowledge that the Astronomer Royal appears,
in some measure, to have anticipated the views upon the sources of
terrestrial magnetism, which I have recently had the honor of com-
municating to the Philosophical Society.

As I have not yet seen the paper in question, I do not know how
far the priority may extend ; whatever may be its limits, it gives me
pleasure to yield my claims to so distinguished and cautious an inves-
tigator, and to find that my own independent conclusions have been
so ably corroborated. And I believe I have good grounds for hoping,
that in the specific solar action which I have pointed out, iMr. Airy
will find the precise " occasional currents produced by some action
or cessation of action of the sun," for which he is looking. May 14.]

Mr. Peale made a communication on stone implements.
Pending nominations, Nos. 508 to 522, and new nomina-
tions, No. 523, were read, and the Society proceeded to ballot
for members.

Mr. Fraley, on behalf of the Committee on the purchase of
a building lot, reported progress.

All other business having been transacted, the ballot-boxes
were opened by the presiding officer, and the following per-
sons were declared duly elected members of this Society.
Benjamin V. Marsh, of Pliiladelphia.
James T. Hodge, of Newburg, N. Y.
James Kirchlioff, of Heidelberg, Germany.
Francis J. Pictet, of Geneva, Switzerland.
Benjamin Studer, of Zurich, Switzerland.
Alphonse Count de Gasparin, of Paris.
Peter Tunner, of Leoben, in Styria.
M. Thury, of Geneva, Switzerland.
Rev. Dr. Tholuck, of Halle-an-der-Saale.
Carl Schinz, of Offenburg, Baden.
William Sellers, of Philailelphia.
Richard S. Smith, of Philadelphia.
Alexander Wilcocks, M.D., of Philadelphia.
And the Society was adjourned.

Zantedeschi.] 3 'J 2 [May.

Stated 3Icetmg, May 6, 1864.

Present, seventeen members.

Judge Spiaeswood, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Letters accepting membership were received from William
Sellers, dated Philadelphia, April 26 ; from Alexander Wil-
cocks, dated Philadelphia, May 2 ;-from R. S. Smith, dated
Girard College, May 4th ; and from Benjamin V. Marsh,
dated Philadelphia, May 4, 1864. Mr. Marsh, Mr. Sellers
and Dr. Wilcocks "were presented to the presiding officer and
took their seats.

Letters respecting the exchange of publications were re-
ceived from 0. Bohtlingk, of the Royal Academy of St. Pe-
tersburg, and from Henry St. John Maule, of the Agricul-
tural Society at Bath, dated December 31st, 1863.

On motion of the Librarian, the request of the latter was
ordered to be granted.

A letter was read from Sig. Zantedeschi, dated Padova,
March 28, 1864, respecting his previous communications,
requesting the publication of his letter of January 6th, as
follows :

Alia Cclebre Soci'eta Filoi'njlca Americana in Filndtlfin.

Cotesta illustre Societa' Filosofica fjentilniente ni'invitava ad invi-
arie 11 mio ritratto fotoji'vafato, essendosi essa proposto di formare un
Album dei Membri della medesiinn. lo non luandrero' di adempiere
a questo suo desidcrio, cbe e' un onore per nie, entro il prossimo ven-
turo Marzo, nel quale potro' far eseguire la fotografia di due tavole
risguardanti i luiei esperinienti e le niie ricerche sullo spettro lumi-
noso. Di queste e di altre fu eseguita nel 1846 una edizione di po-
cbi^sinii eseniplari cbe non fu incssa in comniercio librario, e quindi
ora irreperibile. In tali esperimenti trovansi parecebie verita' o sco-
perte cbe ora si attrlbuiscono ad altri fisici. Credo di non fare cosa
diseara alia Societa' rassegnandogliene del Capitolo III cbe tratta
deir analisi dello spettro solare una copia manoseritta, percbe possa
avere Tonore di essere pubblicata negli Atti della Societa'. Sara
questa pubblicazione un' imniagine scientifica cbe si riflettera' ovun-

18G4.] 'SI'S [Zantedesehi.

que giungano gli Attl importantissimi di cotesto insigne Corpo Sci-
entifico.

Anticipo frattanto le conclusioni, alle quali io giunsi colle mie in-
vestigazioni. Se queste furono cagione di un indebolimento della mia
vista, die rimase iutieraraente spenta da arte matrigna per una solu-
zione concentratissima di Atropa Bdladonna, possa almeno riniaiiere
vivo e parlante un documento di quanto operai intorno alio spettro lu-
niinoso ! L'indicazione delle paglne citate per cadauna conclusione
si riferisce al luio manoscritto clie sara' rassegnato, il quale e' di pa-
gine 3G. Seguano le mie conclusioni.

Dalla storia analitica degli spettri luminosi e dalle mie esperienze,
clie ho riferite, raccolgo aver deterniinato :

1°. Che lo spettro luniinoso h un analizzatore chiniico il piu' sqni-
sito che abbia la scienza fino al 1S63, per iscoprire I'esistenza delle
sostanzc che ardono nelle fiamme e le loro variazioni (pag. 7, 12, 30,
etc.)

2°. Che lo spettro luminoso e un fotoscopio che determina la quan-
tita e qualita de' raggi luminosi, che vengono assorbiti dall' atmos-
fera, come lo comprovano gli spettri che ottenni a cielo sereno, vapo-
roso ed intieramente coperto con pioggia (pag. 15, 22, 25, 30).

3°. Che esistono righe fisse e righe mobili quali sono de 574 sot-
tili di Fraunhofer frapposte alle priiicipali, per cui non ho potuto mai
avere in Venezia ed in Padova I'identico completo sistema di righe
ottenute da Fraunhofer in Monaco (pag. 17).

4°. Che il foco chimico e distinto dal foco ottico, e I'uno e I'altro
variabili nelle varie ore del giorno e dei mesi e nei varj stati dell' at-
mosfera (pag. 18-21).

5°. Che lo spettro ordinario e'circondato da due spettri secondarj
policroiuici e da due spettri monocromici, che variano per forma e per
dimensioni nelle varie stagioni dell' anno e nei differenti stati dell'
atmosfera (pag. 18, 20, 22, 23).

6°. Che una camera oscura ad elementi fissi potrebbe farci sco-
prire nella successione degli anni quali siano le righe proprie ciascun
astro e quali siano quelle che devonsi attribuire all' atmosfera terres-
tre (pag. 30).

7°. Che lo spettro luminoso potra' rivelarci i cambiamenti ai quali
soggiaciono i sistemi planetarj e le loro atmosfere (pag. 30).

8°. Che il movimento e varia glcssezza delle righe dimostrano i
moti intestini de' gruppi molecolari e de' lori movimenti di traslazi-
one ; per cui lo spettro solare non solo e utile alia meteorologia, alia

Zantedeschi.] S^-i [May.

fotografia, raa ancora alia conoscenza fisica de' sistemi stellari (pag.
30, 31).

9°. Che lo spettro di Newton h formato di due coppie di colori
semplici cive' rosso e giallo, azzurro e violetto; gli altri tre aranciato,
verde ed indaco, che sono gl' iiiteruiedj, sono composti di rosso e
giallo, di giallo e azzurro, di azzurro e violetto, come emerge dalle
mie sintesi ed analisi (pag. 16).

10°. Che oltrc le linee fisse e mobili trasversali, esistono linee lon-
gitudinali, le quali pure variano in numero, grossezza e posizione nei
varj stati dell' atmosfera e nei varj mesi dell' anno, e cangiando gli
elementi dell' apparato, quali sono la grandezza dell' apertura del
porta-luce, la distanza del prisma dal porta-luce, la distanza del piano
di projezione dal prisma etc. (pag. 23, 24, 25, 27).

11°. Che nei fenonieni dello spettro luminoso interviene la natura
del corpo raggiante, il mezzo attraverso il quale passano gli efflussi lu-
uiinosi, e I'apparato stesso dell' esperienza (pag. 28, 29).

12°. Che i fenonieni dello spettro luminoso si derivano dal vario
riflettersi, rifrangersi, disperdersi de' raggi luminosi (pag. 2d).

Ho avuto la compiacenza che le mie esperienze furono coronate
dalla scoperta di nuovi metalli e dai risultamenti ultimamente otte-
nuti in America e in Francia, come emerge da quelli di Rutherford,
Porro, Babinet, Piazzi-Smyth, Mascart etc (Moniteur de la Photogra-
phie, pag. 141, !"■ Decembre, 18(33, No. IS, Paris; Comptes llendus,
tom, XXXV, pag. 413 e 479, an. 1852; Cosmos, vol. xxiii, pag. 604,
an. 1863; Comptes Rendus, tom. Ivii, pag. 789, an. 186oj.

Non potesano essere piu' confortanti e piu' onorevoli per me le pa-
role del Sigr. Dr. Phipson dotto inglese, il quale scrisse : " Les re-
cherches ingenieuses de Mr. le Professeur Zantedeschi ont sans doute
contribue beaucoup a amener cette belle partie de la science spectro-
scopique au point ou elle se trouve aujourd'hui." (Lettre de Mr. le
Dr. Phipson a Mr. P^rnest Lacour, sur I'histoire des decouvertes spec-
troscopiques; Moniteur de la Photographie, No. 18, 1^' Decembre,
1861, pag, 143.)

Sono co' sensi di altissima stima e profondo rispetto,
Padova, il 6 di Gennajo, 1864.

Donations for the Library were received from tlie Bureau
of Public Instructron and M. Delesse, at Paris ; the Royal
Astronomical, British Meteorological, Geological, and Royal
Asiatic Societies ; J. W. Dawson, of Montreal ; the Essex In-

1864] 375

stitute ; George Ticknor, of Boston ; the New Bedford Li-
brary; Silliman's Journal; Blanchard & Lea and the House
of Refuge, at Philadelphia ; the Bureau of Agriculture and
Smithsonian Institution, at Washington ; and the Buffalo So-
ciety of Natural Sciences. On motion, the last-mentioned
Society was ordered to be put upon the list of Correspond-
ing Societies, to receive the Proceedings.

A copy of Proceedings, No. 70, just published, was laid
upon the table.

A donation for the Cabinet was announced from Mr. Jos.
H. Merriam, of Boston, consisting of eleven varieties of to-
kens and medals, and a collection of sixty-eight more, from
Mr. Pliny E. Chase.

A photograph likeness of 0. Bcihtlingk was received for the
Album.

The death of a member of the Society, Evan Pugh, Presi-
dent of the State Agricultural College near Bellefonte, was
announced by Mr. Fraley.

The death of a member of the Society, General J. G. Tot-
ten, Chief of Topographical Engineers Department, U. S., at
Washington, was announced by the Secretary. On motion
of Mr. Fraley, Dr. Vethake was appointed to prepare an obi-
tuary notice of the deceased.

Mr, Chase presented for publication in the Transactions, a
note to his own paper, on Linguistic Resemblances, by Mr.
James E. Oliver, of Lynn, Mass., which, on motion, was re-
ferred to the same commmittee. Prof. Haldeman, Dr. Coates,
Prof. Kendall.

The subject of reprinting the missing numbers of the first
volume of Proceedings was then taken up, and on motion of
Mr. Fraley, committed, with discretionary powers, to the Se-
cretaries.

Pending nomination No. 522, and new nominations Nos.
523, 524, were read.

The Committee in relation to a site for a future Hall, re-
ported, that in the present state of the currency, Mr. Harrison
declined to name any price at which he will sell his lot on the
south side of Penn Square, but has promised not to sell it to

376 [May.

any one without giving the Society the opportunity of pur-
chasing. Signed, Eli K. Price, Chairman. On motion, the
report was accepted and the committee continued, with orders
to report again when needful.

The bill of Sherman & Son, for printing No. 70 of the
Proceedings, &c., amounting to ^187 75, Avas referred to the
Treasurer.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, May 20, 1864.

Present, fourteen members.

Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from James T.
Hodge, dated Newburg, May 6th, 1864.

A letter accepting the appointment to prepare an obituary
notice of General Totten was received from Prof. Vethake,
dated Mantua, Philadelphia, May 19th, 1864.

Donations for the Library were received from the Essex
Institute, Columbia College, Buffalo Young Men's Associa-
tion, Franklin Institute, and Smithsonian Institution.

Dr. Le Conte offered for deposit in the Library a collection
of Oriental works, selected from the library of his father,
late Major Le Conte, which were accepted, and ordered to be
suitably marked and kept together to be rendered on demand.

1864.] 377

Books Deposited by Dr. Le Conte. May 20, 1864.

Mosis Chorenensis Historife Armeniacae, libri tres. Ed. Whistoni,

filii. Lond. 1736. 4°.
Nineveh and Persepolis. W. S. W. Vaux. Lond. 1850. 8°.
Mellificium Historicum, coraplectens Ilistoriam trium IMonarchi-

arum J Chaldaicos; Persiese ; Graicae. Ch. Pezelio. Marpurgi,

1610. 4°.
Mohanimedis filii Chavendscliahi, vulgo Mirchondi, Historia Sama-

nidarura Persice. Fr. ^^''ilken. Goettingaa, 1808. 4°.
Travels in Chaldea, in 1827. Cap. E. Mignan. Lond. 1829. 8°.
Berosi Sacerdotis Chaldaici. Ed. ult. Antverpioe, 1552. 12°.
Jac. Perizonii Origines Babylonicae et Egyptiacae. Tomis II. C.

A. Dukerus. Traj. ad Rhenum, 1736. 12°.
De Regio Persaruin. B. Brissonii. Ex tjp. Ilier. Commelini,

1595. 12°.
A Geographical Memoir of the Persian Empire. J. M. Kinnear.

Lond. 1813. 4°.
Elements of the Chaldee Language. W. Harris. New York, 1823.

8°. Pamp. 24 pp.
Narrative of a Journey to the Site of Babylon in 1811. Journey to

Persepolis. C. J. Rich. Lond. 1839. 8°.
Dissertation on the Antiquities of Persepolis. W. Price. 4°. Pamp.

36 pp.
Observations on some Medals and Gems bearing Inscriptions in the

Pahlavi Character. Sir W. Ouseley. Lond. 1801. 4°. Pamph.

PP-44.
Memoire sur deux Inscriptions Cuneiformes Trouvees pres D'Hama-

dan. M. E. Burnouf. Paris, 1836. 4°. Pamph. pp. 193.
A Dissertation on the Newly Discovered Babylonian Inscriptions.

Jos. Hager. Lond. 1801. 4°.
A Specimen of Persian Poetry; or, Odes of Hafiz. Translated by

J. Richardson from Revizky's Specimen. Lond. 1802. 4°.
Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia, Ancient Babylonia, &c. Sir

R. K. Porter. 2 vols. 4°. Lond. 1821.
Journeys through Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor. J. Morier.

Lond. 1812. 2 vols. 4°.
The History of Persia. Sir J. Malcolm. Lond. 1815. 2 vols. 4°.
Travels in Assyria, Media, and Persia. J. S. Buckingham. 2d Ed.

2 vols. Lond. 1830. 8°.

VOL. IX. — 2y

378 [M'^y-

De Persidis Lingua et Genio Commentationes. 0. Frank. Norimb.

1809. 8°.
Tableau General de I'Empire Othouian. M. De M. D'Obsson.

Paris, 1788. 7 vols. 8°.
The Persian Moonshee. Fr. Gladwin. Calcutta, 1801. 4°.
Journal of the British Embassy to Persia. W. Price. Lond. 1825.

2d Ed. Vol. I. Long quarto.
Tarich h. e. Series Regum Persicce, ab Ardschir-Bakekan. W. Schi-

kardo. Tubing. 1628. 4°.
Observations on the Ruins of Babylon, as described by C. J. Rich.

Rev. T. Maurice. Lond. 1816. 8°.
Dissertations on the Rhetoric, Prosody and Rhyme of the Persians.

F. R. Gladwin. Calcutta, 1801. 4°.
Tentamcn Palajographiai Assyrio-Persicae. A. A. H. Lichtenstein.

Helmst. 1803.' 4°.
Historia Priorum Regum Persarum. M. Mirchond. Pers. et Lat.

cum Notis. Viennse, 1782. 4°.
Memoires sur Diverses Antiquites de la Perse. A. J. Silvestre de

Sacy. Paris, 1793. 4°.
Veteris Medi;K et Persiae Monumenta. C. F. C. Hoeck. Getting.

1818. 4°.
Arsacidarum Iniperiura sive Regum Parthorum Historia. J. Foy

Vaillant. 2 vols. 4°. Paris, 1725.
Veterum Persarum et Parthorum et Medorum Religionis Historia.

T. Hyde. Ed. seeund. Oxon. 1760. 4°.
Travels in Various Countries of the East, more particularly Persia.

Sir W. Ouseley. 3 vols. 4°. Lond. 1819.
The Oriental Collections of W. Ouseley. 2 vols. 4°. Lond. 1797,

1798.
Lexicon Persieo-Latinura Etymologicum. J. A. Vullers. Vol. I.
1855, bound, and unbound fasciculi, V i, V ii, VI i, VI ii (the
rest wanting). Bonn, 1856.
De Fatis Linguarum Orientalium Arabica; nimirura Persicae et Tur-

cicae Commentatio. Vienna?, 1780. F.
A Dictionary, Persian, Arabic and English, with a Dissertation, &c.
J. Richardson. New Edit. By C. Wilkins. Lond. 1806. 2
■vols. 4°.
Sabaean Researches. J. Landseer. Lond. 1823. 4°.
Sententise Ali Ebn Abi Talebi Arabice et Latine. C. Van Waenen,
Oxon. 1806. 4°.

1864.] 379

An Arabic Vocabulary and Index for Richardson's Arabic Gram-
mar, T. Noble. Edin. 1820. 4°.
A Hebrew and English Lexicon. "W. Gesenius. Trans, by E.

Robinson. 4th Ed. Boston, 1850. 8°.
An Historical and Critical Inquiry into the Interpretation of the

Hebrew Scriptures. J. W. Whittaker. Cambr. 1819. 8°.
Lexicon Hebraicum et Chaldaicum J. Buxtorfii. Ed. nov. Glas-

guse, 1824. 8°.
Institutiones Linguae Hebraicoe R. Bellarmini. Paris, 1622. V2°.
Dissertationes Miscellaneae H. Relandi. Traj. ad Rhen. 1706. 12°.
The Israelitish Authorship of the Sinaitic Inscriptions. C. Forster.

Lend. 1856. 8°. ,
A Hebrew Primer. Bishop of St. David's. Pamph. 16 pp. 16°.
Dissertationes Selecta3, varia S. Litterarum et Antiquitatis Orientalis

Capita D. Millii. Lugd. Bat. 1743. 4°.
Biblia Hebraica B. A. Montani. (Hebrew text, with interlinear

Latin translation and side notes.) 1581. F.
Genesis in Hebrew, with New Translation. De Sola, Lindenthal,

and Raphall. Lond. 5604—1844. 8°.
Analysis and Critical Interpretation x)f the Hebrew Text of Genesis,

preceded by a Hebrew Grammar. W. Paul. Edin. and Lond.

1852. 8°.
Introduction to Genesis, with a Commentary on the opening portion.

From the German of P. Von Bohlen. J. Heywood. 2 vols. Lond.

1855. 8°.
Questiones Mosaicae; or, the Book of Genesis compared with the

Remains of Ancient Religions. 0. de B. Priauls. London,

1842. -8°.
Genesis Elucidated. J. J. W. Jervis. Lond. 1852. 8°.
Genesis and Exodus. Being the first two volumes of A Historical

and Critical Commentary on the Old Testament. By M. M. Ka-

lisch. Lond. 1858 and 1855.
Jewish School and Family Bible, in 3 vols. 8°. A. Benisch. Lond.

1851.
Ascensio Isaise Vatis. R. Lawrence. Oxon. 1819. 8°.
Primi Ezras Libri, Versio Ethiopica. R. Laurence. Oxon. 1820. 8°.
The Times of Daniel. George, Duke of Manchester. Lond. 1845. 8°.
Woodruff on Daniel's 70 Weeks. 4°.

An Explanation of the 70 Weeks. J. Caverhill. Lond. 1777. 8°.
A Chronological Essay on the Ninth Chapter of Daniel. P. Lan-
caster. Lond. 1722. 4°.

380 [May,

Chronolojry of the Times of Daniel, Ezra, and Nehemiah. J. W.

Bosanquet. Lond. 1848. 8°.
In Libium Danielis R. Rolloci Scoti. Ed. alt. Genevae, 1610. 1C°.
Josippon, sive J. Ben-Goriouis Historise Judaicse Libri Sex. Ex.

Heb. Lat. J. Gagnier. Oxon. 1706. 4°.
Historia Imp. Vet. Joctanidarum in Arabia Felice ex Abulfeda.

Persian Text. 4°.
Specimen Historiae Arabum, sive Gregorii Abul Farajii Malatiensis

de Origine et Moribus Arabum E. Pocockii. Oxon. 1650. 4°.
The Historical Geography of Arabia (with a Glossary of Hamyaritic

Inscriptions). C Forster. Lond. 1844. 2 vols. 8°.
Miscellanea Phoenicia. H. A. Hamaker. Lug. Bat. 1828. 4°.
Description de 1' Arabic. C. Niebuhr. Unbound. Amsterdam,

1774. 4°.
Voyage en Arabic. C. Niebuhr. Unbound. 2 vols. Amsterdam,

1776, 1780. 4°.
Receuil de Questions Pi'oposees h, une Societe de Savants que font

le Voyage de I'Arabie. M. Michaelis trad. del'Allemand. Amst.

1774. 4°.
The Travels of Ibn Batuta. Translated from the Arabic. With

Notes. S. Lee. Lond. 1829. 4°.
The Oriental Geography of Ebn Haukal. (X. Cent.) Trans. Sir

W. Ouseley. Lond. 1800, 4°.
Rech^rches et Dissertations surHerodote. Bouhier. Dijon, 1746. 4°.
Recherches Curieuses sur I'Histoire Ancienne de I'Asie. J. M.

Chahan de Cirbied and F. Martin. Paris, 1806. 8°.
A Dissertation on the Geography of Herodotus. With Map. Re-
searches into the History of the Scythians, &c. From the Ger-
man of B. G. Niebuhr. Oxford, 1830. 8°.
Maured Allatafet Jemaleddini filii Togri-bardii, seu Rerum ^gyp-

tiacarum Annales, 971-1453. J. D. Carlyle. Cantab. 1792. 4°.
Philosophical Dissertations on the Egyptians and Chinese. From

the French of De Pauw. Cap. J. Thomson. 2 vols. Lond.

1795. 8°.
Geographia Nubiensis. Arab, et Lat. Sionita et Hesronita. Par.

1629. 4°.
jEgyptiaca. H. Witsii. De ^-Egyptiacorum Sacrorum cum He-

braicis CoUatione. Amstel., 1683. 4°.
^gyptiarura Originum Investigatio. J. Perizonii. H.VanAlphen

Traj. ad Rhen^ 1736. 12°.

1864.] 381

De Totius Africas Descriptione. Lib. ix. 1. Leonis Africani in lat.

conv. I. Floriano. Antverp., 1556. 12°.
Pantheon ^gyptiorum. P. E. Jablonski. Franc, ad Viadrura,

1750. 8°-
Africa Edrisii. Cur. J. M. Hartmann. Ed. alt. Gott. 1796. 8°.
L'Egypte sous les Pharaons. M. Champollion le Jeune. Paris,

1814. 8°.
Historical Researches into the Politics, &c., of the Carthaginians,

Ethiopians and Egyptians. A. H. L. Heeren. Translated from

the German. Oxford, 1832. 2 vols. 8°.
Historical Researches into the Politics, &c., of the Principal Nations

of Antiquity. A. H. L. Heeren. Translated from the German.

Oxford, 1833. 3 vols. 8°.
Precis du Syst^me Hieroglyphique des Anciens Egyptiens. M.

Champollion le Jeune. 2d Edit. Paris, 1827, 1828. Unbound.

2 vols. 8°.
Rig-Veda-Sanhita. H. H. Wilson. Lond. 1850. 8°.
Observations on the Plagues of Egypt. J. Bryant. New Edition.

Lend. 1810. 8°.
Origines ; or Remarks on the Origin of Several Empires, &c. Sir

W. Drummond. 4 vols. Lond. 1824. 8°.
Hermes Scythicus; or, the Radical Affinities of the Greek and Latin

Lansuacres to the Gothic. J. Jamieson. Edin. 1814. 8°.
A Dissertation on the Languages, &c., of Eastern Nations. 2d Ed.

New Analysis of Ancient Mythology, in answer to Bryant's Apo-
logy. J. Richardson. Oxford, 1778. 8°.
Ancient Alphabets and Hieroglyphic Characters Explained in Arabic.

By A. Bin Abubekr Bin Wahshih. Englished by J. Hammer.

Lond. 1806. Square 8°.
The One Primeval Language. C. Forster. 3 vols. Lond. 2d. Ed.

1852.
A Harmony of Primeval Alphabets. C. Forster. In box cover. 8°.
Ogygia; or, A Chronological Account of Irish Events. Latin. R.

O'Flaherty, Esq. J. Hely. 2 vols. Dublin, 1793. 8°.
Phoenician Ireland. J. L. Villaneuva. Englished by H. O'Brien.

Lond. Dub. 1833. 8°
The Rivers of Paradise and Children of Shem. Expedition of Se-

sostris into India. Maj. W. Stirling. Lond. 1855. 8°.
Reflexions Critiques sur les Histoires des Anciens Peuples, Chal-
deens, Hebreux, Pheniciens, Egyptiens, Grecs, &c. M. Fourmont.
2 vols. Paris, 1735. 4°.

382 [M^y.

Prospectus of a Dictionary of the Language of the Aire Coti or
Ancient Irish ; with the Language of the Cuti or Ancient Per-
sians; with the Hindoostanee, Arabic and Chaldean. Lieut.-Gen.
C. Vallancey. Preface. — Account of the Ogham Tree-Alphabet
of the Irish, lately found in an Ancient Arabic MS. in Egypt.
Dub. 1802. 4°.

Prosodia Rationalis ; or, An Essay towards Establishing the iMelody
and Measure of Speech by Peculiar Symbols. 2d Edit. Josh.
Steele. Lond. 1779. 4°.

Researches into the Origin and Affinity of the Principal Languages
of Asia and Europe. Lieut-Col. Vans Kennedy. Lond. 1828. 4°.

Remains of Japhet, being Historical Inquiries into the Affinity and
Origin of the European Languages. Jas. Parsons. Lond. 17G7. 4°.

Explication de Divers Monumens Singuliers qui ont Rapport a la

Religion des plus Anciens Peuples I'Astrologie Judi-

caire; enrichi de figures. R. P. Dom . . . . de St. Maur. Paris,
1739. 4°.

Populorum et Regum Numi Veteres Inediti. Fr. Neumanno. Yin-
dob. 1779. 4°.

Les Origines Indo-Europeennes, ou les Aryas Primitifs. Essai de
Paleontologie Linguistique. Adol. Pictet. Paris, 1859. Grand 8°.

De Initiis et Originibus Religionum in Oriente Dispersarum quae
Differunt a Religione Christiana. D. G-. H. Bernstein. Berol,
1817. Small 4°.

Seder Olani. Chronicoa Hebrasorum Majus et Minus. J. Meyer.
Amstell. 1699. 4°.

Animadversions upon Sir Isaac Newton's Book, entitled The Chro-
nology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended. A. Bedford. Lond.
1728. 8°.

Shuckford's Connections. The Sacred and Profane History of the
World Connected. Revised by J. Creighton. First Amer. Ed.
Phila. 18'.^4. 4 vols, in 2. 8°.

Prideaux's Connections. The Old and New Testament Connected.
H. Prideaux. 18th Ed. 4 vols. Lond. 1821. 8°.

Russell's Connections; with a Folio Atlas. A Connection of Sacred
and Profane History. M. Russell. 3 vols. Lond. 1827. 8°.

Chronology. Fr. Parker. Lond. 1858. 8°.

New Analysis of Chronology, &c. W. Hales. 2d Ed. 4 vols. Lond.
1830. 8°.

Sacred Chronology. G. Faussett. Ed. R. Faussett. Ox. 1855. 8°.

1864.] 383

Institution urn Chronologicarum Libri 3. G. Beveregium. Lond.

1G69. 4°.
Chronologia Sacra-Profana Dicta Gr. Davidis. R. D. Ganz. Ex. »

Heb. en Lat. G. H. Vorstiuni. Lug. Bat. 1G44. 4°.
Que.stiones Chronologicaa de anni,s Dom. Julian, et Nabonass. R.

P. H. Philippi. Col. Agrip. 1630. 4°.
Systeine Chronologique sur les trois Textes de la Bible, &c. M.

Michel, de TouL Toul, 1733. 4°.
Historia Orientalis. J. H. Hottingero. Tigurino, 1651. 4°.

Asia, sive Historia Universalis A.siaticura, etc Sacri Profa-

nique Ritus. J. Baptista de Granmje Arnhemiensi. Antv.
1604. 4°.
Historia Compendiosa Dynastiarum, auc. G. Abul-Pharajio. Arab.

ed. et Lat. ver ab E. Pocockio. Oxon. 1663. 4°.
L'Antiquite des Temps Retablie et Defendue, centre les Juifs et les
Nouveaux Clironologistes. Par le Pere Pezron. Paris, 1687. 4°.
Eusebii Pauipbili Chronicorum Canonum libri duo. I. Zohrabo.

Mediolani, 1818. F.
Chronicus Canon ^lj]gyptiacus, Ebraicus, Grsecus, et Disquisitiones

D. T. Marshanii. Lond. 1672. F.
Chronicon Orientale nunc Priraum Donatum ab. Abr. Ecchel-

lensi Syro Maronita e Libano, &c. Paris, 1651. Grand F.
Chronological Antiquities, or the Antiquities and Chronologies of the
most Ancient Kingdoms, &c. J. Jackson. Lond. 1752. 3 vols.
Grand 4°.
Recherches sur I'Origine, I'Esprit, et les Progres des Arts de la
Grece ; sur leurs Connections avec les Arts et la Religion de plus
Anciens Peuples Connus, &c. Lond. 1785. 3 vols. 4°.
0^TWr MYFIOBIDAON II BIBAIOBIIKH. Lat. vero peddidit et
scholis auxit A. Schottus Antverpianus. Genevie (0. P. Ste-
phani), 1611. F.
HAIXAAION seu Chronicon Paschale a mundo condito ad Hera-
clii Imp An. XX, cum nova Lat. ver. not. Chron. et Hist. Cur.
Caroli duFresne, D. du Cange. Paris, 1688. F.
Commentaire Geographique sur I'Exode et les Nombres. Leon de

Laborde. Unbound. Paris et Leipsig, 1841. F.
Codex apocryphus novi testamenti, collectus, castigatus, testimo-
nisque, censuris et animadversionibus illustratus a J. A. Fabricio.
Hamb. 1703. 16°.
Acta, Epistolae, Apocalypses, alia Scripta Apnstolis falso inscripta,
sive Codicis Apocryphi Novi Testamenti. Tom. II. 12°.

384 [May.

J. Perisonii, Ant. F. Animadversiones Historiece, &c. Amstell.

1685. 16°.
Graeca Lingua) Historia. F. Burtono. Lond. 1657. 16°.
Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay. Vol. I. Lond.

1819, Vol. II 18:i0, Vol. Ill 1823.
Journal Asiatique ou Receuil de Meraoires, &c., relatifs a I'Histoire,

(fee, des Peuples Orientaux. Redige par MM. Chezy, &c. &c., et

Public par la Societe Asiatique. Paris. Vol. I 1822, II 1823,

III 1823, IV 1824, V 1824, VI 1825, VII 1825, VIII 1826,

IX 1826, X XI 1827. (Rest wanting.)
The Journal of the R. Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

Lond. 8°. Vol. X i 1816, ii iii 1847, XI i ii 1849, XII 1850,

XIII i 1851, ii 1852, XIV duplicate of i 1851, XV i 1853, ii

1853, XVI i 1854, ii 1856. (Rest wanting.)
Twenty-ninth Annual Report of R. Asiatic Society, 1852. Pamph.

Relating to Rawlinson's and Layard's Discoveries.
Transactions of the Chronological Institute of London. Part I 1852,

Part II 1857, Part III 1858.

Dr. Wilcocks presented for publication in the Tran.sac-
tions, a memoir entitled: "Thoughts on the Influence of
Ether in the Solar System ; its relations to the Zodiacal
Light, Comets, the Seasons, and Periodical Shooting Stars ;"
which, on motion, was referred to a Committee consisting of
Prof. Kendall, Prof. McClune, and Mr. Marsh.

Dr. Wilcocks read the following synopsis of the commu-
nication :

The paper describes briefly the ideas entertained of Ether by the
Hindoos, as well as by two of the schools of Greece ; but asserts
that it is not by the aid of any such fluid that I shall undertake to
explain the cause of the phenomena mentioned in the title. My
only purpose in dwelling upon the ancient theories i,s, to show how
they have biased the minds of modern astronomers.

The discovery of Professor Encke, I have off"ered as the first ra-
tional evidence of the existence of a resisting medium in space,
and have made a suggestion regarding the density of the Ether in
difi"erent parts of the solar system.

The fiict of our intercourse with matter being altogether with
gross substances, I have urged as the great difficulty of appreciating
the nature of ether; and have proposed that while discussing the

1864.] 3g5 [Wilcocks.

subject, we should endeavor to lay aside notions of matter already
acquired, and try to view it as we believe it to exist in the celestial
spaces.

The physical constitution of the sun, as received by the best au-
thorities, I have described as far as I believe it to influence the mo-
tion of the ether. The rotation of that orb upon its axis, with the
position of the latter with reference to the ecliptic, I have recounted ;
also the observations of Secchi upon the relative heat of different
parts of the sun's surface, and the influence of this difference of
heat in determining the character of the ethereal currents.

After duly considering the effect of these agencies upon each
other, the conclusions are reached that the ether in the solar system is
in constant motion, that it performs a circulation from the sun's
poles to the equator, and thence into the region of the planets, and
finally returning to the sun's poles, descends thereon in the form of
vortices; that the shape of the mass, as it advances into space, is
that of a huge plate, or more precisely a hollow cone, whose apex
forms a highly obtuse angle at the sun's centre.

The existence of reflecting matter in the ether is shown from the
corona of light seen round the moon during a total eclipse of the
sun.

It is suggested that a perspective view of the ascending current
of ether, as it advances through the region of the planets, produces
the appearance known as the zodiacal light.

The weak points of former explanations of this phenomenon are
exposed, and the claim urged that the theory of ethereal currents,
derived altogether from independent data, affords the best explana-
tion.

All the positive information we have upon the subject of ether is
derived from its effect upon comets, but long before Encke's day.
Sir Isaac Newton had undertaken to explain some of the most pro-
minent features of these bodies, upon the hypothesis of their moving
through a material fluid.

The views of Newton, with respect to the position of the tails of
comets, I have noticed, with the reflection, that neither in his own
day nor ours have his ideas upon the subject received that support
from astronomers to which their merit entitles them. I have sug-
gested several reasons to account for the fact.

The ingenious and plausible hypothesis of M. Valz respecting the
density of the ether in the solar system, is described, with his expla-

VOL. IX. — 2z

Wilcocks.] 3gg [May

nation of the reduction of volume in comets on approaching the sun,
and their subsequent increase on receding from that luminary.

The non-concurrence of M. Arago and Sir John Herschel in the
theory of M. Valz is given as evidence of the influence of the an-
cient theories of ether at the present time upon the minds of astro-
nomers.

The existence of the ascending current of ether near the ecliptic
is offered in explanation of certain peculiarities of Halley's comet,
which have been observed in five of the eight visits which that body
has made to its perihelion since the year 1305.

The vortical currents which descend upon the poles of the sun, are
urged as the causes of the exceptional position of the tails of such
comets as have passed through them.

The catalogues of comets in the works of M. Arago and Mr. Hind
show that the orbits of all those bodies which have had tails directed
towards the sun, have had an inclination of more than seventy de-
grees, and a perihelion distance less than one-fourth the radius of the
earth's orbit.

The ascending current of ether which, owing to the reflecting
matter which it contains, becomes visible to us as the zodiacal light,
cannot be of as low a temperature as the surrounding medium.

In order to show the influence of ether upon the seasons, I have
traced, by the aid of a priori reasoning, the path of the ascending
current through the solar system.

I have determined by calculation the points where the earth passes
through the current, and endeavored to demonstrate that the first
passage occurs in the month of August, and produces the canicular
days ; the second passage takes place in November, and is the cause
of the season known as the Indian summer.

Several minor influences of the ethereal currents upon the seasons
are suggested, and the effort made to connect, through the relation
of cause and effect, these influences with known phenomena.

A .belief in the ethereal origin of the dog-days and the Indian
summer, naturally leads to the inquiry, May not the numerous spo-
radic shooting stars seen about the 10th of August, and the showers
of them sometimes seen on the 12th of November, proceed from the
same cause ? Under the impression that this might be the case, I
was induced to search for the existence of some numerical coinci-
dence between the grand November exhibitions of shooting stars,
and the sidereal year.

I found that the number of days between the years of the great

1864.] gg'^ [Wilcocks.

exhibitions, 1799 and 1833, was 12418.704, and that the number
of days in 487 rotations of the sun are 12418.5, the diiference being
only four hours and forty-eight minutes.

It is, therefore, proved that any part of the sun's surface turned
towards the earth, at any given point in its orbit, in the year 1799,
was also turned towards the earth at the same point of its orbit, in
1833, and will be again in 18G7 and 1901.

Messrs. Bunsen and KirchofT have ascertained that the sun's
atmosphere contains metals in the vaporous state.

If we permit ourselves to believe that a portion of this metallic
vapor escapes from the sun's atmosphere without undergoing the
chemical change which produces the light and heat, and if this
metallic vapor be transported to the earth's orbit by the ethereal
current, it will be liable to an encounter with our planet in those
parts of its yearly path, where it passes through the ascending cur-
rent of ether, viz., in August and November.

If, in addition to this, we believe that a certain part of the sun's
surface either constantly or frequently emits this metallic stream,
the periodical recurrence of the meteoric shower may be looked for at
intervals of thirty-four years.

I have illustrated my theory with several diagrams, which are
based upon the observations of astronomers of established reputation.
One of these diagrams shows the relation between the sun's equator,
the ecliptic, and the ascending current of ether. The distance of the
earth from the la.st at different seasons of the year, is made apparent.
On comparing it with the table of MM. Coulvier, Gravier, and
Saigey, a curious agreement is shown to exist between the distance
of the earth at diiferent seasons from the ascending current of ether,
and the occurrence of shooting stars.

I have resigned the subject with the conviction that as it is one
of immense interest, and has received no justice at my hands, it will
speedily excite the attention of those who have made special studies
of the various phenomena which I have endeavored to combine un-
der one cause.

The Committee on Mr. Oliver's note to Mr. Chase's memoir,
to be published in the Transactions, reported in favor of its
being published with the memoir; which, on acceptance of the
report, Avas so ordered.

Mr. Foulke presented for the Library a copy of the libretto
of Mr. Fry's new opera of Notre Dame of Paris, and spoke

Lesley.] 3g8 L^ay.

of the adaptability of sounds, especially the vowel sounds of
the English language, to musical compositions of this order.

Mr. Foulke exhibited, also, a curious specimen of a triple
orange.

Prof. Lesley made a communication on the Abbeville quar-
ries, which led to a discussion on the subject of the sufficiency
of the evidence, as yet obtained, for the alleged super-anti-
quity of the human remains found in the diluvium ; Dr.
Goodwin especially objecting the high authority of M. Elie
de Beaumont, and the doubts resting upon the precise rela-
tionship of the Loess.

The interesting discussions of the last three years over the views
of our fellow-nieinber, M. Boucher de Perthes, and especially the
fresh discussions to which the alleged discovery of a human jaw
near Abbeville had given an impetus, induced nie to visit his famous
collection and the quarries from which his earlier specimens had
been obtained. In London, I had learned that the English geolo-
gists had accepted the genuineness and diluvial antiquity of the
implements, but rejected that of tlie jaw. Li Paris, I found, on
the contrary, that the geologists, with the exception perhaps of ^L
Elie de Beaumont, and also the ethnologists, had agreed to place
the jaw in the same category with the implements. Dr. Broca, the
Secretary of the Anthropological Society, had the goodness to show
me the manuscript report of the joint commission of English and
French savants, since published by the Academy, authoritatively
declaring its genuineness. On my return to England, Mr. Evans
assured me that the jaw was a forgery, and that he had proven the
forgery of many of the implements also.

The change of view manifested by Sir Charles Lyell in his recent
work on the Antiquity of Man, in relation to the genuineness and
antiquity of the Natchez pelvis, had been commented on with much
interest and some surprise, as opposed to the current of English
sentiment respecting the whole subject. Sir Charles, when in Ame-
rica, had convinced himself that Dr. Dickeson's pelvis was a mis-
take, it being merely the os innominatum of some Indian girl, fallen
from an ancient graveyard at the surface above, among the debris of
the cliff formation which held the extinct remains of the post-
pleiocene period. Those of us who were present at the meeting of
the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, at which Dr.
Dickeson presented the bone to the Cabinet, will remember the indif-

1864. J 3§9 [Lesley.

ference with which it was presented, and the silence with which it
was received The fact is, no one was prepared, twenty years ago,
for such a fact It was as hlindint:' and unpleasant as a flash of sun-
light in a mirror. The inteHectual eyes of science must become
accustomed to such astounding discoveries. It required thirty years
to produce a state of science in Europe susceptible to the impression
which M. Boucher de Perthes' cabinet had a destiny to make. And
nearly as long a time was required to obtain for the Natchez pelvis
the first reception into the text-book of a distinguished geologist.
At the instigation of Dr. Falconer, I am happy to say that Dr. Leidy
has promised to renew the discussion of this bone by instituting a
chemical and microscopic examination of its condition. We may
then know more about its antiquity. But since the discovery by M.
Desnoyers of pleiocene fossil bones, scratched and cloven by the
hands of men, there is no longer any good reason for throwing doubt
upon its alleged geological position.

The distinguished chief of geology in France, IM. Elie de Beau-
mont, is understood to occupy solitary ground in the matter of the
Abbeville implements. Their antiquity depends upon that of the
formation in which they lie, and upon the fact that they lie in it
mixed with the bones of extinct species of animals. If the form-
ation be strictly In situ, there is no escape from the conclusion that
the implements and the bones are of equal age, and therefore that
Man lived with these extinct animals. If, on the contrary, it can
be shown that the formation is an after-make, a slide from above, a
debacle, a local deposit hastily brought together from different neigh-
borhoods, the argument for the antiquity of the implements is lost.
Elie de Beaumont is said to assume Cuvier's view of the formation,
and calls it a slide from the upland into the valley of the Somme,
and then denies the antiquity of the implements.

It was especially with a view to form an opinion upon this point
that I visited Abbeville; and after enjoying the same courteous
reception from M. Boucher de Perthes that he accords to all stran-
gers, I examined the quarries in the neighborhood ; first, that of
Moulin Quignon, where the jaw was said to have been found; and
then those of Menchecourt. The former had so fallen in that I
could not obtain access to the depth at which the jaw is j)]aced.
But I saw no reason to imagine any change in the original coinlition
of tlie deposit. There is no escarpment or steep valley wall to give
the remotest chance of a slip. The whole valley is shallow, and the
slopes are so gentle that it is hard to say where the valley ends and

Lesley.] 39 Q [May.

the table-land begins, Whatever the age of the gravel and loam,
they undoubtedly rest upon the old topography of the chalk just as
they were at first deposited upon it.

Returning through the old city and going out over its moats in the
opposite direction, I was driven through the long one streeted-village
of Menchecourt. Behind the houses, at the distance of a hundred
yards, are the quarries, with their common floor on a level with the
site of the village and their vertical faces, or stopes, rising behind to
the height of from twenty to thirty feet, no more. As they are
slowly cut back into the upland, the stoping becomes higher; but so
gentle is the slope of the land, in that direction, that years will be
consumed in obtaining a face of twice that height. There is not the
least appearance of a slide anywhere. The soil above, the layers of
broken flint and loam, are evidently in their normal condition. The
original stratification is nowhere concealed or confused by subsequent
movements from above. The " falsebedding " or oblique deposition
is cuiiously visible, and aff'urds abundant evidence of the diversity of
currents which introduced the materials. In a few places the sub-
ordinate members of the section express themselves by waved lines,
suggesting lateral pressure, but not in the form so well known to
geologists, where the mass is broken and crumpled by a side thrust
or by a slip of the upper upon the under strata. The characteristic
feature of all quiet, loamy, and sandy depo.sits, viz , the isolation of
lenticular belts of one stratum inside of the limits of the stratum next
above or below, is beautifully exhibited. The distribution of the
chalk fragments is also open to easy study. But the most striking
appearance is that presented by perfectly horizontal parting planes,
marked sometimes by thin beds of equally distributed broken flints.
Such are, for example, the two lines between b and c, and c and d,
in Fig. 1, Plate VII.

In this section, a represents a layer of broken flints, no doubt a
river shore. It passes down into a fine loamy sand. Beneath the
second thin horizontal sheet of broken flint, the mass of loam d is
stratified in lenses, alternately greenish and yellowish. No chalk or
gravel is seen at the floor of the quarry here.

Fig. 2, is a section about 100 paces west of Fig. 1, ", 1=] metres
thick, is a stifi" clay, with a few broken flints at the top and at the
bottom ; d, a reddish, yellowish clay, tolerably well filled with broken
flints; //, 1 metre, is quite filled with broken pieces of chalk and
broken flints ; c, is a perfectly homogeneous mass of drab or dove-
colored loam, 2 metres of which are visible, and no floor.

1864.1 391 [Lesley.

Fig. 3 lies still further west, alons; the face of the back wall of
the quarry, and shows the streams or streaks of broken flints appear-
ing and disappearina: in the body of the mass of yellowish loam ; a,
is the upper covering of humus. The section is on the same scale
with that of Fi<:s. 1 and 2. But the scale of Fig. 4 is enlarged to
show the engagement of white loam (d), in waved lenses, parallel to
each other, in the body of the homogeneous mass of darker, slightly
reddish loam (r) ; and vice irrsd the appearance of waved lines and
len.ses of c in the lower part of ^ ; a is an overlying stratum of
coarse loam, charged with flint, and resting on a layer of broken
flints; b is a homogeneous mass of yellow loam.

It is apparent from these sections that the formation is in its pris-
tine condition. The floor of chalk appears suddenly and at an un-
expected height, within two or three paces of Fig. 4, forming as it
were, a little clilf in the deposit, but no special collection of broken
flints lies in immediate contact with it, and but a very few fragments
of chalk, and those of a very small size. There is no appearance of
tumultuous deposition in the faces of these quarries. The shore
must have had a gentle slope, and no wide sheet of water before it;
otherwise, the powerful waves of a great lake or ocean frith, would
have left their common marks. The width of the valley of the
Somme, as it now exists, could not have been greatly exceeded; and
if we suppose a river current, we can understand why the flint im-
plements should fall from canoes or floats, or favorite Ashing stations,
and lie where they fell, while the naked corpse of any unfortunate
savage drowned at his trade would be floated out to sea.

There is no reason to suppose any great physical break in the his-
tory of man upon the earth. Granted that the English Channel has
been eroded ; the action was perhaps characterized by a deliberate
regularity. Granted that the change which determined the incipient
necessity for its erosion, was some great change of sea level in North-
western Europe; it does not follow that the change, however great,
was not equally gradual. We may regard the banks of the Somme
as haunted by men from the beginning of human life in Europe ;
whether they were washed by a small river, or by the narrow arm of
the sea. No doubt there have been epochs of entire submergence,
during which all Northern France was once more made a shallow
sea, like the North Sea now. But the race of men and the races of
beasts may have retired so slowly before the scarcely noticeable ad-
vance of the sea level edge, and so slowly pursued it on its retreat
again, as not to have been aware of any change in what to them was

Lesley.] 392 [May,

a fixed and unalterable state of things in the relation of land to sea.
Thus similar changes go on now ; why should we imagine it other-
wise in ancient times ? Until we can prove it to have been other-
wise, we have no right to apply with rigor the epithet antediluvian
to these remains of man.

I may add, that on my way to Neuchatel to visit my friend Prof.
Desor, and while I was being entertained in the most delightful
manner by M. Troyon, with an inspection of the many rare piloti
relics in his museum at Lausanne, I learned that Desor was in Africa
with two other members of a commission of the French Government,
studying the age of the Sahara. Sketches of their results have been
published by him since their return, by which we learn that they
have fully confirmed the opinions of previous explorers, that the
north of Africa has risen very recently from beneath sea level, prob-
ably in the human age. Or, perhaps we should say, as Herr Traut-
schold would have it (Zeitsch. der Geol. Gesell. 1S63, p. 411), the
ocean bed has deepened itself since man was created, so as to drain
the whole Sahara and Libyan desert land. The commission found
the Cardlum exJuh not only embedded within the rock of the desert,
but at a fixed horizon over some hundred miles of their route, and
this shell fish was the chief food of the savages of the stone age.

The obliteration of so much sea surface, whether rapidly or slowly
effected, must have produced one of the greatest alterations in the
physical condition of the surface of the earth, on that side of it.
While the Mediterranean waters covered Northern Africa (with the
exception of the Atlas Mountains, the Abyssinian highlands, and
other unknown mountain ranges under or beyond the equator), more
humid winds must have fertilized Arabia, Persia, and Bokhara, and
ameliorated the rigors of Thibet and China, if it could not quite
prevent the formation of the Desert of Tobi. On the other hand,
rains must have swollen the Caspian and Aral seas to such a height,
that they then made but one, overflowing the lower steppes and con-
founding themselves with the Azof and Black Sea shores, and with
the Northern Ocean.

If, then, mankind appeared on earth previous to the drying up of
the Sahara, he had three widely separated continents to appear upon :
Southern Africa, Eastern and Southern Asia, and Western Europe.
If the change from that condition of things to a condition of things
analogous to that we see now, was accomplished with suflScient ra-
pidity to permit of the formation of a tradition, such tradition could
hardly assume any other shape than that of the Noachian deluge.

1864.] 393 [Lesley.

Ignorant of the cause, the manner, and the extent of the ehanpe, the
imagination of savages would recast the facts in the mould of their
daily expeinence.

We can understand, also, on this hypothesis, why the Arkisni of
mythology finds its classic land in Africa, and becomes Helio-arkism
only in Asia. A subject which I should be glad to find the time to
discuss at length before the Society.

Neither the growth-rings of the trees on the Ohio valley mounds,
nor the cypress layers in the Delta of the Mississippi, nor the coral
reef series of Florida, nor the thickness of the Somme Valley peat,
nor that of the stalagmite cover of the fossil clay of the caves, nor
the borings made in the Memphis sands at the foot of the monu-
ments, have aiforded us even an approximate scale of years where-
with to measure man's residence on earth. The Cone of the Tin-
nifere, near Villeneuve, lias yielded to Prof. Morlot the first precise
statement of human time made by human fossils. As he reads it,
the bronze age dates back from our time from 2900 to 4200 years,
and the stone age from 4700 to 7000 years. (Etudes Geol. Archiv.
Bull. Soc. Vaud. vi, p. 325.) M. Gillieron makes the age of his
lake habitation relics at least 6750 years. (Actes de la Soc. Jurass.
d'Eniulation, 1860.) But these are both merely common historic
dates.

If, however, I have not misunderstood a communication made to
me by our fellow-member, Dr. A. A. Henderson, of the U. S. Navy,
there exists a singularly perfect scale of years for archaeologists,
under the tropics, wherever the wet and dry seasons are semi-annual
and regular. Near Rio Janeiro are certain caves in limestone, con-
taining the usual accumulations of stalactitic and stalagmitic matter,
the latter covering a bone clay, in which the implements of man
have been found, chiefly arrowheads. Dr. Ildefonso, the well-
known botanist and naturalist of Eio Janeiro, informed Dr. Foltz
that he had made himself well acquainted with the caves of the
Provinces of Minas Duras, and Santos, and their contents, and that
his daughter had repeatedly counted the delicate layers of the lime
deposit over the bone clay, produced by the seasons of rain and
percolation, interrupted by dry seasons of dusty weather, during
which, there being no percolation from the surface through into the
caves, there consequently was no deposit of alabaster, but in lieu of
it a deposit of dust; and he declared that the number of the layers
amounted to twenty thousand (20,000). Should this curious obser-
vation be repeated and accepted, the question of the great antiquity
voii. IX. — 2aa

394 [J""^-

of man will be set at vest; and both those who believe in the ori-
ginal unity, and those who believe in the original diversity of races,
will have that free scope given to their theoretic methods which a
practically unlimited amount of time at their command is calculated
to afford. Dr. Ildefonso is understood to assert that the annual cha-
racter of the laminae has been confirmed.

Pending nominations Nos. 522, 523, 524, Avcre read, and
the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, June 17, 1864.
Present, six members.
Prof. Tkego, Secretary, in the Chair.

Letters accepting membersliip were received from G. Kirch-
hoff, dated Heidelberg, June 2d, and from Otto Heer, dated
Zurich, April 10th, 1864.

Letters acknowledging the receipt of publications were
received from the Boston Athenaeum, May 31st ; Boston
Library, June 7th ; Connecticut Historical Society, May
28d ; New York State Library, May 21st ; New York His-
torical Society, May 19th ; Washington Observatory, May
18th, and Chicago Historical Society, May 19th, 1864.

Donations for the Library were received from the Govern-
ment of the Netherlands, Bureau dcs Mines, Royal Astro-
nomical Society, Essex Institute, Harvard and Yale Col-
leges, Prof. Tyler, of Amherst, American Oriental Society,
New York Lyceum, New York Historical Society, Academy
of Natural Sciences, Franklin Institute, and Brigadier-
General Dr. Hammond.

Photographic likenesses of S. F. B. Morse, Lewis Agassiz,
Oswald Heer, Spencer F. Baird, E. W. Brayley, and J. F.
W. Herschel, were received for the album.

The committee to Avhich was referred the paper of Dr.
Wilcocks at the last meeting, reported in favor of its publi-
cation in the Transactions. On motion, the report was ac-
cepted and agreed to.

1864.] 395 [Chase.

Mr. Chase made tlie following communication :

The remarkable coincidence which I have pointed out, between
the theoretical effects of rotation and the results of barometrical ob-
servations, has led nie to extend my researches with a view of defining
more precisely some of the most important effects of lunar action
on the atmosphere. The popular belief in the influence of the moon
on the weather, which antedates all historical records, hits received
at various times a certain degree of philosophical sanction. Herschel
and others Ijave attempted partially to formulate that influence by
empirical laws; but the actual character of the lunar wave that is
daily rolled over our heads appears never to have been investigated.
Major-General Sabine showed that the moon produces a diurnal va-
riation of the barometer, amounting to about .GOG of an inch, which
is equivalent to nearly one-tenth of the average daily variation near
the equator. This would indicate a tidal wave of rather more than
one foot for each mile's depth of atn)osphere, or from three to sis
feet near the summits of the principal mountain chains. It is easy
to believe that the rolling of such a wave over the broken surface of
the earth may exert a very important influence on the atmospheric
and magnetic currents, the deposition of moisture, and other meteor-
ological phenomena. As the height of the wave varies with the
changing phases of the moon,* its effects must likewise vary, in ac-
cordance with mathematical laws, the proper study of which must
evidently form an impoi'taut branch of meteorological science.")"

Besides this daily wave, there appears to be a much larger, but
hitherto undetected, weekly wave. JM. riaugergues,J an astronomer
at Viviers in France, extended his researches through a whole lunar
cycle, from Oct. 19, 1808, to Oct. 18, 1827, and he inferred, from
his observations :

1. That, in a synodical revolution of the moon, the barometer rises
regularly from the second octant, when it is the lowest, to the second
quadrature, when it is the highest; and then descends to the second
octant.

2. That the varying declination of the inoon modifies her influ-

* The height at St. Helena appears to fluctuate between about .9 and 1.6 feet.

t For some interesting experimental evidences of the effect of the moon's
changes on the fall of rain, see the published observations of Messrs. F. Marcet
{Sillimau's Journal, 27, 192), and J. H. Alexander (Silliman's Journal, N. S.,
12, 1).

I Bib. Univ., Dec. 1S27, and Silliman's Journal, 15, 174.

Chase.] 39 g [June.

ence, the barometer being- higher in the northern lunistice than in
the southern.

0. That the action of the moon also varies with its distance from
the earth, the mean barometric height being less in perigee than in
apogee.

The observations indicate the following average meridional fluctua-
tions of the barometer :

1. In a semi-synodical revolution, 1 67 mm., or .065 in.

2. Between the lunistices, 29 mm., or .011 in.

3. Between perigee and apogee, 1.12 mm., or .0-14 in.

The more recent and more complete observations at St. Helena
give somewhat different results, which serve to confirm the natural
a prior i conviction that there must be two maxima and minima in
each month. The means of three years' hourly observations indicate
the existence of waves, which produce in the first quarter a barometric
eifect of -f- .004 in.; in the second quarter of — .016 in.; in the
third quarter of + .018 in. ; and in the fourth quarter of — .006
in. ; results which appear to ba precine/^ accordant, in their general
features, with those which would be naturally anticipated from the
combination of the cumulative effect of the moon's attraction with
the daily wave of rotation, and the resistance of the tether.

One peculiarity of this lunar-aerial wave deserves notice for the
indirect confirmation that it lends to the rotation theory of the daily
aerobaric tides, and the evidence it furnishes of opposite tidal effects,
which require consideration in all investigations of this character.
When the daily lunar tides are highest their pressure is greatest, the
lunar influence accumulating the air directly under the meridian, so
as to more than compensate for the diminished weight consequent
upon its "lift." But in the general aerial fluctuations, as we have
seen, and also in the weekly tides, a high wave is shown by a low
barometer, and vice versa. The daily blending of heavy and light
waves produces oscillations, which are indicated by the alternate rise
and fall of the barometer and thermometer at intervals of two or
three days.

M. Flaugergues' observations at perigee and apogee seem to show
that a portion of the movement of the air by the moon is a true lift,
which, like the lift of rotation, must probably exert an influence on
the thermometer as well as on the barometer. On comparing the
daily averages at each of the quadratures and syzygies, I found the
difference of temperature too slight to warrant any satisfactory in-
ference; but a similar comparison of the hourly averages, at hours

1864.J

397

[Cha.se.

when the sun is below the horizon, gave such results as I anticipated,
as will be seen by a reference to the following

TABLE OF BAROMETRIC AND THERMOMLTRIC MEANS AT THE MOON's

CHANOKS.

Moon's Phase.

Average
height of
Barometer
io inclies.

o

M ie- '/^

Height of
Daily Titles.

Height of
Thennom.
Daily
Average.

1^

Thermom.
at 4 A.M.

Full, . .

28.270

—.0115 in.

.0054 in.

61.67'^

60.22°

59.787°

Third Qr. .

28.289

+ .0065 "

.0087 "

61.68

60.41

59.824

New,

28.282

+ .0005 "

.0064 "

61.65

60.31

59.716

First Qr. .

28.286

+ .0044 "

.0047 "

61.6.3

60. .37

59.823

i

In obtaining the above averages I was obliged to interpolate for
such changes as took place on Sundays or holidays, when no observa-
tions were taken. The interpolation, however, does not affect the
general result ; and, on some accounts, the table is more satisfactory
than if the observations had been made with special reference to a
determination of the lunar influences, accompanied as such a refer-
ence would very likely have been by a bias to some particular theory.

The thermometric and barometric averages show a general corres-
pondence in the times of the monthly maxima and minima, — the
correspondence being most marked and uniform at midnight, when
the air is most removed from the direct heat of the sun, and we
might therefore reasonably expect to find the clearest evidences of
the relation of temperature to lunar attraction.

By taking the difference between the successive weekly tides, we
readily obtain the amount of barometric effect in each quarter. The
average effect is more ^han three times as great in the second and
third quarters, as 'in the remaining half month, — a fact which sug-
gests interesting inquiries as to the amount of influence attributable
to varying centrifugal force, solar conjunction, or opposition, tempera-
ture, &c.

Although, as in the ocean tides, there are two simultaneous cor-
responding waves on opposite sides of the earth, these waves are not
of equal magnitude, the barometer being uniformly higher when the
moon is on the inferior meridian, and its attraction is therefore ex-
erted in the .same direction as the earth's, than when it is on the
superior meridian, and the two attractions are opposed to each other,

I find, therefore, marked evidences of the same lunar action on

Chase.]

;98

[June.

the atmosphere as on the ocean, — the combination of its attraction
with that of the sun producing both in the air and water, spring
tides at the syzj'gies, and neap tides at the quadratures ; and I be-
lieve that the most important normal atmospheric changes may be
explained by the following theory :

The attraction and rotation-waves, as will be readily seen, have
generally opposite values, the lunisolar wave being

Descending, from 0° to 90°,* and from 180° to 270^
Ascending^ from 90° to 180°, and 270^ to 360°.

While the rotation-wave is

Ascending, from 330° to 00°, and 150° to 240°.
Descending, from 00° to 150°, and 240° to 330°.

From 60° to 90°, and 240= to 270°, both waves are descending,
while from 150° to 180°, and 330° to 3G0°, both are ascending.
In consequence of this change of values, besides the principal lunar
maxima and minima at the syzygies and quadratures, there should
be secondary maxima and minima at 60° in advance of those points.

The confirmation of the.^e theoretical inferences by the St. Helena
observations appears to me to be ([uite as remarkable as that of my
primary hypothesis If we arrange those observations in accordance
with tlie moon's position, and take the average daily height of the
barometer, we obtain the following

TABLE OF THE LUNAR BAROMETRIC TIDES.

m i

MEAN DAILY HEIGHT OF BAROMETER AT ST

HELENA.

• o

28 iticljfS -f- the DUiiibL-i's in the Table.

IS o

Average.

1844.

1845.

1846.

1844-6.

0°

.2(;21

.3020

.2701

.2781

15

.2(;50

.3058

.2093

.2800

Hii

.2707

.3153

.2.707

.2850

4.')

.2091

.3105

.2088 •

.2848

(iO

.2 02 5

.3077

.2088

.2797

7;)

.2082

.3093

.2783

.2853

90

.2007

.3184

.2800

.2884

105

.259H

.3170

..721

.2828

120

.2595

.3124

.2080

.2802

135

.2077

.3099

.2091

.2822

150

.2712

.3118

.2715

.2848

165

.2710

.3104

.2735

.2850

180

.20211

.30-0

.2701

.2781

* Counting from either syzygy.

t Since the tabular numbers represent the semi-nres of the barometric curv(
and not the simple ordinaUs, the A-alues for 0" and 180'^ are the same.

1864. J 399 [Chase.

This table shows —

1. That the average of the three years corresponds precisely/ wiih
the theory, except in the secondary maximum, which was one day-
late.

2. That the primary maximum occurred at the quadratures in 1845
and 1846, and one day before the quadratures in 1844.

3. That the primary minimum occurred at the .syzygies in 1844
and 1S45, and one day after the syzygies in 184G.

4. That 1846 was a disturbed year; and, if it were omitted from
the table, each of the remaining years, as well as the average, would
exhibit an entire correspondence with theory, except in the primary
maximum of 1844.

5. That 1845 was a normal year, the primary and secondary
maxima and minima all corresponding with tlreory, both in position
and relative value.

6. That the deviations from perfect correspondence with theory
can be easily explained by the relative positions of the two aerial
ellipsoids of rotation and attraction.

7. That the tertiary maxima and minima, or the turning-points
between the primary and secondary maxima and minima, are less
stable than the primaries and secondaries.

At extra-tropical stations I should look for important modifications
of the theoretical results, some of which I propose to explain in a
future communication.

Mr. Lesley Jrew tlie attention of the members to the re-
searches of M. Delesse on the quantity of " water of imbibi-
tion" and "water of the quarry" contained in rocks, pub-
lished in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of France
(2e ser. t. xix, p, 64, seance du 4 Nov., 1861), as having an
important bearing on the ancient changes of sea-level.

The tables of M. Delesse, given on pp. 66, 69, 72, go to show
that dry specimens of gypsum, limestone, chalk, slate, sandstone,
gneiss, granite, &c., can be made to imbibe an amount of water
equal to from 1 per cent, to 40 per cent, of their weight; and that
in their natural places they hold from 1 per cent, to 30 per cent, of
water permanently; granite holding 15 per cent. ; argillaceous rocks
20 per cent, or more ; and the magnesian rocks a still larger per-
centage. The whole exterior of the crust of the earth is bathed in

Lesley.] 4Q0 [June.

surface water, which penetrates all its formations, and descends step
by step to a depth, which is probably limited by the horizon of
radiant heat equal to 100° C, that is, to a depth of at least two
miles. At various stages the descending percolation, aided by a
universal fissure and crevasse system, forms water horizons and re-
servoirs, subject to enormous hydraulic pressure, reproducing the
water at the surface, either through natural springs or artificial wells.
It is not too much to say, then, that 20 per cent, of the crust of the
earth, to a depth of two miles, consists of disseminated and collected
water. This will take into account condensation descending.

What, then, was the case in early days when the horizon of 100°
C. was at the surface ? We must conclude that all this water was at
that time excluded from the crust, and compelled to remain above
the surface as heated ascending aqueous vapor, and descending rain ;
and, of course, keeping the general sea-level higher than at present.

Taking the mean density of all rocks near the surface at 3 00, the
20 per cent, of water contained in a stratum of crust two miles deep,
will represent more than six hundred feet of water in mass; and,
taking; one-third of the earth's surface as land, and confinins; the
desiccation to the land surface alone, we have an elevation of the
general level of the other two-thirds, or ocean-surface of the planet,
equal to four hundred feet ; enough to submerge a considerable per-
centage of the area of each one of the existing continents.

Pending nominations Nos. 522, 523, 524, and new nomi-
nation No. 525, were read.

On motion of the Librarian, seconded by Dr. Coates, it was
ordered, that copies of Part I of the Catalogue be sent with
Part I, Volume XIII, of the Transactions, in the next distri-
bution, to Corresponding Societies which receive the Transac-
tions.

And the Society was adjourned.

ProcAPS.Vol.II Plate VI

H 1

TfiMi^U'/UJl. I't.

Pro c . A p. S Vol IX Plate Vll .

■0'

Fi^.4

Ari'n<;7i^a>f(r^ OiittTTV. U'lvl J^'jid

Chuik Floor appeai-s ■wUtiin" yards off/ijs cxpffsure

r Sir7£^^i- ^th Fj-.

T/iC following photognqihs of monbcrs have been received. Mem-
bers whose names are not in the list below are requested to favor
the Society with their Photographs, signed with their Auto-
graphs at the foot of the card.

Agassiz, L.
Bache, A. D.
Baird, S. F.
Banoker, C. N.
Bancroft, S.
Barnes, Al.
Bigelow, J.
Blaekwell, T. E.
Bohtlingk, O.
Brayley, E. W.
Bridges, E.
Bucb, L. Yon
Carey, H. C.
Carson, J.
Casern Beg, A.
Chase, P. E.
Coates, B. H.
Cohen, J. J.
Coles, E.
Condie, D. F.
Coppee, II.
Crevecoeur, J.B. de
Dana, J. D.
Darlington, W.
DaAvson, J. AV.
Delcsse, A.
Desor, E.
Dorr, B.
Dnrand, E.
Elwyn, A. L.

Emerson, Geo.
Eneke, J. F.
Faraday, M.
F am ham, J. AY.
Field, H. W.
Fisher, S. G.
Fraley, F.
Genth, F. A.
Gross, S. D.
Ilaidinger, AV.
Harris, E. P.
Ilayden, F. A^
Heer, O.

Henderson, A. A.
Ilerschel, J. F. AV.
Hill, T.
Hitchcock, E.
Hofmann, A. AV.
Humboldt, A.
Hunt, T. S.
Hyrtl, J.
Jackson, J.
Jackson, E. M. S.
Jilger, G.
Kneass, S.
Koninck, L. de
Lea, I.

Le Conte, J. L.
Lepsius, E.
Lesley, J. P.

Lesquereux, L.
Logan, AV. E.
Lombardini, E.
Loomis, E.
Miller, E.
Moore, S.
Morlot, A.
Morse, S. F. B.
Ord, S.
Peale, F.
Pennington, J.
Price, E. K.
Quetelet, A.
Quincey, J.
Eand, B. H.
Eobcrts, S. AV.
Eobinson, M.
Eoehrig, F. L. O.
Eokitansky, C.
Sharswood, G.
Silliman, B.
Smith, F. S.
Stephens, AV. B.
Swift, J. G.
Troyon, F.
AVilkes, C.
AVistcr, C. I.
AA^est, F.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
HELD AT PHILADELPHIA, FOR PROMOTING USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

VOL. IX. !N'o. 72.

CONTENTS.

July 15, 1864. page

On County Maps By W. L. Nicholson 403

On Daily Aerial Tides, By P. E. Chase 405

August 19, 1864.
On Pfahlbauten in Bavaria ....... . 413

September 16, 1864.

On Prime Right-angled Triangle.^. By .J. Lbwis .... 415
On the Comparative Fitness of Language.s ibr Musical Expression.

By P. E. Chase 419

On Certain Primitive Names of God. By P. E. Chase . . . 420

October 7, 1864.
Magellanic Premium. By "Torricelli" 425

October 21, 1864.

On Terrestrial Magnetism. By P. E. Chase 427

November 18, 1864.

Obituary Notice of Prof. Hitchcock. By Dr. Goodwin . . . 443
On Crude Borax of California. By Dr. Harris .... 450
On Soundings in the Delaware Gap. By F. Peale . . .451

December 2, 1864.

On the Twenty-inch Gun. By C. Knap .

On Dew and Hoarfrost. By Sig. Zantedeschi

On Magnesium. By Mr. Dubois ....

On Nova Scotia Coal. By W. A. Hendry

On an Old Salt Well in Pennsylvania. By J. M. Hale

On Fragments of Ancient Pottery. By F. Peale .

December 16, 1864.

454

456
458
459
459
460

On the Late Discovery of Lignite in Middle Penn.sylvauia, and on

the Erosion of the New Red. By J. P. Lesley . . . 463
On Photo-lithography. By Mr. Osborne 483

1864.] ^Ql^ [Peale.

COMMUNICATION ON AN ANTIQUE STONE HAND-
HAMMER. By F. Peale.*

In a late worlc, entitled ''Geological Evidences of the Antiquity
of Man," by Mr. Lyell, page 184, there is a description, illustrated
by a wood-cut, of a cave situated on the side of a hill near Aurignac,
department of the Haute Garonne, France; with a description of the
bones of various animals found therein, associated with the works of
man, as well as remains of his osseous structure.

Among the articles was one thus described by him : " Outside the
entrance was found a stone of a circular form, flattened on two sides,
with a central depression, composed of a tough rock, which does not
belong to that region of the Pyrenees. This instrument is supposed
by the Danish antiquarians to have been used for removing by skil-
ful blows the edges of flint knives, the fingers and thumb being placed
in the opposite depressions during the operation."

A similar instrument was lately added by myself to the cabinet of
the Society as a ^'■hand-hammer^ (a drawing of which accompanies
this communication). See Plate vii, Fig. 1.

This instrument is submitted to the personal inspection of the
members. It will be observed that its entire correspondence with
the description by Mr. Lyell of the specimen found near the cave at
Aurignac, France, is so perfect, that it might, without explanation or
exception, have been applied to the specimen before you, which was
found in Monroe County, Pennsylvania.

This specimen is also interesting from the evidence it exhibits of
the process of ^'pecking" (as it was called in a communication made
to the Society in June, 1861), to form the cavities for the reception
of the thumb on the one side, and the finger on the other. It also
bears the mark of its use upon silicious minerals at each extremity;
and it may, with little risk of eiTor, be supposed to have been used
in fashioning the flint arrow-heads of the Stone Age on the spot where
it was found.

These implements are not rare in this country. A number are con-
tained in my cabinet, and many specimens have been sent abroad for
foreign exchange ; but, as they present to an unaccustomed eye little
difference from an ordinary pebble, it is only lately that they have
attracted the attention of collectors; yet the remarks of Mr. Lyell

* Read April 15, 1864.
VOL. IX. oB

Peale.] 4.Q2 [June.

give evidence that they have not escaped the observation of those
close and learned investigators, the archaeologists of Denmark.

These implements, as far as my observation extends, have been
hitherto entirely neglected in this country ; but that is not so much
a matter of wonder, vrhen vfe know that the arrow and spear heads,
so frequently found, are generally regarded as relics only, or the poor
weapons, of the despised and degraded Indians, who formerly roamed
in savage independence over these their hunting-grounds, with no
thought of their ethnological relations or bearing on the history of
the human race, and are therefore held in little esteem.

But may we not, without presumption, hazard a few remarks on
a most important deduction to be drawn from the facts now being
developed from examinations in nearly every part of the world?
The close, nay exact similarity, of all these implements, derived as
they are from regions far apart in space, in various climates, and,
more singular still, from periods so remote from each other as to
carry up archseology into the domain of geology; the implements of
the former being so imbedded with the debris of the latter, that to
assign a determinate age to either is probably beyond the reach of
human investigation. Entirely prehistoric in their early associations,
we find them, together with the bones of the great pachyderms and
many other extinct animals, embedded in diluvium, in the earth and
stalagmites of caves ; and thence we descend from the era when
these extinct monsters, the mammoth, the e'ephant, and the rhino-
ceros, and numerous rapacious beasts, held coeval possession with
man of the river-banks of all climes down to the times which wit-
ness the same rude arts of the stone age practised by savages on this
and it may be other continents, simultaneously with the arts of the
highest civilization; when the instrumentality of the plough, the
ship, and the factory furnish all that man's necessity calls for, or his
most refined existence seems to need.

During all this interval man obeyed the same instinctive impulses.
Even now we take a pebble (no better tool being at hand) to open a
spiny chestnut burr, or to crack the shell of a nut. A savage, with
no metal to aid him, makes of this pebble a more convenient tool, by
pecking, with a still harder fragment of atone, cavities for his fingers ;
and, in a further advance, cuts a groove around it, in which he binds
a tvi'the handle, and then grinds its extremity to an edge, thus making
the tools which serve all his limited wants, until more enlightened
civilization teaches the use of metal.

Now does not all this indicate the unity op his origin ? He

1864.] 403 [Peale.

naturally and inevitably follows the same course to supply his wants.
He chips the flint and silicious minerals to form his spear and arrow-
heads; he grinds the various stones to form his chisels and axes; he
moulds the plastic clay to form his cooking utensils ; and last, though
not least, his aspirations for futurity indicate an innate consciousness
of that great and good first cause, the Almighty hand, which formed
him of the dust of the earth, and placed him in a beautiful garden,
where he might have dwelt forever, if he had not fallen, by his own
free will, to roam the earth, — to sink by ignorance and vice, alas! in
too many cases, to that state in which stocks and stones were or
are his only guides or means, — the one for direction, the other for
subsistence.

Stated lleeting, July 15, 1864.

Present, five members.

Mr. Chase in the Chair.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Royal
Society, Gottingen, January, 1864 ; the American Oriental
Society, Boston, May, 1864, and the Lyceum of N. H., New
York, March 17th, 1864.

A letter of envoi Avas received from the Soci^td de Phy-
sique et d'Histoire Naturelle de Geneve, March 1st, express-
ing a wish for full and regular exchanges, which, on motion
of Mr. Fraley, was so ordered.

Letters with photographic likenesses of the authors for the
Album were received from Jared Sparks, of Cambridge,
Mass., May 28th, and Prof. Zantedeschi, of Padua. Mr.
James presented a photograph, also, of Asa Gray, of Cam-
bridge, Mass.

A letter to the Librarian was read from W. L. Nicholson,
Esq., Topographer to the Post Office Department, correct-
ing an error in the account of the deficiencies at Washington
in the matter of United States county maps, given on page
352 of the Proceedings. Mr. Nicholson has a nearly com-

Nicholson.] 404 [July.

plete set of them, now on file in the United States Post Office
Department, collected under the present Administration :

•■ On being honored with this appointment last year (coming from
the Coast Survey Service), I immediately set myself to collect the
best data from all quarters to have for ready reference, and to put
everything into good shape, not only to keep up the current work,
which is very great, owing to the changing and expanding character
of the postal service, but to have the material ready for bringing out,
as soon as practicable, postal maps of the United States.

" I need hardly tell you that this is a work of very great labor and
nicety, your own State having over two thousand five hundred post-
offices, and routes interlacing in all directions. I have more trou-
ble with the locations of the post ofl&ces in the older States than with
the new ; thanks to the Land Office subdivisions.

" The Territories, however, afford choice bits of perplexity, coun-
terbalanced, however, by the feeling of interest in the opening out
and clearing up of these terr^e incognitse."

Donations for the Library were received from the Imperial
Russian Government ; the Imperial Geological Institute,
Vienna ; Royal Society, Gottingen ; Dr. R. Wolf, Zurich ;
Societe de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle de Geneve;
Geological Society, Paris ; the Royal, Royal Astronomical,
Royal Geographical, Chemical, and Geographical Societies at
London ; Agricultural Society, Bath ; Insane Asylums at
Concord and Hartford ; American Oriental Society ; Silli-
man's Journal ; 'New York Lyceum ; Franklin Institute,
Mercantile Library, IsTorthern Home, Blanchard & Lea,
and P. E. Chase, of Philadelphia ; Smithsonian Institution,
Census Bureau, and F. W. Seward, of Washington ; and the
Mercantile Library Company of-San Francisco.

The Librarian called the attention of the members present
to the superb volumes of the Codex Sinaiticus Petropolitanus,
presented to the Society by the Imperial Government of Rus-
sia; and on motion of Mr. Fraley, the Secretaries were
directed to prepare a special letter of thanks, to be signed by
the officers of the Society.

The de^th of Mr. Benjamin Gerhard, at Philadelphia, on
the 20th ult., was reported by Mr. Fraley, and Mr. E.

1864.] 405 [Chase.

Spencer Miller was appointed to prepare an olDituary notice
of the deceased.

The death of Josiah Quincy, LL.D., at Quincy, Mass., on
the 1st inst., aged 92, was announced by Mr. Lesley, and
Dr. Jared Sparks was appointed to prepare an obituary
notice of the deceased.

The death of Thomas Dunlap, Esq., at Philadelphia, on
the 11th inst., aged 70, was announced by Mr. Fraley, and
Mr. William M. Meredith was appointed to deliver an obi-
tuary notice of the deceased.

Mr. Chase read a note on the Daily Aerial Tides that are
attributable to the Lunar and Solar Attraction and Varia-
tions in Temperature.

The powerful and prejudicial influence of an inveterate scientific
error, is shown in the following dogmatical statement of Mr. Jos-eph
John Murphy, an investigator who has lent useful aid to meteoro-
logical science. f

In the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal for April, 1864, y.
183, he says : " Were the atmosphere not acted on by heat, it would
be everywhere at rest, and every level surface, at whatever height,
would be an isobarometric surface The earth's rotation can-
not produce currents, but it modifies them when they are produced
by the action of heat."

There can be no doubt that heat is one of the causes, and in most
places it is, perhaps, the principal cause, of those atmospheric dis-
turbances which are modified by rotation, but the assumption that
the atmosphere "would be every where at rest," except for diiferences.
of temperature, leads to palpable absurdities. |

It may be freely admitted that Galileo, in attributing the ocean

* From the Proceedings of the Ameiican Philosophical Society.

t Mr. Murphy was an early and independent advocate of so much of Mr. Wil-
liam Ferrel's theory, as explains the polar depression of the barometer by
centrifugal force and friction. Mr. Ferrel's paper, which appears to have been
the first publication that contained a true explanation of the equatorial as well as
the polar barometric depression, of the maxima near the parallels of 30°, and of
the cause of the rotatory motion of storms, was printed in the Nashville JouruaJ
of Medicine and Surgery, and afterwards in pamphlet form, in the summer of
1856. The subject was treated at greater length, in his essay on " the motion of
fluids and solids relative to the earth's surface," which was published in th&
"Mathematical Monthly" for 1859, vol. i, p. 140, sqq.

I See Proc. Am. Philos. See, yol. ix, pp. 283-4.

Chase.]

406

[July.

tides exclusively to " the rotation of the earth, combined with its
revolution about the sun," attached too much importance to the sim-
ple combination of the motions of rotation and orbital translation, but
his mistake is no greater than the opposite belief, which is now too
prevalent, that there is only a single influence which can produce
any important tidal eifects in the atmosphere.

In a former communication on the rotation-tide, I deduced " from
a reference of the aerial motions to a supposed stationary earth, a law
of tidal variation nearly identical with the law that is derived from a
consideration of the relative attractions of two bodies revolving about
their common centre of gravity."* That such should be the ease,
might have been reasonably expected from the dependent connection
of rotation and revolution with gravity and inertia.

I was therefore led to believe that the daily lunar barometric tides
might be indicated by an expression of the same general form as the
monthly lunar and daily rotation tides. On investigation I am gra-
tified at finding that such is indeed the case. If M is the barometric
mean for any given day and place, and ff is the moon's altitude, ob-
servation and theory concur in demonstrating that the lunar tide may
be expressed by M C (sin. d cos. d),-f C being a constant to be de-
termined for each station, the principal elements of which are func-
tions of the latitude, of gravity, and of time. I subjoin, in illustra-
tion, a

TABLE OF THE AVERAGE DAILY LUNAR BAROMETRIC TIDES.

Station.

Station.

u

^6

St. Helena.

Girard College.

St. Helena.

Girard College.

in.

in.

in.

in.

0

— .00006

+ .00313

6

— .00276

— .00308

1

— .00051

+ .00341

7

— .00242

— .00339

2

— .00172

+ .00291

8

— .00121

— .00290

3

— .00253

+ .00214

9

— .00046

— .00206

4

— .00315

— .00011

10

+ .0002 1

+ .00013

5

— .00330

— .00144

11

-f .00035

+ .00149

* Thi.s is evidently only another form of a single element in La Place's law of
the tides. I present it in this shape, both because I obtained it independently,
and becau!?e it makes the resemblance to my rotation formula more striking.

t Major-Ueneral Sabine's table of the lunar tides at St. Helena, from October,
184.3, to September, 1845 (Phil. Trans., 1847, p. 48), gives for the ratios of the
MEAN, .497, .8.32, and 1, which, if aver.aged with the mean at Girard College,
gives a general mean of .512, .858, and 1. The grand mean for the entire pe-
riods of observation at the two stations is .500, .849, and 1.

1864.J

407

[Chase.

The existence of the tidal law, which, as we have seen, should
produce differences in the respective ratios of .5, .866^ and 1, at 1,
2, and 3 hours from the mean tide, is shown in the following

TABLE OF TIDAL DIFFERENCES AND RATIOS.

Stations.

liUNAR Time.

Differences of Barometer.

Ratios.

Ih.

2h.

3h.

Ih.

2h.

oh.

y. .-•

Before 2 h.
After 2 "
Before 8 "
After 8 "
Mean, . .
Mean Ratios,

.00121
.00081
.00121
.00075
.00099

.0016G
.00143
.00155
.00142
.00151

.00207
.00158
.00209
.00156
.00182

.585
.501
.579
.481
.545
.536

.802
.905
.742
.917
.830
.841

1*

.J -c
o -i*
O.I,
P -^

g
5

Before 4 h.
After 4 "
Before 10 "
After 10 "
Mean, . .
Mean Ratios,

.00225
.00133
.00219
.00136
.00178

.00302
.00297
.00303
.00300
.00300

.00352
.00328
.00352
.00328
.00340

.639
.405
.602
.415
.524
.515

.858
.905
.861
.915

.884
.885

Gk AND Mean, or Average of Mean Ratios, . . |

.525

.863

By a partial interpolation for the true time of mean tide at St.
Helena, I obtain for the ratios of the means .557, .860, and 1, cor-
responding precisely with theory at 2h. from mean tide. The tables
furnish suggestive evidences of the effect of declination, the varying
tidal influence of attraction, when acting with and against rotation,
and the resistance of gravity to the tidal flow of air.

The rationale of M. Flaugergues' second and third inferences thus
becomes intelligible ; the phenomena of ocean tides are connected
with those of the atmosphere, which are subject to fewer extraneous
disturbing influences, and can therefore be more easily investigated;
and the long-suspected obedience of the principal meteorological
changes to fixed natural and mathematical laws, is at length made
evident.

There are, therefore, manifestly four important causes of barome-
tric disturbance : 1, rotation, with its quarter-daily phases of alter-
nate aid and opposition to the attraction and temperature-currents,
and of shifting the aerial particles to levels of greater or less density )
2, variations of temperature and vapor ; 3, lunar attraction ) 4, solar
attraction. Among the subordinate causes, perhaps the next in
order of importance is, 5, resistance of the aether, which, according

Chase.] 4()g IJuly.

to Fresnel's theory,* is subject to the laws of inertia and attraction, as
well as to those of elasticity. If his theory is correct, the terrestrial
ifether (or the portion which partakes of the earth's rotation), maybe
so modified by the planetary a3ther (or the portion which revolves
about the sun), as to produce a resistance varying at different hours,
and a consequently varying atmospheric compression, which may
some time enable us to measure its own density. The solar attraction
may be constantly tending to accumulate the terrestrial sether, as
well as the atmosphere, in a spheroid with a major axis in the line of
the radius vector, and the position of the axes, as in the case of the
ocean and aerial spheroids, may be modified by rotation. It appears
to me that one of the most probable results of the rotation of the
earth with its atmosphere, in an aethereal medium, would be the pro-
•duction of two systems of oscillations, moving with the rapidity of
light, one in tbe'line of the earth's orbit, and the other in the line
of its radius vector, and that those systems would be constantly so
related that while one tended to retard, the other would tend to
accelerate the earth's motion.

The influences of rotation and attraction can be calculated, and
.after deducting their amount, the problem of accounting for the re-
sidual disturbance will be simplified. Or, by taking the average of
•a long series of observations made at each hour of the solar day, the
effects of lunar attraction may be so far eliminated, that they can be
eafely disregarded in attempting to fix the approximate value of the
other principal disturbances. f The formula for the rotation tide has
tilready been given, and observation appears to indicate that it is re-
tarded about an hour by inertia ; next in order of importance are the
temperature and vapor tide, and the solar tide. It would be pre-
sumptuous in the present stage of our investigations, to attempt to
fix the precise amount of disturbance which is attributable to each of
these two tides, but from the following considerations we may derive

* It i.s perhaps, hardly proper to call this " Fresners theory," since it follows
necessarily from the conception of an extremely tenuous and elastic material
fluid, such as the asther is generally supposed to be. But I believe M. Fresnel
has done more than any one else to show the agreement of the hypothesis with
observed phenomena, and his labors deserve to be kept in honorable remem-
brance.

t The absence of any long series of observations at each hour of the lunar day,
prevents our eliminating the effects of solar attraction in a similar way. Never-
theless, I propose at some future time to attempt the elimination, so far as prac-
ticable with the tables at my command, in the hope of thereby effecting a more
accurate determination of the temperature and vapor tide.

1864.J

409

[Chase.

conjectural results, which appear to uie to be more satisfactory and
philosophical than any that have been heretofore obtained.

The theoretical maxima of the rotation tide, allowing an hour for
the lagging of inertia, occur at 4h. and 16h. j the minima, at 10 h.
and 22h. The solar attraction maxima, with the same allowance,
should be found at Ih. and 13h. ; the minima, at 7h. and 19h. If
we assume that the attraction tidal curve is symmetrical, and regard
all the deviations from symmetry as occasioned by differences of
temperature and vapor, we may readily construct the following ap-
proximate

DAILY BAROMETRIC TIDAL TABLE.

GiRARD COLLEOE, 1842-44.

St. Helena, 1844-40.

Mean Height, 29.9.38 inches.*

Mean Height 28.2821 inches.

ii
<

+

a; toC

c

H in

C la
r. 3

= J
V. as

+

■a
□

o

3 ;.

1-2 -s

EH =H

^ 1-
a. :A

h.

in.

in.

in.

in.

in.

in.

0

.943

+ .0126

— .0031

— .0045

.2985

+ .0149

+ .0035

— .0020

1

.927

— .0055

— .0055

.2819

-;- .0021

— .0023

2

.915

— .0126

— .0059

— .0045

.2660

— .0149

+ .0008

— .0020

3

.909

— .0217

— .0058

— .0015

.2553

— .0258

— .0003

— .0007

4

.908

— .0252

— .0053

+ .0005

.2521

— .0298'— .0010

+ .0008

5

.911

— .0217

— .0075

+ .0022

.2562

— .0258

— .0015

+ .0014

6

.917

— .0126

— .0124

+ .0040

.2642

— .0149

— .0040

+ .0010

7

.92.5

— .0170

+ .0040

.2764

— .0067

+ .0010

8

.935

+ .0126

— .0196

+ .0040

.2899

+ .0149

— .0081

+ .0010

9

.942

+ .0217

— .0199

+ .0022

.3003

+ .0258

— .0090

+ .0014

10

.945

+ .0252

— .0187

+ .0005

.3061

+ .0298

— .0066

+ .0008

n

.946

+ .0217

— .0122

— .0015

.3025

+ .0258 1 — .0047

— .0007

12

.941

+ .0126

— .0051 —.0045

.2913

+ .0149: — .0037 1— .0020 1

13

.9.38

+ .0055 —.0055

.2777

— .0021

— .0023

14

.9.35

— .0126

+ .0141 —.0045

.2640

— .0149

— .0006

— .0020

15

,9.33

— .0217

+ .0182

— .0015

.2562

— .0258

+ .0006

— .0007

16

.934

— .0252

+ .0207

+ .0005

.2550

— .0298

+ .0019

+ .0008

17

.940

— .0217

+ .0215

+ .0022

.2611

— .0258

+ .00.34

+ .0014

18

.950

— .0126

+ .0206

+ .0040

.2737

— .0149

+ .0055

+ .0010

19

.959

+ .0170

+ .0040

.2898

+ .0067 + .0010

20

.966

+ .0126

+ .0114

T .0040

.3048

+ .0149

+ .0068 + .0010

21

.968

+ .0217

+ .0061

+ .0022

.3163

+ .0258

+ .0070

+ .0014

22

.967

+ .0252

+ .0033

+ .0005

.3184

+ .0298

+ .0057

+ .0008

23

.958

+ .0217

— .0002

— .0015

.3117

+ .0258

+ .0045

— .0007

Imperfect as these first approximations confessedly are, and probable,
nay, almost certain though it be, that a large portion of the residual
tide should be transferred to the temperature and vapor column, f yet

* The sum of the tides, + the mean height = observed height.
t I can see no good reason at present, for supposing the existence of a solar tide
greater than .002 in., which would be equivalent to .0005, .0009, and .001, at 1,

VOL. IX. — 3c

Chase.] ^JQ [July.

I think the above table will be found suggestive of valuable infer-
ences, of which the following are perhaps among the most important.

1. That the apparent osculation of the solar and residual curve
near the hours of high barometer may perhaps be owing to ^ethereal
resistance.

2. That the cumulative action of the sun upon the air and oether,
may possibly render the disturbing influence of its attraction upon
the atmosphere even greater than that of the moon.

3. That the paradoxical assumption of those who advocate the
temperature theory of the quarter-daily tides, that a dependent re-
lation can exist between the barometrical changes and the changes
of temperature, which '< appears to be direct during the morning
hours, and inverse during those of the day and evening,"* is unne-
cessary, useless, and unphilosophical.

4. That in intertropical and medium latitudes, the average daily
barometric tide which is attributable to variations of temperature is
smaller than the rotation tide.

5. That there is but one high and one low temperature tide in
twenty-four hours.

6. That the effects of temperature upon atmospheric pressure
reach their maximum in the evening, when the aerial absorption of
heat from the sun ceases to be in excess of its radiation, and their
minimum in the morning, when radiation ceases to be greater than
absorption.

7. That the daily temperature tide increases, while the rotation
tide diminishes, as we approach the poles.

8. That, in consequence of rotation, there should be a slight ten-
dency to vertical ascending currents at 4h. and 16h., and descending
currents at lOh. and 22h.

9. That whatever modifications the table may require, there can
be no doubt of the existence of the three tides, with maxima and
minima near the times specified, or of the possibility and desirability
of accurately determining their magnitude.

2, and 3 hours from the mean tide. This would reduce the quarter-daily residual
tide at St. Helena, to the following form :

Ih.

2h.

3h.

4h.

5h.

Ch.

7h.

— .0033

— .0029

— .0012

+ .0008

+ .0019

+ .0019

+ .0020

If this residual be added to the preceding column, it gives a result accordant
with the 6th inference, except two disturbances, which, I think, can be easily ex-
plained, one at midnight, and the other in the hottest part of the day.

* James Hudson, Phil. Trans., 1832.

1864.] 411

The plienomena on which these inferences are based, are ali sus-
ceptible of a simple and obvious explanation, and thus, by reasoning
alternately a jjriori and a jiosteriori, we elicit from a scheme of
seemingly lawless confusion, the beauty of a most marvellous order.

Pending nominations Nos. 522, 523, 524, 525, were read,
and balloted for.

Mr. Fraley, Chairman of the Finance Committee, moved
that the Committee have authority to compromise the claim
of the Society on the bond of Charles Wharton, secured by
a mortgage on certain coal lands in Northumberland County,
for a sum not less than four thousand (4000) dollars, and
that, in the event of such compromise and settlement, the
officers of the Society be authorized and directed to execute
and deliver such instruments of writing as may be necessary
to carry the compromise into effect, and affix and attest the
seal of the Society thereto. The motion was passed unani-
mously.

On motion of Mr. Fraley, the sum of five hundred (500)
dollars was appropriated to the Committee on the Hall for
the purpose of meeting expenses incurred in the late repairs
of the building, and moreover the sum of one hundred (100)
dollars for binding books.

There being no further business before the Society, the
ballot-boxes Avere examined by the presiding officer, and the
following persons declared duly elected to membership in the
Society :

Joseph Harrison, Esq., of Philadelphia.

John Foster Kirk, Esq., of Boston, Mass.

Prof. George H. Cook, M.D., of New Brunswick, N. J.

And the Society was adjourned.

412 [August.

Stated 3Ieeting, August 19, 1864.

Present, seven members.

Judge Sharswood, Vice-President, in the Chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from M. Mor-
lot, dated Lausanne, 20th April, 1864.

A letter acknowledging publications was received from the
Massachusetts Historical Society, Worcester, July 1st, 1864.

Letters of envoi were received from the Minister of Asri-
culture, &c., Paris, January 29th, and from the Light-house
Board, Treasury Department, Washington, August 6th, 1864.

A letter requesting missing Proceedings was received from
the Society of Antiquaries, London, July 15th, 1864.

Letters were read from Prof. Matile at the Smithsonian In-
stitution, respecting thirty-four pieces from the archaeological
collection of the Society, casts of which are to be taken for
general distribution.

A circular letter was received from E. Corter, Paris, June
21st, respecting the Annuaire of Count d'Hericourt.

A letter was received from Mr. Miller accepting his ap-
pointment to prepare an obituary notice of Mr. Gerhard, and
one from Dr. Sparks excusing himself from his appointment
to prepare an obituary notice of Mr. Quincy. On motion of
Mr. Fraley, Mr. Everett was appointed in his stead.

Donations for the Library were received from M. v. Morlot,
the Royal Astronomical and British Meteorological Society,
the American Antiquarian and New Jersey Historical Socie-
ties, the Rensselaer Polytechnic and Franklin Institutes, Mr.
Chase, Blanchard & Lea, Prof. Whitman, of Centre County,
Pa., Col. Bache and the Light-house Board, the Superinten-
dent of Public Instruction in California, and Santa Clara
College, San Francisco.

Mr. James expressed his own and Mr. Lesquereux's satis-
faction at the speedy publication of the first article in the
Xlllth volume of the Transactions, on Californian Mosses ;
as its opportune distribution abroad had compelled the substi-

1864.] 4:13 [Lesley.

tiition of American names, for English and German names
already in the press and about to be fixed upon this interest-
ing part of the present American Flora.

Mr. Chase stated that he looked with much interest for the
confirmation of his views in regard to barometric fluctuations,
from the investigations which M. Le Verrier, in his letter of
June 8th, has proposed to undertake. The letter was com-
municated to the London Athenaeum of June 25th by Admi-
ral Fitzroy.

Mr. Lesley described, from private letters, the more recent
discoveries of Prof. Desor, of Neuchatel.

In April last, M. Desor's assistant, Mr. Benz, brought in from one
of the localities of lake habitations, known as the "iron station," the
first genuine human skull. M. Desor describes this skull as of a type
as low as that from the Neanderthal cave, with slanting forehead and
enormous circumorbital bones. Yet it undoubtedly belonged to a
Helvetian, and one of large stature, for with it were obtained many
Helvetian coins, lance-heads, &c., and four swords in ornamented
scabbards.

In May, M. Desor carried out his long-entertained purpose of ex-
amining the Bavarian lakes, said by the German naturalists to con-
tain no trace of pihAis remains ; theories having been constructed to
account for this curious limitation of i\iQ pfolilbauten to Switzerland.
M. Desor visited his friend, Prof. v. Liebig, with assured confidence
that all such theories were founded on a prime error of fiict. In
company with Mr. Benz and Prof. v. Siebold, the distinguished
palaeontologist of Bavaria, he visited the Lake of Starnberg, three
Swiss miles from the capital, in which is an islet called the Isle of
Roses, supporting the summer palace of the King. At the end of
this islet, and running underneath it, proving it to he artificial, they
found multitudes of piles, so well preserved that the rings of growth
could be read ; and among them quantities of antique pottery and
cleft marrow-bones of five species of animals, among which were the
horse, cow, stag, and hog. The excitement at Munich was very
great ; and the young King's government established a commission
with V. Siebold at its head, who have explored already five of the
Bavarian lakes, and discovered in them seven stations of lacustrine
habitations, from which numerous relics of the bronze age also have

Lesley.] 414 [September.

been dredged up, showing that it was synchronous or closely con-
tinuous with the so-called preceding Age of Stone.

Dr. Coates observed that, as he apprehended, well-known historical
documents were omitted to be noticed, which yet bear upon these
subjects. The transition from the brass to the iron age is indicated
by Horace, and appears to have taken place, as in the migrations of
the Dorians, with few if any battles. The heroes of the Iliad fight
with large stones. A high state of civilization existed at the same
time, as in the mention of Phoenicea, Mycense, and Tyre, A popula-
tion being driven into a lake, and founding even a mighty city there,
is exemplified by Mexico, according to the hieroglyphic records ab-
stracted by Clavigero. Venice, also, though not situated in a lake,
is a case of much analogy.

Dr. Coates reminded the Society of the general omission, as a fact
in the history of the later geological age, of the narrative in Genesis
of the destruction and deep depression of the cities and cultivated
plain of Sodom, although preceded by the account of a great battle,
with mention made of nine names of cities and eight of commanders,
and connected with the account of Abraham, Lot, and Melchisedek.

Pending nomination No. 525, and new nominations Nos.
526, 527, 528, were read.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, September 16, 1864.

Present, eight members.
Mr. Lea, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Letters accepting membership were received from Mr. J.
F. Kirk, dated Dorchester, Massachusetts, August 25th ; and
from Dr. Louis Stromeyer, dated Hanover, July 25th, 1864.

A letter resigning membership was received from Mr. E.
E. Law, dated Philadelphia, September 10th, 1864. On
motion his resignation was accepted.

A letter asking to be excused from writing another

1864.] 415 f^®*-

obituary notice of Mr. Quinsy was received from Mr. E.
Everett, dated Boston, August 2Ttb, 1864. On motion Mr.
Everett was excused.

Photographs for the Album were received from Dr. W. S.
"VV. Ruschenberger, Professor W. Chauvenet, Dr. L. Stro-
meyer, and Dr. Isaac Hays.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Asiatic
Society of Bengal, Calcutta, October 3d, 1863; the Corpora-
tion of Harvard College, August 22d, and Captain Gilliss,
Washington, August 20th, 1864.

Letters of envoi were received from the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, and Mr. J. W. Irwin, of New York City.

Donations for the Library were received from Dr. Stro-
meyer ; the Annales des Mines ; the London Society of
Antiquaries; Harvard College; Silliman's Journal; the
Brooklyn Mercantile Library Association; Messrs. Blan-
chard k Lea, and Mr. Eli K. Price, of Philadelphia.

Mr. Lea made a communication of a discussion of " Prime
Right- Angled Triangles and \/2," from a private letter ad-
dressed to him from Dr. James Lewis, of Mohawk, New
York.

Prime Right-Angled Triangles, and v/2.

In any R. A. Triangle, let H = hypothenuse, P i= perpendieu-
lar, B = base.

Then H^=P^+B^; whence H^— P^=B^ H^— P^ is the pro-
duct of two factors, H+P (=a) and H — P (=b). Accordingly,
H^— p==(H4-P)x(H— P)=ab=B^ and v/ab=B.

a + b = (H+P)-f(H— P) =2 H and^A=H.

a_b = (H-t.P)— (H— P) =2 P and-^^=:P.

The radical sign before ab implies that the terms a and b are
squares; the fractional expressions ^— - and ^^ implies that those

terms should be multiplied by 2. Substituting for the terms a and b,
others that meet these indications, viz., a=2N- and b=2S', the sides
of R. A. Triangles have the following general expression : Hz=N^+
S^, P=N2— 8^=, B=2NS. If the terras N and S be any whole num-
bers, their expansion as indicated in the formula, will evolve the sides
of Prime Right-Angled Triangles (prime, in the sense that the tri-

Lea.]

416

[September.

angles thus evolved may be analyzed without the introduction or
suppression of factors). If in the above formula for prime R. A.
Triangles, x+y be substituted for N, and y for S, the following for-
mula will appear: H=x2+2 xy+2y-, P=x=+2xy, B=2xy+2y-.
This second formula will be chiefly referred to in the following sum-
mary :

DECOMPOSED FRACTION OF THE SQUARE ROOT OF 2.

""^ I S 5 J 2 2 9 7 0 I 6 9 "-•"• A - = —

l/2=-l+j_ _

2 + l_

2 + 1

2+1

(A

A

A

A

B+P

= \/2 approx.

X y
i-A-i

3 2

7 -A— 5

17 12

41— A— 29

99 70

239— A— 169

The decomposed fraction of v^2, when re-
solved into a series of numerators and de-
nominators of common fractions (-) will
present the values in the annexed table,
column X embracing numerators, and column
y the corresponding denominators. The
first two terras, or initials of the series,
being found, succeeding terms may be found
by additions, observing the following rela-
tions, x+y=y',y-fy'=x', x'-hy'=y", y'+y"
=x", &c., continuously; or, y+2y'=y", y'+
2y"=y"', y"+2y"'=y"", &c.

In this series it will be seen that each alternate fraction (A) em-
braces a triangle in the form — -— in each one of which triano-les is

" H ~

a common characteristic, having the expression B — P=z+1-

An analysis of the several triangles of this series, by means of the
formula embracing the terms x and y, will reproduce the series of
values of x and y respectively, as given in the table. This is the
only series which will reproduce its radical elements, for the reason
that ^^1=1; and the root of no other quantity than 1 is ecjual to
itself. If the several triangles be analyzed by the formula embracing
the terms N and S, N and S will successively reproduce the series of
denominators y, N being in advance of S.

The general character of this and any similar series of triangles,
suggests the expression " —^—=^2 approximately." Other series of

•triangles similarly derived from different initials will confirm this
suggestion.

1854.] 417 1^^^*'

The intormediate alternate terms in the series (not distinguished by
the sign A) are only approximately R. A. triangles, having the
character which may be inferred from the following expression.
B' + P^r^H-'+l.

The preceding table, derived from the initials " 1, 1," presents a
series of approximate common fractions of the square root of 2, a
quantity that can only be approximately expressed in limited terms.
As expressions of the value of the root of 2, the successive fi'actions
present discrepancies which have peculiar relations to y/l or 1. Other
series similarly derived from other initials, will, in a similar manner,
be approximate fractions of \/2, but each series will have its charac-
teristic discrepancy, which is related to the series as y/1 or 1 is to the
series just considered. This discrepancy will appear in any series as
the quantity D in the expression B — P=+D, which expression is
the characteristic of all the R. A. triangles of a series.

The annexed series exhibits proportions simi-
lar to those of the preceding. The characteris-
tics of the triangles in the alternate terms (A)
in the form — n-j is B — P=:+ V 7. The approxi-
mate R. A. triangles (not designated by the
sign A) maybe characterized by the expression
B2+P2=H«+v/7. Thesuccessive fractions ?J-

: \/2 approximately

X y

1— A— 2

5 3

11— A— 8

27 19

65— A— 46

157 HI

379— A— 268

regarded as approximations to x/2, present dis-
crepancies which are related to v/7 or 7 as the
discrepancies of the preceding table are related
to v/l or 1.

The triangles evolved by expanding the successive values of x and
y, as in the formula embracing those terms, have the characteristics
B— P=±7.

This table having been derived from the initials " 1, 2," by addi-
tions, may be continued backwards by subtractions, which will de-
velop a series of terms, among which negative quantities will appear.
The first pair of terms (x and y) in which a negative quantity appears,
may be regarded as the initials of a new series, correlative to that
from which it is derived. The initials being found may both be re-
garded as positive, and the series extended by additions, as in the
preceding instances.

X— y^J'- J—y>=^^", 5,— y'=y,„ &c. x,=+3. y'=— 1,

the initials of the series.

VOL. IX. — 3d

Lea.] ^2g [September.

5-A—i

13 9

.SI— A— '-^'-^

75 53

181— A— 128

= v/2 approximately' -^^^ annexed series is the correlative of the last
I preceding, and is in all respects similar, except

3 I I that it is derived from different initials. Either

series being given, the other may be found in
the manner suggested.

In any case when a series has a correlative, it
may be found in the same manner. In any in-
stance in which D in the expression B — P=
+D, is a prime number, or a multiple of a prime
number, and the triangle to which the expres-
sion refers, is a Prime Right-Angled Triangle,
as previously defined, an analysis of the triangle by the formula em-
bracing the terms x and y, will give values for x and y, which may
be extended into a series, which series has its correlative, as in the
preceding instance. If D is found to embrace several factors which
are prime numbers, each one of those prime factors may be found to
give rise to two series of values for x and y, which will be cor-
relative to each other, so that there will be twice as many series of
values of x and y as there are prime factors in D, and accordingly
twice as many series of R. A. Triangles in which B — Pz=±D as there
are prime factors in D.

If D is the square of a prime number, there will be three series of
values for x and y, two of which will be correlative to each other, the
initials of the third being x=y=^D.

Other generalizations might be suggested co-ordinate with these,
which, however, are yet incomplete, and are reserved for further con-
sideration.

If any prime R. A. Triangle be resolved into the fractional form

—---(=-) and a series of fractions be derived therefrom by additions
or subtractions, as in the preceding illustrations, the alternate corres-
ponding values of x and y in the series will embrace a Prime R. A.
Triangle in the form — |~(=-) , and all such triangles in the series will
have the same value for D in the expression B — P=+D. If the
series of values of x and y thus tabulated be expanded into a series
of triangles (by means of the formula embracing x and y) the tri-
angles thus evolved will be characterized by the expression B — P=
±D'^, (D referring to its value in the former instance.)

Any whole numbers whatever, when used as the initials of a
series under x and y, as in the preceding illustrations, will develop a
series of numerators x and denominators y, of common fractions ap-

1864.]

419

[Chase.

proximating y/1, each alternate numerator embracing B + P and its
corresponding denominator H of some R. A. Triangle, in which the
difference of B and P will be the square root of some whole number
which will characterize the series ; and the numerical value of B — P,
will have the same relation to the series that -J 1 has to the series de-
rived from the initials " 1, 1" in the first illustration. From the vari-
ous considerations here presented, is derived the general inference

v^2 approximately.

James Lewis,

Mohawk, N. Y., August 31, 1864.

B + P

Mr. Chase read a communication " On the Comparative Fit-
ness of Languages for Musical Expression ;" presenting the
results of an investigation that had been suggested by the
remarks of Mr. Foulke, at a previous meeting of the Society.

The fitness of any language for musical expression, depends, not
on the number and character of the letters, but on the sounds that
are expressed by their several combinations. I have, therefore,
thought that it would be interesting to analyze the sounds, and to
institute a variety of comparisons between Italian, French, English,
and German, in order to determine as nearly as possible the precise
nature of their harmonic differences.

In making my comparisons, I selected a number of the principal
poets in each language, and examined a few passages from each.
From the aggregates I framed the following Tables :

1. Number of sounds of each description in 10,000 syllables.

Sounds.

Italian.

French.

German.

English.

Vowel, .

. 10,207

10,355

10,778

11,439

Nasal,

. 1,957

2,928

3,547

2,952

Liquid, .

. 2,806'

2,883

3,419

3,348

Sibilant, .

. 1,597

2,436

2,113

2,643

Labial, .

. 1,389

2,385

1,899

1,982

Dental, .

. 2,532

2,132

3,626

4,266

Guttural, .

969

863

2,341

1,351

21,457 23,982 27,723 27,981

Chase.]

^J

420

[September

Proportion of sounds in

a given number of ideas.

Sounds.

Italian.

French. German.

English.

Vowel, .

10,207

8,845 9,765

9,579

Nasal,

1,957

2,502 3,214

2,472

Liquid, .

2,806

2,467 3,098

2,804

Sibilant, .

1,597

2,084 1,914

2,213

Labial, .

1,389

2,041 1,720

1,660

Dental, .

2,532

1,825 3,285

3,572

Guttural, .

969

738 2,121

1,131

21,457 20,502 25,117 23,431

Number of sounds of eacb description in 10,000 sounds.

Sounds.

Italian.

French.

German.

English.

Vowel, .

4,757

4,312

3,888

4,088

Nasal,

912

1,221

1,279

1,055

Liquid, .

1,308

1,204

1,233

1,197

Sibilant, .

744

1,017

762

945

Labial,

648

996

685

708

Dental, ,

. 1,180

890

1,308

1,524

Guttural, .

451

360

845

483

10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000

It appears, therefore, that

1. In a given number of syllables, English has the greatest num-
ber of sounds, and Italian the least.

2. In the expression of a given number of ideas, German uses
the greatest number of sounds, and French the least.

3. Italian is the richest in the most musical sounds, or the vowels
and liquids, — German in the nasals and gutturals, — French in the
sibilants and labials, — and English in the dentals.

4. In regard to the harshest and least musical sounds, German has
an excess of gutturals, French of sibilants, and German of gutturals
and sibilants combined.

5. German has the greatest proportion of mute, and the smallest
proportion of vocal and semi-vocal sounds, and is, therefore, the least
musical of the three languages.

Mr. Chase also read a communication " On Certain Primi-
tive Names of the Sui^reme Being."

The resemblance between Algonquin "Manitou," Chinese mang

1864.] 421 [Chase.

taou, Egyptian ma ntr, Latin magnus deus, Greek [liya^ ^eo-, and
Sanscrit maha deva, to which I made casual reference in a former
communication (Trans. A. P. S., New Series, vol. xiii, p. 61), has
seemed to some of my friends sufficiently interesting and important
to justify a more minute and analytical exposition. The last three
forms are confessedly cognate ; the resemblance between the others
is at least equally striking, and were it not for the wide geographical
separation of the nations, and the absence of any direct evidence of
intercourse, we should naturally suppose that they were derived from
the same original source. But since it would be difficult to select
three languages that are less likely to have sprung from a common
parentage, it is reasonable to expect that the coincidence will be
severely criticized by those whose prejudices forbid a belief in the
unitary origin of man, and that little regard will be paid to the
mathematical probability of any hypothesis that may be supposed to
weaken its significance.

The Chinese corresponds precisely in meaning with the Aryan
forms, but the extent of the correspondence in the Algonquin and
Egyptian words, is somewhat uncertain. The probability that it is
equally complete in Algonquin, is sti'engthened by the considera-
tions that, 1, the Indian tribes generally speak of the Deity as
the "Great Spirit;" 2, the Shyenne word for spirit is mahio;
3, the Algonquin forms mechekelo, miss, michau, — Blackfoot
omuku, omaesin, — Cushna muck, — Shyenne tsimahaa, — all signify
"great," and all contain the root ma, variously modified, as in C.
mang, S. ma^h, L. magn-, mag-, Greek iJ-sy-, [la/.-, E, mass, much,
many, &c., &c. In Egyptian, ma ntr is properly "the true God,"
naa ntr being equivalent to " magnus deus." But m and n are
often interchanged; the root na or naa is found in Arapoho benasa,
large, naathia, so large; some of the subordinate meanings of ma
are retained in Egyptian mh or mah = Ch. mang, to fill, and in
mak = L. mag-, to rule; and a probable association between the ideas
of truth and greatness is shown by S. uru, G. ur, L. verus, E.
very, &c.

It is probable that tr and taou are both compounds, and that they
may have both been originally identical in meaning, and perhaps
also in form, is shown by S. tr, trai, to conquer, to preserve, to
guard ; Pawnee terahu or tidihu, great, terawa, god (Cfr. also Eg.
ra, the sun; S. ravi«, the sun, radj, to govern, racf, to guard,
I'svaras, God ; Crow, isa, large^.

The Chinese and Indian languages appear to furnish a clue to

Chase.] 422 [September.

some of the other primitive names of the Supreme Being. The root
aou, to shine (which is in its organic formation, as well as in its signifi-
cance, almost identical with r), is found nearly pure in C. haou,
appearance of the sun rising, the light of the heavens ; M. 3252-4,
gaou, aou or yaou, the light of the sun, M. 2932; Iowa, hawe, day;
Eg. auu, splendor, aui, to glorify ; H. "nx, light ; L. aurora, Y. auro,
morning. The same root is traceable, with some slight modifications,
in C. ou or woo, bright, M. 11747, yaou, very white, the splendor of
the sun, M. 11965, 11973, yuh, the splendor of the sun, M. 11870,
heu or yu, the air extending itself, great, warmth, sunlight, morn-
ing, M. 3738-41, 3756-7, tsaou, morning, M. 10540, chaou, the
splendor of the sun, daylight, M. 349, 1459, keaou, lohite, M.
5578, we or wei, the light of the sun, M. 11661, wang, the sun
going forth and shedding his illuminating beams, M. 11620, paou,
the fierce rays of the sun ; D. wi, the sun, agpao, dawn, daylight;
Assiniboin, aumpa, day; Pawnee, tewauwaupits, lightning; Shy-
enne, iwonit, the moon rising, iniwooniyots, day breaking, wowoiwo,
morning star ; Algonquin, kayshoh ("the mighty Yoh" =: mag-
nus Jov- = Shyenne mah-io), su7i, day ; S. djval, to blaze, dyu, to
shine, dyaus, the bright heaven; Gr. ?«;?, L. Eurus, C. heuh, the
light of the morning, M. 3857.

Materia*! existence is principally manifested through the medium
of light, and accordingly we find C. we or wei, to be, M. 11640,
yew, existence, M. 12107 ; Eg. au, to be; Alg. iah, iau, to be, to do,
to have; Chaldee, yao;* H. n',nin'; Ger. wesen; E. was. Prof.
Max Miiller has well shown the connection of deus, deva, Osoq, Zevq,
with S. dyau«!, and the resemblance of the Hebrew n , nirr' on the
one side to Alg. iah, iau, and on the other to L. Ju-, Jov-, has been
pointed out by different writers, but I think no one has shown how
readily all these forms may be connected through the Chinese
heaou, vapor, breath, M. 3556, 3580; yaou, the glory of the sun,
M. 11965; yew, existence; teaou, the sovereign or watchful
yaou, M. 9992, 10004; teaou, to look to a distance, a species of
dragon, M. 10031, 10045 ;f taou, the principle from ivhich hea-
ven, earth, man, and all nature emanates. According to Morrison,
" Taou, in the books of Laou tsze, is very like the Eternal Reason,

* See Bunsen's Egypt, vol. iv, p. 193-4.

t Cfr. S. drg, Gr. Jcp/cu, L. draco (= "the Watcher"'). The dragon if the
badge of the Emperor of China, and is embroidered or painted on his standards,
•'in the manner of the ancient Scythians, Parthians, Persians, and Romans."
The basilisk was also the emblem of the sun-god and of the monarch in Egypt.

1864.] 423 [Chase.

of which some Europeans speak ; Batio of the Latins, and the Logos
of the Greeks." The resemblance between Mexican Teo and Greek
deoq, has been often noticed, but it has usually been dismissed as a
merely accidental, though curious coincidence. In comparison with
the analogues here given, it assumes a new importance.

The association of the ideas of whiteness, purity {-op), brilliancy,
divine glory, and sacrifice, may perhaps account for such resem-
blances as C. yang, a sheep or goat, fire burning fiercely, bright,
splendid, the sun, male, the superior of the two material principles
into which, according to the Chinese, chaos was divided; S. yas,
light, lustre, adjas, a goat, yadj, to sacrifice, agni, a^gati, fire; L.
agnus ; Gr. al^ ; Y. ake, a goat, agutaij, a sheep, ako (= Eg. ka),
male, erag, a sheep (raij, yaij, saij, to shine, to burn, brilliantly);
J), sag, whitish or yellowish, agu, to burn on or on account of any-
thing, wiyakpa, iyoyagpa, to shine, agpao, day, takig-wanug-yag-pi
( — "deer-accidentally-domesticated*-flock") sheep; Mandan, agsa-
kte (= "the great aijsa"), mountain sheep. The Shyennes call the
sheep "the white deer."

Some of the Chinese religious expressions appear to furnish traces
of the remains of an early inspiration, as well as a parallelism of
thought that is indicative of a common origin. For example, by
combining the two characters which represent my and sheep, the
Chinese form the character for e, good, right, suitable, righteous-
ness. Morrison says (under the word "light"), "The Budhists
speak of a Hght within ; thus of the principles of the Kin Kang
King, they say, 'This sacred book is originally possessed by all man-
kind in their own nature, unperceived by themselves. When they
are awakened to know their own hearts, they are assured of the in-
ternal scripture. Having the light within, they do not, like the men
of the world, seek for Budh outside their own persons, nor seek for
a scripture externally, but rouse the internal mind, and adhere to the
internal mental scripture.' Does not this language resemble that of
the Friends, called Quakers?"

Some of the latest triumphs of physical science have led to the
revival of beliefs nearly identical with the intuitive or inspired per-
ceptions of our early ancestors, as manifested in their worship of
the mysterious Agency that controls the Universe. Thus we find in

* The Chinese speak of the lew chuh, the "six domestic animals," ma, the
horse (Cfr. G mahre, E. mare), new, the cow (Cfr. Sw. not, Dn. nod, W. cnud,
E. neat), yang, the sheep, ke, the fowl (the "caller"), keuen, the dog (Cfr. S.
gvan, Gr. kvwu), che. the hog (Cfr. F. cochon).

Chase.] 424 [October.

Tyndall's lectures on "Heat considered as a mode of motion" (First
American Edition, p. 446, sqq.), such expressions as the following :
'' Every mechanical action on the earth's surface, every manifesta-
tion of power, organic and inorganic, vital and physical, is produced

by the sun He blows the trumpet, he urges the projectile,

he bursts the bomb. And remember, this is not poetry, but rigid
mechanical truth. He rears, as I have said, the whole vegetable
world, and through it the animal ; the lilies of the field are his work-
manship, the verdure of the meadows, and the cattle upon a thousand
hills. He forms the muscle, he urges the blood, he builds the brain.
His fleetness is in the lion's foot; he springs in the panther, he
soars in the eagle, he slides in the snake. He builds the forest, and
hews it down; the power which raised the tree and which wields the
axe being one and the same. . . . The sun digs the ore from our
mines, he rolls the iron, he rivets the plates, he boils the water, he
draws the train. He not only grows the cotton, but he spins the
fibre and weaves the web. There is not a hammer raised, a wheel
•turned, or a shuttle thrown, that is not raised, and turned, and thrown
by the sun." No Chinese Bonze, no Hindoo Brahmin, no Persian
Fire-worshipper, no Egyptian, Grecian, or Roman priest, no Indian
medicine-man, could have discoursed in more eloquent language of
the power of the "Mighty Ka" or "Yau," and none perhaps, with
less danger of inculcating the belief, that the mere inert material
nature can exert that all-controlling power which is essentially
spiritual, and can spring only from a Supreme Intelligence.

Pending nominations Nos. 525, 526, 527, 528, were read.
And the Society was adjourned.

Stated 3Ieetmg, October 7, 1864.

Present, sixteen members.

Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from Mr. Jo-
seph Harrison, dated Philadelphia, September 24th, 1864.
A letter acknowledging the receipt of publications was re-

1864.] 425 ["Toriicelli "

ceived from the New York State Library at Albany, Sep-
tember 21st.

Donations for the Library were received from Professor
Zantedeschi, of Padua ; the London Meteorological, Geologi-
cal, and Antiquarian Societies ; the Essex Institute ; the New
York State Library ; the Loyal Publishing Association ; the
Protestant Episcopal Convention of Pennsylvania ; the Hon.
William Duane and Reverdy Johnson ; the Franklin Insti-
tute, and the College of Physicians of Philadelphia.

A donation for the Cabinet was received, through Mr.
Chase, from Mr. W. K. Lanphear, of Cincinnati, consisting
of 315 trade tokens.

The photograph of Professor J. C. Cresson was presented
for the Album.

A communication offered for the Magellanic Premium, ad-
dressed to the President and signed " Torricelli," was read by
Secretary Dr. Le Conte, and referred, as the By-Laws direct,
to the Board of Officers.

The communication announces "the discovery of certain new re-
lations between the solar and lunar diurnal variations of magnetic
force, and of barometric pressure."

These relations may be expressed by the proportions :

B' : B" : : ^M M' : v/A" M" (1)

B' : M' : : A' : A" (2)

B" : M" : : B' : B" (3)

A', A.", representing the tidal force of the sun and moon, re-
spectively.

B', B" the diurnal barometric variation.

M', M", the diurnal magnetic variation.

Proportion (1) is readily deduced from (2) and (3).

Pending nominations Nos. 525, 526, 527, 528, were read.

The Committee upon the Purchase of a Site for the Hall,
reported as follows :

" That they have received notice from 3Ir. Harrison that he has
another applicant for the lot, and that he is now willing to sell.
His price is 816,000, which may be in a reserved ground rent, re-

VOL. IX. — 3e

426 [October.

deemable after a few years, if the Society shall prefer, but he would
prefer a few thousand dollars to be paid on account. We propose to
offer ^15,000 ; but consider that the Society should not miss the lot
if satisfied with the location.

"The lot is the most central of any we know of, having the dimen-
sions we require, with a front towards the southwest corner of Penn
Square ; and if this opportunity be lost, it is believed no vacant lot
so suitable for our purpose can be had.

" The dimensions of the lot are 74 feet front, by 92 feet in depth,
to a small street.

'* We recommend that the Society make the purchase."

(Signed) Eli K. Price,

Stephen Colwell,
F. Fraley.

Dated October 3d, 1864.

To bring the matter before the meeting, Mr. Fralej moved
that the Committee be authorized, at their discretion, to pur-
chase the lot of Mr. Harrison, for a sum not greater than
$16,000, and to make immediate payment of a portion, not
exceeding S5,000.

After some discussion, on motion of Judge Sharswood, the
consideration of the subject was postponed until the first
stated meeting in November next.

And the Society was adjourned."

Stated Meeting, October 21, 1864.

Present, eight members.

Dr. Bell in the Chair.

A letter accepting membership was received from Dr. A.
Tholuck, dated Halle, October 4th, 1864.

1864.J ^27 [Chase.

A letter of acknowledt>;ment was received from the Chicao;o
Historical Society, dated October 8th, 1864.

Donations for the Library were received from the Bureau
of Public Instruction and Public Works, at Paris ; the New
England Loyal Publication Society ; Messrs. Blanchard &
Lea, and Bishop Stevens.

The death of Dr. William Pepper, a member of the Society,
was announced by Dr. Coates. Dr. Pepper died on the 15th
inst., aged 54. Dr. Coates was appointed to prepare an
obituary notice of the deceased.

Mr. Chase made a communication on Terrestrial Magnetism
as a Mechanical agent.

In a note to a former communication, I expressed mj belief that
the British Astronomer Royal would find in the mechanical action
of the sun's rays, the precise "occasional currents" for which he was
seeking, as the probable cause of magnetic storms. Mr. Airy has
recently sent me a copy of his very interesting paper, (Trans. Roy.
Soc , 1863, Art. XXIX.), and its perusal has greatly strengthened
this belief

All of my meteorological views rest upon the hypothesis, that the
atmospheric changes, whether of humidity, temperature, pressure,
electricity, or magnetism, are purely mechanical ; and that being con-
trolled by the laws of motion, their proper explanation does not re-
quire the assumption of any peculiar magnetic or electric fluid, but
that a single homogeneous, elastic, and all-pervading aether, may be
both the source and the receptacle of all the various forms of force.
In its principal features, this theory harmonizes with the now gene-
rally accepted belief in the mechanical origin of light and heat, but
in its details it involves some new and interesting special applica-
tions, which I have endeavored partially to develop.

It will be readily seen, by a reference to my communication of
April 15, (ante, p. 367, sqq.), that the mechanical action of the
currents to whose electric action Ampere ascribed the origin of ter-
restrial magnetism, produces two opposite spirals in the air and
aether, — the lower moving from the poles to the equator, and against
the earth's rotation ; the upper from the equator to the poles, and in
the same direction as the earth's rotation ; the two being connected

Chase.] 42g [October.

by innumerable currents of convection, or threads of ascending and
descending particles. It will also be evident that at every place
there are two principal sets of such double spirals, one with an axis
perpendicular to the earth's radius vector, producing a maximum
disturbance in the early afternoon, and the other more stable and
uniform, with an axis passing through the nearest poles of greatest
cold. In addition to the mutual perturbations of these two principal
polarizing currents, the rolling of the luni-tidal attraction-wave pro-
duces at every instant a greater or less derangement,* and I find that
the ratio of the lunar-barometric to the lunar-magnetic disturbance
(4.38-1:), is nearly identical with Mr. Welsh's determination of the
moment of magnetic inertia (4.4696; Phil. Trans., v. 153, p.
297). From a variety of considerations, it appears that the me-
chanical polarity or magnetic force thus engendered, is a third pro-
portional to two other forces, which may be called, respectively, cen-
tral and tangential.

The communication which was presented at our last meeting, in its
exhibition of the first numerical relationship that has ever been
pointed out between the barometric and magnetic fluctuations, showed
that A : B : : B : M, a proportion in which A represents a central,
B a tangential, and M a magnetic force.

I find a similar proportionality in each of Mr. Airy's summary
tables (Op. citat., p. 627, sqq). Thus in his "Table II, Algebraic
Sums of Magnetic Fluctuations (in terms of Horizontal Force) for
each Year, from 1841 to 1857, including all Days of Record of Great
3Iagnetical Disturbance," the Mean Disturbance is

Westerly Force.

Northei

i-ly F

orce.

Nadir Force.

_.00023=M.

-.00146=

=T.

—.00057=0.

H.

ere the proportion T

Theoretical value,
Observed "

Probable

:C:

error, .

:C

: M

gives

for xAI

a

- 000222

—.000228

.000080

" Table III. Algebraic Sums of Magnetic Fluctuations (in terms
of Horizontal Force) for each Year, from 1841 to 1857, including

* Besides the great disturbing agencies, whose effects may perhaps be de-
terminable by mathematical prediction, every transient local accumulation of
heat or cold will exert an influence. Everything that can produce currents or
eddies in the atmosphere, may also be presumed to affect the aether, and the in-
conceivable rapidity of the ajthereal motions, as manifested in the velocity of the
waves of light and heat, will account for the extreme sensitiveness of the mag
netic needle

1864.] 429 [Chase.

only those Days of Great Magnetic Disturbance, in which Records
were made by the three Instruments."

Theoretical value of M, —.000287

Observed " " —.000257

Probable error, 000068

Tables V and VI, exhibit an approximation to the proportion,
C : T : : T : M, but the approximation does not come within the
limits of probable error. As no attention is paid in these two Tables
to the positive and negative signs, we could not reasonably expect so
satisfactory results as in Tables II and III.

"Table VIII. Sums, without regard of sign, of CoefiBcients of
Magnetic Irregularity (in terms of Horizontal Force) for each Year,
from 1841 to 1857, including all Days of Record of Great Magnetical
Disturbance." The proportion C : T : : T : M, gives for M a

Theoretical value, 001218

Observed " 00120.3

Probable error, 000066

" Table IX. Sums, without regard of sign, of Coefficients of
Magnetic Irregularity (in terms of Horizontal Force) for each Year,
from 1841 to 1857, including only those Days of Great Magnetic
Disturbance, in which Records were made by the three Instru-
ments."

Theoretical value of M, 0011.37

Observed " " 001150

Probable error, 000081

In addition to these numerical cuincidences, the fljllowing points
in Mr. Airy's paper appear to me to be specially noteworthy.

1. " The Aggregate for the Westerly Force .... (taken in com-
parison with that for the Northerly Force), appears to show that on
the whole, the direction of the Disturbing Force is 10° to the east
of south ;" p. 628. This indicates a line of mean disturbance about
midway between the magnetic meridian (which, at London, is about
N. 24° W.), and the solar meridian, or midway between the meri-
dians of decussation in the two sets of principal spirals, to which I
have referred.

2. "Sometimes two waves in one direction correspond nearly with

one in the other direction A moi'e frequent relation appears to

be, that the evanescence of one wave corresponds with the maximum
of the other;" p. 635.

3. "The most striking particulars in the last line (of Tables VIII
and IX) are the following :

Chase.]

430

[October.

"First, the almost exact equality of the Mean Coefficients of Ir-
regularity in the three elements With reference to their

physical import, I think it likely that the equality of Coefficients of
Irregularity may hereafter prove to be one of the most important of
the facts of observation.*

" Second, the near agreement in the number of Irregularities for
Westerly Force and for Northerly Force.

"Third, the near agreement in the number of Irregularities for
Nadir Force with half the number of Irregularities for Westerly or
for Northerly Force;" p. 641-2.

4. Tables X and XI (p. 643-4) show that the disturbances are
greatest in the winter months and in the night hours. Table X,
also appears to indicate minima of fluctuations and inequalities in
months when there is the greatest uniformity of temperature, and
maxima when the changes of temperature are greatest and most
frequent.

5. Tables XI and XIT furnish the materials for the following
synopsis :

Forces.

Sums of Wave
disturbance.

2 so

a a> w

3 fc: S

Mm S

Average
departure
from Mean

Mean Ir-
regularity

£ o

+

-

^ _ { Time of ma\. . . .
2 S 1 Time of miii. . . .
Sol .\mt. of m:i\. . . .
^^ (Amt. of mm. . . .

i" f Time of ma.K. . . .
^ i ' Time of mill. . . .
to 1 Amt. of max. . . .
1^ 1, Amt. of m.ii. . . .

f Time of m;i\. . . .

■^ i ! Time of miii. . . .

* o 1 .\mt. of mu.x. . . .

^ [Amt. of min. . . .

20 h
10 h
.1170
.0165

5h

22 h

.1407
.0038

7 h
22 h
.3976
.0355

10 h
21 h
.2191
.0083

12 h
Ih

.2917

.0674

14 h

Ih

.3133

.0306

10 h
23 h
.1976
.0346

8h
23 h
.1754
.0441

10 h
23 h
.1241
.0177

20 h

10 h

+ .00142

— .00165

5h
22 h
+ .00038

— .00319

Oh
17 h

+ .00570

— ,00380

13 h

2h

.00104

.00056

20 h
1-2 h

.00168
.00093

3h

22 h

.00363

.00157

15 h
Ih

.00162
.00074

15 h

23 h

.00144

.00077

Oh

23 h

.00180

.00074

9h
23 h
126

51

8h

23-1 h

136

57

10 h
1 h
86
19

" The Soli-tidal character of the principal characteristics of the oc-
casional Magnetic Storms, as to frequency, magnitude, inequalities

wave-disturbance, and Irregularities, is seen clearly in this Table."
(Table XII) p. 645. There are subordinate maxima and minima,
the consideration of which will become interesting, when the laws of
the principals have been well ascertained and defined.

6. "In regard to the Wave-disturbance : for Westerly Force, the
aggregate is + from 17 h. to6h., — from 7 h. to 16 h.; for Northerly

* This approach to equality appears to be still more important, in view of the
proportionality— C : T : : T : M.— P. E. C.

1864.] 431 [Chase.

Force, the aggregate is -\- from 3 h. to 5 h., — from 6 b. to2 h. ; and
for Nadir Force, the aggregate is + from 23 h. to 10 h., — from lib.
to 22 h. ;" p. 644.

7. Mr. Airy presents some conclusive considerations, "showing
that the observed disturbances cannot be produced by the forces of
any suddenly created galvanic current or polar magnet," and remarks
as follows, respecting his theory : " Its fundamental idea is, that
there may be in proximity to the earth something which (to avoid
unnecessary words) I shall call a Magnetic Ether; that under cir-
cumstances generally, but not always, having reference to the solar
hour, and therefore, probably, depending on the sun's radiation or
on its suppression, a current from N.N.W. to S.S.E., approximately,
or from S.S.E. to N.N.W. (according to the boreal or austral nature
of the ether), is formed in this Ether ; that this current is liable to
interruptions or perversions of the same kind as those which we are
able to observe in currents of air and water; and that their effect is
generally similar, producing eddies and whirls, of violence sometimes
far exceeding that of the general current from which they are
derived;" p. 646.

8. "And in the relation between E. and W. disturbances and
vertical disturbances, there is a point which well deserves attention.
When a water-funnel passed nearly over the observer, travelling
(suppose) in a N. direction, he would first experience a strong cur-
rent to the E., afterwards a strong current to the W (or vice versa),
and between these there would be a very strong vertical pressure in
one direction, not accompanied by one in the opposite direction ; thus
he would have half as many vertical as horizontal impulses. This
state of things corresponds to the proportion which we have found
throughout for the magnetic disturbances, and to the relation found
in Article 18. I may also add that the rule at which we have ar-
rived, that the waves of vertical force are few, but that their power,
when they do occur, is very great, seems to correspond to what is
reported of the whirlwinds of great atmospheric storms ; which,
violent and even frequent as they may be, occur very rarely at any
assigned place;" p. 647.

I add a few considerations from Maj. Gen. Sabine's discussions.
(Phil. Trans., Vol. 153, Art. XII.)

9. "The westerly deflections at Kew . . . have a decided double
maximum, with an intervening interval of about eight or nine hours.
. . . The conical form and single maximum which characterizes the
easterly deflections at Kew, belong also to the easterly deflections in

Chase.] 432 [October.

all localities in North America, where the laws of the disturbances
have been investigated. But ... at Nertschinsk and Pekin . . .
the conical form and single maximum characterize the icesterly de-
flections, whilst the easterly have the double maximum. . . . At the
two Asiatic stations, the aggregate values of the vie&terly deflections
decidedly predominate, whilst in America the easterly deflections
are no less decidedly predominant; and at Kew, . . . the amount of
deflection in the two directions may be said to be balanced;" p. 282.

10. The diff'erences of the weekly from the annual means of
declination, indicate " with a very high degree of probability, an an-
nual variation, whereby the north end of the magnet points more
towards the east when the sun is north, and towards the west when
the sun is south of the equator;" p. 291.

11. The residual errors in the monthly determinations of the Hori-
zontal Force and of the Dip, "are thoroughly confirmatory of a semi-
annual inequality, having its epochs coincident, or nearly so, with
the sun's passage of the equator;" p. 303.

12. There appears to be "an increase of the Dip and of the Total
Force, and a deflection of the north end of the Declination magnet
towards the West, in both hemispheres, in the months from October

to March, as compared with those from April to September

The greater proximity of the earth to the sun in the December com-
pared with the June Solstice most naturally presents itself as a not
improbable cause ; but we are as yet too little acquainted with the
mode of the sun's action on the magnetism of the earth, to enter
more deeply into the question at present;" p. 307.

I have neither the leisure nor the ability to undertake an exhaus-
tive analysis of the results thus brought together ; but I present them
as well worthy of a profound mathematical investigation, as con-
firmatory in very striking and minute particulars of my mechanical
hypotheses, and as furnishing new and strong presumptive evi-
dence of that marvellous simplicity of force to which many indepen-
dent branches of modern physical research so strongly point. This
evidence is strengthened by the existence, as I have shown elsewhere,
of the tidal law of sines in the solar-diurnal variation of the magnetic
needle, by the magnetic effect of the daily barometric rotation-tide,
as exhibited in the convergence of lines of equal barometric disturb-
ance towards the hours of high barometer and their divergence from
the hours of low barometer, by many points of resemblance between
the daily and yearly variation-curves, both of temperature and of
magnetism, and by certain considerations confirmatory of the reason-

1864 1

433

[Chase.

able presumption that there maybe lunar-monthly magnetic tides, some-
what analogous to those which I have pointed out in the barometer.
(Pi'oceedings of the Koy. Soc, June 16, and Am. Phil. Soc, June
17, 1864.)''

Besides the diflPerentiul or tidal action of the moon, there is a slight
tendency to diminish the weight of the air that is nearest the moon,
and to increase the weight of that which is most remote. In pro-
portion as this tendency is exerted in conjunction with or in opposi-
tion to that of the sun, the mean solar-diurnal magnetic currents
should be increased or diminished. Slight as the disturbing influence
is, and modified as it must be by various causes, both occasional and
periodic (e. g. the earth's rotation, the cyclical revolution and con-
sequent varying latitude of the moon at the commencement of each
new month, the oscillations in the aerial rotation-spheroid produced
by lunar attraction, the changes in the average temperature of day

TABLE I.

Solar and Lunar Daily Magnetic Tides, in parts of Force.'*

Solar
and

Horizontal Force.

Vertical Force.

Total Force. 1

Solar.

Lunar.

Solar.

Lunar.

Solar.

Lunar.

LuDar
Hours.

.00

.000

000

.000

.000

.000

0

+ 1099

+006

—022

—005

+ 95

+005

1

+0911

—003

+229

+027

+ 82

—001

2

+0623

—Oil

+446

+031

+60

—005

3

+0368

—014

+593

+ 044

+40

—006

4

+0133

—020

+638

+072

+ 20

—007

5

—0080

—014

+608

+041

+01

—006

6

—0270

—007

+611

+050

— 15

+001

7

—0394

—004

+545

+028

—26

+001

8

—0465

000

+300

—012

—36

—002

9

—0511

+022

+ 219

—Oil

—41

+018

10

—0530

+032

+074

—017

—45

+025

11

—0522

+031

—Oil

—037

—45

+022

12

—0481

+019

—100

—003

43

+016

13

—0449

+017

—165

+005

—41

+015

14

—0405

+013

—224

+019

—38

+014

15

—0376

—009

—289

+048

—36

—001

16

—0352

—Oil

—345

+051

—35

—002

17

—0329

—008

—398

+029

—34

—003

18

—0298

—009

—465

+013

—32

—006

19

—0154

—004

—513

—Oil

—20

—005

20

+ 0130

+003

—582

—053

+0:^

—005

21

+0470

+006

—491

—050

+:!4

—.002

22

+0803

+013

—427

—054

+ 63

+004

23

+ 1019

+009

—214

—007

+85

—001

* The first decimal figures are placed, for convenience, in an upper line.
VOL. IX. — 3f

Chase. J

434

[October.

and night at different seasons and in different years, &c.), it may yet,
perhaps, be discernible in comparing the results of a long series of
careful and delicate observations. The accompanying tables are de-
duced from such a comparison of the St. Helena records.

Table I is compiled from Maj. Gen. Sabine's Tables 36, 37, 50,
51, 52, 53 (St. Helena Observations, Vol. II). It is specially inte-
resting as showing the influence of the opposition of attraction to
rotation in producing low solar tides at 10 or 11 p. M., the prompt
and direct influence of the sun upon the asthereal currents in the
production of a high tide at noon, the double maxima and minima in
each of the lunar tides, the additional confirmation of the analogies
that I have heretofore pointed out between the spheroids of attrac-
tion and rotation, the opposition of the solar and the resemblance of

TABLE II.

Liinar-Montldy Magnetic Tide of Horizontal Force.

Mean Daily Fluctuations of Horizontal Force at St. Helena.* |

Moon's
Position.

1844-6.

o

1844.

1845.

1846.

Average.

0

61.31

53.75

40.88

51.98

15

61.66

53.29

41.24

52.06

30

62 20

52.85

41.73

52.26

45

62.32

53.61

41.81

52,58

60

62.56

52.40

40.66

51.87

75

6276

52 36

41.34

52.15

90

61.82

52.80

41.54

52.05

105

61.37

53.11

40.42

51.63

120

60.47

53.43

39,97

51.29

135

59.42

53.60

40.46

51.16

150

6023

53.01

40 14

51.13

165

60.54

53.46

39.72

51.24

180

58.81

53.91

40.86

51.19

195

59.39

53,64

40.27

51.10

210

59.35

53.57

40.70

51.20

225

58.88

52.91

40.74

50.85

240

59.66

52 80

39.79

50.75

255

60.35

52.92

40.70

51.32

270

60.50

53.43

40.65

51.51

285

60.89

5381

41.10

51.94

300

61.64

52.82

41.41

51.96

315

61.80

53.10

41.34

52,08

330

62.14

53.45

42 39

52.66

345

62.16

52.97 ■

41.85

52.32

* The value of one scale division is .00019 of the Horizontal Force, in 1844
and 1845, and .00021 in 1846.

1864.]

435

[Chase.

the lunar zenith and nadir effects, and the evidence in the partial
'' establishment" of the moon's tides that most of her magnetic influ-
ence is exerted indirectly on the asthcr, through the intervention of
atmospheric attraction-currents.

Tables II and III were formed by taking the mean of the hourly
averages, on the twenty-four days in each lunar month which are
most nearly indicated by the angular positions given in the first
column. Each of the tabular numbers for 1844 and 1845 represents
the average of two hundred and eighty-eight hourly observations ;
each of the numbers for 1846, the average of two hundred and sixty-
four observations, with a few exceptions of holidays and other omit-
ted days, for which the missing numbers were interpolated. Table
II indicates a tendency to mean lunar influence between 90° and

TABLE III.

Lnnar-Monthlij Magnetic Tide of Vertical Force.

Moon's

Position.

o

Mean Daily

Fluctuations of Vertical Force at St. Helena.*

1844.

1845.

1846.

1844-6.
Average.

0

48.42

48.51

43 56

46.83

15

48.21

48 55

43.90

46.89

;-50

47.33

48.53

44.55

46.80

45

47 33

48.25

43 96

46 51

60

47.45

48.47

43.69

46.54

75

47.62

47.88

44.22

46.57

90

47.65

47.43

44.77

46.62

105

47.62

46.92

45.31

46.62

120

47.53

47.42

45.65

46.87

135

47.76

47.40

47.30

47.49

150

47.55

47.50

47.23

47.43

165

47.52

47.70

47.02

47.41

180

47 06

47.77

46.54

47.12

195

47.96

48.02

46.29

47.42

210

48.14

48.26

45.88

47.43

225

47.49

48.26

46.39

47 38

240

48.40

48.60

45.32

47.44

255

48.16

48.52

44.64

47.11

270

48.00

48 08

44.54

46.87

285

47.93

47.70

44.61

46.75

300

48.06

48.26

44.91

47.08

315

48.17

48.56

44.95

47.23

330

48.49

47.91

43.78

46.73

345

48.18

47.44

43.99

46.54

* The value of one scale division varies from .00051 to .00091 of the Vertical
Force.

Chase. J

436

[October

105°, and between 270° and 285°, the influence increasing when the
moon acts either in conjunction with the sun, or directly upon con-
densed air and vice versa. It also shows the existence of disturb-
ances, which may be accounted for by some of the causes to which I
have already referred. Table III exhibits apparent tendencies to
diminution of force near the syzygies, and to increase of force a day
or two after the quadratures.

Table IV is a compendium of the tidal diiferences in the two preced-
ing tables. It shows the effect of temperature in producing maxima
and minima when the coolest and warmest portions of the earth are
submitted to the direct action of the moon (at or near 240° and 45°),
low temperature producing a minimum of horizontal force, with a
maximum of vertical force, and vice versd. From the variations of

horizontal force I ~- j and vertical force | ^^ j given in this table,

Table V is formed, the mean variations of total force ( | being

' \- f J ^

TABLE IV.

Lunar- Monthly Magnetic Tide. Differences from Monthly Means.

Moon's

Horizontal Force.

Vertical Force.

Means |

IrOSltlOIl.

0

1844.

+ .88

1845.

1846.

1844.

1845.

1846.

H. F.

V. F.

0

+.54

— .02

+ .59

+ .51

—1.56

+.30

—.16

l.j

+ .73

+.08

+ .34

+.88

+ .55

—1.22

+.38

—.10

:-!0

+ 1.27

—.86

+ .83

—.50

+ .58

— .57

+.58

—.19

4.)

+ 1,89

+.40

+ .91

—.50

+ .25

—1.16

+.90

—.48

GO

+ 1 fi8

— 81

— .24

—.88

+ .47

—1.43

+.19

—.45

75

+ 1.83

—.85

+ .44

—.21

— .12

— .90

+.47

—.42

90

+ .89

—.41

+ .64

— .18

— 57

— .35

+.37

— .37

105

+ .44

—.10

— .48

—.21

—1.08

+ .19

—.05

— .37

120

— .46

+.22

— .93

— 80

— .58

+ .53

—.39

— 12

135

—1.51

+.89

— .44

— 07

— .60

+ 2.18

—.52

+.50

150

— .70

—.20

— .76

—.28

— .50

+2.11

— 55

+ .44

165

— .39

+.25

—1.18

—.81

— .80

+ 1.90

—.44

+.42

180

—2.12

+.70

— .04

—77

— .23

+ 1.42

—.49

+ .18

195

—1.54

+.43

— .63

+.13

+ .02

+ 1.17

—.58

+.43

210

—1.58

+.36

— .20

+.31

+ .26

+ .76

—.48

+.44

225

—2.05

—.80

— .16

—.34

+ .26

+ 1.27

—.88

+ .39

240

—1.27

—.41

—1.11

+.57

+ .60

+ .20

—.98

+.45

255

— .58

—.29

— .20

+..88

+ .52

— .48

—.36

+.12

270

— .48

+.22

— .25

+.17

+ .08

— .58

—.17

—.12

285

— .04

+ .60

+ .20

+.10

— .80

— .51

+.26

—.24

HUO

+ .71

—.39

+ .51

+ .28

+ .26

— .21

+.28

+ .09

815

+ .87

—.11

+ .44

+.34

+ .56

— .17

+.40

+ .24

830

+ 1.21

+.24

+ 1.49

+.66

— .09

—1.34

+.98

—.26

845

+ 1.23

—.24

+ .95

+.35

— .56

— 1.18

+.64

—.45

1864.]

437

[Chase.

obtained by the formula ^^ = cos- 0 %^ + sin-

AY
Y ■

I have

taken ^ = — 22°; one scale division of horizontal force r= .000194 ;
one division of vertical force = .000792 ; which are almost identical
with the values employed by Gen. Sabine in the computation of his
Tables of hourly variation in solar and lunar total force.

In a similar manner I have computed Table VI, showing the
average hourly variations, both in solar and lunar total force, in each of
the three years which have furnished the data for most of my deduc-
tions. The fir-st decimal figures are placed in an upper line, as in
Table I. Perhaps the principal utility of this table may be found in
some future extension of these investigations, but even now it is
interesting, inasmuch as it exhibits the probable influence of periodic
causes in shifting the hours of the daily maxima and minima, and
as it lends added weight to the preceding tables, by showing that the
monthly tide is more regular than the daily tide.

TABLE V.

Lunar- Monthly Magnetic Tide of Total Force.

Moon's

Mean Daily Fluctuation.s at St.

Helena, in part.s of Total Force.

1 osition.

1844-4IJ.

o

1844.

1845.

1S46.

Average.

0

+ .00013

+.00015

—.00018

+.00003

15

+ .00017

+.00007

—.00008

+ 00005

30

+.00016

.00000

+.00007

+ .00008

45

+.00018

+.00009

+.00002

+ 00010

60

+.00023

—.00008

—.00020

—.00002

75

+.00028

—.00015

—.00003

+ .00003

90

+.00013

—.00013

+.00007

+.00002

105

+.00005

—.00014

—.00006

—.00005

120

—.00011

—.00003

—.00010

—.00008

1.S5

—.00026

.00000

+.00017

—.00003

150

—.00015

—.00009

+.00011

—.00004

165

—.00010

+ .00001

+.00001

—.00003

180

—.00044

+.00009

+.00015

—.00007

195

—.00024

+.00007

+ .00003

—.00005

210

—.00023

+.00009

+.00005

—.00003

225

—.00038

—.00002

+.00012

—.00009

240

—.00015

.00000

—.00016

—.00010

255

—.00006

+ .00001

—.00009

— 00005

270

— 00005

+.00005

—.00011

— 00004

285

.00000

+.•'0007

— 00002

+ .00002

300

+.00014

— 00004

+ 00006

+ 00006

315

+.00018

+.00004

+.00005

+.00009

330

+.00027

+.00003

+.00010

+ .00013

345

+.00024

—.00010

+ 00003

+ 00006

Chase. 1

438

[October.

It seems not improbable that the mutual planetary perturbations
which are sufficiently powerful to affect their orbital revolution, may
also exert an appreciable influence on their asthereal spheroids, and
that numerous cyclical magnetic variations may be thus produced.
The disturbance of Jupiter is by far more important than that of any
other planet, its mean attractive energy being nearly a third propor-
tional to those of the sun and moon.* The annual fluctuations are
very great, the intensity being about ji^ when Jupiter is nearest
the earth, and less than half as great, or only about ^l^, when most
remote. The combined operation of the tropical revolutions of
Jupiter, the moon's apsides, and the moon's nodes, should produce
a series of disturbances corresponding very nearly in duration with

TABLE VI.

Solar and Lunar-Daily Tales of Total Force.

Solar

and

Lunar

Hours

1844.

1845.

1840.

Solar.

Lunar.

Solar.

Lunar.

Solar.

Lunar.

.000.

.000.

.000.

.000.

.00.

.000.

0

+83

+ 009

+88

—009

+066

+004

1

+83

+011

+97

—014

+ 104

+015

2

+ 67

—005

+85

—016

+097

—004

8

+49

—004

+ 63

—008

+ 076

+018

4

+ 28

—024

+41

—0 1 2

+054

+ 017

5

+ 15

—032

+ 20

—001

+031

+024

6

+02

—027

+02

+ 002

+008

+028

7

—11

—016

—11

+ 010

—014

+022

8

—22

—006

—24

+ 003

—026

+022

9

—31

+001

—35

+ 034

—036

+022

10

—35

+008

—39

+041

^043

+024

]I

—37

+029

—46

+ 031

—047

+021

12

—37

+017

—48

+ 021

—053

+008

13

—38

+021

—43

+ 012

— 0-is

+011

14

—39

+ 045

—44

+012

— 0 10

—001

15

—32

+ 021

—42

+006

—038

—029

k;

—30

+001

—39

+006

—043

—033

17

—29

—004

—39

+006

—041

—027

IS

22

—012

—37

—008

—042

—020

19

—24

—006

—36

—016

—041

—019

20

— k;

—014

—24

-008

-027

—Oil

21

+07

+017

+ 03

—006

—008

—021

22

+38

+022

+32

—002

+ 029

—008

2:j

+(i4

+ 016

+(iH

__.()':■

+ 063

—010

* If we take as our unit the moon's attraction for the earth f-r-, he sun's will

be about 177, and Jupiter's y^:j.

1864.] 439 [Chase.

Gen. Sabine's magnetic " decennial period," and Scbwabe's period
of solar spots.

The law of varying attraction suggests a plausible explanation for
the approximate mean proportionality of the barometric to the tidal
and magnetic variations. For the ratios of attraction of any planet
when in solar conjunction, at quadrature, and in opposition, vary as
(n +1)^, n2, and (n — 1)'~, respectively, the attraction at the
mean distance being nearly a mean proportional between the maxi-
mum and minimum attractions. The barometrical fluctuations are
occasioned by variations in the gravitation of the air towards the
earth's centre, — the tidal motions, by the influence of distant hea-
venly bodies, — and the magnetic, according to my hypothesis, by the
oscillations of the air and aether in their eff"orts to restore the unsettled
equilibrium. The three disturbances, therefore, must evidently have
nearly the same mutual relations as if they were produced by three
forces, one centripetal, and the other two centrifugal, the two latter
being nearly equal in amount but diametrically opposed in direction.
This leads us at once, theoretically, to the general formula with which

we started empirically,

A : B : : B : M,

and strengthens the conviction that there are none of the pheno-
mena of terrestrial magnetism which cannot be explained, either by
the instantaneously received and instantaneously transmitted impres-
sions which are made directly upon the aether by attraction, heat, or
rotation, — by the more sluggish oscillations of the air, which originate
from the same sources, — or by the combination of the two.

Every particle is exposed to the influence of these several impres-
sions, the tidal waves of the solid earth having a range, according to
Prof. Thomson's calculations (Phil. Trans., Vol. 153, p. 574), at
least two-fifths as great as if the globe were entirely fluid. There is,
therefore, good reason to hope, that by the application of mechanical
laws to the several phases of the fiethereal undulations which produce
the phenomena of light, heat, electricity, polarity, aggregation, and
diffusion, we may obtain a clearer understanding, not only of all the
meteorological changes, but also of seismic tremors, crystallization,'''
stratification, chemical action, and general morphology.

* The phosphorescence that i.s often observed during the process of crystalliza-
tion, and the auroral displays in frosty air, are pei-haps owing to analogous vibra-
tions. Every chemical, as well as every physical action produces a ponderable
disturbance of equilibrium, which must give rise to sethereal oscillations, to
which, in their simplest form, we give the name of electric, magnetic, or galvanic
currents.

Chase.] 4^Q [October.

If density is a functional product of superficial magnetism and
central attraction, tbe resemblance of the formula B = v^ AM, to the
expression of Mr. Graham's experimental law of molecular diffusion,

Time = F v^ Density (Proc. Roy. Soc. No. 56, p. 616-7), and to the
general theoretical formula of which Mr. Graham's is a corollary,

Velocity = F ^/ Elasticity
Density.

may be something more than accidental.

If we assume the atmospheric density as our unit, D' ^ 1, and
represent the aerial and gethereal elasticities by E', E", respectively,
the proportion

1 : 192,000 : : ^/^ : ^/^
gives an approximate value for the density of the kinetic aether,
D" = .00000000000108 I,. The magnetic and barometric fluctua-
tions may perhaps furnish the necessary data for determining the un-
known ratio =717.

Mr. Marsh exhibited a Manuscript Chart, and read a letter
from Mr. R. P. Gregg, of Manchester, England, in reference
to the recent observations of Messrs. Gregg and Herschel,
upon the radiant points of Star Showers.

Pending nominations Nos. 525, 526, 527, 528, were read
and balloted for.

On motion of the Librarian, wuth the approval of the Com-
mittee on the Library, the sum of seventy dollars and ten
cents ($70 10), was appropriated to pay Messrs. Pawson and
Nicholson's bill of 14th inst., for the binding of books.

There being no other business, the ballot boxes were ex-
amined by the presiding officer, and the following persons
were declared duly elected members of the Society :

Rev. Prof. T. C. Porter, of Lancaster, Pa.

Rev. John Bost, of Laforce, near Bergerac, France.

Rev. Prof. C. P. Krauth, of Philadelphia.

Mr. R. H. Lamborn, of Altoona, Blair County, Pa.
And the Society was adjourned.

1864.J 441

Stated Meeting^ November 4, 1864.

Present, twenty-two members.
Professor Cresson, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Letters accepting membership were received from Prof.
Tunner, dated Leoben, October 6th, and Dr. Schinz, dated
Strasburg, October 9th, 1864.

Letters of acknowledgment were received from the Geolo-
gical Institute, dated Vienna, September 19th, 1862 ; the
Royal Society, dated London, May 16th ; and the Linnean
Society, dated August 8th, 1864.

Letters of envoi were received from the Imperial Academy,
dated Vienna, June 23d ; the Royal Academy, dated Berlin,
February 29th ; and the Royal Academy, dated Madrid,
April 20th, 1864.

Photographs for the Album were received from Mr. Peter
W. Sheafer, Prof. Tunner, and Dr. Schinz.

Donations for the Library were received from the Societies
and Academies at Konigsberg, Berlin, Vienna, St. Gallen,
Frankfort on Maine, Bonn, Haarlem, and Madrid ; the In-
stitut de France ; the Royal, Royal Geographical, Chemical,
Zoological, and Linnean Societies, at London ; the Royal
Dublin Society ; Mr. Safford, of Cambridge ; Mr. Whitmore,
of Salem ; Rev. E. C. Jones, of Blockley ; Mr. Evans, of
Philadelphia, and the Franklin Institute.

The death of Admiral Sir John Washington, a member of
this Society, at Havre, in the sixty-third year of his age, was
announced by the Secretary, who read an Obituary Notice of
the deceased from the last anniversary address of the Presi-
dent of the Royal Geographical Society.

The Secretary presented a communication intended for the
Transactions, by Prof. Jacob Ennis, entitled " The Nebular

VOL, IX. — 3g

4.^2 [November.

Hypothesis;" it was referred to a committee, consisting of
Prof. Kendall, Mr. Chase, and Mr. Marsh.

The stated business being called for, the report of the
Special Committee on the Purchase of a Site for a new Hall
was read from the minutes of October 7th. Mr. Fraley was
requested to make a statement of the financial condition of
the Society, which he did, and after debate by the members,
the resolution of October 7th was again read, and, on the
question being put to the meeting, it was not adopted.

On motion of Mr. Fraley, and at the suggestion of the
Treasurer, the sum of one hundred and fifty dollars addi-
tional, was appropriated to the general account of the current
year.

And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting, November 18, 1864.

Present, tAvelve members.
Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.

Letters accepting membership were read, from Prof. T. C.
Porter, dated Lancaster, November 11th, and from Prof.
Bernard Studer, dated Berne, October 30th, 1864.

Donations for the Library were received from the British
Association for the Advancement of Science ; the Royal
Astronomical Society; Prof. TreadAvell, of Cambridge, Mass. ;
Silliman's Journal ; Dr. Tafel, and Blanchard & Lea, of
Philadelphia.

Dr. Goodwin read an obituary notice of Dr. Hitchcock.

1864.] 443 [Goodwin.

OBITUARY NOTICE OF THE REV. PROF. EDWARD
HITCHCOCK, D.Dr, LL.D.

This distinguished member of the American Philosophical Society
died near the close of last February. The following leading facts of
his life, presented as dry chronological data, together with a general
estimate of his character and labors, are chiefly drawn from a funeral
discourse by Professor Tyler.

"Dr. Hitchcock was born at Deerfield, Massachusetts, in 1793;
was principal of the academy in his native place from 1815 to 1818;
entered the Congregational ministry in 1821, and continued the
pastor of a church until 1825, when he was elected Professor of
Chemistry and Natural History in Amherst College; he was ap-
pointed State Geologist of Massachusetts in 1830, and of the first
district of New York in 1836; was chosen President of Amherst
College and Professor of Natural Theology and Geology in 1844;
was appointed Commissioner of Massachusetts, to examine the Agri-
cultural Schools of Europe in 1850 ; retired from the Presidency of
Amherst College in 1854; was appointed to complete the Geological
Survey of Vermont in 1857 ; and continued to lecture in his Pro-
fessorship of Natural Theology and Geology till the time of his
death."

Besides his membership in our Society, " his elections to member-
ship in literary and scientific associations in his own country and in
foreign lands, and his invitations to other fields and departments of
labor which he did not feel at liberty to accept, were too numerous
to be mentioned."

" It is curious enough, that his first publication was a poem of five
hundred lines, which appeared in 1815, on 'The Downfiill of Bona-
parte.' It drew attention to the youthful author, and also procured
him some substantial benefits. His next appearance before the pub-
lic was in quite another capacity, that of a mathematician and astro-
nomer. The American republisher of the English Nautical Almanac
offered ten dollars to any man who should discover an error. The
young savant of Deerfield, then Principal of Deerfield Academy, sent
him a list of forty-seven errors, and, on receiving only evasive
answers, published the list. This drew forth a contemptuous reply,
in which the critic who has presun)ed to arraign the editor of the
Nautical Almanac, is spoken of as ' one Edward Hitchcock.' The
calculations for the next year were revised with great care, but no
sooner had the almanac appeared than that same Edward Hitchcock

Goodwin.] 444: [November

dared to send out after it a list of errors more numerous than that of
the previous year. And so the controversy went on, till the editor,
discovering his mistake, changed his tone, and one Edward Hitch-
cock became first Mr. Edward Hitchcock, and at length due ac-
knowledgment was made in the preface, of the editor's obligations to
'Edward Hitchcock, Esq., to whom much credit is due for the
industry and talent bestowed on the work.' During the four years
of his connection with Deerfield Academy, he went through every
year all the calculations for the Farmer's Almanac, not excepting
those for the weather, to which his imagination was as competent as
his science was to calculate the eclipses and conjunctions."

"While in charge of his parish at Conway, he found exercise and
recreation in making a scientific survey of the western counties of
Massachusetts. This was the beginning of that life among the rocks
and mountains, which was ever after a delight and almost a passion.
Like the giant in clas.sical mythology, whenever he could plant his
feet on the bosom of his mother earth, he was in his element; it was
his strength, his health, his life. This was also the origin of the
geological survey of the entire State, which was afterwards made by
the Government at his suggestion, and which has the honor of
originating that rapid succession of scientific surveys in the several
States, which has since done so much to develop the mineral and
agricultural resources of our country."

" Thus the way was prepared for his appointment as the first Pro-
fessor in the chair of Chemistry and Natural History in Amherst
College. When he entered upon the duties of his office, the College
was yet in its infancy. The chemical apparatus was then not worth
ten dollars. Cabinet there was none. Not even a beginning had
been made of those magnificent scientific collections which now adorn
the College halls. For many years he was sole professor in all the
departments of Natural History. He lectured and instructed in
Chemistry, Botany, Mineralogy, Geology, Zoology, Anatomy and
Physiology, Natural Theology, and sometimes — to fill a temporary
vacancy — he was the mo.st suitable person the College could depute
to teach also Natural Philosophy and Astronomy. Like Solomon, he
spake of trees, from the cedar tree that is in Lebanon to the hyssop
that groweth out of the wall ; he spake also of beasts, and of fowl,
and of creeping things, and of fishes. He spake also of rocks and
soils, of which, so far as appears, Solomon did not speak. He dealt
also in songs and proverbs, to say nothing of playing the Ecclesiastes
in making sermons. He lived to see the departments of his original

1864.] ^45 [Goodwin.

professorship occupy, in whole or in part, the time of four men ; the
chemical laboratory and apparatus among the finest in the United
States, and the scientific collections filling two spacious edifices; and
all this the fruit, directly or indirectly, of his own enterprise, energy,
and perseverance. Dr. Hitchcock created the material and the
reputation of Amherst College in the Department of Natural
History."

" He had the originality and creative power which belong to
genius. He was made for a discoverer, for an originator of new
ideas, new theories, new methods, new measures. He was tall enough
to see over the heads of those around him, and catch the first dawn-
ing beams of a new day. He had more faith than most men in new
discoveries. This believing disposition sometimes amounted to
credulity, and welcomed a premature announcement, or a fabrication
even, like the celebrated moon hoax ; but it expected great things,
attempted great things, and achieved great things, for science. It
wrought miracles in the scientific world. He saw an element of
truth in Phrenology, recognized some unknown and mysterious power
in Animal Magnetism, or Mesmerism, as he more frequently called
it ; and in the true spirit of a philosopher, sought to extricate the
truth and discover the power. As a Christian philosopher he wel-
comed every discovery in Geology and the physical sciences, never
doubting that they would not only harmonize with, but illustrate and
confirm, the Sacred Scriptures. Ichnology, as a science, began, and
as yet may almost be said to end, with him. He was the originator
of the State Scientific Surveys. The American Scientific Association
is said to have sprung from his suggestion ; and he was its first
President. He possessed in a remarkable degree that power of rapid
and wide generalization, by which the fall of an apple suggested to
Newton the law of universal gravitation. Taught by a few terraces
on the hillsides, he could reconstruct the Connecticut Valley at each
successive geological epoch of its existence; and guided by a few
footmarks in the sandstone, he could repeople it with its various
orders and tribes of primeval inhabitants. If he had not been a
great geologist and naturalist, he would have been a great astrono-
mer and mathematician. The question which he should be, turned,
not on the faculties with which he was endowed, but on the accident,
or rather the providence, of his impaired health and eyesight."

"In addition to the engrossing labors of a professorship combining
several distinct departments, or of the presidency, combined with a
professorship quite sufiicient of itself to employ one man, and besides

Goodwin.] 446 fjSTovember.

the innumerable special plans and efforts to raise funds, build cabi-
nets, and make scientific collections, he has published to the world
more than twenty books, of all sizes, from small duodecimos to large
quartos, besides innumerable articles in the daily, weekly, and quar-
terly literary, scientific, or theological journals, amounting in all to
eight thousand pages. Several of these books, besides numerous
editions in this country, have been republished in Europe, and won
for him a world-wide reputation." — (Thus far chiefly in the words of
Prof. Tyler.)

But after all. Dr. Hitchcock was not so much a great genius, or a
great savant, as a great and good man.

There are two characteristic and salient traits in his scientific his-
tory, to which it may not be amiss to draw special attention. The
first is, that, like Newton, he always held science and religion
together, not in antagonism, but in co-ordination and harmony. The
second is, that, like Franklin, he combined his scientific pursuits
with a steady and zealous devotion to the duties and utilities of
practical life.

However engrossed by his favorite geological studies, he was still
a Christian believer; and there was no subject of investigation of
greater interest with him than to trace out the harmony between
faith and reason, between nature and revelation, between the dis-
coveries of science and the disclosures of the Bible. In this he
differed from many scientific men of the present time ; and thus,
perhaps, he even lost caste in the view of some, and came to be
regarded as weak or narrow-minded, or deficient in scientific force
and freedom. Had he ignored or even assailed the Bible, his scien-
tific reputation, his character as an independent thinker, inquirer,
and discoverer, might perhaps have stood higher than they now do.
Besides those who think that modern discoveries and the "positive
philosophy," have at length demolished the Bible, there are many
more who think that, at least, science has nothing at all to do with
the Bible, either for it or against it.

Here we find two extreme parties. On the one hand, too many re-
ligious men and religious teachers are in the habit of denying and
anathematizing science, or treating it with vituperation and scorn, as
if it were the natural enemy of Christianity, the fountain of error and
infidelity, of impiety and atheism. And on the other hand, scientific
men have by no means been wanting, who have been ready, on every
occasion, to make a thrust at the Christian Scriptures, showing up
their alleged blunders and scientific ineptitudes ; or, ignoring their

1864.] ^j.'Y [Goodwin.

existence altogether, coolly to take their f^ilsehood for granted, and
pass by their testimony in silence, while propounding theories and
doctrines in palpable antagonism with their received and accredited
teaching.

With neither of these parties did Dr. Hitchcock have any sympa-
thies ; and in this he showed the truest scientific as well as religious
instinct. For not only is anti-scientific bigotry suicidal for the
religious teacher, but anti-christian bigotry is equally so for the
scientific inquirer.

Is it true that Science is simply to mind her own business and let
the Bible take care of itself? This is, perhaps, the prevailing tone
of the scientific world. But is such a view philosophical ? Is such
a position tenable — scientijicalli/ tenable ? So far as Science restricts
herself to the discovery, the orderly digesting, and historical state-
ment of facts, it is all well. She need not trouble herself about the
Bible; just as she need not trouble herself about ethics or mathe-
matics. But the moment she proceeds to enunciate a theory, to draw
inferences from her facts, to dogmatize, she is not at liberty coolly
to announce as verities or even as probabilities, doctrines which stand
in flagrant contradiction to other facts and other truths resting upon
appropriate and commonly received evidence, — and that, too, without
attempting to refute, or even so much as alluding to, those other
alleged facts and truths, or to the evidence on which they repose.
Such a procedure cannot claim to be either philosophical or scientific.
Science must aim at a harmony of truth, at a unity of conception.
No truth, no evidence lies beyond her sphere. If she reject any
facts, if she neglect any testimony, she undermines the very fiuiida-
tions of her whole edifice. It is not narrow-mindedness but lavge-
mindedness, which leads a true philosopher to take into his account
all the facts and all the evidence from all sources and of every kind,
before drawing his definitive conclusion.

It seems to be too often forgotten that there is real evidence for
the truth of the Christian religion, and for the Divine authority of
the Holy Scriptures, and consequently for the truth of whatever they
teach, — evidence of facts and testimony, — evidence, taken as a whole,
of vastly greater compass and weight than there is for any scientific
dogma whatever, which stands in contradiction to the Bible or any
of its contents, — evidence which cannot be annihilated or rebutted
by being simply ignored, — evidence which, until it is fairly and
directly met and refuted, stands firm, and will stand firm forever. —
(FiV/. Rev. of Lyell's Antiquity of 31an, in the Am. Theol. and
Presb. Quart. Eev., April, 18GI.)

Goodwin.] 448 [November.

Dr. Hitchcock did not pursue his studies as a man of scientific
leisure. He did more than one man's work as a Professor and Col-
lege President. He was the head and heart and soul of Amherst
College, — its real father and founder. He made it and left it what
it is. Nor did the College absorb all his practical energies. He took
a deep interest and an active part in the cause of popular education,
and particularly of female education. Sympathy for the masses con-
spired with his zeal for the promotion of Christian culture to interest
him deeply in all the early plans and efforts for the establishment of
the celebrated Mount Holyoke Seminary. "All the principles and
methods in which it should be founded and conducted were discussed
with him and other friends of learning and religion at his house ;
and when, at length, they were suflSciently matured, his tongue and
his pen were among the chief organs for communicating them to the
public. And from that time to the day of his death, next to Am-
herst College, Mount Holyoke Seminary was the child of his affec-
tions and the object of his constant watch and care."

In active efforts also for the suppression of intemperance, he took
a zealous and prominent share. And, whatever may be thought of
the special plans or processes of some of the friends of the so-called
Temperance movement, surely no one can witness the multiform evils
and mighty woes brought upon the community by the intemperate
use of intoxicating drinks, and wonder that a man of moral principle
and Christian character, of humane instincts and almost feminine
sensibility, should have had his spirit stirred within him to seek some
remedy, to put forth some effort, for the removal of such a prolific
source of evil, for the eradication of such a loathsome and deadly
cancer from the bosom of society.

Amidst all his studies and avocations. Dr. Hitchcock never forgot
his relation to the Church of Christ and his character as a Christian
miiii.ster. He was punctual, diligent and zealous in the discharge of
every religious duty.

Nor did he forget his obligations to his country. He was a stern
patriot, a loyal man, and a good citizen.

He was a Christian ; but his type of a Christian was not a monk ;
he was religious, but not what the French call un religieux; he
was devout, but not a devot.

He was a Christain minister; but his ideal of a Christian minister
was neither the mere functional priest, nor the mere professional
preacher, nor both combined. In becoming a Christian and a clergy-
man he had not ceased to be a man, and to be interested in whatever

1864.] 449 [Goodwin

is addressed to human intelligence and human sympathy by the God
of Nature and of Providence, and by the actual condition, the wants
and the welfare, and the manifold activities and relations of mankind.

He was a scientific man, but not that alone. In recognizing the
relations of his intellect to nature, he did not allow himself to become
so absorbed in them as to forget the higher relations of mind and
heart to God, and the broader and the closer relations of both to
society.

In the imminent danger of his country, he was no mere ingenious
Archimedes. He never would have met an irruption of hostile and
triumphant soldiery into his house with a "nolite turbare circuJos
meos." He was no literary recluse. He had no affinity of character
with such a man as Joseph Scaliger. He could not have been so
engrossed in the study of Homer as not to have been aware of such a
scene as the massacre of St. Bartholomew's eve, or of his own hair-
breadth escape from the common butchery, until the day subsequent
to the catastrophe.

He observed, he studied, he thought, he felt, he acted; but he
was no mere observer, no mere student, no mere thinker, no mere
sentimentalist, no mere agitator or drudge, no mere fragment of
humanity, however sharp, or polished, or brilliant. He was a whole-
souled, large-minded, living man, recognizing his practical relations
to man and God, as well as his intellectual relations to nature and
truth. His highest ambition and most fervent prayer undoubtedly
were, to be a true man and an earnest Christian, rather than a savan
or a philosopher, to have his name written among the wise who shall
shine as the brightness of the firmament, rather than emblazoned on
the records of human science and learning. To him, as to Solomon,
God gave more than he asked.

Philadelphia, November 18, 1864.

The death of Dr. Heinrich Rose was announced by the
Secretary, as having taken place at Berlin on the 27th of
January last, at the age of sixty-eight years and five
months.

The minutes of the last Stated Meeting of the Board of
Officers and Council were read.
And the Society was adjourned.

VOL. IX. — .3h

Harris.] 450 [November.

Dr. Harris exhibited specimens of Orude Borax or Tincal,
and Refined Borax, obtained from the Lake country of Cali-
fornia, about 130 miles north of San Francisco, where it is
deposited in the form of small crystals, and large crystalline
masses, varying from a few grains to half a pound in weight,
at the bottom of several small lakes, the waters of which are
saturated with this salt. The most important of these lakes
is situated in the vicinity of " Clear Lake," and covers about
200 acres of land.

The existence of this mineral in California has been known for
several years, but the greater inducements offered by gold mining,
have occasioned it to be neglected until recently, when a Company
was formed for the purpose of collecting and refining it. This cor-
poration owns about 2200 acres of land, embracing the borax lakes,
a boiling spring of boracic acid, and an immense deposit of sulphur,
of a remarkable degree of purity.

The crude borax of California is remarkably fine, being crystal-
lized in hexagonal prisms, of a slightly greenish hue, translucent, and
efilorescing slowly. It is entirely free from any soapy or greasy feel,
which is common to the crude borax of India, and is said to contain
but about ten per cent, of impurities. The "refined borax," is not
entirely pure, and not being prepared as it should be, contains too
large a proportion of water of crystallization, the loss of which causes
a considerable efilorescence to appear on the surface.

The Company raise the crude borax with a dredging machine,
wash it free from mud, and then refine it. They intend, also, to
evaporate the water of crystallization by artificial heat, and to com-
bine the boracic acid of the boiling springs with soda. They have
not as yet completed their arrangements, and have therefore prepared
thus far comparatively little for the Eastern market.

Hitherto, we have been supplied with borax from Thibet and
Persia, by the way of Calcutta ; from Tuscany ; and on this conti-
nent, from Peru and Ecuador. That from Thibet and Persia is
obtained from lakes ; that of Tuscany is produced artificially, from
boracic acid springs, by reaction between the acid solution and
carbonate of soda. South American borax is obtained by the puri-
fication of a mineral consisting in large measure of borate of soda and
borate of lime. In a short time we shall, no doubt, be chiefly
supplied from California.

1864.] ^51 [Peale.

Mr. Peale communicated a record of a portion of 134
soundings, taken by himself, along the Delaware River, at
the Water Gap.

DELAWARE WATER GAP.
Record of the depth of water in the Delaware, as ascertained by
134 soundings, begun at the boat-landing, near the old Saw-mill above
the Gap, and continued below the Gap, a distance of about 1^ miles,
on the 4th day of October, 1859 ; the river being at the average low
water mark.

Stern of the batteau,
At intervals, to the Bar,

On the Bar, .....

Middle Channel, ....
Opposite small house on the Jersey shore,

Opposite Lover's Leap,

Rebecca's Well, ....

Old house on Pennsylvania side,

Feet.

Inches.

3

4

4

4

6

4

9

4

6

4

3

9

3

2

9

3

2

9

2

3

3

6

8

6

10

8

9

8

9

10

6

11

12

13

12

9

13

15

6

14

13

6

14

3

Peale.] 452 [November.

Feet. Inches.

Prospect Rock, ...... 15

16 6

17 6
18

Poplars on Jersey shore, ..... 19

21
22 9

Above Point of Rocks, 23

Sandy Bottom, 26
28

Rocky Bottom, which runs from the shore, reduc-
ing the depth, as follows, .... 31 6

24
20

Thirty or forty feet further east, ... 27

Point of Rocks, 25

26

23

Sandy Bottom, 20

Indian Mound, Stony Bottom, .... 18

Creek Mouth from Dunfield's Hollow, . . 22

21
Sandy Bottom, 22

Slate Factory, 21 9

19 3
20

Pennsylvania Mountain, ..... 21

19 6
18

17 6
16 6

Between Pennsylvania and Jersey Mountains, . 15

14 6
13

Outside, or below Pennsylvania Mountain, . 16

17

18 6

19 6
Muddy Bottom, 20

21 6

1864 ] 4:53 [Peale.

Feet. Inchee-

23
24
Sandy Bottom, 27
33
35

36 6
Jersey Mountain Rocks dipping at a steep inclina-
tion into the River, . . . . . 38

31

38 6
33
30

32 6
Sand and rocks, 31 6

33
Outside the Gap, Sandy Bottom, ... 37 6

37
36
35
30
The river decreases regularly in depth to the rapids below the
Gap.

Opposite the "Indian Ladder," in a cove near shore, several
soundings were made; the greatest depth of water was found to be
45 feet.

Mr. Peale observed that marks of water action were observable on
portions of the rock at a considerable elevation above the present
bed of the river ; but if the theory of erosion, for the formation of
the Gap, be accepted, a difficulty is presented by the depth of the
water in the Gap, as shown by the soundings in the foregoing re-
cord, and the consequent gentle flow of the current; whilst at the
distance of one and a quarter miles above and five hundred yards
below the Gap the rapids occur, with insufficient water to float the
rafts, which, consequently, are obliged to await the spring and fall
freshets.

The constant rise of gas, observable from the deepest parts of the
water, was also adverted to, as having a possible action in the forma-
tion of the Gap.

Remarks on the cause of the gaps and their relation to the
general structure were made by Mr. Lesley.

A54- [December.

Stated Meeting, December 2, 1864,

Present, twenty-six members.

Judge Sharswood, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Mr. Hilgard, Mr. Harrison, Mr. Joseph Lesley and Presi-
dent Smith, of Girard College, were introduced to the pre-
siding officer, and took their seats as members. Captain
Goodman, of the New Hampshire Historical Society, and
Mr. L. Thurlow, of Wilkesbarre, were also introduced.

A letter addressed to the President by a claimant for the
Magellanic Premium, but without the required sealed packet,
accompanying the claim, was read, and on motion, laid on
the table. It described an invention for the safety of pas-
sengers at sea, and was illustrated by a model.

A letter accepting membership was received from Mr. R.
H. Lamborn, dated Altoona, November 17th, 1864.

Donations for the Library were received from the New
Hampshire Historical Society ; the Franklin Institute ; Cap-
tain Goodman, and Mr. Lamborn.

The death of the Hon. Roger B. Taney, Chief Justice of
the United States, a member of this Society, on the 12th
day of October, 1864, aged 87 years, was announced by the
Secretary, and on motion, Judge Sharswood was appointed
to write an obituary notice of the deceased.

The death of Professor Benjamin Silliman, a member of
this Society, at New Haven, November 25th, 1864, aged
eighty-four years, Avas announced by the Secretary, and Pro-
fessor Pierce appointed to prepare an obituary notice of the
deceased.

A photograph and description of the Great Pittsburg Gun,
now mounted at Fort Hamilton, was communicated by Mr.
Lamborn, with the following letter from Mr. Charles Knap,
dated Fort Pitt Foundry, Pittsburg, November 4th, 1864.

The idea of a twenty inch gun was conceived by Major T. J.
Rodman, of the Army Ordnance Corps, and the gun in question was
designed by him, and made after his method of " Hollow Casting."
It required for its manufacture, new furnaces, cranes and lathes, full

1864.] ^5g [Knap.

descriptions of whicli were given in the Philadelphia Press, of Feb-
ruary 12th or 13th, 1864.

The gun was cast on February 11th, 1864, from three large fur-
naces, containing 80 tons of iron. It was cast hollow, and cooled
by means of a stream of cold air forced through the bore from an
ordinary fan. Air was preferred to the usual stream of water, on
account of the great size of the mass, which increased the danger of
creating a dangerous amount of shrinkage. The second twenty inch
gun, however, made for the Navy, was cooled by water, without
injury.

The cooling occupied two weeks.

The principal weights and dimensions of the gun are as fol-
lows, viz. :

Rough weight, 160,000 pounds.

25 feet, 8 inches.
66 "
48 "
19 "

. 116,497 pounds.

20 feet, 3 inches.
210 "
64 "
34 "

" length,

'' maximum diameter,
" minimum "
" diameter of bore, ,
Finished weight,

^' extreme length, .
" " " of bore,

" maximum diameter,

" minimum "

" length of elliptical chamber of bore, 15 "

The trunnions were set over the centre of gravity of the gun.
All of the calculations of weights and centre of gravity, made by
Major Rodman, and verified here, proved from the results to have
been extremely accurate.

The iron used was all made in Blair County, Pennsylvania, and
was the best quality of warm blast charcoal pig, remelted once into
second fusion pigs, from which, the gun was made.

Specimens from the head gave a density of 7 31 and a tenacity of
36,000 pounds per square inch. A specimen from the breech jour-
nal gave a density of 7.3715 and tenacity of 43,746 pounds per
square inch. The density is taken with distilled water, and reduced
to the common comparative standard of 60° F.

The cost was about $32,000 ; others could be made much cheaper.
From the commencement of the first preparations to the comple-
tion of the recent trial at Fort Hamilton, New York, not a single
error or mishap has occurred, to mar the complete success of this
last enormous stride in advance of all experience in Artillery.

Zantedeschi.] 456 [December,

Letters were received from Professor Zantedeschi, dated
Padua, September 11th and N^ovember 7th, 1864, a transla-
tion of one of which was read, as follows :

I have the honor to forward to your honorable Society, a copy of
my letters on the origin of the dew and of the hoarfrost. I here
briefly sum up the principal heads of my observations. Can these,
my sheets, be published in the Transactions of the Society, my
studies may gain such notice, that physicists on the virgin soil of
America may repeat my experiments. Remote from the polemics, I
confine myself to the fundamental facts of science.

The mode of the manifestation of the dew and the hoarfrost; its
sublimation from the soil, from the hour next the setting sun up to
the following morning, in the hour next the sunrise, which is the
hour of greatest cold, was the subject of my first series of experi-
ments; the circumstances which accompany these phenomena (me-
teora) were diligently examined in all the calm and serene nights,
in which in Italy and in the environs of Paris I made my observa-
tions. I find that there is a limit, beyond which dew and hoarfrost
is not sensible ; and that the limit varies with the variations of the
grade of humidity and temperature of the air.

With comparative experiments I have determined whence proceed
the aqueous vapor necessary to form dew and hoarfrost. It comes
neither wholly from the air by refrigeration, nor wholly from the
earth. The greater part rises from the earth, to which is added
afterwards, some from the supersaturation of the air ; and, it ought
not to be forgotten, some from evaporation from the leaves of plants,
which is in least quantity. The mean relative humidity of the gar-
den, in which I made my observations, was 55 degrees of the
Hygrometer of Saussure. The Hygrometer which received the hu-
midity of the air alone, never rose during the hour of greatest cold
to 70° ; the Hygrometer which received the moisture from the air
and from the earth, went up to 95° ; and the Hygrometer which re-
ceived the moisture from the earth and from the leaves of some
small plants, reached the maximum of humidity, 109°. In this
way I discovered that the relative humidity of the air was 50°, that
of the earth 25° ; that of the evaporation of the leaves of plants 5°.
These numbers are not absolute. They will vary with the various
circumstances of the atmosphere; those of temperature of relative
humidity, in nights continually calm and serene ; but in all circum-
stances the abundance of aqueous vapor coming from the earth, was

1864.] 457 [Zantedeschi.

always greater .than that from the supersaturation of the air; and
that from the evaporation from plants was always less. The experi-
ment seems entirely new and decisive.

I studied with repeated and laborious experiments to determine
the source of the cold necessary for condensing the aqueous vapor
forming dew and hoarfrost. By comparative observations I have
convinced myself, that the frost of the air precedes that of the moist
solids, and that the moist solids do not chill below the temperature
of the circumstanding air, taken at the mean height, always in calm
and serene nights. It was made apparent by my vertical balance
Anemoscope that the nocturnal frost derived itself from the column
of cold descending air. I recognized the fact that the surface of the
soil, and even of the snow covering it, is always colder than the stra-
tum of air above it ; and that with every departure from this stratum
the temperature of the air is increased. In all these facts, I have
done justice to all the physicists who have preceded me, and I i*egis-
ter that which is granted to my observations and experiments from
my friends.

I have not forgotten to verify the influence exerted by electricity
on the deposition of aqueous vapor on solids. I finish these my
letters, with two useful applications to Agriculture and to Hygiene,
always under guidance of history and experience.

I beg physicists living in the open country in serene and calm
nights to repeat all these observations, which complete the theory of
the dew and the hoarfrost. May this, my request, obtain favor from
your honorable Society, to which, I declare myself with the highest
esteem and perfect observance, Zantedeschi.

Padova, September 11th, 1864.

An enamelled portrait of a French gentleman, concealed
in the bottom of an inkstand or wafer-box, and thrown out
by the workmen in digging the foundation for an enlarge-
ment of a house, originally built in 1785, at Valley Forge (the
headquarters of General Washington, in the winter of 1776),
was exhibited to the members by Mr. T. P. James. The relic
is, apparently, a work of art of the age of Louis XVI ; and
much pains has been fruitlessly expended for its identifica-
tion, both in Europe and in this country.
VOL. IX. — .Si

Dubois.] 458 [December.

Mr. Dubois placed before the Society, specimens of Mag-
nesium, lately procured from London for the Cabinet of the
Mint, and for experiment.

Magnesium wire is not an entirely new article in this country ;
but perhaps the ingot is so, and is especially curious. Of all the
metals which remain fixed in open air, this is the lightest ; the
sp. gr. being 1.70, or less than one-twelfth that of platinum, which
stands at the other extreme of the scale (and of which a specimen
weighing one-third more than the magnesium, is shown for comparison).

This metal is now readily manufactured in England, by a process
patented in 1863, and is sold in London at a price equal to 85.25
in gold, per ounce, av'd. Its physical properties are such as to give
little promise of utility, except for the purpose of illumination. A
wire of this metal, held in an ordinary flame, ignites and burns with
a dazzling brilliancy, giving out a white light. On this account it is
used in photography, to take pictures at night, or in places where
the sun cannot penetrate. The wire appears ductile and pliable, but
has really not much tenacity, and snaps off when bent around to the
horseshoe shape. It is, in fact, not formed by rolling and drawing,
but by the hydrostatic press, from the solid cake ; somewhat as lead
pipe is made. This specimen has a diameter of one-sixtieth of an
inch. One hundred inches of such wire will weigh about fifteen
grains, and would cost eighteen cents (gold) in London, at the rate
above stated.

The metal being too brittle to be cut with a chisel, this piece of
ingot, as will be seen, has been detached by sawing.

Mr. Eckfeldt has made a pretty full examination of its chemical
properties, which will here be briefly summed up.

It is slightly soluble in sulphuric acid of commercial strength ; the
action is violent when the acid is diluted.

The solution is active and complete in nitric and muriatic acids
of ordinary strength.

It is also dissolved by the vegetable acids, such as the acetic and
tartaric, but slowly by the oxalic. In a solution of carbonate of soda
it dissolves very slowly, but more actively with heat, when it is con-
verted into a carbonate. In caustic potassa there is no action.

It is not afl"ected by water, either at 60° F. or at the boiling-point,
except to produce a slight tarnish. The water, however, is decom-
posed by it. Moist air makes a slight oxidation. These specimens
came across the ocean, however, in a paper box, without losing the
metallic lustre.

1864.]

459

[Hendry.

The Librarian communicated an extract from a letter of
Mr. W. A. Hendry, of the Crown Land Office, at Halifax,
respecting the discovery of a large bed of coal among the lean
beds of the Joggins and Albert Mine regions :

" No new discoveries have been made, since you were here, except
perhaps at the Spring Hill, which I visited two months ago. You
recollect its position on the map. A discovery has been made of a
seam of coal, said to be 16 feet
thick. I myself measured nearly 14
feet; but 16 and 18 feet has been
currently reported as the thickness
of the great coal-seam of Spring Hill.
The bed, with thin clay partings,
gives from 12 to 14 feet of good
bituminous coal. I am well ac-
quainted with the gentlemen who
are geologists there, Messrs. Mills
& Sherer." It is well known that
of more than a hundred coal-beds
outcropping among these measures on
the coast of the Joggins, not one is
much more than 4 feet. It is no-
ticeable that this large increase in
the size of one of these beds, that at Spring Hill, takes place at
the head of a synclinal axis, towards the east, as shown in the
diagram.

The following summary of the rocks passed through in an
old salt boring in Clearfield County, Pennsylvania, was com-
municated by the Librai-ian, from a letter from Mr. John M.
Hale, of Reading. The Librarian remarked, in offering the
section, that, it was one of the most useful duties of learned
Societies to obtain, and place on record, the too easily lost or
destroyed results of the labors of the past.

" Some twenty-five years since, a company bored for Salt Water,
at the junction of the Beaver Dam and Eastern branches of the
Clearfield Creek, where a natural salt lick existed, and employed
Mr. S. C Wilson to superintend the operations ; and to him I am
indebted for a copy of his notes, a synopsis of which I thought
might be interesting to you, if you have not seen them.

B. F. Bay of Fundy.
N. B. New Brunswick.
N. S. Nova Scotia.
a. The Joggins Mines,
ft. The Victoria Mines.

c. The Macan Mines.

d. The Spring Hill Mine.

Hale.] 460 [December.

"The first 23 feet was through the clay, where the rock was
struck, 7 feet of which was black slate, followed by 6 inches of Bitu-
minous Coal. At a depth of 32 feet, 6 inches, a vein of fire brick
rock was struck, which was 13 feet in thickness, and which appeared
in the lower part of the vein to be mixed with Iron Ore. The next
5 feet, of black slate mixed in with coal, followed by 1 foot of white
flint rock, then 2 feet, 6 inches, of black slate, when a vein of Cannel
Coal was struck. This was at a depth of 53 feet. Next, 8 inches
of slate, which separated the Cannel Coal from a vein of bituminous
coal, 4 feet, 4 inches, in thickness. Then 14 feet of common
sandstone, and 2 feet mixed with slate and coal. Then a vein 60
feet in thickness of Porcelain Clay, of a very superior quality, re-
sembling white lead, ground in oil. The next 135 feet was through
common sandstone, changing in color from brown to black, and mixed
with quartz. Again the auger passed through a vein of 5 feet of
Porcelain Clay. The balance was through a vein of hard sandstone,
a portion of which was mixed with a yellow metal, which was be-
lieved to be copper. Unfortunately, the only specimen saved by
Mr. Wilson, was lost. Was it Iron Pyrites ?

" At the depth of 548 feet, salt water was reached, but so mixed
with a dark fluid that it was believed to be useless. Was this dark
fluid Petroleum ?

" The veins of coal may be the same as those at Oseola, or the one
at Philipsburg passed through at a depth of 199 feet."

Mr. Peale took this occasion to exhibit to the Society some
fragments of ancient vessels of pottery of large size, and still
conserving the impressions of the osier wickerwork baskets,
by which they were ornamented. They were found at ancient
salt springs in Gallatin County, Illinois, and are made of
clay, in which remain visible fragments of fresh-water shells,
mixed in to strengthen the clay.

Large quantities of comminuted shells and broken pottery remain
near the springs, with other evidences of ancient salt works, of which
there is now no knowledge, either recorded or traditionary.

The style of the ornamentation is entirely distinct from that of the
Indian pottery of recent date, and the vessels much larger than any
made by that race. The inference drawn from these facts is, that
they are the reliquse of the Mound Builders, a race much more ad-
vanced in the arts than those which succeeded them.*

* [These fresh-water shells are brought up in evidence by Mr. Winchell, in his

1864.1 • 461

Mr. Lesley announced the discovery, just made, of a re-
markable lignite deposit, close to the ore-banks of the Mont
Alto Furnace, in Franklin County, Pennsylvania ; but
owing to the lateness of the hour, begged leave to postpone
the exhibition of the specimens on the table, and the de-
scription of the deposit, to the next meeting.

The stated business of the meeting being called for, the
Treasurer's report was read, and regularly referred to the
Finance Committee.

The report of the Publication Committee was read, and
referred to the Finance Committee.

The report of the Board of Officers on the application of
" Torricelli" for the Magellanic premium was read, and, on
motion of Mr. Fraley, it was resolved, that the subject be
ordered for discussion at the next meeting of the Society,
and that notice be given to the members on the cards, and an
advertisement be made for three days before the meeting, in
two daily newspapers.

Kew nomination No. 529 was read.
And the Society was adjourned.

Stated Meeting^ December \Qth, 1864.

Present, twenty-one members.

Dr. Wood, President, in the Chair.

A letter declining the appointment to prepare an obituary
notice of Prof. Silliman, w^as received from Prof. Pierce,
dated Cambridge, December 18th, 1864.

lately published paper on the structure of the prairies ; wherein he argues that
the prairie deposit was made in a preglacial lake, overspreading the whole Valley
of the Mississippi, as far south as Middle Alabama. Sill. Joiir., Nov., 1864. Sec]

^AQ [December.

Letters of acknowledgment for publications received were
read from the Lombardy Institute; R. Saxon Society; Herr
Jochmann ; the R. Danish Society ; the N. H. S. at Emden ; the
R. Academy at Amsterdam ; Batavian Society at Rotterdam ;
Sir John Herschel ; the Lords of the Admiralty ; the Society
of Arts, and Society of Antiquaries of London ; the Natural
History Society of Northumberland ; the Smithsonian Insti-
tution ; and the Chicago Historical Society.

Letters of invoice were received from the Societies at Leip-
sic, Emden, Upsal, Copenhagen, and the Academy at Am-
sterdam.

Donations for the Library were received from the Royal
Societies and Academies at Upsal, Copenhagen, Leipsic, Em-
den, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Milan, London, and Dublin ;
from the German Geological and French Geographical Socie-
ties ; from Friedlander & Son of Berlin ; and Fr. Miller of
Amsterdam, booksellers ; from Prof. Steenstrup of Copenha-
gen ; Prof. Zantedeschi of Padua ; and Elia Lombardini of
Milan ; from the London Chemical Society, and Sir John
Herschel ; from the American Academy at Boston ; and
Essex Institute at Salem ; J. E. Cooley, bookseller ; and
James T. Hodge, geologist, of New York City ; the Aca-
demy of Natural Sciences, at Philadelphia ; the Franklin
Institute, and Mr. M. C. Lea.

The Librarian was authorized to complete the set of Pro-
ceedings for Sir John Herschel, at his request.

On motion of the Librarian, after reading a letter from
Prof. Daniels of Chicago, the Academy of Science at Chi-
cago was placed on the corresponding list.

The death of one of the oldest members of the Society, Mr.
Ross Cuthbert, of Berthier (Lanorais), Lower Canada, was
reported by the Secretary, on the authority of a private letter
from Prof. Hunt of Montreal, as having taken place in
1861.

The death of another member of the Society, Mr. Henry
Rowe Schoolcraft, in Washington, on the 11th inst., aged 72,
was announced by the Secretary.

1864.] 463 [Lesley.

Prof. Cresson was excused from preparing an obituary
notice of Mr. Wain.

Mr. T. P. James read a paper on the New Mosses whicli lie
had detected within the limits of the United States, east of
the Mississippi River, intended for the Transactions. On
motion the paper was referred to a Committee consisting of
Messrs. Durand, Porter of Lancaster, and Aubrey H.
Smith.

Mr. Lesley described a recent discovery of Lignite in
iron ore at Pond Bank, ten miles east of Chambersburg, in
Franklin County, Pennsylvania, and described the impor-
tance of the discovery in a theoretical point of view, its
analogy with the Brandon deposit in Vermont, and its in-
fluence on the determination of the age of the present sur-
face of the land. Specimens from the deposit were exhibited
to the members. Mr. Lesley said :

A few days ago, a remarkable instance of the discovery of a tertiary
deposit among the Appalachian mountains, similar to that of the
celebrated Bi-andon Ugnite deposit, in Vermont, has occurred in
Southern Central Penn.sylvania. The geological importance of these
two cases, so far as I am aware the only two on recoi-d, can hardly be
overestimated. They open again, in the most embarrassing manner,
the discussion of the age of the present Silurian, Devonian, and Car-
boniferous surface. They suggest an entire revolution in the gene-
rally accepted modes of regarding the production of our Appalachian
topography. They lend a novel interest to the glacial hypothesis ;
and they help to settle our views on the difficult subject of the con-
finement of the New Red within its well-known limits, along the
south foot of the South Mountain or Blue Ridge range, which I dis-
cussed in a brief manner, at the last meeting of the Society.

The lignite was struck in a shaft, at a depth of 40 feet below the
surface. It was between 4 and 5 feet thick ; under it a stratum of
very solid gray sand,* of equal thickness (5-6 ft.); and then lignite
more solid and glossy, for seven feet more, to the bottom, f as far as
sunk. I have not been able to visit the place, and give this descrip-
tion as it is reported by the shaft-sinker. Large logs of wood were
taken from the deposit, specimens of which, I have the pleasure of

* ("Like disintegrating sandstone.";

t (" With here and there a thin streak or vein of hard gray sand.")

Lesley.] 4^4 [December.

exhibiting to the members present. The rings of growth, the rays,
and the bark fibre, are as visible as in a fresh butt. The wood is
converted partly into a brilliant cannel coal, and the rest of it into
common brown coal. No leaves or fruit have as yet been noticed by
the workmen ; although such may have been overlooked, from want
of knowledge of their importance.

It is possible that a large body of this material may exist just
where the shaft happened to be sunk; for the Brandon deposit is a
mass about 25 (twenty-five) feet square, descending steeply through
a hundred fold larger mass of white clay, to a depth of at least 100
(one hundred) feet. But we cannot call it a large body comparatively
speaking. It is scarcely larger than the trunk of a single one of the
wiant trees of California ; a mere plug of coal thrust vertically down-
ward into a mass of clay. But Prof. Hitchcock expresses the opinion
that the Brandon deposit is not " a vertical plug," but a fragment of
a regularly steep-dipping stratum of lignite. He dissents expressly
from my own view of the case (published in 1857, after I had visited
the locality), when he says : " Mr. Lesley imagines that the Brandon
deposit is in a hole, like that in Balamacadam, in Ireland. But if
he will visit the former, he will find it no more and perhaps rather less
in a hole than the other analogous deposits scattered for two hundred
miles along the west base of the Green Mountain range. They gene-
rally occur in depressions in the limestone floor, or in sheltered valleys,
and this is probably why the drift agency did not sweep them away."*

The venerable and candid geologist whose loss we have been called
upon so recently and so heartily to deplore, would have taken, per-
haps, more delight in the discovery near Chambersburg, than any
other man living; and I regret with a very sad feeling the impossi-
bility of comparing notes with him once more upon this old ground of
dispute. For he would probably now be convinced that the diflFerent
facts involved in this phenomenon must be separated ; and that we
have to keep our eyes open to several collateral but independent
trains of geological accidents. The Lignite and the Iron-ore are
neither of the same age, nor, strictly speaking, possessed of any struc-
tural attribute common to both. I have, therefore, regarded only
the lignite deposit as "in a hole;" not by any means the iron ore.
This latter I have long ago described as continuously stratified. When
Dr. Hitchcock, therefore, in the above quotation from his report,
says, that I will find it no more and perhaps less in a hole than the

* Geology of Vermont, 1861, page 238, lines 4-6.

1864.] 465 [Lesley.

other analogous deposits, &c.," he cannot mean to affirm anything of
the lignite ; for there are no other analogous lignite deposits known,
except only the ore which I bring to the notice of the Society to-
night. And I expect to receive the evidence, that it also is truly
"in a hole;" that is, it will probably be found to be as curious an
exception to all the rest of the phenomena of the whole belt of hema-
tite deposits of the Great Valley, for many hundreds of miles in Penn-
sylvania and Virginia, as the little plug of lignite at Brandon is an
exception to all the other features not only of the great Brandon ore
bed, but of all that belt of similar ore beds which ranges for several
hundred miles through Vermont, Massachusetts, and New York.

Geologists will appreciate the assertion that it is the extreme rari-
ty of these lignite apparitions in one of the most wonderfully con-
tinuous, extensive and valuable ore belts of the world, that gives them
all their importance, and produces all our embarrassment. It is
therefore of prime importance to make sure of this fact, viz., of the
actual rarity of the presence of lignite, or its equivalents, in the ore
deposits, and to keep this rarity always in mind, in discussing the
age of the ore belt itself; but this Dr. Hitchcock has not done.

On pages 234-236 of the Vermont Report, he says : " Wherever
we have found brown hematite and manganese, or beds of ochre, or
pipe clay, white, yellow or red, in connection with coarse sand or
gravel, all lying beneath the drift, and resting on the rocks beneath,
we have regarded the deposit as an equivalent of that at Brandon
just described, even though not more than one or two of the sub-
stances named be present." The peculiar feature of the Brandon
mine is therefore ignored by being confused with others, common
to the whole belt.

Dr. Hitchcock gives a list of 26 such deposits along the western
side of the Green Mountain range, premising that : " from Stam-
ford through Bennington, as far as Middlebury, it would probably
not exceed the truth to represent it as a continuous narrow belt.
North of Middlebury the localities are few, perhaps from denudation."
Yet along this "probably continuous" belt, he can enumerate, with
exception of the Brandon mine, only one, that of East Bennington,
which exhibits even so much analogy to a lignite deposit as " pipe
clay with numerous stems of plants;" and only six others, wherein
white clay, ochre, ochres and clay, or lithomarge, suggest to his mind
an analogy with the Brandon kaolin.

Now it is quite as safe to call the continuation of the line of the
Vermont ore deposits, through Massachusetts, New York, New Jer-

TOL. IX. — 3k

Lesley.] 466 [December.

sey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and East Tennessee to Ala-
bama, '*a narrow continuous" belt; for, with one exception, here-
after to be described, itis really such. And it would be quite as diffi-
cult to point out another deposit strictly " analogous to the Brandon
lignite," along all these many hundred miles, excepting the one just
discovered in Southern Pennsylvania. There may be others not yet
made known. But a great number, literally thousands of shafts, and
open quarries, have been made in this ore belt in these different States,
during the last hundred years, from some of which hundreds of
thousands of tons of stuff have been excavated ; and yet even the
presence of a fossil leaf, or any other slight trace of tertiary vegeta-
tion, is almost or quite unknown. Quantities of dark and even black
clay have been obtained ; but in all instances, so far as I am aware,
the coloring matter has been manganese rather than carbon. The
futui'e may reveal much which we do not expect; but enough has
been done to prove the rarity of lignite in the ore belt.

We must therefore carefully separate these sporadic occurrences of
lignite from the general occurrence of iron ore, in our discussion.

I think it can be shown, also, that we must keep quite as separate
the lignite and the clays. And I think it can also be shown that
the clays are to be connected closely with the ores, instead of with
the lignite, if we are to reach clear views of the whole phenomenon.

These are the principal features of the great ore belt of the At-
lantic States :

1. It occupies a narrow strip of surface, along the Great (Lower
Silurian) Valley, which begins in Canada, and ends in Alabama.

2. It hugs the southeastern margin of the Great Valley, and lies
at and against the foot of the Mountain Barrier, which, as is well
known, shuts the Great Valley in from the Atlantic seaboard ; a bar-
rier, known by various names, such as the Green Mountains, the
Highlands, the South Mountains, the Blue Ridge, and the Smoky
Mountains ; but which is in reality and geologically considered, one
continuous range or ridge of rock.

3. It lies, therefore, over the lower contact of the Lower Silurian
limestones with and upon the rocks of the Great Barrier range ; and
is, therefore, in some loay or other, genetically involved in that con-
tact. It therefore belongs geologically to the Lower Silurian lime-
stone formation, and especially to the lowesf member of that for-
mation ; and cannot in any sense, as an ore belt, be of tertiary age,
without a plain violation of the canons of structural geology.

4. It consists everywhere of two parts, more or less easily dis-

1864.1 467 [Lesley.

tinguished; the one stratified in the same sense as the Silurian lime-
stones themselves ; the other a surface-wash over the basset edges of
the first. The date of the formation of this local surface-wash may
be tertiary, and perhaps post-tertiary. The stratified portions must
be, as to their stratification, of Lower Silurian age ; while the meta-
morphism which they have undergone, in situ, productive of strati-
fied clays and ores, 7na^ date from an?/ time subsequent to the forma-
tion of a surface topographi/ ajjproximately identical with that
lohich 7101V exists. The actual change of the original Lower Silurian
calcoferriferous sandstones and slates, in situ, at their outcrops, into
limonite clay beds, in ipso situ, stratified as before, but charged with
an additional percentage of the oxides from a former higher surface
now eroded, and with this extra charge of iron and manganese car-
ried by percolation down to and crystallized against their foot rock, —
this change may have required an immen.se time to perfect, and no
doubt was going on, pari passu with the degradation of the surface
by slow erosion, from higher to lower levels, until it stands at the
level of the present day.

This long era of iron ore concentration, in the Lower Silurian
slates, could not have commenced until after the close of the coal
era; and I will be able to show, I think, not until after the close of
the New Red or Middle Secondary age. It may have been commen-
surate with the Cretaceous, Tertiary and Recent periods together ; or
with the Tertiary or the latest Tertiary and Recent alone. But it
seems more likely, in view of the geographical relationships of the
New Red to the Silurian on one side of it, and to the Cre-
taceous on the other side of it, that the erosion of the surface
commenced at the close of the New Red era, and continued with-
out intermission down to the present day. There is no sufiicient
evidence of the submergence of the x\tlantic side of the Continent,
since its emergence after the coal. There is not a trace of New Red,
Cretaceous, or Tertiary deposit recorded by any geologist, so far as I
am aware, over all the country back of the Great Barrier range, from
west of the Hudson, until we reach the prairie lands of the Mississippi
Valley. There were, of course. New Red rivers. Cretaceous brooks,
Tertiary freshets. Glacial ice ; but these carved out the present sur-
face-topography of the Appalachians, without leaving a plant, an ani-
mal, or even a pebble which can be recognized as belonging to any
special age. In fact, the New Red surface must have been largely
remodelled, lowered, and denuded of New Red relics, by the Creta-
ceous agents; and the same liberties were no doubt taken with the

Lesley.] ^gg [December.

surface of the Cretaceous age, by the sweeping and garnishing artists
of Tertiary times. Little by little the whole sloping mean horizon of
water-level, from the Alleghany Mountain to the South Mountain, was
lowered to its present line. The gaps were gradually deepened,
widened, and rounded off to correspond with the slow deepening of
the limestone and slate valleys behind them ; and the long strait
narrow sandstone crests of the mountains of IV and X and XII
(Middle Silurian, Upper Devonian, and Carboniferous), were gnawed
away evenly at a slower but not less steady rate.

It was Professor Rogers's opinion that all this was, so to speak, the
work of a moment ; the consequence of the rush of a large body of
water over the face of the Continent, at the time when the coal era
was abruptly brought to a termination by the upheaval into the air
of the whole Appalachian belt of earth-crust, when it was thrown
into waves or folds; after which the once horizontal strata remained
partly or entirely upright.

With this cataclysmic hypothesis I cordially sympathized for
some years ; and some of the geologists of the Pennsylvania survey, I
believe, still do so. Nor am I yet entirely convinced, — it may be
from the force of a strong and early prejudice, — that such a cataclysm
is not indispensable to explain the earlier and perhaps the larger
part of the whole phenomenon. Not that I ever accepted that part
of Mr. Rogers's statement of it which gave an account of the modus
operandi of the anticlinals, viz. : by a pulsating planetary lava-nucleus.
But the study of the surface itself, covered with mountains and val-
leys, arranged in a beautifully symmetrical manner, by whatever ener-
gy you please, — and I have always thought the lateral thrust of a
cooling and shrinking crust one sufficiently plain and precisely ex-
planatory of the details, — in fact, the study of these details, some of
which offer the most inviting problems of erosion to the structural
geologist, has impressed upon my mind the conviction that aerial and
fluvial agents are not the kind which could have begun the great
work of Appalachian erosion. Give them time and they are omni-
potent, I grant, hut only in their own sphere.

It would lead too far to argue this part of the subject here. I only
wish, when I describe the whole water-shed horizon of the Appala-
chians as being step by step lowered during later Secondary, Tertiary,
and Quaternary times, to guard against that total rejection of cata-
clysmic agency which has come to characterize the geological specu-
lation of the present day upon great structural questions. This fact,
evidently true in itself, is also necessary to the argument respecting

1864.] 4G9 [Lesley.

the Tertiary age of the iron ore beds containing lignite. In fine, it
is the main fact of the discussion.

The gradual lowering of the main surface-plane involved, 1st, the
obliteration of all grand original inequalities which would have
been produced by a grand original cataclysm, if a cataclysm be al-
lowed ; and, 2d, the production of a new set of inequalities, due
partly to structural relations of movement, such as folds and faults,
but chiefly to the different liomogeneousness, the different compactness^
and the diffei'ent msolitbilif^ of the formations. These three chemi-
cal and lithological differences, of course, produced our present moun-
tain, hill, and valley surface. It is evident, then, that the reason why
the southeast side of the Gi'eat Valley is everywhere lower than the
northwest side, is because it represents the more soluble and less
compact outcrop edges of the Lower Silurian limestones No. II, while
the other, or northwest side of the Great Valley, consists of Lower
Silurian slates No. III. In fact, the Great Valley may be said to be
as to the northwest half of it paved with low hills. These are
the slate hills of that half of the valley which lies up against the
North (Kittatinny, Blue or Brush) Mountain. The southeast half
is a nearly perfect plain, cultivated like a garden, and exhibiting in
the fields numberless low ledges of limestone rock, beside many of
which stand limekilns.

There are certainly evidences of some obscure nonconforniability
between the limestones of II and the slates of III above them ; for,
while the strike of the slates is always straight up and down the Valley,
that of many groups of these limestone-outcrops is perversely out of
line, often crossing the valley at various and sometimes at right an-
gles. But much of this apparent nonconforniability is no doubt due
to crimpling, although the whole formation is much more nearly
horizontal than it has had credit given to it for being; and much of
it is a deception, produced by an extraordinarily well-developed
system of cleavage-planes. On the whole, the regularity of the
bounding mountains, and the symmetry of the Valley itself, are good
guarantees against any serious nonconformability.

Before the beginning, and again, after the close of the limestone
Lower Silurian age, there were depositions of ferruginous mud, caus-
ing two slate formations, a lower. No. I, and an upper, No. III. The
contact of the limestone and the upper slate, along the central line of
the Valley, is marked by a range of iron ore. In a few instances it
is abundant and largely excavated for the furnaces of Pennsylvania.

The contact-line of slates just under the limestone No. II, with

Lesley.] ^'JQ [December.

the lowest sandy layers of the limestone, gives us likewise a second
great belt of iron ore deposits, lying along the foot and part way up
the side of the South Mountain. These are the deposits of which
Professor Hitchcock speaks in Vermont ; and in one of these in
Pennsylvania, viz., in the Pond-bank of Mont Alto Furnace, the
lignite has been found.

Along the foot of the South Mountain, the feebler brooks, de-
scending from the ravines, sink immediately beneath the surface into
a system of underground caverns, which may, without much exag-
geration, be called a single cave, extending for a thousand miles, and
including in its course chambers, some of which, like Weir's Cave, in
Virginia, have become celebrated among the wonders of the world.
The stronger bi'ooks unite, and form large streams, or even rivers,
which, — like the Lehigh below Allentown, the Yellow Breeches west
of the Susquehanna, the Shenandoah south of the Potomac, — flow
close over the southern or lower edge of the limestone formation,
and therefore close up to the foot of the mountain.

Both this situation of the river drainage on the surface, and this
cavern system underneath, tell one story, which cannot be misinter-
preted,— the extra dissoluhility of this particular horizon of Lower
Silurian rocks. And that, which we now see going on before our
eyes, has, of course, been going on for ages. The fissures which are
now being enlarged into caves, and the caves which are fast growing
into catacombs, and ramifying into labyrinths of underground dark-
ness, their roofs every now and then falling, so as to produce funnel-
shaped sinkholes in the fields and sometimes in the roads, and their
floors receiving, through the sinkholes, lots of leaves and fruit,
land shells, and perhaps occasionally bones of smaller animals, with
every great spring freshet, — all these once had their analogues in
time past (vanished now into thin air) beneath some old surface,
situated many feet or yards, in fact many fathoms, above the one
on which men live to-day.

By this ideal reconstruction of surfaces older and above the pre-
sent one, we settle most of the difiiculties which encounter us in
studying the ores of the Great Valley. And I submit, that we ob-
tain, also, a reasonable explanation of the sporadic masses of lignite,
two of which are now known to exist in or rather near the iron ore;
for it must not be forgotten that the lignite and ore are not in con-
tact at either place. It is only necessary to suppose a sink hole so
formed, and so stopped up below, as first to receive and then to re-
tain an accumulation of forest trash, and we have the thing ready

1864.1 471 [Lesley.

made to our hand. The fact, that it occurred just under, in, or near a
great ore deposit, must be regarded as an accident, until we have
found enough more lignite deposits connected with ore beds to make
some organic or original connection between them supposable. And
even then, it must be remembered, that the search is wholly confined
to the ore-deposit localities, which of itself would throw doubt upon
their connection, even if we had a sufficient number of instances.

I will now give as clear a description as I can of the ore banks of
Mont Alto, so as to show, if possible, the actual relationship of the
lignite to the ore ; granting, in advance, that the description will
leave much to be desired.

The brown-hematite ore-deposits of Mont Alto follow the outcrop
edges of the slates and sandy limestones which form the southeastern
edge of the Valley, as shown in section. Fig. 1, Plate VIII. The
ore is in fact nothing but the residue of these beds after decompo-
sition and dissolution, the honeycombed and altered edges of the
Silurian slates and sand-limes themselves, after their lime has been
washed out of them, and their carbonated and sulphuretted iron has
been hydrated and peroxidized. The muddy slates formed the pre-
sent deposits of small ore with white and red clay. The sandy lime-
stones formed the present harder, silicious, rock-ore belts. The
geologist can procure, in the banks, specimens of every stage of this
interesting process, from the perfect limestones which refused to dis-
integrate, and the iron-lime-sandstone with the disintegration and re-
crystallization begun, to the perfect ball and pot ore of radiated,
acicular, crystallized brown-hematite. The great variety in the com-
position of the original rocks has been the cause of a great diversity
in the ores taken from the different openings. But two principal
distinctions may be particularly noticed ; viz., that the ores which have
resulted from the decomposition of the slates are more disposed to
the redsTiort side, whereas the ores which have resulted from the
decomposition of the limestones are more or less coldshort; probably
because of the sand in the limestone; it is, in fact, called by the New
York geologists the Calciferous Sandrock. The slates, on the con-
trary, are apt to hold a small percentage of sulphur ; or perhaps we
should say, are less likely to permit the abundant drainage needful
for carrying off the sulphur in the form of a salt. Sometimes in the
same deposit there is a mixture of the two varieties, producing a
neutral ore. But it is not often that such large exposures of both
varieties occur in the same neighborhood, as is the case here.

Taking into view all that we know of these deposits along the

Lesley.] 472 [December.

southeast side of the Grreat Valley, from the Hudson river to Ten-
nessee and A-labaraa, and adding what we know of similar deposits,
produced in a similar way, out of the exposed outcrop edges of the
same rocks in the limestone valleys further back towards the Alle-
gheny Mountains (such as Kishicoquillis, Nittany, &c.), and deposits,
in the same geological positions in Lancaster and Chester counties,
we can divide them with great certainty, as stated above, into two
classes, the slate-a-op banks, and the sand -lime-crop banks, the
former being always geologically underneath the latter, as represented
in Fig. 1.

The cavernous condition of the formation which crosses the An-
tietam creek at Mont Alto is evinced by the numerous sink holes
and ponds lined with clay, and by the absence of small streams, and
by the curious topography of the whole slope of the South Mountain,
the want of any definite run to the vales, the bowl-shaped aspect of
every part of the surface, and the disappearance of the mountain
brooks on their way towards the centre of the valley. In other
valleys (as e. x. in Sinking Creek Valley, near Altoonu) the num-
ber and the extent of the caverns astonish and delight the beholder.
Where the dip of the rocks is steep there is not the same chance for
the formation of caverns ; and the depth to which the disintegration
of bed, in other words, the formation of ore, can go, is necessarily
limited. On the contrary, where the dip is gentle the dissolution is
extensive, and the ore abundant.

Within the first half mile there have been excavated several large
pits. The bank at present wrought is 2200 feet from the furnace.
It is called the Home-bank, and furnishes the principal data for
estimating the quantities of ore in the whole belt, Fig. 2.

The excavation is between one and two hundred feet long, and of
the shape shown in the figure. Its mouth is a cartway between
walls of surface clay or common stripping. Its head is a steep slope
of clay, covering ore, from 40 to 50 feet high, behind the top of
which rises the mountain side 50 feet higher, to a gently sloping ter-
race, as shown section, Fig. 3.

As there are but from 5 to 10 feet of stripping, and the ore in
fact sometimes comes within that distance of the surface, the plan
shows at a glance the immense extent of the ore ground. The new
workings are ordinary gangways, timbered and lagged where needful,
with cross galleries driven to the right and left, in an irregular man-
ner, but so as to leave 50 foot pillars of ore between them, and not
kept carefully upon a level. In fact, one of the gangways to the

1864.] 473 ILesley.

right rises so fist as to overrun the timbers of the old tunnel (See Fig.
2) which is driven into the face of the quarry at a level 20 or 30
feet higher than c. Another gallery has.a shaft 30 feet deep at its
end. The whole mine is in fact nothing but an extensive shaft
exploration, leaving the mass of the ore untouched. We have, there-
fore, data in sight for the following calculation :

Quant it}/ of Ore in the Mine, in Siijht.

Galleries one way, 200 + feet = 70 yards, ]

Galleries the other way, 150 feet = 50 yards, \ say 60,000 cubic yards.

Average height above tunnel, 50 + feet = 17 yards, J

Add length of quarry, 150 + 150 feet = 100 yards, 1

Take same breadth as above (200) = 70 yards, \ say 175,000 cubic yards.

Depth of shaft in quarry, (70 +) = 25 yards, J
To which add for quarry slopes, Ac, say 15,000 cubic yards.

Total in sight of the Home-bank, say 250,000 eubic yards.

This does not take into account the existence of ore to a greater
depth than the bottom of the shaft, 70 feet, where, as the miners
assert, they stopped in solid ore; and there is no reason to doubt
the fact, seeing 1, that the 30-foot shaft, at the inner end of the side
gallery, left oif in ore, and the dip would carry it far below the
bottom of the 70-foot shaft ; and, 2, the bottom of the 70-foot shaft
is still 70 feet above the creek at the furnace, and therefore within
the limits of underground drainage and decomposition. It is also
left out of sight, in the above calculation, that the ore passes outward
and downward from the quarry in the direction of x, (Fig. 3), all of
which must be added to the sum total above.

Thus, a surface section of the ore belt 50 yards long represents
ore beneath it to the e:itent of, say 250,000 cubic yards.

The mining done in past years from this bank half way to the
furnace, and the exhibitions of ore at the surface at the furnace,
warrant us in using the above calculation for that distance, viz., 2200
feet, or say 700 yards, = 3,500,000 cubic yards of ore in the ground.

Openings made, also, at intervals, beyond the Home-bank, to a
distance of a mile and a quarter from the furnace, will, on the above
calculation, increase this quantity to 11,000,000 cubic yards of ore
in the ground. There is no reason for doubting that the ore belt con-
tinues equally rich to a greater distance northward, along the face of
the mountain, past the White Rock Gap, and towards the Coneco-
cheague, at Caledonia Iron Works. But as the surface exposures can
never be implicitly relied on, and as the quantity of ore depends more
upon the local depth of drainage and decomposition than upon any

VOL. IX. — 3l

Lesley.] 474 [December.

other consideration, it is hazardous to extend the calculation further.
Towards Quincy and Waynesborough, no good openings have been
made in that part of the belt, although the surface is covered with
blocks of ore, and the wash ore is seen in the roads. It is probable
that as large an amount can be obtained south of Mont Alto Furnace
as north of it.

The ore in the ground consists of ball ore and wash ore, with lumps,
plates, and streaks of clay. The clay is thrown out where it is in
sufficiently large lumps, and the rest of it is washed oflp. There re-
mains a good deal of clay in the balls, which are irregular globes of
hematite, oftentimes hollow, and lined with beautiful acicular crystals,
standing apart like the bristles of a brush, but set at an angle with
the inside face of the shell.

The ore when washed is about a 50 per cent, ore, the books show-
ing that 4600 pounds of washed ore made a (long) ton of iron.

Professor Booth's analysis gave :

Sesquioxide of iron, ..... 75.00

Alumina, 1.00

Silica, 16.00

Water, 8.00

(omitting decimals) with a trace of lime remaining, The iron has
always been inclined to coldshort, on account of the silica, and has
usually been mixed with ore from the Pond- banks (to be described
below), when it makes a very tough iron. Tested in Washington,
with three other varieties of iron, it stood as follows :

Tredegar iron sustained .... 32,000 pounds.

Ulster '' " . . . . . 32,000 "

Glendon "".... 34,000 "

Mt. Alto "''.... 34,000 "

(decimals omitted), the test bar being round, and its section equal to
a square of .75 inch.

To get the percentage of lump clay, T calculated the contents of
the tip-heap in front of the old tunnel, b, out of which it was taken,
and from which were also taken the proceeds of two years' mining for
the furnace, say 4000 tons of ore. The tip-heap contained about
100 cubic yards of clay refuse.

I also saw washed 13 barrows of "wash ore," containing no lump
clay, and saw that they yielded llj barrows of washed ore ready for
the roasting pile ; = 90 per cent.

1864.] r 475 [Lesley.

The proportion of lump clay in this tunnel to unwashed ore must
have been, say from 5 to 10 per cent, by weight.

The proportion of clay to ore near the surface is greater than it is
further down, probably because the drainage from the surface into
the already made ore has charged all its vacancies. But whatever
be the explanation, the ore-mass becomes denser and richer con-
tinually as one descends in the quarry, and the deepest shafts sunk
have left oiF in very hard, pure ore. In the limestone deposits of
pipe ore, the lower limit or extreme bottom plane of dissolution is
characterized by an accumulation of very pure and beautifully crys-
tallized hydrated peroxide of iron ; and all these deposits are, there-
fore, richest at the bottom. A mass of rock ore lies thus behind
the present works, and below them ; or, in other words, forming
the "foot-wall" or "underlay" to the deposit. This rock or hard
ore is struck in the galleries, and is not worked, because it re-
quires blasting J whereas, all the rest of the mass can be picked and
shovelled. In the future open quarries, this mass of ore will form
the richest part of the work. It is merely a more compact form of
brown hematite, perhaps a little more silicious than the rest. The
terrace above the works shows much surface ore, and on this terrace
come up the slates which hold the Pond-bank ore, hereafter to be
described.

Again, outside, or above, or to the west of, the Home-bank belt
(B, of Fig. 2), there is a third belt (C), the outcrop of which is shown
by a sharp small ridge in a field, covered with blocks of hard ore from
one to two feet in diameter. The whole surface of this sloping field,
from the little ridge downwards, for a hundred yards, is strewed
with this ore, many tons of which have been collected and smelted
in the furnace. It is probably in connection with this ore belt that we
find an outcrop of almost unchanged blue carbonate of iron and lime,
several feet thick, mottled with groups of crystals of white calc spar,
and evidently, in parts, changing into honeycomb brown-hematite ore.
It lies with a dip of 20° towards the west.

There are evidences of other belts further west still ; and a lime-
stone quarry, used for fluxing the furnace, shows a 45° reverse dip
(towards the east), by which we know that there is a basin, running
along the bottom of the slope of the mountain, and an anticlinal axis
west of it, bringing up the ore-bearing formations towards, and per-
haps to, the surface ; which is suflScient to account for the ore belts
just mentioned.

This synclinal axis is the same which runs in between the Little

Lesley.] 476 [December.

Mountain and the Main Mountain at the Pond-banks (or rather at
the English openings; see the map, Plate IX). The anticlinal axis is
no doubt that of the Little Mountain itself, which brings up the slates
on the back of the Pottsdam sandstone, and thus produces the grand
exhibitions of ore all around it, as shown in Fig. 4.

The Pond-banks and Caledonia-bank, and the English diggings,
are several openings of greater or less size in the upturned belt
of slates surrounding the Little Mountain, which rises as an iso-
lated ridge, one or two miles long, from the floor of the valley.
The English diggings are behind it, the Caledonia-bank before it,
and the Pond-banks at its south end, in the plain. The ore mass in
the Caledonia-bank dips 5° towards the mountain, but must cer-
tainly rise again upon its flank. The English ore evidently dips
10° — IS** away from the mountain. The difliculty of estimating the
quantity of ore on this ground is very great, on account of the enor-
mous covering of red earth upon it in places. The shape of this
deep excavation is that of a crescent, with nearly vertical sides, and
an irregular bottom.* Its whole length is about three hundred yards,
and its depth to the general floor is from 60 to 80 feet. The ore
appears within 10 to 20 feet of the surface, at some points, and at
others not for 30 or 40 feet down. Mountains of stripping stand
beside it to the west, above where the body of the ore turns over a
small anticlinal, and buries itself westward beneath undecomposed
limestone. The depth of the ore is still unknown. Shafts from 60
to 110 feet have been sunk in it at the sides and in the bottom of
the present excavation. The top of the ore stratum at the extreme
north end of the quarry is exactly on a level with the edge of the
upper Pond-bank, which is only 5 or 10 feet above the top of its own
ore, into which the mining has descended 30 to 40 feet. The lower
Pond-bank is on a slightly higher level.

The fact is, therefore, that all these three excavations, separated
by only one or two hundred yards of interval from each other, and
extending in a line about one thousand yards, are sunk in one de-
posit of ore ; or, to speak more correctly, in the broad overlapping
margin of the ore-bearing slate deposit, which sweeps round the
south end of the Little Mountain in a nearly horizontal and partly
basin-shaped posture.

In the bottom of these excavations the ore is reported as uniformly
well compacted. In the upper end (north end) of the Caledonia-

* The sketch Fig. S, Plate X, was made from the head of the road.

1864.] 477 [Lesley.

bank at a depth of say 60 feet from the surface, I saw the top of a
body of ore which was as solid as a mass of cellular brown-hematite
ore could be. In other parts the ore is distributed through clay.
The whole is worked with pick and shovel. The large tip-heaps at
Caledonia-bank show the quantity of stripping done, rather than the
amount of clay mixed with the ore, and the small size of the tip-
heaps about the two Pond-banks speak well for a large percentage
of ore in proportion to clay.

Taking, then, the length and the width of the three banks for a
basis of calculation, and giving only 50 feet as the average depth of
the ore, and deducting 50 per cent, for clay (which is very large),
we see: 1000 yds.xlOO yds.xlT yds. -^- 2=850,000 cubic yards
of ore in the ground, from which the extracted ore has been deducted.
Starting with this amount of ore "in sight," and applying the
calculation to the ore descending on the west, ascending again on
the east, outspreading to the south, and filling the little valley be-
hind the Little Mountain, past the English diggings, we get many
millions of tons in addition, and under precisely the same conditions,
viz. with a variable covering of soil, clay, and loam, say from six
to twenty feet thick • nearly horizontal ; compact towards the bottom
and loaded with clay in places ; the ore all in small pots, and shards,
and gravel-like pieces ; yielding about fifty per cent, of metal, and
showing a neutral character, making excellent iron. The amount
of clay in these banks is highly in excess of the amount at the
Home-banks. On the other hand the amount of silica is less.

The Lower Pond-bank is said to have mined from five to ten
thousand tons of ore, beginning within ten feet below the surface,
and descending at least thirty feet, without bottom.

The Upper Pond-bank is said to have a depth of forty-three feet
in ore, the ore coming to within ten feet of the surface. From
the bottom of the original central shaft they drove a tunnel out to
daylight, and used it afterward.s for hauling out the ore.

The English diggings, on the back of the Little Mountain, are
only a trench, fifty feet wide by one hundred and fifty long, and
from five to twenty-five feet deep, cut slanting up the side of the
mountain (or hill, as it really is not 200 feet high), and showing a white
clay covering, massive, eight feet thick, dipping 20° to the eastward.
The ore, which is under it, cannot now be seen, because of the condi-
tion of the pit; but a set of fresh trial pits, outside of the main pit,
show the ore in good condition within five feet of the soil.

A branch railroad from Scotland Station, up the valley of the

Lesley.] 478 [December.

Conecoeheague, seven miles, to the Caledonia and Pond-banks, and
thence forward along the ore belt, tv:o miles, to the Home-bank,
and one mile further to Mont Alto Furnace, making ten miles in all,
is about to be constructed. The route follows a wide and shallow
meadow valley, with a rise (by barometer) of 20 feet in the first
four miles ; 90 feet in the next three miles, to the first ore beds ; and
230 feet for the next two miles, to the Home-bank opening.

The water of the creek at the furnace is 140 feet below the Home-
bank, and 200 feet above railroad grade at Scotland Station (mea-
sured by one of Becker & Sons' Aneroid Barometers).

It is within a few hundred feet of one of the Pond-banks that the
shaft has been sunk, which penetrated the lignite layers ; and it will
be noticed, that their horizontality is in agreement, 1st, with the
horizontality of all the Silurian measures which sweep round the flat
south end of the Little Mountain anticlinal ; 2dly, with the horizon-
tality of the ore deposits; and, 3dly, with the general plane surface
of the locality. There is no good objection to considering the lignite
beds a local deposit of late date, made in a shallow pond, produced
either by erosion, or by settling, caused by cavern-solution close under-
neath, and puddled with the ore-clay so as to hold water and maintain
a fresh-water vegetation, with which the forest leaves and trees, in-
cessantly discharged by freshets, would be intermingled. This may
have happened at any age after the uplift of the palaeozoic system and
the subsequent production of the present surface, except so much
time as may be represented by the forty feet of sand, &c. lying upon
the lignite. There is, therefore, to choose from, the whole interval
embraced by the Permian, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary areas.

To determine this more nearly, there must first be a determination
of the relation existing between the surface of the Palaeozoic region
and the surface of the Permiano-Jurassic region, commonly sepa-
rated from each other by the mountain barrier of the Highland-
South-Mouutain-Blue-Bidge range, but touching each other along
the remarkable gap in that range, between the Schuylkill and Sus-
quehanna rivers, and represented on the colored map, plate XI. The
present relation of the two surfaces to each other, is shown in Fig. 10,
plate X, and a selection from some of their supposed relationships in
past times is made in Fig. 11. The so-called New Red Estuary rocks
are seen in these sections dipping uniformly northwestward, at angles
from 20° to 30°. Their highest stratum, the breccia called Poto-
mac Marble, is sometimes a conglomerate of well-rolled pebbles, in
which I have often recognized, not only fragments of the Lower

1864.] ^"jg [Lesley.

Silurian limestones and slates of II and III; but quartz pebbles from
the Middle Silurian (Llandovery) sandstone of IV, or the not much
more distant outcrops of the Upper Devonian and Carboniferous con-
glomerates of X and XII.

The New Red is seen dipping northward against a country which
is lower than its own. The question is not one of a fault to produce
this dip : 1. Because a fault which should throw the New Red down,
must necessarily leave the Silurian dominating it from an elevation ;
2. Because the dip exists everywhere, along the estuary for 500
miles, where its northern coast is a mountain anticlinal of Azoic,
without trace of fault; 3. Because the north edge of the New Red,
at the place of section, is scalloped in such a form as no fault of any
magnitude could produce; 4. Because the exposures are good and
numerous, and yet there is nothing to show the existence of a fault,
upon the ground.

The New Red is seen in the section dipping northward against or
toward a country, the surface of which is three hundred feet lower
than its own. There is no evidence of a wide extension of New Red
over that lower surface in the New Red age. On the contrary, not
a hillock or gravel patch of New Red is to be found throughout the
whole Palaeozoic country to the north or west of this, its present
absurdly constructed overhanging and outdipping margin. How is
this to be accounted for?

There must have been some barrier to the New Red waters be-
tween the Schuylkill and the Susquehanna, to correspond with the
barrier which we see everywhere else between the Hudson and the
James. Otherwise the New Red waters would have overflowed, by
at least three hundred feet, the Silurian Valley in its rear, and pene-
trated to valleys still further back by means of the principal gaps in
the Kittatinny Mountains through which the Schuylkill, the Swatara,
and the Susquehanna rivers flow. What was this barrier ?

I think none can be suggested but one composed of the originally
much more elevated surface of the Silurian Valley itself. Carry up
the whole mean level of the Palaeozoic area — the valley beds up to
the present height of the mountains, and the mountain crests to a
proportionately greater altitude, the gaps to correspond with both,
and the anticlinal and synclinal structure to determine the face of
the surface at any given stage of the process, — and we have the re-
quired barrier to the estuary of the New Red; the explanation of its
top Conglomerate ; a good reason why there are no New Red traces

Wiestling.] ^gQ [December.

back of the South Mountains ; and a closer date for the Lignite of
Mont Alto.

In Fig. 11, plate X, where such a reconstruction of an ancient sur-
face of the Great Valley is attempted, there is noticeable, 1. How
vast an amount of Palaeozoic rock-substance has been swept away ;
and, yet, that amount represents only the waste of the four lower
Palaeozoic formations ; superposed upon these at a still older date,
eight others, including the Coal Measures, must have formed their
surfaces; supposing no cataclysm. 2. How fine a chance was given
for collecting towards the present surface the ferruginous elements
of the slowly decomposing and cavernous-becoming limestone layers ;
and 3. How the erosion must have acted, for some reason or other,
more upon the Pala30zoic surface outside, than upon the Palaeozoic
surface inside the limits of the New Red ; the reason probably being,
simply, this : that the latter was under the New Red waters, and
was being covered up, while the other was being eroded ; but the
erosion had not yet brought the valley surface down to the New Red
water-level, when the uplift of the New Red took place. After
which, the two erosions went on with different velocities proportional
to the different solubilities, &c., of the Silurian limestone, and of the
New Red sandstone, formations.

As for the lignite, therefore, it must have been subsequent to the
erosion of the New Red, that is, certainly not older than the Cretace-
ous lignites of the United States ; and when we consider the im-
mense lapse of time needful for carrying the Silurian Valley surface
from a level with the tops of the New Red Hills, down to a level
with their feet, we may well believe that the precise condition of the
ore deposits as we see it, while it commenced before New Red times,
was not perfected until the latest tertiary age, and, therefore, this
last must be the age of the lignite — apart from all consideration of
fossils.

[Captain Geo. B. Wiestling, Superintendent at Mont Alto, writes
under date of Jan. 20, 1865, as follows :

" Our pit No. 1, primitive iron ore (Pond-bank), lies at the south-
west foot of the 'Little Mountain,' close by the township road lead-
ing from Greenwood, on the Baltimore turnpike, to Altodale, near
our works. About seven hundred (700) feet south of this pit,
we have another larger pit. No. 2. These are about three-fourths
of a mile west of a spur (Mont Alto) of the South Mountain. The
neighborhood is dotted with a number of ponds, from which it de-
rives its name, ' Pond-bank.' In order to drain the water from and

1864.] ^g]^ [Wiestling.

beneath botli these pits, we located and sank a shaft between them
and nearer the larger pit. Although our judgment would have dic-
tated a locality a little more eastward, to have struck the bed of ore,
yet we selected this as more favorable ground for sinking.

"At a depth of five feet from the surface, we came upon the beau-
tiful white clay which lies immediately upon the ore, and is more or
less mixed with it.

" At ten feet from the surface we penetrated through the white
clay and met a clear, sharp, light colored sand, which continued for
about five feet.

"Then we found yellow clay mixed with sand, and spotted with
red clay (pigment). This varied but little until we attained a depth
of forty (40) feet from the surface, where, at a distinct, decided line,
almost horizontal, dipping, if at all, a little south, we encountered a
close-grained, tough, black clay, with small particles, as large as a
grain of wheat up to a grain of oats, resembling small pieces of char-
coal, intermingled with it. This proved only one foot thick ; and
then, at a depth of forty-one (41) feet from the surface, we came
upon the liynite.

" After penetrating this four (4) feet, a layer, one foot thick, of a
tough, gray, sandy substance, intervened ; after which we met a lower
stratum of the lignite, apparently growing more solid as we de-
scended.

"Through this we continued to sink, for eighteen feet further,
where about one foot of sand covered a beautiful variegated clay,
pearl and white body, with crimson and purple streaks through it.
At two feet deeper, the southwest corner of the shaft showed pure
red, and the northeast corner pure white clay.

"Thus far, then, we had sunk sixty-seven (67) feet from the sur-
face, and had developed two strata of lignite, respectively four (4)
feet and eighteen (18) feet thick.

" This depth (67 feet) was more than necessary for our purposes
in sinking the shaft, and we commenced a drift or adit, three feet
above the bottom of the shaft, in the lignite, in the direction of the
layer, pit No. 2 (south). This drift we have driven, to this date,
forty-eight (48) feet in the lignite; but yesterday the ground showed
evidences of a change to light-colored clay. We have concluded to
return to the shaft, and from its bottom sink a smaller pit still
deeper, for purposes of observation ; a small contribution to science
The results I will advise you of as we progress, with pleasure.

VOL. IX. — Sm

Wiestling.] 482 [December.

'' The lignite, when excavated, was solid, rang and glistened like
anthracite. Exposure to the air disintegrated it to a certain extent,
and impaired its lustre. It burns freely, with a bright flame and
intense heat, and proves excellent for generating steam. It cokes
beautifully.

" When drying pieces of it (for experiment) on the stove, a
considerable quantity of oil fried out, and the empyreumatic odor
was very decided. This circumstance, in connection with the fact
of a heavy, greasy coating on our springs and streams (heretofore
credited to the iron ore), causes considerable speculation as to the
existence of petroleum at no great depth.

"In the field lying between the 'Little Mountain' and South
Mountain, east of the English-bank, we have sunk a number of test
pits. In all but one, we have found ore near the surface. In this
exception, located about two hundred feet east of the English-bank,
at a depth of fifteen (15) feet, we encountered a black clay, similar
to that which immediately overlaid the lignite at the Pond-bank.

" A number of circumstances combined to prevent our sinking the
pit any deeper at the time, though we intend developing what lies
beneath, in the early spring."]

Mr. Foulke inquired whether or not any of the members
present had collected such evidence in relation to deposits of
iron, as would throw new light on the origin of such beds.

Mr. Foulke referred to the discovery of the part which
infusoria had taken in the formation of silicious rocks, and
remarked upon the contributions of the United States Coast
Survey ; and said, that the fact of assimilation of iron by
minute marine animals, might suggest an analogy with
Ehrenberg's microscopic results in the origin of beds of
iron.

Mr. Lesley remarked upon the appearance of encrinites
in strata of carbonate of iron, as interesting exemplifications
of the metamorphosis of encrinitic limestone deposits to iron
ore beds among the coal measures.

Mr. Foulke recurred to the distinction between the exam-
ple of carbonate of iron and that which he had presented,
viz. : the formation of ore-beds in a manner analogous with
those of Ehrenberg's silicious rocks.

1864.] 483 [Osborne.

Mr. Osborne, present by invitation, exhibited a port-folio
of lithographic plates, and explained his process of copying
by Photo-lithography. Mr. Osborne said :

This method of combining photography with lithography is not
new ; it is a tried and tested process, which for upwards of five years,
has been actively employed by the government of the British Colony
Victoria, for the production of maps. The invention dates from the
19th of August, 1859, and the first ofl&cial map was produced by it
on the 3d of September following; since which time several thousand
different original maps have been photo-lithographed by its means, and
sold to the public. The saving, both in time and money, which its
introduction has effected, is very great; and the government of the
colony has erected, according to my suggestion and plan, a substantial
ofl&ce consisting of several rooms, exclusively for the prosecution of
this method of reproduction. In 1861, the Victorian Parliament
acknowledged my services, and the estimation in which they held
the process, by voting me unanimously the sum of £1000.

The general history of photo-lithography, and the details of the
various processes which have been put forward from time to time, is a
subject too extended for me to discuss on the present occasion ; 1 shall
confine myself therefore, to a description of my own solution of the
difficuhy, the superiority of which, for certain kinds of work at least,
I believe now to be undisputed.

Before proceeding to details it may be well to state, that the pro-
cess is designed and fitted for the reproduction of existing originals
only, such as maps and plans, engravings, pen-and-ink drawings,
MS. and printed documents, &c., and not for producing portraits or
views directly from nature. The problem to be solved may be de-
fined, more accurately, as follows : From a given original existing as
a black and white drawing or engraving, to produce by the chemical
agency of light, a fac-simile on stone, identical in character with an
ordinary lithographic drawing, which has been fitted for the printer.

The first step in the process is the production of a negative, which
shall bear the desired relation to the original in size. This is done
by placing the latter upon an upright plan-board, and the camera
opposite to it, taking care that the plan-board and the ground-glass
slide of the instrument are perfectly parallel, and that the distance
between them is such as to give a copy of the desired dimensions.
The negative picture is then taken in the ordinary way on collodion,
but with numerous precautions, so as to secure the best possible result.

Osborne.] 4:S4: [December.

Having proceeded thus far, it is necessary to prepare the sensitive
surface upon which the positive print from this negative is to be made.
All the processes of which anything was known or published up to
my time, were based upon the idea that the surface of the stone
should be made sensitive to the action of light, and that the photo-
graphic picture formed thereon should possess the necessary and
peculiar, lithographic properties. I deviated from my predecessors
in this respect, and struck out a new course, which at once gave
superior results. This consisted in sensitizing a sheet of paper in
such a way as to make it fulfil similar conditions; and having pro-
duced upon it a photograph in lithographic ink adapted for the pur-
pose, the same is transferred to stone by a well-known lithographic
operation, and printed in the ordinary way.

To effect this object, a sheet of paper of the best quality is pre-
pared with a solution of gelatine and bichromate of potash in water,
to which a quantity of albumen has been added. This mixture is
poured into a long narrow trough, and one side of the paper is covered
with it, by drawing a sheet over the fluid in the trough, while an
assistant presses it into contact with the same by means of a piece of
wood of suitable form.

The paper thus coated is carefully dried in the dark, and upon it
a positive print from the negative above mentioned is printed by light
in the manner practised by photographers. The result is that a brown
picture makes its appearance upon the clear bright yellow of the
paper, identical in every respect with the original which was copied,
unless perhaps a reduction or enlargement in size may have been
decided on. It is not however the change in color which makes this
picture valuable for photo-lithographic purposes, but rather the altera-
tion in the chemical and physical properties of the organic substances,
which form the superficial coating upon the sensitive paper, the na-
ture of which will be understood when the following operations are
described. These are technically known as "blacking," "swimming,"
and " washing off." Blacking an exposed positive has for its object
the distribution of an even coating of lithographic transfer ink over
its surface. Such an ink is essentially composed of greasy or resinous
substances fused together, and blackened with lampblack. For our
present purpose it is distributed with the printing roller over the
surface of a stone in the press, and upon it the exposed positive print
is laid, with the photographic picture downwards, and in contact
with the ink. After passing both stone and paper through the press,
and separating them, the latter will be found to have brought away

1864.] ^g^ [Osborne.

with it an even coating of the lithographic ink, hiding almost totally the
photographic delineation from view. The swimming, or as it is also more
properly called, " coagulation," is the next step ; it is accomplished by
letting the blackened print float upon the surface of boiling water,
with its uncoated side downwards. The chief result sought to be
secured by this operation is the coagulation of the albumen contained
in the film. This takes place, due to the action of the moisture and
heat together; and in addition to it another advantage is gained by
the percolation of the water through the paper, namely, the softening
and gelatinization of the gelatine contained in the coating of organic
matter under the ink. This change extends only to such portions of
the sensitive surface as were protected from the action of light by the
negative ; those which form the picture suffer no further alteration
while the print is swimming, due to the solvent action of water ; they
do not soften or swell, and demonstrate this fact by remaining de-
pressed, in relation to the other parts of the blackened surface, which
rise very perceptibly around them.

After sufficient soaking, we have to remove from this print the
superfluous ink which is upon it, our object being to retain that por-
tion only which goes to form the picture. This is effected by placing
the wet sheet upon a smooth surface, and applying a moderate
amount of friction to it by means of a wet sponge, or similar sub-
stance. Gradually the ink leaves those portions of the blackened
print which represent the white parts of the original ; but the ex-
posed or positive portions retain it with great tenacity, owing to the
chemical alteration which the light has effected in them. Eventually
we find ourselves possessed of a copy of the original in lithographic
ink, which is washed in abundance of water, and dried.

The ink upon the print, the preparation of which has been just
described, is transferred to stone by a process more or less thoroughly
understood by ordinary lithographers, occurring as it does not un-
frequently in the routine of their business. It consists in laying the
print, inverted, upon a clean and smooth lithographic stone, which has
been slightly warmed, and passing it through the press. The con-
sequence is, that the greasy lithographic ink passes over to the stone,
and forms there a chemical picture which is reversed, and from which,
after it has been properly "etched" or ''prepared," impressions can
be taken in the press.

The coagulated albumen, upon which some stress has been laid,
plays an important part during this opei-ation of transferring ; for,
owing to its insoluble nature, no amount of washing can remove it

Osborne.] 4-86 [December.

from the surface of the paper; and after the print is washed off and
dried, the inky picture is found to rest, as it were, upon a sheet of
alburaenized paper. This is damped slightly before laying it upon
the stone, and, when the heavy pressure of the press is brought to
bear upon it, the albumen shows an amount of adhesiveness sufficient
to make it stick fast, and prevent any shift, or doubling of the lines,
until the stone and print have been carried through the press as often
as the operator thinks necessary.

The latest application which has been made of this process, is one
to which I attach much importance ; I refer to the illustration of a
Prussian Government work, descriptive of the expedition which that
state sent a few years ago to Japan, China, and Siam. I am happy in
being able to lay the plates belonging to the first part of this work be-
fore the members of your Society. They consist of twelve small views
and six large ones, besides two maps, and are reproductions of pen-
and-ink drawings, made by the landscape painter, Mr. A. Berg, who
was sent with the expedition. Two of the larger plates are printed
in colors, in imitation of water-color drawing, a combination of chronio-
with photo-lithography, which is here made for the first time. On the
worth of a process of this kind, whereby every touch and every feel-
ing which the artist puts into the creations of his genius, is repro-
duced in permanent printing-ink, or by means of which rare and
costly engravings can be given to the public at a nominal cost, I do
not require to dilate. Mr. Berg, whose connection with the Japanese
work naturally makes him a severe critic, has expressed his opinion
to me in a letter which I value very highly, and I feel that I cannot
conclude my remarks better than by quoting the portion of his com-
munication which bears upon this subject. He says :

" The President of the Royal Commission, appointed to superintend
the publication of the East- Asiatic Travels, has requested me to ex-
press to you his grateful acknowledgments of your great services
and disinterested exertions in this work. It gives me the greatest
pleasure to be enabled to make this communication to you ; and I
avail myself of the opportunity to express to you also, my own sincere
thanks for your assistance in this work. You have solved the most
difficult problems in this field, — problems, the solution of which I my-
self despaired of, until the successful result was placed before my
eyes. The question, whether pen-and-ink drawings can be multiplied
by photo-lithography, and thus made valuable to the artist, is de-
termined by this work."

1864.] 487 [Chase.

Mr. Osborne exhibited a portfolio of reproductions of en-
gravings, pen-and-ink drawings, maps, &c., of great excel-
lence, and some of them of rare beauty, fully justifying, in
the opinion of the members present, his views of the merits
and utility of the process.

President Smith exhibited a piece of lignite from the
Dutch Gap Canal, just excavated by the troops of General
Butler, to facilitate the operations carried on against Rich-
mond.

The stated business of the meeting being called for, it was,
on motion of Prof. Cresson, resolved, that the subject of the
claim signed " Torricelli" was worthy of the Magellanic
Premium.

The members were then required by the terms of the Fund
to declare whether they had considered the subject, so as to
entitle them to vote ; whereupon the members so making
declaration voted, by ballot. The ballot-boxes were then
scrutinized by the presiding officer, who announced that the
vote was unanimous, and in favor of bestowing the premium
upon the claimant.

The sealed package was then opened by the President, and
the name of Mr. Pliny Earle Chase was read.

Philadelphia, October 1, 1864.

Dr. George B. Wood,

President of the American Philosophical Society.

Dear Sir : I offer, for a Magellanic Premium, the discovery of
certain new relations between the solar- and lunar-diurnal variations
of magnetic force and of barometric pressure.

The experiments upon mechanical polarity, which were exhibited
to the Philosophical Society at its meeting of April 1, 1864, and the
series of communications to the Philosophical and Royal Societies,
of which those experiments formed a part, have shown that the sim-
ple aerial and aethereal currents which are produced by the combi-
nation of solar and lunar action with rotation, are sufficient to polar-
ize the atmosphere, and through its specific magnetism to impart a
directive polar energy to a magnetized needle.

Chase.] 488 [December.

Since the principal agency of the sun in producing currents and
barometric fluctuations appears to reside in the heat of its rays, and
that of the moon in its diiferential or tidal attraction, it seems very
probable that the ratio of the barometric to the magnetic disturbance
of each luminary may be some function of the relative barometrical
and tidal effects of the two bodies. This hypothesis is confirmed by
the fact that the lunar-diurnal variations, both of the magnet and of
the barometer, exhibit two high and two low daily tides, while the
solar-diurnal magnetic variation, like the temperature-tide of the
barometer, has only one maximum and one minimum in twenty-four
hours.

Let A = the tidal-current variation of equilibrium.
B = the diurnal barometric variation.
M = the diurnal magnetic variation.

Let the solar elements be distinguished by A', B', M' ; the lunar
by A", B", M".

If the modern physical hypotheses are correct, and the forces that
produce A, B, and M are all forms of motion, it is probable that
some simple relationship may exist between them. In endeavoring
to ascertain that relationship, we readily discover that

A' < A"
B' < M'
B' > B"
B" > M"

These inequalities, together with the fact that the solar currents
are developed in air that is disturbed by the greater attractive energy
of the moon, and the lunar currents in air that is disturbed by the
more powerful barometric action of the sun, suggest the supposition
that B may be a mean proportional between A and M, and that we
may therefore have the following equivalent proportions :

B' : B" : : ^ K' M' : 7 A" M"
A' : A" : : B'^ M" : B"' W
W : M" : : B'^ A" : B"^ A'

From the same considerations, we may readily infer that

-- = - a)

M' A" ^^

and that,.*., B" is a mean proportional between B' and M".

According to Maj.-G-en. Sabine's tables (St. Helena Obs., vol. ii, p.
Ixi), there is a solar maximum, measured in parts of the total force,

1864.J ^gg [Chase.

of +.00095 at noon, and a solar minimum of — .00045 at 11 p.m.,
M' =: .0014 (3)

The lunar tide is so modified by rotation, that its true value can
perhaps be best ascertained by adding the tides at equal distances
from the lunar meridian (op. citat., p. Ixii), and taking their
average,

LUNAR-DIURNAL MAGNETIC VARIATION, IN MILLIONTIIS OF THE
TOTAL FORCE.

Oh. Ih. 21i. .3h. 4h. 5h. 6 h. 7 h. 8 h. 9 h. 10 li. 11 h. VZh

Before Lunar M., +5 —1 +4 —2 —5 —5 —6 —3 —2 —1 +14 +15 +16

After « " +5 —1 —5 —6 —7 —6 +1 +1 —2 +18 +25 +22 +16

Mean Tide, . . +5—1 —.5 —4 —6 —5.5 —2.5 —1 —2 + 8.5 +19.5 +18.5 +16

We thus obtain an average low tide of — .000006 at 4 h., and a
high tide of +.0000195 at 10 h., which gives

M" = .0000255 (4)

The values of B, as deduced from the tables presented at the
meeting of July 17, are

B' = .016 in. (5)

B" = .00365 in. (6)

Dividing by 28.2821, the mean height of the barometer, in order
to obtain results in terms of the total barometric pressure, we have
B' = .00056573 (7)

B" = .0001291 (8)

The relative values of A' and A" have never been precisely deter-
mined. Probably the latest and most correct estimate is the one
given in the New American Cyclopedia, Article " Tides," according
to which, if

KA' = 1 (9)

KA" = 2.55 (10)

Of the homologous quantities contained in (1) (2), it is fairly
presumable that those of the greatest magnitude (B', M') have been
most precisely estimated. Assuming their accuracy, we have :

1. If (8) be supposed correct,

M" = .00002944 (11)

A' 1

-- = -— ri2^

A" 2.475 ^ ^

2. If (4) be supposed correct,

B" = .00012 (13)

-- = -— (14)

A" 2.475 ^ ■'

VOL. IX. — 3n

Chase.] 4-90 [December.

3. If M' and B" are required, (4), (9), (10), being supposed
correct,

M' = .00144 (15)

and the value of B" is the same as in (13).

Other hypotheses might be made, but these are sufficient for
illustration.

Even the widest discrepancy between theory and observation is
much less than might have been reasonably anticipated in measure-
ments of such extreme delicacy, and far within the limits of probable
error, as will be seen by the following synopsis :

KA' KA" B'

B"

>i'

M"

Observed, 1 2.55 .00057

.00013

.0014

.Q000255

Theoretical, 1 1 2.475 .00057

.00013

.0014

.0000294

Theoretical, 2 1 2.475 .00057

.00012

.0014

.0000255

Theoretical, 3 1 2.55 .00057

.00012

.00144

.0000255

From the hypothetical formula B z=

v/A M ^

ive deduce the fol-

lowing values :

Observ. Theor. 1.

Theor. 2.

Theor

. 3.

K 4374 4374

4374

449c

>

A' .000229 .000229

.000229

.000222

A" .000653 .000566

.000565

.000565

In regard to the first theoretical value of M", it may be observed
that it is very nearly equivalent to the mean between .000032, the
extreme excursion of the lunar tide, and .0000255, the mean tide.

" TORRICELLI."

Mr. Chase made some remarks, in explanation of the sub-
ject of the premium.

In the fifth century before the Christian era, Leucippus and his
disciple Democritus taught that heat is the soul of the world, the
principle of life and intelligence, and that space is an infinite plenum,
pervaded by material atoms too minute to be perceptible to the
senses, which, by their constant motions, unions, and separations,
form the beginnings and ends of things. In this theory, which is
said to have been borrowed from the priests of Isis and Osiris, we
may trace the origin of the modern belief in a universal kinetic
aether, and of the attempts to resolve all forces into " modes of mo-
tion," which were practically inaugurated by our own countryman,
Benjamin Thompson, Count liumford, and which have been so suc-
cessfully prosecuted by Carnot, Seguin, Mayer, Colding, Joule, Grove,
and their collaborators.

1864.] 491 [Chase.

The mutual convertibility of Light, Heat, Electricity, Magnetism,
Chemical Affinity, and Vital Energy, may be now regarded as one
of the most probable physical hypotheses. Faraday has endeavored
also to connect gravitation and magnetism or electric action by expe-
rimental results, but in vain. Still, the conviction of such a con-
nection is almost irresistible, and various physicists have given us
incidental pointings in that direction. Ampere discovered the mag-
netic effect of electric currents circulating around iron bars ; Arago,
vrbose experiments were repeated and extended by Babbage, Her-
schel, Barlow, Christie, and others, showed that simple rotation pro-
duces magnetic disturbances which are governed by fixed laws ; the
distribution of induced magnetism in masses of iron, as determined
by Barlow and Lecount, is the same as would follow from the relative
centrifugal motions of different portions of the earth, provided the
magnetic axis corresponded with the axis of rotation ■* Hansteen sus-
pected, and Sabine practically demonstrated, the influence of the sun
upon terrestrial magnetism; Secchi ascertained that "the diurnal
excursion of the needle is the sum of two distinct excursions, of
which the first depends solely on the horary angle, and the second
depends, besides, on the sun's declination, "f and that " all the phe-
nomena hitherto known of the diurnal magnetic variations may be
explained by supposing that the sun acts upon the earth as a very
powerful magnet at a great distance. "[{;

This hypothesis has been objected to on the ground that it is diffi-
cult to understand how any conceivable intensity of solar magnetism,
by its simple induction, could produce so great a disturbance as is
daily observed. Therefore it will probably follow the fate of the
earlier ones, which attributed terrestrial magnetism to one or more
powerful magnets lying nearly in the line of the earth's axis, while
Barlow's idea that the magnetism is superficial and in some manner
induced,! will still remain in the ascendant. Secchi's conclusions are,
however, none the less interesting, and from the fact that magnetism
is, like gravity, a central force, varying inversely as the square of the
distance, they lend encouragement to those who are endeavoring to
find new evidences of the unity of force.

My own experiments and researches have led me to the belief that
all magnetism is a simple reaction against a force which disturbs

* This fact was first announced by me, at the Society's meeting, April 15,
1864. See ante, p. 367.

t Phil. Mag. [4] 8, .396. f Ibid. 9, 452. ^ Phil. Trans., 1831.

Chase.] 492 [December.

molecular equilibrium, that the numerical equivalent of the magnetic
force is therefore equal and opposite to that of the disturbing force,
(+ M ^ + D), and that all the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism
result from tidal and thermal changes in terrestrial gravitation.

Sullivan* and Reinsch'j' have pointed out the effect of musi-
cal vibrations upon the magnetic needle, and I have shown the
controlling influence of a purely mechanical polarity. | A care-
ful examination of the polarizing thermal and rotation currents,§
will show that the spirals, which they have a tendency to produce, are
quasi horizontal cyclones, one set flowing in a nearly constant direc-
tion along the magnetic meridian, and the other towards the momen-
tarily shifting solar meridian. The communication of " Torricelli"
referred to but one or two of the relations under which these eddies
may be viewed ; there are others, some of which are perhaps even
more curious ; and, from the examinations which I have already made,
I have deduced the following theses :

I. The daily magnetic variations, though subject to great disturb-
ances, at different hours, show an average approximation to the dif-
ferences of the gravitation-tidal currents.

Hours from Mean, .... Ih. 2h. 3h.

Means of Theoretical Ratios, . . .500 .866 1.
" " Observed '' . . . .563 .865 1.

II. Marked indications of an accelerating force are discoverable in
the magnetic fluctuations, especially during the hours when the sun
is above the horizon.

Hours from Mean, . . . . Ih. 2h. 3h.
Mean Ratios of Hourly Tidal Differences, 100 73 27

" ^' " Squares of Hourly Mag-

netic Differences, 100 74 26

See also Thesis V.

III. There are lunar-monthly barometric and magnetic tides, which
may be explained by differences of weight or momentum, || occasioned
by the combined influences of solar and lunar attraction, and terres-
trial rotation.

IV. The solar-diurnal variations of magnetism between noon and

* See De la Rive's Electricity, v. ii, p. 6.35. t Phil. Mag. [4J, 13, 222.

t Ante, p. 359. § Ibid., p. 367 sqq.

II I believe there can be no weight without some degree of momentum. See
Proc. A. P. S., vol.ix, p 357.

1864. J ^93 [Chase.

midnight are nearly identical in amount with the variations- of
weight produced by solar attraction at the same hours.

The ratio of the solar to the terrestrial attraction for any particle
at the earth's surface, being directly as the mass, and inversely as
the square of the distance (M--R==354,936-^ 23,0000, is .00067.
The weight of any particle is therefore increased by this proportion-
ate amount at midnight, and diminished in the same proportion at
noon, making a total half-daily variation of .00134 in the atmospheric
weight, and consequently, according to ray theory, in the terrestrial
magnetism.

Theoretical variation, .00134. Observed variation, .00138.

V. The magnetic variations at intermediate hours, between noon and
midnight, indicate the influences of an accelerating force, like that
of gravity, modified by fluctuations of temperature and by atmos-
pheric or astherial currents.

Every particle of air may be regarded as a planet revolving about
the sun in an orbit that is disturbed by terrestrial attraction and other
causes. In consequence of these disturbances, there is an alternate
half-daily fall towards the sun, and rise from the sun. By the laws
of uniformly accelerated and retarded motions, the mean fall, and the
con.sequent mean magnetic disturbances should occur at 12h.-T-
v/2=8h. 29' from midnight.

Theoretical mean, 8h. 29'. Observed mean, 8h. 31'.

VI. Some of the- magnetic influences appear to be transmitted in-
stantaneously, through the rapid pulsations of the kinetic aether, —
others gradually, through the comparatively sluggish vibrations of
the air.

VII. The comparative barometric disturbances of the sun and moon
exhibit an approximate mean proportionality between their compara-
tive difi"erential-tidal and magnetic disturbances.

Let the solar differential-tidal force be represented by A', and the
lunar by A", the respective barometric disturbances by B' and B",
and the magnetic disturbances by M' and M". If M' and B" are
required, we have

A'-^A" B' B" M' M"

Theoretical values, .00012 .00144

Observed " 2.55 .00057 .00013 .00140 .0000255.

VIII. The theoretical gravitation-variation of magnetism (Prop.
IV) is slightly less, while the theoretical barometric variation (Prop.

Chase.]

494

[December.

A

Hours

Theoretical

from

Gravitation

Midnight.

Tide.

0

—.00067

6

.00000

12

+ .000(37

A + 13

Theoretical

Observed

Mean

Mean

Tide.

Tide.

—.00043

—.00043

—.00024

-.00023^

+ .00091

+ .00095

VII) is slightly greater than the corresponding observed variation.
The excess in one case exactly counterbalances the deficiency in the
other, the sum of the theoretical being precisely equal to the sum of
the observed variations.

IX. The total daily magnetic variations, like the barometric, can
be resolved into a variety of special tides, which may be severally
explained by well-known constant or variable current-producing and
weight-disturbing forces.

B

Theoretical
DiflFerential
Solar Tide.

+ .00024
—.00024
+ .00024

The hours are counted from midnight, in each half-day.

Column A contains the hourly differences from mean weight, attri-
butable to solar gravitation, with changed signs ; diminution of weight
being accompanied with increase of magnetism, and vice versa.

The form of the tide in column B is evidently such as should be
determined by solar action. The magnitude of the tide is estimated
by comparing the relative amounts of motion down the diagonal and
down the arc of a quadrant (.00067x[l— ( f — i)]=.00048).
The mean-tidal difference [(.00067— .00048)-i-2] is very nearly
equivalent to the average theoretical inertia-disturbance of weight.
The atmospheric inertia at St. Helena, (regarding the fluctuations
as uniform between successive hourly observations), produces re-
tardations of 59', 85', 26', and 31', at Oh., 6h., 12h., and 18h., re-
spectively. The mean retardation is 50', or ^^j of a half-day. The
theoretical daily gravity-variation being .00134, the average varia-
tion in ^^ of a half-day is .00009^^, the mean tidal difference being
.00009J.

The consideration of the moon's disturbance of the atmospheric
gravitation, is complicated by the magnitude of its differential attrac-
tion, the position of the centre of gravity of the terrestrial system,
the varying centrifugal force, and other circumstances involved in
the lunar theory. Still there are indications in the following synop-
sis, of the influence of gravity, sufl&ciently striking to encourage a
hope that our knowledge of the moon's perturbations may be im-
proved by a thorough comparative study of the lunar atronomical,
atmospheric, and magnetic tables.

1864.]

495

[Chase.

LUNAR-DAILY DISTURBANCES OF MAGNETIC FORCE AT ST. HELENA, IN
MILLIONTHS OF THE TOTAL FORCE.

Hours.

0

1

2

3,4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Before Lunar M.

+5

— 1

+4

—2—5

—5

—6

—3

—2

— 1

+ 14

+ 15

+ 16

After " "

+5

— 1

-6

—61—7

—6

+1

+1

—2

+ 18

+25

+22

+ 16

Mean.

+5

— 1

—0.5

-4!— 6

—5.5

—2.5

— 1

—2

+8.5

+ 19.5

+18.51+16

Rotation-Tide.

0

0

+4.5

+2|+1

+.5

+3.5

+2

0

+9.5

+5.5

+3.5 0

The above table shows, that

1. The moon's attractive force (M-v-R'^=.016-^60===.000004)
multiplied by the coefficient of its differential attraction (2.5,5) gives
.0000113, which is nearly the same as the mean meridional magnetic
disturbance [(.000005 + .000016)-t-2=.0000105].

2. The increase of magnetism at 12h. is nearly equivalent to the
attractive force, multiplied by the square of the distance from the
centre of gravity of the system, and divided by the square of the
earth's radius (.000004x7707''-^-3963^=.0000168).

3. There is a tendency to equality of disturbances on each side of
the meridian at Ih. and 8h., as in the solar magnetic tide.

4. The greatest disturbance occurs at the hours of lOh. and llh.
P.M., both in the solar and in the lunar tide.

5. There are some indications of an increase of gravity and de-
crease of magnetic force when the tidal flow is towards the centre
of gravity of the terrestrial system, and vice versa.

6. The rotation-tide has the customary quarter-daily phases of
alternate increase and diminution.

X. The phenomena of magnetic storms indicate the existence of
controlling laws, analogous to those which regulate the normal
fluctuations. See Proceedings Amer. Philos. Soc, Oct. 21, 1864.

The foregoing comparisons have been based on General Sabine's
discussions of the St. Helena records. It would be desirable, if it
were possible, to confirm them by observations at other stations near
the equator, but the need of such confirmation is in great measure
obviated by the variety of ways in which I have shown the probable
connection of gravity and magnetism. At extra-tropical stations, the
rotation tide becomes so preponderating that it is difficult to trace
the diminished gravitation- and differental-tides, still I shall look con-
fidently to a fuller development of the theory of tidal action, for future
additional support to my views.

AQQ [December.

Pending nomination No. 529, and new nominations Nos.
530, 531, 532, 533, were read.

The annual report of the Finance Committee was read,
and the appropriations for the ensuing year, recommended
by the Committee were, on motion, ordered to be made, as
follows :

Salary of Librarian, ..... $700 00
Assistant to the Librarian, .... 360 00
Petty expenses of Library, . . . . 50 00
Janitor,
Binding;,

100 00
150 00
50 00
200 00
200 00

Journals,

Hall account,

Insurance, .

PubHcations (in addition to the interest of

Publication Fund), 800 00

Commissions to Treasurer and all other inciden-
tal charges, 590 00

$3200 00

After which the Society was adjourned.

INDEX TO YOL. IX.

MEMBERS

ELECTED: 8, 27, 91, 129,

Morlot,

412,

206, 239, 275,

328, 371,

411, 440.

Motley,

92,

MEMBERS ACCEPT

are presented.

Miiller Max,

204,

Abbot,

27,

Murchison,

11,

Boucher des Perthes,

146,

Pease,

233,

Briggs,

, 275

Penrose,

, 275

Chase P. E.,

, 130

Pollock,

226,

Chase T.,

330, 343

Porter T. C,

442,

Cornelius,

92, 114

Pugh,

92,

Dawson,

27, 114,

Ramsay,

58,

De Koninck,

58, 328,

Read J. M.,

130,

Delesse,

277,

Rohrig,

, 28

Dewey,

207,

Schinz,

441,

Engelmann,

55,

Schott,

207,

Fisher S. G.,

, 26

Schwann,

294,

Forchhammer,

204,

Sellers W.,

372,

Frerichs,

115,

Sheafer,

240,

Froude,

58,

Smith G.,

130,

Green,

207,

Smith R. S.,

372, 454

Harrison,

424, 454

Stromeyer,

414,

Hartshorne,

, 259

Studer,

442,

Hayes,

144, 144

Tholuck,

426,

Heer,

394,

Thompson,

328,

Henderson,

146, 241

Troyon,

146,

Hill,

233,

Tanner,

441,

Hilgard,

233, 454

Volpicelli,

92,

Hodge J. T ,

376,

Washburne,

226, 275

Hofmann,

58,

Whitney J. D.,

164,

Jackson R. M.

S.,

259,

Whitney W. D.,

226, 349

Jarvis,

130,

Wilcocks,

, 372

Kasem Beg,

24,

Wilson T.,

130,

Kirchhoff,

394,

Wohler,

241,

Kirk,

414,

Worthen,

130,

Lamborn R. H

J

454,

MEMBERS' LIST:

7, 122, 129.

LeeT. J.,

109,

MEMBERS DECEASED:

Lesley Jos.,

, 454

Abert,

130

Liebig,

259,

Agardh,

92

Marsh,

372,

Bache F.,

355

McClune,

237, 278

Bernard Saxe- Weimar,

58

Mitchell S. W.

8, 10

Bethune,

29, 68

VOL. IX. — 3o

498

Blackwell,

277

Breck,

59

Bronn,

58, 59 1

C arena,

28

Carleton,

205,

206

Cuthbert,

462

Darlington,

207

De la Rosa,

11

Demme,

259

Dunlap,

405

Ellet,

125

Forbes,

5

Gerhard B.,

404,

405

Grimm,

277

Hitchcock,

344

Hubbard,

328

IngersoU C. J.,

29

Jahn,

366

Jomard,

109

Justice,

21

, 29

Mitchell,

92

Morris (incorrect),

116

Otis,

237

Palmer,

129

Pease,

259

Pepper,

427

Pugh,

375

Quincy, 405,

412

415

Reinhardt,

234

Renwick,

128

Rose,

449

Riimker,

144

Schoolcraft,

462

Short,

206

Silliman,

454

Stanley,

58

Taney,

454

Totten,

375

Von Leonard,

30

Wain,

291

463

Washington,

441

MEMBER RESIGNED :

Law, E. E.,

MEMBERS EXPELLED :

Ifl

, n.

Lynch,

12

Maury,

12

OBITUARY NOTICES READ

;

Bethune,

70

Darlington,

330

Hitchcock,

443

IngersoU,

260

Mitchell,

110, 147

Short,

289

Tucker,

64

MEMBERS' PORTRAITS

received :

Agassiz,

394

Bache,

110

Baird,

394

Bancker,

260

Bijhtliugk,

375

Brayley,

394

ChauTenet,

415

Condie,

290

Cresson,

425

De Koninck,

329

Delesse,

329

Durand,

344

Encke,

329

Fraley,

330

Franklin's Bust,

126

Grey,

403

Hays,

415

Heer,

394

Herschel,

394

Humboldt,

329

Humphreys,

260

Hyrtl,

290

Jiiger,

366

Kasem Beg,

121

Lea,

344

Lepsius,

329

Lesquereux,

344

Lombardini,

260

Morse,

394

Quincy,

226

Rokitansky,

290

Ruschenberger,

415

Schinz,

441

Sheafer,

441

Silliman,

226

Sparks,

403

Stromeyer,

415

Swift,

226

Troyon,

329

Turner,

441

Von Buch,

329

Zantedeschi,

403

OFFICERS ELECTED for 1862, 1863, 1864,
FINANCE COMMITTEE reports,

1, 126, 290
121, 236, 238, 289. 411, 442

499

Wharton Mortgage, ordered to be compromised,
Taxation of the Society, Supreme Court decision,
Michaux Legacy, correspondence with Dr. Wood,
M. Germain appointed agent at Paris,

COMMITTEE ON THE HALL: reports.
Special Committee on Site of new Lot,

LIBRARY COMMITTEE: report on Catalogue,
Catalogue to be distributed and subscribed for.
Special Committee, and Librarian's report,
Binding ordered, on recommendation,
Mr. Foulke resigns from Library Committee,
Catalogue of Dr. Le Conte's books received on deposit.

PUBLICATION COMMITTEE'S report,
Order to purchase numbers of Vol. I, &C., Series I,
Transactions : Hayden on the Missouri Indians,

" Volume XII, part iii, laid on the table,

" Chase on Intellectual Symbolism,

" Lesquereux on California Mines,

" Chase on Linguistic Resemblances,

" Chase on the Yoruba Language,

" Oliver's note,

" Wilcocks on the Solar System,

" Ennis on the Nebular Hypothesis,

Sherman & Son : bills for printing,
Proceedings Vol. IX, No. 69, 70,

" ordered to be reprinted. Vol. I,

Curators instructed to exchange specimens.
Cabinet : Lanphear's donation of coins.
Bust of Franklin, presented by Dr. Wood,
Magellanic premium: " Torricelli,"
Mao-ellanic Premium :

29

24,

237, 238, 240, 411,

366, 371, 378, 425,

129,

274, 343,

9, 10, 11

10, 70, 411,

29, 30

234,

259,
375,

70, 75, 187, 227, 376,
234,

277, 349,

Lenox,

CORRESPONDENCE.

Letchworth,

Bache,

28,

260

Long S. H.,

Bohtlingk,

372

Marcou,

Bossange,

9,

355

Matile,

Boucher de Perthes,

278

Nicholson,

Brunet,

241

Penington,

Cook J. H.,

275

Pierce,

D'Herecourt,

125, 128

412

Powel S.,

Dunglison,

13

Reichenbach

Dupont,

28

114

Renard,

Haidinger,

240,

344

Rohrig,

Hayden,

29

Smith B.,

Herschel,

127,

462

Smith G.,

Irwin,

415

Sparks,

Israel,

115

Stevens,

Jarvis,

115

Troyon,

Jochmann,

462

Trubner,

Kippist,

275

Vethake,

Leidy,

344

Wetherill,

411
14

, 55
. 87
500
442
146
400
, 24
440
24
377
280
365
, 56
147
115
236
259
260
387
384
442
411
375
375
353
426
126
425
454
28
29
11
88
412
403
275
461
88
237
276
88
342
115
412
294
329
128
376
164

500

Wood,

25, 29, 54

Zantedeschi, 281,

342,

343,

372, 456

Calcutta, Bengal A. S.

415

Geological Bureau

127

St. Petersburg Acad.,

29, 372

Imp. Library,

344

C. P. Obs.,

12,

205, 276

Min. Society,

128

RigaN. H. S.,

92, 276

Moscow N. H. S., 2, 128, 259, 276, 366

Pub. Mus., 276

Upsal R. S., 13, 204, 205, 366, 462

Stockholm R. S., 366

Konigsberg 0. P. S., 128

Berlin R. A., 13, 55, 128, 366, 441

G. Geol. S., 205, 330

Phys. S., 233

Leipsig R. S. S., 2, 128, 329, 462

P. J. S., 13, 128, 205

Gorlitz N. H. S., 2, 128

Vienna, A., 2, 13, 28, 92, 207, 233, 329,

441.

Geol. R. A., 204, 441

Geogr. S., 204

Zoo. B. S., 92

Copenhagen R. D. S., 13, 276, 462

Emden, 462

Gottingen S., 2, 28, 127, 128, 237, 403

Marburg S , 2

Nuremberg N. H. S., 366

Prag. Observ., 127

Munich A , 12. 128, 207, 366

Rotterdam B. S., 29, 58, 59, 207, 462

Haarlem M. Int., 55

Amsterdam R. S., 28, 233, 462

R. Zool. S., 28, 329

Brussels A., 92, 240, 259

Wiesbaden S., 205

Nassau V. N., 5

Frankfort am Main Zool. S., 127

Bonn University, 127

Geneva S. de P., 403

Milan R. L. I., 462

Turin R. A., 329

Paris Institute, 206

Bur. des L., 207

Min. P. Inst., 355, 412

Madrid A. H., 25, 64, 441

A. S. F., 55

Lisbon A., 55, 58, 276, 349

London R. S., 276, 328, 329, 330, 344, 441

R. Institution, 29

Br. Mus., 281
Br. Asso.,

Astr. Soc, 329
Meteo. S.,

Geogr. S., 68

Admiralty, 127, 462
Chemical S.,

Geolog. S., 204, 240, 329

Linnean S., 2, 441

Hortie. S., 127
Antiq. S., 115, 130, 164, 233, 276,

281, 412, 462.

Asiatic S., 241

S. Arts, 233, 462

Leeds L. & P. S., 28, 207

Liverpool P. S., 355

Newcastle N. H. S., 127, 164, 343, 462

Oxford Rad. Ob., 130

Bath Agr. S., 372

Edinburgh R. S., 29

Soc. Antiq., 276

N. MusEeum, 164

Dublin Ann. Ass., 13, 233, 276

Quebec L. & H. S., 144

Toronto Roy. S., 58, 59

University, 330

Salem Essex Inst., 25

Mass. H. S., 110,164,278,412

Cambridge H. C, 25, 115, 415

Harvard Obs., 329

Boston Public Lib., 29, 58, 233, 237, 241,

394.

Athen£eum, 394

N. Hist. S., 88

Worcester Ant. S., 204

N. Haven A. Orien. S., 125, 403

Conn. H. S., 58,394

Yale College, 144, 241

N. York Lye, 25, 403

Nat. H. S., 394

Austrian Consul, 92, 164

Albany Regent U., 114, 241

State Lib., 25, 58, 110, 114, 237, 394,

425.

Buffalo Y. M. A., 25

Newark N. J. H. S., 28, 92, 144

Philadelphia A. N. S., 12

Penn. Hist. S , 58, 92, 130, 164

Harrisburg State Lib., 11, 68, 92

501

Engineer Department, 349

Treasury Department, 92

Chicago H. S., 25, 144, 237, 394, 427, 462
Acad. S., 462

St. Louis A. S., 110, 165

Baltimore M. H. S., 259

Washington Obs., 29, 58, 114, 237, 394

U. S. Coast Survey, 59

Sm. Inst., 58,89, 125, 207, 281, 415, 462

Cong. Lib., 207, 241, 275

Light House Board, 412

COMMUNICATIONS.

Bache A. D., on Engle's Model, 86

on Espy's Auroras, .......... 63

Booth on Delaware and Schuylkill Water, ....... 146

Breck's MSS. Recollections, 68, 121

Briggs on Reserved Povrer in Machinery, ........ 228

on the Screw, .......•■••• 278

on Wood-paper Machinery, ......... 360

Carleton on Liberty and Necessity, ......... 131

Chase on Intellectual Symbolism, ........ 86, 115

on Chinese Seal Inscriptions, ......... 139

on Chinese and Hebrew Analogues, ..... 145, 172, 231

on Vowel Sounds, ........... 271

on the Yoruba Language, ......... 259

on Linguistic Resemblances, ......... 259

on Trade Tokens, . . ' 242

on Caloric 342

on Comparative Fitness of Languages for Musical Expression, . . 419

on Names given to the Deity, ......... 420

on Magnetic and Thermal Polarity, &c., 283, 291, 345, 355, 367, 395, 405, 413,
427.

Clark on Coal Oil 56

Coates on Catalogue of Medical Library of Pennsylvania Hospital, ... 12

on the Tea Plant of Pennsylvania, ........ 277

on Lake Dwellings, .......... 414

Coppee on Flax Culture, ........ ... 26

on Cannon Powder, .......... 119

Obituary Notice of Gen. Mitchell, 147

on the Danish Element in English, ....... 294

Cornelius on Glass, ............ 119

on the Electrophoros, 277

Cresson J. C, on Rain Storm of September 12, 1862, ..... 59

on Sorghum Culture, .......... 119

Cresson Dr., on the Oxyhydrogen Polariscope, ....... 344

Crummell on African Vocabularies, ......... 3

Dawson on Cape Breton Coal Beds, ........ 165, 208

Desor on Lake Dwellings, ........... 413

Dubois on the Health of Philadelphia, ........ 26

on Assay Balances, ......... 226

on Magnesium and its Light, ........ 458

Dunglison, Obituary Notice of Prof. Tucker, ....... 64

Obituary Notice of Dr. Bethune, ....... 70

Dubois on Magnesium wire, .......... 459

Durand on Michaux's Journal, .......... 11

502

Emerson on Flax, Cotton, and Paper,
on Powder Explosions, .
on Imphee and Sorghum Culture
Ennis on the Nebular Hypothesis,
Foulke on Phantom Leaves,
on Arctic Minerals,

on Pharmacopoeia of the London College,
on Musical Sounds,
Fraley on Sorghum Culture,
on Keating's Cabinet,
Gerhard on Expelling Members,

on Gunpowder,
Goodwin on Mind and Causation,

Obituary Notice of Dr. Hitchcock
Haldeman on Basque Sounds,

on Whispered Vowels, .
on an Artificial-looking Pebble,
Hare on Force, .....
Harris on Buceros Seutatus,

on Borax found in California,
Hayden on Missouri Indians,
Henry on Storms, ....

on the Aurora of August 4, 1864,
James T. P., Obituary Notice of Dr. Darlington
on California Mosses,
on an Enamelled portrait,
King on Duponceau's MSS.,
Lanphear's Collection of Trade Tokens,
Le Conte on the Copper Age in America,

Catalogue of Deposited Books,
Lesley on Crummell's Vocabularies, .
on the Taconic System, .
on the Coal System in S. Virginia,
on an Aurora in Cape Breton,
on Cape Breton Coal Beds,
on an Asphalt Vein in W. Virginia,
on Balls of Sea-grass on the Shore at Nice,
on the Vortical Gales of January, 1864,
on the Abbeville Quarries,
on the Ancient Sea Level,
on the Lower Silurian Iron Ore Belt,
on the late Discovery of Lignite in Pennsylvania,
Lesquereux on the Coal Flora of America,
on the Millstone Grit of Arkansas,
on California Mosses,
Lewis J., on Prime Right-angled Triangle
Marsh on Star-shower Charts, .
Merriam on Trade Tokens,
Morlot on the Copper Age in America,
Oliver, Note to Chase's Paper, .

91, 360
. 295
116, 141
442
139
139
224
387
143
354
13
38
28
443
4
274
342
119
86
450
30, 58
60
63
330
412
457
13, 64
425
120
377
3
5
30
60
167
183
350
360
388
399
450
463
198
197
234
415
440
375
2, 110, 119
. 375

93.

461

503

Peale on Morlot's Resume and a Stone Saw,

on Stone Implements, ....

on the Eifects of Lightning,
on Geastrum Hygrometricum, .
on the Archaeological Cabinet of the A. P. S.,
on Soundings in the Delaware Water Gap,
on Ancient Pottery in Illinois,
Powel on Asclepias Fibre, ....

on Franklinite, ....

Prettyman's communication,

Price on the Right to Tax the Society,

on Jury Trial, .....

on the Family Element in Government,
Reichenbach on Solar Spots,
Smith B., on Grave Creek Mound, .
Smith R. P., on County Maps, .
Smith R. S., on Lignite in Dutch Gap Canal,
Supreme Court Decision on Taxing the A. P.
Tafel on English Orthography,
Tilghman on Cannon Powder, .
" Torricelli" Magellanic Premium,
Trego on Sorghum Culture,
Wetherill on Ether Deterioration,
Wheatley on Phcenixville Fossils,
Whitney on the California Survey,
Wilcocks on the Solar System, .
Wood on the Effects of Lightning,
on Harrison's Boiler,
on the Growth of Olives in Spain,
on the AVaterworks of Madrid,
Zantedeschi on Photography, &c.,
on Dew and Hoar-frost, .
VERBAL COMMUNICATIONS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Index of Royal Society's L
Catalogue of Dr. Le Conte's Deposit of hooks, .
Codex Sinaiticus Petropolitanus,

MATHEMATICS. Problem of Linguistic Resemblances,
On Prime Right-angled Triangles and V2,

ASTRONOMY. On the Nebular Hypothesis,
On the Solar System, .....

On Solar Spots, ......

METEOROLOGY. On the Storm of September
On the Aurora of July 23, 1862,
On the Effects of Lightning, ....

On the Vortical Gales of January, 18G4,

On Star-shower Charts, .....

On the Diurnal Variation, . . 283, 291, 345, 355, 367, 395, 405, 41

GEOGRAPHY. On County Maps of the United States,
PHYSICS. On Engle's Model of Declination Curves,
On Cornelius's Electrophoros, ......

brary.

12, 1862,

26, 224, 401

. 110

. 275

. 364

. 451

. 460

. 88

7

. 38

. 14

. 209

. 295

. 234

342, 344

. 350

4

. 14

25, 39, 59

11, 12, 13, 119

425, 461

. 119

. 171

4

. 182

. 384

63, 109

127, 228

. 288

. 280

. 372

. 456

. 329

. 377

. 404

. 259

. 415

. 442

. 384

. 234

. 59

. 60

;, 109, 110

. 360
. 440

;, 425, 427
350, 403

277

504

On Atmospheric Vibrations, 295

On Caloric, 342, 355

On Cresson's Oxyhydrogen Polarizer, ........ 344

On Photography, ........... 372, 381

CHEMISTRY. On Thallium 86

On an Analysis of Delaware and Schuylkill Waters, 146

On the Deterioration of Ether by Age, 171

On Assay Balances, ............ 226

On Magnesium Wire, 458

GEOLOGY. On the Taconic System, 5

On the Coal System of Southern Virginia, 30

On Gypsum Deposit of Southern Virginia, 33

On Coal Oil, 56

On a Jasper Cave in New Hampshire, ........ 91

On the Coal Measures of Cape Breton, 93, 165, 208

On some Minerals brought back by Dr. Hayes, ....... 139

On the Progress of the California Survey, . . . .... 182

On an Asphalt Vein in West Virginia, 183

On Appalachian Erosion, .......... 194,

On the Flora of the Coal Measures, 198

On the Arkansas Conglomerate, .......... 199

On Balls of Sea-grass on the Shore at Nice, 350

On the Asjiect of the Abbeville Quarries, 388

On the Ancient Sea Level, 399

On Soundings in the Delaware Water Gap, 451

On a Coal bed in Nova Scotia, 459

On an old Salt boring in Pennsylvania, 459

On a new locality of Lignite with Lower Silurian Iron ores, . . . 461, 463

METALLURGY. On the Use of Franklinite, 88

PAL.S;ONTOLOGY. Fossils at Phoenisville, 4

BOTANY. On the Asclepias Fibre, 7

On Flax and Cotton, 26, 91

On Sorghum and Imphee, 116, 141

On Phantom Leaves, ............ 139

On California Mosses, 234, 412

On the Tea Plant of Pennsylvania, 277

On the Growth of the Olive in Spain, 288

ZOOLOGY. On Buceros Scutatus, 86

MEDICINE. On the Health of Philadelphia, 26

On the Progress of the Science, .......... 228

ARCH.ffiOLOGY. Resume of Morlot, 2

On the Stone Age in America, ......... 26, 119

On the Origin of Jasper Arrow Heads, ........ 91

On the Copper Age in America, . . . . . . . . .110

On Certain Stone Implements, ....,...- 224, 401

On Exchanges of Implements with the Academy of Natural Sciences, . 277, 354
On Casts to be made by Smithsonian Institute, ...... 281, 412

On Desor's Discoveries, ........... 413

On an Enamelled Portrait found at Valley Forge, 457

On Ancient Pottery in Illinois, .......... 460

505

ETHNOLOGY. On the Missouri Indians,
On the Danish Element in England, .

HISTORY. Mr. Breck's Kecollections,

SOCIOLOGY. The Family an Element in Government,

MECHANIC ARTS. On Gunpowder,
On the Manufacture of Glass,
On Mr. Harrison's New Form of Boiler,
On the Seat of Reserved Force, .
On the Screw, ......

On the Waterworks of Madrid, .

On the Manufacture of Wood Paper, .

On the great Pittsburg Gun,

COMMERCE. Trade Tokens, .

LAW. On Trial by Jury, .

PHILOLOGY. Four Short African Vocabularies,
On the Sounds of Basque Vowels,
On the English Language, ....
On English Orthography, ....
On a Chinese Seal, .....
On Chinese and Western Analogues, .
On Analogues in Alphabetic Forms, .
On the Probability of Linguistic Resemblances
On the Comparative Etymology of the Yoruba Langu
On a Comparison of Vowel Sounds, .
On the Names given to the Deity,

MUSIC. English Vowel Sounds,

METAPHYSICS. On Liberty and Necessity,
On Mind and Causation, .....
On Modern Theories of Force, . • . .
On Intellectual Symbolism, ....

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Pla±,e VI I ;

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