PROCEEDTNOS Biological Society of Wasliinglon VOLUME IX 1894-1895 WASHINGTOX : PRINTED FOR THE SOCIETY. 1894-'95. COMMITTEE ON PUBLICATIONS THEODORE GILL, Chairman T. H. BEAN L. O. HOWARD F. H. KNOWLTON T. W. S'l'ANTON Jvvv & Detweilkr, Printers CONTENTS rage. Officers and committees for 18V)4 iv Officers and committees for 1895 v Proceedings vii-xvi Social Insects from Psycliical and Evolutional points of view, by C. V. Eiley . . . . ■. 1-74 Fossil Cycadean Trunks of North America, with a Eevision of the genus Cycadeoidea. Buckland, by Lester F. Ward . 75-88 Note on some Appendages of the Trilobites, by Chas. D. Walcott. 80-97 Si/naptoiiii/s coopcri in Eastern Massachusetts, with note on 5'. slonei, by Outram Bangs 99-104 A new Rabbit from Western Florida, by Gerrit S. IMiller, Jr., and Outram Bangs 105-108 Preliminary descriptions of eleven new Kangaroo Rats of the genera DIpod.nmys and Perodipus, by C. Hart Merriam 109-116 Abstract of a study of the American Wood Rats, with descriptions of fourteen new species and subsi)ecies of the genus Neotoma, by C. Hart Merriam 117-128 Description of a new Field Mouse {Arvicola terrxnovir) from Codroy, Newfoundland, by Outram Bangs 129-lo2 Description of a new Muskrat from Codroy, Newfoundland, by Outram Bangs lo.']-138 (iii) LIST OF THE OFFICIOUS AND COUNCIL OF THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON (ELECTED DECEMBER 30, 1893) OFFICERS President C. V. RILF.Y Vice-Presidents FRANK BAKER RICHARD RATHBUN B. E. FERNOW C. D. WALCOTT Recording Secretary F. V. COVILLE Correspond in g Secretary F. A. LUCAS Treasurer F. H. KNOWLTON COUNCIL TARLETON H. BEAN C. HART MERRLAM* AVILLIAM H. DALE* T. S. PALMER THEODORE GILL* THEOBALD SMITH G. BROWN GOODE* FREDERICK W. TRUE L. O. HOWARD LESTER F. WARD * STANDING COMMITTEES— 1894 Committee on Conununicalions B. E. Feijxow, Cliairman T. H. Kuan Chaklks Sciiuchekt F a. Lucas. P]u\vin F. Smith Committee on Pahllcations Theodoue Gill, Cliairman L. O. Howard T. W. Stanton F. H. Knowlton T. H. Bean Delegates to tlie Joint Coinmissiun of Scientific Societies nf Washington RicHAitn Rathbun' C. V. Riley L ester F. Ward * Ex-Presidents of the Society. (iv) LIST OF THE 01; B. I'l Fkuxow, Chairman F. A. Lucas L. O. How.mid Cohtntillee on PaliHralions TiiEODOKE Gill, Chairman L. O. Howard T. W. Stanton F. H. IvNOWLTdN T. H. liEAN Delegates to tlic Joint Commission Geo. ]\I. Sternberg Richard Ratiirtn Lester F. A\'ard * Ex-Presidents of the Society. . LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES Pago I. Appendages of Trilobites 98 IT. Skull and teeth of Arrieolu tcrnvtiovie 332 TEXT FIGURES Figure 1. IModifications of the hind legs of different Bees 13 2. Modifications of the hind legs of different Bees 15 3. Wax Discs of Social Bees 16 4. Ai-chitecture of Bees 17 5. Architecture of Bees 18 6. Development of Formica rufa 27 7. Honey Ants [Myrmecocislus mexicanus) 28 8. Sensory Organs in Insects 37 9. Sensory Organs in Insects 40 10. Some Antenme of Coleoptera 41 11. Antenna of male Phengodes with portion of ray 42 12. Some Antennte of Insects 44 ;vi^ Vol. IX, pp. i-xvi; 139-145 February 8, 1896 PROCEEDINGS BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON, PROCEEDINGS. January 13, 1894— 220th Meeting. The President in the chair and twenty-three persons present. The following communications were presented : R. T. Hill : A New Fauna from the Cretaceous Formation of Texas.* Ch. Wardell Stiles : The Teaching of Biology in Colleges. January 27, 1894— 221st Meeting. The President in the chair and twenty-two persons present. The following communications were presented : J. N. Rose : A Botanical Trip to Northwestern Wyoming. B. T. Galloway : A Rust of Pine Leaves and the Efiect of the Parasite on the Host. Theodore Gill: The Segregation of .the Osteophysial Fishes as Fresh Water Forms.f February 10, 1894— 222d Meeting. The President in the chair and twenty-three i)ersons present. The following connnunications were presented : M. B. Waite : The Treatment of Pear Leaf-Blight.t * Abstract in Am. Journ. Sci., 3d ser., xlvii, 141, Feb., 1894. t The Early Segregation of Fresh Water Fishes. ersons present. C. H. Townsend : The Ornithology of Cocos Island in its Re- lation to that of the Galapagos Archipelago. f B. T. (Jalloway: A Hexenbesen oi Ruhus. M. B. Waite: The Hexenbesens of Washington and Vicinity. \Vni. Palmer: Rare Birds taken in the District of Columljia. Leonhard Stejneger exhibited a specimen of a spade-foot toad (^Spea) found in sandstone 23 feet below the surface. March 24, 1894— 225th Meeting. Vice-President Richard Rathbun in the chair and twenty persons present. The following communications were presented : Theobald Smith : On the Significance of V^ariation among Species of Pathogenic Bacteria. Vernon Bailey : On Some Bones from a Cave in Arizona. * Notes on Parasites, 26 : DiMoma {Mesngonimus) westermamii. Discov- ery of a parasite of Man, new to tlic United States. <.Jolins II()i)kins Hospital Bulletin, No. 40, 57-58, figs. 1-4, 1894. t Birds from Cocos and IVIalpelo Islands, with notes on Petrels obtained at Sea. Sonie Fundamentals of Nomenclature.! November 30, 1895— 250th Meeting. The President in the chair and thirty-five persons present. The following communications were j^resented : Edward L. Greene : Some Fundamentals of Nomenclature (continued).;]; Theodor Holm : Contributions to the Flora of the District of Columbia. § December 14, 1895— 251st Meeting. Hon. Gardiner G. Hul)1;)ard, President of Joint Commission, in the chair. || Annual address of the President, Surgeon General George M Sternberg : The Practical Results of Bacteriological Researches.^ December 27, 1895— 252d Meeting. (Sixteenth Annual Meeting.) The President in the chair and nineteen persons ])resent. The annual reports of the Secretary and Treasurer for tlie year 1895 were presented, and officers for the year 189G were elected as follows : President: Surgeon General George M. Sternberg. Vice-Presidents : Richard Rathluin, C. D. Walcott, B. E. Fernow, L. 0. Howard. Recording Secretary : M. B. Waite. Corresponding Secretary : F. A. Lucas. Treasurer : F. H. Knowlton. Additional Members of the Council: William H. Ashmead,F. V. Coville, C. S. Pollard, Ch. Wardell Stiles, F. W. True. ^Abstract in Science, Dec. 6, 1895, 778. t Science, NS., Ill, 1, 13-16, Jan. 3, 1896. t Science, NS., Ill, 1, 13-16, Jan. 3, 1896. ^Abstract in Science, Jan. 3, 1896, 34-35. To be pu])lished in full in • next volume Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. II Public meeting in Builders' Exchange Hall under the auspices of the Joint Commission, followed by informal reception, with refreshments. Several hundred people present. f To be published in Popular Science Monthly. i Vol. IX, pp. 1-74 April, 1894 PROCEEDINGS BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON SOCIAL INSECTS FROM PSYCHICAL AND EVOLU- TIONAL POINTS OF VIEW.* BY C. V. RILEY, PH. D. Prelude. Friends and Fellow-members : Custom has ordained that the president of the Biological Society deliver an annual address, and that the public be invited to listen thereto. This custom, likewise followed by some of our sister societies, has certain advantages, but also certain disadvan- tages. Instead of appealing to members only, or treating, in special and technical way, some subject that intimately concerns them, the speaker finds it incumbent upon him to popularize his subject, and to endeavor to interest alike those who are and those who are not familiar Avith the science of biology in any of its special branches. It will be my endeavor to accomplish this dual task to-night by omitting the reading of the more technical and detailed portions of this paper, Avhich, though in one sense the most important, may well be printed in smaller type, as a series of notes. My predecessors have generally dealt with the subjects upon which they were working as specialists, or upon which they were *Annual address of the President of the Society, delivered in the hall of Columbian Univei'sity, January 29, 1S94. The address was illustrated with stereoptioon views, only a few of which are here reproduced. 3 Riley — Presidential Address. known to be authorities. In following this precedent, I am not unmindful of the fact that the science of entomology in its more abstruse and technical phases, however fascinating to the specialist, attracts but little public attention, and that, from among the myriad forms of life which the entomologist includes within the scope of his study, there are comparatively few which interest the intelligent masses or even the general biologist. Among these few are the social insects, and it is my purpose to treat of them to-night and see what light we may draw from them on some of the great questions which now agitate natural- ists. By combining the recorded observations and views of others with some that are original and unpublished, I may, perhaps, hope to interest all of you. Before entering on this main topic, however, it has seemed to me advisable, in view of the character of the audience, to say something of our society and what it undertakes to do. Biology is a word of the century, and was first employed by Lamarck (1801) as a term under which the phenomena of organic nature could be considered; and by Treviranus (1802) to express the science that treats of the philosophy of living nature. Syste- matic zoology and botany have but incidental bearing on biology ; they relate to the framework, the structure, and not to life itself. Not that I undervalue taxonomy in this connection, for, indeed, its value is self-evident; but modern biologists are very generally divided into two camps, viz., those who investigate the different parts and structures of the organism, or who study the processes of growth, and those who study more particularly that phase of the subject which Hsckel called ecology. In the process of differentiation the term is now, perhaps, more correctly applied to the study of the development of the type in the past, and of the individual in the present- — not by themselves only, but in their relations to all other forms of life. In other words, it in- volves the interactions and interrelations of organisms, and deals fundamentally with psychical even more than with structural phenomena, as naturalists use these terms. The Biological Society was organized for the purpose of con- sidering and discussing the questions involved in the very broad- est application of the term biology ; in others Avords, organic nature in any and all of her manifestations. Organized but about two years prior to the death of Charles Darwin, it is not Social Insects, 3 surprising that its members have been very generally imbued with the spirit and interpretations which the illustrious author of "The Origin of Species "' gave to the phenomena of life upon our planet. Not that they have been blind followers of the school which believes in the all-sufficiency of natural selection to account for life-phenomena; for a review of the communica- tions and discussions and particularly of the addresses which have been delivered by my predecessors will show that in the search after truth, the ideas of Lamarck and others, w^ho have pregnantly speculated on the philosophy of life, have been duly appreciated. Upon the one great question which, more than any other, has occupied biologists of late years, viz., whether function- ally acquired characters are transmitted by heredity, there have been few more able contributions to the subject anywhere published than the papers and addresses of my distinguished predecessor. Prof. Lester F. Ward. Lideed, aside from the reasons already given, the choice of my subject to-night was in no small degree determined by an admission in one of his more recent and yet unpublished communications to the society, to the effect that the characters of neuters among the social insects offer the greatest stumbling block to the theory of the heredity of such acquired characters. Organized Iksect Societies. The social insects, or those which live in communities, and particularly those of the order Hymenoptera, which possess highly developed social characteristics, have, from the very earliest times, intensely interested the student of insect life. There are insects of other orders which are either social normally or be- come so by exception and for special purposes. Thus many Lepidopterous larvae live together when young, but scatter when they grow older. In some cases there would seem to be no par- ticular purpose in the association ; in others, as in the common Tent Caterpillars (Clisiocampa spp.) the well-known Fall Web- worm of North America (Hyphantria cunea) and many similar species of other countries, the association is of a somewhat higher character, as the larvaa build a common web into which they retire at stated periods, and which helps to protect them both from the inclemencies of the weather and from the attacks of birds and other enemies. The highest development of this 4 Riley — Presidential Address. social trait in the Lepidoptera is' found in the small Hypono- meutidae, and in a Mexican butterfly (Euchcira socialis Westw.) — the transformations taking place within the nest. The layers of silk in the last-named species are so tough that they have been used as parchment. In one remarkable case among the Diptera, viz., in Sciara, a genus of small gnats, the larvas have the habit of banding together in large masses, more or less elongate, all the individuals attached to each other, heads to tails, and the whole mass moving with one impulse and as a unit. They thus move across a road or field, like some huge snake, and are for that reason called "snake- worms," and really give us a very good illustration of how indi- vidual units may combine to make a compound whole. Many other insects have the exceptional habit of congregating together in large masses, but in almost every case the congregating is con- nected with undue multiplication and the desire to migi'ate to new regions. The habit is well exemplified in our notorious Army Worm, the larvae of Leucania unipiinda, an insect which, over vast stretches of country, occasions great loss to our grain and grass crops by traveling from field to field and leaving devastation in its wake. Instances of this kind might be multi- plied; but we do not apply the term social to such temporary associations of individuals, even where they have any specific purpose and are of annual recurrence. Nor do we apply the term social to those insects, of which there are many in different orders, which assemble together during the love or pairing season. The term is strictly confined to those species which per- manently live together in colonies, and in which the social habit, with its consequent subdivision of labor, and differentiation of individuals, has become essential to their perpetuity. Bees. Living in such well organized communities, exhibiting so much intelligence, and yielding one of the most delicious sweets known, the Honey or Hive Bee has attracted attention from the earliest times, and ever since Aristotle, Virgil and Columella told what was then known of this industrious insect, it has been the sub- ject of investigation. Honey and wax were far more important to man in olden time than they are to us who have so many sub- stitutes for them, and the ancients gave much attention of the Social Ins(xts. 5 practical kind to bees. How very little they knew, however, of their true economy is shown by the prevalence of the belief that bees came from the carcasses of animals. This superstition as to the BiKjoaia, as exemplified in the biblical story of Samson (Judges XIV, 8) continued for twenty centuries and grew out of the resemblance to the Hive bee of Eristalw tenax, a Dipterous fly which breeds in putrescent matter. This fact, first clearly recognized by that excellent observer, Reaumur, has been fully established in a recent most interesting paper by Osten Sacken "On the so-called Bugnnia of the ancients, and its relations to Eri.stdlis tciKtx" (Bullettino della Societa Entomologica Itali- ana, Anno XXV, 1893). In fact the fabulous about bees pre- vailed till the beginning of the last century, when Maraldi, by the invention of glass hives, gave an impetus to correct observa- tion, and led to the remarkable memoirs of Swammerdam, Reaumur, Schirach and Francis Huber. The fact that the Hive Bee can be cultivated and controlled with a view to profitable industry, has served to heighten the in- terest in it, and since the invention in this country, in 1852, of the movable frame hive, by a retired clergyman, the Rev. L. L. Langstroth, progress in apiculture has been rapid and continu- ous. Of the more important subsequent inventions, many of them made in Europe but perfected in America, may be men- tioned the honey-extractor, which, by centrifugal force, throws the honey from the comb, leaving the latter intact and ready to be used again; and the comb foundation, by which sheets of wax are impressed with the bases of the cells and employed to ensure straight and regular combs, to limit drone production and in- crease the honey product. With the bee-smoker in its modern form, bees are also much more easily controlled and manipulated than formerly. Much has been done, also, in ameliorating the races of bees, both by introducing races from other countries and by the crossing of these. There are some three hundred thousand of our citizens engaged in bee culture, and tlij&y add over twenty million dollars annually to the wealth of the country in honey and wax. This amount may be, and in the near future doubtless will be, very largely increased. It is, in fact, difficult to realize what an immense amount of honey is wasted from lack of bees to garner it, and the poet Gray would seem to 6 B'dcii — PretildcntUU Address. have hud his own ideas on tliis subject when he wrote the famil- iar lines. "Full many a flower is boru to bliish uuseen, And waste its sweetness on the desert air." The service directly rendered to man by bees, however, in sup- jilying the products mentioned, is but slight as compared with the services indirectly rendered by cross-fertilization of our culti- vated plants, and it has been estimated that the annual addition to our wealth by bees in this direction alone, far exceeds that de- rived from honey and wax. One of the latest discoveries bear- ing on this subject, very fully enforcing the general principle, was presented to the ^Society for the first time within the past year by our fellow-member, Mr. M. B. Waite, as a result of his investigations for the Division of Vegetable Pathology in the Department of Agriculture. He has proved that a majority of the more valued varieties of our apples and pears are nearly or wholly sterile when fertilized by pollen of the same variety, or that they bear fruit of an inferior character and very different from that produced when cross-fertilized ; further, that were it not for the cross-fertilizing agency of bees, scarcely any of these fruits could be produced in the abundance and perfection in which we now get them, and that to secure the best results and facilitate the Avork of the bees, it is yet necessary, in the large majority of cases, to mix varieties in the same orchard. Bees were doubtless the earliest embalmers, since they use the pro- polis to encase and thus prevent the putrefaction of any intruder which is too large for them to drag out of the hive. There is much, even to-day, in the economy of the Hive Bee that is yet debated among the best informed apiarians, but I will en- deavor to give you an epitome of what is absolutely known of its more important habits, structures and functions — the true life- history, so to sjjeak, of the bee. By going somewhat into detail with this species, we may avoid repetition in treating of the other social Hynienoptera, all of which have somewhat similar larva3 and transformations. Let us, in imagination, j)roceed to an ordinary well-kept ajnary. Taking a bee-smoker in one hand — one of the pattern invented by the late M. Quinby of New York — we lift one corner of the hive cover or quilt, and send enough smoke down among the bees to give them to understand that they must submit to our manipulation. Draw- Social Insects. 7 ing out one of the brood coml)S, Avhich is rendered easy by the movable frames, thousands of the bees are seen adhering to the snrface of the comb. They are mostly workers, but in summer there may be seen numbers of stouter-bodied bees, which are the drones or males. If the bees have not been too much disturbed by the smoke or the removal of the comb, the queen may be seen walking slowly over the surface, surrounded by the workers, who, in deference, recede as she walks along, turn- ing their heads toward her and advancing so as to touch her body with their antennae It was long thought that the (|ueen exer- cises sovereign powers, and Shakespeare voices the popular opinion when, in Henry V, he says : "They have a king and officers of sorts." One of the earliest definitions of a queen bee in Webster's dic- tionary was, "The sovereign of a swarm of bees." In reality, however, the government of the hive is purely democratic. Each works for the common welfare, and only so long as the indi- vidual, whether queen, drone, or worker, is useful to the com- munity, is it spared. With the exception of the drones, the queen is the only bee in the hive having the repi'oductive organs fully developed, and she is, therefore, the mother of the colony. During the more prolific season she lays two or three eggs in the course of a minute, and often as many as four thousand in twenty-four hours. Three days after deposition of the egg the young larva is hatched. It is the office of the younger workers, known as nurse-bees, to furnish these young larva3 with food, which they are assiduous in doing. In the case of the worker larvtv, five days suffice for full growth, wnen they nearly fill the cells. As with most other soft-bodied larvae that are embedded in a semi-liquid nutritious medium, we find provision to prevent contamination of the environmental food with excrementitious matter. The food supply is, in the first place, highly nutritious, and nearly all capable of assimilation. Lest, however, any portion of the waste should enter the food, the larva is, according to Cheshire, rendered incapable of voiding anything dui-ing the time of feeding. The arrested development of the digestive system leaves the posterior inflection, which cor- responds with the after bowel, unconnected with the middle bowel, and the slight accumulation of waste matter in this latter 8 Filey — Presidential Address. is cast into the base of the cell at the last molt, and is covered in the bottom of the cell by the lower part of the last cast skin or pellicle, which also serves to line the rest of the cell and leave it clean for the formation of the pnpa. Thus, when the young bee emerges, the cell needs but to be brushed out by the workers to be ready to receive another egg or stores of honey and pollen which are to form the winter food. Just before pupation, or when the larva has acquired full growth, the adult workers cover the cell with a convex lid com- posed not of wax alone, as in the case of the cappings of honey cells, but of pollen and wax combined. The larva just before jiupation strengthens this cap by lining it with silk, which is also slightly attached to the last cast skin. The pupa state lasts some twelve days, and on the twenty-first day from the time the egg was laid, the perfect bee cuts a circular oj)ening in the cell cap and makes its way out. The first care of this young bee is to seek food from an open honey cell, and in the course of two or more days it has acquired suflEicient strength and consistence to enable it to begin its labors as a nurse bee, doing for the develop- ing larva? what was so recently done for it. After a week's time it takes short flights, noting well the location of its hive so as to be able to return to it. Queens are only bred when a colony is about to swarm, or when an aged or failing queen needs replacing, or where an acci- dent has deprived the hive of her services. If she be removed from the hive during the Avorking season, the bees are thrown into great excitement, shown by the change of the contented hum into one of alarm, by the hurried movements from the combs to the entrance, and by the discontented flight to and from the hive- If all the brood combs are removed the bees become panic- stricken, and give utterance to a peculiar mournful note or dis- tressed wail, (|uite different from the normal cheerful hum. In time, however, this excitement subsides, as they become satisfied of their loss. If the (jueen be returned, or a comb containing young larvfe be introduced into the hive, the whole attitude changes. The moment the first bee touches with its antenna^ the queen, or a comb, or any point over which she had walked re- cently, it sets up a loud and cheerful hum, and the occupants of the hive, even those unable to see the comb, immediately catch the sound, and crowd toward the point whence it first pro- Social Insects. 9 ceeded, repeating the jubilant note. If only a comb of larvae be given them, they still recognize it as a deliverance from the threatened extinction of the colony. In a few hours one of the cells over a larva two or three days old will be enlarged by the partial destruction of the walls of the adjoining cells. This en- larged cell is built outward and downward, and the larva is fed on the so-called royal jelly or bee-milk. The supply of this food is always lalentiful, and when a well-developed queen has issued, it is not uncommon to find a quantity of the food, in a partially dried, jelly-like mass, in the bottom of the cell. When, preparatory to swarming, young queens are being reared, the workers have to guard them, even in the cell, from the jeal- ous fury of the reigning queen, and the instinctive rivalry and conflict between queens, accompanied by a peculiar shrill battle- cry, first noticed by the elder Huber, are quite suggestive of simi- lar conflicts between rival queens in human monarchies. Economy of Hive. Social Organization. Division of Labor. Each bee, as already stated, labors for the good of the com- monwealth of which it is a member. Of them it might well be said: "Salus rei publiae suprema lex." It is the welfare of the colony which directs the actions of all, and not the will of the queen. Indeed, it would seem that the latter performed- her important function — that of supplying the hive with eggs — only when the workers willed it, their own con- dition of prosperity as regards stores, or their anticipations of the future needs of the colony as regards population, causing them to supply the queen liberally with food rich in nitrogen — a partially digested substance or a gland product, or perhaps a mixture of both, which she alone cannot produce, yet without which any considerable production of eggs is an impossibility. As Evans remarks : "The prescient female rears her tender brood In strict proportion to the hoarded food." We must, then, credit the industrious and provident workers with the chief influence in shaping the policy of the hive. They are the servum pecus — the living force — of the colony. And to the end that order and efficiency of effort may prevail, they have, we find, a marked division of labor. In the normal condition of 10 Biley — Presidential Address. the hive the young workers, as already stated, care for the brood — a labor which they take upon themselves within two or three days after issuing from the cell. The glands which secrete a part of the food required by the developing larvae are active during the earlier part of the life of a worker. Later these nurses become incapable of doing their work well, as the gland system becomes atrophied. When a few days old they take short flights, if the weather favors, but seldom commence gathering stores before they are fifteen days old. Wax pro- duction is more essentially a function of the workers in mid- dle life, and it is particularly noticeable that those bees fashion- ing the wax into combs are principally of this class. Many of those acting as foragers do, however, secrete wax scales, which are doubtless, in the main, utilized. Among the outside workers and hive-defenders some bring honey only on certain trips or for a time; others honey and pollen; others Avater, and yet others propolis or bee-glue to stop up crevices and glue things fast. Meanwhile some are buzzing their wings at the entrance to ven- tilate the hive, and others are removing dead bees, dust, or loose fibres of wood from the inside of the hive or from near the en- trance, or are guarding this last against intruders, or perhaps driving out the drones when these are no longer needed. Swarming.' — -Perhaps there is no action on the part of the Hive Bee which more distinctly indicates its intelligence and power of communication than the act of swarming. The fact that queen brood is being reared in the hive is the best evidence that the colony is preparing for flight or swarming ; but, in ad- dition, it is noticeable that on the day of swarming the whole colony is excited, and in a measure has abandoned ordinary duties. For days previous to the event, scouts have been search- ing for a favorable hollow or crevice or place in which to house the new colony, and when the time finally comes, which is usually in the hotter part of the day, all the individuals of the hive leave after the peculiar preparatory flight around the hive, known as swarming. The impulse to leave is such that many individuals not yet capable of flight, fall to the ground, and the hive is practically abandoned by all those within it at the time of swarming. Individuals alight on some bough or object near by, with a view primarily to organization and the sending out and return of additional scouts. During this period a cluster will Social Insects. 11 reniiiin more or less in repose, but when once the location for a perniauent dwelling has been finally detennined upon, the whole mass will leave as with one impulse and fly swiftly and directly to the new home. With the first swarm that the new colony sends out it is the old or fertile queen that goes with the new swarm, but with the after swarms, which issue in about a week, it is a virgin queen that accomjDanies. The old colony begins again with the few individuals unable to follow the departing swarm, and which have crept back to the old hive, with those which at the time of swarming were busy in the field, and with those which issue from the yet undeveloped brood. It is a popular mistake to suppose that mating takes place during swarming. If a virgin queen goes with the swarm, she subsequently takes the nuptial flight from her new home. As she flies swiftly and strongly, only the strongest and most vigor- ous drones are alfle to mate with her, and there is every ojipor- tunity for cross-fertilization Avith drones from some other colony. It has also been noticed that drones have a way of congregating in some particular spot, as though awaiting their chance of thus mating with the queen. The more important special Organs. The different structures and organs of the Hive Bee are most interesting, but I can allude only to a few of the more striking. The tongue is a very complex organ, fitted for obtaining minute quantities of nectar from the flowers that secrete it but sparingly, or to remove the same substance rapidly when found in abund- ance. The figure of the head and appendages thrown on the screen will illustrate this organ in detail. We have here the mandible, mostly used for cutting and moulding the wax, the maxillai with their palpi, the labium and labial palpi, and finally the ligula or true tongue with its spoon-like tip. This is extremely flexible, and consists of a rod or central por- tion, nearly surrounded by a sheath which is covered thickly with hairs, which aid, by capillary attraction, in taking up the liquid food. A lapping motion, when the liquid is abundant, causes the liquid to be lodged among the hairs of the tongue, which can be partially drawn into the mentum, and from this point the maxilla above and the labial palpi below unite to form a tube around it, which is closed above the extension of the 13 Riley — Presidential Address. epipharynx, and by alternately arching and depressing the maxillte, the space enclosed is increased or decreased, thus pro- ducing suction and drawing the liquid held on the tongue into the opening of the esophagus. When drawn from the flowers the nectar is thin and watery and lacks the qualities of the delicious honey into which we find it converted when removed from the cells sealed by the bees. This watery substance is evaporated to the proper consistency in the heat of the hive and by currents of air passing over the sur- face of the combs before the cells are sealed, these currents being created by bees stationed at the entrance and buzzing incessantly. There has been much discussion among apiarians, as among writers, as to whether the bee gathers or makes honey. Strictly speaking it does both. Formic acid is contained in the blood of the bee and especially in the salivary glands, as recently demon- strated by von Planta of Zurich, and when the gathered nectar, which easily ferments, is regurgitated from the first stomach into the cell, it is combined with sufficient formic acid to change the cane sugar into invert sugar (dextrose and levulose in equal pro- portions) while the evaporating process just described eliminates the superflous water; so that honey which resists fermentation is essentially a made product. I would also draw your attention to the wai-producing organs (See Fig. 3a, a). If we examine the underside of the abdomen of the worker, the exposed portion of each segment will be seen to be covered with a web of hairs, and by elongating the abdomen, each segment, with the exception of the first and sixth, is seen to bear two shallow, irregularly-shaped plates, one on each side of the median ridge, which is extended as a rim around the whole contour. These pale yellow, smooth plates are in reality w&x moulds, the wax glands being under the plates and the se- creted wax reaching the surface by osmos through the thin mem- brane and hardening into a somewhat brittle scale, resembling in appearance a minute, nearly transparent fish scale. The wax is secreted under conditions of great heat, the bee ascending for this purpose to the top of the hive, and the wax producers con- suming a large amount of honey. The next structure of importance to which I would call your attention is the wax pincers (Fig. lb, a, b). which is a modified structure of the juncture of the tibia and metatarsus of the pos- Social Insects. 13 terior legs. With these pincers the Avax producer plucks a scale from one of its wax plates, passes it rapidly forward to the mouth, and here makes it plastic and at the same time more or less yellow, by continually manipulating and chewing it between the mandibles. Then the bee sticks it to the under surface of the hive cover or object to which the comb is to be attached. More wax is added, forming a slight ridge, which is chiseled or pressed from each side by workers, using their firm and highly polished maxillae, and placing themselves so that their range of work will overlap just one-half. As this ridge is built down, forming a sheet — the septum upon which the cells are con- structed— the sides of the latter are started simultaneously. In their efforts to make the cells concave at the bottom and so as to tit together at the sides without loss of material, mutual pressure results in straight lines, the sides becoming hexagonal in outline, just as six soap-bubbles resting against a seventh cause the latter to assume a hexagonal form ; while the bee starting a cell on the bottom of one already commenced on the other side, naturally takes the apex of the latter as a part of the boundary of its own cell in order that the latter may also be concave. Thus three rhomboitlal faces forming the base of one cell, form individually a part of each one of three cells on the ojoposite side. Fig. I. — Modifications of the hind legs of different bees : A, Apis : a, wax cutter and outer view of leg ; b, inuer aspect of wax cutter and leg ; c, compound hairs; d, anterior leg, showing anteunal scraper. B, Melipona : f, peculiar group of spines at apex of tibia ; g, inner aspect of wax cutters and first joint of tarsus. C, Bombiis : h, wax cutter ; i, inner view of same and first joint of tarsus — all enlarged. (Original.) Finally I would call your attention to the arrangement of the hairs on the inside and outside of the legs (Fig. 1, A), 14 RUey — Presidential Address. so well fitted for collecting and holding pollen, and to what is known as the antenna-comb or strigil (Fig. 1, d), a structure with which the bee cleanses itself, and especially the antenna?, which are organs of extreme sensibility and need to be kept well cleaned. This structui'e occurs on the underside of each front leg and is a semi-circular cavity in the upper end of the metatarsus. The cavity is fringed with stiff hairs or spines, form- ing a comb. The distal or opposing end of the tibia is furnished with a spur, slightly concave on the inner surface and known as the velum When the tibia and metatarsus are bent at right angles, the velum falls over the cavity and forms an almost cir- cular opening just large enough to snugly hold one antenna. These are the more conspicuous structures, though there are others of minor importance, all indicating remarkable adaptation to special purposes and to the necessities of the bee. The Hive Bee is but one of many species of its family, and while representing the most highly organized of the social insects, has many cousins and more distant relatives which are equally interesting. The numerous bees, with their diversified habits, have an especial interest, when studied structurally and biologi- cally, as throwing light on the origin and development not only of the higher social habits and intelligences of the true Hive Bee, but also of its structures, so remarkably fitted for their special purposes. Species of Genus Apis and Variations in Apis mellifica. The old conception of the Hive Bee, its attributes and struc- tures, was that it exemplifies in a marvelous manner creative wisdom for man's interests. Yet while it represents great per- fection of organization and of structure, for particular ends, this perfection is relative and not absolute. Though a number* of species of the genus Apis have been characterized by authors, there are but four well defined species so far kuoAvn, and three of them — A. dorsata, A. indica and A. jiorca are confined to India and the East Indian and Philippine Islands. The fourth, Apis mellifica, or the common Hive Bee, was originally introduced into this country from Europe, and doubtless had its origin in some parts of Asia. It has followed civilized man in his migrations over the globe, and has frequently anteceded him, and, being semi-domes- ticated, has been more or less influenced by him, as have other Social Inserts. 15 domesticated animals. 8ome ten different types of the species have been characterized by specific names, two of them — viz., adaiisoiii Latr. and nnicolor Latr. — being considered good species by Fredk. Smith, while a still greater number are recognized by local names among apiculturists. These varieties and races show every variation in color through the various shades of black, gray and golden-yellow, as also every variation in disposition, in- dustry, and tendency to swarm, and especially in honey-gather- ing proclivities. (See Note 1.) Of the East Indian species only one, Apis indica, is cultivated. This bee, which is considerably smaller than our own, building smaller combs composed of smaller cells — 36 to the square inch — chooses when wild, a hollow tree or rocky cavity for its home. It is kept to a limited extent by the natives, earthen jars being used for hives, but the yield of honey is small. Fig. 2.— MoniFicATioNS of the hind legs of differknt bkes : a, Anthophora ; b, Melissodes ; c, Penlita ; d, Nomada ; e, Agapostemou ; _/", Notnia— all enlarged. (Origiual.) Apis florea, the smallest of the genus, with slender, orange- banded body, builds in the more open country of India, attach- ing a single tiny comb to the twig of some small shrub. The Avorker cells are 81 to the square inch of surface, the drone cells 36. Apis dnrsata. the Giant Bee of India, attaches its mammoth combs to the limbs of tall forest trees or to overhanging ledges 16 Riley — Presidential Address. of rock, generally building a single comb as much as six feet long and two or three feet wide. Great quantities of wax and honey are obtained from this bee by the bee-hunters in India and the islands southeast of Asia. It has not been permanently do- mesticated ; nor is it certain that it can be. The workers of this species are about the size of the queens of Apis meUiJiqt, or from seven-eights of an inch to an ^nch long. The bodies of the bees are slender and wasp-like, and beautifully marked across the abdomen with bright orange bands. (See Note 2.) While the different species of the genus Apis thus differ in size, coloration, temperament and habit, there is comparatively slight variations in structure; a necessary inference for every zoologist. But if we study the other species of the family Apida?, we shall find every variation, and obtain a very good idea of how the special organs in Apis may have been evolved and perfected from simpler organs in other genera. This may be illustrated by a few sketches of some of the more important structures, as for instance, the polliniferous organs and the wax producing ap- paratus. (See Figs. 1, 2 and 3.) The figures already thrown on Fio. 3. — Wax discs of social hees : a, Apis worker; d, Apis queen ; c, Melipona worker ; d, Boinbus worker — all enlarged. (Original.) the screen very well illustrate the fact that the modification of structure and hairy vestiture, which facilitate the collection and transportation of pollen, while exUibited, perhaps, in the great- est perfection in the Hive Bee, is nevertheless an evolution from Social Tnsects. 17 similar structures possessed by other species of social bees, such as the Melipona? aud Bouibi, and still more remotely from such as are possessed by tiie solitary bees. Here again I trust to dia- grams, and relegate detailed exposition to a note. (See Note 3 and Figs. 1 and 2.) In the production of wax the Hive Bee exhibits a lavishness not found in any of the wild bees, not excepting the species of Ti'igoiia and Melipona, which approach it most neai'ly in social economy. As a result we hud that the wax-secreting organs of Apis are much larger than in any other wax-producing bees. In Bombus they are greatly reduced and otherwise different in struc- ture, iTsembling, however, very closely, those obtaining in Meli- pona and Trigona. In the solitary bees, which produce no wax, these specialized structures are entirely wanting. (See Note 4.) But the most interesting fact is that in the queen bee, in which they are functionless, they are nevertheless present, but more nearly resemble the same structures in Melipona. Fig. 4. — Architecture of bees ; i, cell of bumble-bee ; 2, eud of same show iig eggs ; 3, Xylocopa virgiuica, the carpenter bee ; 5, cells of same ; 6, larva of bee parsi e, Anthrax sinuosa ; 7, pupa of Anthrax ; 12, cells of mason bee, Osiiua lignivura — mtural size. (After Packard.) 18 Biley — Prcsidmtial Address. The architecture of certuin solitary bees is shown in Figs. 4 and 5. These solitary bees, no matter in what situations or of what material they make their cells, generally store them with honey or pollen, and after depositing an egg, cap the cell and leave the young larva to care for itself. The habits of the social Bumble-bee (Bom])us) are but a step in advance, as the larv;>? are Fi(i S- — ARCiirriiCil'KE of hees (continued) : 4, Tjirvacf A'v/oco/ia ; S, leaf-cuUci bee, A1e!>ac)iHe\ q, cells o{ Meg;achilc in elder ; 10, larva of upholsieier bee, 0';'(///?«« rf«/>/(7 — enlarged; 11, cells of same in elder, ; 13, cells of Osmia s,ntiliiiia in deserted oak-jjall ; 14, eartliern cell of same , 15, pollen mass of Osmia — natural size (After Packard.) developed in a mass of pollen and honey, in which they form rather imperfect cells. When full grown each spins a silk cocoon which is thickened by a certain amount of wax, which is added by the adult bees. The females labor and several co-operate in the same nest. In the Bottle-bees (Melipona) a still further step is seen, as the cells, of a rather dark, unctuous wax, are formed into regular combs and are somewhat iinj)erfectlv hexagonal. They are, however, in single horizontal tiers, separated and supported by intervening pillars, more like the nests of the social wasps, and the cell is sealed after the egg is laid upon the stored food, just as in the case of solitary bees. The honey is stored in separate flask- like cells, and but one (pieen is allowed to provide eggs. Social Insects. 19 Social Wasps. The popular conception of these interesting insects is decidedly at variance Avith their deserts. "Wasps are generally considered as thieves, robbers, idlers and vagabonds; as impertinent and in- (juisitive, invading our homes and devouring anything and every- thing their fancy craves, as sugar, fruit, meat, wines, etc., and resenting any interference in such a pointed way as to bring pain and rage to the incautious or meddlesome individual who inter- feres with their operations. The term '' waspish," one of the most expressive in the language, very well denotes the popular feeling towards these somewhat maligned insects. Granted that toward other insects they are cruel, and that they courageously resent interference, yet the fact remains that they are seldom, if ever, the original aggressors in the infliction of punishment, ex- cept in the capture and appropriation of other insects as food — a course which finds its counterjiart in every other carnivorous insect or higher animal, and is justified even by the example of man himself. In their relationship with each other, the wasps are polished and gentle, and never ([uarrelsome so far as their own species are concerned ; and they never turn robbers or marauders of their own kind, as do the more landed bees, among which we have what are known as the corsair bees, which fre- quently rob their sisters of the sweets and pollen Avhicli they have collected with great pains and indefatigable industry. These robbers even lie in wait, and scheme and plan in bodies for the success of their raids, as do thieves among men. AVasps never resort to such cowardly proceedings, and hence strictly speaking, are not robbers at all ; for aside from their own kind the world is their legitimate pray. The family Vespida?, to which the wasps and hornets belong, comprises some thousand known species. They closely resemble bees, but differ in possessing more cylindrical bodies with a harder, smoother integument. The wings are longer and folded once longitudinally, and when at rest are laid flat on the body. The antennae are elbowed, and the jaws are large and powerful. Their eggs are at first nearly spherical, but rapidly become ovoid. Their larvti?, as in the other social Ilymenoptera, are legless and helpless grubs, entirely dependent on the adults for food and care. The family comprises two natural groups, viz., the Social 20 Riley — Premhntial Address. Wasps, having, as with bees and ants, three forms — males, females, and workers or neuters; and the solitary species, in which only females and males occur. The common Bald-faced Hornet {Vespa maculaUt) is a familiar example of the first-named group. It constructs remarkable nests of various patterns, of a gray, paper-like material, and suspended to the branches of trees and shrubs, or to the rafters of houses. In the second group, on the contrary, the species con- struct cells or nests, consisting usually of single cells, of sand or mud, in protected situations ; store them with insect food for the larvae, and then abandon them altogether. The former — " natural paper-makers from the beginning of time," as Harris properly styles them — -have always done what man, with all his boasted superiority, has only in recent times learned to do; viz.. make paper of wood. They resort for this purpose to such woody surfaces as have long been exposed to and bleached by the action of the elements. With their powerful mandibles they tear off minute filaments and chew them into a fine pulp, which they afterward spread into a thin sheet of strong, water-proof paper, out of which they construct their nests. These nests are of two kinds, one made by the true Vespas, as in the case of the Bald-faced Hornet just alluded to. Here the outer covering forms a more or less regular globose body, with a single circular orifice at the bottom, the combs being arranged within this cover- ing in horizontal tiers or stories. In the second category we have the nests of the wasps belonging to the genus Polistes, which are more particularly known by the name of paper wasps. Here the nest has no outer envelope, and is usually limited to a single tier of cells suspended by one or more peduncles or short stems. Thay are usually attached in the open air to the branchs of trees, or are fastened to the underside of the rafters of porches, etc., garrets being favorite places for their construction. Some of the hornets, such as the "yellow -jackets,'"' are found occupying the deserted nests of mice, suspending the tiers of cells from the ceiling and lining the burrow with a layer of woody paper. The burrows are enlarged from time to time as the growth 0^ the colony requires additional space, and in late autumn are often found large enough to fill a bushel measure, containing sometimes from 15,000 to 20,000 cells. In all these cases the tiers of cells are attached to each other or to other sup- Social Insects. 21 ports by strong pillars of the same papier mache material, but of darker color and firmer texture. The combs of these paper wasps and hornets are not double, as in the case of the Hive Bee, and the cells, which are less perfectly hexagonal, have the mouth beneath and are in horizontal instead of vertical layers. They differ from the cells of bees, also, in that they are used solely in the recej)tion of the larvas and, ex- cept in some tropical species,* not for the storage of honey or pollen. The nests of wasps vary greatly in the different species, and find their greatest perfection in the card-making species of Cayenne (Chartergus nidulans) the outer covering of which is nearly white and as tough as the stoutest card-board. The life-history is very interesting. Perfect females or queens and males are produced in the autumn, in cells of large size, and in the case of the hornets proper, these are developed in the low- est and last constructed of the cells. The males and the workers or imperfect females, perish at approach of winter, while some of the fertile females hibernate in sheltered situations. These, in the following spring, originate new colonies, and may be seen about early spring flowers, which they frequent for honey, but more particularly to prey upon other insects attracted to the blossoms. Singly and unaided they originate the new colony, building cell after cell, supplying each with an egg, and persist- ently bringing home food for the growing young. All these cells in the early season produce neuters or working females only. These, as soon as developed, assist the hibernated mother or queen in the enlargment of the nest and the care of the young. She, after having once started her colony, rarely leaves it, but remains and devotes herself solely to the duty of egg-laying. The workers become by far the most numerous, and by late sum- mer are everywhere found moving actively about in search of food for the home brood. They are less than half the size of the perfect females, and considerably smaller than the males, which are easily distinguished by their more slender bodies and very long antenna. The males are not mere idlers, as in the case of the bees, but occupy themselves with various labors about the nest, and while the male bee is in the end ruthlessly destroyed *St. Fargeuu states that he has oiten, in Polldca gallica, found cells filled with honey. 22 Riley — Presidential Address. by the indignant workers, the male wasji is respected and pro- tected, and dies a natural death. In the large nests of hornets, the number of males and perfect females produced in the autumn amounts to several hundred, and of these comparatively few females successfully hibernate. Were it otherwise ordained, these insects would become too numerous for the comfort of the rest of the world. The larvffi are fed from day to day with a prepared liquid food which is disgorged from stomachs of the adults. These prey upon other insects, and also feed upon animal or vegetable matter to which they have access, and are particularly fond of the sweets of fruits, melons, etc., also of sugars and honey, all of which are eaten greedily, and commingled ami prepared in the stomach as food for the young. Wasps are not particularly active themselves in the collection of honey from flowers, but are very prone to rob the hives of bees whenever opportunity offers. We have seen that in the case of the Hive Bee the unfertilized egg, including the egg deposited by the worker bee, invariably produces a drone or male. The experience of English observers, indicates that the reverse of this is true of the social wasps, and that, instead of males being produced from eggs of workers or non-fertilized wasps, other workers similar to the parent are produced. Thus from nests from which the queen wasp is removed quite early in the spring, the generation of workej's continues through the season as freely as if the queen were still present to lay eggs, showing that the brood is kept up by the progeny of workers having no access to males, which only appear in the fall. Leuckart has also shown, by careful dissections, that nearly fifty per cent, of the worker generations in the latter part of the summer at least, have fully developed and develojoing eggs in their ovaries. It must be noted, however, that the experience of Von Siebold with Polistes gallica directly contradicts the observations of Eng- lish investigators. His experiments carried on in precisely the same way, indicate that, with this species at least, the eggs from the workers produce males. There would, therefore, seem to be no unifofmity in this regard among the different species of the family, both arrenotoky and thelytoky ocouring among them, and possibly in the same species at different seasons. In the case of Vespa there is no difficulty in separating the Social Insects. 33 fertilized autuniual queen from the worker generations, the for- mer being considerably larger and presenting even more marked differences from the worker than occur in the similar states of the bee. With Folisites, however, the difference between the fertilized qneen and the summer broods of workers is much less marked, and it is more difficult to distinguish them. The abdomen of the true ((ueen of Polistes is somewhat longer and larger than that of the worker, but the variation is so slight that accurate separation is usually impossible, and there is probably less difference between the worker aud the fertilized female than ob- taius with the social bees, the worker being ([uite capable, in many cases at least, of producing eggs which will develop into other workers, and at tiie proper season also, doubtless, into males. The distinction between the summer broods and the autumnal females which are fertilized and hibernate, is probably produced by food conditions, as in the case of bees, although accurate ob- servations are wanting. Just as in the case of bees, the study of the wasp family (V'^esjjida^) in its different genera aiul species, reveals every grailation in habit, from the solitary species to the moi'e highly organized or social forms, and these differences in habit are accompanied by differ- ences in structure, so that the origin of the higher or more social forms may be traced through the less specialized. Many instances might be cited in illustration of the great in- telligence of wasps, and especially in ])ro()f of their wonderful sense of direction. On the whole they exhibit a rathe)' higher de- gree of intelligence than do the bees, in the remarkably varied pro- visions which they make for their young. Tlieir habitations, also, complete in themselves, and built chiefly of extraneous matter not secreted from their own bodies, indicate greater architectural dexterity than is found in the bees. Ants. Few insects have attracted more attention, or have become more renowned than the ants. Considering their comparatively di- minutive size, their endless activity, and the wonderful results they accomplish, this is not to wondered at. Up to the present time some fifteen hundred species of ants have been described, the great majority of the species, as well as the largest and most rapacious, occuring in tropical aud semi- 24 Riley — Presidential Address. tropical countries. Some two hundred species have already been described from North America, many of which are nearly related to or even identical with those of Europe; while some are cosmo- politan, having been distributed by the agency of man over almost every part of the world. One of the best known of these cosmo- politan forms is the the little Red Ant, 7l/f>/K>/»or/(i(j» p/;/(mo/H's Linn., a grievous household pest. Under the tribal term Ileter- o(/ijii(( Latreille, the ants are divided by the later systematists into four families (by some considered sub-families), namely, the Fornncida', the Pouerida^ the Dorilida^ and the Myrmicid^e. The lirst family, Formicida;, comprises all those species which are des- titute of a sting, ex';ept in the genus CEcophylla, and are further characterized by having but one node or scale connecting the ab- domen with the thorax, and by the habit in the larva of construct- ing for pupation, a dense, smooth, ovoid, silken cocoon. The re- maining families are possessed of a sting, the Ponerida? agreeing with the Formicida^ in the cocoon-forming habit of the larva and in having but a single node or scale connecting the thorax and ab- domen, l)uc having an additional, more or less pronounced con- striction between the first and second abdominal joints. The Dorilida^ are somewhat aberrant, the female and worker, so far as known, being blind, and nothing being yet known of their larva3. In the last family, the Myrmicida?, there are two well- developed, freely mobile nodes between the abdomen and the thorax, and the larva; are unprotected by any cocoon during pu])ation. The most interesting and destructive species occur in this family. Let us glance brielly at some of the species, more according to habit, however, than this classification, and preferably our North American species. L'hus they may be considered as Carpenter, Mound-building, Harvesting, Honey, Leaf-cutting, Nest- building and Driving or Foraging ants. (Note 5.) Ant Economy and Habits. AisTT Wars. — Very many most interesting accounts of the intel- ligence and battles, and of the curious persistency of ants, espec- ially of the foraging species, are recorded by travellers in tropical countries, and particularly by the late Henry Walter Bates in his " Naturalist on the Eiver Amazons ". It is a well established fact that ants, like human beings, do at times declare war against Social Insects. 35 other species, or eveji against colonies of their own, while with many species there is a form of neuter known as the soldier which seems to be developed for no other purpose than to defend the colony or make war upon some other colony. The soldiers are characterized by an enormous and abnormal enlargement of the head, jaws and mouth-parts. In these wars the greatest pugiui- city and courage are exhibited, the contest lasting sometimes for days, and the weaker party ultimately succumbing from sheer exhaustion and decimation. There is a gradation in the warlike spirit in different species and genera. Thus in Myrmecina and Tetramorium the ants do not fight, but roll up and feign death. Lubbock shows that in Formica cxsccta, an active but delicate species, the individuals advance in serried masses, and that when fighting with larger species, like Formica 'pratcnsis, several in unison, attack' an iiuli- vidual of the latter, some of them jumping onto the back of the foe and sawing off the head from behind. The species of Lazius, he says, will suffer themselves to be cut to pieces rather than let go when they have once seized an enemy, while Polycrf/u^ nifcs- cciix, the notorious slave-making ant of the Amazons, seizes the head of her enemy by closing the jaws, so as to pierce the brain, thus paralyzing the nervous system ; so that a comparatively small force of Polyergus will fearlessly attack much larger armies of the small species and suffer scarcely any loss themselves. Hlave-makijstg. — Nor must T pass without brief mention of an- other fact which has been well observed among ants, namely, that some of the species repeatedly raid the colonies of weaker ants and make slaves of them. In most cases it is a large pale ant which enslaves a small black ant, and this is done either by capturing fully developed workers or more often by carrying home from the weaker colony larvse and pupa? and allowing these to develop in the formicaries of their masters. It is most interesting to note, also, that the slave-making habit among ants produces the same demoralizing results for the slave- maker that it does among men. The habit is degrading. Thus, as Lubbock points out, Polyergus nifescciis has become entirely dependent on its slaves. It has lost the power of building, as also most of its domestic habits. Its impotence away from its slaves has gone so far that even the habit of feeding has been lost, and it will starve in the midst of plenty rather than feed itself. 26 Riley — Presidential Address. Such cases as this, of an animal having lost the instinct of feed- ing, are extremely rare in nature, but the habit here has even affected the structure, for the mandibles of the slave-makers have lost their teeth and are useless except as weapons of war. Burial Grounds. — It would seem almost incredible, but there is nevertheless good evidence that some species of ants habitually form burial grounds for the dead. An esteemed friend and re- liable observer, Mr. Henry G. Hubbard, informs me that he has carefully studied the habits of a black mound-making ant in Montana, {Formiai mbpoUta Mriyr), the mounds being made in dry situations in the mountains. There are always burial pits just outside the hill, connected with it by passages; and these burial pits contain generally a double handful of dead ants, with occasional fragments of other insects. They are made in firm, hard soil, and consist of a clean neat chamber, sometimes as large as one's two fists. In moist ground the same species of ant does not seem to use the same method of burial. These facts are all the more interesting as showing how the same species may develop a local habit, as siihopolita is now considered but a variety or sub- species of the widespread F. fusra L. Food-habits. — In Note 5, in speaking of the several species, I have recorded iii detail some food-habits of our ants. Taken as a whole they are truly omnivorous, feeding upon all sorts of })lant and animal matter, storing" various kinds of vegetation, and even, as in the case of the leaf-cutter ants, cultivating certain fungus growths for food, but particularly relishing the sweets obtainable from plants and other sources, and more especially from the excrementitious and other secretions of plant-lice and bark-lice. Keeping and raising KiNE.^There is no work upon ants which does not refer to their well-known habit of guarding and encouraging plant-lice, protecting them from their enemies, and in other ways looking after their welfare. This attitude toward various species of Aphidida? is essentially selfish, as these, when carressed, yield a sweetened liquid which the ants much covet. For this reason the Aphides have been denominated, in popular parlance, the ants' milch-cows. Certain species of plant- lice are frequently attended by particular species of ants, and there is often a remarkable colorational harmony between a par- ticular ant and the Aphidid colony which it cherishes. It is not Social Insects. 27 generally known, however, that the ants do more, and show an exceptional intelligence in carrying- the eggs of the plant-lice in antiiinn into their own formicaries, bringing them together in little heaps and taking every precaution to preserve them through the winter These eggs are carried back in spring to the plant upon which tiie particular Aphidid is nourished. There are, moreover, a number of other insects which the ants foster in their homes and from which they obtain coveted secretions; so that they may be said to utilize various kinds of cattle. Early Stages of Ants. — The transformations of ants are similar to those of other social Ilymenoptera where the young are fed and cared for by the workers or nurses. The eggs are, as a rule, deposited by what may be called queens, i. e., by fe- males more highly fed and developed than the rest, and devoted solely to the propagation of the species. It has also been noted that, in an emergency, where the females have perished, eggs may be deposited by the workers, as in the case of the Hive Bee, and also, as in that case, that these unfertilized eggs pro- duce males only. I'lG. 6.— Development ok Kokmica riii-a : a, larva, lateral ; (!>,do., veutral view ; pupa ; d, cocoou — enlarged, the outlines showinn; natural size. (After Ualton.) The eggs are yellowish-white, ovoid or oblong-ovoid, very del- icate in texture, and require from two to three weeks, or longer, for hatching, according to seasonal conditions. The larvi\3 are soft, white, legless grubs, having no eyes and being perfectly helpless. The small head is curved down on the breast and provided with but rudimentary mandibles. There is at first no apparent dif- ference between the larvfe destined to produce the different kinds of individuals, but the growth of those destined to become wor- kers suddenly ceases, whereas that of those destined to become perfect females, continues. As in the case of the larva} of the bee, the workers are therefore but arrested or undeveloped females, and there is every reason to believe that the ultimate organiza- 28 R'deij — Presiden tial Addrms. tion is a result of a difference in the kind of food or amount of food supplied by the nurses; so that practically the constitution of the formicary is regulated by the colony itself. The helpless larva" and pupa^ are moved from place to place, and most ten- derly cared for by the nurses, which understand the requisite con- ditions of warmth, fresh air, protection against cold, rain, and other injurious influences, and Avhich feed their young charges with a liquid discharged from the mouth, very much as in the case of the bee. While the mandibles are nsed for tearing all sorts of sub- stances, it is the juices of these which are lapped up by the ton- gue, and which can Ije regurgitated from a fore-stomach oi' pouch, in order to feed the young and tlie queens. These young are, also, arranged by the workers in groups of different sizes and ages, with a view to regulate the amount of food necessary for each stage. The larval life varies very much, so far as observa- tions have been made, as its duration may extend from six or seven weeks to several months, according to the species. Some species even hibernate in the larva state. I have already indi- FlG. larged 7. — Honey ants: Myrmecocistus mexicanus \ a, side view; b, from above— eu- the outlines showing natural size, (after Lubbock.) cated the differences in habit as to the formation of a cocoon or pupation without a cocoon, in the different families of the group; but a difference is noticeable in this respect, even in the same formicary, as first observed by Latreille. Those which pupate in cocoons are often unable to extricate themselves when mature, and are then tenderly assisted by the workers, who also aid in the unfolding of the wings, and cleansing of the newly-developed ant. (Fig. 6, shows a typical larva, nymph and cocoon). The individuals of the formicary are therefore composed (1) Social InsecU. 29 of neuters or workers, which ai'e all females arrested in develop- ment; (2) of males; and (3) of fully developed females or queens. All the males and females ac({uire wings, which are, how- ever, torn off after the marriage flight, and a number of queens are sujiported in each formicary. In some of the species the workers are uniform in appearance, while in others they exhibit great dif- ferences in size and structure. As already stated, the workers or neuters are generally divided into two classes, viz., the ordinary small kind, and a second kind with much larger head and man- dibles, and called soldiers. Bates has shown that in the 8auba ant of South America {(Enxlonui rrphalotcs) there are two forms of the large-headed neuters, one with hairy and the other with polished head. , Length of Life in Ants. — Lubbock's experiments have shown that in some species the mature workers will live from one to six years, and the females even much longer, the life of the males being very ephemeral and lasting but a few days or weeks. He kept a female of Foniiicafn.sca for thirteen years. Migrations. — There are two kinds of ant migrations. The swarming of the sexes takes place usually in the afternoon or to- ward evening on warm or sultry days, and it is remarkable how very general, over a wide extent of country, the same species will begin to till the air on some particular day. Species of the genera Lasins, Formica, Tetramorium, and Cre- mastogaster, particularly, often form dense swarms or clouds, ascending high up into the air. These swarms of ants have sometimes been known to be so dense and persistent that it was im- possible, over large areas, to put the foot down without crushing dozens of the insects which have been swept together in vast piles. A case is on record of a large species covering the surface of the water at sea to a depth of six inches, and for a distance of six miles. This congregating in such vast swarms is due to the uni- form and simultaneous hatching and development in all the col- onies over a large extent of country. The migrations of the sexes are really love excursions, whereas the migrations of the workers, which take place in vast bodies at times, are a result of undue multiplication, and are intended to improve the condition of the surplus progeny and found new colonies. Myrmecophilye. — A most interesting lecture might be devoted 30 ■ Riley — Presidential Address. to the subject of myrmecophilous insects alone. Ants are as a rule hostile to every other living thing, except such as the plant- lice, which furnish them with desii'ed sweets. They fiercely resent any intrusion into their nests, and often attack and kill their own kind if belonging to another colony. It is there- fore remarkable that careful examination of almost any formi- cary will reveal the presence of a multitude of different in- sects which appear to live peaceably in the company of the legiti- mate inhabitants. A mere list of these myrmecophilous insects would be of little interest. The species comprise, first, those which, in the larva and pupa states, live among the ants ; secondly, accidental visitors, not confined to ants' nests; and, thirdly, the true myrmecophilous species, i. e., those which in the imago state, and so far as known in the adolescent states also, are exclusively found in ants' nests and depend for their existence on the ants. In some species of the second category we already find a tendency to simulate in color the ant itself, or the surroundings of the formicary; but the true myrmecophilae, or species of the third class, often mimic m the most remarkable manner the host upon which they depend. Some of these myrmecophilous sjiecies are mere scavengers, and feed upon the offal, of an animal or vegetal nature, which is always found abundantly in the nests of ants. They are endured with indifference by the ants, because they are useful in an iudirect way, helping in the performance of a duty which would otherwise have to be performed by the ants them- selves. Another group is present as marauders, living in the nests for the purpose of stealing and devouring the ants' eggs, larva? or pupa?, whenever a chance offers. To this group be- long the various Histerida?, a Coleopterous family in which the species are so constructed that it is impossible for the ants to ad- vantageously attack them. In the third grouj) we find species characterized by sweet secretions, from which the ants derive benefit. In some cases, as in the black, clumsy beetles of the genus Cremastochilus, the insects are not absolutely confined to the formicary, though they are always developed there. Fre- quently in the perfect state they endeavor to escape, and it is curi- ous to note the strategy which the ants employ to prevent the de- parture of these inquilines or guests from which they obtain the coveted sweet. In such cases, as in the well known genus Claviger? and allied genera, the insects are absolutely dependent on the ants. Social Injects. 31 whicli take the same tender care of them that they do of their own yonng, feeding them and keeping them clean, and in every way sliowing the ntmost friendsliip. Termites or White Ants. The Termites or White Ants have developed, in their higher forms, an organization and a diti'erentation of individuals very similar to those of the true ants; whence the popular name. They are among the oldest insects, as their remains are found in the coal measures of Europe, whereas the true ants do not appear until the Tertiary. Belouging, in fact, to an order whicli has been very generally looked upon as the lowest or least develo})ed among the Hexapods and as representing most nearly the earlier or primitive insects which appeared upon the globe, the fact that they have acquired a social organization which in so many re- spects recalls that of the ants, is of great signilicance, as we shall see when we come to consider the origin and development of these traits. Yet a more intimate acquaintance with the facts concern- ing the Termites shows us that the development of the social habit and the dift'erentation of forms, have been along different lines from those presented by the social Ilymenojjtera, and are based upon a different mode of development. In other words, the Termites, belonging to an order which undergoes incom])lete metamorphoses — the larva being born in the image of the adult, minus wings — is more or less capable of self-support soon after birth, while in the social Hymenoptera, which undergo a complete metamorphosis, the larva is quite unlike the adult, and entirely helpless during development. It is only within recent years that the Termites have been care- fully studied. The results of these later studies must be rele- gated to a note. (Note 6). While with most species the colony con- sists of a king and a queen and of two forms of neuters or workers; yet in the European Tenner Jurifiif/iis as many as fifteen distinct forms have been characterized, but no true queen discovered. In other words, besides the four distinctive classes of individuals which characterize the more highly developed species, we find, sometimes in the same species, but particularly when the different species are considered, every gradation between these different classes. The fundamental difference between the social Hymenoptera 32 Riley — Presidential Address. on the one htiud, and the Termites on the other, is that in the hitter the workers or neuters (iucliuling the soldiers) are not un- developed females, but consist of both sexes, and are in reality arrested or modified larv;v, in which the sexual oroans are but im- perfectly developed or are completely atrophied. They are recog- nizable as neuters even after the first larval molt. The common North American species, Tcrmr.^ farij)cv, is doubtless familiar to most of you. It occurs in vast numbers in rotten or prostrate logs, and fre(iuently invades our houses wherever there is wood in pro- cess of decay. The newly-hatched young are very tender and helpless, and move but little, and while in the order Neuroptera the young larva is usually able to care for itself immediately after birth, the newly hatched Termite has become more or less dependent upon the care of the workers, which either feed it with partly digested food from their own mouths, or with their own secretions, or else prepare food for it. The eggs are laid in large numbers l)y fertile females or supplementary ([ueens, but are car- ried long distances by the workers into chambers which are gener- ally several feet underground, or else in the heart of otherwise solid trees. The queen in those species which normally possess one to each colony, becomes helpless as she increases in size and gravity, for she attains to many times the bulk of the ordinary neuters, which are always un winged. Winged males and females develop from a special brood, and often in such numbers that m spring they swarm until they literally fill the air. They are distinguished from the rest by being more chitinized and darker in color. The great majority of the swarming sexed individuals are doomed to perish, either while on the wing or after falling to the ground, for they are the favorite food of almost all other creatures. But even where not devoured, most of them die without founding new colonies. Swarming is not for the purpose of mating, but it is to be looked upon as an incident in the excessive multiplication of the species, and as a means of inducing cross-fertilization be- tween different colonies. Upon settling on the ground, the swarming individuals cast off their wings, and if a couple of opposite sex are fortunate enough to enter the outlying burrows of some colony already founded, or to meet a few workers, they are ca])able of founding a colony themselves. It is only after a female has been duly pro- Social Insects. 33 vided with :i place of shelter or cavity that the mating really takes place, from which time forth she becomes more or less stationary and extremely fecund. She becomes, in short, a true queen, and her escort remains with her and has been called a true kino-; for here again the Termites differ radically from the social Hymenoptera in that coition takes place repeatedly. There are, however, supplemental queens or nymph queens, which seem to be cfipable of laying eggs, probably parthenogenetically, and which never develop their wings. The great majority of the neuters are true workers, but a cer- tain proportion of them, about one per cent,, are so-called soldiers, having enormously developed heads and powerful jaws, very much as in the true soldier-ants, and fitted for no other purpose than the defence of the colony. Both kindrf of neuters are per- fectly blind. The habits and economy of our Tcrnws fiaripes may be looked upon as typical of the family ; but there are species iu different parts of the world in which (as iu Caloterines) the workers, or (as in Anoplotermes) the soldiers, are absent; others (as in Eutermes) where the soldiers (nasuti) have a bill instead of jaws; others in which the reproductive forms are reduced to the one royal pair; and though the fact has not been absolutely observed, there are probably Termites which produce only males and females, as with ordinary insects, or as in allied families of the Neuroptera. The accompanying diagram will very well illustrate the modes of development and genealogy of the different forms in a typical Termite colony, while some additional sexual forms of less certain character or fixity, have been observed by Grassi in the European Tcntu'x liirifiu/iis, and called complementary kings and ([ueens. In those colonies which have no true royal pair, their place is taken by supplementary royal pairs. (Note 6.) Forms III (I Ti'i'iiH's Coldiii/ iiiidcr iioniidl Coiidilioax. 1 . Younwst hirvu,'. 2. ly.irvH' VHitit for re- o. LarviL' lit lor re- proilnc'tiun. production. 4. Liirvii' of 5. Larvjr of iS. N vmplis of Ist 9. Nyuipbs of I'd workers. soldiers. iorui. forui. (i. Workers. 7. Soldiers. 10. Win^red forms. 11. True royal paiis. 34 Riley — Presidential Address. The fecundity of the true queeu Termite is sonietliing remark- able, and, based on tSmeathman's observations on an African species (Tennrs hellicosiis) the fact that an egg is produced every second, or some 80,000 a day in tlie height of tlie breeding season, has been commonly ((uoted among writers on the suljject. In this species the queen is sealed up in a cell which is as hard as a stone, in the central and most protected part of the termi- tary, the cell being opened and enlarged from time to time by the workers, and being also perforated l)y holes which admit the workei's to care foi' and feed her, while preventing the egress of the female and her attendant male escort. Among the more curious facts connected with these Termites, because of their exceptional nature, is the late development of the internal sexual organs in the reproductive forms and the existence of a single long-lived male — a condition not parelleled among other insects, so far as I am aware. Further, as Dr. Hagen has pointed out, the ([ueen represents a uui([ue instance among insects of actual growth taking place in the inuigo state; for the in- tra-segmental ligaments not only expand, but grow with the in- creasing gravity of the abdomen, the stigmata actually taking- part in this growth, though the dorsal abdominal plates remain unaffected. In the Hive Bee multiplication of colonies takes place by divi- sion, but the colonizing swarm carries in itself all the elements necessary for the foundation of a new colony. In the more typi- cal Termites multiplication of colonies also takes place by division, but this is carried out by the neuters and the various adolescent stages, since there is usually but one true queen, which can not be moved. The new colony, therefore, can only obtain a true queen by introducing one of the royal pairs that wander about after they have swarmed and thrown off their wings. That great diflQculty attends the establishment of such a royal pair of indi- viduals in a colony is illustrated by the fact that they are rarely discovered among colonies of our commoner s])ecies of Termes proper.* *Froin the accounts of authors there is no ditiiculty iu lin(Hn2; the true queen in most of the nest buiUhng species of Euteruies in the \>'e.st Indies, Central and iSouth America; while from Sraeathman's famous account oi' Ternu'ft Itcllicnsus in Africa, it would seem that the fertile ((ueen is usually present iu the colonies. But in the species most studied, viz., TcruH's lucifu- Social In-sects. 35 The Termites thus exhibit a greater variety of resources for the ])erj)etuatioii of the species, in case of emergency, than even the social Ilymenoptera, and they also exhibit a greater variety of individual forms in the same colony. There is also among the ditterent species, and especially among the different genera, a gradation from the simple to the moi"e complex economy. Their habitations also vary fi'om the simple to the more complete. Calotermes burrows in the branches of trees and requires no s})ecialized cells or chambers, 'rrnncs fjiripcs and allied species make extensive excavations in prostrate logs or the beams of houses, and are very destructive to old books, especially in dark and dani]) situations. The excavations are usually elongate and separated by partitions which are penetrated occasionally so as to connect the whole. The walls are lined with a thin layer of brown excrementitious matter, and some of the chambers are more particularly used to store eggs in, while others are used as nur- series for the young. Subterranean galleries often extend some distance away from the main termitary, and sometimes up under the bark of trees. More rarely they are exposed above ground, when the insects thicken the layer of excrementitious matter. Eutermes, which is common in the West Indies and in Central and South America, builds exterior nests more or less spherical or conical, generally at the base of trees, but also on the branches or on stone walls. They are often as large as a hogshead, and consist chietly of excrementitious matter and of collected particles of decayed wood. There are one or more queen cells in the most protected parts of the nest, and other chambers for the eggs and young, while temporary enlargements aiford shelter for the winged individuals before swarming. Covered galleries some- what thicker than an ordinary pencil, and composed of the same material as the nest, but less compact, extend from the main nest to the ground, or up the tallest trees, leading to food supplies. The constructional faculty is yet more highly developed in the f/H.s, tlie difficulties in procuring a true queen would seem to be very great, mid Prof. Grassi, in five years' observations, has never found one. Yet he had no ditli(!ulty in obtaining true kings and queens in confinement by establishing little colonies of winged individuals. The same condition of things prevails with our Noi'th American Ih'mes flampeft, since in my own observations and those of others, no true ([ueen has been met with, and reproduction is carried on, for the most part, by supplementary queens. 36 Riley — Preside nllal Address. hill-making species of the genus Termes, which attain greatest perfection in South Africa. These nests always arise from the ground, and vary according to the species. They are made of finely comminuted wood, mixed with some secretion, or of clay, in which case they become as hard as stone. Long subterranean foraging galleries are extended from these nests. In South America some species seem merely to excavate sub- terranean galleries in the soil, while Bates found at Santarem, Brazil, composite nests occupied by different species, which built each its own part of the uest with its own special material. Some Generalizations. In the hasty summary which I have thus endeavored to present to you of some of the chief characteristics of social insects, those who are most familiar with the facts can best appreciate how much of interest has been omitted. These insects are attacked by various natural enemies in their own class, and particularly in the case of the bees and wasps, by some of the most abnormal parasites, viz., the Stylopida?, in which the young larva is ex- tremely active, but the adult female stationary and so degraded that she has lost all members and mouth-parts, and in fact all semblance of an insect, while the adult male is an active, winged creature, of very ephemeral existence. Chapters might be writ- ten upon the myrmecophilous and termitophilous insects of var- ious orders, some of which are mere mess-mates, others advanta- geous associates, while others are unwelcome, but more or less successful intruders on the hospitality of their hosts. This part of the subject must, however, be passed over in order to permit me to close with some generalizations and speculations which the facts already enumerated provoke. The Senses in Insects. Having thus dealt, in a summary way, with some of the struct- ures and economies of the social insects, let us now consider their psychological manifestations. Of the five ordinary senses recognized in ourselves and most higher animals, insects have, beyond all doubt, the sense of sight, and there can be as little question that they possess the senses of touch, taste, smell and hearing. Yet, save, perhaps, that of touch, none of these senses, as possessed by insects, can be strictly compared with our own, while there is the best of evidence that Social Insects. 37 insects poSkScss other senses which we do not, tind that they luive sense orgiins with wliich we have :.one to compare, lie who tries to comprehend the mechanism of our own senses — the manner in which the subtler sensations are conveyed to the brain — will realize how little we know thereof after all tliat has l)een written. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that authors should differ as to the nature of many of the sense organs of insects, or that there should l)e little or no absolute knowledge of the manner in which the senses act upon them. The solution of psychical pi'oblems may never, indeed, be obtained, so infinitely minute are the ultinuite atoms of matter; and those wbo have given most at- FiCt. 8. — Sensory organs in insects: A, one element of the eye of Cockroach (after Grenacher) ; B, diagratumatic section of compound eye in insect (after Miall & Denny) ; C, organs of smell in Melolontha (after Kraepelin) ; I), a, />, sense organs of ab- dominal appendages of Chvysopila, c, small pit on terminal joint of palpus in Perla (after I'ackard) ; £, diagram of sensory ear of insect (after Miall & Denn}') ; /^, auditoi y apparatus of Meconema, a, fore tibia of this locust, 6, diagrammatic section through same (after Graber); G, auditory apparatus of Caloptenus seen from inner side, showing tym- panum, auditory nerve, terminal ganglion, stigma and'opening and closing muscle of same, as well as muscle of tympanum membrana (after Graber).— All very greatly en- larged. tention to the subject must echo the sentiment of Lubbock, that the principle impression which the more recent works on the in- telligence and senses of anihials leave on the mind, is, that we know very little indeed on the subject. We can but empirically observe 38 EUeii — rreddeiitlal Address. tUid experiment, iiiul di-aw conclusions from well uttested results.- Sight. — Taking lirst the sense of sight, mucli has l)een written as to the i)ictnre which the compound eye of insects produces iijjon the hi'ain or upon the nerve centers. Most insects which undergo complete metamorphoses possess in their adolescent states simple eyes or ocelli, and sometimes groups of them of varying size and in varying situations. It is difficult, if not impossible, to demonsti'ate experimentally their efficiency as organs of sight ; the i)rol)abilities are that they give but the faintest impressions, but otherwise act as do our own. The fact that they ai'e pos- sessed only by larv;y which are exposed more or less fully to the light, while those larvf>f which are endophytous, or otherwise hid- den from light, generally lack them, is in itself proof that they perform the ordinary functions of sight, however low in degree. In the imago state the great majority of insects have their sim])le eyes in addition to the compound eyes. In many cases, however, the former are more or less covered with vestiture, vvhicli is an- other evidence that their function is of a low order, and lends weight to the view that they are useful chiefly for near vision and in dark places. The compound eyes are prominent and ad- justable in pi'o})ortion as they are of service to the species, as wit- ness those of the common House-fly and of the Libellulid;^ or Dragon-flies. It is obvious from the structure of these com- pound eyes that impressions through them must be very differ- ent from those received through our own, and, in point of fact, the late experimental researches of Hickson, Plateau, Tocke and Lemmermann, Pankrath, Exner and Viallanes, practically estab- lish the fact that while insects are short-sighted and perceive stationary objects imperfectly, yet their compound eyes are better fitted than the vertebrate eye for apprehending objects set in re- lief or in motion, and are likewise keenly sensitive to color. So far as experiments have gone, they show that insects have a keen color sense, though here agnin their sensations of color are different from those produced upon ns. Thus, as Lubbock has shown, ants are very sensitive to the ultra violet rays of the spectrum, which we cannot perceive, though he was led to con- clude that to the ant the general aspect of nature is presented in an aspect very different from that in which it appears to ns. In reference to bees, the experiments of the same author prove clearly tliat they have this sense of color highly developed, as iSocidJ Inscctx. 39 iiideeil miglit be expected when we consitler the part tliey have played in the deveh)piiieiit of llowers. While tliese experiments seem to sliow that blue is the bees" favorite color, this does not accord with Albert Miiller's experience in nature, nor with the general e-\perience of apiarians, who, if asked, would very gener- ally agree that bees show a preference for white flowers. Touch. — The sense of touch is su})posed to reside chiefly in the antenna' or feelers, though it re(pfires but the simplest ol)ser- vation to show that with soft-bodied insects the sense resides in any portion of the body, very much as it does in other animals. In short, this is the one sense which, in its manifestations, may be conceded to resemble our own. Yet it is evidently more specialized in the maxillary and labial palpi and the tongue than in the antenna', in most insects. Taste. — V^ery little can be positively proved as to the sense of taste in insects. Its existence may be contidently predicated from the acute discrimina,tion which most monopluigous species exercise in the choice of their food, and its location nniy be as- sumed to be the mouth or some of the special ti'ophial organs which have no counterpart among vertebrates. Indeed certain pits in the epipharynx of many mandibulate insects, and, in the ligula and the maxilht) of bees and wasps are conceded, by the authorities, to be gustatory. Smell. — That insects possess the power of smell is a matter of common observation, and has been experimentally proved. The many experiments of Luljbock upon ants left no doubt in his mind that the sense of smell is highly develo])ed in them. Indeed it is the acuteness of the sense of smell which attracts ina,ny insects so unerringly to given (jbjects, ;ind which has led many persons to believe them sharp-sighted. Moreover, the in- numerable glands and special organs for secreting odors, furnish the strongest indirect proof of the same fact. Some of these, of which the osmaterium in Papilionid larvae and the eversible glands in I'arorgyia are conspicuous examples, are intended for pi'otection against inimical insects or other animals; while others, l)ossessed bv one only of the sexes, are obivously intended to l)lease or attract. A notable development of this kind is seen in the large gland on the hind legs of the males of some species of Hepialus, the gland being a niodilication of the tibia, and sometimes involving the abortion of the tarsus, as in the Euro- 40 Riley — Presidential A ddress. j)e:iii //. Iiccfiis L. and our own //. hchrciisi Stretch. The possession oi odoriferous glands, in otlier words, implies the ])ossession of olfactory organs. Yet there is among insects no one specialized olfactory organ as among vertebrates; for while there is conclusive proof that this sense rests in the antenna' with many insects, especially among Lepidoptera, there is good evidence that in some Hymenoptera it is localized in an ampulla at the base of the tougue, •while Gi'aber gives reasons for believ- ing that in certain Orthoptera (Blattida^) it is located in the anal cerci, and the ])alpi. Fiit. 9. — Sensory Okgajss in Insects : A, scuoOiy pits 011 aiucmise of yoiiiia; wing less Aphis peisiccr-Higcr (after Smith) ; y> , orgau of smell iu May Beetle (after Hauser) ; C, organ of smell in Vespa (after Hauser) ; D, sensory organs of TeimesJ/avipes, a, tibial auditory organ, c, enlargement of same, b, sensory pits of tarsus (after Stokes); E, organ of taste in maxilUe of I'espa vuli^aris (after Will) ; F, organ of taste in labium of same insect (after Will); 6", organ of smell in Caloptenus (after Hauser); H, sensory pilose de- pressions on tibia of Termes (after Stokes) ; /, terminal portion of antennre oi Myrmica rug^iiiodis, c, cork shaped orgaus, s, outer sac, /, tube, w, posterior chamber (after Iroduction and evo- lution hud a paralell in the efforts of those entomological histologists who, starting with the conception that the development of the individual was but an unfolding of structures already nascent in the embryo, expected to find — and even claim to have found — ^all the structures of the imago repre- sented, en petit, in the larva. In truth, however, there is a total re-adjustment of cells, and development de novo of organs, with each im]>ortant change or molt, and the vital force which impels this develojiment, whether of the minutest bodily structure or the subtlest intellectual attribute, is the great mystery beyond explanationt Social Insects. 53 of bees show gradations in these two kinds of females, and that some species permit more than one qneen or fertile female in the colony and would refer for further details, both as to present gradations and variations to the Notes, especially numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4. Natural selection, if it has played any part at all, must have done so chiefly in the manner ingeniously suggested by Darwin himself, namely, not as between individuals, but as be- tween colonies. The tendency to produce arrested females or neuters doubtless became fixed in some ancestral form through social selection, and is kept up by this and colony selection. In the wasps we have a very different state of things, involv- ing the parthenogenetic production of arrested females and the seasonal production of fully developed forms of both sexes. Here again, the evidence all goes to show that the differences de- pend for each generation on the environment, food and method of nurture of the larva, the tendency having become fixed in vary- ing degrees in the different species, and only so fixed by being transmitted through the queen or sexually perfect females. So far as natural selection has acted at all, it has acted on the poten- tiality or inherited tendencies of these females. Very exact in- formation is not yet at hand as to how far the neuters are vari- able, whether as to condition of the reproductive organs or as to size. But judging merely by mounted specimens which I have examined in various species, it is probable that there is some variation in these respects, though the three classes are quite neatly differentiated, much as in the bees. When it comes to the ants, the problem is more compli- cated; but we may safely assume that the different forms have been brought about by the same influences. In a large colony of individuals, where size and character are not fixed by a definite cradle, but where the young larv?e are free and are carried about, nursed and fed by the workers, there would naturally arise greater variations between individuals, and while the kind of nourishment, or the kind of nurture, or the age of the female at the time the ova are produced, or the season of the year, have doubtless all contributed to the variation, and may still independently contribute to it at the present time ; yet, what- ever the causes of this variation, it has become fixed in certain definite lines that are more or less useful to the species. Whether or not the proportion of the different individuals is under the 54 Riley — Presidential AcMtcss. control of the colony as a wliole, by virtue of the treatment of the larva, it will always be difficult to prove, though there is every reason to believe that, as in the bees, there is, to some ex- tent, such control, and that the relative proportions of the differ- ent forms will depend upon circumstances. But the fact re- mains that, in ants, as in bees and wasps, the neuters are but arrested females, and are capable of becoming, under exceptional circumstances, fertile, and that we see in the different species all gradations, not only as to the number of forms of the workers, but as to the number of fertile females that are allowed in the same colony to provide for the continuance of the species. We also find in the same species great variation and gradation in the characters of the different sets which form the community, es- pecially between the different forms of workers, in contrast to what I have remarked as to bees and wasps. This has been re- corded not only by writers like Darwin and Lubbock, but by all Avho have given close attention to the subject; while Ch. Lespes (Ann. des Sciences Nat. (4) 20, pp. 241-351) in his " Observations sur les Fourmis Neutres" has shown that all neuters have traces of the female reproductive organs; that these traces vary in the different species; and that where there are two forms of neuters these pass insensibly into each other through intermediate forms. The ants thus furnish us with varying degrees of social organiza- tion when the different species are considered, while the different classes in the same species are not as definitely fixed as in the bees or the wasps. Now it were comparatively easy to account for these neuters among the social Hymenoptera and the different forms and attri- butes which they present, by putting aside natural selection, as expounded by Darwin, and substituting therefor social selection acting not on generations in time, but on the individual at once by the manner of its bringing up ; and surely there would seem to be sufficient justification for this course when we find not only such great physiological and functional, but such profound structural modifications induced by larval environment and nur- ture, as I have pointed out, especially between the queen and the worker bee.* This has, in fact, been the chief explanation which *Mr. Herbert Spencer, in one of his rejoiners to Prof. WeLsmann, {Con- temporary licviciv, December, 1893) refers to a chapter on The Determination of Sex by Prof. Geddes and Mr. Ttiompson in theii" " Evolution of Sex," Social Insects. 55 I have offered for the facts, in discussions with friends and be- fore the society, limiting the action of natural selection to colonies as a whole. Few persons who have not had large experience in rearing insects can appreciate the full influence of larval environ- ment and food on the ultimate imago, or the power of larval accomodation to various conditions. All insects in the larva state possess this power, within varying limits, and it is nowhere more marked than in the Aculeate Hymenoptera. I have called attention to it on numerous occasions* when treating of parasitic species, and it is particularly noticeable in the fossorial Hymen- optera and the Melouht;. Size, especially, may easily be dimin- where they state that " such conditions as deficient or abnormal food " and others " causintjc preponderances of waste over repair * * * tend to re- sult in tiie production of males," while " abundant and rich nutrition " and other conditions which "favor constructive processes * * * result in the production of females." He then cites J. H. Fabre's statement that in the nests of Osmia tricorniH the eggs at the bottom of the cell which are first laid and accompanied by much food, produce females, while those at the top, laid last and accompanied by one-half or one-third the (juantity of food, produce males. (Souvenirs Entomologiques, Seme serie, page 328). He further refers to Iliiber's observations, that the queen bee only lays eggs of drones when declining nutrition or exhaustion has set in, and that when the workers in bees and wasps lay eggs, these produce drones. These statements are not entirely justified. I cannot speak ]>ositively of Fabre's observations, though I suspect something back of the larval food- supply which has fixed the sex and determined the treatment of the larva. But the queen bee produces drones at any age by the egg passing into the drone cell and not being impregnated in passing the spermotheca. She pro- duces drones only when she is superannuated, because the spermatozoa have become exhausted. In wasps it is just the contrary, the unimpregnated egg producing ordinarily, not a drone or a male, but a female. I have already called attention to the ease with which erroneous conclusions are drawn in this matter of regulating sex by food of larv;e, ex ovo (Am. Naturalist, Vol. VH, pp. 513-531, September, 1873) and the evidence would seem to how that the influence is confined to arrestation or modification of the sex without changing it. The subject is, however, most intricate, and further experimental facts are needed. Spencer's conclusion is, nevertheless, gen- erally true, namely: ^^ that one set of dijf'erences in dnidure and instincts is determined l)ji nutrition hejore the egg is laid, and a further set of differences in structure and instincts is determined by nutrition after the egg is had. ' ' *See notes on Tiphia inornata, Sixth Report on the Insects of Missouri, p. 123, and upon Blister-beetles, Fu-st Report U. S. Entomological Commission, pp. 295-302, 56 Riley — Presidential Address. ished one-half or more, or fully doubled, from the normal, by limiting or increasing the supply of food, as I have proved with Pelopaeus. But when we come to the facts in the economy of the Termites, this explanation does not hold good to the same degree. Here we find still greater diversity in form than even among ants, under circumstances where control of these forms by the colony itself must be much less, but nevertheless does occur. The young Termite is to a limited extent, and during early life only, provided with food by members of the colony, and from birth is essentially a free moving agent, less dependent on the adults. We have much yet to learn as to the actual facts, which would seem also to vary in different species. Thus in Eutermes Mr. Hubbard believes, but I think wrongfully, that the young feed on nodules, specially prepaj^ed, of comminuted and doubtless partly digested material, while Fritz Miiller believes that they feed on a fungus mycelium which develops on such prepared substance. The truth with most species seems to be that they are fed on a semi-liquid fluid disgorged from the mouth, whether of the workers or the undeveloped queens ; while in some cases they are fed from a secretion from the anus. (See Note 6.) In these respects and in the early helplessness of the larva^, they closely approximate the social Hymenoptera. Similar variations to those found in social insects, whether sexual or seasonal, are extremely common among insects which are not social, as is well exemplified by the long category of phy- tophagic variation, secondary sexual characters, and of dimorph- ism and heteromorphism among insects. These variations in non- social insects are often equally as marked and as curious, struc- turally, as they are among social species. They are also, except, perhaps, the secondary sexual characters and the variations which take on the form of mimicry, e(|ually difficult to explain on any view of natural selection that is all-sufficient. On the whole, then, it may safely be said that the production of neuter insects is determined in each generation by the colony itself, in the man- ner in which the larva? are fed and reared. In so far as this is true, it is outside the domain of natural selection, and speaks eloquently in favor of the various other causes of variation and modification which have been insisted upon by many of our lead- ing American biologists, and which I have repeatedly urged in Social Insects. 57 my own writings.* The tendency to such production was doubt- less developed in the ancestors of the present species, and Ave may even trace the steps by studying the gradations in existing species. The facts connected with the social insects Avhiqli I have con- sidered, present the strongest argument in favor of the heredity of acquired characters and tendencies. Competition has been between colonies rather than individuals, and those colonies which have acquired, through heredity, the habit of producing, through one or more fertile females, the different forms which have proved useful in the social economy, have, in the course of time, survived others in which such tendency was less pro- nounced. Yet various steps in the process are yet manifest in the different species, and under these circumstances it seems to me foolish to insist that the fixed habit in one species has, per sc, any especial advantage over the less fixed habit in others which still maintain themselves. I need hardly say to the members of this Society who are familiar with my views as to the causes of variation, that it does not follow in my mind that the different forms of Termites, for instance, that are found in the colonies of some species, are all essential, but that some of the forms may be advantageous, others only par- tially so, and still others purely fortuitous. The tendency to vary — an inherent property in all organisms — has shown itself among the individuals of tiiese different colonies. These variations have been guided by natural selection among col- onies, and by what I have just referred to as social selection among individuals, along certain lines which are most useful. In other cases the variation has accumulated along lines of secondary utility ; while in yet others it has gone along lines Avhich are purely fortuitous and still most variable and unfixed — natural selection playing little or no part in these. In species with the less complete social organization, the existing variations will be greatest; while the structures and functions have become most fixed and show least tendency to vary in those species which have become most specialized and perfect in their social economy. It is very questionable, however, whether, in the struggle for ex- istence, this greater specialization and fixity give the species any *See more particularly the address before Section F, at the Cleveland (1888) meeting of the A. A. A. S , and the paper before this Society "Oa the interrelations of Plants and Insects," Vol. VII, pp. 81-104 (May, 1892). 58 Riley — Presidential Address. advantage over another which is more elastic and variable. On the contrary there are many facts which go to show that extreme specialization is a disadvantage and the precursor of decrease and ultimate extinction. So that natural selection, in this light, if limited, as its exponents have limited it, to the production of characters absolutely essential or useful to the species, must play a yet more restricted part in organic variation than even I have allotted to it. Social selection, as here exjwunded, implies, it is true, a degree of intelligence which has unusually been denied these creatures ; but the phenomena are some of them inexpli- cable upon any other theory, and I have, I hope, already shown how little reason we have for denying them such intelligence. In a certain way the production of these specialized individuals in a colony of insects may be likened to the production of specialized individuals in a human community. In ne\v coun- tries, like our own, the specialization has not l)ecome so marked, but in the older communities of the world, the life of the indivi- dual, and especially the early training and environment, produce certain characteristics which permit us to stamp at once the typi- cal sailor, soldier or butcher, the various artisans and the men of various professions. They undergo essential modifications in mind and body. Yet there is no question— or very little — of selection, whether natural or artificial. The tendency to vary in given directions becomes fixed through heredity, since the char- acteristics of different nationalities in comparison with each other cannot be so well explained upon any other view. Certain types persist, and the same laws which will explain the recur- rence and persistence in a promiscuous community of, say, the red-headed type, whether that of atavism or any other be ad- duced, will undoubtedly apply to the persistency of types in the social insects. That no material or mosaic theory of heredity yet propounded is satisfactory, as accounting for the facts, does not affect the question, and that natural selection, as expounded by Weismann and the ultra-Darwinians, fails to explain the phenomena, is the very best evidence thai too much is claimed for the theory. Invertebrate vs. Vertebrate. I used to be fond of speculating as to the possibilities of the articulate type as exemplified in the ant, in comparison with the Social Insects. 59 vertebrate type as exemplified in man, had the former continued its development so as to approximate, say, the eagle in bodily size and man in brain development. That the Arthropod type could attain to such dimensions is evidenced in the Euryp- terus or water scorpion which [)revai]ed in early geologic times, and attained a length of six feet; while a modern Japanese crab (Mc;/nrhihis knnnpfrri) has a spread of ten or twelve feet, and is a .formidable creature. For very much the same selfish reasons that begot most of our earlier notions as to man's origin and place, it has been assumed that he represents the perfection of the animal organization, the highest expression of an all-wise CIreator. Following this same idea, our own world, it has been reasoned, is the only one peopled. Now it has never seemed to me that there was any justification for the assumption that existing forms of plants or animals must of necessity have assumed the physical or mental characteristics which belong to them, considering the myriad forms which have preceded us and gone, or the many which are yet with us, but fast going. Remembering, also, that the race is not always to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, there would seem to be no valid reason why, on some other sphere, under like, or even under unlike conditions, life may not have taken on other distinctive types or attained developments inconceivable to us ; or, for that matter, why it might not have been differently mani- fested upon our own little earth. Place tne directing enginery of the human brain in a body with a hard, external skeleton, which should at once be a defensive armor against exterior attack, a protection to all the vital organs, and yet allow free play to every 2>ossib]e movement; with a breathing system that is multiple, and therefore less liable to get out of order than where it is concentrated in one place; with six or more legs; extremities variously differentiated, so as to enable one pair of them to perform the functions of our hands, while other pairs possessed greater prehensile, tactile or other special- ized powers ; with powerful primary and with supplemental jaws ; with all the senses and sense organs we possess and others added ; with simple and compound or telescopic eyes combined in the same individual ; with a venomous, offensive and defensive weapon ; with a social organization in which working, fighting and reproductive elements are well differentiated and yet under 60 Riley — Presidential Address. control ; with the power of aerial flight developed when wanted ; with a reproductive system that permits of great prolificacy and yet avoids all the dangers of placental birth ; with the power of temporarily suspending the active life functions when necessary; and, finally, with the power of such renewal of both the softer and harder tissues of the body as ecdysis involves — and you have in fancy a creature which would easily make the earth aiul all the fullness thereof its own. The great industry exhibited by social insects has been a fav- orite topic wherewith to point a moral to the sluggard; but T ven- ture to suggest that their economies, if they do not point other morals, are extremely suggestive to man. With all their other traits, so comparable to those characteristic of human society, they will hardly be charged with the possession or practice of any theology; yet we may look in vain, among all the nations of the earth, unless, indeed, among the similarly unblessed aborigines of Borneo and some other lands, for greater self-sacrifice or cour- age in defending the common weal ; for greater loyalty to the sovereign head of the community, not made by divine right, but practically chosen by the commoners; for greater attention or care in the education of the helpless young, or for more har- monious or friendly action between the individuals that form the community. Without form or ceremony they have developed an altruism which with us is believed to exemplify the highest phase of civilization. Nor am I quite sure that they have not solved the social prob- lem in a way that, so far as the good of the community as well as the individual is concerned, has marked advantages over the many varied attempts in the same direction by mankind in dif- ferent parts of the world. If a large ])roportion of the units of both sexes which go to make up human society could be so brought up and trained that the sexual instincts remained per- manently arrested and undeveloped, while along with this arresta- tion in this particular there went an increasing intellectual de- velopment and energy, to be expended in profitable industry, what a large share of vice and misery in human society might be avoided, and what a large amount of increased happiness among the multitude might thus be secured, since in the end, intel- lectual and bodily activities, freed as far as possible from all baser passions, bring us the highest happiness that we can realize ! Social Insects. 61 APPENDIX. Note 1. — The principal Races of Apis mellifica. The common form of this species, known as the Brown, the Black or the Gcrinaii bee, is the best-known. It is found throughout northern Europe, and as far south as central Austria, central Switzerland, and southern France to the Italian frontier. It also occurs in Portugal and Spain, and extends into Siberia, and, during later centuries, has been introduced mto North and South America, many of the Pacitic islands, and into Aus- tralia. Its chief merits are that it has a moderate swarming propensity and is an excellent comb-builder and honey gatherer, and accommodates itself to ttie greatest extremes of climate. Its disadvantages, as compared witii some other varieties, are a disposition to rob, to attack persons who apprcjach the hive and to be somewhat less industrious. The general color is a dull brown, lighter on the thorax, the queens nearly black. The Ileidh and JJnihant bees, sub- varieties, occuring in the heath districts of northern Germany, are much given to swarming, a habit which has be- come tixed by the stimulative leeding in spring practised by the bee-keepers there for at least two hundred years. The Italkui or Lujarkm bee, originally confined to Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, the southern Tyrol, •And southern Switzerland, has now been introduced into most countries where the common black bee occurs. It is gentler in dispo- sition, but not so good a comb-builder and, with a more tender constitution, does not tlu'ive in extreme northern climates. The color of the Italians is in general much brighter, and the first three seg- ments of the abdomen are golden-yellow on their dorsal surfaces. lis iiiuil- Ities and its color have become fairly well tixed by artiticial selection wii'-h there is every reason to believe has been practised in Italy for some two thousand years. Both Virgil and Columella evidently refer to it, the former (Georgics IV, U8) speaking of two kinds of bees, the better of which he de- scribes as having shining bodies, variegated like droi)S of gold. The tend- ency to vary under domestication at the present time would indicate that the the race is a composite one, and Mr. Frank Benton informs me that by cross- ing the Egyptian, the Palestine or the Syrian with the common brown Ger- man race, workers are produced in a few generations that can scarcely be dis- tinguished from Italians ; a feet which as regards the Egyptains, was ascer- tained by the Berlin Acclimatization Society which, some 30 years ago, experimented with the honey bees native to Egypt, and which Mr. Benton has since confirmed by tests with the other two races (Palestine and Syrian). He finds also, that the Syrian tpye leads, when crossed with the common brown race, most commonly to the Italian type, a fact which is significant when we remember that the Phcenicians — ancient inhabitants of Syria — established colonies in southern Italy at a very early date. We can hardly realize to-day the importance that was attached to the ])roduction of honey and wax in Egypt and the surrounding countries in those days, until we remember the uses to which these articles were put in connection with the religious rites of the people, and especially the embalming of the dead, as well as the relative importance of honey in those early days in the absence of the many other sweets wliich we possess. In the United States the Ital- ian race, by selection since its introduction a third of a century ago,* has undergone more rapid modification than any of the other races, tliough *See a paper by the author on "What the Department of Agriculture has done for Apiculture." Proc. North American Bee Keepers' Association, 1893. 02 Riley — Presidential Address. greater efforts, proportionately, have been made with these — another fact which woukl indicate that the Italian type is less tixed than some of the oriental races. The Oirniohin race is contined to Carniola, Austria, and the adjoining jirovinces, and is a local type developed by some centuries of peculiar treat- ment with little intermixture of outside blood. ThLs race is somewhat larger than the others, exceedingly robust, the distinctive color-mark being light gray varying to steel blue, the abdominal segments being all edged with pubescence of this color and tlie thorax thickly set with the same. The race is characterized by great proliticacy, which can be traced to the constant stimulative ieeding early in tile season, and by a very mild disposition, a result which would seem to be due to the frequent manipulation of the hives, migratory beedvceping having; been i)ractised for centuries in Carniola. The Cecroiikm, Attic, or Ili/iiuitta^ bees of Greece, on the other hand, though similar to the CArnioian race in markings, are exceedingly irritable, as a result, doubtless, of their being very little manipulated or interferred with. The Tanisinn bees are found in Tripoli, Tunis, and Algeria, where they are e.Ktensively cultivated by the natives. The type is uniformly dark in color. The ((ueens are very prolific and when preparing to swarm 200 to 300 ijueen- cells are often constructed, instead of only 8 to 10 as Is usual with the ordi- nary race. The workers are small, very active, irritable and vindictive. Be- cause of this and the fact that they do not winter well, in consequence of prolonging the brood season, their introduction has been very limited. The Eean bees. The queens are prolific and when the colonies are made queenless great numl)ers of workers commence depositing eggs at once. The 7^((/('.s7/n,t'.s and Si/rians possess many of the qualities and characteris- tics of Egyptians; yet the queens, workers and drones are readily distin- guishable from those of the latter, being less yellow and larger bodied, es- pecially the Syrians. They are marked varieties, more fixed than the Italian, and evidently forming, with other eastern jNIediterranean bees, an Oriental group having allied characteristics and of which the Egyptian is the extreme type. The L'avcumiii. and Sinnrn'uin races vary more than the other Oriental races. In specimens from ymyrna the light yellow coloration of the abdominal segments noted farther south is found to be replaced by a darker yellow and the light gray pubescence by a less dense and (.larker gray, often brownish, pubescence. Queens, workers and drones are larger bodied and variations in temper and habit may also be noted. The Ciipndii. race, having been isolated for a long period, is, as might be expected, a very fixed one — the most thoroughly so of any race of bees yet brought to this country, and transmits its peculiar markings and character- istics through many generations of crosses with any other known type. In general it resembles the rac3 found on the adjacent mainland, whence it was probably brought by the early Phcenicians who colonized Cyt)rus. Very characteristic markings of this variety are the bright yellow lunule which the postscutelhnn shows and the bright yellow of the ventral surface of the ab- domen clear to the tip. Tlie conditions under which this race has been established have resulted in the survival of a hardy, active race, capable of l)rocuring a living and storing a surplus where others could barely subsist. The literature refers almost entii'ely to the older countries of J<]m-ope and Social Insects. 63 the East. Some modification has doubtless talven pliice in the tropicul jiarts of America but the subject has not yet been sufficiently studied in those countries. Note 2. — The Species of Apis with their Varieties. (1) Apis mcUiJica, L. as indicated in Note I, is found in all the coun- tries of Europe, and extends over the whole of Asia Minor into the Syrian Desert and south into Arabia. It occupies all the islands of the Med- iterranean and has spread throusih all the northern countries of Airica southward into the ])esert of Sahara. South Africa has one or two vai'ieties belonging to the species, while the representatives of the genus foimd in Senegal and the Congo country doubtless belong to this s]»ecies, as do those of Madagascar. ]t lias been permanently introduced into Australia, Tasma- nia, New Zealand and many of the islands of the Pacific ocean. Whether the honey bees reported from northern India belong to this species or not , has not been definitely ascertained. It is also more than i)robable that the honey bee of Chma, described under the name of Apif! sinensis, is but a variety of this species. In North and South America it is evi(iently intro- duced, and has spread into some of the adjacent islands. There is a difier- ence of opinion as to whether the honey bee native to I]gypt, which Latreille describes as J/rt.s./Wmr/^rt, should have specific rank or be regarded as a variety of mdlifica. While Erederick Smith, who was one of our best author- ities, was inclined to attribute to it specific value, the tact that it interbreeds with mellifica, producing fertile ofisj)ring, would rather confirm the opposite view. Respecting the honey bees of Tasmania, Senegal, the Congo and Madagascar, our information is insufficient to permit us to say whether they are specifically distinct or not, and the same may Ije said of the Hazara, Bhootan, and r>ushar bees of northern India and other more or less distinct types found in .lajian. (2) Api.'< indicd Eabr. The extent of territory occupied by this small East Indian bee is not definitely known, although it has been definitely reported from northern and southern India, Ceylon, Earther India and Java. Ajns nigrocinda; A. socially, Latr. ; A. delesserti Guer.; A. perrotfeiii Guer. and A. peronii Latr. are probably only varieties of A. inclica. (o) Apisfiorea Eabr. This, the smallest bee of India, is found generally in .southern India and Ceylon, and there are indications, that it is common to other portions of the East Indies. Apislolxita described by E. Smith in his first catalogue, is dropped from the second edition. (4) Apis dorxidd Eabr. =nigripenniii Latr. =bicolor King. =testacea. It is somewhat questionable whether the names here given as synonymous are such, or names of true varieties of f/o/'.svfta. A. dorxala, known as the Giant ]*]ast Indian Bee, is found in British India, Ceylon, Earther Intliaand the Dutch p]ast Indies. (5) Apix :(iit((ta Guerin. Found in the Philippine Islands and Celebes. Mr. E. Smith enumerated this as worthy of specific rank, when he revised his catalogue in 1S7(). He referred to its greater size and diiference in form of the metatarsus compared with that of ,1. durndta. But Gerstaecker as- serted in 1865 that this difference in structure of the metatarsus does not exist — is " purely imaginary ". Mr. Erank Benton, to whom I am under obligations for valuable infor- mation on this subject, has kindly prepared for me the following table as indicating his own ideas of the grouping of the species of Apis, and the known varieties of these. 64 Riley — Presidential Address. The Species of xipis wilh Lheir Vcaielies. f Race. — Common Brown, Black, or German. — Hab.: Central, north- ern and nortliwe.stern Europe ; introdueed into N. and S. America, Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islands. Sub-var. — Heath. — Hab.: Heath districts of North Ger- many. Sub-var. — Brabant or Small Holland. — Hab.: Brabant (Hol- land and Belgium). Race. — Carniolan. — Hab.: Carniola, Carinthia (Aus.). A distinct var. 8ub-var. — Hungarian. — Hab.: Northwestern Hungary. Race. — Dalmatian. — Hal>.: Dalmatia (Austria). Race. — Herzegovinian. — Hab.: Herzeyovina (Austria). Race. — Cecropian, Attic or Hymettus. — Hab.: Greece and the adja- cent islands. Var. — ligadica Spin., Ligurian or Italian.— Hab.: Italy and adja- cent islands. S. Switzerland, and S. Tyrol ; introduced S i into other parts of Europe, N. and S. America, Aus- ^ tralia and New Zealand. Var. — tr»/('.scfH.s — Hab.: — Tasmania (acc'd to M. Girard). Var. — 1«'<7'''<"''""« St. Fary:. — Hab.: Conojo (Africa). Var. — i*<(d(msoni Latr. — Hab.: Senegal (Africa). Var. — sctitellataSt. Farg. — Hab.: South Africa. Var. — cafra St. Farg. — Hab.: South Africa. Race. — Tunisian. — Hab.: Tunis, Algeria. Sub-var. — Minorcan. — Hab.: Balearic Islands (Spain). \'ar. — ■f*i()nc(il T o (lo " j-i 11 i ij > Hab.: Prov. Smano. to -{ Race.— Japanese -^ 2. "Bee with yellow spots. ' J 'o. I (;3. "Small brown bee." — Hab.: Hikigoie (Satsuma) **" I Race. — Boohtan. — Hal).: Boohtan (India). It is very probable that fmther investigation of this group I will bring four of its varieties under ^1. rnellifica, and the l^ last one under yl . imlica. Hndica Fabr., Small E;\st Indian bee. — Hab.: British and Dutch East Indies. =socialis Latr. — Hab.: Bengal. =delesfierii Guer. — Hab. : Pondicherry. =perrotteiri Guer. — Hab.: India. =peroirii Lat. . — Hab.; India. Var. (?) — *nigr()c'nicted for this pui'pose. But in the Hive Bee the specialized polliniferous apparatus is limited to the posterior legs, and in these to the tibia and the basal joint of the tarsas, so that the development of these i)ai'ts only need be traced. In the case of the tibia the first tiling to be noted is the entire absence of the tibial s|jurs, which are present in all Hymenoptera except the genus Apis, and its near allies Melipona and Trigona. The tibia and first tarsal joint are greatly broadened and more or less concave exteriorly, and the latter is extraordinarily enlarged, so that it is nearly equal m size to the tibia. The outer surface of this modified tarsal joint is not remarkable and has no specific function, but the inner surface is divided into transverse rows of stifi' spines or combs, reddish in color, the rows slightly overlapping and elevated at a slight angle from the suiface of the joint. The function of this series of combs is to collect the pollen grains which become eutan- led in the feathery hairs of the thorax of the insect, and an examination will almost invariably discover more or less of the grains of pollen in these combs. During Ihe collecting of honey and pollen, the bee is constantly passing the face of this tarsal joint over its abdomen, I'emoving the jiolleii grains from time to time, and emptying the load of pollen into the pollen- basket proper or corbiculum, on the outer face of the tibia. This, as noted, Is concave, witli a smooth, almost hairless exterior surface, provided at the sides with several rows of long curved hairs, which arch over either side, forming a veritable basket in which the pollen may be securely packed. As soon as the collecting combs of the tarsus are tilled, the bee draws them across the strong, curved hairs of the corbicaila, the right tarsus emptying into the left corbiculum and vice verm, until both are filled. These baskets or masses of jiollen are emptied by means of the single strong tibial spine on ea<;h of the middle pair of legs, the spine being thrust beneath the load of jjollen and use* 1 as a pry to loosen and remove it. A very remarkalile i)eculiarity of the pasterior legs, but having no con- nection with the ))olliniferous apparatus, is seen at the union of tibia and tirst tarsal joint. These are articulated at the extreme anterior angles in such a manner that the broadened a])ex of one and the base of the other, work together as a sort of nippers or pincers. The tibia is armed on the inner margin with a strong, uniform row of short spines extending two- thirds of the way across. This apparatus is employed by the bees in re- moving the wax scales trom the abdomen. 66 Riley — Preside iit'uiJ Address. I'^xamination of these parts in other species of Apis fails to indicate any particular modification or deviation in structure from nieUiJiat. In Api.'< inclicu no dili'erences whatever can be discovered ; in A. dorsata the leg is somewhat more hairy and a few hairs occur on the outer surface of the tibia. In . I. //o;-m the smallest S])ecies known, the spines on the apex of the tibia are somewhiit shorter and stouter and the hairs forming the cor- biculum are somewhat less regular in length and arrangement. 1'his shitement of Ihe structure of these parts in the species of Apis will enable us to compare intelligently the similar jiarts in those genera most nearly allied to them, trat-ing the variation through these to the more widely divergent forms. The genera JMelipona ancl Tiigona include bees which are closest to Apis in genei'al structure and habits, and agree also iu the absence of the tibial spines of the posterior legs. We tind, as might be infe]-)-ed, a very close corresi)ondence in the poliiniferous apparatus, which, in :dl essential details, is practically the same as in Apis. The pollen-col- lecting combs on the inner surface of the tii'st tai'sal joint are al)sent, or rather their ]3la(^e is supplied by a uniform clothing of shoit stiff spines which are not arranged transversely in rows, as in Apis, but serve the same purpose. This joint also ditfers in shape from that in Apis, by being sud- nce which was noteee these discs are com- pound and two in number on each segment. They are broad, ovate, pale yellow in color, smooth, delicate and transparent, and are surrounded by a narrow thickening of the chitine of the sclerite and sejKirated by an un- modified medio- ventral sejitum. Tins specialized structure occurs only in the workers. The queen, however, has a sub-obsolete, undivided area on the same five abdominal segments, and which in structure bears a striking resemblance to the similar area in the workers of the lower forms of social bees. The wax discs of Melipona and Trigona are practically identical, and are narrow, extending entirely across the base of tlie segment, not being V)roken, as in Apis, with a dividing septum, and also extending laterally *The Fertilisation of Flowers, by Prof. Hermatjn Mu'ller, Translated and edited by D'Arcy "W. Thompson, B. A,, lyOndon, 1583. 68 Riley — Presidential Address. nearly to the apex of tlie sclerite as in the case of the fertile female in Apis. In Bombus the structure is almost identically the same as m Melipona. Note 5. — Ant Economy. Considering the large number of species of ants, a book would be re- quired to treat of them in detail, and volumes iuive been written. In this note I shall only treat of a few of the better known, to sup|ilement the mere summary iu the body of the address The most interesting of our North .American species which I have had an ojiportunity of studying are the mound-building species of the East, the leaf-cutting species of Florida and Texas, and the honey ants of Colorado. With the aid of Mr. Th. Pergande, who has been assitluous in his studies of the family, and is per- haps om" best-informed myrmecologist, I have brouglit together a number of notes on the habits of our North American species of Carpenter Ants and others; but they are excluded as the least important' in connection with the text, and with a view of duly limiting the pages. MouNiJiu iLiuNG Ants. — In this category may be classed by far the larger number of our better-known ants. The term is, however, jjarticularly applicable to the species of the genus Formica. These ants are very much more active and industrious and typical of the family, than are the carpen- ter ants. Our own species inhabit, by i)reference, pine woods. They are pugnacious and valiant, and whenever their mound is disturbed, however slightly, will speedily cover the whole surface iu one surging mass, spread- ing over the mound and attacking in their fury any living creatm^e within reach. They are in fact so tierce and fearless that even man tloes well to avoid their mounds ; for the bite is quite severe, and Avhen multi- plied indelinitely is unbearable. The Fallow ant {Formica exsecioide.t Forel), one of om' best kno\ni species and a close ally of F. exsectn of Europe, builds large mounds of earth, more or less mixed with other materials, esjieciaJly small sticks and dried leaves of pine. These will measure all the way from two to eight feet in diameter at the base, and may be from one to three feet high. Tliey are more or less regular and conical, full of galleries, with larger or smaller chambers which communicate with a general system of subterranean cells or cavities, which are used as store-rooms, nurseries for the young, parlors for the queens, and other purposes. The purpose of the superstructure in most mound-build- ing ants a]>pears to i;)e for aei'ation, for the more rapid development of the larva', and, apparantly, to facilitate social intercouse between the individuals when not engaged in actual work. Excejit for the extrane- ous matter- which gives it lirmness, all the material of the mound is brought up from beneath the surface, and the inhabitants are incessantly at work, night and day, in constructing, alteruig and re]iairing. Very large colonies are often connected by secondary hills. I once had a good oppor- tunity of studying these mounds around Itliaca, N. Y., and Dr. H. C. IMc- Cook has published a most interesting and detailed account of his observa- tions upon this ant in the Trans. American Entomological ."^ot'iety for 1877, Vol. VI, page 253, and also in Tlie Amencan Natvrnlist for July, 1878, Vol. XII, pp. 431-445. It is i)articularly common in the Alleganies. There are three forms of workers, viz, mnjor, minor and dwarf. His interesting ob- servations will well reiiay reading. It is in these mound-building ants that we find the true economy of the division of labor. While large numbers are ceaselessly building and min- ing, so as to keep the formicary iu good condition, repairing or increasing its size, so as to accommodate the growing numbeis, others are busily engagetl in scorning the surrounding country for food, both for themselves, for the multitude of those who staj^ at home, and for the young. In these exjiedi- tions they never hesitate to attack any other insect that may be in their way, no matter how much larger than themselves, and what they lack in power individually they make up in numbers. Still others again are run- Social Insects. 69 ning over the trees and shrubs and other plants, searching for plant-hce, from which they gather the sweet rejectamenta, gorging tliemselves fre- quently to such an extent that ^they return home with difficulty. This honey is used chielly for feeding tlie larv;e. HoNKY Ants. — ^There is really but one Honey Ant, strictly speaking, viz, Mi/rmecocyslas melligcr Llave {M. ■mcxicanii'^ Westm.), in North America, anil this ranges from Mexico to Colorado. Other species occur in other parts of the world, with somewhat similar habits, and one is especially mentioned by Lubbock from Australia {Oinipoiwlattiiijkdn.'i Lubb.) wluch lias undergone ]3recLsely the same modifications, though belonging to a distinct genus, a most interesting lact, since it shows tiiat the moditication has arisen inde- pendently. The honey collected and stored by these ants has little value commercially, tirst, because of its ratliei' jjoor (juality ; secondly, because of its small quantity — barely more than lialf a pint to each colony — obtainable ; and, thirdly, because of the difficulty of colonizing or in any way commer- cially manijiulating the anfes. The insect must be crushed to obtain the honey. Yet it is sought for by the INIexican Indians, and used to a con- siderable extent. The formicaries are little truncateil cones from two to three inches higb, and usually less than a foot m diameter. They have a tubular channel, a few inches in diameter, leading from the central opening to the interior, to a depth of six inches or more below the general surface. Here are often found one or more dome-like vaults or honey-chambers, about an inch deep by about tlu'ee mclies in width. Hanging from the roughened roof of these chambers may, at any time, be found numbers of the honey-bearers, with inimensely swollen abdomens and looking, when congregated, like a series of small grapes or large currants, with the same translucency which tliese possess. These individuals have little capacity for movement, and indeed move but little. They are but living receptacles of the sweets which are gathered by the real workers, and the food-supply of the rest of the colony is only drawn from these stationary honey reserves, or animated lioney pots, as Lubbock calls them, when necessity re(juiies. The modifications are conlhied to the abdominal portion of the digestive organs. The honey is gathered from a little Cynipid oak-gall which I have described as Cynips iert-s. 71 a more or less conspicuous loose nest by massing together the exuvi;e of the Apliides and portions of dead leaves, generally aronns, to do with the ditferentiation of individuals among ter- mites tiian among the bees, wasjis or ants. All Termite larva- are supposed to partake of the same kind of food, as to the nature of whic^h there is conflict of opinion, due doubtless to the vary- ing habits in the different species. From my own observations on Termes and Eutermes, I am inclined to believe that, as in the Social Hyu)enoptera, the food and treatment of the young larva, during the first stage more par- ticulai'ly, have much to do in determining the development or suppression of the sexual organs, and, us a consequence, in determining the character of the full grown inilividual. The eg^s are, first of all, brought together in special parts of the termitary, and it is quite probable that tlie workers ex- ercise some judgment and discrimination in the groujiing, as has been proved to be the case with Hymenoptera, with a view to future larval treat- ment. Judging from the delicacy of their mouth-parts and of the general integument, the young are at first more or less dependent upon either the fore^iought or the direct action of the adults, and I cannot resist the con- clusion that the infancy of the termites is dependent, as it is in the Social Hymenoptera, if not to the .same extent; for they have soon perished where I have hatched them away from adults, and have developeinted antenna. After the first moult the differentiation into neuters and sexed individuals becomes appre- ciable, not only in the beginnings of the development of the sexual organs, but in the increase in the number of an tennal joints. The larvte and sub- *By placing a small quantity of arsenic or calomel mixed with sugar in their burrows or nests, the termites will greedily devour the mixture, and by means of the poisoned individuals being fed on as fast as they perish, the whole colony will in time be de- stroyed. 74 Riley — Prc^idcDtia} A(l(lrc><^. sequent stages of the neuters remain eyeless and the thoracic segments are very little altered, since they develop no wings. But after the second moult a fm'ther difterentiution takes place between the laivte of the ordinary workers and soldiers, those of the former being recognized by the small head, smaller mandibles, large maxilhe and labium, while those of the lat- ter have a much larger head, very prominent mandibles, variously moditied according to species, and much smaller maxilke and labial parts. In the perfect workers and soldiers these differences are still more strongly marked, and both forms may at once be distinguished from other larvie by the darker color and the shining ami harder integuments. A peculiar form of neuter, occurring in Eutermes, the so-called nasuti, I'emained a puzzle for a long time. In this form the head is pear-shaped and prolonged anteriorly into a tube or nose which possesses a channel leading backward into the head. The nasuti Viave the power of secreting a viscid hquid from the tip of this nose. The mandibles are not prolonged and are unfitted for biting, while the lower mouth-parts are but little better developed than in the common soldiers. Dr. Hagen in the Appendix to his famous monogra|)h of theTermes, recognized this form as a soMier form, characteristic of the genus Eutermes, which replaces the large-headed and mandibulate soldiers of the other genera. Mr. Hubbard, however, records having found in one colony of Eutermes ripperiii in Janiaicra a few of these nasuti among the soldiers (Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 1877, pp. 270-2). It is believed, and I think justly, by Fritz Miiller that when found in colonies of other Termites having mandibulate soldiers, these nasuti are mere inquilines or intruders, and the opposite view is justifiable, that when the mandibu- late soldier is found among the nasuti, it also is an intru'ler.* Acknowledgment. Figures 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10 and 11. are made from illustrations belonging to the JDepartment of Agriculture, and are used by the kind permission of Chas. R. Dabuey, Jr., Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. *Smce this address was writteu, I have had an opportiiuitj' of studying Eutermes in the West Indies, E. morio, at St. Thomas, St. Kitts, Monserrat, Dominica, Mar- tinique, St. Lucia and Barbados, and both it and E. ripper tti in Jamaica. The nasuti are here the smallest individuals in the colony and also somewhat the darkest. They have no power of biting, and no organ of offense, as the liquid exuded from the tip of the nose has no pungent property. They may, therefore, be handled with perfect impunity Of some forty nests examined none have furnished a mandibulate soldier. The nasuti, though having no weapon of offense (so far at least as man is concerned) are nevertheless active guards, and undoubtedly take the place of the soldiers in Termes proper. They crowd around the queen, when the colony is disturbed, and rush to the outside and about the borders of any breakage or hole made in the nest or the tunnels thereto. They thiow up the head and play the antennse and palpi in a comically threatening way, considering their inoffensiveness, and they watch around the borders on the inside of such breakage while the workers run up rapidly now and again to deposit the soft excrement which is to mend the gap, and of which the tunnels and nests are for the most part formed. Eggs and young larvce are frequently borne on the nose and on the feelers of these nasuti; but I have not yet satisfied myself that they are thus purposely carried, and are not accidentally .stuck by the exuding liciuid, the latter view comporting best with most of the cases. But that these nasuti perform some function in the economy of the colony other than that of soldiery defence, is rendered almost certain by their relative!}- large numbers com- pared with the real soldiers in Termes, for they are generally as numerous as the man- dibulate workers and sometimes as numerous as all the other individuals together. While the liquid from the no.se may be used in cementing the walls of the tunnels, I am inclined to believe that it is of more importance in furnishing the first pabulum of tlie voung. EAilermes ripprytii dAS^m little itova. E. morio \\\ habit except that the hard, paler nodules generally found in its older nests do not occur in' those of the latter. But the most interesting experience, which is born out by the observations of Mr Dudle\- on the species in Panama, is that I have found as many as nine queens in one nest and often three or four. In fact there is everj' variation, even in independent nests which appar- ently have no accessory mother-nest, from those without queen to those with one up to nine (or more according to Dudlej'), while in one nest I found scores of true royal pairs in which the queens had undergone no material enlargement. 1 have also fotuid either no male or sometimes two and once three males associated with a single queen. Ordinarilj', however, there is but a pair, i.e., one queen and her escort. Vol. IX, pp. 75-88 April 9 1894 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON FOSSIL CYCADEAN TRUNKS OF NORTH AMERICA, WITH A REVISION OF THE GENUS CYCADEOIDEA BUCKLAND. BY LESTER F. WARD. The recent discovery of a large number of fossil cycadean trunks in the Cretaceons rim of the Black Hills, has furnished a new stimulus to the study of these forms in America, Such objects have been found at no less than six distinct North Ameri- can localities. The oldest and best known forms are those first mentioned by Tyson from the Lower Cretaceous of Maryland. Dr. Emmons found one such in the Trias of North Carolina, and Sir Wm. Dawson another in the Trias of Prince Edward Island. All the rest, with one exception, are from Cretaceous strata, the age probably not widely differing from that of the Maryland specimens. These are from the Trinity division of the Comanche group in Southern Kansas, and from two localities among the foot-hills outside of the Red Beds of the Black Hills region in South Dakota. The exception to this is the Cycadeoidca mira- hilis (Lx.) Solms {Zamiostrodus mirahilis Lx.), found on the surface of the ground by Dr. F. V. Hayden, near Golden, Colo- rado, within the Laramie, or Post- Laramie terrane. This locality is at the foot of the Front Range, and it would have been very easy for an erratic block to be borne down the mountain side and lodged in the valley where this was found. As is well known, older formations are encountered on ascending the eastern slope 76 Ward — Fos.9il Cijcadean Triinls of of the Eocky Mountains, and Cretaceous and Jurassic strata un- doubtedly crop out immediately above this locality. Early in the spring of 1893, the National Museum obtained possession of a collection of six fine cycadean trunks from parties residing at Hot Springs, South Dakota, who had collected them at that vicinity.* One of these specimens measures thirty- one inches in height and twenty-four in greatest diameter, and weighs nine hundred pounds ; the others are comparatively smaller, the smallest of all not exceeding a foot in height. Most of them are considerably flattened, but one or two are nearly cir- cular in cross section. One of them exhibits a number of lateral branches, and in most cases the apex is depressed, forming the "crows nests" so characteristic of the specimens from the Isle of Portland, Dorsetshire, England. In the Geology of the Black Hills, prepared by Profes- sors Newton and Jenney, from their survey of 1875, and published at Washington in 1880, none of the Cretaceous strata below the Dakota group of Meek and Hayden, are recognized ; and while I presumed from the general his- tory of this class of vegetation that these remains came out of the Triassic Red Beds, or the overlying Jurassic, I was still so greatly interested to ascertain their true source that early in September last I made an expedition to the region, and in coop- eration with Professor Jenney discovered the locality and made further collections, including one very much branching and very large trunk and many interesting fragments. All the re- mains of this class that have been thus far found in the southern part of the Black Hills, occur in the area map^jed as t)akota group by Professor Newton, and, although no cycadean vege- tation had yet been found amidst the extensive collections from the Dakota group of Kansas, Nebraska, and other more eastern localities, we were at first disposed to accept this as proof of their occurrence at that horizon in this region. But the great im- probability of this assumption led us to make a careful examina- tion of the series that had been thus classed by Professor New- ton. The result was that we came to the conclusion that the Dakota group of Newton is much more extensive than the No. 1 of Meek and Hayden, and while the upper portion of it cer- *See Science, Vol. XXI, New York, June 30, 1893, p. 355. North America. ' 77 tainly belongs to the true Dakota, the lower portion very proba- bly extends to near the base of the Cretaceous. The evidence upon which these conclusions rest will soon be published, and it need only be added that the cycadean trunlss belong to this lower portion though not very near the base and may not differ greatly in age from those found in Southern Kansas and Maryland. At another part of the Black Hills region, within the foot- hills on the Eastern side, some six or eight miles north of Eapid City, and between that place and Piedmont, and also probably in the Cretaceous area, two other specimens have been found and are now at the State School of Mines at Rapid City. The where- abouts of these specimens was not known at the time that I vis- ited that section, but since my return Professor Jennej, ap- pointed at about that time Dean of the Faculty of the State School of Mines, has discovered them there and has furnished me the data for tlie brief description given below, together with rough drawings, and measurements, From him I learn that in 1877, Mr. J. M. Leedy, then of Rapid City, now residing in Florida, found these specimens at the place stated, that they re- mained at his ranch for some time, were then placed on exhibi- tion at a fair held at Library Hall, and not being supposed to have any value, were subsequently thrown out into a vacant lot, where they remained until removed to the School of Mines. These forms are much more cylindrical than those found in the southern section, and seem without doubt to constitute a new species. I have therefore named this species Gycadeoidea Jen- neyana, in commemoration of Professor Jenney's great services to the people of that section as well as to science in general. I have not seen Professor Cragin's specimens from Southern Kansas, and he unfortunately did not figure them, but he stated in his description that they very closely resemble the Maryland specimens, of which he had obtained a photograph and had learned some particulars as to size. While he thought these two forms were specifically identical, it is probably best to let them remain as distinct species for the present. All of our American forms appear to belong to the genus Cycadeoidea of Buckland. None of the taller, more slender, palm-like, or branching trunks, belonging to the Old World genera Bucklandia and Cylindropodium, have yet been discovered this side of the Atlantic. The genera Fittonia, Yatesia, and 78 Ward — Fossil Cycadean Trunks of North America. Platylepis, in which the leaf-bases are persistent, seem also to be absent. I have therefore made a careful revision of the genus Cycadeoidea condensing into it the Bolbopodium and Clathropo- dium of Saporta, and also referring to it all the species of Ben- nettites of Carruthers. The greater part of all this had already been done by the recent researches of Count Solms-Laubach, and it only remained to pick up a few of the outlying forms that did not come within the purview of his studies. If his results are accepted at all there is no logical stopping-place short of the embodiment of all these forms under the genus Cycadeoidea. It is of course possible that future exhaustive study, especially from the standpoint of internal structure, may result in the subdivi- sion of this genus into several. But at present the tendency is toward consolidation, and a great uniformity is found in both the external and internal characteristics of the extinct Cycadacene. In a much more extended paper, which is now in preparation I hope to bring out the special characteristics of our American forms and to compare them with those of the Old World, Sec- tions are now being made of some of the specimens from the Black Hills, and it is proposed to illustrate the internal structure of these specimens as fully as possible. Prof. F. H. Knowlton has consented to superintend the work of section cutting and to prepare the part of this paper relating to internal structure. Thus far we are in possession only of the Black Hills material and the single specimen of G. mirahilis described by Lesquereux in his Tertiary Flora. This specimen was loaned several years ago to count Solms who made sections of it and prepared several slides, duplicates of which he sent back with the specimen. I also have a somewhat careful description of what he found, not only in letters received from him, but also in his memoir on the fossil cycads of Italy. Should other material come into our hands it will also be treated from the same standpoint. I have endeavored in all cases to conform strictly to the law of priority now so rigidly enforced in all departments of natural history. I have been careful to give dates, so that the reasons for the deviations from the more current designations may be clear. If I have made any mistakes in this respect I shall be very thank- ful to receive corrections before the final paper is completed, this being one of the objects of this preliminary one. Species. 79 BU VISION OF THE GENUS CYGADEOIDEA BUCKLAND. Genus Cycadeoidea Buckland. 1827. Cycadeoidea Buckland, Proc. Geol. Soc, Lond. , Vol. 1, No. 8, pp. 80-81 (Session of June H, 1827). 1828. Cycadeoidea Buckland, Trans. Geol. Soc. Loud., 2 Ser., Vol. II, pp. 375-401, pi. xlvi-xlix. This genus seems to be the ultimate destiny of all cycadcan trunks of dwarf bnlb-like or conical form, deciduous leaf stalks and rhombic leaf scars. Count Solms-Laubach has already re- ferred many of the species of Bennettites and Clathropodium to it, and the Marquis Saporta admits that one species of Bolbopo- dium belongs to the same genus as C. pygimva. The fact alone that fruit has been found in one species (C Gibsoni) seems in- sufficient ground for retaining the genus Bennettites. The only other name that has any claim to retention for this group is Mantellia of Brongniart, but his publication of it at the same date with Buckland's Cycadeoidea was a nomen nudum, and had moreover been used for an animal fossil. It is therefore gener- ally given up. Brongniart himself conceded this, but wrote Cycadoidea on grounds of euphony. Even this cannot be al- lowed by the now more and more strictly enforced rules of no- menclature, and Gycadeoidea must stand as originally Avritten by Buckland. Cycadeoidea megalophylla Buckland. 1827. Cycadeoidea megalophylla Buckland, Proc. Geol. Soc. Lond., Vol. I, No. 8, p. 80. 1828. Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond., 2d Ser., Vol., II, pp. 397-401, pi. xlvii, figs. 1-4; pi. xlviii, figs. 1-a. 1828. Mantellia nidiformis Brongn., Prodrome, pp. il6, 199. 1837. Mantellia megalophylla (Buckl.) Bronn, Lethaea Geognostica, p. 227, pi. XV, fig. 2. 1837. Cycadites megalophyllus Buckland, Geology and Mineralogy, etc., Vol. I, p. 497 ; Vol. II, p. 98; pi. Ix, figs. 1, 2. 1838. Zamites megalophyllus (Buckl.) Presl, in Sternberg's Versuch, etc., Vol. II, Hefte 7 and 8, p. 19G. 1842. Encephlartos Bucklandii Miquel, Monogr. Cycad., p. 60. 1849. Echinostipes nidiformis (Brongn.) Pomel, Matcriaux, etc., p. IH. 1874. Clathropodmm megalophyllum (Buckl.) Saporta, PI. Jurass., Vol II, p. 285, pi. Ixxvi, fig. 1. Purbeck beds. Isle of Portland, Dorsetshire, England, 80 Ward — Fossil Ci/eadean Trvnls of North America. Cycadeoidea micropbylla Buckland. 1827. Cycadeoidea micropbylla Buckland, Proc. Geol. Soc. Lond., Vol. I, p. 81. 1828. Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond., 2d Ser., Vol. II, pp. 398-401, pi. xlix, figs. 1, 2. 1834. Strobintes Bucklandii L. & H., Foss. Fl. Gt. Brit., Vol. II, p. 1:^3, pi. cxxix. 1837. Mantellianiicroph}'lla(Backl.) Bronn, Lethaea Geognostica, 'p. 227. 1837. Cycadites microphyllus Buckland, Geology and Mineralogy, etc., Vol. 1, pp. 497, 498; Vol. II, pp. 98, 99, 100, pi. Ixi, figs. 1-3; pi. Ixii, figs. 2, 3. 1838. Zamites microphyllus (Buckl.) Presl, in Sternberg's Versuch, etc., Vol. II, Hefte 7 and 8, p. 196. 1849. Echinostipes microphyllus (Buckl.) Pomel, Materiaux, etc., p. 1(5. 1874. Clathropodium microphyllum (Buckl.) Sap., PI. Jurass., Vol. II, p. 284. Purbeck beds. Isle of Portland, Dorsetshire, England. Morris gives as locality for SirobiUtes BacHandii, not stated by Lindley and Hutton, the Upper Greensand of Wiltshire, and Presl says that the species is also found in the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis. Cycadeoidea pygmaea L. & H. 1835. Cycadeoidea pygmtea L. & H., Foss. FL Gt. Brit., Vol. II, p. 175, pi. cxliii. 1841. Zamites pygmteus (L. & H.) Morris, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., Vol. VII, p. 116. 1849. Echinostipes pygmjeus (L. & H.) Pomel, Materiaux, etc., p. 17. 1870. Mantellia pygmtea (L. & H.) Carruthers, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., Vol. XXVI, p. 703. Lower Lias of Lyme Regis, P^ngland. Pomel thought he recognized the species in his material from France, but this may have been C. Pldavienm. Cycadeoidea Saxbyana (R. Brown) ]Morris. 1851. Cycadites Saxbyanus 11. Brown, Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond., Vol. II, p., 130. 1854. Cycadeoidea Saxbyana (R. Brown) Morris, Cat. Brit. Foss., 2d ed., p. 7. 1867. Bennettites Saxbyi Carruthers, Brit. Assoc. Rep., 37th ^Meeting, Pt. II, p. 80. 1870. Bennettites Saxbyanus (R. Brown) Carruthers, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., Vol- XXVI, pp. 681, (598, 706, pi. Ivii, figs. 1-8. Wealden of Brook Point, Isle of Wight, England. Cycadeoidea Gibsoni Carruthers sp. 1867. Bennettites Gibsoni Carr., Brit. Assoc. Rep., 37th meeting, Pt. II, p. 80. 1870. Bennettites Gibsonianus Carr., Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., Vol. XXVI, pp. 681, 700, pi. Iviii, figs. 1-5; pi. lix, figs. 1-9; pi. Ix- figs. 1-12. Lower Greensand of Luccomb Chine, Isle of Wight, England. species. 81 Cycadeoidea Portlandica (Carr.) Solms. 1870. Bennettites Portlandicus Carr., Trans. Linn. Soc. Ix)nd., Vol. XXVI, pp. G81, 700, 707, pi. Ixi, figs. 1-5. 18'Jl'. Cycadecjidea Portlandica (Carr.) Solms, Mem. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, Ser. \, Tom. II, p. 187. Lo^ver Purbeck beds, Isle of Portland, England. Cycadeoidea maxima (Carr.) Solms. 1870. Bennettites maximus Carruthers, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., Vol. XXVI, pp. 6S1, 699. 1892. Cycadeoidea maxima (Carr.) Solms, Mem. A.ccad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, Ser. V, Tom. II, p. 187. Wealden of Shanklin, Isle of Wight, England. Cycadeoidea Carruthersi. 1870. Mantellia intermedia Carruthers, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., Vol. XXVI, pp. ()81, 702, 708, pi. Ixiii, tigs. 4, 5. 1874. Cycadeoidea intermedia (Carr.)Schimp. (non Kanzani), Paleontologie Vegetale, Vol. Ill, p. 556. Lower Pm-beck beds. Isle of Portland, England. The name C. intermedia being preoccupied by Kanzani in 1836 (see below) it was necessary to change it. Cycadeoidea Peachii (Carr.) Solms. 1^67. Bennettites Peachii Carruthers, Brit. Assoc. Rep., 37th meeting, Pt. II, p. 80. 1870. Bennettites Peachianus Carruthers, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., Vol. XXVI, pp. 681, 700, 707, pi. Ixii, figs. 1, 2. 1892. Cycadeoidea Peachii (Carr.) Solms, Mem. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, Ser. V, Tom. II, p. 187. Coral Rag of Helmsdale, Sutherlandshire, Scotland. Cycadeoidea inclusa (Carr.) Schimper. 1870. Mantellia inclusa Carruthers, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., Vol. XXVI, pp. 681, 703, 708, pi.. Ixiii, figs. 2, 3. 1874. Cycadeoidea inclusa (Carr.) Schimper, Paleontologie Vegetale, Vol. III, p. 556. Lower Cretaceous of Potton, Cambridgeshire, England. Cycadeoidea Bucklandi Corda sp. 1845. Zamites Bucklandi Corda, Beitr. z. Flora der Vorwelt, pp. 38, 120, pi. xvii, figs. 1-10. Locality and formation unknown. Corda says that the specimen prob- ably came from England. It resembles C. Suxbi/ana. Cycadeoidea Morieri Renault sp. 1887. Clathropodium Morieri Renault, Bull. Soc. Linn. Normand.,4eSer., Vol. I, pp. 143-151, pi. iv, V. Purbeck beds. Isle of Portland, England. 82 Ward—Fos-'iil Cycadean Trunks uf North America. Cycadeoidea forata (Sap.) Solms. 1875. Clathropodium foratum Saporta, PI. Jurass., Vol. II, p. 297, pi. cxxiv, figs. 1, 2. 1892. Cycadeoidea forata (Sap.) Solms, Mem. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, Ser. Y, Tom. II, p. 190. Gault of Cauville near Havre, France. Saporta's original supposition that this form came from the Oolite of Mans (Sarthe) was subsequently found to be erroneous. Cycadeoidea Pictaviensis (Longuemar) Saporta, ms. 1870. Cycadeoidea Pictaviensis (Longuemar) Saporta, ms., inSchimper: Paleontologie Vegetale, Vol. II, p. 188; Atlas, pi. Ixxi, fig. 12. 1870. Araucaria Pictaviensis Longuemar, Et. geol. et agron. sur le depart. de la Vienne, Vol. I, p. 491. 1874. Bolbopodium Pictaviense (Longuemar) Saporta, PI. Jurass., Vol. II, p. 258, pi. cxviii, fig. 2. Upper Oxford of Montanaise near Poitier (Vienne), France. Cycadeoidea Sarlatensis Saporta sp. 1849. Cycadeoidea sp. Brongniart, Tableau, p. 59. 1875. Clathropodium Sarlatense Saporta, PI. Jurass., Vol., II, p. 293, pi. cxxiii, figs. 1, 2. Upper Jurassic of Sarlat (Dordogne), France. Cycadeoidea Trigeri Brongniart. 1849. Cycadeoidea Trigeri Brongniart, Tableau, p. 59. 1849. Cycadites Trigeri Brongn. ms., cf. Saporta, PL Jurass., Vol. II, p. 288. 1849. Echinostipes sp. Pomel, INIateriaux, p. 17. 1874. Clathropodium Trigeri (Brongn.) Saporta, PI. Jurass., Vol. II, p. 288, pi. cxxii, figs. 1-3. Upper Jurassic of Mans (Sarthe), France. Cycadeoidea micromera Saporta sp. 1874. Bolbopodium micromerum Saporta, PL Jurass., Vol. II, p. 202, pi. cxviii, fig. 1. Corallian of Tonnerre (Yonne), France. Cycadeoidea Mamertina Crit' sp. 1879. Bolbopodium Mamertinuni Crie, Les Anciens Climats et les Flores Fossiles de I'Ouest de la France, pp. 15, 18. Bathonian of Mamers (Sarthe), France. Cycadeoidea Montiana Capellini & Solms. 1755. Lapideorum balanorum insignis congeries ]Monti, Bonon. Sci. et Art. Inst. at. Acad. Comment., Tom. Ill, p. 323, tav. fol. 1892. Cycadeoidea Montiana Capellini & Solms, Mem. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, Ser. Y, Tom. II, pp. 169, 181, 214, pi. iii, fig. 1. Rio della Cavaliera, Bolognese, Italy. Cretaceous ? Species. 83 Cycadeoidea intermedia Ranzani. 1836. Cycadeoiilea intermedia Ranzani, Resoconto Accad. 1st. di Bologna, 23a Sess., 2() maggio 183G. 1839. Nov. Com. Acad. Sci. Inst. Bonon., Tom III (Bull. Sci. Med., Vol. I), p. 385, tab., figs. 2, 3, 5. Fiume Reno, Bolognese, Italy. Pretaceous? Cycadeoidea Scarabellii (Mgb.) Cap. & Solms. 1854. Mantellia? Scarabellii IMeneghini, Ann. dell Universita Toscana, Tom. Ill, p. 74, nota 14. 1892. Cycadeoidea Scarabellii (Mgh.) Cap. & Solms, ^Nlem. Real. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, Ser. V, Tom, II, pp. 170, 171, 17G, 181, 207, 214, pi. iii, fig. 3. Fiume Santerno, Imolese, Italy. Cretaceous? Meneghiiii maintained that this species belonged to the Miocene in which it was found, but Capellini does not doubt that, like most of the other Cycadean trunks of Italy, it was redeposited from the argillaceous shales of the underlying Cretaceous. Cycadeoidea Pirazzoliana Massalongo, ms. 1858. Cycadeoidea Pirazzoliana Massalongo, ms. 1892. INIem. Real. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, Ser. V, Tom. II, pp. 171, 176, 181, 208, 212, pi. ii, fig. 1. Torrente Correcchio, Imolese, Italy. Cretaceoas? Cycadeoidea Veronensis Massalongo. 1858. Cycadeoidea Veronensis Massalongo, Atti d. R. 1st. Veneto, Ser. 3a, Tom. Ill, Venezia, p. 81(). 1859. Syllabus PI. Foss. Agri Veneti, pp. 20, 132. 1892. Mem. Real. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, Ser. V, Tom. II, pp. 173, 181, 206. In the garden Feruzzi-Malagnini, wall of the Padri in Verona, artificially so placed. Original source unknown. The specimen was discovered in this position by INlassalongo and Scarbelli in 1858 mingled with stalactites and other objects. Capellini states that it was not mencioned in print until 1859 in the Siillabas on page 20, and seems not to have been aware that Massalongo embodied it under the same name in his " Elenco dei modelli di piante fossili donati al R. Istituto Veneto," published in 1858 in the Atti, Ser. 3, Tom. Ill, on page 816. He also includes it, along with C. Biancuniana, in the "Elenchus Specierum Vegetalium et Animalium Fossilium," etc., placed at the end of the iSi/llahus (see p. 132). Cycadeoidea Bianconiana Massalongo. 1859. Cycadeoidea Bianconiana Massalongo, Syllabus PL Foss. Agri. Veneti, p. 132. 1892. Mem. Real. Accad. Sci., 1st. Bologna, Ser, V, Tom. II, pp. 172, 181, 205, pi. ii, fig. 2. Torrente Samoggia, Bolognese, Italy. Cretaceous? Capellini seems not to have observed Massalongo's record of this plant in his fSi/Uabm, p. 132. He there says : "Ex form, ignota agri Bonouieusis. Caudex." 84 Ward — Fos-'s'd Cycadcan Tr a nk'f of North America. Cycadeoidea Cocchiana (Caruel) Solms. 1870. Kaumeria Cocchiana Caruel, K. Com. Geol. Ital. BoL, Vol. I, pp- 183, 186; tigs, on p. 186. 1892. Cycadeoidea Cocchiana (Caruel) Solm.s, Mem. Keal. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, Ser. V, Tom. II, pp. 174, 181, 206, 215, pi. v,iigs. 2, 5. Torrente Marnia in Valdarno, Italy. , Cretaceous? The specimens were found erratic in the Pliocene. Cycadeoidea Maraniana (Scarab.) Solms. 1875. Bennettites Maranianus Scarabelli, ms. 1892. Cycadeoidea Maraniana (Scarab.) Solms, Mem. Real. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, Ser. V, Tom. II, pp. 176, 179, 181, 201, 212, 214, pi. ii, fig. 3 ; pi. iii, fig. 4. Castel S. Pietro and Torrente Correcchio, Imolese, Italy. Creataceous? Cycadeoidea Capelliniana Solms. 1879. Cycadacea specie Ferreti, Atti Soc. Ital. Sci. Nat., Vol. XXI. p. 832. 1892. Cycadeoidea Capelliniana Solms, Mem. Real. Ac(rad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, Ser. V, Tom. II, pp. 174, 181, 207, 212, 214, 215, pi. i, figs. 3, 4; pi. V, figs. 1, 3, 6. Fiume Idice, Bolognese ; Torrente Tresinaro presso Scaudiano ; PauUo nel Regiano; Vallestra, Regiano, Italy. Cretaceous? Cycadeoidea Masseiana Cap. & Solms. 1890. Raumeria Masseiana CapeUini, Mem. Real. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, Ser. IV, Tom. X, pp. 446, 450, pi. ii. 1892. Cycadeoidea Masseiana Cap. & Solms, Mem. Real. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, Ser. V, Tom. II, pp. 165, 168, 175, 178, 181, 205, 2] 2, pi. i, fig. 1. Cretaceous (Cenomaniau?) clay shales of the Idice Valley, near the Villa di Ozzano iii Emilia, Italy. Cycadeoidea Etrusca Cap. & Solms. 1892. Cycadeoidea Etrusca Cap. & Solms, Mem. Real. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, Ser. V, Tom. II, pp. 177, 181, 204, 212, 214, 215, pi. i, fig. 2 ; pi. iv, fig. 1 ; pi. v, figs. 7, 8. p]tru.scan Necropolis of Marzabotto, Bolognese, Italy. Cretaceous? Original som"ce unknown. Specimen found placed on a tomb as an orna- ment or symbolic rite by the ancient inhabitants. It is the largest of the Italian specimens. Cycadeoidea Ferretiana Cap. & Solms. 1892. Cycadeoidea Ferretiana Cap. & Solms, Mem. Real. Accad. Sci. 1st, Bologna, Ser. V, Tom. II, pp. 178, 181, 209. Moute Babbio, Regiano, Italy. Cretaceous ? Cycadeoidea Imolensis Cap. & Solms sp. 1892. Cycadea Imolensis Cap. & Solms, Mem. Real. Accad. Sci. 1st, Bologna, Ser. V, Tom. II, pp. 176,'.181,'_200. Fiume Sauterno? Imolese, Italy. Cretaceous? Species. 85 I have not hesitated to place this species in the <;enus Cycadeoidea be- cause Count Sohns ^ives as his only reason for not doinjj; so that the speci- men was too imperfect to be certain that it belontj-ed there. He therefore created a new genus (Cycadea) for its reception. Such a course is certain to lead to great confusion. New genera should only be created where the material is so abundant and complete that it can be adequately character- ized. This new genus is not even described, and as he admits, could not be from his specimen. It therefore can have no existence. On the other hand the large number of specimens found in Italy, all referable to Cycadeoidea make it altogether probable that this also belongs there. The only other course would be to hold it entirely in reserve. This he has not done but has given it a specific name. Cycadeoidea sp. indet. Cap. & Solms. 1892. Cycadeoidea sp. indet. Cap. & Solms, Mem. Real. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, Ser. V, Tom. II, pp. 170, 181. Fiume Santerno ? Imolese, Italy. Cretaceous ? Cycadeoidea Reichenbachiana (G(')pp.) Cap. & Solms. 1755. Yegetabilische Yersteinerung Walch, Knorr's Petrefacten Samm- lung, Text, p. 150; Atlas, pi. iiia, fig. 6. 1844. Kaumeria Reichenbachiana Gr)ppert, in Wimmer : Flora von Schlesien, Ed. TI, Vol. II, p. 217. 1853. Jubiliiums-Denkschr. d. Schles. Ges. f. vat. Cult., 1853, pp. 202, 205, pi. viii, figs. 4-7 ; pi. ix, fig. 1. 1892. Cycadeoidea Reichenbachiana (Gijpp.) Cap. & Solms, Mem. Real. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, Ser. V, Tom. II, pp. 180, 187, 188. Lednice near Wieliczka, Galicia. This is the large and now celebrated specimen in the Dresden Museum. Its geologic age is still unknown, but is almost certainly not Permian as conjectured by Geinitz. Cycadeoidea Schulziana (Gopp.) Cap. & Solms. 1844. Raumeria Schulziana G(")ppert, in Wimmer : Flora von Schlesien, Ed. II, Vol. II, p. 217. 1853. .lubiliiums-Denkschr. d. Schles. Ges. f. vat. Cult., 1853, pp. 259, 204, pi. vii, figs. 1-5 ; pi. viii, figs. 1-3. 1892. Cycadeoidea Schulziana (Gopp.) Cap. & Solms, Mem. Real. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, Ser. V, Tom. II, pp. 180, 187. Klodnitz Canal near Gleiwitz, Silesia ; formation unknown. Cycadeoidea Schachti (Coem.) Cap. & Solms. 1807. Cycadites Sehachti Coemans, Mem. Cour. des Savants Etrangers de I'Acad. Roy. de Belgique, Vol. XXXIII, No. 3, p. 7, pi. iii, figs. 1, 2, 5. 1870. Clathraria Schachti (Coem.) Schimper, Palcontologie Vegetale, Vol. II, p. 212. Ih70. Bennettites Schachti (Coem.) Carruthers, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., Vol. XX^'I, p. 099. 1892. Cycadeoidea Schachti (Coem.) Cap. & Solms, Mem. Real. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, Ser. V, Tom. II, p. 187. Gault of La Louvicre, Hainaut, Belgium. ' 86 M'ard — Fo.ssfl C Ilea (lea II Trimk-s of North Anwrlca. Cycadeoidea Marylandica (Font.) Cap. & SoliHS. 18G0. Cycas sp. Tyson, First Report State Agric. Chem. Maryland, p. 42. 1870. Bennettites sp. Carruthers, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., Vol. XXVI, p. 708. 1879. Cycadeoidea sp. Fontaine, Am. Jonrn. Sci. 3d Ser., Vol. XVII, p. 157. 1889. Tysonia Marylandica Fontaine, Flora of the Potomac Formation, p. 193, pi. clxxiv-clxxx. 1892. Cycadeoidea Marylandica (Font.) Cap. & Solms, Mem. Real. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, Ser. V, Tom. II, pp. 179, 180, 18t). Potomac formation (Lower Cretaceous) at various points in Maryland, chiefly along the Baltimore and Ohio Rtnlroad between Washington and Baltimore and in the vicinity of the latter city. Cycadeoidea 'Emmonsi Font. sp. 18')7. Trunk of a cycad Emmons, American Geology, Vol. VI, pp. 123, J 24; lig. 92a. 1883. Zamiostrobus Emmonsi Fontaine, Older Mesozoic Flora, p. 117, pi. hi, fig. 5. Upper Trias of North Carolina, exact locality not known. Judging fi'om the excellent figure of Dr. Emmons, of which that of Professor Fontaine is not a true reproduction, I consider it much more probable that this was a ' ' trunk of a cycad ' ' than that it was a strobile. Cycadeoidea mirabilis Lx. sp. 187(). Zamiostrobus mirabilis Lx., Bull. U. S. GeoL and Geogr. Surv. Terr., Vol. 1, 2d Ser., No. 5, p. 383 (issued January 8, 187lJ); Hayden's Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv. Terr, for 1874, p. 309. 1878. Tertiary Flora, p. 70, pi. Ixiii, figs. 1, la. 1884. Nelumbium sp. James. Science, Vol. Ill, p. .434. 1884. Clathropodium mirabilie (Lx.) Ward, Science, Vol. Ill, pp. 532 533. 1890. Bennettites mirabilis (Lx.) Solms, in litt. (Sept. 10). 1892. Cycadeoidea Zamiostrobus Solms, Mem. Real. Accad. Sci. 1st. Bologna, Ser. V, Tom. II, pp. 210, 211. Found lying on the surface of the ground near Golden, Colorado, in the Laramie terrane, but probably belonging to a more ancient formation from which it had been transported. Cycadeoidea munita Cragin. 1889. Cycadeoidea munita Cragin, Bull. Washburn College Lab. Nat. Hist., Topeka, Kansas, Vol. II, No. 10, pp. 05, 66. Cheyenne Sandstone, Trinity Division of the Comanche Series (Lower Cretaceous), at Cheyenne Rock, Belvidere, Southern Kansas. Cycadeoidea Dacotensis INIcBride sp. 1893. Bennettites Dacotensis McBride, American Geologist, Vol. XII, p. 249, pi. XI, figs. 1, 2; Bull. Lab. Nat. Hist. State Univ. of Iowa, Vol. II, No. 4, p, 391, pi. xii, figs. 1, 2. & Species. 87 Lower Cretaceous strata, valley of Minnekahta Creek near Minnekahta Station of the Burlington and Missouri Railroad, Fall River County, South Dakota (Black Hills). Cycadeoidea Jenneyana n. sp. Trunks cylindrical-conical, 15 to 17 inches in diameter and 2 to 3 feet high with concave depression ("crow's nest") at the summit; cross section of leaf stalks very irregular, rhombic or trapezoidal, two of the angles often very acute or prolonged indicating wings, the other angles obtuse. Divide between Box Elder Creek and Elk Creek, six or eight miles north of Rapid City, South Dakota (Black Hills). Formation not yet determined but probab'y same as lust. The above desci-iption and data as to location are taken from letters re- ceived from Prof. W. P. Jenney, Dean of the Faculty of the State School of Mmes at Rapid City where the specimens now are. There are two specimens, one of which shows the summit but lacks the basal portion and is 21 inches high and 15 inches in diameter at the lower end. The other shows the base but not the summit, is 17 inches in diameter and quite cylindrical, but truncated at the height of 16 inches. This form clearly indicates that the species at least is distinct from the last and it is possible that when betfer material is discovered it may require to be referred to some of the less dwarfted genera, such as Bucklandia or Cylindropodium. The distinction is further emphasized by the difference in the shape of the leaf bases or perforations left by their disappearance. 1 have named the species for Professor Jenney to whose assistance I am so greatly indebted in determin- ing the geological position of the fossil plant beds in the southern portion of the Cretaceous rim of the Black Hills, a region which scientifically he has made his own. Cycadeoidea Abequidensis Dawson. 1871. Cycadeoidea Abequidensis Dawson, Geol. Struct. Prince Edward Island, p. 45, pi. iii, fig. 29. Trias of (Tallas Point, Prince Edward Island. Sir Wm. Dawson referred this deposit doubtfully to the Lower Triiis, but some regard it as the equiva- lent of the Newark Svstem. Vol. IX, pp. 89-97, PL. I March 30, 1894 PROCEEDINGS OF THE • BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON NOTE ON SOME APPENDAGES OF THE TRILOBITES, BY CHAS. D. WALCOTT. The results of Mr. W. S. Valiant's long search for the ap- pendages of trilobites have recently been made known by Mr. W. B. Matthew, who described the material sold to the Columbia College of New York by Mr. Valiant* Mr. Valiant informs me that he discovered traces of what he considered to be anten- nae, and that for several years he continued collecting until he found a locality where the specimens were well preserved and show, not only the antennae, but legs and what he supposed to be the swimming appendages. Not having confidence that he could properly describe the specimens he sold part of his ma- terial, and in this way it came to be first described by Mr. Mat- thew, a student at Columbia College. His step-brother, Mr. Mitchell, continued to collect; and in August, 1893, through the courtesy of Mr. Valiant, I visited the locality with Mr. Mitchell and obtained a few specimens for the National Government. The most important part of the discovery, announced by Mr. Matthew's paper, is that the trilobita have true antennte. The discovery of the legs and plumose appendages is also of great interest, as it adds to our information respecting the appendages of the trilobite some of the details of another genus. A collection was made for the Yale College Museum by Dr. Read March 24, 1894. *Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. 46, 1893, p. 121. 90 Walcott — Appendages of the Trilohites. C. E. Beecher, and in some notes on the thoracic legs of Tri- arthrus* he describes and illustrates a dorsal view of the legs of the second and third free thoracic segments. These show that the endopodite of the leg is essentially the same as in Calymene and Asaphns, and that the exopodite is unlike that of Calymene or Ceraurus. Through the courtesy of Prof. J. F. Kemp of Columbia Col- lege, I have examined the material studied by Mr. Matthew; and Prof. A. H. Chester, of Eutgers College, kindly loaned me for study five specimens that he purchased from Mr. Valiant. From these and the specimens in the National Museum a few notes have been taken that permit of some comparisons with the extremities found in Ceraurus, Calymene and Asaphus.f The limbs of Triarthrus differ in the details of the joints of the in- ner branch of the limb (endopodite) and still more in the char- acter of the exopodite. Cephalic limbs.— The antenna3 are uuiramose, and, judging from the i^osition in which they are found, were attached to the body near the postero-lateral angle of the hypostoma (Fig. 1, e, Plate 1). In one specimen a cephalic limb somewhat detached from its true position shows a large basal joint and six slender joints (Fig. 1,/). The basal joint does not show conclusive evidence of the presence of a masticatory ridge. On another specimen, however, the form of the basal joint strongly suggests that it subserves the purpose of mastication. This is illustrated at g in Fig. 1. A slender jointed appendage like that attached to the basal joint of g occurs between it and the antennae and is probably a portion of another one of the cephalic limbs. No other cephalic appendages have been observed in the material at hand. Since the publication of my articles on The Trilobite| I found in a section of the head of Calymene senaria a slender jointed limb that appears to have been an antennule. It is unlike any limb found beneath the head and thorax, and, if not an anten- nule, it may represent a fifth pair of cephalic limbs. This is *Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. 46, 1893, pp. 467-470. tThe Trilobite ; New and Old Evidence Relating to its Organization. Bull. Mus. Couip. Zool., Vol. 8, 1881, p. 6. JBull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. 8, 1881, p. 191-224. Science, Vol. 3, 1883, p, 279. Thoracic Limhs. 91 also suggested by a section of the limbs within the head of Caly- mene, illustrated on Plate 1, Fig. 9, Bull. Mns. Comp. ZooL, Vol. 8, 1881. In this, a fifth limb is indicated close to the hy- postoma. The trilobite was enrolled so as to include the anten- nule entirely within the border of the head. A sketch, taken from a i^hotograph of the thin section by transmitted light, is shown by Fig. 8, PL 1. The hypostoma of Oeraurus* shows a rounded indentation of the antero-lateral sides, where an antennule probably passed by it. This character is strongly marked in Sao hirsuta, Froetus hoheniicus, Amphionfischeri, etc., as illustrated by Barande, I'he character and position of the remaining cephalic limbs of Triarthrus are not shown in any specimens that I have examined, but, from the relations of Calymene, Ceraurus and Triarthrus, especially the two latter, it is probable that their arrangement is essentially the same. Thoracic limbs. — Many specimens show the thoracic limbs extending out from beneath the carapace of Triarthrus. It was not until by a fortunate dissection that I obtained the mateiial illustrating the limbs in position beneath the thorax. The an- terior lijnbs are formed of a protopodite and a somewhat com- plex exopodite. The protopodite consists of a short basal and a long joint, (Fig. 2, d, e,) to which the endopodite and exopodite are attached. This appears to be direct in the posterior limbs of the thorax (Fig. 3, a), but as yet the point of attachment of the basal joint of the exopodite has not been seen in the anterior limbs. The endopodite of the anterior portion of the thoracic limbs varies in the number of joints and in their relative length (Fig. 1, a, rt). Two show four long proximal and three shorter dis- tal joints. Other limbs show two smaller distal, and three or four proximal, while in several there is a more or less uniform gradation from the protopodite to the distal joint. In Fig. 1, some of these variations are indicated. In Fig. 2, eleven limbs are shown, as seen from the under side. The basal (coxal) joint is seen at h, d, c, and nine show the long second joint of the pro- topodite. At e and / a new phase is indicated by the enlarge- ment of the proximal joints. This is marked in a, b, c, d, and in Fig. 3, the details are more fully shown. These joints occur *Loc. cit., PI. iv., Fig. 5. 92 Walcott — Appcndnfjcs of the Trilobites. on the seven posterior thoracic limbs of Fig. 2 ; and in the spec- imen from which Fig. 3 was drawn the limb opposite the tenth segment from the pygidinm shows a slightly triangular second (meropodite) and third (carpodite) joint. In Fig. 2, the limb a is opposite the second free segment of the thorax anterior to the pygidum. The limbs a and h, Fig. 3, clearly show that the four proximal joints are broad and subtriangler in outline. A glance at the abdominal swimming legs of the Phyllocarida (Parane- balia), Schizopoda and Cumacea, suggests that the functions of these legs were both natatory and ambulatory. The expododite illustrated by Beecher shows the dorsal sur- face (Fig. 6). A number, presenting the ventral surface, are shown on the right side of Fig. 2. They occur on the same specimen as the endopodities, on the left side, but have been pushed out of place. The most perfect is represented by m. The jiroximal portion is formed of a rather large basal joint and a number of short joints, 7 or 8. The distal end is formed of an inner and outer segmented portion. The inner side is divided into numerous segments by oblique divisions that give the im- pression of a closely coiled spiral. The outer side is a cylindri- cal, jointed, stem-like rim that is attached to the inner side, a narrow, distinctly impressed line separating the two, except at the somewhat flattened tij? where they merge into each other. On the outer or upper surface of the outer side numerous crenu- lations occur that extend into long setiB, 7i, Fig. 2; h, b, Fig. 1. Dr. Beecher considers the expedite as a swimming organ ; but from the manifest branchial character of the exopodite and at- tached epipodite in Calymene (Fig, 7), it seems probable tltat this exopodite of Triarthrus served largely as a gill, and that the animal used the broad proximal joints of the posterior limbs of the thorax as its principal propulsion in swimming. The exopodite of Triarthrus looks like a consolidated exopodite and ei^ipodite, very much as though these two organs as they occur in Calymene were merged into one. Several specimens illustrate appendages beneath the pygidium. Some have the broad proximal joints, d. Fig. 1, while others show the outer rim of the exopodite c, Fig. 1. The material I have seen indicates very little difference between the appendages of the posterior half of the thorax and the pygidium, except ClassificaUon. 93 that those of the hitter are less developed in size and details. Mr. Matthew suspected the presence of a flap, formed by the auchylosing of the appendages beneath the pygidium. From the appearance of a similar structure, where the limbs are mat- ted together along the side of the thorax, this tentative view is received with doubt. More perfect material may show distinc- tions not recognizable at present. If future investigations prove, as it now seems probable, that the modified swimming joints of the endopodite are attached to ten or more of the thoracic segments, the anterior eight seg- ments can be grouped together as the typical thorax, and the re- maining segments of the body as the abdomen. Mr. Matthew suggests that the homology between Triarthrus and Limulns may not be as close as between Limulus, Calymene and Ceraurus. This is true from what we now know of Triar- thrus, but, if a sixth pair of cephalic limbs should be discovered in Triarthrus the resemblance would be strengthened. Triarthrus does not differ from Ceraurus and Calymene more than would be anticipated in such unlike genera. Triarthrus is essentially a "Primordial" type that has continued until upper Ordovi- cian time. It represents a large group of Cambrian trilobites, while Calymene and Asaphus represent the more highly de- veloped Ordovician and Silurian forms. Dr. Lang held the view that if a fifth pair of cephalic limbs were found, comparable to the anterior antenna " Trilobites might then be regarded as original Entomostraca, to be derived f I'om the same racial form as the Phyllopoda." He says further, "Xiphosura, Hemiaspida?, and Gigantostraca are themselves again perhaps racially connected with the Trilobites. In any case, however, in the present state of science, it seems probable that all these groups are only connected at their roots with the Crustacea.*" From the paleontological record I am essentially in accord with this view, but I am not yet prepared to abandon the posi- tion taken in 1881, that all these groups should be arranged under one class and not as an appendage to the Crustacea, as pro- posed by Dr. Lang. Text Bu(jk of Comparative Anatomy, Eng. Ed., 1891, p. 415. *Li>c. dt., p. 421. 94 Walcott — Appendages of the Trilohites. I would go still further and form a class of the Trilohita and one of the Merostomata. Two general facts lead me to think that the modern crustacean is descendant from the Phyllopod branch and the Trilobita from a distinct branch.* 1st. The Trilobita branch ex- hausted its initial vital energy in Paleozoic time and disap- peared. 2nd. The Phyllopod branch developed slowly until after the Trilobita passed its maximum and then began its great dif- ferentiation that approaches culmination in recent times. When the trilobite and phyllopod diverged from their com- mon ancestral crustacean the trilobite began at once to differen- tiate and to use its initial vital energy in developing new species, genera and families. Probably two thousand species and one hundred or more genera are known from the Paleozoic strata. With this great differentiation the initial vital energy was im- paired and the Trilobita died out at the close of Paleozoic time. The Phyllopod branch continued with little variation until after the trilobite passed its maximum, and then began to differ- entiate until to-day its descendents form the class Crustacea, that coiTcsponds to the class Trilobita in Paleozoic time. Springing from a common crustacean base the two groups have many features in common, and in carrying out of details of structure in the limbs and gills many striking resemblances occur. It does not impress me that trilobites were true Entomostracans or Malacostracans ; they have certain character- istics in common, but these are not necessarily the result of lineal descent one from the other but are the result of descent from a common ancestral crustacean type of pre-Cambrian time that lived in the pelagic fauna in which all the earlier types of life were probably developedf and from which, as time passed on, additions must have been made to the paleoutologic record of geologic time. The Phyllopods, Ostracods and Trilobita are clearly differentiated in the lower Cambrian fauna. Bernard is *Tliis view is only confirmatory of ttie result of the profound study of the Apodida- by Bernard (The Apodidie Nature Series, 1S92). tSee Brooks' beautiful memoir on Salpa, with its sugiijestive theory of the origin of the bottom faunas of the ocean and the early geolouric fauniis. The Genus Sulpa, INlemoirs from the Biological Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University, II, 1893, pp. 140-177. Mode of Occurrence. 95 confidant that the Trilobites may take a firm place at the root of the Crnstacean system, with the existing Apus as their nearest ally.* There is yet much to be learned from the study of Triarthrus. A great amount of material can be readily collected at the local- ity near Rome, N. Y. It is also of interest to note that the lo- cality at Trenton Falls, N. Y., from which the specimens of Calymene and Ceraurus were obtained, is only seventeen miles from the Rome locality ; that both occur within the Ordovician ; and that the stratigraphic position of the bed at Rome is be- tween six and seven hundred feet above that at Trenton Falls.f *Nature, Vul. 48, 1893, p. 582. tTlie appendages of Triarthrus are replaced by iron pyrites and are asu- ally well preserved. The specimens of Calymene and Ceraurus from the Trenton limestone of Trenton Falls, N. Y., were replaced by calcite and in them there were preserved even more delicate parts than I have yet ob- served in Triarthrus. Thin sections were made of the latter and photo- graphs obtained by transmitted light, that were used in illustratmg the paper in the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Vol. 8, 1881. 96 Walcott — Appendages of the Trilohites. Description of Plate. Fig. 1. — Triarfhrus becki (X3), Outline of carapace, with appendages rep- resented as they occur on several specimens, their relative position being retained. a, a, a, a. Endopodites of limbs showing variation in joints. b, b. Plumose portion of exopodite. c, c. The outer or supporting portion of the seta; or fimbrire of b, b. d, Limbs extending from beneath the pygidium, showing large proximal joints. Those of the left side are imperfectly preserved. e, Antenna extending back nearly to the postero-lateral margin of the hypostoma. /. One of the cephalic limbs. The basal joint may be broken away on the inner side. g. Cephalic limb. Fig. 2 (X7). Limbs attached to the imder surface of an individual preserv- ing 1 3 thoracic segments and the pygidium. The limbs {a to k) on the left side are mainly in place. A fracture cuts out one limb between g and h. a to g. Limbs preserving traces of the enlarged proximal joints. /), d. Limbs preserving the two joints of the protopodite and two of the large proximal joints. I, m, 0. Exopodites, showing under or side views. n. Enlargement of fimbri;ie of m. r, s. Distal joints of endopodites of right side. y. Portion of an exopodite showing its inner support. Fig. 3. Limbs occiuTing on the under side of an individual of 14 thoracic segments. a, b, c, d. Limbs with flattened, enlarged proximal joints and slender distal joints. a. Limb preserving large joint of protopodite, four enlarged prox- imal joints and three slender distal joints. At .r the point of attachment of an exopodite is shown, and in the speci- men it looks as though / had been broken away from x. Fig. 4. Restoration of the thoracic limbs of the fifth segment anterior to the pygidium. en. endopodite. p. protopodite. a. four proximal swimming joints, b. three distal joints. ex. exopodite, attached to same joint of the protopodite as the endopodite. Description of Plate. 97 Fig, 5. Restoration of the thoracic limbs of the fourth thoracic segment posterior to the liead. en. endopodite. ex. exopodite. Fig. 6. Diagramatic restoration of the second thoracic hmb. (After Beecher.) Fig. 7. Restoration of thoracic Umb of Calymene sencma. en. endopodite. e.c exopodite. ep. epipodite. (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Vol. 8, 1881.) Fig. 8. Cephalic Umb of Calymene X 3 ; supposed antennule. Fig. 9. Cephalic limb figured by Dr. Henry Woodward. (Quart. Jour. GeoL Soc. London. Vol. 26, 1870, p. 487. a. side of hy- postoma Fig. 10. Slender jointed legs associated in same beds with Calymene at Cincinnati, Ohio, Proc. Biot.. Soc. Wash., Vol. IX, 1S'.)4. Plate I. Vol. IX, pp. 99-104 April 14, 1894 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON SYNAPTOMYS COOPERII BAIRD IN EASTERN MAS- SACIIUSSETTS; WITH NOTES ON SYNAPTOMYS STONEI RHOADS, ESPECIALLY AS TO THE VALIDITY OF THIS SPECIES. BY OUTRAM BANGS, BOSTON, MASS. Ever since I began to trap small mammals in the modern im- proved manner, I have been on the lookont for this species and so was not surprised to find, on June 9th, 1893, a fine adult female*in one of my traps. The trap was set in an old cranberry bog that had been allowed to run out, and had grown up to clumps of Viburnum and Vaccinium bushes, and under these, grasses and sphagnum and carices had crowded out the cran- berry vines to a considerable extent. It was in the middle of the Plymouth woods, about seven miles from the town of Wareham, Plymouth County, Mass. The ground was traversed in every direction by the run-ways of Arvicola ripar'ms and in one of these run-ways I caught the Si/iiaptoviys. She was nursing young at the time, although repeated trapping in the same bog yielded nothing but innumerable Arvicolas, a Zapus Jiudsomas or two, and a few Evotomys gapperi. I now had a slight notion of the sort of place to look for Synaptomys in, and tried all such localities I could find without success until September 21, 1893, when in an almost precisely similar bog about six miles distant from the first place, in the township of Wareham, I caught an adult female, also nursing, and in an Arvicola run-way; and on September 24, an adult 3-00 Bangs^^Syna'pto'itiys Cunperdi male in another trap in the same bog, in an Arvicola run-way. Following is a list of small mammals caught in this last bog, which, as 1 trapped it pretty clean, may be of interest as showing the species inhabiting such a place, and their relative abundance : Twenty [20] traps set. Sept. 19, 1893. 6 Arvicola riparius. 1 Zapus hudsonius. Sept. 20. 5 Arvicola riparius. 1 Evotomys gapperi. Sept. 21. 3 Arvicola rijjarius. 1 Evotomys gapperi. 1 Sorex personatus. 1 Synaptomys cooperii. Sixty-five [65] traps set. Sept. 22. 17 Arvicola riparius. 1 Evotomys gapperi. Sept. 23. 10 Arvicola riparius. Sept. 24. 6 Arvicola riparius. 1 Evotomys gapperi. 1 Synaptomys cooperii. Sept. 25. 3 Arvicola riparius. 1 Evotomys gapperi. , Sept. 2C>. ] Arvicola riparius. 1 Evotomys gapperi. Sept. 27. 1 Evotomys gapperi. Sept. 28. Nothing; took up traps. Totals. Arvicola riparius, 54. Evotomys gapperi, 7. Sorex personatus, 1. Zapus hudsonius, 1. Synaptomys cooperii, 2. This bog contained about an acre-and-a-half, and was bordered on one side by thick swampy woods and on the other three by open fields of grass, and had a small brook running through it, Synaptomys cooperii is, I think, rare, or at any rate very local in this section, as I have trapped persistently for two years in every sort of locality the county affords, and have only taken these three examples. As the country about Wareham, Mass., is not unlike that of And Sl/ll(lj)tuilll/S StoiK'L 101 tSontli Centnil New Jersey, I was anxious to see if niy specimens were not referable to S. sfdiicl Rhoads rather than to *S*. co()perii For this })urpose Dr. C. Hart Merriani kindly lent me a fine series of fourteen skins and many skulls of >S'. coopcrii, partly from his own private collection, and partly from the collection of the Department of Agriculture at Washington. I also, through the kindness of Mr. S. N. Rhoads, of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, had a chance to examine his type of Si/iKijitoiiiy.s stoiiei and a topotype in the collection of Mr. Whitmer Stone, for whom the species was named. In the light of this fine material, the specific character claimed for S. xtoiici faded away to mere individual variation, and *S'. >itj)iirl will have to stand as a synonym of S. coopcrii, pure and simple. The list of specimens I had to work with is as follows : No. Sex. Date. ^J -ocality. Collector. so *215 $ad. .June 9, 1893 Mass., Wareham. 0. Bangs 1911 21(i 9 ad. Sept. 21,1893 Mass., Wareham. O. liangs 18.5TI 217 rfad. Sept. 24, 1893 Mass., Wareham. 0. Bangs 191[ t3137 9 Feb. 22, 1887 Indiana, Brookville. A. W. Butler 18.511 3189 rf Mar. 7, 1887 Indiana, Brookville. A. W. Butler 18.5J[ 827 ff Nov. 10, 1884 Iowa, Knoxville. C. K. Cherie 17.5 2601 d Aug. 18, 1886 Minn., KIk Kiver. ^'ernon Bailey 17 3260 & Dec. 10, 1886 Minn., Klk River. Vernon Bailey 18 3261 cf Dec. 9, 1886 Minn., F^lk River. Vernon Bailey 17.5 3263 ? Dec. 26, 1886 Minn., Elk River. Vernon Bailey 18 3264 ? Mar. 5, 1887 Minn., Klk River. \"ernon Bailey 17 t33089 Mar. 4, 1889 Minn., Elk River. N. Bailey 201F 53811 ff May 11, 1893 N. C, Magnetic City. 20 50S(i3 r^ Oct. 23, 1892 N. C, Roan Mt., alt. 6200 ft. Elmer Edson 18 50S62 r? Oct. 22, 1892 N. C, Roan Mt., alt. 6200ft. Elmer Edson 19 35615 ? Sept. 30, 1892 N. C, Roan Mt., alt. 6200 ft. Elmer Edson 19.5 55797 ff Aug. 27, 1893 N. C, Roan Mt., alt. 6000ft. Elmer Edson 19 01 S'ynaptomys cooperii Buird. a o- di - o- _ «-( Jg s „- ^"S flCO 2 " d'iS ■6 " . C3 moo rrii fi'om Minnesota, Iowa, Indiana, Ohio, North Carolina, Maryland and Massachusetts; would it not seem extremely improbable that we should find anything but rooprrii in New Jersey? Prof. Baird, in his original description of Si/imiifoiui/s rooprrii, says the specimen was "received from Mr. William CJooper of Hoboken. No locality was assigned, but the animal is undoubt- edly North American, probably from the New England States or New York; possibly from Iowa or Minnesota." Why not even more probably from New Jersey, as Mr. Cooper lived there ? Since writing this article I have taken two more Si/iKiptoirri/s cooperii iu Plymouth County, Mass.; one at Plymouth, January 15, 1894 [ad. 9 ], and one at Wareham, March 31, 1894 [ad. $ ]. Both were caught in old cranberry hogs, associated with Arvicola Hiiarius and using their run-ways. Vol. IX, pp. 105-108 June 9, 1894 PROCEEDINGS OF THli BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF \A^ASHINGTON A NEW RABBIT FROM WESTERN FLORID^'. BY GERiaX S. MILLER, JK. AND OUTRAM BANGS. In a small collection of mammals made in Western Florida during the winter of 1893-1894, by F. L. Small are four speci- mens of a mai'sh rabbit that seems to be specifieallj distinct from Lepri-s ixtliistris Bachman. Dr. Bachman in his description of L. pftJiisfris* gives no defi- nite type locality, but states that the animal is common in east- ern South Carolina and from thence south to southern Florida (on the east side). His description was probably based on South Carolina specimens as it evidently refers to the animal found in that region. The form from western Florida may be defined as follows : Lepus paludicola, ,sp. nov. Diafpio.sif!. About the size of L. palustrin with the hind foot shorter, the ear much shorter, and color generally darker and less yellow, especially about the head and on the under parts. Skull throughout slightly broader and flatter than thiit of L. palmtris, the rostral part in particular being disproportion- ately sh(jrt and broad. lOG MiUcr-BdiKjx — ^4 new Rahhlf front U^cMrrn Florithi. Description. Tj'pe specimen No. 1451 9 ad. Coll. K. A. and O. Bangs, Boston. From Fort Island, near Crystal River, Florida, Jan. 28, 1894. F. L.' Small collector. Total length 438 nun ; tail vertebne S.'S mm; hind foot 81 mm ; (taken in flesh by collector) ; ear 45 mm ; (taken from dried skin). J Color of upper parU russet* with black hairs thickly intermixed ; the black ' hairs predominating on the middle of the back and sides of the head and neck and gradually becoming less conspicuous on the sides, rump and legs. The patch running from between the ears back over the nape is a little brighter than the rest of the upper parts, being a dear bright russet,* with- out inter mixture of black-tipped hairs. I Color of tlie under parts dirty smoke grayt becoming pale cinnamon rufous? on the under side of the tlanks. Band on the under side of the neck wolmI brownj. Upper side of feet pale russet* with the lower side of the hind ■ feet much darker, almost seal brown j| ; ears dark russet* bordered on the " outer edge by an indisiitict line of blackish, and outside this an almost white line running half way up the ear. The feet are very thinly haired and the nails very conspicuous. Lepus jxthistris and L. pahulirola show no differences in color that might not readily intergrade; but the skulls and ears of the two are so different as to lead to the opinion that they are two distinct species, rather than local races of the same species. In all the specimens examined, no sign of inter grad-: nation can be found. Therefore it seems best to accord La pahidicoJa full specific rank for the present, or until intergradesi do turn up. *Journal Acad. Nat. Sciences of Phila., Vol. vii, Pt. II, p. 194, 33G. *Nomenclature of Colors, Ridgway, Plate III, No. 16. fNomenclature of Colors, Ridgway, PI. II, No. 12. ^Nomenclature of Colors, Ridgway, PI. IV, No. 1(3. INomenclature of Colors, Ridgway, PI. Ill, No. 10. IINomenclature of Colors, Ridgway, PI. Ill, No. 1. Mlllrr-Buiu/.^—A lidhhit from Weslcrn Florida. L07 "^ CO >. 6 3d b ^^ % S-S 3 CO 00 •;2=^co^ .—1 Fort Island River, Flo F. L. ^ IS □ ci -3 CC >, -f' O _. CO t: s « I— 1 * CO ai-o 3 '1' CO 00 Fort Islanr River, F F. L a ij m L. -+' 0 _^. CO 2 S ^ * ■ S.-sa Ft 10 1—1 Salt River River, F F. L 3 1-5 ,— , -Ca CO >. i-i ■*' 0 ^. CO 1451* 9 nd neai Florida L. Sma S -^ 10 CO 84 45t ary 28, : ^ .-r ■ s "S a; "^ i-i > 3 |S ^ fa x: 0 rH 0 ^ c be a ^ 0 _S ? a « 1 "c? _ itii £ 0 0 0 o3 X J 0 H H cS s o pq >, a. co^ fl o 3 « : CO -1" t, . GO lO OJ : ^ ffi 5S . 3 3 so bc'o fa -id |iC ^.ao .^^^^5^ Ci (M ■ M-3 fa 73 1-1 o o c3 •j;^ a o oJ c3 ^3 K.a 03 9"^ iS 3 ^ 3 ^ c« 0 a s ;-i PO^ -M 0 b( r— f a 03 < pq ^ a M H a U-i p 0 ^ a -^ 0 a;i 0 CP Oi ds 108 Miller-B(nt(/s — A nor lUthhit jrom llVx/r/-// FJorhhi. ^ 'tS >^ O U^:^ — I r,-v ,—1 OO ■— I !M ouiatic breadth very much greater- While the zygomatic breadth is actually greater in urnaluK, the breadth across the to]) of the skull is decidedly less : hence when viewed from above, the zygomatic arches stand out beyond the sides of the cranium, while in jilnllipsi they are hidden beneath the edges of the frontals and parietals. In oniatas the top of the cranium is much flatter than in phillipsi ; the supraoccipital is narrower between the mastoid bulhc ; the nasals are not nan-owed behind, and the ascending branches of the premaxilhe are shorter and more slender and have no trace of the posterior expansion commonly present in pliUUj^ii. The upper ]>remolar is a single prism and its crown has no trace of the antero-internal lobe of jiliilliim. Dipodomys perotensis sp. nov. ?///'f from Pekotk, ^'EKA Ckuz, Mexico. No. 54,285 ? ad. U. S. Nat. Mus. Dei)artment of Agriculture Collection. Collected May 21, 1893 by E. W. Nelson (Original number 4840). Measurements (taken in tlesh). — Type: Total length 265 ; tail vertebr;cl(j2 ; hind foot 40. Ear from anterior base 14 (in dry skin). vlcemj/t' measurements of 8 specimens from type locality : Total length 271 ; tail vertebne 168 ; hind foot 40.4. General character-^ — Similar in size and general appearance to Dipodomys phillipsi and ornatv.8 and intermediate between them in coloration ; white terminal pencil short, and m one specimen absent. Cranial characters substantial. Color. — Ui)per parts brownisli clay color, intimately mixed with and darkened by blackish-tipped hairs on head and back ; strongly suffused with ochraceous buff on sides and flanks; facial crescents large and black, meet- ing across the nose ; inner side of leg and sole blackish ; lateral white stripes of tail disappearing near junction of distal and middle thirds ; white termi- nal pencil small and in one specimen absent (possibly the result of injury in early life). CnmitiJ clMractera. — Skull similar to that of D. ormdas, but even narrower on top [consequently very different from jiliUlipsi]; zygoma visible from above ; top of skull more strongly arched anteroposteriorly than any other known species ; breadth of supraoccipital between inflated mastoids greater than in pldWpsi or ormdas. Angle of mandible larger than in phlUijisi but smaller than in ornatus. Dipodomys merriami nevadensis subsp. nov. lype from Pyramid Lake, Nevada. No. 54,552 9 ad. U. S. Nat. Mus., Department of Agriculture Collection. Collected June 26, 1S9:J, by Vernon Bailey (Original number 3,990). Mc'L^urements (taken in flesh). —7Vy'e.- Total length 240 ; tail vertebne 140 ; hind foot 39. Ear from anterior base 13 (in tlry skin). 112 Merrlam — Neiv Kaiifiaroo Rats. Average meiisurements of five adults from type locality : Total length 243 ; tail vertebra; 143.5 ; hind foot 39.9. General characters. — Similar to D. merriami but with shorter tail and longer hind foot ; coloration paler and more bufty. Color. — Upper parts pinkish buff, darkened on head and back by uiter- mixture of dark-tipped hairs ; facial crescents distinct but hardly meeting across nose, though bridge of nose is somewhat dai'kened ; face in front of eyes pure white except where interrupted at base of whiskers by facial cres- cents; underparts and thigh stripes pure white; dorsal and ventral tail stripes dusky, meeting at end of tail ; inner side of legs to heel dusky. Dipodomys merriami nitratus subsp. nov. Type from Kkelek, East Side of Owens Lake, California (No. sfyfo (J ad. U. S. Nat. Mus. Department of Agriculture Collection). Collected December 29, 1890 by E. W. Nelson (Original number 160). Measurements (taken in tlesli). — Type: Total length 237; tail vertebra' 140; hairs 26; hind foot 39. Ear from anterior base 13 (dry skin). Basilar length of skull 22 mm. ^1 (jcragfc measurements of 23 specimens from type locality: Total length 239 ; tail vertebra* 141 ; hind foot 37.8. General charaUers. — Smaller than /). merrianii, with relatively larger hind feet and wholly different coloration ; dusky markings obsolete. Color. — Upper ]iarts miiform intense ochraceous or tawny-buff' not mixed with black-tipped hairs ; facial crescents obsolete ; no dusky or blackish markings anywhere ; no superciliary stripe, but a distinct white spot over eye ; upper and lower tail stripes coneolor with back ; white side stripes contmuous. Dipodomys merriami nitratoides subsp. nov. Type from Tiiton, San Joaquin Vallkv, California. No. 54,674 (^ ad. U. S. Nat. Mus. Department of Agriculture Collection. Collected June 25, 1893, by Clark P. Streator (Original number 2,978). Measurements (taken in tiesh). — Type: Total length 246, tail vertebra' 148 ; hind foot 36. Ear from anterior base 12 (in dry skin). Average measurements of 13 specimens from type locality : Total length 237 ; tail vertebra- 144 ; hind foot 35. General cha/racters. — Similar to f). in. nJtratus in size and color, but with strongly marked facial crescents meeting over bridge of nose; ears smaller. Calor. — Upper parts everywhere uniform fulvous; facial crescents dusky and meeting over bridge of nose ; dorsal tail stripe darker than back ; crested part of tail same color as back ; ventral tail stripe dull fulvous, con- Mcirlam — Netv Kdiif/aroo Rats. 113 tinuous to en 1 of tail ; inner aspect of hind le^s to heel dull fulvous ; under parts and thigh stripe white ; spot ever eye obscured by dark tipped hairs. Dipodomys merriami exilis subsp. nov. Ti/jie from Fkhsno, San Joaquin Valley, Califoicma. No. ^'^■^^ (^ yg. ad. U. 8 Nat. Mus. Department of Agricultural Collection. Col- lected September 2.3, ISiJl, by Vernon Bailey (Original number 3,277). Mcamrenienls (taken in tlesh). — Tvy^c.- Total length 241 ,• tail vertebn^j 143; hairs 21 ; hind foot 33. Ear from anterior base 12 (in dry skin). Bisilar length of skull 21 mm. Averac/e measurements of 20 spei'imens from type locality : Total length 227; tail vertebne 135.5 ; hind foot 34. General diameters. — Similar to Dijiixliniii/s //(/■/■/•/>/;/// but siniillcr aiul darker, with upper surface of nose and posterior aspect of ankles black. Color. — Upper parts nearly uniform clay color, darkened with sejiia from abundant admixture of black-tipped hairs, and darkest on the head ; sides and flanks tinged with ochraceons-butf ; black crescents at base of whiskers sharply defined and meetmg in median line so that the bridge of the nose is black: superciliary stripe whitish, not interrupted as in D. mernami ; ears dark ; posterior aspect of ankles and lower leg black ; upper anil lower tail stripes sooty blackish, meeting along termmal third, thus interrupting the white side stripes ; under parts silky white. Cranial cltaraders. — Skull similar to that of D. merriami but much smaller ; nasal bones shorter. Dipodomys merriami atronasus subsp. nov. T[ipe from Hacienda La Pakada, San Luis Potosi, Mkxuo. No. 50,276 rf ad. U. S. Nat. "Sius. Department of Agiiculture Collection. Collected August 20, 1892, by E. W. Nelson. (Original number 3,2.'l)). Measurements (taken in tlesh). — Tijpc: Total length 2()7 ; tail vertebne 162 ; hind foot 40- Averagc measurements of 4 specimens from type locality : Total length 250; tail vertebne 152 ; hind foot 3S.5. General eharacters. — Similar to D. merrianii Init darker ; pelage coarser, particularly on bead. Color. — Upper parts dark clay-color, everywhere mixed with dark-tipped haii's and sufl'used with ochraceous buff, which is strongest on the sides ; nose from black tip to between eyes grizzled with coarse yellowish, dark- tipped hairs ; facial crescents large, black, meeting over end of nose ; inner side of thighs and dark tail stripes blackish ; white lateral tail stripes mixed with dark hairs and disappearing in middle third of tail. Perodipus streatori sp. nov. Tape from Carbondale, Mariposa Co., California (at west foot of Sierra Nevada). No. 64,310 $ ad. U. S. Nat. Mus. Department of 114 Mcrridin — Acic Kfiin/drno Jiaf.s. Agriculture Collection. Collected April 3, 1894, by Clark P. Streator. (Ori<:;imil number o,()73). MvdSKri'incntu (taken in tlesh). Tape: Total leni^th 2'.)i; tail vertebni' 17U ; hind foot 43. Accmge of 2t)speriuiens from ty[)e locality : Total lenj.;!}! 2<)5 ; tail vertebne ISO ; bind foot 43. General c/uinirfcrs — Similar to P. (u/ilis but larger ; ears smaller; tip of tail normally white. Color. — Upper parts Isabella brown, darker alontr the middle of the back and on sill es of neck; sides and lianks sulfused with ochraceous butf; a distinct white spot over eye and at base of ear ; toj) of nose, crescent through base of whiskers, and narrow ring around eye blackish; a band of white overlaid by dark-tipped hairs runs from base of whiskers to ear, including the eye : innerside of tiiigh and sole of foot blackish; dor.sal and ventral tail stripes dusky, meeting in a broad subapical dark ring beyond which the end of the tail Ls normally pare while an in many species of Dijtodomys ; under parts, thigh stripes, and ring at base of tail pure white. Two very young specimens have the white tip of the tail sharply defined but short ; some of the old specimens lack the white tip, in others the white side-stripes are nearly continuous to the tip. Craniul rhayadeyn. — Skull similar to that of P. agllh but larger and heavier; parietals longer antero-posleriorly (inner border decidedly longer than anterior) ; fronto-parietal suture strongly sinuous, convex forward at median line ; supraoccipital broailer between mastoid bullie on top of skull. Dental characters. — Molariform teeth larger and heavier; crown of last upper molar longer antero-posteriorly and usually more subquadrate ; osteodentine islands dark. Perodipus panamintinus sp. nov. Ti/pe from Panamint Mrs., Califoknia (on head of Willow Creek). No. 40B70 cf ad. U. S. Nat. Mus. Department of Agricultural Collection. Col- lected May 12, 1891, by E. W. Nelson (Original number 853). Measurements (taken in flesh). — Ti/pe: Total length 305 ; tail vertebne 183 ; hind foot 44. Ear from anterior base 15 (in dry skin). Average measurements of 10 sjiecimens from type locality : Total length 301 ; tail vertebra- 180.6 ; hind foot 44.6. Generdl chd.nicters. — Largest species of the genus ; coloration ochraceous huffy ; does not require comparison with any known species. Color. — Upper parts pale bufty clay-color, tinged with pale ochraceous ; thigh patches large, colored like back ; facial crescents and end of nose broadly blackish but barely or not continuous over sides of nose ; inner sides of legs dusky ; dorsal and ventral tail stripes pale dusky, the ventral stripe failing or indistinctly continuouson distal thinl, permitting the lateral white stripes to meet below on distal third, nearly as in P. riclMrdsoni. Eye- lids and anterior part (more than ?,) of reflexed upper border of ear blackish ; posterior part of ear whitish. Mcrriam — N'etv Kangaroo R<(ts. 115 Perodipus ordi columbianus subsp. nov. Tt/pe from Umatilla, Plains of Columbia, Ouegon. No. I'Hyl $ ad. U. B.Nat. Maseum. Department of A<^riciilLure Collection. Collected Oct. 18, 1890, by Clark 1*. Streator (Oriiiinal number IJ.Sd). Measuremcats (taken in flesh). — Ti/pt': Total lenr'.v, in which the sulcus is relatively shal- lower and more anterior in position, the division being less com- j)lete than in other si:)ecies. So far a known the group is re- stricted to the Upper Sonoran and Transition Zones, where it ranges from southern Mexico (States of Jalisco, Michoacan, Mexico, Puebla, and Vera Cruz) northward in the inteiior to Colorado and northern Arizona, and along the Pacific Coast to Oregon. (3) Neotoma daertorviii (jroiip. — Ncotoinn dc^crforinW' iertoruni, but intermedia shows a decided tendency to the formation of such a bead. The postpalatal notch is narrower than in any other division of the genus. In dental characters the group resembles the lencddon series, the molars being decidedly broader anteriorly than poster- iorly, and m ^ being made up of three transverse loops, the an- terior of which is but faintly indented bj the antero-internal sulcus. The members of the group inhabit the Sonoran deserts of northern Mexico and the southern United States, ranging from Chihuahua and Sonora northward to northern Utah, northern Nevada, and middle California. *Neotoma intermedia Rhoads inhabits the valleys of the coast reigou of California, south of Monterey Bay. A somewhat paler form, usually more or less suffused with pale ochraceus buffy, inhabits San Gorgonio Pass and the western edge of the Colorado Desert. It was provisionally named gilva by Rhoads, and has just been renamed vcnusta by True (in a publication received since the present paper went to press), but seems hardly entitled to the distinction of a separate name. N. californica Price seems to be a typical inlcrmedia. Two subspecies, albigitla Hartley from south and west Arizona, and melanura nob. from Sonora, are here recognized. 120 Merriam — Aiiierican Wocxl Rats. (4) Ncotoma arizniirX f/roii,p. — Neoto'iiid arkonm (iiid, N. Jepida* Thomas stand somewhat apart from the other subdivisions of Neotoma proper, having bushy tails like those of Teoamim, only smaller. In cranial characters they are hardly separable from the desertoriiin group. They inhabit a small area on the southern part of the Colorado Plateau in northern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, and southeastern Utah, and seem to be restricted to the lower part of the Upper Sonoran Zone. Respecting the descriptions of new species which comprise the bulk of the present paper, it should be remembered that each re- lates to a particular pelage. As a rule the summer and winter pelages are difterent, the winter coat being grayer, the summer coat more ochraceous oi* fulvous. In some species the summer coat becomes more fulvous or even rusty with age, and the tips of the black hairs wear off, changing the api)earance of the ani- mal materially. Neotoma leucodon sp. uov. Tijjn' from San l^uis Potosi, Miixico. No. 50, 137 r^ ad. U. S. Nat. Maseuiii, Department of Agriculture Collection. Collected August 14, 1892, by E. W. Nelson (Original number 3076). Measurements (taken in flesh). — Tape: Total length 3'")8 ; tail vertebra- 164 ; hind foot 38. 5. Ear from anterior ba.se 30 (in dry skin). Average measurements of 7 males from type locality : Total length 352 ; tail vertebne KiO ; hind foot 39. Average of 3 females from type locality : Total length 342 ; tail vertebra- 156 ; hind foot 37. General characters. — A large species related to Neotoma micro- puH but differing materially in color and in cranial and dental characters. Color. — Upper parts ochraceous-buff tinged with fulvous and plentifully lined with black hairs ; sides relatively free from black hairs ; nose and face between eyes grayish ; uuderparts white, with plumbeous underi'ur on sides of belly ; fore and hind feet pure white ; tail sharply bicolor, blackish above, white beneath. Cranial characters. — Skull with the broad frontal platform of micropus and floridana, but with sides of frontals decidedly uptui'ued and poslpalatal notch narrow ; ascending branches of premaxiila- very long, nearly reaching plane of narrowest part of interorbital constriction ; nasals narrow behind and rel- atively short, barely cutting plane of orbits ; jugals short as in Juscijtes ; length of palate from incisive foramina to postpalatal notch nearly or quite equal to length of incisive foramina: .audital bulla large; infraorbital va- *The status of JV. lepida is not Terj' clear. If the type is uot a small female of N. arizonce, it must be very closely related. Merri(nn — jinicrican Mood Rat>i, 121 cuities kirire ; l^asisjihenoid spine about the same brtadth as presphenoid. Dcntid characters. — Molars large, very broad anteriorly (ni' nearly I broader than m-), and irhite — the whiteness due in part to the absence of color in the osteodentine, which is dark in other species, and in part to the absence of the usual dark fillings in and about the reentrant angles. M^^ with only 2 salient angles and 1 vertical slit on inner side, the anterior loop being undivided ; crown of m^ a trefoil, the anterior lobe pyriform ; m ^ with antero-internal sulcus obsolete, and middle loop more transverse than in niicropus. General reiiin.rks. — Specimens of this new species have been ex- amined from La Parada, San Luis Potosi, Berrizoabal, Zacatecas and Perote, Vera Cruz. The Perote specimens are somewhat smaller and have the jwstpalatal notch narrower and the nasals more acutely ])ointed hehind. Neotoma latifrons sp. nov. 2'//7*t' from QuKRENDARo, MiCHOACAN, Mexico. No. 50,1.35 ,j^ ad. U. S. Nat. Museum, Department of Agriculture Collection. CoUecteil August 8, 1892, by E. W. Nelson (Original number 3058). Measurement (taken in flesh). — Tape: Total length 350 ; tail vertebnc 14y ; hliid foot 42. Ear from anterior base 2(3 (in dry skin). General rharacters. — Similar to N. lencodon but smaller, with smaller ears, shorter tail, longer hind feet, and cranial differences. Color. — Upper parts ochraceous bull' tinged with fulvous and moderately lined with dark hairs ; the fulvous tinge strongest on sides where it runs forward to cheeks ; under parts and feet white, the white of belly and chin clouded with plumbeous from under fur"; tail indistinctly bicolor, dusky above, becoming soiled whitish beneath. Cranial cliaracters. — Skull similar to that of N. Icucodon but difi'ering in having the frontal platform even broader, its sides strongly spreading imme- diately behind interorbital constriction, ami forming a projecting angle be- fore leaving orbital fossa ; skull as a whole shorter and relatively broader ; molars narrower and less crowded ; m i with antero-internal sulcus more pronounced. Neotoma fulviventer sp. nov. Type from Toluca Valley, Mexico. No. 50,1G5 9 ad. U. S. Nat. Museum, Department of Agriculture Collection. Collected Nov. 5, 1892, by E. W. Nelson (Original number 3744). Measarernents (taken in Hesh). — Tij^ie: Total length 350; tail vertebnc IGO; hind foot 34. Ear from anterior base 2G (in dry skin). General chara.cters. — Similar to Neototna tenulcaxuhi but larger, darker, and under parts dull fulvous instead of white. Ears and feet small ; tail slender ; texture of pelage fine and soft. 122 M( /'/•/(( III — ^liiuriciiH TIo(k/ Rats. Color. — Upper ]);irts (lull fulvous becoiiiinfj almost dusky alontr tlie mid- dle of the back ; under parts pale fulvous; fore and iiind feet white; tail bicolor, blackish above, soiled whitish below. Crankd characters. — i>kull similar in t,''eneral to that of tenidcnuda, but larger; nasals slightly longer (cutting plane of orbits) and rounded instead of truncate behind ; jugal very short ; anterior spine of bcisisphenoid longer ; distance across molar seiies postei'iorly greater than length of series on crowns [in temilcawla less] ; incisive foramina falling considerably short of plane of m ^ [in ^cnc/c/uda reacliing or nearly reaching this ])lane]. Con- trasted with N. orizaha: tlie skull otLj'iil.rlccnkr is lighter, the nasals truncate anteriorly [instead of projecting acutely], and the inolai's narrower. Dnilal cluiracters. — ]\1 ^ with 3 well developed salient angles and two ver- tical slits on inner side as in icnnicavda and piucloruin; m - also as those species. Neotoma orizabiE sp. nov. TiijK hom Mr. Oiuzaba, Pliebla, RIexico. No. 53,653 rf ad. U. S. Nat. Maseuni, Dejiartinent of Agriculture Collection. Collected April 20, 1893, by Vj. W. Nelson (Original number 4074). Measurenu'nU (taken in tiesh). — Tyiic: Total length 356 ; tail vertebra' 163 ; hind foot 33. Ear from anterior base 38 (in dry skin). General characters. — Similar to Ncotoiiai fiilrirenfcr but upper parts more buffy ochraceous instead of fulvous; belly white in- stead of dull fulvous; hind feet shorter; pelage coarser; skull and teeth different. Color. — Upper parts bright ochraceous buff, brightest and purest on the the sides, obscured on the back by black hairs, and becoming grayish on the head ; under ])arts and feet white, the chin and sides of the belly clouded by the plumbeous under fur which shows through ; a salmon spot on each side of the breast ; tail sharply bicolor, dasky above, whitish below. Crankd characters. — Skull similar to A', fidvimnler in general form and tooth characters but heavier ; frontal narrower interorbitally with edges more upturned; postjialatal notch broader ; nasals projecting much further anteriorly and narrowly I'ounded ofl' in front [instead of truncate anteriorly]. The ascending branches of the premaxilhe extend only a short distance be- yond the nasals. Dint(d characters. — The molars are broader and heavier than in fidvirenter and have larger dentine islands. M i has 3 salient angles and 2 vertical slits on the inner side. General reiiiarls. — Specimens of this general type, differing more or less in minor particulars, have been examined from Chal- chicomula, Puebla, Mt. Malinche, Tlaxcala, and Oof re de Perote, Vera Oruz. Neotoma mexicana bullata subsp. nov. I'l/pe from Santa Catalina ]Mts,, Arizona. No. 16,863 (j^ ad. U. S. Nat Merriam — American Wood Rats, 123 Museum, Department of Apjriculture Colleftion. Collected June 1, 1SS9, by Vernon Bailey (Original number 114). Mcasuremenls (taken in liesh). — Tijpe : Total length 3.15; tail vertebne 151 ; hind foot 34. Ear from anterior base 22 (in dry skm). General characters. — Similar to N. mexh-ana ; audital biilliB peculiar. Color. — Upper parts dull oclu'aeeous bufl", becoming gravLsii on tlie liead and legs, and copiouslj" lined with blacli-tipped hairs on the back ; fore and hind feet pure white ; under parts white ; under fur plumbeous ; a faint ochraceous pectoral collar in type specimen ; tail bicolor, grayish brown above, whitish beneath. C'ritn'ud characters. — Skull similar to that of niericana in size and general characters; nasal bones broadly truncate posteriorly; audital bulla' rather small and cm'ved toward median line anterioriy iii a manner not observed elsewhere in the genus, the inner side decidedly concave, and sloping inward. Neotoma baileyi sp. nov. 7^'/y>(' from Valentine, Nehkaska. No. 5034 $ ad. Merriam Collection. Collected June 16, 1888, by Vernon Bailey (Original number 41). Measurement^^ (taken in flesh). — Tijpe : Total lengtii 371 ; tail vertebne 1(55 ; hind foot 39. Ear from anterior base 23 (in dry skin). General eliaraetrrs. — Similar in a general way to Neotonia Jiori- flana, but ears smaller, tail shorter, color grayer ; differs also in cranial characters. Color. — Upper parts grizzled gray ; face nearly clear graj^ ; fore and hind feet white ; tail sharply bicolor, dusky above, white below ; under parts white to roots of hairs except on sides of belly where the basal fur is i)Unn- beous and shows through. Cranial cliaractcrs. — Skull clearly of the Neotoma t1oriclaria-mieroj>us type, having the frontal platform broad and tiat, and the postpalatal notch broadly excavated, but differing from Jloridana, in the following characters : Nasal and nasal branches of premaxilhe decidedly shorter ; ba.sisi)henoid spine narrower and sloping from base to apex where it is continuous with slope of presphenoid ; presphenoid without the enlarged base of Jloridana ; palate nnich shorter ; incisive foramina decidedly shorter [length of palate from incisive foramina equals length of incisive foramina ; in floridcma the palate is much shorter than incisive foramina]. Molar teeth above and below decidedly larger and heavier than in floridaiia ; m 1 with antero- internal sulcus nearly obsolete, as in micropas. Neotoma fallax sp. nov. 7'//7>f from Gold Hill, Boulder Co., Colorado. No. iilil cJ^ ad. Mer- riam Collection. Collected November 1, 1889, by Denis Gale. Measurements of tij}>e (taken fi-om di-y skin) : Total length 330 ; tail verte- brai 140 ; hind foot 31 ; ear from anterior base 22. 124 Merriam — Aincrican Wood lints. General rlidnicters. — Similar to K. internu'dia in external appear- ance, but differing in important cranial and dental characters, which place it in the me.riraiKi-'pinetortnn series, of which it is an aberrant member. M ^ with 3 instead of 2 salient angles on outer side — a unique character. Color. — Upper parts buffy clay color, everywhere finely lined wilh black hairs ; under parts white, the under color plumbeous and showing through except in a narrow strip along the median line where the hairs are white to roots ; fore and hind feet pure white ; tail bicolor, dusky above, white below. Crariid/ diorticierfi. — Skull similar to that of mericana but differing from mexicdiHi in the following particulars: Nasals narrower posteriorly and reaching posterior plane of lac'hrymals ; ascending branches of premaxillte exceeding nasals but little ; audital bulUe less globular; frontals much broader posteriorly. Dental characters. —Molixrs as in m.e.rica'na ; m ^ with a strongly developed antero-internal lobe (having 3 instead of 2 salient angles on inner side) ; m g M"ith antero-external loop (having ;> salient angles instead of 2 on outer side, and 2 reentrant angles instead of 1.) Neotoma fuscipes streatori subsp. nov. Tjipe from C.MUivsn.u.E, Amauoe Co., California. No. G4,439 (5^ ad. U. S. Nat. Museum, Departmentof Agriculture Collection. Collected April 4, 1894, by Clark T. Streator (Original nuuiber 3G85). Measuremeniii (taken in flesh). — Type: Total length 382; tail vertebras 175 ; bind foot 38. Ear from anterior base 25 (in dry skin). Average measurements of 3 adult specimens from type locality : Total length 380 ; tail vertebrae 183; bind foot 37. Genend rharaeters. — Similar to A\ fii-'t's (from north of Monterey Bay) in the following particulars : Zygomatic arches narrow and much less spreading anteriorly ; nasal branches of premaxillaries shorter ; palate shorter ; interpterygoid fossa longer ; postpalatal notcli somewhat broader and evenly rounded an- teriorly ; angular processes of mandible nmch sharper (not rounded off' as in fuscipes). The best characters are the shortness of the palate, the depth of the pterygoid fossa, and the broadly rounded form of the postpalatal notch. In typical fuscipes this notch Is narrow, abruptly truncated anter- iorly, and usually enroached upon by a blunt projection from the posterior eilge of tlie palate. In subspecies rmicrotis the pterygoid fossa is much broader and shorter. Neotoma desertorum sp nov. Type from Fuknace Creek, Death Valley, California. No|fi39(;f ad. U. S. Nat. Museum, Department of Agriculture Collection. CoLected Jan- uary 31, 1891, by T. S. Palmer (Original number 43). Measurements (taken in flesh). — Type: Total length 305 ; tail vertebrae 128 ; hind foot 30. Ear from anterior base 27 (in dry skin). Average measurements of eight males from type locahty : Total length 299 ; tail vertebrae 132.5 ; hind foot 30. Average of thirteen females from type locality : Total length 284 ; tail vertebrae 128 ; hmd foot 29. General eJiaracters. — Similar to A^. intermedia in general ap- pearance but decidedly smaller, with larger ears, softer and more silky pelage, coloration more ochraceous huffy instead of gray. Skull characters distinctive. Color. — Upper parts pinkish buff", most intense on the sides, becoming grayish on the head, finely lined on the back with blackish hairs ; fore and hind feet pure white ; tail bicolor, pale dusky above, white beneath ; under parts superficially white, more or less washed with salmon on the neck, 126 Merridin — Amcricdu Wood Rats. breast and belly (often forming a roseate pectoral collar) ; hairs plumbeous at base except a pectoral patch and an irregular strip down the middle of the belly, which are white throughout. Some specimens from old Fort Yuma have the upper parts very pale bufly. Cranial characters. — Skull much smaller, thinner, and less angular than that of intermedia or albigula ; mterparietal much smaller and less elongated transversely ; interorbital constriction much narrower, with edges more up- turned ; audital bulke much larger ; opening of posterior nares narrower ; nasals truncate but less bi'oadly than in intermedia. Neotoma desertorum sola subsp. nov. Ti/pe from San Emigdio, Kern Co., California. No. 433J1 (^ ad. U. S. Nat. Museum, Department of Agriculture Collection. Collected October 24, 1891, by E. W. Nt-lson (Original number 13(39). Measurements (taken in tlesh). — Tijpe (male): Total length 330 ; tail ver- tebrae 148 ; hind foot 36. Ear from anterior base 29 (in dry skin). Female from type locality : Total length 324 ; tail vertebrie 151 ; hind foot 33.5. General characters. — Similar to X. desertorum, but larger. Color. — Upper parts ochraceous buff, lined with black-tipped hairs ; fore and hind feet and underparts white ; basal fur plumbeous on sides of belly and chin ; tail bicolor, grayish brown above, white below. Cranial charadet^s. — Skull similar to that of desertorum but larger ; inter- orbital breadth greater ; interparietal much larger; audital bullte less in- flated ; nasals longer, and broader posteriorly ; ascending bi'anches of pre- maxilkt shorter and slighter. Neotoma intermedia melanura subsp. nov. Ti/pe from Oktiz, Sonoua, Mexico. No, V^^i J* J'g- ii''- U. S. Nat. Museum, Department of Agriculture Collection. Collected November 13, 1889, by Vernon Bailey (Original number (ill). Measurements (taken in Hesh). — Type: Total length 333 ; tail vertebi-ic 170; hind foot 34. Ear from anterior base 25 (in dry skin). General characters. — Size rather small; ears large; coloration peculiar; back olivaceus; tail hlack ahore (probably a peculiarity of winter pelage) ; cranial characters of the aU>i(/i(la type. Color. — (Winter pelage) Upper parts olivaceus from a fine intermixtuiv of black-tipped hairs on an ochraceus-buffy ground ; sides nearly clear ochraceus- buti"; fore and hind feet pure white; ankles blackish m sharp contrast to color of hind feet ; tail sharply bicolor, dorsal side black-, ventral side white >' under parts white ; chin, throat, breast and line down middle of belly white to roots of hairs ; sides of belly with plumbeus under fur. Craniid characters. — Skull similar to that of N. intermedia but smaller ; nasals narrower posteriorly : anterior loop of m ' partly divided by aiitero- internal sulcus. Geneal reviarks. — This animal in winter pelage looks like ini- Merriaia — American Wood Rats. 127 nuiture specimens of A^ pinctoruin, but the marked cranial char- acters serve to clistinguisli it at once. No specimens in summer pelage are at hand from the type locality, but specimens from Herniosillo and Magdalena, apparenty the same sub-species, are grayer, the black hairs of the back are inconspicuous, and the upper side of the tail is less black. Neotoma intermedia angusticeps subsp. nov. Tape from S. W. Corner of Grant Co., New JNIkxico (only 5 miles from Mexican boundary). No. 'f^ (J ad. Merriam Collection. Collected April 12, 1886, by A. W. Anthony (Original number G2). Measurements of type specimen: Total length 335 (measured in flesh). Tail vertebrae 150 ; hind foot 33 ; ear from anterior base 25 (in dry skin). General charaeter.s. — Similar to iV, albigiila, but ears smaller ; color more strongly fulvous ; skull more elongated and narrower. Color. — (Summer pelage) Upper parts fulvous, becoming ocbraceous buff on the bead, and abundantly lined with black hairs; feet and under parts creamy wbite to roots of hair, except on sides of belly where the basal hair IS plumbeous; tail bicolor, grayish l)rown above, white beneath. Cranial duiroders. — Skull similar to that of alhigula but longer and more slender : Basal length 42 ; basilar length of Hensel 39 5 ; greatest zygomatic breadth 24 ; interorbital constriction 6. Cranium rather smoothly rounded — not so angular as in intermedia and alhigula; zygomatic arches narrow and less angular i)osteriorly than usual in the group ; frontals broad interorbitally but not widening rapidly behind constriction, the orbital mai-gins neitlier beaded nor upturned ; nasals cuneate; ascending branches of premaxilUe normally thickened behind nasals but not divaricating; interparietal shiekl subqiiadrate ; anterior loop of m i only slightly indented by sulcus. Subgenus teonoma Gray, 1843. Type, Neotoma einerea r/rMmmondi (Richanlson) from the Rocky Mts. 57° N. Tail very large, bushy, and somewhat distichous, like a squirrel's ; hind feet very large. Rostrum much elongateil, measuring more than one-third the total length (if cranium ; posterior roots of zygomata widely spreading ; sagittal area long, narrow, and sharply angular, its broadest part far back, on or nearly on plane of anterior border of interparietal, whence the sides bend abruptly back to interparietal shields ; spheno- palatine vacuties closed or open.* *In a previous communication (Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash, viii, July, 1893, 112), I called at- tention to the circumstance that the long vacuities always present on each side of the presphenoid and anterior part of the basisphenoid in Neotoma proper, are closed by as- cending wings from the palatine bones in A^. einerea and ocndentalis. I then regarded this character as of sub-generic weight. It now appears to be of specific weight only, for the vacuities are open in the new species from Colorado here described as N. orolestes. 128 Mcrr'iam — Ainericdii Wood Bats. The meuibers of this series are a very compact group, comprising A'. cinerea with its subspecies dnunmondi ami occidentalln, and N. orolestes nob. Neotoma orolestes sp. nov. Type from Sagauche Valley (20 miles west of Sagauche) Colorado. No. 48215 cJ* ^*^^- U. S. Nat. Museum, Department of Agri(;ulture Collection. Collected August 13, 1892, by J. Alden Loring. (Original number 482). Measurements (taken in flesh). — Type: Total length 413 ; tail vertebne 175 ; hind foot 41. Ear from anterior base 31 (dry skin). General characters. — Similar to N. cinerea; size large; tail large and bushy; sphenopalatine vacuities open. Color. — Upper parts in summer pelage buffyochraceous, more or less suffused with fulvoas and everywhere lined with black hairs ; top of head grayish, becoming clear gray on nose; cheeks buff'y-ochraceous ; under parts and feet white ; color of hind legs reaching out a short distance over tarsus ; sides of belly with plumbeous underfur ; tail bicolor ; doi-sal side concolor with back on proximal ^, becoming dasky on distal § ; ventral side whitish, obscured by pale fulvous proximally. Crardal characters. — Skull similar to that of N. cinerea but differing in having the sphenopalatine vacuities open, the ascending wings of the palatines leaving a long open slit on each side of the presphenoid and an- terior third of the basisphenoid. The mandible differs in having the angle larger, longer, and more everted, the extreme tip falling outside of the vertical plane of the condyle. Vol IX, pp. 129-132, pl. 2 July 27, 1894 PROCEEDINGS OF THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON DESCRIPTION OF A NEW FIELD MOUSE (ARVICOLA TERR.^NOV.E sp. nov.) FROM CODROY, NEWFOUNDLAND. BY OUTRAM BANGS. Since November, 1893, Mr. Ernest Doane has been collecting mammals for me in Newfoundland. He has so far sent, among other things, a series of over sixty beautifully prepared skins and skulls of an Arvicola that seems to be entirely different from any known species. This Arvirold may be defined as follows: Arvicola terrsenovae sj). nov. Diagnosis. About the size of Arvicola riparius Ord, but with larger feet, and of a slightly different coloring, especially about the under parts, which are so much lighter and never show the rufous tinge so common in riparins, with nose-patches similar to those of A. xanthognathus Leach and A. chrotorrhia;us Miller, though not so pronounced as in either of those two. Skull rather broader than that of A. riparius and the zygoma more flaring, suggesting the general appearance of the skull of A. xanthognathus. The enamel pattern more like that of riparius, but the posterior loop of the last upper molar trifoliate. 130 IjaiKjo — IKtix Field Muti^i: Ji'otti, SciijuandhduL De-'icrlptioii. TijtH. — No. 1104 (^ ad. Coll. of E. A. and O. Bangs, Boston, Mass. From Codi'oy, Newfoundland, Nov. 27, 1893, P>nest Doane, collector. Total length, 187 mm.; tail, 54 mm.; hind foot, 24 mm.; ear, 12 mm. (These measurements taken in flesh by the collector.) Above: Brown, of a color between raw umber and Front's brown, becom- ing gradually lighter on the sides, with a slight sprinkling of shining black- tipped hairs oh the back. Under parts : Grey No. 9,* with an indistinct line of darkei' (about the color of the sides) runnmg up the middle of ihe belly nearly to the front legs. There is a well defined nose-patch extending from the nose to and around the roots of the whiskers, of a dull tawny color. The base of the hair is everj-where blackish slate. The tail is distinctly bicolored — above, black ; below, grey No. 10,* and quite hairy. Cranial and dental characters: The skull of Arvicola ten\Tnov;r is broad and short, and has the flaring zygoma and great interorbital coiistiiction of A. xanthognatkus. The rostral part is also narrow as iu that species. The pattern of enamel folding is, on the other hand, more like that of ^1. riparius, with the difference that the last loop of the posterior upper niolar is trifoliate, as against the creseut shape of riparius There are one or two other trifling differences in the enamel folding that can be better seen by a critical examination of the accompanying drawing."!' This Arvicola seems to occupy au intermediate j)Osition be- t\veen the xa nthofpiathus and ri/pariiis groups. The indication of nose-patches can occasionally be found in individuals of A. rip- arius, but I never have seen a series from any one place that shovi^s any tendency to this marking, while every one of my series of sixty-three A. terrfcnovx. has a distinct, though dark colored and not conspicuous nose-patch. The rather peculiar marking of the under parts is constant through the entire series ; indeed, I have seldom seen a series of mammals more uniform in every respect. Mr. Doane found this field mouse common everwhere about Codroy, where he spent the winter, and where all my specimens came from. *Rirlgway's Nomenclature of colors, Plate II. fExcellent figures of the skulls t>f A. riparius, A. xanthognathus, and A. chrotorrliinus can be found in " On a Collection of Small Mammals from the New Hampshire Mountains, by Gerrit S. Miller, Jr.", in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natui-al History, Vol. XXXVI, Plate 3. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., Vol. IX, 1894. Plate II. f Fig. 2. p&i4MM Fig. 4. A. M. WESTERGREN, DEL. FORBES LITH. MFG. CO. Figs. 1 and 2. Skull of the Type Arvicola terra i/oviv- Bangs. Fig. 3. Maxillary Molar Series. About x 10' Fig. 4. Mandibular Molar Series. About x lOl Banr/s — New Field Mouse from Neiofotmdland. 131 l« o ,(_, o "bci "> (M (>i CO CO CO CO o\ CO Ol .S' V .— ( I— 1 I— 1 V ,__j X H ^ -r 'O CO '^l -tl CO lC5 (M CO -tl a a SI (M oa CM CM CM (M (M C i) j^ ^ .- ^ r^ ^ ^' o o 0) Q^ &. a r^ Ph ^ :2; ^ p <1 <; ^ <1 <1 <; -^ -^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ rt k; a - - ■* - -• ■- -- - - § S •-2 C o ts o O >> p o O - r - - -' z - - - s M in a as « d (3 -t* -.-> o -V lO en i~~ cyD -- o < o CO CM 00 CO CO CO CO CO -T 1— ( 1— ( — ■ ^H T-H 1—1 1—1 i—H w 1 — 1 ■—1 1 — I rH 1 — 1 1 — 1 I— 1 I— I 1— t 1 — t -K o 6 2:; a; 6 o H - - - - - - - - .2 o o 132 Bang^ — Nnr Field Mouse frnm AciijuuinlhiiKl. od/iyodox adi^vodox adXvodoj, J^ 3d;?;-odox J3 3dX}-odox j5 ad-Cj-odox =+-! 3d/(;-odox M g sd.Cvodox '3 c3 6 ^ O ^ ^ i::. '^c '^ ^X> 'X^ ^ a -f -f ^M CO t. Jd 0 ^ be 7; r-. a- t^ < — A New Mti>;k Rut from, N<'tofoiiii Oi C-l -rf :D -t* ^ ^ r>i -rf yj i^ 1^ t^ Cj ^ re lo -co CI GO (M :o 02 1^ (m' o; o LO CO oi CO r^ r-5 ^" 00 o 00 ic •JZ iO ^T CD CD CO XBJHBH BIJODS BAONJ M CO Ol — CO 01 -t< ci Ol i6 •aipBOBtiaiis BpOOS BAON ^ Ol 01 X Ol CO CO OC 00 CO •xuBqajB^ '•SSBI\[ ^ coco-rooTfTt<(Mx;-* ■IUBI[3JBA\ '■SSBM ■* 01 CO -^ CO 01 -r CO oi •niBqajBAV 'SSBIM :oco^(Moo-*i't'Tt( •niBqaJBAV '•SSBIM ^ X Ol Tfi CD •*! Ol -JO 00 CD X3 '^ ~ _ ?■ ii g y ni r, ir' H & ^ j:: l-l .-1 1*^ T^ ■-/; n .'-* o "1 ZI 4^ V 0^ o CJ "Sc a! a! a; _o _aj ^ o :S :!i a o '0; ii c OJ .V.i r/! 01. u/ 0) ^S >» a ^"P rh; c3 O i^ ■""■ o "cs 'c :r3 'S c a o be ^ _ !» i *^ 2 'I' O — ' q rt 75 .^ ^J - " 1 CO rt 3 3^ .2 G t^ t^ ffl fe 136 Bangs — A New Muxl: Rat from NeirfoHitdlaiKf. S3 c3 B Q •snauitoads oi I (m o ^ « rt< I- .— I 'ti t^ r^ am JO s},niaaix ■SBani aSBJSAV S ^ ^ ^ t2 ^ 2 o iO oi- 2 Of S:t2 Of (M M •* ^ (X O "M CO ?i :o ^ 1^ i~^ W CO -^ .-^ " ^ Ct -^ Tfl TJH (M ■q> ^ CO (M r— O) t^ CO ■* C; CO !M ■* M X ■— I -J CO (M -^ I- f~ (M If X Tj< CO t^ CO d CO (M X X x> :d X '^i (m" X ■^ 'T iD -^ ^ O :o -^ Tt< (M Tf X (M CO I~-^ X d ^' V. sc a- j: 'C tvH 2 ^ ■^ "S O j;; o ^ C r- -t^ c ^ _a r 3j p _ a G o S Ji ^ """ ^^ ^ .i2 ■" -^ « s a p is ii r;3 .-=: o r; 53 03 t» a; bu J_! 3j oi -»;J C 4; 0/ « t: ,^ 5P 8 ^t o :: ^ 2 "« 2 '^ S r= H O^ CO .X Cu ^ 53 -73 ^ Sf 0 0^;=;:!. W 03 n: 5 a c 6 a 72 CIh £ p 0/ 1_J ?5 tM c Bdiu/.s — A Neil' iMii.sL- Rat from, NeaifoiiiiiUiiii lO »o o •^ .c rt -1- ■M Cl ?1 Ol o o Ol CO 01 00 ,—1 0 ^^ C-1 fl -rj OI -r CO G-^ 01 o H 1 ;C' ;^ '■Z- 'C z. "O to 'Z. 'O x> CO CO CO CO 3! -+■ ^ -V ^ * ^ C-J c^ X) CO VD 5d CO 5d X 55 3d 55 oJ tti w -^~ l^ ^ yT t^ w o~ Ol" lO a C) 01 '-I 01 CO Ol Ol ►^^ tL -1 ■^^ ai ^^ _>> K^ K^^ >. "5 3 -1^ -< •^ 3 " s ~ "3 "T^ i-s r-^ .2 -^ u r-« f-H .L CO >i --- •-1 3 o ■J >. 3 SI .22 1 - - - i •^ ^ r— 1 ?3 2 CO _a^ o " " " s. i; h4 ^ 5" O :: :: i „ ^ m f3 73 75 CU 1^ 73 3 1 o' p - - - S o X' y '^ " ^ ;^ X 14-. o X y? 75 c3 X 2 > > 73 s s H 0; 3 0) 3 03 in O o ''r. ^ ^3 o ^ ^ O o g 03 ] o o X 2; 05 C: b-. o o o u * Ol Ol Ol Ol Ol 0) > < 1 138 Bangs — A New Mask Rat from Newfouudland. &H Height of ear from uotch. (M X C- 02 O 'H O O C5 'I-l CJ ^H I— 1 T-l (M CJ (M C) 1— 1 iM c^ .2 'i o-*o— lO-Mcr^cio-f t- t^ t^ t^ t^ 1^ --O iZ I^ 1~ OCOCOOOI^Mt-OO O C-l t^ C<1 S-1 r-H CI ^ C: O) (M (N — -^ -f X 0 May 14, 1894 Dec. 6, 1893 May 20, 1894 May 8, 1894 May 7, 1894 July 9, 1894 May 15, 1894 May 14, 1894 May 7, 1894 May 15, 1894 a g 4 C a a. ~ o c 3 CD o t/5 Ot-OOOOOfXD'Xj'^'^D o _2 c D a: CS a 2 > o' Type *1155 1101 1156 1158 1160 1162 1151 1152 1153 1154 ALPHABETICAL INDEX Names of new species and subspecies are printed in heavy type A. Agapostemon, 67. Aniphion fischeri, 91. x\ndremidfe, 67. Ainiual meetinoj, xi, xvi. Anoi)Iotermes, 33. Anthophora, 66, 67. Ant economy, 24, 68-71. fallow, 6. sauba, 29. wars, 24-25. Ants, 23-36, 47, 5.3, 54, 68-71. Apidre, 16, 67. Aphides, 26. Apis, 14. species and varieties, 63-65. A pus, 95. Araucaria pictaviensis, 82. Army worm, 14. Arvicola chrotorrhinus, 129, 1.30. riparius, 99, 100, 104, 129, 1.30. Arvicola terraenovae, 129-132. xanthognathus, 129, 130. Asaplius, 93. Atta cephalotes, 70. fervens, 69. mexicana, 70. tardigrada, 69, 70. B. Bailey, L. H., The Plant Individual in the Light of Evolution, xi. Bailey, Vernon, Bones from a Cave in Arizona, viii. Baker, Frank, Nomenclature of Nerve Cells, xvi. , Some Peculiarities of Lumbar Vertebrte, xiii. Bangs, Outram, New Field Mouse from Newfoundland, 129-132. , New Musk Rat from Newfound- land, 133-138. , Synaptojnys cooperii in Eastern Mass., with notes on Synaptomys stonei Rhoads, 99-104. Bangs, Outram, and Miller, G. S., Jr., A New Rabbit from Western Florida, 105-108. Beal, F. E. L., Food Habits of Wood- peckers, xii. Bees, 4-18, 47-18, 61-68. division of labor among, 9. poUeniferous organs in, 65-67. social organization of, 9. Bennettites, 79, 86. dacotensis, 86. gibsonianus, 80. gibsoni, 80. maranianus, 84. maxinms, 81. mirabilis, 86. peachianus, 81. peachii, 81. portlandicus, 81. saxbyanus, 80. saxbyi, 80. schachti, 85. Benton, F., Species of Bees, 64-65. Blattida?, 40. Blister beetles, 55. Bolbopodium, 79. mamertinum, 82. micromerum, 82. pictaviense, 82. Bombus, 18, 49, 0(5. Bombycidae, 44. Bottle bees, 18. (139) 140 J.pliabdlcal Index. Burial grounds of ants, 26. Ikiinble bee, 18. Calotermes, 33, 35. Calymene, 92, 93, 95. senaria, 90. Camponotus inflatus, 69. Carleton, M. A., Artificial Infection with Uredospores, x. Cell, Discussion of living, ix. Ceraurus, 91, 93, 95. Chartergus nidulans, 21. Chironomus, 45. Clathraria schachti, 85. Clathropodium foratum, 82. megalophyllum, 79. microphyllum, 80. mirabile, 86. morieri, 81. sarlatense, 82. trigeri, 82. Claviger, 30. Clisiocampa sp., 3. Coville, F. v.. Botanical Explorations of Thomas Coulter in Mexico and Cali- fornia, XV. , Remarks on the New Botanical Check List, xiii. Cremastochilns, 30. Cremastogaster, 29, 70. arboreus, 70. lineolata, 70. Cycadean Trunks of North America, 75-87. Cycadeoidea, 79-87. abequis quercns-mellaria, 69. Dall, W. H., Exhiliition of Remains of Mammoth, xv. Dip(jdomys, 109-113. Dipodomys elator, 109-110. merriami, 112, 113. Alphabetical Index. 141 Dipodomys merriami ationasus, 113. exilis, 11;;. nevadensis, 1 11-112. nitratoides, 112-113. nitratus, 1 1 2. ornatus, 109, 110-111. perotensis, 111. phillipsi, 110, 111. spectabilis, 109. Doliclioderus, 70. JJoriliiUe, 24. Dragon flies, 38. £. Ecbinostipes, 82. microphyllus, 80. nidiformis, 79. pygma3us, 80. Economj' of Hive, 9. Election of Officers, xi, xvi. Encephlartos bucklandii, 79. Eucheira socialis, 4. Eutermes, 33, 35, 74. morio, 74. rippertii, 72, 74. Evermann, B. W., Fishes of Missonri River Basin, xv. , Red Fish of tlie Idaho Lakes, xi. Evotomj's gapperi, 99, 100. Fall \ve])-worni, 3. Fiber obscurus, 133-138. Fiber zibethicus, 133, 134, 135, 137. Field mouse, new, from Newfoundland, 129-132. Food habits of ai^ts, 26. F(n'inica, 29. exsecta, 25, 08. exsectoides, 68. fusca, 26, 29. ]>ratensis, 25. subpolita, 26. Formicary, Division of individuals in, 29. Formicidte, 24. G. Galloway, B., T., Effectof Spraying with Fungicides on Growth of Nursery Stock, ix. , A Hexenbesen of Rubus, viii. , Physiological Significance of Trans- pi ration of Plants, X. , Rust of Pine Leaves and EflTects of Parasite on Host, vii. , Size and Weight of Seed in Rela- tion to Size and Weight of Plant, ix. , Winter Coloration of Evergreen Leaves, viii. Gigantostraca, 93. Gill, Theodore, The Belone and Sarginas of Aristotle, xv. , Relation of Ancient and Modern Ceratodontida;, xiv. , On the Torpedoes, xiii. , Pithecanthropus, xii. , Remarkable New Bassalian Family of Crabs, x. , Segregation of Osteophysial Fishes as Fresh Water Forms, vii. Goode, G. Brown, Horizontal and \^er- tical Distribution of Deep Sea Fishes, xiv. , Location and Record of Natural Phenomena by a Method of Reference to Geographical Coordinates, xiv. Greene, Edward L., Some Fundamen- tals of Nomenclature, xvi. Heniiasj)id;o, 93. Hepialus, 39. behrensi, 40. hectus, 40. Heredity in insects, 51-58. Hill, Robert T., A New Fauna from the Cretaceous Formations of Texas, vii. Histeridte, 30. Hive, Economy of, 9. Holm, Theodor, Anatomy of a Leaf Gall of Piuus virginiana, xii. 142 Alphahdical Index. Holm, Theodor, Contriljutions to Flora of District of Columbia, xvi. , OEdema of Violet Leaves, xiii. Hornet, baldfaced, 20. Howard, L. O., An Enemy of the Hcll- gramite Fly, xv. , iS^ew Cotton Enemy from INIexico, xi. , Notes on Spider Bites, viii. Hyphantria cunea, 3. Hyponomeutidje, 4. I. Insect societies, organized, 3. Insects, color sense in, oS-o9. heredity in, 51-58. intelligence in, 40-51. senses in, 36-46. social, 1-74. generalizations on, 36. Invertebrates vs. vertebrates, 58-60. J. James, Joseph F., Remarks on Daimo- nelix and allied Fossils, xiii. Judd, S. D., Food of the Catbird, Brown Thrasher, and Wrens, xv. Kine-keeping, etc., by ants, 26-27. Knowlton, F. H., Amount of Water Transpired by Plants, xi. Lasius, 25, 29. Lepus paludicola, 105-108. palustris, 105-108. Libellulidte, 38. Limulus, 93. Lucas, F. A., Abnormal Feet of Mam- mals, xii. , Extinct Gigantic Birds of Pata- gonia, XV. M. Mantellia, 79. inclusa, 81. intermedia, 81. megalophylla, 79. microi:)hjdla, 80. nidiformis, 79. pygmiea, 80. scarabellii, 83. Mearns, Edgar A., The Hares (genus Lei)us) of the Mexican Border, xiv. Megachilus kfempferi, 59. Melipona, 65, 66, 67. Meloida?, 55. INIelissodes, 66, 67. ]\Ierriam, C.-Hart, A Remarkable new Rabbit from Mexnco, viii. , American AV'ood Rats (Neotoma), with Descrii)tions of 14 new Species, 117-128. , Dental Armature of Pocket Gophers (Geomys), ix. , Mammals of Pribilof Islands, xv. , North American Shrews, xiv. , Descriptions of 11 new Kangaroo Rats (Dijiodomys and Perodipus), 109-116. , Short-tailed Shrews of America, xiv. Miller, G. S., Jr., and Bangs Outram, A new Rabbit from Western Florida, 105-108. Monomorium pharaonis, 24. ]Musk Rat, new, from Newfoundland, 133-138. Myrmicid;*, 24. IMyrmecocystus melliger, ()9. mexicanus, 69. Myrmicophihe, 29-31. N. Nelumbium, 86. Neotoma, 117-128. albigula, 120, 127. arizonje, 120. A Iphahctical Index. 143 Neotoma baileyi, 123. cineiva druinmondi, 127, 128. desertorum, 119, 125-12(). sola, 126. fallax, 123-124. tioridana, 117, 118. fulviventer, 121-122. fuscipes dispar, 124-125. streatori, 124. intermedia angusticeps, 127. m e 1 a n u r a, 120-127. latifrons, 121. leucodon, 118, 120, 121. mexicana, 118. mexicana bullata, 122, 123. oiizabae, 122. oiolestes, 128. tenuicauda, 121. Nomada, 67. Oecodoina eejilialote!-:, 29. a^fophylla, 24. Organ.s, important special, of bees, 11. sense, 42. wax-prod ncincr, 12. P. Palmer, Wm., AllMnistic Birds' Feet, xv. , Nesting Sites of Blue Gray Gnat Catcher, x. , Rare Birds in District of Columbia, viii. Parorgyia, 39. Perdita, 66. Perodipus, 109, 11.3-115. agilis, 114. ordi, 115. Perodipus ordi columbianus, 115. panamintinus, 1U9, 114. streatori, 109, 11.3-114. Plant lice, 2(). Polistes, 20, 23. gallica, 21, 22. Pollard, Charles L., Genus Cassia in America, x. Polleniferous organs in bees, 16, 65 67. Polyergus rufescens, 25. Polyrhacis, 70. Poneridfe, 24. Powell, J. W., Classification of Sulyect- matter of Biology, xiii. Prosopis, 67. Proetus bohemicns, 91. R. Rabl)it, New, from We.«tern Florida, 10.5-108. Raumeria cocchiana, 84. masseiana, 84. reichenbachiana, 85. scludziana, 85. Riley, C. V., Social Insects from Psy- cliical and Evolutional Points of View, 1-74. , Some Interesting Results of In- juries to Trees, xi. , Transmission of Acquired Char- acters, viii. Romanes on instinct in neuter insects, 49. Rose, J. N., A Botanical Trip to North- western Wyoming, vii. Saljni, 94. Snmia cyntliia, 44. Sao hirsuta, 91. Sciara, 4. Simpson, Charles T., Geograi)liical Dis- tribution of Fresh- water Mussels, xiv. , Geographical Distribution of Land Sliells in Jamaica, x. , Respective Values of Shell and Soft Parts in Naiad Classification, xiii. , Validity of genus Margaritana, xi. Slave-making among ants, 25-^6. Smith, Erwin F., Biology of Bacillus trachfeiphilus, xiv. 144 .1 Ipliahdkdl Index. Smith, Edwin F., Last Phase of the Root Tubercle Question, xi. , Length of Vessels in Higher Plants, ix. , The Other Side of the Nomenclat- ure Question, xiv. Smith, Theobald, Infectious Entei-o- He})atitis of Fowls due to Protozoa, xiii. , Significance of Variation among Species of Pathogenic Bacteria, viii. Snake worms, 4. Stejneger, Leonhard, Exhibition of Spade-Foot Toad (Spea), viii. Sternberg, George M., Explanation of Acquired Immunity, xiii. , Explanation of Immunity from Infectious Diseases, xii. : , Practical Results of Bacteriological Researches, xvi. Stiles, Ch. Warden, Adult Cestodes of Herbivorous Animals, ix. , Distoma westermanni in the Lungs of a Cat, viii. , Double-pored Cestode with Occa- sional Single Pores, xii. , Experimental Trichinosis in a New Host, X. , Presence of Adult Cestodes in Hogs, xiii. , The Rudolph Leuckhart ^Memorial, XV. , The Third International Zoolog- ical Congress, xv. , Teaching of Biology in Colleges, vii. Stylopidie, 'MS. Swarming of bees, 10. Synaptomys cooperii, 99-104. stonei, 99-104. T. Telepathy in insects, 43-46. Tent caterpillars, 3. Teonoma, 127. Ternies, 74. Termes bellicosus, 34. colony, forms in, 33. composition of colony, 73-74. llavipes, 32, 35. lucifugus, 31, 33, 35. Termite economy, 71-74. Termites, 31-36, 42, 47, 56, 57. influence of food and treat- ment on, 72-73. supplementary kings and queens of, 71-72. true royal pairs of, 71-72. Tetramorium, 25, 29. Thompson, Ernest E., Means of Inter- communication among Wolves, xiv. Townsend, C. H., Ornithology of Cocos Island in Relation to that of the Gala- pagos Archipelago, viii. Triarthus, 92, 93, 95. becki, 96. Trigona,- 17, 65, (SC-i, 67. Trilobites, appendages of, 89-97. Tyson ia marylandica, 86. V. Vespa, 22. maculata, 20, 70. Vespida?, 19, 23. W. Waite, M. B., Hexenbesens of Wash- ington and Vicinity, viii. , Flora of Washington and Vicinity, .\ii. , Structure and ]\Iethod of Opening of Anthers of the Pome;e, viii. , Treatment of the Pear Leaf-Blight, vii. Walcott, Charles D., Appendages of Trilobites, ix, 89-97. , Occurrence of Fossil Medusae in the INIiddle Cambrian Terrane, ix. Ward, Lester F., Fossil Cycads from Potomac Formation of ^Maryland, ix. , Fossil Cycadean Trunks with Re- vision of genus Cycadeoidea, 75-87. A IpJiahetical Index. ]4n Wiird, Lester F.,Mesozoic Flin'a of Por- tngal compared with that of United States, xii. , Remarks on the genus Cauli'nites Brongn-, xv. Wasps, 19, 47, 48, 53, 54. Life history of, 21. Paper, 20. Social, 19-28. Wax discs, 16. glands, 12. pincers, 18. producing organs in bees, 12, fiJ-GS. Webber, H. J., Dissemination of the Yucca, X. Weismann's theory of heredity, 51-52. AVoods, A. F., Uaioridc Effect of Light ui)on Plants, ix. Woods, A. F., Some Ellccts of Sprayini. ]Mixtures on growth of Plants, x. Xiphosura, 93. Yellow jackets, 20. Zamites bucklandi, 81. megalophyllus, 79. microphyllus, 80. pygmteus, 80. Zamiostrobus emmonsi, 86. mirabilis, 75, 86. Zapus hudsonius, 99, 100.