!/j- HARVARD UNIVERSITY LIBRARY OF THE MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY J iJc^ ^ n ^a. I PROCEEDINGS OF THE BRISTOL NATURALISTS' SOCIETY. NEW SEEIES, Vol. VI. (1888 91). PROCEEDINGS OF THE BRISTOL NATURALISTS' SOCIETY. EDITED BY THE HON OEAEY' SECRETARY. Reruvi cannoHcere causas.'' — Viegil. BRISTOL : JAMES FAWN & SON. Printed for the Society. MDCCCXCI. 3^;^yt INDEX TO VOL. VI. PAGE Bees, Some British Wild . . . . ' 213 Bi»ds exhibited at Meetings 115, 160, 161, 244 Blackbirds, Observations on a Pair of 202 Brislington Cutting, The 165 Bucknall, Cedric, Mus.Bac. : The Fungi of the Bristol District ... 28, 189, 274 Index to Bristol Fungi 425 Border, George F., M.D., F.R.Met.Soc. : The Frosts of Recent Years . . • • . • • 294 Rainfall at Clifton, 1888 . . . . -. ^ .37 ,,1889 195 1890 287 Camel's Stomach, Notes on the Water-cells of the (Abstract) . 118 Cassava 418 Cornish Viaducts 217 Cotterell, Albert P. I., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. : Some Remarks on Sewerage Systems .... 93 Cornish Viaducts 217 Crawford, G.E.,B.A.: The Eiffel Tower 142 Dallinger, Rev. W. H., LL.D., F.R.S. : On Putrefactive Organ- isms (Abstract) 86 Duncan, William, L.R.C.P. : " Trigonocephalus lanceolattis" (The Fer-de-Lance) . 44 Cassava (Abstract) 418 Edgeworth, Francis H., M.B., B.Sc, B.A. : Hypnotism . . 359 Eiffel Tower, The 142 JFer-de-Lance 44 Flora of the Bristol Coalfield 18 V. VI INDEX TO VOL. VI. PAGE Flowers and Foliage of Tropical and Temperate Regions, Sug- gestions as to the Causes of the Difference in Colour between the 121 Formulae for Strength of Fire-box Girder Stays, Investigation of the Board of Trade's 232 Francis, H. A., F.E.M.S. : Some British Wild Bees . . .213 Frosts of Recent Years, The 294 Fungi of the Bristol District. Part XI 28 » jj j> J5 XII 189 n XIII 274 „ „ „ Index to 425 Grriffiths, G. C, F.E.S. : Mimicry amongst the Lepidoptera. . 79 Harrison, A. J., M.B. Lond. : Do Snakes Fascinate their Victims? 67 Harvey, J, W. I. : Investigation of the Board of Trade's Formulae for Strength of Fire-box Girder Stays 232 Heliothis scutosa, A Few Notes on 34 Hypnotism 359' Jecks, Charles : Suggestions as to the Causes of the Difference in Colour between the Flowers and Foliage of Tropical and Temperate Regions 121 Landslips 301 Language and Race 390 Leonard, H. Percy : Observations on a Pair of Blackbirds .... 202 Observations on British Mice 342 Mann, W. Kempster : A Few Notes on Heliothis scutosa . McCurrich, John Martin, M.A., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. : The Ware- housing of Grain Mendip Notes Mice, Observations on British Mimicry amongst the Lepidoptera Morgan, Prof. C. Lloyd, F.G.S.: The Geology of Tytherington and Grovesend On the Perceptions of Animals (Abstract) The Brislington Cutting .... Mendip Notes ...... The Geology of the Wick Rocks Valley . The Nature and Origin of Variations . 34 124 169 342 79 1 116 165 169 isa 249 INDEX TO VOL. VI. VU "Mountain Building, On Mr. Mellard Reade's Work on PAGE 63 Pearson, H. W., M.I.C.E.: Someof the Water-bearing Strata, and Wells sunk in same 327 Perceptions of Animals, On the 116 Phenological Observations for 1890 278 President's Address. 249 Prowse, Arthur B., M.D., F.R.C.S. : Voice, Language, and Phonetic Spelling . . , 153 Language and Race 390 Putrefactive Organisms, On 86 Rainfall at Clifton, 1888 ,,1889 „_ 1890 JReports of Meetings, General and Sectional Richardson, Charles, C.E. : Landslips .... Rintoul, D., M.A., Cantab.: Observations of Temperature at Clifton, 1888 » ,, ,, 1889 „ ,, ,, 1890 . 37 . 195 . 287 160, 243, 421 . 301 . 40 . 198 . 290 Saunders, Rev. M. B. : On Mr. Mellard Reade's Work on Moun- tain Building 63 ^Sewerage Systems, Some Remarks on . Smith, G. Munro, L.R.C.P., Lond., M.R.C.S. : Notes on the Water-cells of the Camel's Stomach (Abstract) Snakes, Do they Fascinate their Victims ? . Talpa ; or. Remarks on the Habits of the Mole Temperature at Clifton, 1888 .... „ 1889. . . . „ 1890. . . . Trigonocephalus lanceolatus .... 'Tytherington and Grovesend, The Geplog}'- of Variations, The Nature and Origin of . Voice, Language, and Phonetic Spelling Warehousing of Grain, The .... Water-bearing Strata, and AVells sunk in same White, James Walter, F.L.S. : Flora of the Bristol Coal-fio Wick Rocks Valley, The Geology of the Id 93 118 67 56 40 198 290 44 1 249 153 124 327 18 183 / ^* NEW SERIES, Vol. VI., Part I. (1888-9). Price 4s. PROCEEDINGS OF THE BRISTOL NATURALISTS' SOCIETY. EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARY. **Berum cognoscere causas.^^ — Virgil. BRISTOL : Printed for the Society MDCCCLXXXIX. 55EW SERIES, Vol. VI., Tait I. (1888-9). Price 4s. PROCEEDINGS OF THE BRISTOL NATURALISTS' SOCIETY. EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARY. ''Rerum cognoscere causas." — Virgil. BRISTOL PraNTED FOR THE SOCIETY. MDCCCLXXXIX TABLE OF CONTENTS. NEW SERIES, VOL. VI., PART I. The Geology of Tytherington and Grovesend. By Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan, F.G.S Flora of the Bristol Coal-field. By James Walter White, F.L.S. The Fungi of the Bristol District. By Cedric Bucknall, Mus. Bac. A Few Notes on Heliothis Scutosa. By W. Kerapster Mann . Rainfall at Clifton in 1888. By George F. Burder, M.D., F.R. Met Soc Observtttions of Temperature at Clifton, 1888. By D. Rintoul M.A., Cantab. , " Trigonocephalus Lanceolatus " : Notes on the West Indian " Fer de-Lance." By Dr. William Duncan .... Talpa ; or, Remarks on the Habits of the Mole. By C. J. Trusted On Mr. Mellard Reade's Work on Mountain Building, By Rev M. B. Saunders Do Snakes Fascinate their Victims ? By Dr. A. J. Harrison . Mimicry amongst the Lepidoptera. By G. C. Griffiths . On Putrefactive Organisms. By the Rev. W. H. Dallinger, LL.D. F.R.S. .... Some Remarks on Sewerage Systems. By Albert P. I. Cotterell Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. Birds Exhibited at Meetings ... .... On the Perceptions of Animals. By Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan . Notes on the Water-cells of the Camel's Stomach. By G. Munro Smith, L.R.C.P. Lond., M.R.C.S Suggestions as to the Causes of the Difference in the Colour between the Flowers and Foliage of Tropiqal and of Temperate Regions By Charles Jecks The Warehousing of Grain. By John M. McCurrich, M.A. Assoc. M. Inst. C.E The Eiffel Tower. By G. E. Crawford Voice, Language, Phonetic Spelling. By Arthur B. Prowse, M.D. F.R.C.S Reports of Meetings, General and Sectional .... 1 18 28 34 37 40 44 56 63 67 79 86 93 115 116 118 121 124 142 153 160 /y y. As bo the ide is ileaze UVARS.. LITH, 6P0AD S^ BRISTOL. SCALE-^JnrJtesfy: ^7e MiU 3'fiZl.stOTWy Grxt . f3/odi/i£ci /r^oirv IfV^ Sanders } C Carbam'/ert7us Lim^'^tene /ualh. i^^er 7rcatsition.Beds) Lflwer Jransi/iem Beds. OMRtd^ Sandsicrie. By Prof. C. LLOYD MORGAN, T.G.S. 1. General Features of the District. THE branch line of railway to Thornbury breaks off from the Midland line to Gloucester, at Yate Station. It then takes a curved course over strata belonging to the Coal-measure series, with occasional exposures of Pennant Sandstone by the rail-side, through Iron Acton to Range- worthy ; after which it runs N.W. across a Triassic flat to Tytherington. Alighting at Tytherington Station, we see before us the Mountain Limestone which forms part of the northern rim of the Bristol coal-field, and along which runs the northern water-shed of the Avon basin. The higher ground of the Limestone is broken into by a deep inlet occupied by Triassic beds, on which the little village of Tytherington is for the most part built. The valley which thus runs up into the Limestone separates Tytherington Hill on the east from a hill to the west on which runs the oval rampart of a British camp known as the Castle. As is usual in such cases, the rampart is best marked to the north, where the natural defence of the steep hill-side is absent West of the Castle Hill, between it and Woodleaze B 2 THE GEOLOGY OF TYTHERINGTON AND GROVESEXD. Parm, is another valley occupied by Triassic strata. The southern slope of Castle Hill is being eaten into by a large quarry, worked by Mr. Hardwicke, of Tytherington. Beyond the station the line of rail skirts the north- eastern side of the Castle Hill in a gradually deepening cut- ting, in which Triassic strata are seen resting on the up- turned edges of Mountain Limestone. Then curving to the east, so as to run nearly along the strike of the Palaeozoic strata, it enters the Tytherington tunnel ; on emerging from which Triassic beds are again seen filling a denuded hollow in the Mountain Limestone, Turning northwards, the cut- ting then runs nearly across the edges of the Palaeozoic strata, until, close to a stone bridge near Grrovesend, the grass-covered slopes of the cutting indicate the incoming of the softer beds, which are transitional between the Car- boniferous series and the Old E.ed Sandstone. Stronger and harder beds of Old Red Sandstone crop out before the Grovesend Tunnel, at the northern end of which the Old Red Sandstone, in places vertical, and further on showing the summit of an anticlinal roll, is overlain by hard Base- ment Beds of the Trias which stand in the cutting as a vertical wall. These are succeeded by argillaceous lime- stones and Triassic Marls, from which the line of rail emerges, to run over comparative^ flat and low-lying Old Red Sandstone to Thornbury. The hamlet of Grrovesend stands at the head of a little valley of denundation draining N. by E. Lito the head of this valley the Gloucester Road over Milbury Heath dips. Immediately under the road is the tunnel mouth, and above the road is a mural face of hard dense Old Red Sandstone, partly hidden by walling. Towards Bristol the road rises over Old Red Sandstone, and then dips into a depression caused by the incoming of the softer Lower :\>> Ijj/ierLimestone Middle Transition, Beds. tower {.itnC'ttone. Zcmer Tra/isiti^iBeds. OldJied Sandstone. Cmuflomtratic Basement Bids ofAeuptr Ydlon Marl amiiim^lBn The Tytherington — Grovesend Section Mriical Scale ahmit 10 luius Hfii^ontal . UVAffS.UTHO. SI.BRMB STREET. BRISTOL THE aEOLOGY OF TYTHERINGTON AND GROVESEND. 6 Limestone Shales. Towards Grloucester it rises along the Old B-ed Sandstone, which, flanked by Triassic beds, over- looks at first the stream-cut valley, and then the low-lying country which stretches by Thornbury to the Severn. The view from this road, before it dips on to the Trias, near Buckover, is superb. The road from Grovesend to Tytherington rises over Old Eed Sandstone, and then, after dipping into Lower Lime- stone Shales, passes across the Mountain Limestone to Stow Hill, when it drops steeply into the Triassic inlet on which Tytherington is situated. 2. The Raihcaij Section between Tytherington and Grovesend.. I have to thank the Rev. H. H. Winwood, M.A., F.G-.S.-, of Bath, for introducing this section to my notice. We visited the section together several times, and once in company with Mr. W. L. Meredith, C.E., F.G.S. These two gentlemen are publishing, in the Proceedings of the Cottes- wold Field Club, a section, prepared by Mr. Meredith, and descriptive notes supplied by Mr. Winwood. The section published herewith is based on Mr. Meredith's,* the hori- zontal scale being reduced to one-fourth, while the vertical scale remains the same. My reading of the section differs somewhat from that given by Mr. Winwood, but I have to thank him for having, with great courtesy, sent me proofs of his Cotteswold paper, in which he recorded some of the measurements we made together. The section, — nearly one mile and a half in length,— runs between the points A and B on the map which accompanies * By the kind permission of these gentlemen, and of the President and Secretary of the Cotteswold Field Club. 4 THE GEOLOGY OF TYTHERINGTON AND GROVESEND. this paper. It will be noted tliat the line between these points does not run straight, but makes an S-like curve. The section is therefore not at right angles ivith the strike of the PalcBozoiG strata. We may conveniently divide it Into the following sub-sections : — Sub-section 1. — From the 5J-mile post to 345 feet, where the Mountain Limestone is cut off by a reversed fault. The strata here dip from 30° to 34° S. by E., the line run- ning N.W. Sub-section 2. — From the reversed fault to the 5J-mile post, where the Palaeozoics, which emerge at 710 feet, are overlain by the Basement Beds of the Trias. Sub-section 3. — From the 5J to the 5|-mile posts. The line here runs nearly along the strike of the strata, which dip 16° to 25° S. by E. to S.S.E Sub-section 4. — From the 5|-mile post to the mouth of the Grovesend tunnel. The average dip is about 28° E.S.E., and the line runs N.W. by N. Sub-section 5.— From the N.W. end of the Grovesend tunnel to the end of the section. Old Bed Sandstone, with varying dip, is overlain by solid conglomeratic Basement Beds of the Trias. Sub-section 1. — The strata in this sub-section are well exposed in Mr.. Hardwicke's quarry. To the south-west they are overlain by Triassic beds. They may be thus grouped : — Yellow and Blue Limestones, with Producti and ft. in. Lithostrotion . . . . . . . 60 0 Silicious Limestone (2 beds) ; locally called " Fire- stone " 9 3 Blue Limestone with shaley partings {Lithostrotion and Producti) 75 9 145 0 THE GEOLOGY OF TYTHERINGTON AND GKOVESEXD. 5 The silicious limestones are remarkable beds, very dense and hard in the solid ; the upper bed, which is the more silicious, weathering at surface to a friable red sand- stone. A fragment of this treated with dilute hydrochloric acid effervesces briskly, but on the cessation of the action of the acid, still retains its form and consistency ; if then treated with concentrated hydrochloric and boiled, the acid is stained deeply yellow by ferric chloride, and there remains a white sugary sandstone. Under the lens the rock is seen to be almost entirely composed of grains of detrital quartz, cemented by calcareous matter, and with here and there dark-red scales of ferric oxide. After treatment with acid, the lens shows that the rock is sugary from the removal of the calcareous matter and iron scales. The percentage of insoluble matter, after treatment with acid, is 72'05. The stone is used for road-metalling, and has a resistance to a crushing stress of 14,694 lbs. to the square inch, as determined by Messrs. Kirkaldy.* In the midst of the " Eire-stone " there are seen, where the beds outcrop at the surface, lenticular masses of Lithostrotion irregulare^ and on the dip-slope of Limestone, exposed by the removal of the overlying '' Fire-stone," fine branching stocks of the same coral are abundant. In the lower bed of " Fire-stone " Mr. Win wood obtained Spirifera octoplicata and Athyris glohularis. It is, however, exceed- ingly difficult to obtain satisfactory fossils from this quarry, though Producti and Lithostrotion are abundant. About 15 feet above the " Fire-stone " occurs a bed, the surface of which, where exposed, is crowded with Brachiopods and Euonipliali (?) ; all, however, in bad condition for extrac- tion or recognition. Both above and below the ^' Fire- * "Highway Management. Proceedings of a Conference held at Gloucester, 1886." Appendix I., page 50. 6 THE GEOLOGY OP TYTHERINGTON AND GEOVESEND. Stone" there are black bands of limestone giving a bitumi- nous odour when freshly broken. It is difficult to assign with any degree of certainty the position of the "Tire-stone" beds in the Limestone series, owing to the reversed fault which breaks the continuity of the strata. The same beds appear, however, on Tyther- ington Hill, so that their strike can be laid down on the map, while the point where they cross the line can be readily determined. In the field near the Station beds of somewhat silicious limestone occur ; they probably belong to the Upper Limestone Shales, for in the barton of Mill Farm (see map), beds of grit are exposed, overlain by Base- ment Beds of the Trias. The distance from the strike of the " Fire-stone " beds to the uppermost Limestone bed visible in this field, measured across the dip, is 750 feet. The dip of the beds is 34°. Calculating on this basis, I find the bed in the Station field to have a position of about 420 feet (vertically) higher in the series than the " Fire-stone." Sub-section 2. — A very interesting feature of the section is the reversed fault. It is unfortunate that no sketch- section of the beds here shown was published at the time when the line was formed. I give one (Fig. 1) as it now appears. The beds of Mountain Limestone have been thrust up along their dip faces over Basement Beds of the Trias. The line of fault, as seen, makes with the horizontal an angle of 20°. The irregular nodules at a consist of marly limestone. They protrude from yellowish-white calcareous marl. It is strange to see Mountain Limestone overlying, apparently un conformably, beds of a far more recent age. The existence of the fault, however, at once explains matters. There are no data for estimating the throw of the fault, but I do not suppose it is of any con- siderable magnitude. THE GEOLOGY OE TYTHERINGTON AND GROVESEND. 7 Beyond the fault the Basement Beds of the Trias lie in a gentle dip. About 525 feet from the beginning of the section the Palaeozoic beds rise unconformably beneath them, i^ig. 1. Sketch Section to show Mountain Limestone thrust up over Basement Bed of Keuper by reversed fault. a a, Marly Limestone; b b, Yellowish White Marl; cc, Mountain Limestone. and come to surface about 60 feet from the 5|-mile post^ the Triassic beds here dying out at surface, and not reaching as far as the tunnel mouth, as shown in Mr. Meredith's section. Soon after the Palaeozoics come in, there is, beneath the marty limestones of the Basement Beds, a pocket of marl, described by Mr. Winwood, and specially figured as " sand " by Mr. Meredith. Of the Basement Beds of the Trias I shall speak again under that head (p. 14). Sub-section 3. — This includes the Palaeozoic beds from where they appear beneath the Trias to the oolitic limestone 8 THE GEOLOGY OF TYTHEEINGTON AND GKOVESEND. beyond the tunnel mouth. They dip somewhat irregularly from 16° to 25° S. by E. to S.S.E. And since the line of rails in the tunnel runs nearly east and west (5° N. of W. and 5° S. of E.), this part of the section runs nearly, but not quite, along the strike of the beds. As seen in the sec- tion, the thin bands of limestone are thrown into slightly waving folds ; similar folds are noted by Mr. Winwood as occurring in the tunnel. The limestones are, for the most part, thinly-bedded, close- grained, and argillaceous, mottled or streaked with green, pink, and purple. Between them are partings of red, pink, and grey shales. We measured 118 feet of these beds before the tunnel mouth. At the other end of the tunnel, shales and fine-grained argillaceous limestone, weathering white, are seen overlying very dense and solid oolitic limestones. I believe the shales and argillaceous limestones here seen form a continuous series with those on the other side of the tunnel. It is impossible to estimate with accuracy the thickness of beds hidden by the tunnel. But seeing how nearly it runs along the strike of the strata, I cannot think that there are more than 20 or 30 feet. I am convinced that Mr. Winwood is in error in assigning a thickness of 178 feet to the beds hidden by the tunnel. I estimate the total thickness of the beds above the oolitic limestone in this sub-section at 150 to 160 feet. Just beyond the tunnel mouth the cutting is, on the south side, walled up. This wall covers the entrance to a great cavern, or underground watercourse, which dipped down southwards, and ran for a distance of two or three hundred feet. A small hollow, about 7 feet deep by 3^ wide, has recently been holed into on the north side of the line; and a somewhat larger cavity, 20 or 25 feet long, has been THE GEOLOGY OF TYTHEKINGTON AND GHOVESEND. 9 disclosed by Mr. Hardwicke's quarrying in the oolitic limestone. On the further side of the Tytherington tunnel the Palseo- zoic strata are again overlain by Triassic beds, which occupy a denuded depression. I shall speak of these further on. Subsection 4. — The oolitic limestones which appear shortly after the line emerges from the Tytherington tunnel are dense strata in which the bedding is inconspicuous. They are being quarried by Mr. Hardwicke. The oolitic structure is very clearly marked, and they closely resemble the Gully Limestone of the Avon section at Clifton. I estimate their thickness at 150 feet. They are followed by a series of about 500 feet of bedded limestones, dark in colour, with strong bituminous odour when freshly broken, and largely composed of crinoidal ossicles. They contain, especiall}^ in the lower beds, abun- dant Spiinfers / we also found a gastropod, probably Loxonema. About 75 feet before the 6-mile post is a bed of oolitic limestone. Small quantities of Galena were found near here associated with Barytes. These limestones are succeeded, 150 feet from the stone bridge, by the more shaley beds of the Lower Limestone Shales. Beyond the bridge they are somewhat obscured by grass, but Mr. Meredith kindly had them cleared near the line. About 250 feet from the bridge occurs the Bryozoa bed, far less marked than in the Avon section below Cook's Folly, but still readily recognisable — polyzoa {Rlioiyibopora)^ en- crinite ossicles, and other organic remains being converted oxide of iron. I confess that it gave me great pleasure to find this bed in the Tytherington section. It has long been known in the Avon section. I subsequently proved its existence at Charlton, near Portbury, at Portishead, and in Woodhill 10 THE GEOLOGY OF TYTHERINGTON AND GROVESEND. Bay. I Lave not yet proved it in tlie Mendips ; but here we have it on the northern borders of the Avon Basin near Grovesend. It is difficult here, as elsewhere, to determine where the so-called Lower Limestone Shales pass into the Old Eed Sandstone. The series is essentially a transition series. Above, it shades into the Lower Limestones of the Car- boniferous : below, it shades into the Old Red Sandstone. Above, there are shales with limestones ; below, there are shales with sandstones. I have carefully gone over the beds, testing them with acid, and am disposed to place the in- coming of the Old Eed Sandstone at a point 480 feet from the bridge. Here occurs a band of hard, close-grained sand- stone. Below it, none of the beds show any effervescence with acid ; shortly above it, they give the characteristic calcareous reaction. The bed I speak of is 120 feet from w^here the conglomerate with milky quartz, shown on Mr. Meredith's section, crosses the line. I estimate the thick- ness of the Lower Limestone Shales between the points I have indicated at 315 feet. The succeeding beds to the tunnel mouth consist of red shales, sandstones, and conglomerates, with milky quartz abundant. Just at the tunnel mouth are hard conglomeratic beds ; and a similar bed is seen, as before mentioned, above the road beneath which the tunnel passes. Subsection 5. — On emerging from the tunnel coarse con- glomeratic and brecciated Basement Beds of the Trias are seen resting on the vertical edges of upturned Old Red con- glomerates and shales (see Eig. 2). Of the Basement Beds I shall speak presently. Here I need only note that there are two other places where the Old Red is exposed at the base of the section. The first of these begins 265 feet from the tunnel mouth, and lasts 110 feet. It shows the summit of THE GEOLOGY OF TYTHERINGTON AND GROVESEND. 11 an anticlinal roll of the Palaeozoic beds. The second (not noted in Mr. Meredith's section) occurs a little before the 6^-mile post, and shows the Old Red beds dipping at an angle of about G0° to the west. 3. The Tytherington and the Clifton Section Compared. Several readings of the beds in the classical Clifton section of the Avon gorge have been gi\en, of which the most '•^'1 ^>'\^ n.*"^ "^.L-^^/TT^-r^ — ^/f^-^>-r7^ •^r[>;:\-: c) ^iBl Fig. 2. Sketch Section, northern end of Grovesend Tunnel, to show Basement Beds of Keuper resting on upturned edges of Old Bed Sandstone with strike N.E. by N. a a, Red shaley beds of 0. R. S. ; h h, Conglomeratic beds of 0. R. S. with pebbles of milky quartz ; c c, Conglomeratic and brecciated Basement Beds of Keuper, with milky quartz pebbles from 0. R. S., and brecciated fragments of 0. R. S., with some Mountain Limestone. recent is that by Mr. E. Wethered, in his valuable paper " On Insoluble Residues from the Carboniferous-Limestone Series at Clifton " (Q.J.G.S., May, 1888). The classification of the beds he adopts may be summarized in the following table : — 12 THE GEOLOaY OF TYTHERTNGTON AND GEOVESEND. Feet. Upper Limestones t . . • . t . 100 /■Main portion Middle Limestones ^ Mitcheldeania-heds > . . 1620 'oolitic beds, 100 feet) Lower Limestones i ^^^^^ ^^^^' ^^^ ^'^^ ] 990 (. Lower Limestone Shales, 500 feet ) Total .... 2710 The Upper Limestones are the beds often spoken of as Upper Limestone Shales, and described by Sir H. de la Beche (Mem. Geol. Surv., vol. i., p. 129) as Upper Mixture of Sandstones, Marls, and Limestones. Sir Henry gives the thickness of these beds as 400 feet. But the boundaries of these transition beds are always difficult to determine, and this accounts for the discrepancy between the thickness of these beds as given by him and that given by Prof. Hull, which Mr. Wethered adopts. The oolitic beds are those seen in the old quarry at the bottom of the gully. Concerning their position, Mr. Wethered speaks with a somewhat uncertain note. On page 187 he writes : " At the top of the Black E-ock series there is clear evidence of an alteration of conditions under which the limestone was being deposited ; this is indicated by a thickness of about 100 feet of oolitic limestone, which closed what may be termed the 'Local Encrinite Period,' and preceded conditions extending over a length of time difficult to estimate, during which a great thickness of strata was deposited in which crinoidal remains are few in number and small in size." Here, therefore, he makes the oolitic beds bring to a close the Lower Limestone series. But on the table he gives (p. 189) he places the oolitic beds at the base of the Middle Limestone. The Mitcheldeania-heds are those which I described in these Proceedings (vol. iv., part 3) as Middle Limestone THE GEOLOGY OP TYTHERINGTON AND GEOVESEND. 13 Shales. The subjoined table gives my own classification of the series in the Avon section. The estimated thicknesses are given in round numbers. I place the line of division between the Upper Transition Beds and the Upper Lime- stone at a point 340 feet on the Bristol side of where the new zigzag path crosses the rail. The points at which the boundaries of the strata cross the Port and Pier railway were determined on the six-inch Survey map. Through these points lines of strike were laid down ; the strata were measured across the outcrop at right angles to the line of strike ; and the thicknesses calculated for a mean dip of 27|°. The Avon Section at Clifton. Feet. Upper Transition Beds (Upper Limestone Shales) . . 400 Upper or Lithostrotion Limestone 800 Middle Transition Beds {Mitc'heldeania-'hedi'&) . . . 200 . ., ,T. , C The Gully Oolite, 100 feet ) ^^^ Lower or Encnmtal Limestone < _, _, ^ „ ^ .^-.^ i. . C "^^ (. The Black Kocli, ooO feet J Lower Transition Beds (Lower Limestone Shales) . . 320 Total .... 2370 In the Tytherington section the continuity of the beds is broken by the reversed fault. There can be no doubt, how- ever, that the beds in Mr. Hardwicke's quarry belong to the Upper or Lithostrotion Limestone. The bituminous beds on either side of the so-called " Fire-stone " may very possibly be equivalent to the similarly bituminous beds of the Grreat Quarry of the Avon section. But I know of no " Pire-stone " in that quarry. The thin-bedded argillaceous limestones which come in beneath the Trias in Sub-section 3 are, I take it, near the top of the Middle Transition {Mitcheldeania) Beds. The Grully Oolite is well represented just beyond the Tythering- ton tunnel, and is followed by the Black Rock limestones. 14 THE GEOLOGY OF TYTHERINGTON AND GHOVESEND. The following table gives the thicknesses for comparison with the Clifton Section. The Tytherington Section. Upper Transition Beds (in Station Field) . . . . ? Upper or Lithostrotion Limestone (in Mr. Hardwicke's quarry) 145 + Middle Transition {Mitcheldeania) Beds .... 160 T -r. • -i. 1 T • t (-The Gully Oolite 150) n-r, Lower or Encrimtal Limestone J -' } . boO 1 The Black Kock 500 J Lower Transition Beds 315 1275 + 4. The Basement Beds of the Keuper. It is well known that in the Bristol area, the Permian Strata of other parts of England, and the Bunter beds of the Trias, so well developed in Cheshire, are both wanting, while the Keuper beds are much reduced in thickness. During the long period in which the Permian, Bunter, and part of the Keuper were being deposited in other parts of England, the Bristol area was dry land, and was suffering denudation. As the Keuper lake extended into the Bristol area, there was formed, along its margin and round the islands which broke its surface, a deposit known as the Dolomitic Con- glomerate. The name is an unfortunate one ; for it is not always markedly dolomitic, and the angular fragments it so often contains give it rather the character of a breccia than a conglomerate. And if we work over the patches of rock marked Dolomitic Conglomerate on the survey map, we cannot fail to be struck by the very variable nature of the deposit, as, indeed, is to be expected from its mode of origin. At times it is a very coarse breccia, with huge frag- ments of Old Red Sandstone, Millstone Grit, or Mountain Limestone (according to the nature of the Palaeozoics on or near which it rests) cemented in a ferruginous and cal- THE GEOLOGY OF TYTHERINGTON AND GKOVESEXD. 15 careons matrix. At other times it is a yellowish argil- laceous and magnesian limestone, with comparatively small brecciated fragments of Mountain Limestone. I have found it exceedingly confusing to students to call this variable deposit by the common name of Dolomitic Conglomerate. And I therefore venture to suggest that the beds under- lying the Keuper Marls, and resting on the Palaeozoic rocks in our area, should be called the Basement Beds of the Keuper, or Basement Beds of the Trias. In the district under consideration, and in the section I have been describing, the variable nature of these Basement Beds is well exemplified. In the barton of Mill Farm the grit is overlain by a ferruginous limestone. In Sub-section 2, after the reversed fault, the Basement Beds consist of yellow marls, with bands of hard argillaceous limestone. An analysis of this limestone gives only 8'41 per cent, of argillaceous residue after treatment with dilute acid. Of magnesium carbonate there is 9*13 per cent. On emerging from the Tytherington tunnel, Triassic beds are again seen resting in the main on the oolitic beds of the Carboniferous Series. They consist of red and 3^ellow marls with bands of argillaceous limestone. In the quarry w^hicli Mr. Hardwicke is now working in the oolitic beds, the Base- ment Beds are freshly exposed. There is a blue argillaceous limestone (which, after treatment with acid, leaves a sandy residue) near the base, followed by red, yellow, and greenish blue marls, with bands of argillaceous limestone. Beyond the Grrovesend tunnel (Sub-section 5) the Basement Beds put on a wholly different character. They consist of a brecciated conglomerate, with pebbles of milky Quartz, derived from the Old Hed conglomerate on which they rest, with occasional angular fragments of Mountain Limestone, the whole cemented in a red ferruginous and argillaceous 16 THE aEOLOGY OF TYTHERINGTON AND GROVESEND. limestone paste. The upper beds are less coarse than those below, but are of the same general character. Somewhat farther on in the cutting these beds show well-marked striated slickensides. At the 6|-mile post yellow and reddish calcareous marls begin to be wedged in hetiveen the brecciated beds, the brecciated beds above containing larger limestone fragments and less milky quartz pebbles than those below. This wedge of marly strata thickens towards the foot-bridge ; but within it is a band of argillaceous limestone, which thins out towards the bridge. Mr. Meredith's section does not show this arrangement of the Triassic beds. The dovetailing of the marl with the brecciated beds is an exceedingly interesting feature. It was noticed and figured by Sir Henry De la Beche (" Survey Memoirs," vol. i., pp. 241, 242, 249), in the Mendips and elsewhere. But nowhere can it be seen more clearly than at the Thorn- bury end of the Tytherington section. The Basement Beds of the Keuper in the Tytherington section show very clearly the variable nature of the deposit formed in the Keuper lake, under differing conditions in a gradually sinking area. It should be noted that in Shillard's Lane, just to the west of the Tytherington district, at Alveston, and along the Mountain Limestone ridge leading to Almondsbury Hill, Lias is mapped by Mr. Sanders and the Survey as resting directly on the Palseozoic rocks. These beds there overlap the Trias. The Palseozoics on which they rest were dry land throughout the Keuper period. 5. Modifications of the Map. The map published with this paper is based on and is on the same scale as Mr. Sanders' map, with some slight modi- THE GEOLOGY OF TYTHERINGTON AND GROVESEND. 17 fications in topographical details, introduced from the six- inch Survey map. When Mr. Sanders' map was printed, the Tytherington cutting had not been made ; and the know- ledge it gives us necessitates some changes in the boundaries of the strata. (1) Carboniferous rocks (Upper Transition Beds) are proved in the field to the east of the Station, where Mr. Sanders marks Trias. I have therefore joined up the isolated patch of Carboniferous, which Mr. Sanders shows to the west of the Station, with the main mass of Tytherington Hill. (2) The patch of Trias proved by the section to exist beyond the Tytherington Tunnel has been introduced, and has been connected provisionally with the Trias inlet to the west of Castle Hill. The contour of the ground seems to me to justify this. (3) The outcrop of the Lower Transition Beds is proved by the section to lie, near Grrovesend, somewhat further to the south than is indicated by Mr. Sanders ; and the boundary of the Old Bed Sandstone must also be be brought some distance further down in the same direction. These modifications of the geological map will be clearly evident, if that which is published with this paper be com- pared with Sheet 4 of Mr. Sanders' admirable publication. Since the foregoing was in type, I have found the Bryozoa Bed in the Mendips, in one of the lateral valleys of Burrington Combe. In Bur- lington Combe the Gully Oolite is also well represented. NOTES SUPPLEMENTAL TO THE Jfkra 0f llje ^^rbtal Cnal-fitltr 1888. By JAIMES WALTER WHITE, F.L.S. Papaver Argemone, Linn. The two bristly-capsuled poppies are among our greater rarities ; instances of the occurrence of either of them within the Bristol district being extremely few. In 1843 Mr. Gr. S. Gibson found P. Argemone near Uphill ; and in 1878 a specimen was gathered by myself near Stapleton, whence the plant is recorded by Swete on the authority of Mr. H. 0. Stephens and Mr. T. B. Flower. The connection of P. liyhridum with our local flora depends entirely upon a statement communicated by the late Rev. J. C. Collins, of Bridgwater, to Mr. Hewett Watson, and which will be found in New Bot. Guide, Suppl. as follows : — " Papaver liyhridum. Abundantly in fields at the mouth of the river Parret, at Steart and Burnham. J. C. Collins, MSS.^^ These poppies are colonists, in- habiting cornfields and waste ground, and their scarcity with us is very probably due to our lack 18 FLORA OP THE BRISTOL COAL-FIELD. 19 of arable land. However, in June, 1888, I ob- served a colony of P. Argemone containing perhaps a hundred plants, some of them very large, grow- ing near the railway at Patchway, Gr. In the same month Mr. D. Fry found a few on the shingle close to Brean Down, S., a few also on a bank at Ber- row, and a much larger quantity in some neglected sandy fields nearer Burnham. One may be allowed to speculate upon the likelihood of this plant having grown as abundantly in the same locality sixty years ago. If it did, may not the Rev. J. C. Collins have mistaken it for P. hyhridum when he made the record quoted above ? No help can be got from Mr. Collins' specimens, as his herbarium, if he formed one, cannot now be found. In the absence of specimens, many of his Burnham and other records, which have never been confirmed by any other botanist, are open to grave doubt ; and it is questionable if P. hyhridum should still be included in our flora. Lepidium Smithii, Hooker. Mr. Harold S. Thompson has shown me a specimen, one of a small number that he observed in July, 1888, near Uphill, S. The plant is remarkably scarce in North Somerset. Helianthemum polifolium, Mill, -in North Somerset. Note communicated by Mr. David Fry. As recorded in the " Journal of Botany " for October, 1888, this extremely rare plant was found, in the middle of last September, growing plentifully on Burn Hill, Bleadon, where its presence is note- worthy, as it has hitherto been regarded as ex- 20 FLORA OF THE BRISTOL COAL-FIELD. clusively confined in North Somerset to the southern slopes of Brean Down. Purn Hill is an elevation of the carboniferous limestone, situated inland to the S. E. of Brean Down, at a distance of about two miles from that promontory ; and the abundant occurrence there of H. polifolium m^arks a some- what important extension of its previously ascer- tained range in the vice-county of North Somerset. On the same hill several other interesting species, none of them very common in the district, were observed, amongst which may be named Erodium moschatum^ TrifoUum scabrum, Spiranthes autuin- naliSj and Avena fatua^ h. intermedia {Lindgr.). 273* Ruhus pallidus, W. and N. Eeprinted from the "Journal of Botany," April, 1889, p. 118. In face of so much uncertain nomenclature and vary- ing opinion on the identity of British Rubi, I have refrained from furnishing supplemental notes on the brambles of the Bristol Coal-field since the publi- cation of the " Flora," although some forms at that time not clearly understood have now been satis- factorily made out, two or three new species gathered and identified, and many additional lo- calities recorded. An amount of general interest attaches, however, to one of these later discoveries, and it may not be premature to offer a few remarks on the occurrence of R. pallidus W. and N. in North Somerset, especially as I believe this species has only once been previously observed in Britain, namely, in Norfolk, by the Bev. E. F. Linton (see ''Reports of the Botanical Exchange Club," 1885, 1886). The plant is strikingly handsome. On the FLORA OP THE BRISTOL COAL-FIELD. 21 barren shoot the leaflets are cordate acuminate thin, and almost glabrous on both sides, and have a peculiar crenate-dentate outline that I have never remarked upon any other bramble. It grows in great abundance on the marshy and wooded banks of a stream skirting Downside Common, Edford, about a dozen miles south-east of Bristol. The endeavour to ascertain if, the plant had been already described gave a good deal of trouble. Two leading consults suggested that it might, perhaps, be a form of E. scaber, to which, undoubtedly, it is nearly allied. But the true scaber W. and N. (very little known in this country) has leaflets with fine and shallow serration, not crenate-dentate, as in this Edford plant. Later on, I learnt from Mr. Purchas that my specimens were just like some from Norfolk that Dr. Focke had named palliduSj and also that they corresponded well with pi. 29, " E,ubi Germanici." On receiving examples from Sprowston, I saw that the puzzle was solved ; and in a recent letter Mr. Linton informs me that he is quite satisfied that our plant is identical with his. That we should have in the west country a plant but recently observed for the first time in the extreme east of England is certainly remark- able. R. pallidus W. and N. will take a place among the British Rubi; and, as a welcome conse- quence, the term pallidus^ as applied to a slight variety of R. Koehleri^ should be relinquished. This bramble appears to have been mistaken for R. hmnifusus Weihe, and is recorded as such by B/Cv. E,. P. Murray in his " Notes on Somerset Bubi," published in Journ. Bot., 1886. 22 FLORA OF THE BRISTOL COAL-FIELD. Rubns saxatilis, Linn. The Enropsean flora contains five herbaceous Rnbi that are in strong contrast to the fruticose section of the genus, for not one of the five possesses a synon3^m or named variety. Two only — the cloud berry and the subject of the present note — are to be found in Britain. R. saxatilis is very rare in the West of England, though frequent in the north and in Ireland. In Devonshire it was formerly known in two localities ; but since 1837 the plant has apparently been present in but one. In Somer- setshire we are acquainted with it at Asham Wood, near Erome, in the south-eastern corner of the Bristol district ; and now Mr. H. S. Thompson produces specimens gathered in a rocky limestone wood, near Banwell Castle, a spot much nearer home. 404* Valerianella carinata, Lois. An addition to the " Elora." Specimens from Hamp- ton Down, near Bath, have been shown me by Mr. A. E. Burr. Anthemis nobilis, Linn. It must be admitted that this is one of a few species that were given places in the " Elora " on slender grounds. The consideration that an area so large as that of the Bristol district was very unlikely to turn out a blank in the distribution of certain plants was, in two or three cases, allowed to sup- port a doubtful record or authority, which, in the absence of such consideration, would have been rejected. Events have fully justified this course in more than one instance, not the least satisfac- FLORA or THE BRISTOL COAL-FIELD. 23 tory being that of the Chamomile, now reported with voucher specimens from Brean Down by Mr. H. S. Thompson. 526* Symphytum tuberosum, Linn, Colonist. Well established in great abundance on an embankment near Montpellier Station, and pointed out to me by Mr, H. S. Thompson. Leonurus cardiaca, Linn.j in North Somei-set. Communi- cated by Mr. D. Try. This very rare plant appears to hai^e grown formerly at several localities in the neighbourhood of Bristol, but had not been recently observed until 1881, when it was discovered near Lympsham, by Mr. T. F. Perkins (see " Flora," p. 141). It may be interest- ing now to record that it was also found abundantly last autumn (1888) in a lane near Burnham, where, though most likely not native, it has the semblance of a thoroughly established denizen, derived prob- ably from ancient cultivation. It appears to be known to the country-people by the name of " Wild Stinging-nettle," a rather inappropriate designation, as the plant, though somewhat prickly from the bristles of the calyx-teeth and bracteoles, is en- tirely devoid of any strictly urticating properties. We were further informed that whilst donkeys eat the common nettles with which the Leonurus is growing, they carefully avoid the latter plant, riot having yet learnt, it would seem, to appreciate the " cardiac " virtues attributed to it by the old her- balists. 24 TLORA OF THE BRISTOL COAL-FIELD. 674* Polygonum maritimum, Linn. In addition to some other good things that are noted in this paper, Mr. H. S. Thompson has produced a specimen of the rarest British Polygonum, which he gathered on Burnham sands in July, 1882. At that time the discoverer was not sure of the species, and therefore did not recognise the importance of his find. But his specimen is undoubtedly the true plant. The presence of P. maritiTnum on the coast of Somersetshire has never been suspected, although the great range of sandhills between Brean and Burnham is similar, in some respects, to that at Braunton, the North Devon habitat for the species. Euphorbia platyphyllos, Linn. This uncommon Spurge has been recorded at various times for several localities in the Bristol Coal- field, but the only spot in the district at which it was certainly known to exist in 1883, when Part IV. of the "Plora" containing the Euphorbiacese was published, was a corn-field at Pilton, Grloucester- shire, where it had been noticed for several years in succession. Since then it has, for some time past, disappeared from that station, and it seems therefore worth noting that several plants of the species were found last autumn (1888) by Mr. D. Fry in corn-fields on Brent Knoll. Some of the specimens observed were particularly fine. Salix triandra, L. var. /?. S. Hoffmanniana, Sm. Has been identified in two localities, both in North Somerset. It grows in a hedge near Berrow vil- lage, rather sparingly ; and in greater quantity near a large pond, full of the white water-lily, FLORA OF THE BRISTOL COAL-FIELD. 25 about a mile from Brent Knoll. Pointed out to me by Mr. D. Fry. Salix purpurea, L. var. 8 S. Lambertiana, Sm. Mr. D. Fry found this willow also, growing with or near to the other, in both the localities mentioned. Scirpus Caricis, Retz. This club-rush, which is, perhaps, better known under its synonym Blysmus compressus^ Panz., was re- corded on good authority many years ago for Stapleton, Grloucestershire, and for a spot in North Somerset, near Bath, both localities being within the area of the Bristol Coal-field ; but its presence in the immediate neighbourhood of the Bristol Channel had never been made known until July, 1888, when it was discovered by Mrs. D. Fry growing abundantly in peaty ground near Bum- ham, in association with Car ex disticha^ Huds, and other paludal species. As this plant is now almost certainly extinct at Stapleton, and does not grow abundantly in the neighbourhood of Bath, its dis- covery at Burnham enables us to retain in our flora an interesting species which previously could hardly be regarded as permanently located in the Bristol district. Cynosurus echinatus, Linn. Alien. Five or six plants in St. Philip's Marsh, June 7, 1888. A native of the Channel Islands and southern Europe. Molinia ccerulea, Moencli. Although not of uncommon occurrence on heaths and moorland throughout the kingdom, and perhaps not 26 FLORA OF THE BRISTOL COAL-FIELD. absent from any English comity, this grass is little known in the vicinity of Bristol. Until last sum- mer we supposed that it could not be found nearer than the Mendips in Somersetshire, or on Yate Common in the northern division of the district. Molinia is not mentioned in Swete's book, nor in any list of Bristol plants with which I am ac- quaihted. But in the Stephens Herbarium there are specimens from " Durdham Down," not dated. Dr. Stephens was an accurate botanist, and his col- lection is excellent ; but unluckily for those who are engaged in working out the distribution of Bristol plants, he very rarely attached to his speci- mens the locality and date of their collection. All that we knew, therefore, was that some thirty or forty years ago the " purple hair-grass " had been gathered on our downs, and had probably been extirpated since that time by some adverse in- fluence. Consequently it was with some astonish- ment that last September I observed a large quantity of the plant flowering among the furze- bushes near the band-stand on Clifton Down, and also in another spot close to the fountain. The stems, being mostly a yard high, were noticeable at a distance, and, at the latter place, could be recognised from the road. Mr. Wheeler informs me that about the same time he likewise observed it on Durdham Down, near the Grully. It cannot be deemed possible that the conspicuous panicles of Molinia^ had they been regularly pro- duced, season after season, could have escaped notice in spots so much frequented, and have been entirely overlooked by scores of botanists who FLORA OF THE BRISTOL COAL-FIELD. 27 have examined the locality of late years. Nor is it possible that the plant could be introduced in such abundance over so wide an area. To account for its resuscitation we must, I think, believe that this, like some other species, may be uncertain in flowering, and may require for its perfect develop- ment some unusual climatal conditions. That a very wet summer following the great heat of 1887 induced the plants, which formerly had flowered but sparingly or not at all, to produce a luxuriant crop, is, I think, a reasonable explanation of an extremely curious circumstance. There is little doubt that other plants were similarly affected. I observe that whereas last spring the trees of Popu- lus tremula in Leigh Woods produced abundance of flowers, both barren and fertile, this year (1889) not a single catkin was to be seen upon them ; and much the same thing has occurred with the Horn- beams in Clifton. PART XI. By CEDRIC BUCKNALL, Mus.Bac. THE following species are, I believe, either liitherio unrecorded as British, or have occurred for the first time in Britain in this district : 1332. CoRTiNARius (Telamonia) nitrosus, Cooke, Grevillea, XVI., p. U' Illus, pi. 837. *1333 CoRTiNARius (Hydrocybe) bicolor, Cooke, Grevillea, XVI., p. 45. lllus., pi. 820, f. B., and pi. 871. Cort. quadricolor, No. 1046 ante. 1334. Paxillus (Lepista) lividus, Cooke, Grevillea, XVI., p. 45. lllus., pi. 861. *1337. BussuLA (Fragiles) pulchralis, Britz, Grevillea, XVII., p. 41' Cke., lllus., pi. 1095. R. nitida, No. 1098 ante. 1347. Dacrymyces aESius, Fr. (?). Hym. Eur., p. 699. *1359 Peziza lapidaria, Cooke, Phil. Bnt. Disc, p. 211. P. Jiybrida, No. 1074 cinte. For the many interesting species from Clevedon mentioned in the following list, I am indebted to Mr. E. Baker, and for those from Yatton to Mr. E. Wheeler, who has made beautiful and accurate drawings of a very large number of the Fungi of this district. 28 THE FUNGI OF THE BRISTOL DISTRICT. 29 1322. Agaricus (Clitocybe) maxi- ) ^T , ^ ,^^„ mus, Ft. j Clevedon, Sept., 1887. 1323. Agaricus (Collybia) macu- ) y- . , ,^, , _ latus,i.c&i Leigh Woods, Oct., „ 1324. Agaricus (Collybia) tena- ") Berwick cellus, Pers. j Wood, May, 1889. 1325. Agaricus (Pleurotus) ] y ^ Leightoni, Berk. j i^atton, Dec, 1888. 1326. Agaricus (Pluteus) sali-") cmnSj Pers. Fries. Hym. > Leigh Woods, Oct., 1887. Eur. p. 186. ) This curious species has only once before been recorded as British, having occurred at South Wootton in the year 1882. It is recorded by Messrs. Plowright and Phillips in " Grevillea," vol. XIII., p. 48. My plant grew on an old decayed tree trunk, probably oak ; but the strange mixture of colours, cinereous, indigo, aeruginous, dirty yellow, and pink, leave no doubt as to its being the same plant as that found on willow. 1327. Agaricus jPholiota) adi- j Clevedon, Oct, 1887- 1328. Agaricus (Hebeloma) glu- 1 Blaise Castle tinosus, Lind. ) Woods, Oct., 1888. 1329. Agaricus (Inocybe) lanu- 1 ^eigh Woods, Oct., 1887. gmosus, Bull. 3 1330. Agaricus (Hypholoma) j -^^^ ^ggg lacrymabundus, Fr. ) " •? • 1331. Cortiiiarius(Phlegmacium) I q , iftgv varius, Fr. ) " *' * Cortinarius (Telamonia) \ laniger, Fr. Cooke^ R- (_ Abbott's lustrations, pi. 800, No. i^ Leigh, Sept., 1885. 1263 ante. ) 1332. Cortinarius (Telamonia) ") Durdham nitrosus, Cke. ) Downs, Sept., 1884. " Stinking. Pileus, fleshy, rather thin, obtuse, convex, then expanded (2-3 inches), undulate at the margin, fawn-colour or tawny, darker and brownish at the disk, soon breaking up into minute, somewhat concentric 30 THE FUNGI OF THE BRISTOL DISTRICT. darker scales. Stem short, stout, solid, ochraceous, darker at base, nearly eqvial (2-3 inches long, ^ inch thick), paler than the pileus, marked below with concentric, darker, squamose bands. Gills rather broad, somewhat distant, emarginate, violet, then watery cinnamon. Spores elliptical, 12x4 /i." — Cke, in ** Grevillea,'' vol. XVI., p. 44. Illus. t. 837. This has occurred more or less abundantly every year since its dis- covery in 1884, on the wooded slope to the south of the gully on Durdham Down, where also many other rare Cortinarii may be found ; and I am not aware that it has yet been met with in any other locality. The colours in the above-quoted figure are scarcely bright enough, the gills being of a beautiful violet colour, and the stem white and floccose, with bright brown scales. * Cortinarins (Telamonia) ) Durdham limonius, Fr. j Downs, Oct., 1883. Cke., niics., t. 804. Cort. percomis, N0.IOS8 ante. 1333. Cortinarius (Telamonia) ) Brockley injucundus, Weinm. j Coombe, Nov., 1886. My plant corresponds fairly well with Dr. Cooke's figure, Illus. t. 823, but he remarks that this is not typical. My specimen is more umbonate, but it is difficult to refer it to any other species. * Cortinarius (Hydrocybe) ) Blaise Castle bicolor, Cke. j Woods, Oct., 1882, " Pileus rather fleshy, campanulate, then expanded, broadly, or occasionally rather acutely umbonate (1-2 inches diam.), somewhat fragile, dingy whitish, with an occasional tinge of lilac, even, smooth, silky, shining, flesh thin, colour of the pileus, or paler. Stem equal, or attenuated downwards (about 2 inches long, J inch thick), pallid violet, becoming whitish, solid. Flesh bright purplish-violet at the base, palUd above. Gills adnate, with a tooth, sub-ventricose, slightly eroded at the edge, rather broad, scarcely crowded, purplish violet, then cinnamon. Spores elliptical, a little attenuated towards one or both ends, 10 x 5-6 /j.. Veil fugacious, white." — Grevillea, vol. XVI., p. 45. Cke., Illus. t. 820./. B., and t. 871. Cort. quadricolor, No. 1046 ante. This species was met with abundantly at one of the Fungus Forays in the Forest of Dean, and was then found to differ considerably from the true C. quadricolor. PI. 820 f.B. of the "Illustrations," taken from the Blaise Castle specimens, evidently belongs to the same species. THE FUNGI OF THE BRISTOL DISTRICT. 31 1334. Paxillus (Lepista) lividus, ) T • ^ t\ r\ , -.00^ Qf^^, ^ ^ ^ ' ^ Leigh Down, Oct., 1882. " Pileus convex, at length slightly depressed at the disk, dingy white or livid ochraceous, opaque (1-2 inches). Stem attenuated downwards, white (3 — 4 in. long, ^ in. thick), fibrillose, stuffed, then hollow. Gills arcuate, decurrent, white, almost crowded. Spores globose, nearly white, flesh nearly white." —Grevillea, vol. XVI., p. 45. Illus. t. 861. 1335. E,ussnla (Furcatse) sar- ) ^ -, tt-h r^ . -.^r^r^ doni^, Fr. jCoombeHiU, Oct, 1888. * E-ussnla (Furcatse) pur- ") purea, Gilletj Cke. > Coombe Illus. t. 1022, ) Dingle, Aug., 1877. This was referred doubtfully to R. cyanoxantha, at vol. ii., p. 212, but so nearly resembles the figure in the "Illustrations," that I have little hesitation in naming it as above. 1336. Russula (Heteropliyllee) I Ha^ham, Oct., 1888. cyanoxantna, Fr. j ' ' 1337. Kussula (Fragiles) aurata, ) Portishead Fr. ^ j Woods, Aug., 1888. * "^""chrius ^S^S''^ ^''^" } Stapleton, Sept., 1884. " Pileus viscid, thin, convex, then flattened and depressed (2 inches diam.), circumference ochraceous, centre spotted with red or purple, margin thin, deeply striate, and often split. Stem equal, ventricose, or thickened at the base, fragile white. Gills broad, distant, rather thick, whitish, then ochraceous yellow. Spores nearly globose, 9x8 joc." — Grevillea, vol. XVII., p. 41. Cke., Illus. t. 1095. R. nitida, No. 1098 ante. 1338. Russula ochracea, A. & S. > ^ j \ oith 1 880 1339. Boletus flavus, With. .Leigh Woods, Oct., 1887. Blaise Castle Woods, Sept., 1883. !Clevedon, Sept., 1887. May, 1889. 1342. „ lucidus, Fr. Clevedon, Oct., 1887. 1340. „ castaneus, Bull. > 32 THE FUNGI OF THE BRISTOL DISTRICT. 1343. Polyporus igniarius, Fr. Clevedon, Oct., 1887. 1344. „ Vaillantii, Fr. Hanham, „ 1888. 1345. Clavaria lilacina, Fr. > W d A beautiful species, exactly resembling Schaeffer's figure of G . purpurea to which Fries refers. 1346. Clavaria stricta, Pers. Clevedon, Sept., 1887. 1347. Dacrymyces csesius, jPr. (?). Leigh Woods, Dec, 1888. On a dead twig. Minute, roundish, convex, hyaline white. Sporo- phores globose, '0005 inches diam. Spores subcyUndrical, curved •00055 X -0002 inches, at length 1 septate (?). 1348. Ly^penion giganteum, ) clevedon, Aug, 1888. 1349. Physarum Schumacher i, | Portishead Spr. 3 Woods, June, 1889. 1350. Didymium clavus, A. & S. Yatton, Dec, 1888. 1S51 Trichia contorta J?o^f 7 LeighWoods, Spring, 1881. irfDl. irionia contorta, Most. j Yatton, Dec. 1888. Plasmodiocarp creeping, flexuous, subcompressed, umber or bay-brown ; mass of elaters and spores yellow ; elaters 2-5-3'5 /u., cylindrical, tips usually swollen and terminated by a long slender spine, there is some- times an interstitial swelling ; spirals indistinct ; spores globose, minutely warted, 12-15 /ul diameter. — Massee, Revision of the Trichlacece, Jour. Boy. Mic. Soc, 1889, p. 337. Cooke. Myx. Brit. f. 229. 1352. Hemiarcyria clavata, Pers. Clevedon, April, 1888. 1353. Puccinia vinc8e,'jB. (Uredo 7 ,^ iftftQ spores). i " J? • 1354. Stilbum erythrocephalum, ) q , looo Ditm. j " -J • 1355. Volutella hyacinthorum, r t • -n^' \ r"^'^"''^^^-\lar.,1889. 1356. Tuber culina persicina, Sacc. Syl. IV., No. 3088. On uEcidium Tussilaginis. THE FUNGI OF THE BRISTOL DISTRICT. 3S 1357. Peziza Adse, Sadler. Bristol, Sept., 1888. This beautiful and rare species occurred in great abundance on a wall against which chemical manure had been lying, and I am indebted to Mr. Waterfall for numerous specimens, which I have handed to the Kev. J. E. Vize for publication in his " Fungi Britannici." The only pre- viously recorded localities appear to be a garden at Dalston, London, where a single specimen was found by Dr. Cooke, but not at that time described; and Inverleith House, Edinburgh, where it was discovered by Miss Ada Balfour, after whom it was named. 1358. Peziza cerea. Sow. 1359. „ melaloma, A. & S. Leigh Woods, Oct., 1887. This was extremely abundant on burnt ground in the inclosed part of Leigh Woods, forming lai'ge patches several yards in diameter, where the ground had been cleared and the undergrowth burnt. ^ This is the plant referred to by Dr. Cooke in " Grevillea," vol. XII.., p. 43 (No. 10.74 ante)^ as probably belonging to Peziza hyhrida, Sowerby^ to whose figure my specimens bear a great resemblance ; but they do not sufficiently agree with his original specimen, which has since been dis- covered in the Kew Herbarium, and Dr. Cooke has therefore described it under the above name. 1360. Peziza (Lachnella) Inzu- ^ ^^^^^ -^^^^ lina, Phil. Brit. Disc. > r\ -r iooo 2j^^ ' j Quarry, Jan., 1888. 1361. Ombrophilaclavns, ^. (t* /S'. > ^ T 1887 1362. Nectria punicea, Schm. Yatton, Bee, 1888. n % Jfi^to ^0tcs 01T pclx0tljis Sattosa. By W. KEMPSTER MANN. Bead before the Entom. Sect., Feb. 12th, 1889. r I 1HE specimen exhibited is perhaps the rarest species of -■- Lepidoptera that has ever been recorded from the Bristol district. It was captured by Mr. A. H. Jones, at Burnham, Somerset, August, 1877, flying at dusk over a species of clover. It passed into the collection of Mr. W. H. Grigg, and . has now come into my possession with his collection. This species appears to have been taken so far back as 1833, near Dalston, Carlisle, by Mr. James Cooper, who carried it alive to Mr. T. C. Hey sham. It was forwarded to Mr. Curtis, who figured and described it in his " British Entomology," plate, 595. Another specimen was taken on the coast near Shinburness in August, 1834. As far as I can find, it was not recorded again until Mr. Thornthwaite took one in the summer of 1875, and another in 1876, both in Norfolk. Mr. C. G. Barrett, in recording the caj^ture of these two, observed (Ento. Mo. Mag., p. 281, vol. 13), they were the first genuine British specimens, and that the Carlisle species was Dlpsacea ; but in vol. 14, Ento. Mo. Mag., p. 67, Mr. S4 A FEW NOTES ON HELIOTHIS SCUTOSA. 35 Barrett admits sufficient evidence has been brought for- ward to convince him of the authenticity of Scutosa having been taken in Carlisle. Another example is recorded in the Ento. Mo. Mng.^ vol. 15, p. 137, by W. H. Campbell, who captured it August 19th, 1878, in the north of Co. Donegal, Ireland. It was hovering over the bloom of heather at 3.30 in the afternoon. I have heard of no recent captures. On the Continent this species is very widely distributed, and is said to be double-brooded. It has been taken on the wing from May to September ; and Professor Hering says : " Very uncertain in its appearance ; rare in some years, whilst in others common." Thus the double-brooded theory has probably arisen from the uncertainty of its appearance in varied localities. It is well known that other species in the same genera are of most uncertain habits. For instance, I have taken Heliothis Armiger in July, flying in the hot sun, and another in September, flying round a gas lamp. Mr. Thornthwaite's two specimens were taken by light, and Mr. Campbell's was flying in the hot sunshine. This species is figured by Curtis and Wood, included in Stephen's Museum Catalogue of British Lepidoptera, and described in Stainton's Manual ; Doubleday places it amongst the reputed British species ; Newman omits it entirely. Kirby describes it as having the fore wings dark olive- grey, varied with white in the central area, and with whitish nervures ; the three stigmata very large, dark brown, the subterminal line whitish, hind wing dirty white with a large brown central spot and border, the latter intersected by a pale line near the inside, in addition to the pale spot towards the anal angle. The palpi are rather conspicuously porrected, the antennse are simple in both 36 A FEW NOTES ON HELIOTHIS SCUTOSA. sexes. The species varies slightly in the intensity of its colouring, and in the marginal band of the hind wings. Expands from Ij inch to 1| inch. . The caterpillar has been figured by Hubner, and described by Fruger and Treitschke. It is yellowish green, wdth the dorsal and subdorsal lines blackish; its whole surface is covered with small black dots and fine blackish streaks, with many black hairs proceeding from each dot, which form, as it were, small tufts. The head reddish brown spotted with black ; it also varies to green at the sides, the ground colour being: grey. These are divided by a lateral stripe. The larva feeds on the Field Mugwort, Artemsia campestris, in July and August. The pupa is slender, reddish brown and greenish on the wing-cases, and is enclosed in a slight and loose cocoon, either under the earth or amongst its food plant. I have omitted to state that the larva also feeds on the common Mugwort, Artemsia vulgaris. The larva has not yet been found in the United Kingdom. lamfall at Clifton iir 1888. c:) By GEORGE F. BURDER, M.D., F.R. Met. Soc. T ABLE OF RAINFALL. 1888. Average of 35 years. Departure from Average. Greatest Fall in 24 Hours. Number of Days on which •01 in. or more fell. Depth. Date. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. January . . 1-110 3-320 -2-210 0-470 2nd 8 February . 1-737 2-293 -0-556 1-345 13th 9 March . . 3-541 2-186 +1-355 0-553 8th 17 April . . . 1-775 2-079 -0-304 0-393. 19th 15 May . . . 1-405 2-434 -1-029 0-471 17th 8 June . . . 3-998 2-555 + 1-443 1-130 21st 16 July . . . 6-225 2-911 + 3-314 0-716 16th 25 August . . 2-547 3-451 -0-904 0-580 28th 16 September . 1-284 3-373 -2-089 0-250 5th 9 October . . 1-063 3-724 -2-661 0-301 28th 11 November . 6-530 3-017 +3-513 1-535 12th 25 December . 3-294 2-881 +0-413 0-582 27th 15 Year . . . 34-509 34-224 +0-285 1-535 Nov. 12th 174 37 38 EAINFALL AT CLIFTON IN 1888. Remarks. — The rainfall of 1888, althougli differing but little from the average as regards the total amount, pre- sented some remarkable features as regards its distribution in the several months. July and November were excessively rainy months. March and June were also rainy, in a less degree. January and May were specially dry months, as were also the three consecutive months of August, September, and October. October was the driest month of the year, with a little over one inch of rain. November was the wettest month of the year, with six and a half inches. A very dry term extended from September 8 to October 27, when barely three-quarters of an inch of rain was collected in fifty days. The very irregular distribution of the rainfall of the year will be apparent in the following series of comparisons of the falls in certain months and groups of months with the falls recorded in the same periods during the previous thirty- five years. 1. The fall in July (6*225 inches) is the largest recorded in that month. 2. The fall in June and Juty (10*223 inches) is the largest recorded in those two months. 3. The fall in November (6*530 inches) is the largest recorded in that month. 4. The fall in October (1*063 inch) is the smallest re- corded in that month. 5. The fall in September and October (2*347 inches) is the smallest recorded in those two months. 6. The fall in August, September, and October (4*894 inches) is the smallest recorded in those three months. RAINFALL AT CLIFTOX IX 1888. 39 A great snowstorm occurred on the 14th of February, the snow lying on the ground to an average depth of twelve inches, and drifting, under the influence of a northerly gale, to a depth, in places, of three feet or more. bsi;rbations of ^nnpxnixnt at €lliton College, 1888. By D. RINTOUL, M.A., Cantab. r I 1HE following tables are compiled from the Meteoro- logical Observations taken daily at Clifton College during the year 1888. In the series of observations there was a gap of ten days in April, but by the kindness of Dr. Burder I have been enabled to make the series complete. It will be seen that the mean temperature for the year is somewhat lower than the average of the last eight years. Considering the monthly temperatures, we notice that January, February, March, June, July and August were colder than usual ; the difference in February and July being especially noteworthy. November and December were considerably warmer than usual. 40 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TAKEN AT CLIFTON. 41 1888 TEMPERATURES. MONTH. Maximum in Shade. Minimum in Shade. X ! Mean in Shade. Minimum on Ground, Lowest recorded. Highest recorded. Mean, Lowest TiT„„„ recorded. ^«a^- January . 53-3 42-30 22-3 34-96 i 38-54 18-6 February . March . . ' 53-1 40-68 22-3 31-44 36-06 18-0 58-0 44-00 24-0 33-30 38-65 18-0 April . . 60-0 50-48 28-7 37-72 44-10 24-8 May . . . 70-5 60-22 35-2 44-81 52-51 34-8 June . . 73-6 65-53 43-7 50-23 57-88 41-0 July . . . 69-5 63-95 41-4 52-85 1 58-40 38-6 August 79-1 65-89 46-5 52-71 59-30 42-2 September ] October . 69-8 62-07 41-4 52-50 57-28 38-9 1 63-0 57-20 32-3 40-48 i 48-84 28-0 N'ovember 58-3 50-66 34-0 43-72 47-19 30-0 December. 57-3 47-27 27-5 38-20 : .42-70 23-8 Year 1888. 79-1 54-19 22-3 42-74 j 48-45 18-0 Year 1887. 82-8 560 20-4 40-9 i 48-4 11-7 Year 1886. 83-5 54-90 21-7 22-1 43-17 49-03 15-3 Year 1885. 87-8 53-98 42-53 44-07 48-09 20-1 Year 1884. 87-5 57-44 22-6 50-66 23-7 Year 1883. 82-5 54-54 20-9 42-88 48-71 19-3 Year 1882. 78-5 55-46 21-9 43-62 49-54 20-6 Year 1881. ! 86-9 55-44 1 12-3 42-92 49-18 5-8 42 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TAKEN AT CLIFTON. MONTH. NurnV)f!r of Days on w)ii(!h t}io Minimum (il'Ollll'l TomjifiiaUirc WU8 bf low 32°F. Number of Days on which the Minimum Air Teitiperatiire was below 32°li\ Number of Days on which the Maximum Air Temi)eriiture was below 32°F. Number of Day^< on which the Mean Air Temperature was below 32°F. January . . 17 14 1 8 February . . 23 20 1 8 March . . . 19 13 0 0 April . . 12 6 0 0 May . . 0 0 0 0 June . . 0 0 0 0 July . . 0 0 0 0 August . 0 0 0 0 September 0 0 0 0 October . November 7 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 December 14 7 0 0 Year 1888 93 60 ' 2 16 Year 1887 . 148 102 63 2 11 Year 1886 . 64 1 22 Year 1885 . 68 40 1 6 Year 1884 . 51 19 0 1 Year 1883 . 79 40 0 6 Year 1882 . 63 26 2 7 Year 1881 . 94 60 11 24 METEOKOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TAKEN AT CLIFTON. 43 C.? ai o CO 10 0 CO T— I CO CO rH 10 23 60 t^ iO> 0 0 -0 r— 1 !-H CO 0 00 60 CO CO 49 00 00 2 00 CO r—> CO 60 CO 1—1 ip laO liO 60 0 00 CO 00 r>- 60 lO Tl CM CM 60 i r^ CO 1 ^ r-l 0 CO CM ip C 0 ^ 0 2 P en if '^y NOTES ON THE WEST INDIAN " FER-DE-LANCE." Dr. WILLIAM DUNCAN. Read February 1th, 1889. THE Fer-de-lance belongs to tlie family Crotalidm, or Pit "Vipers, of which perhaps the best known member is the Rattlesnake. The Crotalidce. are distinguished from the true vipers {Viperidce) by a pit in the loreal region be- tween the nostrils and the eye. These two families con- stitute the sub-order Opliidii Vlperlformes, the fourth of the four sub-orders into which the snakes or ophidii are divided by modern zoologists. They are characterized by the tri- angular head and short tail and by the very short maxillary^ or upper jaw bone, which bears a single long perforate poison fang (although there may be several reserve fangs). The maxillary is capable of rotation on its transverse axis, and this rotation causes the erection of the tooth when the mouth is wide agape. Small hooked, solid teeth are pre- sent in the lower jaw and palate. The Eer-de-lance belongs to the genus Trigonoceplialus {Craspedoceplialus of some authors) of which there are three species, T. jararaca and T. atrox, which are common in Brazil, Central America, and Jamaica, and T. lanceolatus 44 '^ TRIGONOCEPHALUS LANCEOLATUS." 45 (the Fer-de-lance itself), which is limited to the West Indian islands of Martinique and St. Lucia. The Bushmaster {Lachesis mutiis) of Demerara and the hottest parts of tropical America is a cousin of the Fer-de-lance, exceeding it in size, and being probably the largest of terrestrial poisonous snakes (up to ten feet). The Fer-de-lance is a very beautiful snake, of an olive- green hue, with dark cross-bands, and greyish-white below, studded with black dots. The head is brown and large, and triangular in shape, like the head of a lance; hence the name. They are usually seen from three up to eight feet long, and are often from six to ten inches or more in circumference. Very extravagant accounts are given by the Rev. J. G. Wood and others of the ferocity of the Fer-de-lance. It is said that horses will not pass anywhere within striking distance of the serpent, and neither spur nor whip can avail if there is one in the way ; that he will always take the initiative in attacking his prey, and that no animal, however large, is safe from his terrible fangs. Wood says '* that the pig, ivhen in good condition^ is said to be the only animal that can resist his poison, the thick coating of fat which covers the body preventing the poison from mingling with the blood." But pigs in St. Lucia have never been known to be " in good condition^^^ and whether j^ost hoc or propter hoc, the fact is that pigs are frequently killed by the Fer- de-lance, and probably in larger proportions than any other animal. All who know the Fer-de-lance agree in saying that if anything he is rather a cowardly animal, and at least that he is no worse than other snakes that will only attack in self-defence or when their retreat is cut off. The manner in which he strikes at his prey is peculiar. The poison fangs are long, hollow, slightly curved tubes, with the poison 46 ^' TRiaONOCEPHALUS LANCEOLATUS >> gland at the root, and the duct terminating from -^^ to ^ of an inch from the point. They vary in length from -|- an inch to 2^ inches, and are very fine and brittle. When at rest they lie flat against the upper jawbones with the points directed backwards towards the throat, "When an attack is intended, the mouth is opened to the fullest extent, till the jaws are in a line with each other, and the fangs are erected at right angles to the jaws, and by a sudden spring are driven into the victim. This sudden spring, however — at least in the Fer-de-lance — can only be made when the animal is in a particular position. He requires a firm foun- dation to stand upon, and to obtain this coils himself sud- denly into a concentric circle, with his head in the centre ; then using the outer coil of his body as a broad vantage ground to stand upon, he throws his head and the inner coils forwards and buries his fangs in his prey. This man- ner of springing has been invariably noted by observers in St. Lucia, and I have no reason to doubt the truth of the description. From this it will be seen that the Fer-de-lance can only spring when he has plenty of tail to stand on, and as he must rest on it, he can only throw forward about two-thirds of his body, and the depth to which his fangs enter his victim is in proportion to the distance of his leap. He may bite at a person walking across the road, but he cannot make his poison fangs enter the flesh except under the con- ditions I have named. The average length of the snake is six feet; he cannot therefore injure any one at a greater dis- tance than four feet. A man on horseback is therefore tolerably safe ; so also it is safe to go under trees, even if a Fer-de-lance is lying in wait for you : he has no prehensile tail, and has no foundation on a tree for a circular coil of his body to rest on. *' TRIGONOCEPHALUS LANCEOLATUS." 47 The fangs of the Trigonocephalus are extremely fine and brittle, so much so, that sometimes they break off short in the wound, and verj'- often have to be drawn out or cut out of the flesh. The negroes say that after a snake has spent its energy in biting a person he dies; but there can be no doubt that, as in other ViiDerformes^ when a poison fang is broken, one of the reserve fangs becomes attached to the maxilla, and is soon functional. At my first interview with the colonial surgeon of St. Lucia, my friend Dr. C. Dennehy, I asked him if the snakes were as bad as represented ; and he laughed the idea to scorn, showing me at the same time a bundle of serpent fangs, about twenty in number, and remarking that they were good for vaccinating negro children, but the points of most of them were injured ; he also suggested that with a little manipulation they could be made useful as hypo- dermic needles in case of need. The negroes of these islands have no fear of the Fer-de- lance if they possess a small walking-stick. He is very easily killed, for the lightest tap dislocates the vertebral column and renders him incapable of leaping. So little fear indeed have they of him, that when, about fourteen years ago, the then governor of St. Lucia offered a reward of 4<^. for every serpent's head, many negroes caught them alive and bred young families of snakes for the sake of the re- ward, and thereby made moderate fortunes. Needless to say, the reward had to be abolished very soon, for serpents are extraordinarily prolific, bringing forth seldom less than 100, and often as many as 200 at a birth. The female Fer- de-lance has not the credit of being particularly fond of her offspring, and her behaviour to them in their helpless in- fancy is worthy of record. She generally selects a fairly open or cleared space for her lying-in chamber, a mountain 48 '' TRIGONOCEPHALUS LANCEOLATUS.*' footpath being lier favourite spot. Along this she crawls slowly, dropping her young one by one on the way. As soon as the last has been brought forth, the faint and hun- gry mother turns in her onward stride and devours the first of her brood that meets her sight, and continues this un- natural course until satiated with her repast, or she finds no more of her offspring wherewith to glut her rapacity, Naturally many of them, three-fourths at least, escape, and these the strongest, — a clear case of the survival of the fittest. This has been observed by several planters in St. Lucia, and has been mentioned to me independently by Mr. E. S. Gor- don, Mr. A. E,. Marucheau, and Mr. Marius Devaux, and others of the colony. Since the Government reward alluded to proved a failure, it remained a subject for private enterprise how best to rid the colonies of St. Lucia and Martinique of so formidable a pest. An attempt was made about 1870 by Mr. John Good- man, of Pointe Sable Estate, to introduce into the island a species of frog which had been found useful in India, as sup- plying a poisonous food for poisonous snakes. At infinite trouble and expense he had about a dozen couples imported to St. Lucia, where he located them in a large pond close to his house, carefully guarding and feeding them. These multiplied to an alarming extent, but the experiment can never prove very successful, inasmuch as the frog is con- tented with the marshy pools and ponds of the valley, find- ing there abundant material for food, while the Fer-de- lance retreats to the mountain tojDS, where it can remain unmolested. Later still the mongoose has been introduced by the Government, at the initiation of Sir Roger Golds- worthy, but with what result I have not heard. Yet the Eer-de-lance has one formidable enemy. This is another snake called the Cribo, the Spilotes variabilis. The two '' TRIGONOCEPHALUS LANCEOLATUS." 49 never meet without an encounter, in which the Cribo is in- variably the victor. It is a pretty little creature, perfectly harmless, as all the other snakes in St. Lucia are, and is much petted and encouraged by the white population, as a guard and protection from its deadly rival. Shortly after my arrival in the colony, I saw a Spilotes crawling lazily along the street near my own door, and burning with the desire to possess a Fer-de-lance of my own capture, I sallied forth armed with a broom stick and despatched the, to me, dreaded invader. Speedily a small crowd collected, anxious to see what I had done ; and I leave my readers to imagine my disgust at finding the negroes pitying m}' crass ignorance in slaying their best friend the Cribo. " Ah, mossoo," I heard one say, " 3^ou have to give account one day for taking dat life ; you gwine be too sorry you done dis ting." I never killed another. A fight between a Cribo and a Fer-de-lance is an interest- ing sight. The poison of the latter seems innocuous to its rival, who, relying on his powerful muscles and jaws, pins his adversary by the neck, and twisting his body suddenly round him strangles him after a fierce struggle, and pro- ceeds to eat him, beginning with the head. On one occa- sion a gentleman I knew witnessed one of these encounters ; and when the Fer-de-lance was half swallowed, he killed the Cribo, and had them mounted as they died. The Spilotes in this case was 4 J feet long, and the Fer-de-lance 1 foot longer, and half of the latter was in the stomach of the former. I never had but one experience of close contact with a Fer-de-lance. I was riding with a friend across the Barra- Barra, a high mountain of about 4,000 feet in the interior of the colony. We had been climbing for about two hours from the leeward side of the island^ and after resting our E 50 '^ TRIGONOCEPHALUS LANCEOLATUS." horses and having lunch in a shady place about 3,600 feet above the sea, had commenced our descent by an extra- ordinary zig-zag path on the windward side, when we were compelled to halt to admire a view, the grandeur of which is unsurpassed. At our feet lay a magnificent, undulating plain, twenty miles broad and half as many long, studded with huge forest trees and clad in all the gorgeous verdure of the tropics. Down one side of the mountain ridge was the zig-zag road made by the French government before our queen's father captured the island, and from our posi- tion it looked like a long ladder, down the steps of which it would be comparatively easy to jump. The exquisitely blue waters of the Caribbean Sea, the lovely green islands of Martinique and Dominica in the distance, all combined, made up a picture which it would take no mean artist to portray ; but in the middle of our reverie on the beauties of nature in the tropics, we were suddenly recalled to a sense of the present by our negro servant in our rear call- ing out in French, " Prenez garde, Messieurs ! Serpent ! serpent ! " My companion wheeled his horse round and struck with his long riding whip at the venomous reptile that, having been alarmed by the negro, was making to- wards us in all haste. The lash merely irritated it, and it bit furiously ; but not having coiled itself for the spring, it was rather helpless, and so we lashed it until our faithful attendant had time to procure a good thick stick, with which he ended the conflict. It was only a small one, 3^- feet long, and with fangs about an inch in length. Similar experiences make travellers wary, and they seldom go on lonely roads unattended. And now comes the inquiry. How is it that the venomous Fer-de-lance, with its French name, exists only in the colo- nies of Martinique and St. Lucia, and in none of the adjacent ^' TRIGONOCEPHALUS LANCEOLATUS." 61 islands? Various are the reports accounting for their origin. Some assert that the aboriginal Caribs introduced them from the mainland of South America, to drive out the white usurper of their country. But Venezuela is 800 miles distant, a long journey to take snakes in such frail barks as the Caribs use. Again, some think they came on drift- wood from Gruiana ; but the strong current of the Orinoco would have washed them hundreds of miles eastward of St. Lucia into the centre of the Atlantic ; and if this view were correct, why are they not to be found in Barbadoes, which lies almost in the current of the Orinoco ? Again, some think that the French introduced them during their war- like relations with the English at the latter end of the last centmy, when these very islands were the scenes of so much bloodshed and strife, both nations alike coveting St, Lucia and Martinique, not only on account of their unsur- passed beauty and great wealth, with their forests of the finest wood for ship building and their mines of sulphur and alum, but coveted still more for their magnificent har- bours and anchorage and almost impregnable fortresses. I rather incline myself to the opinion that they are indi- genous to these islands, and were so named by the French, who first discovered and described them. In whatever way they arrived originally, they are but too common now, and are perhaps most frequently found in the neighbourhood of the Pitons or Sugar-loaf Mountains. These are two huge obelisks of granite rock, the one about two miles, the other about four miles in circumference at the base, and towering from the edge of the sea to a height of nearly 4,000 feet above its level. One of these Pitons is fairly accessible, the other has only been ascended by one man. There is an old story that a British crew once set out for the top of the smaller Piton, but were all killed by 52 " TEIGONOCEPHALUS LANCEOLATUS?' snakes, with one exception, before reaching the summit. This one reached the point, and had time to wave the Union Jack aloft, when he too was severely bitten, and died there. In 1878, however, one man scaled this dreadful Sugar-loaf; but on his return he found so few to credit his story, that the day following he made the ascent a second time, taking with him a negro servant part of the way. He reached the point and lighted a fire, stuck up the Union Jack as a proof of his victory, and for six months it waved in the breeze, no one daring afterwards to disbelieve his veracity. He told me that on his way up he came to a high ledge which he could only reach by mounting on his companion's shoulders, and then drawing himself up by his hands and elbows. When he had his elbows on the ledge and brought his face to a level high enough to see over them, he was rather alarmed at seeing a huge Fer-de-lance lying in wait, within a few inches of his nose. He called for a cutlass, which his servant handed him ; but by this time the reptile had coiled itself ready for a spring, and was just about to strike when the cutlass descended and cut it into several pieces. The brave fellow put the head in his pocket and went on his way. I saw the fangs, which were about 2|- inches long, and on that journey alone he killed sixteen snakes. Only on one other occasion have I heard of equal presence of mind with a Fer-de-lance. This was in a Barbadian negro, one of the most powerful and courageous fellows I ever met. He, with some other labourers, was cutting sugar-canes in a field apart from the rest, when suddenly the cry of "Serpent!" rang out, and looking at his feet, close beside him he saw a Fer-de-lance, over six feet long, coiled ready for the fight. He was unarmed and lightly clad, and recognised at once the fact that his only chance '^ TRIGONOCEPHALUS LANCEOLATUS." 5B of safety lay in getting nearer the head of the snake, so as to diminish the impetus of the stroke. He threw therefore his naked body flat on the coiled snake, and succeeded in getting his hands round its neck ; he held it as in a vice, then straightening its long body out with the other hand, he made it run the gauntlet of his powerful jaws, and in a short time it was dead. Negroes are not often hysterical, but after such a meal it can hardly be wondered that the poor fellow fainted. As to the effects of the poison of the Fer-de-lance, there are various accounts, but from my own experience I should say the following are the most prominent symptoms. There is but little pain or swelling at the seat of injury, except in very bad cases, nor is there sickness or nausea. The injured limb first and then the body gets cold and insen- sible, and the pulse very weak and thready and respiration slower. Faintness increases, and brings on ringing in the ears and an inclination to sleep and dimness of vision, and sometimes there is contraction of the pupils. The poison acts chiefly on the heart, and as it gets weaker there is an increased dread of death, which when it comes is pain- less. On one occasion I saw a negro who, having been badly bitten in the hand, and there being no help near, had tied a ligature round his arm and completely cut off the circulation. Grangrene almost immediately developed, and in two days not a vestige of flesh remained on his arm from the shoulder downwards, so rapidly did it spread. I attempted to save his life by an amputation, but it was too late. The only treatment of the slightest avail is to make the patient intoxicated as fast as possible, and his chances of recovery are in exact ratio to the amount of intoxication that can be produced in a given time. The native " pan- 5 J: " TRIGONOCEPHALUS LANCEOLATUS.'^ seurs," or medicine men, have a variety of " nostrums " by which they profess to cure serpent bite ; but I believe they nearly all consist of mm in which cockroaches, scorpions, centipedes, and such like have been steeped for some time. My old friend Mr. Joseph de Laubenque, of the Malgretout Estate, near Soufriere, an estate close to the Pitons, and much infested with snakes, has for many j^ears had an enor- mous reputation as a curer of snake bite. His treatment, which has been officially published by the Protector of Im- migrants, has saved many a life ; in fact, when taken in time, has invariably been found successful. It is simply twenty to thirty drops of the strongest solution of ammonia, one dram of theriaque, and a wineglassful of claret, every hour. This is accompanied by several soothing applications to the wound, and a liberal exhibition of any other stimulant that can be had. Mr. T. H. Dix, one of the magistrates of the colony, on one occasion called my attention to a plant which had the reputation of keeping the Fer-de-lance at a distance. It was very like woodsorrel in appearance, but its name I forget. Mr. Dix had followed the example of others, and planted it round his house for use as a serpent fence, and he also told me that a tincture made from its leaves was used by many of the panseurs as an antidote.* In conclusion, I will mention an incident of which I was personally a witness, to show the amount of liquor that may be imbibed with impunity in cases of serpent poisoning, and * I am glad to have this opportunity of recording my obligations both to Mr. de Laubenque and Mr. Dix, not only for much useful information in natural history, but also for their great kindness and hospitality to me on many pleasant occasions. My intercourse with both these gentlemen was the happiest part of my West Indian experience. '' TRIGONOCEPHALUS LANCEOLATUS. '' 55 which proves how virulent must be the poison which can bear such an amount of antidote. A coolie was brought to my hospital on one occasion, from an estate about twelve miles distant, and on the way had imbibed over a quart of strongest rum in the space of about four hours. There was nothing in his appearanee suggestive of anything but intoxi- cation, and I determined to persist in the treatment already begun, and with my own hand I administered a pound of aromatic spirits of ammonia within the next twenty-four hours. Having no more at hand, but thinking that suffi- cient, I left him to his fate, and after some twelve hours more he recovered. When he had been told of his danger, and of our efforts to revive him, and especially of the quantity of liquor he had imbibed, he rubbed his stomach, and grinning from ear to ear, said : " AH right. Doctor Sahib ; dat serpent make um feel good and thirsty. Tell him come bite again ; I no stop um." Calpa ; or, |][cmarhs on i\n Jaliits oi By C. I. TRUSTED. Bead December Gth^ 1888. "Genus Talpa.— Mole. Back covered with hair, furnished with a tail. Incisors in the upper jaw, six ; in the lower, eight. No external ears. The sternum is furnished with a mesial crest. Fore feet broad aud formed for digging. " Talpa Europcea. — The fur of this well-known animal is usually black, but it is occasionally found in all the intermediate stages to yellowish white." THE above is the concise description of this little creature given by Fleming in his " History of British Animals," to which I may add : The anterior members very short and strong, and large hands, turned outwards in such a manner as to permit the animal to throw the soil to the surface on right and left. The head succeeds the body without attenuation, thus being almost cylindrical. The nose is used for boring in the earth. The body is covered with fine, silky, short black hair. The eyes are hidden ; they are small and black, and can be retracted and exserted at will, and they are said to protrude themselves when the Mole is in the water. The sense of hearing in the Mole TALPA ; OR, REMAEKS ON THE HABITS OF THE MOLE. 57 is very acute, as also that of the olfactory organs. The number of teeth is said to be 44. Moles make long gal- leries in the earth, through which they can run swiftly. Their food is insects and earthworms. Only a single species occurs in Britain. Woods are their favourite breeding- places, and the large molehill they form at such times is not quickly discovered in the briars or underwood. I have found their nests with about five young moles, on the highest part of the bank of a hedge-row, and in such a situation as to be out of flood's way. When there is a nest underneath, the molehill above is a large dome, several times the ordinary size. There are many runs made, which radiate from the nest in all directions, with many galleries and passages. The nests are composed of dry leaves. I have not found any of dried grass or moss. When about half-grown the young moles appear to be almost naked, and all body, and make no attempt to escape : very odd-looking little animals, flesh-coloured cylinders you would incline to call them. On reference to my Diary, I believe that December 20th, 1852, was the date when the churchwarden of the parish I then lived in, brought forward for the last time, at a parish meeting, his usual charge for paying the molecatcher. Many of the ratepayers considered they had no benefit from the arrangement, and so the charge was disallowed. However, this old custom had some claim for itself, as you will understand when I explain the injury caused by the Moles. The river Wye bounded the parish on one side for a considerable way, and owing to the frequent floods in winter time, a high bank, or stank, as it was called (very similar to the one which you know extends from Avon- mouth to the New Passage), extended, as a protection. 58 TALPA ; OR, REMARKS ON THE HABITS OF THE MOLE. about the breadth of a wide meadow from the river side. Now Talpa swims well ; and in time of flood, although many may be drowned, yet I have seen the moles swim to this high bank, which was to them very safe and secure anchorage. If they had done no injury when there,- there would have been little cause for complaint, as far as the stank was concerned ; but the Moles made their runs right through it, and so allowed the water to gush out on the opposite side into a deep pool, and close by this was a house and extensive farm premises. Owing to frequent floods these holes or runs in the bank increased in size, and in the high flood of February 6th, 1852, several yards of the embankment were suddenly carried away, about midnight, and in a few moments a part of the house, and the farm- yards adjoining it, were deluged with water. The cattle were fortunately saved from drowning, but great injury was done to the corn ricks and the contents of the barns, and in many other ways. The turnpike road adjacent was also rendered impassable, much to the inconvenience of the neighbourhood, and all travellers. So you see, small creatures may do great mischief ! Moles prefer some depth of soil for their hunting ground. I have never seen a mole hill on our Downs ; yet probably a stray mole may come, now and then, to the north-east end. But I have known on the Downs two colonies of the Arvicola Agrestis, or Meadow Mouse : and, standing motion- less, have watched their graceful and innocent ways whilst nibbling the blades of grass. On the least movement they would run away, down their narrow well-worn path, to their holes. In the course of my walks I chanced to see a Weasel near their runs, and on making a peculiar sound with my lips this active animal would come close to my feet. A few days afterwards, however, all my little friends TALPA ; OR, REMARKS ON THE HABITS OF THE MOLE. 59 the Meadow Mice were gone — doubtless fallen a prey to their enemy, the Weasel. I seem to remember a mole- catcher having told me that he had caught a Weasel in a trap set for the Mole, but think it is not conclusive evidence that the Stoat or Weasel kill and devour Moles : their flesh gives a repugnant odour. The Rev. J. G. Wood, in his "Illustrated Natural History," says, "The Weasel is said to kill and eat Moles; and this idea is strengthened by the fact that Weasels have more than once been captured in Mole traps. These unfortunate animals were evidently snared in the act of traversing the same passages as the Mole, but whether their object was the slaughter of the original excavators is not clearly ascer- tained." The traps used for the destruction of Moles are of three or four different kinds. The most common are the usual steel traps, with two handles and serrated prongs, kept apart by a plate, and the springe fixed in the ground and bent at one end, so often seen in the country. Another kind is a deep box, which is placed in a hedgerow, or bank, after it has been cut away transversely to a sufficient depth ; and fixing this pitlike box underneath, the main run is then connected by a wooden trapdoor, through which the animal is obliged to pass, and thus falls into the box below, and must die a cruel death. There is one point to which I would draw your attention ; it is the intuitive knowledge possessed by the Mole respect- ing the changes of weather. It is intuitive, as it has not the power of reasoning. I have frequently noticed the afternoons previous to a hard frost, and again at the begin- ning of a. thaw, that the Moles are very active, and are busily throwing up the earth. Probably it is because at those times the worms and insects begin to be in motion, 4 60 talpa; or, remarks ox the habits of the mole. and approach the surface ; on the contrary, in very dry weather few mole-hills are to be seen, as the animal has then to go deep in the earth after its food. Hillocks rise up in all directions in the meadows where Moles abound, when there is likely to be a change of weather. It was my lot, at one time, to own and occupy a little property, bounded on the north by very extensive woods, where Moles were numerous. If they had been satisfied to remain in these woods they would have been harmless ; but they migrated down into the cornfields and meadows, where there was a good depth of soil, and therefore their favourite hunting- ground. I have mentioned how active these creatures are when there is a prospect of change of weather, and I have a note in m}^ diary that on January 26th, 1858, I shot nine Moles. I recollect that once also I shot eleven Moles in one day. My neighbours, who were great sportsmen, were very incredulous about my shooting them. Great caution is required, in order to approach with noiseless steps to the molehill, as the hearing of the animals is so very acute ; and it is useless to shoot unless at the moment the earth is seen to rise. Moles spoil much grass, and are mischievous in mowing grass. They are also injurious to agriculture, because they dig amongst the cultivated plants, raising up the young wheat and barley after it is sprouted ; and although they do not feed on the roots of vegetables, yet they cut them in making runs and passages. Mole-hills are also very un- sightly. When returning from Dingle to Tralee, in Ireland, last year, my fellow-traveller, who belonged to the latter town, was a gentleman who had a taste for natural history, and amongst other things said that there were no Moles in Ireland. Although I had travelled so often and so much in TALPA ; OR, REMARKS OX THE HABITS OF THE MOLE. 61 Ireland, this fact had not previously occurred to me. It is true I had never seen a molehill there. Since then I have searched all the books I possess on natural history, and only two authors notice the absence of Moles in Ireland. Pennant says, " We have been assured that Moles are not found in Ireland." " The Naturalist's Library on British Quadrupeds " says, " The Mole is said not to occur in any part of Ireland, or in Orkney, or Shetland. It is not met with in any of the Hebrides, excepting Bute, and is unknown in many of the northern and western districts of the Highlands ; but is distributed over all the other parts of Britain, from the level of the sea to the height in some places of a thousand feet or more, although more abundant in the lower or richer ground."' I have lately inquired of an acquaintance at Belfast, who is a good and observant naturalist. He says, " It is a fact that Moles do not exist in Ireland." This is remarkable, as a large portion of the South and East, and part of the North of Ireland appears well suited to the habits of the Mole. Much of Connaught may be too wet, and other parts of it too denuded of soil. If we examine the structure of this animal, we shall notice the wonderful adaptation, and how well suited in Ibrm for its peculiar habits and mode of life. I have no means of ascertaining to what age it may attain, but as the food it feeds on is so plentiful, and it is generally found in high condition, I think it may be a long-lived animal. Man appears to be its principal enemy. The earth is never found to adhere to the soft fur of the Mole, but the feet or paws, which are without fur, are often covered with mould when captured. Purses are made of its skin by country people, and a molecatcher may be seen with a waist- coat made of the same material. , The peculiarly hidden life of the Mole prevents my 62 TALPA ; OE, REMARKS ON THE HABITS OF THE MOLE. enlivening this paper with interesting anecdotes. I copy, however, one which I found in " Science Gossip," which will illustrate its voracity. " Last winter, when the ground was frozen very hard, I saw a bewildered Mole trying with all his might to bury himself in the ground. I soon captured the little beast and pocketed him. In my walk I espied a poor field mouse, running about for shelter ; him I easily captured, and put into the same pocket, which was large and capacious. Very shortly after the introduction, I found a considerable dis- turbance was going on between the two, and supposing they were trying to escape I closed the pocket to prevent it. I reached home in about half an hour, when, what was my surprise, on feeling for my captives, to find the poor mouse gone, all but his head. The Mole had disposed of him. I then placed the survivor on the table, laying the head before him, when, with all the coolness imaginable, he picked the bones of his unfortunate companion, taking no heed of several persons who stood round." With regard to the usefulness of Talpa as a civil engineer, my experience and observation convince me that it is too wandering and uncertain in its digging operations. And where Moles are numerous they necessitate much extra work to prevent injury. By HEV. M. B. SAUNDERS. Bead before the Geological Section. MR. MILLARD READE'S book is very interesting, as being full of facts and experiments, and presenting a theory of mountain building which, is not generally accepted. In this paper I propose to take his side of the question. Let me state at the outset that he entirely rejects that view of mountain building which is based on the secular cooling and contraction of our planet. On page 267, Mr. Reade writes: '* Considering the varying materials of which the interior of the earth is composed, as shown by the diverse composition of erupted lavas, an equilibrium of its constituents has" not yet been attained. It is not improbable that large masses of the heated globe, far below the thirty-mile zone, undergo slow changes which produce fluctuations even in that superheated mass . . . the masses so affected must fluctuate in bulk . . . while the extravasation of lava must create an internal flow of the heated magma below the crust, thus bringing its various 63 64 ON MR. M. READE's WORK ON MOUNTAIN BUILDING. component materials into juxtaposition." This appears to be the key to Mr. Mellard Reade's theory. Thus, in a given area such combinations may take place as to produce chemical activity with increase of heat and bulk, resulting in the upheaval of the overlying crust ; under other conditions there will be a decrease of activity, with such decrease of heat and bulk as will permit the overlying crust to sink down and form a depression, greater or less in depth and extent. In order to initiate a chain of great mountains, with its core of archsean rock flanked by sedimentary strata, two preliminary conditions are necessary. The one is, a deposit of sediment on a subsiding area ; the other, that this area must be limited, and the depression deep. Sediment, however, does not initiate subsidence, but its accumulation sinks the crust to a point below that to which its own weight alone would have carried it, nor will the subsidence be counteracted by any great rise of the Isogeotherms due to increased thickness of strata, these being more largely influenced by the condition of the heated magma below the area. In course of time diminished activity will be succeeded b}^ a return to the normal state, and the Isogeotherms will rise to the level of those in the surrounding areas ; at first this will not have the effect of lifting the crust, for its strength has been greatly increased during subsidence — partly, its curves are directed towards the pressure from below ; partly, its thickness is increased by the addition of seven to nine miles of sediment. The resistance thus offered affords time for the temperature to rise through the mass until some of the upper strata become sufficiently heated to rise in anticlinal ridges, to be followed by those below, until the archsean crust itself is reached, when this also will ON MR. M. READe's WORK ON MOUNTAIN BUILDINO. 65 rise, forced up under the influence of heat expansion in a more or less plastic state, hence the ridging, folding, and overthrow, which are features of all great mountain chains. Besides this, the archsean rock, being more heated and possessing greater expansive strains than the overlying sedimentaries, must break through them, showing itself in the higher peaks, while the sedimentary strata rest on the lower flanks. These considerations imply that the initial upheaval of our great range has been geologically rapid, After this we have abundant evidence of variation in subterranean activity, each pause and each renewal of activity adding to the complexity of the phenomena ; but where movement has been once initiated, there it seems to continue. The Pyrenees afford an interesting example of this. Kaised first in early Palaeozoic times, then depressed for a long period, after that subjected to two more great movements and three of lesser importance, for seven in all participated in the formation of this great range. The Himalayas afford another instance of similar alternate and prolonged action. Now, if the formation of these ranges was due chiefly to secular contraction, though we should expect pauses in the process, yet there should be no depression — whatever action there was must force the mountains upwards, as it compressed the area on which they stand. But if the forma- tion of the mountains is due to altered conditions of the subjacent magma, then this elevation and depression is in harmony with our theory. Another important point. On the theory of secular con- traction, those parts of a district which lie on either side of a mountain range must travel over several miles in their approach to each other. American geologists state that abundant evidence of such translation exists. Taking the F 66 ON MR. M. READE's WORK ON MOUNTAIN BUILDING. measurements across tlie Alleghany chain ; the present extent of the sedimentary strata, measured over hill and dale, proves such a movement to have taken place ; i.e., if the sedimentary strata were flattened out the}^ would stretch several miles beyond the present breadth of that chain. To which Mr. Reade's friends may reply — first, that the heat which gave rise to the mountains expanded and extended these strata ; second, the upthrust of archeean rock has not onl}^ driven aside the sedimentaries, but also has itself further expanded, and these expansions have so com- plicated the measurements that they do not even proximately represent the extent of the original beds. On the other hand, Mr. Reade's theory does account for the undoubted fact that a much greater surface is covered now by these strata than is implied by a straight line across the chain, which we suppose to be the approximate width of the original beds. The effect of secular contraction on the crust is disposed of by referring the whole to normal faults, which are found everywhere, indicating that these evidences of tension strain have affected the cnist pretty evenly throughout its entire extent and thickness, sufficiently accounting for all the con- traction which can reasonably be supposed to have taken ]jlace since the formation of the solid crust. Mo c^mikes Jfasdnatc tbtir Dittims? By Dr. A. J. HARRISON'. Read Fehmanj Ith^ 1889. IT is a tiine-lionoured belief that snakes have the won- derful faculty of fixing or fascinating tlie creatures they feed • upon, either by the power of their e^^e or by their very presence, so that victims become an easy prey to their destroyer. This question has exercised my mind for a long time, and I therefore determined to see how far the opportunities I had for making observations at our Zoological Gardens confirmed this opinion or otherwise. At the outset I particularly wish to emphasize this point, that if any observations I bring forward may seem to some here to be heartless and forbidding, I do hope they will let me assure them, once for all, that I have no desire to appear in the light of a cold-blooded observer, indifferent to animal sufferings, but that I was determined to approach the in- vestigation of this subject in as calm and philosophical a spirit as possible. Snakes, like all of us, must eat to live, and I cannot allow that my presence, and that of friends on several occasions, added one iota of suffering to the snakes' victims. There can be no doubt that from time immemorial snakes 67 68 . DO SNAKES FASCINATE THEIR VICTIMS ? have been regarded with awe and superstition. We have marked evidence of this in the marvellous properties assigned to them, in the very names of them, and in the history of the basilisk itself, which was supposed to be hatched by a serpent from an egg laid by a cock. We see exaggerations again in the recorded size of snakes connected with ancient history, and in many other wonderful stories,. which are too many and too long to be discussed in this abstract. I will now pass on to relate observations made by myself,, either alone or in the presence of friends. First of all, then, I will summarize some general observations which I have made extending over several years, and which first of all gave me the cue, so to speak, of beginning to question the marvellous powers of fascination which have been attributed to snakes. Thus I have on many occasions seen rabbits and fowls put into the cage with the Python, when he was " on his feed.'^ Bunnie has gone about in a most unsuspecting' manner, poking his nose at the snake, and the serpent in his turn put out his head and project his forked tongue at the rabbit. I have seen one rabbit resting on the body of the recumbent snake, and another hopping about over him, A note I made more than a year ago is to this effect : " I have seen a couple of fowls strutting about in the Python's, den without evincing the slightest alarm, and I can quite imagine a young cockerel saluting the morning perched on the body of his rapacious enemy." Next I wish to refer to and describe, more or less minutely in some instances, more particular observations. On Wednesday, January 19th, 1888, the large Python in our " Zoo " was said by the keeper to be " on his feed." We had kept him without food for several days after he showed signs of hunger, such as brightness of his stony- DO SNAKES FASCINATE THEIR VICTIMS? 69 looking eye, slight increase in temperature, and restlessness. At 4.80 p.m., when the house was shut up from visitors, four nice-sized ducks were put into the cage. They fluttered and scrambled about at first, but this was no doubt in con- sequence of being released from their hamper and the strangeness of the place. The cage is about four yards long, and the ducks were put in at the end farthest from where the snake was. He raised up his head, showing his buff- xioloured throat and neck, opened his mouth, and in a moment made a dash at one of the ducks, and seized it by its head. At the same time he rolled his body about in a -strange vermicular manner, and most adroitly entangled another duck in his coils, and nearly succeeded in grasping a third. The Python then remained quiet, and we con- cluded he Avas slowly absorbing number one duck, as we could see only a portion of one wing. Number two was encoiled, but, presently pushing his head out from the coils, did not seem at all uncomfortable, certainly not alarmed, and not fascinated, for he moved his head about. We waited ten minutes, and then, as there seemed no change, we opened the cage door close to the snake, and stirred him up with a stick. Presently he raised his head up out of his coils, and we saw that he had released number one from his mouth, evidently quite content to keep his prey close at hand to be enjoyed at his leisure. By stirring the Python up, we released number two from the coils a little, so much so that he got his head and neck free, and his beak came close to the glass of the cage, and for some minutes I could watch the expression of his eyes. He breathed occasionally, moved his head about slightly, and even in this predicament did not seem to show the slightest -alarm. After waiting about five minutes more, we drove the other two dacks towards the snake. He raised up his 70 DO SNAKES FASCINATE THEIR VICTIMS ? heady — still keeping number one encoiled, — made a dash at another dnck, but failed to secure it, and in writhing about allowed number two to escape, who waddled about and preened his feathers, apparently very little the worse for his imprisonment, and fraternized with his other two companions. It very quickly became so dusk that we could see no more proceedings, so the keeper (Sage) and I left the serpent and his victims. When the keeper visited the house the next morning at eight o'clock, the four ducks, feathers and all, had entirely disappeared. My note-book contains the following sentence : " The fascination of snakes over their victims may, I think, be relegated to the remotest regions of romance." On Friday; October 19th, 1888, Sage, the keeper of the Bird and Reptile House, thought the large Python would feed; as he had nearly completed the casting of his skin, and had not fed since the end of August. To some persons this interval of time may seem long for a living creature to go without food. I may assure them that for Pythons it is not an unusual time. A large Python we had in the " Zoo " some j^ears ago lived for eighteen months without food, but then it died. However, to return to our living Python ; he seemed lively, raised up his head, and kept opening his mouth, gaping widely. These are all considered signs of being " on the feed," so, in the presence of the Honorary Secretary of the Gardens, Colonel Jones, Colonel Graham, Mr. Char- bonnier, myself, and the head keeper and Sage, a fowl and a duck were given to him. He stretched out his head and regarded them with his stony eyes, opened his great mouth again and again, and evidently seemed to be anticipating a choice repast. DO SNAKES FASCINATE THEIR VICTIMS ? 71 However, in a few minutes lie became quieter, settled down, and thrust his head amidst his coils. We now opened the cage and drove the birds towards him again and again. They passed over his body. This roused him ; he would stretch out his head and his mouth close to the duck or the hen, whichever happened to be nearer. Shortly he settled down again, and so, as it was evident he didn't intend to feed to satisfy our curiosity, we had the prey removed, and determined to make him wait a few days longer, expecting that enforced starvation would sharpen his appetite. That the fowl and duck should be at first disturbed by the new surroundings was not in the least surprising, but they certainly were not spellbound. On Monday, October 22nd, 1888, at five p.m., two fowls and a duck (the latter and one hen our former friends) were placed in the Python's cage. He seemed less excited than on the former occasion, and hardly noticed them at all. We drove them about, and they strutted over or perched upon the body of the snake. Very shortly, whilst the two hens were actually perching upon him, he raised his head and sniffed at them, as it were. One hen resented this proceeding, or mistook his delicate tongue for a worm, and pecked at him. This so astonished him that he suddenly darted his head back, and with such abruptness that the movement startled the hens. During all this time the duck was squatted down close by the side of the Python, and evidently seemed to be settling down for a comfortable roost through the night, fast coming on. The hens cackled and strutted about, and evidently had not the slightest conception of the presence of a direful foe. As matters seemed to be going on very quietly, we (Colonel Jones, Dr. Shaw, Mr. Charbonnier, and the two keepers and I) drove the birds about ; and now occurred a very ludicrous 72 DO SNAKES FASCINATE THEIR VICTIMS ? incident. The duck settled himself down amongst the coils of the snake, and then attacked the snake by pecking at .some loose bits of a portion of the unseparated slough on the snake's body. The positions of victim and victimizer were reversed ! As the keeper, Sage, did not like the idea of £ill the birds being removed, one hen was left as a solatium ; but I think theoretically we may opine that the snake was really thankful to be relieved of two-thirds of his tormentors, and would probably have preferred the absence of the remaining third, for it turned out that the Python did not feed. On Saturday, October 27th, a little after five p.m., the keeper placed the duck in the cage, several of the former witnesses being present. Almost immediately the duck waddled over the snake's body, who seemed to resent the intrusion by stretching out his head in a lively manner ; but a sudden peck of the duck's beak, followed up by an attack on the body of the snake, speedily sent the inquiring head back again amongst the coils. There seemed no fascination here ! We left the duck in the cage, and we all thought it would have disappeared by morning. At the same time a young rabbit was placed in an '^ Aboma's " cage close b3^ The snake stretched out his head in a very quiet, subtle manner towards bunnie, who shoAved not the slightest alarm. When the keeper visited the house next morning both duck and bunnie had disappeared. • On Friday, November 2nd, a duck was given to the Python, who seemed very lively ; and a little while later, the white hen w^as also put in. Neither birds showed the slightest alarm. At the same time two little rabbits were placed with the Aboma. They were not in the slightest degree disconcerted, and one actually played with and fondled the snake's head. DO SNAKES FASCINATE THEIR VICTIMS ? 73 The next morning the Python had killed the duck, but not swallowed it ; the fowl was untouched. From the fact that the duck was cold and alread}^ smelling from incipient putrefaction, we concluded that the murderous onslaught had taken place soon after we left. The duck had evidently been seized by the neck, as the teeth marks were there, and it was moist and sodden. It might have been partly gorged and then rejected, as snakes not unfrequently will do this. If they are disturbed or threatened with an attack, they will do it to facilitate their escape. The rapid decom- position of the duck was due to the warmth of the house, xind also, I expect, to the salivary fluid of the snake. The Aboma had caused the disappearance of both rabbits. On December 11th, the white hen and a duck were placed in the Python's cage. The hen showed not the slightest fear. In the morning neither had gone. On December 14tli, at four p.m., the white hen was again placed in the cage. It showed no sign of fear, but settled down on the body of the snake, who seemed fairly livety. At 4.55, as it had not fed, a nice young duck was put in also to tempt his appetite. As the Aboma had not fed for a fortnight, two white rats were placed in the cage. In a few minutes it slowly pushed out its head and neck and a portion of its body, the rest of the body and the tail remaining almost fixed and motionless. Slowly it approached one of the rats. The rat didn't show the slightest fear, but sniffed at the snake, apparently regarding it as one of the most harmless things in nature, when in a moment, like a lightning flash, the Aboma seized the rat by the nose with its jaws, and in- stantaneously had wrapped it round with a couple of coils. The rat was grasped so suddenly and completely that it had no chance of squealing. You could only see the posterior 74 DO SNAKES FASCINATE THEIR VICTIMS ? end of the rat and its tail, which by the convulsed move- ments which speedily followed, showed that the rat was being strangled, and quite unable to breathe. In about five minutes after the rat had been seized, we opened the cage cautiously, and by means of a stick opened up the snake's coil, and thus liberated the rat. The rat w^as dead, asphyxi- ated. We closed the cage door and watched. It took no more notice of the rat, but slowly and very cautiously approached the second victim, which was in a corner of the cage. The rat sniffed about, but evinced no fear, although it must have witnessed the destruction of its companion. Suddenly, as before, the snake seized the rat and encoiled it. The same thing happened as with the other, and in a few minutes the second victim was dead. Slowly it relinquished its prey, and left it resting in the water-bath in the cage ; and then, placing a few coils of its body near the tail end upon the rat, it gradually approached the first one, which was in the centre of the cage, quietly grasped it by the nose and head, and commenced the process of sucking it in. As soon as it had got a fair grasp of the head, it quickly threw^ a coil round the body, in order no doubt to compress it, and make it more convenient for gorging. There w^as a very free discharge of lubricating mucus from the salivary glands o± the snake's mouth, the jaws and throat began to expand enormously, and gradually the rat to disappear, and in about twenty minutes the whole process of swallowing was completed, and the head and neck of the snake began to assume normal proportions. It was quite astonishing to see how rapidly the parts regained their natural conditions. After resting for about ten minutes it gradually approached the second rat, and the same processes were repeated. It now became too dark to discern anything more. On Christmas Eve, our old DO SNAKES FASCINATE THEIR VICTIAfS ? 75 acquaintance, the white hen, and a duck were placed in the Python's cage, and in the morning both had disappeared. These constitiited his last meal for the year. Sage, the keeper, computes that he had consumed in the year twenty- two ducks and two hens, weighing on an average about three pounds each. I have now placed before you all the important observa- tions which have come under my own personal notice ; but before making some general comments on the facts before us, I should like to refer to some observations which have been made by other observers on the subject. In Longman''.^ Magazine for April, 1888, is a very interesting article on " Something about Snakes," by Mr. C. T. Buckland, P.Z.S., a cousin of the late Frank Buckland. On page 648, speaking of Pythons, he says : " With a rapidity that can hardly be conceived, a rat is seized and a fatal coil passed round, squeezing all life out of it, and reducing its body to the form of an elongated sausage, which the snake lubricates with its slime, and swallows entire."' " If a fowl is put into the cage, no notice seems to be sometimes taken ; and the frightened bird, finding that no harm comes to it, begins to rufEe its feathers and to peck about, occasionally trying its beak on the snake's skin. Suddenly the snake has moved and the fowl has disappeared, and can only be detected by the end of a feather or two protruding from the coils in the Python's neck, which have crushed the bird's life out." On page 652 is the following passage : " When a large snake catches a small frog, it is all over in an instant : but if a smallish snake catches a larae frog, so that he cannot swallow it at once, the frog's cries are piteous to hear." Miss Catherine Hopley, in her interesting work on " Snakes," has a word to say about the " fascination of the 76 DO SNAKES FASCINATE THEIR VICTIMS ? iserpent's eye." She considers that the curiously vibrating tongue of the snake certainly attracts birds — small birds like sparrows and finches. Some would venture on a close inspection, and remain gazing at it, or even peck at it until -a movement of the snake told them that the motionless object from which that wriggling thing protruded was a living animal. Then they might hop away indifferently, happily uncon- scious that what they had perched on as a branch or a log was animated with a hungering after themselves. Observation of nature and an inquiry into causes will often present very commonplace reasons for what appears to savour of the marvellous. A snake has just made a meal of some fledglings. The mother bird has witnessed her offspring vanishing by degees, and she frantically hovers over the reptile, fluttering to and fro, and probably uttering cries of distress or enticement, in the hope of her young ones' return. Birds have been observed even endeavouring to rescue a seized fledgling. The naturalist comprehends the reason ; the poet thinks the birds are '' fascinated." Dr. Stradling, in Land and Watcv^ April 2nd, 1881, de- scribes a hen that had been placed in an anaconda's cage, making a determined dab at the snake's tongue ; and he comes to the conclusion that she "mistook the tongue for a wriggling worm." Mr. Frederick A. Lucas, the Secretary of the " Trenton Natural History Society," regards the " fascination " as being the outcome of " a strong sentiment of excessive re- pugnance, if not of actual horror," which the members of the snake family produce in the human breast. However, I think I have trespassed upon your time long enough, and therefore let us summarize. DO SNAKES FASCINATE THEIR VICTIMS ? 77 We have looked at the snakes of heathen mythology^ and their historical successors, their enormous size, their dragonian appetites. We have dared to look at that com- pound of snake and bird, the basilisk, fully in the face,, and its deadly glance has jH'oved no worse than a harm- less smile ; its purple crown has been transformed into a simple hood. But superstition and ignorance are very difficult to eradicate, and therefore it is not surprising that the myths of heathen mythology, with all their exag- gerated fancies, should still throw a colouring halo over the ideas of the present day. Had snakes ever attained the enormous proportions- assigned to them by the ancients, we should surely have some geological proofs of the fact. Without going into all the particular evidences of this part of my subject, I may state briefly that there have been no geological remains found bearing out such opinions, nor have any skeletons or portions of bony structure been discovered in more modern times which would indicate that snakes existed which were larger than those known to exist in recent times. Then, I have referred to the experiences of some of our best observers, and I have ventured to detail my own investigations into the proceedings which these reptiles take in order to secure their food ; and putting all these things together, we find we have to represent the largest snakes in existence, and which probably ever did exist, an ophidian, it may possibly be, 30 feet long, possessed of enormous power certainly, but characterized still more by its clever mimicry of nature, — be it branch of tree or log on the water, — by its wriggling and darting tongue of worm-like affinity ; and, lastly and chiefly, by the most intense form of subtlety, which does pervade, or ever has 78 DO SNAKES FASCINATE THEIR VICTIMS? pervaded, any living creature ; and reflecting upon all these things, the words are inborne on our minds, '' Now the serpent was more subtil than any beast of the field, which the Lord Grod had made." Himkrn iimangst tijc ITcpttiaptcrii. By G. C. GRIFFITHS. Read before the Enfoin. Serf.. March llfh, 1889. THE earlier entomologistri did not fail to notice the remarkable superficial similarities which so frequently exist between species of the same order, widely differing in structure and affinity, and even between insects of different orders, or, — extremest instances of all — between insects and inanimate objects. Kirby and Spence, in their chapter on the Means of Defence of Insects, refer to some larvse living in the nests of humble-bees, " the offspring of a particular genus of flies" {Volucella^ Geoff. — Pfcmcera, Meigen)^ many of the species of which flies strikingly resemble those bees in shape, clothing, and colour. " Thus," they remark, " has the Author of Nature provided that they may enter these nests and deposit their eggs undiscovered. Did these intruders venture themselves amongst the humble-bees in a less kindred form, their lives would probably pay the forfeit of their presumption." Boisduval, in his "Species General des Lepidopteres," remarks that '' Nature in certain cases has reproduced the same design and same colour in genera sufficiently remote. Thus, for example, the Zygaynidce 79 80 MIMICRY AMONGST THE LEPIDOPTERA. have, in this respect, the greatest similarity with Euchelia jacobea'j Syntomis pliegca with Zyycena ephialtes^ Danais chrysippus with Diadema boliua, female, Datials archippna Avith Diadema dlstppiis, Pleris pyrrha with certain Heli- conii^ Ncmeohms lucina with Melitwa^ etc. That which is still more remarkable is, that beyond the analogy of colour and design. Nature has given to these species the same habitat, and has created them side by side with one an- other." He goes on to mention the analogy in appearance between certain of the diurnal and nocturnal Lcpidoptera^ also between many of the Lcpidoptera and insects of other orders, such as the similarity between many of the Sesiidoi and the Acideate Ilymcnoptcra^ so familiar to English entomologists. Thus far, however, little more than the bare facts had been noticed ; the material for theorizing was at hand, it remained for some observer to collect it and to find the clue. This honour belongs to Bates, who, in the silence of the South American forest, thought out the theory of Insect Mimicry, which he gave to the world in his book, entitled '• The Naturalist on the River Amazons." At Villa Nova he found an exceedingly handsome butterfly, Ayr las phal- cedou, greatly resembling another, also found there, Calll' tfiea leprieurii. Also, on the Upper Amazons he noticed a totally distinct species of Ayrias, mimicking still more closely another CalUthea ; both insects being peculiar to the district where they are found flying together. His reason- ing upon this fact we will give as far as possible in his own words : " Resemblances of this nature are very numerous in the insect world. I was much struck with them in the course of my travels, especially when, on removing from one district to another, local varieties of certain species were found, accompanied by local varieties of the species which MIMICRY AMONGST THE LEPIDOrTEEA. 81 counterfeited them in the former locality, under a dress- changed to correspond with the altered liveries of the species they mimicked. One cannot help concluding these imitations to be intentional, and that Nature has some motive in their production. ... I believe these imita- tions are of the same nature as those in which an insect or Uzard is coloured and marked so as to resemble the soil, leaf, or bark on which it lives; the resemblance serving ta conceal the creatures from the prying eyes of their enemies ; or, if they are predacious species, serving them as a disguise^ to enable them to approach their prey. When an insect/ instead of a dead or inorganic substance, mimics another species of its own order, and does not prey, or is not para- sitic, may it not be inferred that the mimicker is subject to a persecution by insectivorous animals from which its model is free ? ... In the present instance it is not very clear what property the Callithea possesses to render it less liable to persecution than the Agrias, except it be that it has a strong odour somewhat resembling vanilla, which the Agrias is destitute of. This odour becomes very powerful when the insect is roughly handled or pinched ; and if it serves as a protection to the Callithea, it would explain why the Agrias is assimilated to it in colours," This suggestion of Bates as to the odour of the Callithea supplies the key to the mystery. We find, even in an examination of the comparatively scanty insect-fauna of our islands, numerous instances in which, either on account of taste or odour, an insect is distasteful to its inveterate foes, and in this fact finds its protection and well-being. Amongst these may be mentioned Euclielia jacohece., Abraxas gros- sulariaia, and Chrysopa perla. But if in our temperate climate, by no means over-peopled by predacious birds and insects, there is need for such a device, how much more in G 82 MIMICRY AMONGST THE LEPIDOPTEEA. a tropical region, where life of all kinds is abundant and the struggle for existence tenfold more keen. Wallace says that " in the Brazilian forests there are great numbers of insectivorous birds — as jacamars, trogons, and puff-birds — which catch insects on the wing, and that they destroy many butterflies is indicated by the fact that the wings of these insects are often found on the ground, where their bodies have been devoured." And, beside the birds, the rapacious dragon-fly follows its flying prey with wings swifter still, whilst the insect at rest on the tree-trunk falls into the power of the spider or lizard, or the mantis lying in wait, disguised as a bundle of leaves, or the phasma lurking among the dead twigs, itself as stick-like as they. From all these dangers, likeness to a species malodorous or dis- tasteful would give to the insect assuming it protection more or less complete : not entire protection, for it has been proved by experiments that the hungry bird or lizard will approach and devour a species which it at first believed to be distasteful, though only after much preliminary care and examination ; so that the temporary hesitation of its foe would in natural conditions give the attacked insect many chances of escape. Amongst the Diurnal Lepidoptera we find two families in particular, the Dauaince and Acrceince^ which are distasteful to birds and other animals ; and even apparently after death this characteristic protects their bodies from the inroads of the acarus. Hence, as we might expect, we find that most of the mimicking species bear a resemblance to one of the species of these two families. In some cases both sexes share this immunity, but in others the female only is protected by likeness to the nauseous insect ; it being most important to the survival of a species that the lives of the majority of its females should MIMICRY AMONGST THE LEPIDOPTERA. 83 be prolonged until deposition of the ova has taken place. In a few instances certain individuals only of the female sex depart from the normal form of the species and assume a, mimetic resemblance to one of distasteful character. Such is the highly specialized variety of the female of Papilio MeropCj which bears so strong a resemblance to the Danaid Amauris Nlavius as to have been described under that name by both Cramer and Godart. Boisduval, who recog- nised it as a Papilio, did not suspect its relationship to PapiUo Mcropc^ and named it P. WcstcrmannL It is singular that Hijpolimnas Anthedon is also an exact mimic of A, Niai'ius. HypoUmnas uiiaippus (female), which species occurs in Asia and Africa, bears an almost perfect resem- blance on the under side to Danais dirijsippu^ and its African form Alcippus: the former species indeed occurs -also in Trinidad, Cuba, and Florida, where Clwij.iippics is not native, but as it is a migratory insect, and has been met with at sea at great distances from land, it has probably been introduced. Papilio Clytia bears a strong likeness to u Danais, probably D. Limniacc^ whilst P. panopc^ which Mr. Elwes (" Lepidoptera of Sikkim " : Tram. Ent. Soc.^ 1888) is assured is only another form of the preceding species, may be easily mistaken for Euphxa core when on the wing. Papilio pavadoxa^ P. cvnigma and P. telearchus are mimics of Euploea midamns and its allies. Euripus halitlievses^ female, bears a strong resemblance to Euploea rhadamanthus, and, according to M. de Niceville, " not only in form and coloration, but also in the slow-flapping flight and the habit of settling in open places so character- istic of Euphxa ; " he adds that the male, which is not similarly protected, " has a rapid flight, and never settles with expanded wings in conspicuous places as the female does." Papilio caunus also mimics Euploea rliadamantlms, 8i MIMICRY AMONGST THE LEPIDOPTEEA. whilstj according to Distant, the Malay form of the Papilio (P. ceglalua) finds its analogue in the local Malay race of the Euplo^a {E. cUoHcfianus), and he also states, on the authority of Salvin, that Bornean examples of the Papilio mimic the Bornean race of the Euploea (E. Lotcei). Papilio Adamastor and Pseiidacrcea /^einh'c are both mimics of African species of Acrsea. Elymnias also is a strongly mimetic genus : the female of E. itndfifaris resembles in some degree Danals Pleo:q)imSy or other of the tawny Danaids, other species approximate to the blue Euploeas, of which E. midamus is the type, whilst one of the African species, E. phegea^ mimics an Acra^a found in the same locality. LeptocircAis curlus, L. mcgcs, and L. vlrescens appear to mimic dragon-flies in their manner of hovering over water. Mr. Forbes (" iSrat. Wand. East. Archipel."), speaking of the last-named, says: "By the margin of a small stream I caught L. vh'csccns, which derives protection from mimick- ing the habits and appearance of a dragon-fly, in a crowd of which it is often to be found. In form it reminded me of the European genus Ncmoptera. It flies over the top of the water, fluttering its tails and jerking up and down, just as dragon-flies do when flicking the water with the tip of their abdomens." In examining these species we cannot avoid noticing the different manner and varying degree in which protection is afforded to edible butterflies by their resemblance to dis- tasteful kinds. Some, which resemble their models only on the upper side, are protected only during flight when in danger from birds and dragon-flies, which would usually attack on a level or from above. Others, whose underside onty resembles the nauseous species, find safety from it only when at rest ; whilst again there are species amply guarded MIMICRY AMONGST THE LEPIDOPTERA. 85 Taoth above and below. Many more cases of mimicry might be cited which are exclusively of the same kind, namely, the imitation of one insect by another ; but beyond these there is another class of instances in which insects escape danger by assuming the appearance of objects belonging to the vegetable or inanimate kingdom, such as the striking similarity of the underside of KaUima inachis to a withered leaf. These however belong rather to the wider subject of Protective Resemblance, and not to the one phase of it just considered. ©It 1|ittrtfadibt ©rganisms* By the EEV. W. H. DALLINCtER, LL.D., F.E.S. Abiytract of lieport of Address Delivered November Qtli^ 1888* THE author said his difficulty was to decide in which way to treat his subject. He might summarize the investigations of twenty years, and endeavour to show the original motives which led to their being undertaken^ and then contrast this with the new meaning which has been derived from the investigations founded on recent methods and instruments ; or, secondly, he might show the results of a series of continuous observations on certain saprophytic organisms placed under increasing^ adverse en- vironments, so as to endeavour to discover their behaviour in regard to the great Darwinian law. He inclined to this last as the view of his work that might have the broadest interest to a Society like that he was addressing ; but the value of the Improvements in recent lenses led him to give the priority to the results so obtained. In the case of larger animals, it was well known that a change of environ- ment produced changes in the structure ; but that these changes were hard to follow up, owing to the few genera- tions that come under the notice of the student or observer. But in the case of micro-organisms the generations succeed 8G ON PUTREFACTIVE ORGANISMS. 87, each other so rapidly that it is easy to ^follow the changes produced by environment. He could show the effect on certain micro-organisms of a gradual change of temperature, and how in from seven to eight years an organism arose which lived and multiplied at a temperature of 157° Fah- renheit, whose ancestors had lived at a temperature of 65° Fahrenheit, and would have died if exposed to temperatures above 100°. He said there was nothing harder than to carrj'- an audience to a just appreciation of the lower forms of life, but nevertheless he hoped to point out some of the practical results due to the improvements in modern microscopes. If they took a glass of drinking water and put in it some shreds of fish, or any other organic substance, it soon be- came turbid and charged with the minutest organisms. To illustrate the number of these organisms, Dr. Dallinger said that visible to the human eye in the heavens there were in all probability with our most powerful modern telescopes, 100,0(30,000 stars ; and if they supposed that each of these, like our sun, was attended b}^ eight primary bodies and twenty secondary planets, there would be two thousand eight hundred millions of bodies in space accessible to human research. The same number of these minute organ- isms to which he had referred would lie in a space equal to one ten-thousandth of a cubic inch. Any such a molecule of even dead matter must arrest the attention of the human mind ; but when we remembered that these were complex vital forms, they had a significance of a high order, and their inconceivably rapid multiplication would make the mind pause and think. A decomposing mass of matter was a mass of beings endowed with life, and pro- ducing definite products. The life of the organism was not even an incidental product, the organisms were there for a purpose. They break up the decomposing organic matter €8 ON PUTREFACTIVE ORGANISMS. into its elements, and so make it ready again for the purposes of life. Dr. Dallinger then went on to describe some of the organisms which he has observed and examined. He- said, that if they took some putrescent fluid from differ- ent putrefactive material, and mixed them, then put a very minute quantity of sterilized fluid on the microscope slide, and put into this the point of a needle which had been inserted into the mixture of putrefaction, and examined it with a sufflciently powerful microscope, the fleld of view in the microscope became, as it were, charged with life in an instant. There were many kinds of organisms, and they had many movements. There were rod-shaped organisms, spiral forms, a perfectly oval form with two flagella, or v/hips. Another would be like the calyx of a papilionaceous flower, and have four flagella. Another would have a deli- cate egg-shape, and another be shaped like a double convex lens, and move with a beautiful wave motion. The fluid speck seen under the microscope was densely jDeopled. What were these organisms, and what their functions amid the denizens of earth ? They were extremely small, and the largest of them so small that one hundred millions could be packed w^ithin a cube whose side was equal to the diameter of a single human hair, and there were from ten to twenty less than this. This group were amenable only to the most powerful microscopes. It was known long ago that they carried on putrefaction ; now they knew that the process was a fermentation. Dr. Dallinger then went on to contrast ordinary saccharine fermentation, like that of 3'east, producing carbonic acid and alcohol, with the fermentation produced by these saprophytic organisms, and showed that both could be prevented by taking care to keep away any of the germs of the fermentation, that both could be arrested by the action of heat, and that both tended to OK PUTREFACTIVE ORGANISMS. 89 break up the organic matter into simpler forms. In the case of the saprophytes, water and carbonic acid were produced eventually from the decaying mass on which they dwell, and thus by the vital functions of these organisms the chemical elements in the animal body were restored to nature, to become once more part of the protoplasm of living things. There were, however, two things in which these saprophytic ferments were different from ordinary ferments ; in the latter a sj^ecial organism produces a special product, whereas in the former there was no such definite product, and in the saprophytic ferment the final process, was i^ro- duced, not by one definite organism, but by a series of organisms. He did not think that these ferments destroyed one another ; but between the beginning and the end of the putrefaction there was a definite incoming and disappear- ance of many forms. In from 50° to 60° north latitude, he believed these organisms were limited to ten forms, and of these eight were definitely determined, and their life-history made out. There were some present everywhere, and they acted at once. Dr. Dallinger said the object of his study was biological, and not pathological. Some of the results he discovered some time ago, but the large progress of recent years was due to the great improvements in our instruments. These organisms were all different, no two of them behaved alike. He said that if they added a very small quantity of putrescent fluid to a speck of Avater on a slide kept at 65° F., it was very easy to find some of these organisms almost directly, using a lens magnifying 1,00<) diameters ; and they would be found to increase with a rapidity that no description could suggest. He then showed on the screen the first kind of organism that appears, and mentioned that when seen in reality, they were in a constant state of movement, and that the saprophytic ferment begins 00 ox ri'TREFACTIVE OKGAXISMS. to Split i\p and break down the organic tissues. This first organism, Bacterium Termo, would produce profound changes in the putrelying tissues, and prepare the way for other organisms. It would be seen that this organism would be densest round the mass that was being broken up, forming a felt-like covering or garment to it ; soon a new organism of a spiral form would make its appearance (this was shown on the screen), while Bacterium Termo would become less abundant, and be diffused over the entire fluid. The new one, like Bacterium Termo, A\ould be densest next to the putrid matter, and would form a covering to it. The decay- ing tissue would now rapidly change, and would give off noxious gases. This form would continue for an indefinite time, and be succeeded by one or two new forms. i^These Avere shown on the screen.) One of these new forms would have a single fiagellum, and the other would have two ; and they would move rapidly about and glide continuously over the decomposing matter. They increased very rapidly, one method of increase being by a process of division. In another method two bodies would unite together, and an amoeboid condition ending in the fusion of two forms re- sulting in a sac from whence spore was produced, giving rise to new generations. Their rate of increase was inconceiv- ably rapid, and it was not surprising that the putrid tissue was surrounded b}* a garment of these organisms. They had in all probability their food and suitable conditions for their life produced by the fmictions of theii' predecessors. Then a time came when this form died out, and a very remarkable organism appeared which also invested the putrid matter with a garment oi living organisms ; they stuck to the mass and waved to and fro. These were shown on the screen as they would be seen in the microscope, clus- teriuir roimd the matter. "With this was shown the next ox PUTREFACTIVE ORGANISMS. 91 organism— a most wonderful one. It has a rigid flagellum armed with a hook and a long trailing flagellum. The animal swims about, and when it comes to a piece of decaying tissue, it often anchors itself by the trailing flagellum, which is coiled into a spiral ; then it darts up and down upon the decaying matter. The action of this was shown by a me- chanical slide, the up-and-down motion and the coiling and imcoiling ol the flagellum being seen. These were suc- ceeded by a group which had a rigid flagellum without any hook, and which fastens itself down by means of its trailing flagellum, and hammers the decomposing tissue by throwing itself against it. This process was also shown on the screen by means of a mechanical slide. Dr. Dallinger said that this occurred at about the middle of the putrefactive action, the greater part of which is accomplished by this. The mass now gradually broke up. The next kind, which was also shown on the screen, and its process explained by a mecha- nical slide, has two trailing flagella by which it anchors itself; it then springs up and darts down, and assists the decomposition. At the close of this stage there is little left of the original tissue but some water charged with carbonic acid, and a slight deposit of fragments. Dr. Dallinger said that four j^ears ago he found a new organism which acts as a gleaner, and gathers up the fragments of the debris left by the others. It is armed with six flagella, and swims about in the liquid, and when it comes within a certain distance of the solid remnants twists its middle flagella together, and springs up and down on the debris, removing entirely tiny particles. They move in a most beautifully rhythmic manner up and down. He showed a picture of these on the screen, and also a mechanical slide of a group of three, with their pretty rhythmic action. And thus the organic tissues were broken up into their ultimate elements. 92 ON PUTREFACTIVE ORGANISMS. Dr. Dallinger mentioned that the last form was compara- tively rare, and was more frequent in warmer countries. It was clear, he said, that different climates had definite forms. In conclusion, he said that twenty years ago, when in a state of ill-health, he took to this research, and found all these beauties and a thousand times more ; and he urged those present to take up some field of microscopical research, and seek for the hidden beauties of Nature. They would find much pleasure in the doing of it. They need not be appalled by the high powers he had used ; there were many facts to be found by the help of far lower powers. If they did this they would find that life would have a pleasure it had never known before. A hearty vote of thanks to Dr. Dallinger for his ex- tremely interesting and lucid paper, was proposed by Pro- fessor Lloyd Morgan, and seconded by Dr. Beddoe. The motion was carried by acclamation. Dr. Dallinger briefly replied and the meeting then terminated. )0mc JicmiTrhs 011 J^eto^ragc By albert p. I. COTTERELL, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E. Bead before the Engineering Section^ Oct. IGth, 1888. IN laying this paper before your Societ}^, I feel no apology is needed for the subject dealt with, as the problem of the collection and disposal of the refuse of our communities should, and must always, be a matter of universal popular interest ; whilst the important works consequent upon the fierce light of modern science that has been brought to bear upon the subject, and consequent also upon that essential feature of the nineteenth century — co-operation, have brought it so specially within the domain of the engineer, that it becomes a fit subject for our discussion. I must, however, plead, on account of its vast extent, to being only able to lay a portion of the subject before j^ou. In the first place, I propose to deal only with that refuse matter most liable to decomposition, and to cause injurious effects, commonly called sewage ; and in the second place, to consider only the means of collection and transmission by means of sewers, and not of the final disposal of sewage. "94 some remarks on sewerage systems. Historical. The introduction of drainage systems appears to date from, the commencement of civilization. In many ancient cities, such as Carthage, Jerusalem, Nineveh, and Rome, there were complete systems of sewerage. In Rome, under one of the Tarquins, the Cloaca Maxima was constructed : and, though originally intended for draining the marshes, became afterwards used for the purpose of sewerage, and is -Still used, though some 2,500 years old. Sanitary science was much better known in the time of the Romans than was the case in the succeeding Middle Ages. It is uncertain whether cesspools were ever used in ancient Rome, but in later times they became almost univer- sal ; and, with the decadence in the knowledge of the laws of health, were so carelessly constructed and neglected that they became at last hotbeds of disease, which obliged com- munities to rouse themselves from their lethargy in regard to these matters. The invention of water-closets, and the increasing density of population in various centres, necessi- tated the introduction of sewage works on a much larger scale than previously ; whilst the improved intelligence of the people, and the great advances of science during the present century, have led to a larger amount of public attention being drawn to these matters than had probably ever been the case before. There are some, indeed, who are beginning to doubt whether, in the craze for sanitation, we are not beginning to overstep the bounds of reason, and to conjure up evils where they probably do not exist. Be this as it may, we have now spent millions in England alone on works of sewerage ; and it cannot be doubted that in health at any rate we have so far been benefited. The following statistics, given by Sir Lyon Playfair, conclusively prove this. According to him, the death-rate in London — SOME REMARKS OX SEWERAGE SYSTEMS. 95 in 16G0-79 was 800 per 1,000 ; in 1746-55 „ 35"5 ,, ,, in 1871 ,, 22-G „ „ At the present time it is 18*8 per 1 ,0(30. There are several methods of collecting and disposing of refuse without the use of sewers ; such as, by mixture with dry earth ; by collection in pails, as in Birmingham and in some northern tow^ns ; or in middens or cesspools. The methods with which we have to do are, however, those in which water or air is largely or chiefly introduced as a means of transmission, and special channels or sewers are constructed. We will therefore deal first with the water-carriage system ; second, with the pneumatic or quasi-pneumatic system. Water-Carriage System. The w^ater-carriage system is by far the most popular and universal now in vogue. It is pre-eminently a gravitation system, where water, naturally flowing down specially con- structed courses, conveys away the refuse put into it. Its chief advantages are : — 1st. That it conveys sewage aw^ay quickly, and in the manner least offensive to the eye. 2nd. It requires little looking after. 3rd. By its means the subsoil water may be drained. This is a greater advantage than appears at first sight, as it has been found that the saturation or dryness of the sub- soil has an important bearing on health. It has often happened that the sewers have been badly constructed and are leaky, thus admitting the subsoil water ; and wdiat was originally a defect has turned out to be an advantage through the good effect produced by the permanent lowering of the subsoil water. 06 SOME REMARKS OX SEWERAGE SYSTEMS. But on the other hand are the following disadvantages, i.e. : 1st. It largely increases the quantity of sewage. 2nd. It concentrates the refuse. 3rd. And thus renders it more difficult of disposal. 4th. If the sewer is leaky, it is liable to pollute the sub- soil and any wells in its proximity. The ordinary water-carriage system is divided into two distinct methods, called the Combined and Separate methods of sewerage. In the former, the rainfall is admitted into the sewers ; and in the latter, it is as far as possible ex- cluded and carried off in separate conduits. The greater portion of Bristol has adopted the former method ; but at Westbury-on-Trjmi, where a sewage farm is in operation, it is largely excluded. Where pumping has to be resorted to^ the introduction of rain-water becomes a costly matter, It is scarcely possible, however, to entirely exclude all rainfall without introducing a duplicate system of drains for each house ; and the rain-water falling upon the backyards and roofs therefore often finds its way into sewers. This may be just as well, for rain-water from such parts, especially the first, after a drj^ period, is quite as polluted as ordinary sewage, and only fit for sewers. In some places special apparatus is designed for the purpose of admitting the light rainfalls into the sewers, and allowing the heavier falls to run into the ordinary channels. If the rain-water drainage can be separately provided for^ and the sewer kept only for sewage, it is without doubt much the best plan, es^Decially when the sewage has to be dealt with. At the same time it must not be forgotten that the drainage of the subsoil water is an advantage, and should be provided for if necessary, although the trench which is cut for the sewer often acts as a drain for this purpose outside the sewer. SOME REMARKS ON SEWERAGE SYSTEMS. 97 As a rule, all new sewerage systems are now designed on the separate method, and the old sewers are used for the conveyance of the rainfall into the natural water-courses. A good house-to-house water service, laid on at constant pressure from the mains, is in any case absolutely essential to a saccessful sewerage system. No drain, however well laid, will remain clear unless the sewage is thoroughly diluted with water, and this is never certain of being ob- tained except with a constant supply. A house-to-house service will also do away with the danger of contamination of the drinking water, where this is drawn from wells. This leads us on to the consideration of some of the de- tails of a water-carried sewerage system. The sectional form and dimension of sewers, as well as the materials of which they are constructed, have under- gone important changes from time to time, especially during the last half century. The early sewer works were generally put into the hands of most incompetent workmen, and many sewers were merely old water-courses, into which sewage had already been turned, roughly built up in dry walling, and covered with flat stones. (Several instances of this sort have been found in Bristol.) No attempt was made to render them self-cleansing ; and the consequence was that they became " sewers of deposit," into which men had continually to be sent to dig away the accumulated refuse. For this purpose they were made much larger than was absolutely necessary for the work that thej'- had to do. One old sewer in St. Stephen's Street is nearly 6 feet high. Rough improvements were gralually made, such as arch- ing over top, building invert, etc.; but it is only within the last half-century, under, I believe, the leadership of Mr. J. Phillipps, that sewers were systematically designed H 98 SOME EEMARKS ON SEWERAGE SYSTEMS. with reference to their size, form, and inclination, in order to render them self-cleansing. Their area was largely- reduced, and they were so proportioned that with a minimum flow there should be a minimum wetted perimeter. Tor this purpose the egg-shaped sewer was designed by Mr. Phillips for sewers carrying, or liable to carry, large volumes of sewage. In smaller sewers circular glazed stone-ware or fireclay pipes are generally used, the circular form being stronger to resist a crushing pressure, and the wetted perimeter being only slightly increased above an egg-shaped sewer of the same dimensions. These sewers are now laid down to 9'' and even 6'' and 4" ; but the latter dimension is not recom- mended, the pipe being liable to get blocked. Numerous empirical formulae have been deduced for calculating the velocity and discharge of sewers ; but that, I believe, most generally used is Eytelwein's adopted from Chezy's, which runs, — 7=55^2117 where V= velocity in feet per minute ^=fall in feet per mile , -, ,. 1 ,1 area of cross section. r = hydraulic mean depth = .; — ,; — = , — . •^ length 01 wetted perimeter It will thus be seen that, the fall being constant, V varies directly as the square root of the sectional area, and in- versely as the square root of the wetted perimeter. It is now necessary to find a velocity that will render the sewer self-cleansing. As a rule, a velocity of 2| feet per second, or 150 feet per minute, is generally calculated for in designing sewers. It should be borne in mind in connec- ^tion with this, that the velocity of sewage will be some- what dependent on its purity ; for pure water will flow with less frictional resistance than thick muddy water. SOME REMARKS ON SEWERAGE SYSTEMS. 99 Recently there have been many improvements in the materials of which sewers are constructed. In all brick sewers none but the best bricks should be used, of as dense a character as possible, to prevent absorption of sewage. Glazed fire-bricks are excellent. Glazed hollow fireclay in- vert blocks are often used, and the hollow is utilized as a drain for the subsoil water. In some systems these subsoil drains are specially provided ; but they should be used cautiously, as they may easily become fouled from the sewer, and, if the soil is at all loose, may so dislodge it that a settlement of the sewer may take place. Sewers have been sometimes built up in four or more segmental terra-cotta blocks ; and sometimes the bricks have been previously cemented into segments before being placed in position. More recently, concrete sewers have become popular, and concrete and brick or concrete and pipe sewers combined. They certainly have the advantage of being practically water-tight and very strong. Of pipe sewers, either circular or oval sections can be obtained. The former are to be preferred, as being likely to make the best joint. There are a number of different pipe-joints. One of the best is Stanford's or Phillip's, but the plain collar pipe is by far the most commonly used. Great attention should be paid to the cementing material, as some limes (such as chalk lime) cannot resist the chemical action of the sewage. So far as I am aware, London Port- land cement has proved itself to be most suitable for the purpose, either used neat or mixed with a little sand. A few years ago clay joints were largely used for pipes ; but I trust the day for this unsafe method has gone by. There are times when some clay-jointed sewers may be thoroughly sound; but much more often the clay gets washed out, or rats work through it, and thus ruin the sewer as a water- 100 SOME EEMAEKS ON SEWERAGE SYSTEMS. tight water-way. In some cases, such as passing beneath a house, across streams, or in difficult ground, cast-iron pipes are used, coated inside to prevent rust, and jointed with lead. There is no doubt that this forms a most efficient sewer ; but its cost is rather too heavy for general use. The foundations for sewers sometimes call forth the ingenuity of the engineer. It is most important that the sewer should not shift after being laid in ; and this is often rather difficult to obtain in made ground or in quicksand. The usual methods of forming a foundation are generally adopted, such as planking, or laying faggots and then con- creting above till the concrete find its bearing, etc. „ When the sewer is above or near the surface of the ground, piles are sometimes used. The other details of construction of sewers, such as tun- nelling, trenching, running under heavy buildings, etc., need not be gone into here, as they are common to all engineering works, and have already been partially considered by this Society. In two places in Bristol, and in many other towns, we have to cross the water ; and the sewers are carried in in- verted siphons laid in the bottom of the river-bed. They are composed of cast-iron pipes with ball and socket joints ; and, being laid with ample fall from inlet to outlet, have never caused any trouble. With the inauguration of smaller sewers, special means of inspection became necessary. This is provided for by manholes, and sometimes lampholes placed alternately upon the line of sewer. In order to afford ready inspection, Mr. (now Sir) Robert Rawlinson (a Bristol man) introduced the method of laying sewers in straight lines between manholes and lampholes, and giving the necessary curves in the floors of the inspec- SOME REMARKS ON SEWERAGE SYSTEMS. 101 tion chambers. A lamp can then be hung in the lamphole, and the man in the manhole can see whether the sewer is clear. In large sewers where men can enter, these straight lines are not necessary. Manholes and lampholes are often used as ventilators now-a-days, and it is then usual to give the sewer a slight drop at that spot, in order to guide an ascending current of air upwards as much as possible. Where gradients are steep these bays are useful in checking the velocity, which would otherwise cause undue wear ; but as it has been found by experiment that wher- ever splashing occurs foul air is generated, I am doubtful if these bays, especially at ventilators, do not do more harm than good. In addition to manholes, since the introduction of smaller bore sewers, inspection pipes are placed at short intervals of about 100 feet, fitted with movable caps or tops. In case of stoppage these can be opened, and cleansing rods passed through without disturbing the remainder of the sewer. This brings us to another important point, and that is, provision for flushing. This matter might not be so necessary if all sewers were designed and laid out by the formulae already quoted — to give a velocity of 150 feet per minute. But it must be remembered that the flow of sewage is often so variable that there is an insufficient quantity to produce the minimum velocity, and that this velocity of 150 feet per minute will not suffice to remove very heavy material, such as road-stones and other heavy articles which sometimes (but should not) find their way into the sewers. Therefore it is best, for safety's sake, to provide means of flushing ; i.e.^ means of artificially in- creasing the velocity. This can be done either by storing up the sewage itself and letting it go with a rush, or by storing water in tanks and letting it suddenly into the 102 SOME REMARKS ON SEWERAGE SYSTEMS. sewer. The author inclines to the latter method, because during the process of storing the sewage there is a diminu- tion of the velocity and necessarily a depesition, which is not likely to be all washed away when the sewage is allowed to go. The sewage is sometimes stored by self-acting gates, which open when it reaches a certain height, or by sluices or penstocks placed in the manholes and lifted by the flushing men. There are several ingenious forms of self- acting flushing apparatus ; the most notable and, in my opinion, the most reliable, being Field's self-acting siphon. I have repeatedly tested these, and found them, when properly fixed, unfailing. The whole secret of success lies in the insertion of an annular ring, through which the smallest dribble of liquid is sufficient to set the siphon in action. It is interesting to notice how thoroughly these siphons do their work when used in tanks. The sewers through which the flush has passed look as if they had been clean swept with a brush. In order to render flushing efiicient, it should take place often, and before any deposit has time to harden. The velocity of discharge of the siphon will be pro- portional to the nett length of the discharge leg less the depth of the surface of the water in tank below the top of the leg. As the tank empties this will therefore vary. Taking a 5|" discharge leg 3' 6" long, and reaching 10|" below the bottom of tank, and using the theoretic formula for falling bodies, V= \/2gs, the initial theoretical V will be 15 feet per second, and the final F7*5 feet per second; average, 11*25 feet per second, or 675 feet per minute. This does not allow for friction of the air and in the pipe ; but as the action of the siphon tends to form a vacuum, the former will be nil, and the length of pipe is so small SOME REMAEKS ON SEWERAGE SYSTEMS. 103 that a 5 per cent, reduction will probably cover the latter. This gives an average theoretical velocity of about G41 feet per minute, and an average discharge of about 105"8 cubic feet per minute, which entering a 9' sewer laid at a gradient of 1 in 100, would fill it nearly full, and maintain a velocity of 240 feet per minute, sufficient to remove broken stones and road detritus. In practice, however, this discharge is not quite so great, as it takes an appreciable time after the water begins to flow over the lip of the siphon before it bursts into full action ; and again, the velocity is largely checked by the weir into which the siphon dips. In a practical observation on a 1,000 gallon tank, erected by the author at Redruth, with a 5|" discharge leg, and a nett quantity of 154 cubic feet of water within reach of the siphon, the time taken to discharge from the first dribble over the annular ring was 3J minutes, giving an average discharge of 44 cubic feet per minute. When at the height the flush three-quarters filled a 9" pipe laid at a gradient of 1 in 40, which would give a discharge of about 120 cubic feet per minute. In most sewer systems of the present day, but not all, ven- tilators are in use, so as to give free communication between the external air and the sewer. These ventilators have long been a bone of contention. At one time they were almost uni- versally in the shape of gratings at the level of the streets ; but in many places they are now carried up above the noses of the public in pipes or shafts. In Carlisle the sewers are connected with many of the factory chimneys, which form powerful upcast shafts. It must be remembered, however, that, owing to friction in the sewer, the area of their in- fluence is not so large as we should theoretically suppose. A very promising, though apparently expensive form of 104 SOME EEMARKS ON SEWERAGE SYSTEMS. ventilator^ is Keeling^s, which, by a gas-Jet burning in a lamp-post, both induces a current and burns much of the foul air. Cowls have often been placed on ventilating shafts to regulate the air currents, with more or less success. In connection with these, flaps are often used to divide sewers into sections, and also to prevent wind draughts through them. With regard to all ventilators, it is necessary to remem- ber, that to be eiBcient they must be of ample sectional area, equal, or nearly equal, to the area of the sewer which they ventilate. So far I have endeavoured to describe an ordinary gravi- tation system of sewerage. It often happens that on account of levels it is impossible to deliver the sewage at the outfall without recourse to pumping. Of pumps there is almost every conceivable variety in use, from the steam-direct acting pump to the hydraulic engine. One of the latest designs is Shone^s Pneumatic Ejector, which will be touched upon hereafter. So far, the most economical, where the flow of sewage does not vary to a very large degree, is the direct-acting steam-pump (^^e., with steam cylinder piston working direct into the pump baiTel), in which the valves are made specially large and get-at-able, so as to be able to pass or clear any large and coarse substance. In all such cases, however, it is found necessary to pass the sewage through a screen, to remove all the larger sub- stances ; and it is understood that the pump has a sufficient quantity of sewage to raise to enable it to work at its greatest efficiency. It is easy to arrive at the probable quantity of sewage per twenty -four hours, especially if the population be provided with a systematic water supply ; but it is generally found that of this quantity about one-half flows off during six hours of the morning, and that the flow SOME REMARKS ON SEWERAGE SYSTEMS. 105 is mucli the least at night. A sump, or an enlarged outfall sewer, is thus requisite, in which the sewage may be stored until there is sufficient to put the pumps to work upon. These storage sewers and tanks are often provided when the outfall is not at all times available, such as on a sewer gravitating into the sea, where the outflow may for several hours be prevented by the tide. In such cases it is usual to close the sewer by a penstock, and let the sewage accumu- late until the tide falls sufficiently to allow of its escape. We have a good example of a storage sewer in the 8-foot sewer down Coronation Road, which was designed to inter- cept nearly all the sewage that now flows into the Avon on both sides, and store it during high-water. At best these elongated cesspools are bad things, as they mean the accu- mulation of decomposing sewage just where everything de- mands its rapid transmission. Pneumatic System. Air has been brought in to assist in the carriage of sewage by several inventors. The only two inventions that have been carried into practical effect, so far as I am aware, are those of (1) Capt. Liernar and (2) Isaac Shone. Capt. Liemur's method comprises the laying of cast-iron air-tight mains, creating a vacuum at regular intervals in them by means of a large air-pump at some central station, and thus drawing the sewage along. The mains are laid with short steep inclines and long flatter declines, down which the sewage may gravitate. Special house-fittings are also used. This system does not seem to have spread be- yond Holland, where the excessive flatness no doubt renders it convenient to be independent of gravitation as the chief agent toward motion. But there are several serious draw- backs which quite account for its limited use. 106 SOME REMARKS ON SEWERAGE SYSTEMS. Firstly. It is inconvenient and unhealthy to be obliged to retain sewage in the house or receptacle until stated times, instead of removing it directly. Secondly. There is great liability to break down. (It is imperative to keep the whole apparatus as air-tight as possible.) Thirdly. As it is impossible to guarantee an absolutely air-tight apparatus, it is necessarily a costly system with regard to the work done. Fourthly. It requires special fittings in the houses. Fifthly. It deals only with a portion, and with the more solid portion, of the sewage, such as that from water-closets, leaving a large quantity of liquid sewage to be still dealt with by ordinary means. The other method of utilizing air has only been in exist- ence about twelve years, and is the invention of Isaac Shone. Mr. Shone calls it a new system — the hydro-pneu- matic ; but it is properly simply a modification of a gravita- tion system, in which patent automatic ejectors, worked by compressed air, are introduced for lifting the sewage at various points, and thus avoiding the necessity of flat sewers of deposit, where the lie of the ground does not admit of proper falls by gravitation. In this there is no doubt that Shone's apparatus is a distinct advance in the healthy drainage of towns. Engineers have often been hampered, and costly drainage systems spoilt, by the im- possibility, without enormous expense, of obtaining by simple gravitation, either to an outfall or to a pumping station, a sufficient velocity to render the sewers much better than elongated cesspools, always giving off foul odours, and always needing attention. The Shone system may be shortly stated as follows : — The usual stoneware pipe sewers are laid gravitating and SOME REMARKS ON SEWERAGE SYSTEMS. 107 converging to various stations, which are placed at the lowest convenient points with reference to the general level of the ground. At each station the sewage is received into a Shone ejector, worked by compressed air, which pumps it along cast-iron mains under pressure to the outfall. These ejectors are, therefore, the distinctive features of the " system," so-called. The sewage is delivered through a cast-iron main into the cylindrical vessel. In the delivery-pipe is a box con- taining a lignimi vitce spherical ball, which falls below its seat when the ejector is filling and rises tight against it when discharging. To the bottom of the ejector the discharge- pipe is fixed, and contains a similar ball, which falls down tight on its seat when the ejector is filling and rises when it is discharging. At some central station the air-com- pressing engines are placed, and a cast-iron air-main is led to each ejector. The compressed air here enters a cylinder in which works a slide valve, which, as it moves to and fro, enables the compressed air to enter the cylindrical vessel into which the sewage is flowing. Inside the cylindrical vessel are a cup and bell upon an iron spindle, which is continued through a stuffing-box in the top of the ejector and connected to the slide valve. The action is as follows : As the sewage flows into the ejector it compresses the air in the bell, causing at last sufficient pressure to lift the spindle. This moves the slide-valve, and immediately ad- mits the compressed air into the ejector, which, closing the inlet ball against its seat and driving the outlet ball above its seat, forces the sewage up the discharge-pipe. "When the sewage has fallen low enough in the ejector, the weight of the cup and ball and the sewage remaining in the cup, pulls down the spindle, closes the air inlet port, and the ejector begins to fill again. This process goes on con- tinually, and perfectly automatically, so long as there is 108 SOME EEMAEKS OK SEWERAGE SYSTEMS. any sewage to eject and compressed air to eject it. It works at any speed, according to the time the sewage takes to fill it and to the amount of air-compression working it. The advantages gained by the use of these ejectors are thus stated by their promoters : — First. Small sewers at good inclinations, at no great depth, mostly above the subsoil water-level, discharging the sewage into an ejector, where it becomes effectually trapped. Second. The rapid transit of sewage into an ejector before decomposition sets in. Third. Reduced cost for flushing, on account of having smaller sewers. Fourth. Freeiom from bad smells emanating from man- holes ; for the cubic capacity of the sewers being small, the volume of air in contact with sewage is proportionately small. Fifth. Less risk of spreading contagious diseases, as each drainage district is independent of another. Sixth. Facility for extension, irrespective of levels. On the other hand, we have to set — First. The annual cost of working. This must un- doubtedly be greater than for a pure gravitation system, though no doubt it compares favourably with any systems in which all the sewage is collected at one point, and pumped from a greater depth than would be the case if it were intercepted in several places, as is done with Shone's ejectors. Second. The loss of power due to the use of compressed air, such as the heat generated during compression, and which passes away without doing useful work ; and the leakage and friction in the engines and mains conveying the power to the ejectors. "With regard to the first of these objections, — what is really SOME EEMAEKS ON SEWERAGE SYSTEMS. 109 the exact cost of lifting sewage by ejectors is not generally known, no details having ever, to my knowledge, been published. It is stated, however, in a paper read last year before the Society of Engineers by Mr. Ault (Mr. Shone's partner), that the usual effect obtained from the ejector when using air at a pressure of 11 lbs. per square inch is 58 per cent, of the I.H.P. of the driving engine (in this case an Atkinson gas-engine). The 77 of a good centrifugal pump is about ... 52 per cent. „ „ „ direct-acting steam-pump for water is about ... ... 88 per cent. An average yj for a good direct-acting steam sewage pump would probably be about QQ per cent., so that where pumping is necessary the ejector appears to be a little less economical than a steam-pump. Of course, also, where a system de- pends on gravitation only, and the sewers are so flat as to be sewers of deposit, a great set-off to the expense of ejec- tion is the reduction in cost of cleansing the sewers, and their improved sanitary condition consequent upon better gradients. With regard to the second objection — The estimated loss due to compression (iso- thermal) is about ... ... ... ... 31 per cent. The estimated loss due to leakage and fric- tion in engines, mains, and ejectors ... 11 per cent. Total ... ... ... 42 per cent. This loss, however, compares favourably with that in other classes of pumps ; and it has been found that when the air is not compressed to more than 40 lbs. per square inch, the leakage and friction in the mains is not so large as to form a serious item of loss. 110 SOME REMAEKS ON SEWERAGE SYSTEMS. A great deal has been claimed by Mr. Shone for his sys- tem which in reality is not due to it, but is held in common by all good gravitation separate systems ; such as the first three advantages I have stated. This has raised prejudice against his apparatus ; but there is no doubt that under certain conditions, when it is impossible to obtain self- cleansing sewers by gravitation only, it is most useful, and in some cases even economical. Concentration. There is another point in favour of Shone's system of numerous ejectors, in that it is not necessary to collect the sewage at one point. Concentration may be both an evil and an advantage ; but I fear that in most cases it is the former. The present experience with the drainage of London, which is emptied into the Thames at two points. Barking and Crossness, is an illustration of the trouble caused by the accumulation at one point of large quantities of putrefying matter. The trouble of dealing with sewage so as to pre- vent a nuisance is at all times great enough ; but it becomes doubly great where one district is made the receptacle for the refuse matter of many others. It may of course be claimed that the other districts are the better off in conse- quence— and so they may be, provided the sewers do not take upon themselves the vocation of ventilating flues, to draw the foul gases from the scape-goat district into those of its more fortunate brethren; but I am of opinion that trouble would often be saved, even if the establishment charges were rather higher, if sewage could be delivered and dealt with at several points instead of at one. The city of Berlin, with its population of over 1,000,000, disposes of its sewage by pumping it over several farms SOME REMARKS ON SEWER AQE SYSTEMS. Ill near Berlin ; and, in a letter recently written by the Chair- man of the Sewage Committee, does so without complaint and at a profit. Ventilation. One of the most vexed points of late years with regard to all water-carriage systems is that of ventilation. 1. Whether it is absolutely necessary. 2. How it is to be accomplished. At present the pro-ventilationists undoubtedly hold the field, though there are some notable and successful excep- tions, such as Bristol, to the general rule. Mr. B. Latham an authority on sewerage, lays it down that all sewers must be ventilated by free communication with the out- side air. This rule has been generally followed ; but — partly on account of the fault previously mentioned, of sewers so fiat that they are sewers of deposit, and partly, no doubt, through bad workmanship, which causes accu- mulation of decomposing matter — these ventilators have been a continual bugbear to the public and a thorn in the flesh to the engineer. That a systematic ventilation of sewers, by means of shafts communicating freely with the open air, is not abso- lutely a necessity, is proved by their non-use in Bristol, and the city's excessively low death-rate. It is not of course likely that the Bristol sewers are absolutely without any air currents • but the internal and external air have not designedly any free communication. In providing ventilators, the necessity for the presence of gas in sewers is taken for granted ; but sewer gas being the product of decomposing matter, it follows that the more quickly such decomposing matter is taken away, the less will sewer gas be formed. Ventilation is therefore clearly dependent on the construction of the sewer. A sewer badly 112 SOME REMARKS ON SEWERAGE SYSTEMS. constructed, so that sewage is obstructed in its free pas- sage, will have more sewer gas in it than one in which the obstructions are reduced to a minimum. Hence the utility of a perfectly smooth surface and of a small wetted peri- meter. Again, if a sewer be laid at so flat a gradient that there cannot be a self-cleansing velocity, an accumulation of foul matter must follow, and consequently an accumulation of sewer gas. Flushing with large quantities of sewage or water has been requisitioned, to improve the velocity and to clear out the holes and corners where foul matter has collected, and with very great success ; but it is chiefly because so many existing sj'stems are faulty in these particulars that the accumulation of gas has been so troublesome. As it was impossible, except at great expense, to prevent the cause, the only way appeared to be to reduce the evil by so thoroughly diluting the foul sewer air with fresh air that the gas would be rendered harmless. It has, therefore, been the approved policy to place a free-air opening into the sewer at each manhole and lamphole ; at first by placing gratings at the street surface, and latterly by erecting special shafts in which an artificial draught is induced, such as by a furnace or gas burners. If a smell is complained of as coming through the man- hole, the reply is, that the sewer air must be still further diluted by a larger number of openings. In all this the aim has been, not so much to eradicate the cause, as to mini- mize the evil eflects. In a paper read last year before the Sanitary Institute by Mr. J. S. Haldane, upon the Air of Sewers and Buildings, a great deal of new light is thrown upon the eflects of ventilation. He had been making a series of careful obser- SOME REMARKS OX SEWERAGE SYSTEMS. 113 vations upon the amount of COo and the number of micro- organisms contained, firstly, in the air of various domestic and public buildings, and secondly, in both ventilated and unventilated sewers, choosing for his example of the latter the sewers of Bristol. In the first place, he brings out the fact that, though sewer air, in a ventilated sewer, contains about twice as much COo per litre than does the outside air, it contains less micro-organisms. vSecondly, that the air of a ventilated sewer contains four or five times as many micro-organisms as an unventilated sewer, and that the amount of CO^ in the unventilated sewer was surprisingly small as compared with what the subsoil air at the same depth probably contained. From these observations he remarks: '' I think there is a strong case from the sewer point of view against outside air. It is evidently, as a rule, the outside air which contaminates the sewer air with micro-organisms, and not the other way. The results of these researches will perhaps tend to miti- gate some of the terror with which we have come to regard sewer air. Sewer air has commonly been supposed to be ''loaded" with micro-organisms, whereas it turns out to be, in reality, some of the freest air from micro-organisms that can be found." We do not yet fully understand the functions of the various micro-organisms found in air and water, so that we cannot yet tell whether a large number of micro-organisms per litre shows the air to have been injuriously polluted. The above remarks and experiments, however, seem to jjoint in the direction of avoiding the free ventilation of sewers by contact with currents of fresh air. Apparently the erection of simple vents to prevent any undue pressure of sewer gas— should such be found— ought to be quita I 114 SOME REMARKS ON SEWERAGE SYSTEMS. sufficient ; or if, instead of the present open ventilators, openings were formed in the top of sewers communicating only with the subsoil, an inexpensive vent would be pro- vided, without having to pollute the air we breathe. Objection might be raised to this suggestion, that the ground air would be polluted, and the polluted air would be sucked up by the heat of fires, etc., into the houses. But care is of course implied, in forming free openings into the sewers in whatever mode they are constructed, and the same would apply to this. Sewer gas is chiefly composed of carbonic acid gas, sulphuretted hydrogen, and ammonia. The former, which is much heavier than air, already exists in the subsoil to ten times the amount, and the two latter are lighter than air, and will rise ; but in rising through the subsoil they will have ample opportunity of filtration and dilution before they reach the surface. In addition — given a properly constructed sewer — the amount of sewer gas is comparatively small, and much of the gas will remain in the sewer. ♦ With these remarks, I would leave my subject. Although so much has been accomplished during the last half-century, it clearly cannot by any means be claimed that we have yet arrived at perfection in our systems of sewerage. Our views are continually altering with experience, so that methods that were popular a few years ago are almost discarded now, and we lay them down to grasp improved ones. I have therefore endeavoured to describe the practice of the present day, with the steps that have led to it, and to indicate the points from which it appears to me fresh departures may be made toward that perfection which is the ultima thiilc of every branch of engineering. I^trbs ^t^ljxbitetr at ^le^tmgs. GREAT Grey Shrike (Lanius Exaibltor) was shot at Abbot's Leigh in December, 1888. This species, which has its home in the north of France and in Germany, is a frequent visitor to the Eastern Counties, but occurs only as a rare straggler in the West. The two other speci- mens shown were both shot at Clevedon ; one in the autumn of 1888, and one in the previous year. Pallas' Sand Grouse {Syrrhojjtes paradoxus). Out of the large numbers of this singular bird which have visited this country during 1888, only four occurred in our district, one at Yate and two at Hambrook (Glouc), and one at Ken Moor, near Yatton (Somt.). It is twenty-five j^ears since an in'uption of this species occurred in this country (in 1863), when a great many were obtained in various counties, but none in our vicinity. All four specimens were shot during the month of July. Puffin {Mormon fvatercuUi), This bird, evidently quite fi young one, was caught at Cheddar, driven inland by some accident. It was probably a straggler from Lundy Island, where this species breeds. The Bell Bird {Chasmarhyndius carunculatus\ from Demerara, This singular bird is remarkable for its note, which resembles the tolling of a bell, and also for the curious appendage growing from the base of the bill, in the shape of a fleshy horn, 2 or 2| inches in length, which hangs alongside of the bill when the bird is at rest, but stands erect when the bird is excited. The use or purpose of this extraordinary organ remains quite unexplained, 115 #it % iperapli0ns of ^nhnals. By Prof. C. LLOYD MOKGAI^T. Read March 1th, 1889. Abstract. THIS paper was in continuation of a previous com- munication on senses and sense organs. Some account was given of the psycliolog}^ of perception, and of the dis- tinction between perception and conception. The main distinction was found to lie in the fact that conceptual processes involved analysis. It was held that there was- no evidence to justify lis in supposing that the brutes are capable of analysing the phenomena of nature. Their mental operations are probably confined within the sphere of per- ception. Defining inference as the passing of the mind from something immediately given to something not given, but suggested through association and experience, three stages of inference were marked out : (1) habitual inference on immediate perception; (2) intelligent inference in the l>erceptual sphere ; and (3), rational inference, implying analysis (conceptual). The inferences of animals were habitual and intelligent, but not rational. BefQre taking leave of the subject, the writer was anxious IIG ON THE PERCEPTIONS OF ANIMALS. 117 ihat it should not be thought that, in contending that intelligence was not reason, he wished in any way to -disparage intelligence — nine-tenths of the actions of average men were intelligent but not rational. There were hundreds -and thousands of practical men who were in the highest ■degree intelligent, but in whom the rational faculty was but little developed. Was it, he asl^ed, any injustice to the brutes to contend that their inferences were of the same order as those of these excellent practical folk? In any case, no injustice was intended. If he denied them self- consciousness and reason, he granted to the higher animals perceptions of marvellous acateness and intelligent in- ferebcs of wonderful accuracy and precision. ^otf s on il^t Maler-alls of tl^e By G. MUNRO smith, L.R.C.P. Lend., M.R.C.S. Abstract of Paper read Jan. 3rdj 1889. SINCE the time when Abraham's servant made his- camels kneel down at the end of their day's journey^, outside the city of Haran, every record of these animals speaks of them as being in a state of servitude. For thou- sands of years they have been the " beneficent ships of the desert," travelling with little food and less water over hot and dry sandy regions. We should, therefore, expect them to be specially qualified for this kind of work, and that their natural qualifications would be improved by long custom.. We find the former, at all events, to be the case ; their feet are broad and well-fitted for walking on shifting ground. They are wonderfully hardy, bearing fatigue well, and requiring only the commonest vegetable food ; their eyes- are protected by the prominent overhanging eyebrows from the glare of the sun ; they have in their humps a store of fat which they can use as a reserve fund during their en- forced periods of abstinence ; and they have, as the specimen 118 WATEK-CELLS OF THE CAMEL'S STOMACH. 119 shown illustrates, an arrangement by which water may be stored up in their stomachs. This last peculiarity has, however, been denied. Pro- fessor Macalister says : " The second stomach of the camel has deep cells or compartments, which has given origin to the fable about the capacity of camels to store water in their stomachs." Professor Huxley, however, in his "Anatomy of Verte- brated Animals," writes as follows : " The oesophagus opens directly into the paunchy which is lined by a smooth, not papillose epithelial coat. From its walls at least two sets of diverticula with comparatively narrow mouths are devel- oped. These, the so-called water-cells, serve to strain off from the contents of the paunch and to retain in store a considerable quantity of water.^^ This account seems quite accurate ; it is the first, not the second, stomach which has these cavities in its walls, and it is certainly not a fable that water can be drained off into them. Whether they have been developed in the process of evolution to fit the animal for its long periods of drought, or whether they serve some other purpose, I cannot say ; but the first hypothesis seems to me quite reasonable. There is abundant evidence of the power of the camel to go for a long time without water whilst doing hard work. Pliny remarks that they can go four days together without drink (without apparent suffering) ; Burckhardt and other travellers also bear witness to this. Professor Owen, in his " Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrates," gives a clear description of these cells, with a good illustration, and is of the opinion that they can retain water, '* as in a reservoir, for some days." The specimen shown was taken from a camel that was killed at the Zoological Gardens. The paunch was found 120 WATEK-CELLS OF THE CAMEL's STOMACH. to be enormously distended with food, and these cavities — of which there must have been fifty or sixty — contained a grumous fluid. The stomach wall was from two to three inches thick in some parts, rather thinner in others ; and the orifices of the water-cells were constricted, forming a kind of 'sphincter. The lining epithelium was smooth. Micro- scopically, the muscular coat consisted of masses of long^ unstriped muscular fibres, with indistinct nuclei. ixtgigestmns as to tl^t €mmB of ll^c §xi$mmt in tk Colour ktfoti^n lb e fiaktXB Vina ^alm^t ai ^xa^ml By CHARLES JECKS. Mead December Wi, 1888. MR. WALLACE has stated, in his "Malay Archipelago," that the colour of the flowers, and by implication that of the foliage, generally is not so brilliant in tropical ^s in temperate climates. Now it is true that these state- ments are quite at variance with those generally believed concerning the flora of tropical climates ; but coming from the source they do, we can scarcely, I think, dispute their •accuracy. Indeed, if the question be examined, the result will, I think, be found, in accordance with the above ■assertion, as only what might naturally be expected under tropical conditions. The idea of brilliant colour appertaining especially to tropical flowers seems, Mr. Wallace remarks, to have arisen partly from the fact that in this country tropical plants ^re generally grown in conservatories, where they are perhaps exposed to abnormal conditions of light, and also 121 122 DIFFERENCE IN COLOUR OF FLOWERS AND FOLIAGE. that our tropical plants are collected from regions widely separated from each other. It would indeed seem that while the tropical regions are far richer in the production of vegetable forms, so far as regards brilliancy of colour we have the advantage ; that is, the vegetation of temperate is more brilliant in hue than that of tropical regions. As probable causes for this state of things in tropical climates may be assigned greater general richness of soil and amoimt of moisture in the air, as opposed to the generally poorer soil and drier atmosphere, together perhaps with the gi-eater amount of sunlight, in temperate regions. In our own climate, for instance, under the conditions of a clear blue sky, plenty of sunlight, a light soil and a dry season, the colour of the flowers is naturally more brilliant than it is under conditions of an opposite character. The perhaps greater number of brilliant coloured flowers in our climate may be in part accounted for by the visits of insects to different flowers ; for whenever a flower shows any tendency to vary in the direction of brilliancy of colour, it is probably visited by them, and its propagation ensured by the transmission of the pollen to another plant, the tendency to brilliancy of colour being increased by heredity, and further confirmed by suitable conditions of gi^owth, etc. In connection with this subject, the question suggests itself: Do cultivated plants come under the same law as wild animals in a state of confinement ? We know that in some cases wild animals are not so fertile in confinement as when free, and it would seem that a certain degree of change is thus produced in the genera- tive organs inducing partial sterility ; there seem.s also some reason to believe that, as a plant tends to vary, so does it suffer in its fertility. The cultivation of plants often pro- DIFFERENCE IN COLOUR OF FLOWERS AND FOLIAGE. 125 duces variation, and this probably often means with such plants an increase in brilliancy of colour in the flowers, which would thus seem to be at least correlated with the tendency to infertility above-noted. The same suggestions as to infertility may, I think, be applied to wild flowers gi'owing on different soils and under different conditions; but here the tendency to decrease infertility may perhaps be in some measure counteracted by the intercrossing of different species by the visits of insects. Coming now to foliage, I think that we shall find the conditions above-named as probably affecting the colour of flowers have here also had a proportionate effect, the foliage of tropical climates being generally of a deeper hue than that of temperate regions. Indeed, the farther we recede from both tropics, north and south, the more as a general rule do we find this to be the case, the more does the lighter hue predominate. The causes which tend to produce this difference of hue in the foliage are then, I believe, much the same as in the case of flowers. The comparative absence of sunlight, a warm, damp atmosphere, and a comparatively rich soil, tend to produce a deeper hue in both foliage and flowers, as an abundance of sunlight, a cool, dry atmosphere, and a com- paratively poor soil are more favourable to a brighter colour. In conclusion, taking it for granted that we have good reason for believing that in tropical regions a brilliant colour in flowers and a light hue in foliage is the exception, and the reverse the rule, while in more temperate regions a more brilliant hue in flowers and a lighter one in foliage is the rule, and the reverse the exception, I trust that I have been able to throw a little light upon the possible causes of these phenomena. Clje ManIj0usht0 0f (iraim By JOHN M. McCUERICH, M.A., A.M.I.C.E. Read before the Engin, Sect,, March 19, 1889. A S this country is deriving, in an increasing degree, its •*--^ supplies of grain from abroad, the question of the best methods for its removal from ships and its storage in gi^an- aries is one of great importance. The following tables show liow the importation of grain and flour is increasing : — Quantities of Grain and Flour Imported into the United Kingdom in Cwts. Average of two years, Average of five years, Increase 1867-1868. 1883-1887. per cent. Wheat . 33,642,669 . . 55,236,395 . . 64 Barley . 6,580,723 . . 14,546,741 . . 121 Oats . . . . 8,759,849 . 13,812,954 . . 58 Maize 10,006,327 . 13,045,049 . . 30 •Otlier kinds . 4,085,807 . . 5,809,284 . . 42 Flour of Wheat . 3,342,995 . 16,002,050 . . 380 Flour of other kinds 92,615 . 828,103 . . 794 Taking the average of the quantity of wheat imported for the years 1883-1887, and calling the amount from the United States 100, India would be represented by 40, Russia by 31, Canada by 9, and Chili and German}'^ by about 7 each. 124 THE WAREHOUSING OF GRAIN. 125 During the same years the average amount of grain that came to the principal ports was as follows, the amount being in cwts. :— Wheat. Barley. Oats. Maize. Total, lionclon . . 11,461,026 2,197,124 9,331,458 3,533,321 26,522,929 Liverpool . 15,895,198 339,944 168,960 8,329,874 24,733,476- Hull . . . 5,472,641 1,660,386 742,036 1,600,892 9,475,955 Bristol . . 3,301,954 3,190,517 191,600 2,028,898 8,712,961^ Glasgow comes next with a total of a little over five millions, and Dublin and Leitli follow with about 3| millions each. It will be seen that Bristol stands far ahead of any- other port as regards barley. Grain chiefly comes in bulk ; but from India, Australia, South America, and California it comes in sacks. Until a comparatively recent date, the usual way of getting grain into a grain warehouse or granary, was by men carry- ing the grain in sacks to a hoist or jigger, by means of which it was raised to the various floors. The same method was usually adopted to get it out of the building, but sometimes the sacks were slid down inclined shoots. It was, however, found that, where large quantities of grain had to be dealt with, such a process was both slow and costly. Somewhat over twenty years ago, when the design of the two large [grain warehouses at Liverpool and Birkenhead was under consideration, great attention was directed to- wards ascertaining the best means pf conveying the grain horizontally from one part of the warehouse to another, and for that purpose a number of interesting experiments were made. The following particulars regarding the Liverpool warehouses are mostly taken from a paper read to the Institution of Mechanical Engineers by Mr. Westmacott, of Sir W. Armstrong & Co. The first trials were made with a revolving screw, 12 126 THE WAREHOUSING OF GRAIN, inches diameter and 4 inches pitch, made in lengths of about 12 feet from bearing to bearing, the space between the «crew and the fixed casing in which it revolved being J inch. At 60 revolutions per minute, which was found to be the maximum effective speed, the screw discharged the grain at the rate of 6| tons per hour, and required 0-04 horse power for every foot run. The sectional area of the body of grain propelled was 49 per cent, of the whole trans- verse area of the screw. Subsequent experiments were made with screws contained in revolving casings. A 12- inch screw constructed in that way when driven at 36 revolutions per minute, delivered 10 tons of wheat per hour. When driven at a high rate of speed, the grain was simply "Carried round and not propelled forward at all. The best results were obtained with a pitch of f ths of the diameter. However, the great power required to drive screws with revolving casings proved an insuperable objection to their use. Bands made of canvas were then tried, and afterwards bands made of india-rubber and canvas. It was found that for light grain 8 feet per second was the maximum rspeed, and that for heavy grain about 9 feet was the maximum. With 12-inch bands 35 tons per hour could be carried, and with 18-inch bands a maximum of 70 tons per hour was obtained. Comparing the amount of power required to convey a stream of grain at the rate of 50 tons per hour through a distance of 100 feet by means of the common screw in stationary casing, the tubular screw with revolving casing, and the travelling band 18 inches wide, the following results were obtained : — "With the common screw .... 18-38 h.p. „ tubular „ . . . . '2o-00 ,, „ 18-inch travelling band . . 1-02 ,, THE WAREHOUSING OF GRAIN. 127 The great superiority of the band over the screw as regards economy of power, was thus clearly shown. The band was also shown to have another important advantage. When the screw was used, injury was done to the grain by the revolving blades ; but the grain, when carried by bands, sustained no such injury. To get grain from the vessels into the warehouse, it is raised out of the ship's hold to the top of the building by means of cranes and bucket elevators, taking about a ton at each lift, and it is then discharged into hoppers, weighed, and, by a system of horizontal bands and vertical shoots, conveyed to various parts of the building. Portable cup and band elevators are now also used for the same pur- pose. The two grain warehouses referred to belong to the Mersey Dock Board, and were designed by Mr. Lyster, the Docks Engineer. Both buildings are of great capacity. The one at Waterloo Dock has a floor area available for the storage of grain of 48,918 yards, which, at four quarters per yard, would give a storage capacity of 19G,000 quarters. The other, at the Great Float, Birkenhead, has a storage capacity of about an equal amount. At the Birkenhead granaries there are in addition 4G silos, each 6 feet square and 40 feet in height. Each of these silos is fitted with a central air funnel, IG inches in diameter, made of perforated sheet iron. Air is forced up these funnels by means of fans, and, escaping through the perforations, it thoroughly venti- lates the grain. These silos are used for grain which arrives in bad condition. All the machinery of these warehouses is worked by hydraulic power. In the United States of America, bands, or belts as they are called there, are greatly used. At Duluth there are a number of large granaries, and belts are used on a more 128 THE WAREHOUSINO OF GRAIN". extensive scale than at any other place. One of the belts- travels 11 feet a second, and carries abont 330 tons per hour. It is a combination of band and bag. At the sides there are india-rubber belts 7 inches wide, with a piece of canvas between them, the total width being 3 feet. The canvas bags down 4 J inches in the centre, the amount being regulated by curved iron cross-bars, Ij inches by J inch, rivetted every 4 feet between the rubber edges. Another belt has a still greater capacity, and travels at the rate of 13 feet per second. At London, the chief centres for the importation of grain are the Millwall Docks and the Surrey Commercial Docks. At the former as much as 35,000 quarters have been un- loaded in one day. There are several features of interest in connection with the unloading and storage of grain at the Millwall Docks, some of the systems adopted being found nowhere else. Special railway trucks have been made for the storage and delivery of grain, each truck holding about 100 quarters, equal to somewhat over 20 tons of wheat. They are made without springs, and cost about £50 each : about 1,000 have been provided. The grain is raised from the ship's hold by tubs, which are filled by men with light iron buckets called " bushels." The tub holds five quarters- fully, and the author noted the time that five men took to fill one, and found that it was about one minute on an average. The tubs are raised by cranes and landed on the tops of "bins." The outer rim rests upon supports, and the bottom of the tub, which is supported by the crane chain, falls a short distance by gravitation and allows the grain to escape into a large hopper on the top of the " bin." In the bottom of the hopper there are a number of shoots with slide valves, and under these are a number of small weighing machines which are attended by a weigher. These THE WAREHOUSING OF GRAIN. 129 machines are of tlie most simple description of balance scale, there being a hopper at one end of the lever and weights corresponding to the weight of a sack at the other. When- ever the weigher sees the balance tilt up, he shoves in the slide valve and then allows the grain to fall down a shoot, by which it is discharged into an opening at the top of one of the special railway trucks. When a number of trucks have been filled in this manner, they are taken and stored under sheds which cover about five acres. These trucks have four slide-valves in each side, and they can be placed at such a level as to allow the grain to flow into sacks standing on weighing machines, be weighed, and then wheeled into ordinary railway trucks standing alongside at a lower level. It is claimed for this system that it is ex- tremely convenient for grain merchants, and that it is very economical. However, the first cost is high and the extent of ground is so great as, at most docks, to prevent the sys- tem being adopted, even were it considered desirable. These covered trucks are also used for conveying grain to a granary situated some distance from the Dock. The trucks are run close alongside the granary, the slides are pulled up, and the grain falls into an elevator pit, from which it is raised by the elevator to the top of the building. The granary is about 160 feet long by 80 feet wide, and is divided into four fireproof compartments by vertical walls, there being an elevator to each compartment. The eleva- tors are carried considerably higher than the building, and there are two inclined shoots from each elevator, each shoot discharging into a large bin and serving an area of 40 feet by 40 feet. A number of shoots lead from each bin ; these are for some distance radiating and inclined, and then they are carried vertically downwards to the bottom of the build- ing. Grain is thus got easily to any part of the various K 130 THE WAKEHOUSING OF GEAIN". floors. When it is taken out of the building, it is sent down to the lowest or sunk floor, where it is w^eighed. The system is in many respects simple, there being no band con- veyers. However, the grain has to be raised to a gi^eater height on that account, and double the number of elevators have to be provided than would be required were bands used. Another peculiarity about the Millwall Docks is the sys- tem of jetties in the dock. A large proportion of the grain goes from the dock in barges to warehouses situated up the river, and these jetties are used for that class of traffic. A vessel is brought alongside the jetty, on which are placed two or three cranes and several high bins similar to those already described, and the grain is lifted, weighed, and landed in the barges in a similar manner. Priestman grab buckets are also used instead of the tubs. Kaising grain in that way, when it can be worked to ad- vantage, only costs about one-half of what it costs by the latter system ; but in a great many cases it cannot be applied to full advantage. Grain often comes in small " parcels," and hand-filling has therefore to be resorted to. Close to the Millwall Docks, but on the other side of the river, are the Surrey Commercial Docks, where there are several large granaries. The one last erected is about 260 feet long by about 100 feet wide. There are three elevators, one being situated close to each end of the build- ing, and one in the middle. In front, between the building and the quay, are two lines of rails. On the front line are placed 30 cwt. hydraulic cranes, and on the back line, one fixed and two movable hoppers or bins. The cranes are fitted with Priestman grab buckets, and raise the grain from the hold and deposit it in the hoppers, where it is weighed in quantities of about two tons at a time, and it is THE WAREHOUSINa OF GRAIN. 131 then discharged by openings in the granary wall into a tunnel which runs parallel to the quay. The elevators raise it to the top of the building, and it is distributed by bands and shoots. The bands are 22 inches wide. The best work is done by the cranes when grain has to be discharged out of barges. The greatest amount done has been the raising of 600 quarters of wheat, or 133 tons per hour, by means of one crane. The 22-inch band carried that amount easily, and it is considered that 150 tons could be carried with safety. Three sizes of buckets are used, which, in the case of wheat, hold 13, 17, and 20 cwt. respectively. On one occasion, when the 17 cwt. bucket was used, it was found that the crane made 125 lifts in one hour, the average lift being about 30 feet, and the range of slewing being about 90 degrees. In working from a ship the ordinary speed may be taken at from 70 to 90 lifts per hour ; but the amount of grain discharged varies, a good deal depending on size of hatchway, the trouble there may be with shifting boards, etc. The average may be taken at from 60 to 80 tons per hour to each crane. Floating elevators are also used, more especially at Liverpool, for getting grain out of vessels. The driving machinery is placed upon a barge, and the elevator is movable ; but when in position for working, it is fixed over the hatchway of the vessel. The grain is raised ; and, by means of lengths of travelling bands, which are usually suspended from the roof of the shed, it is conveyed to the shed or warehouse within a distance of from 70 to 80 feet from the vessel. One great advantage of this system is that no machinery is required in the sheds to which it is applied. It is best adapted for buildings with one or at most two floors. Various types of floating elevators are in use. One, 132 THE WAREHOUSING OF GRAIN. Gillet's patent, has been at work successfully for some years at -Dunkirk in France. The capacity is 50 tons per hour, and the machiner}^ is fixed in a tower erected on a barge. It consists of two bucket elevators or ladders suspended on a universal joint, from the outer end of a steel girder of in- verted \J section, the inner end of the girder being hinged on a shaft, which traverses a curved roller path from back to front of the tower. The girder carries a band, which is driven by a pulley at the centre of the curve. The outside elevators are driven by this band, and have a vertical range to suit the varying draught of the ship. The girder and elevator may be moved horizontally and vertically, while the machine is at work, being under the control of one man upon the deck ; and when out of use, it may be run back and housed inside the Tower. The grain is brought into the Tower by the band, and is then passed through an automatic weighing machine, and delivered into the bottom of an ordinary elevator, which raises it to the roof, so that it may be delivered direct to barges or into warehouse. The grain warehouses which I have described are all " floor granaries," the grain being stored on the floors usually to a depth of about 5 feet. In this country preference is given to that system. In America, on the other hand, the " silo " system is universally adopted. In Spain and some other countries grain was, and still is, stored in pits dug in the ground called " silos " ; and the term has been transferred to hollow-covered shafts built above the ground for the reception of grain. Large granaries constructed on that system have been erected at Bootle, Liverpool, and at Fleet- wood, and on the Continent the system is largely adopted. Perhaps the finest examples are to be found in the large granaries lately erected by the Houmanian Government, which are provided with the finest collection of weighing THE WAREHOUSINa OF GRAIN. 133 machines, the author believes, anywhere to be found. The grain stores attached to the best modern mills erected in this country are now usually built on the " silo " principle ; but it must be remembered that, in the case of mills, the grain is usually stored only for a short time. The shafts are constructed in a variety of forms, but the square and the hexagon are the most common. Theoreti- cally the latter requires a less amount of materials ; but the saving is often more than counterbalanced by the increased cost of construction. Brick and wood are the materials usually employed. Wood is, of course, inflammable; but, on the other hand, it is light, is a bad conductor of heat, and is capable of absorbing moisture from the grain. A com- bination of flat iron rings and concrete is also used. The silos are usually made from 12 to 14 feet square and 30 to 50 feet high. The base is made of pyramid form, for con- venience of discharging the grain. The chief advantages claimed for the " silo " system are that all the space is used, as the silos can be completely filled with grain; that they can be cheaply and readily filled and discharged, and that no turning of the grain by manual labour is necessary. The chief claims urged on behalf of " floor " granaries are somewhat as follows : The grain is kept in good condi- tion by means of the stream of air which passes over it from the windows and doors on opposite sides of the building, there being usually a space of from 3 to 4 feet between the grain and the floor above. The grain can be readily inspected from time to time, and samples can be taken. Where grain arrives in bad condition, it can be spread thinly over the floor, and after being thus exposed for some time, and turned over once or twice, it is brought into good condition. When grain comes in a good state, it 134 THE WAREHOUSINa OF GRAIN. may be stored for a couple of years without requiring turn- ing over, but it is necessary to carefully examine it from time to time. In this country grain comes from such long distances by sea that it often arrives in a somewhat bad state. That fact, coupled with the varieties of grain im- ported here, render the conditions different from those in America and on the Continent. It is generally believed in this country that grain, if not injured, is at least not benefited by being stored to great depths, and for some classes of grain, such as soft wheat, the system of storage in silos is considered by some author- ities to be unsuitable. Where grain arrives in bad condi- tion, it is often refused, but, if put into a silo, it sometimes cakes, and will not run out. The usual method of bringing such grain into condition is to shift it from silo to silo by means of the bands and elevators. Difficulty used to be experienced in turning out a good sample, the heavier grain going to the middle, and being drawn off first ; but, by the use of mixers, that difficulty has now been overcome. As regards the advantage in the case of silos, owing to their being capable of being completely filled, the gain is not usually so great as at first sight it would appear. Owing to small " parcels," and grain being drawn off from time to time, many of the silos are only partially filled. Much may be said on both sides. It, however, appears to the author that in some cases it would be advantageous to adopt the " silo " principle, while in other cases it would be preferable to store on floors. Having described generally various methods of ware- housing grain, it will be well now to enter more fully into a particular case, and for that purpose the author has taken the new granary lately erected at Prince's Wharf. Owing to the limited extent of the site and the nature of THE WAREHOUSING OF GRAIN. 135 the approaches, it was a work of much difficulty to design a building that would suit the various requirements, which were as follows : — (a) To load from a vessel (1) into the granary either in bulk or in sacks, (2) into railway trucks, (3) into road waggons. (b) To distribute the grain readily to the various floors of the building. (c) To get the grain easily from the various floors to the ground floor, weigh it, and get it loaded easily into railway trucks, road waggons, or small vessels. Various plans were made out, showing arrangements adapted for discharging vessels by cranes or elevators, but it was found that, by the custom of the port, it was neces- sary to weigh the grain on deck, and therefore it was not possible to adopt any of those mechanical appliances for discharging from the vessels. The building is 232 feet 6 inches long by 99 feet wide, the width being determined by the extent of ground be- longing to the Corporation. There is a line of rails in front for both broad and narrow gauge trucks, with a verandah over it. At the back of the building there is another line of rails. Inside the building there are two lines of rails at front and back, and a centre hauling-way, 25 feet wide, with six cross-roads to the quay, and recesses at the back portion of the building for loading carts. There is a cross- line of railway inside the building with four turn-tables, the traffic being worked by hydraulic capstans. The roof is in four spans, and the space between the queen-posts is made use of for the longitudinal bands. At the middle of its length the roof is constructed so as to provide accommodation for the transverse bands. Under that floor, which is called the machinery floor, are the grain floors. 136 THE WAEEHOUSING OF GRAIN. seven in number. Six of these are constructed of timber, and the seventh, or lowest, is a fireproof floor, constructed with iron girders and cement concrete arching. Under that floor are the weighing platforms, which are constructed at a height above the ground-floor convenient for loading into trucks or carts. The building is divided into two by a strong vertical brick wall, reaching from the fire- proof floor to a height of about 5 feet above the roof. The staircase is inside the Ifuilding at the back, and is fire- proof. Between the granary and the quay wall there is a tunnel with arched roof, 8 feet 3 inches wide, and 280 feet long. It is lined with white-glazed bricks. At intervals of about 13 feet there are cast-iron shoots from the quay through the roof of the tunnel. These shoots have a swivelling part at the lower end, so that they can be used for either band. The covers are flush with the quay, and are water- tight. The operation of getting grain into the building in bulk is as follows : The grain is raised in sacks out of the ship's hold by hand-winches, or in case of a steamer, by the Vessel's steam-winches. It is then weighed by hand-scales on deck. One gang of seven men can raise, weigh, and discharge about ten tons of wheat per hour, and six or seven gangs can work on to one band. The sacks are emptied into a movable wooden shoot, one end of which rests upon the ship's rail, and the other on a hopper placed over one of the shoots leading from the quay to the tunnel. It goes down that shoot into a travelling feed-hopper, from which it flows on to the centre of one of the hands. It is then carried at the rate of about 500 feet per minute to opposite the elevators, and by means of a " throw-oft' " ap- paratus is discharged ioto a shoot wliich leads to the THE WAREHOUSING OF GEAIN. 137 elevator " boot." A " cup and band " elevator raises it to the top of the building. After passing over the pully at the top, which is 3 feet in diameter, the grain is discharged on to a cross-band, from which it is thrown off on to a longitudinal band, and then it passes down a vertical shoot by which it is conveyed to one of the floors. Under the joists of each floor the shoot has a cast-iron swivelling part in which a radial spout can be fixed, by means of which the grain can be distributed over a wider area. There are thirty-two of these vertical shoots, and each floor is thus divided into convenient areas for loading or discharging. Movable bulk boards are used for confining the different parcels of grain. Immediately above the level of each floor there is a slide-valve, which is used when it is wished to get grain out of the building. The slide-valve is raised, and grain is admitted into the shoot, by which it is conveyed to weighing-machines, which travel on rails fixed under the fire-proof floor. The weighing-machines are made by Reuther & Reisert, of Glermany, and are automatic in their action, and weigh one sack at a time. They are capable of weighing three sacks per minute, which in the case of wheat would amount to about 20 tons per hour. These machines are extremely accurate when kept to one class of grain, but some difficulty is experienced in getting the same degree of accuracy when changing from one kind of grain to another. ' After being weighed, the sacks are taken on hand-trucks to the edge of the platform, and then put into railway trucks or carts. In the case of grain arriving in sacks, such as cargoes of Indian corn, the sacks can be raised by jiggers fixed over each of the upper doorways, at front and back. There are eight of these jiggers, and they can be used either for raising or lowering sacks. 138 THE WAREHOUSING OF GRAIN. The whole of the machinery is worked by hydraulic power, the pumping station being at Underfall Yard, Cumber- land Basin. Power is also obtained from that station for working the gates, sluices, and swing bridges at Cumber- land Basin and Prince Street Bridge, and in the event of future increases of hydraulic plant, such as cranes, coal-tips, etc., the power will be got from the same place. There are three steel Lancashire boilers, 26 feet by 7 feet 6 inches diameter, a Green's fuel economizer. Brown's water soften- ing apparatus, and two sets of compound surface condensing engines of the Worthington type. Each set can work to 200-pump horse power. There is an accumulator with a ram 20 inches diameter and 23 feet stroke. The main, which goes up Cumberland Koad and along Prince Street Bridge Road, is seven inches internal diameter for a length of 1,920 yards, and it then branches into two five-inch pipes, one of which leads to the granary, and is 140 yards long, and the other goes across Prince Street bridgeway. The main is divided into sections by stop-valves, and there is a relief valve at the highest point. The pressure at the pumping station is 750 pounds per square inch, and, owing to the size of the main, the pressure is little reduced at the granary, even when all the machines are in operation. There are the following hydraulic machines : two engines in the tunnel, one to each pair of bands, each engine being arranged so as to work one or both bands ; four engines on the machinery floor, each of which drives an elevator and a cross band ; four engines also on the machinery floor, one to each longitudinal band ; one engine for driv- ing a fan for ventilating the tunnel ; eight jiggers and two capstans. All the hydraulic engines are Brotherhood's patent three- cylinder engines, and were made by the Hydraulic Engineer- THE WAREHOUSING OF GRAIN. 139 ing Company, Chester. The longitudinal bands are driven by large pullies, and each engine has a heavy fly-wheel, and governors are also being provided. The jiggers or hoists consist of a cylinder and ram, 5 inches diameter and 8 feet 6 inches stroke, with sheaves multiplying ten times. They have two barrels, and are made so that while one wire rope is ascending the other is descending. These jiggers are examples of the best appli- cation of hydraulic power, a high efficiency being attained. To obtain rotary motion by means of hydraulic pressure entails a considerable amount of waste, the efficiency of the hydraulic engines being only about 50 per cent, of the power supplied. Each of the band-engines indicates about four horse power, and each of the engines for driving an elevator and cross-band about 17 horse power. To raise 75 tons of grain per hour to the height required and convey it along a cross band takes about 12 horse power, without making any allowance for friction. Were the machines at the granary in constant use, steam- power would be much cheaper, but being intermittent in their action, hydraulic power is more convenient and does away with shafting, driving belts, etc. In addition, steam power would require to have been taken from a distance, as there is no place near suitable for the erection of an engine or a boiler house. There are various objections to the use of gas engines, such as dust, space occupied, etc. In addi- tion, they would not have been suitable for the capstans. Great objection would have been taken by the Insurance Companies, which would have charged an extra premium for the additional risk. With hydraulic pressure, on the other hand, the risk of fire is greatly diminished, as the pressure water can be used for the extinction of fires. In the event of fire the water would be pumped at a pressure 140 THE WAREHOUSING OF GRAIN. of 125 pounds through the return pipe in the staircase, there being a hydrant on each landing. The bands are 20 inches wide and are made of two-ply canvas and india-rubber. Each band is capable of conveying about 75 tons of grain per hour. The upper or loaded part of the bands runs on steel rollers fixed, in the case of those in the tunnel, 6 feet 9 inches apart, and the return or empty part which runs underneath is also supported by steel rollers fixed, however, 13 feet 6 inches apart. The rollers have cast-iron spindles tapered at the ends. The weight of a roller and spindle is between 14 and 15 pounds, which is almost exactly the weight of beech rollers used by Arm- strong & Co. The usual practice, however, of that firm is to use varnished yellow pine rollers. The spindles are supported on bearings of white metal run into cast-iron brackets, and are fitted with iron lubricators with heavy iron covers. These brackets rest on cast-iron frames securely bolted to the floor and are connected together by angle irons, one on each side. The travelling feed hoppers and " throw-oif " carriages run on these angle irons. The travelling feed-hoppers are provided with inclined rollers on each side of the band. Each band is provided with a tightening apparatus. In the machinery floor this is effected by means of a sheave with sliding carriage and weights moving between wrought iron guides. In the tunnel, as there is no room for weights hanging under the floor, a tightening screw is used instead. Bands are aifected greatly, as regards extension or contraction, by the degree of moisture in the air. In damp weather the bands con- tract, and in dry weather they expand. It is a matter of great importance that the rollers should revolve when the band is in motion, otherwise the roller gets worn flat where the band passes over it. To insure THE WAREHOUSING OF GRAIN. 141 that being the case, the shape of the spindle is very im- portant ; it should be sufficiently blunt to prevent any tendency to jam. The rollers should be well balanced when in motion, and the bearings should be kept well lubricated. Each of the elevators has two " legs," which at top and bottom are encased in steel, the intermediate part being made of wood. The elevator bands are made of American elevator leather belting, 20 inches wide, jointed with cement, and with copper rivets, and also stitched. The buckets, which are of steel, are fixed at intervals of about 18 inches by means of bolts. At the top and bottom of each elevator are sheaves 3 feet in diameter and 21 inches wide. The bottom sheave is supported on bearings, with adjustable slides for tightening the bands. The driving gear is at the top, the elevator being driven by the hydraulic engine by means of a link chain. The building was erected from the designs and under the directions of Mr. John Ward Grirdlestone, the Docks En- gineer ; and the grain machinery contract was carried out by Messrs. Spencer & Co., Bristol and Melksham. In the foregoing paper the author has given a description of the principal methods employed for warehousing grain, and hopes that it may prove of interest to the Section. C^e dBiffel Cofoer. By a. E. CRAWFORD. Abstract of Paper read in the Physical and Chemical Section. 1. Height. THE most conspicuoas property of height. Hence a glance at the tallest buildings in the world should are — the Eiffel Tower is its heights of some of the They be interesting. Washington Obelisk Cologne Cathedral Rouen Cathedral Great Pyramid . Strasburg Cathedral St. Peter's, Rome St. Paul's, London Notre Dame, Paris Monument, London Eiffel Tower . Metres. 169 159 150 146 142 132 128 m 65 300 Yards. 183 172 162 158 154 144 139 72 71 325 N.B. — To convert metres roughly to yards, add one- twelfth : thus, 300 metres = (300 + 25) yards. 142 »^ld o.^ ^>ilJO^h^^ o M H < Q 'A O K H O O l-H H O 144 THE EIFFEL TOWER. Thus the tower is 325 yards, or 975 feet high, and a body would take over eight seconds in falling from its summit. 2. Foundations. The nature of the subsoil was satisfactory at two of the corners, those, namely, remote from the Seine {Fig. 1). But towards the river there was a tilt in the interfaces of the various beds, which required deep excavations and the use of caissons to ^11 up, before the foundations could be trusted. The argile plastique has an average thickness of 16 metres, and rests on the chalk of the Paris basin. It can safely bear a load of from 40 to 50 pounds per square inch. The foundations remote from the Seine offered little difficulty. They were filled up with concrete which dried as it was deposited. For the others, iron caissons worked by compressed air were sunk to a depth of 14 metres. The workmen inside dug away the loose damp earth which the caisson encountered in its descent, and as soon as a homo- geneous surface was reached, filled up the vacant space with concrete to a height of seven metres. The system of caisson- foundations is expensive, but rapid and secure. It has been also used for the Forth Bridge, the Brooklyn Bridge, and the Magasins du Printemps in Paris. The weight of the tower is 9,000,000 kilos, or 9,000 tons. (N.B. — English ton = French tonne, nearly = 1,000 kilos.) The area of the concrete is such that when the above pressure is distributed over it, it only amounts to 30 pounds per square inch. Above the concrete rest stone piers, shaped like oblique pyramids, which bring the foundations level with the upper ground. The pressure on these, owing to the reduction in area, increases up to 420 pounds on the square inch, or only one-fortieth of the maximum load at THE EIFFEL TOWER. ' 145- which the stQiie (quarried at Chateau Laudon) has been found to crush. 3. Material. The possible materials which present themselves for such a structure are Wood, Stone, Steel, Iron, and a combination of stone around an iron framework. Now, wood is too light to be safe in high winds ; stone is very expensive, and heavier than metal in proportion to the height attained; further, no mortar yet discovered will stand more than 2,000 lbs. nominal, or say 200 lbs. working pressure per square inch ; steel is too light, and, like wood, too elastic, so that in a wind the rocking would tend to dislocate the structure. Iron, which has none of these defects, being heavy, rigid, and homogeneous, is therefore indicated. It may here be remarked that the chief utility of the tower lies in the fact that it gives us one more practical example of the capabilities of iron. The ancients long ago exhausted all the possibilities of stone. It remains yet to be seen what iron can do, a problem to which the Forth Bridge and Eiffel Tower are only partial solutions. It must be remembered that the strength of iron is not an inherent property, like the hardness of diamond or the suppleness of bamboo, but an acquired one. The ores of iron can be crushed to powder in the hand, or its nodules broken with a light hammer. Wrought iron and steel, by processes entirely artificial, have acquired the property of resisting enormous strains. Within only the last few years the efficiency of these processes has been vastly improved, and feats of engineering made possible which were hardly L 146 THE EIFFEL TOWER. dreamed of before. It may be we have not seen the end of this improvement. 4. Shape and Stability. In section the tower was bound to be a regular polygon. A circular shape, or many-angled polygon, seems the most symmetrical ; but as each angle means one more ascending rib in the tower, economy of weight demands as few angles as possible. The triangle has of all plane figures the fewest Fig. 2. angles, but such a section would have entailed great loss of room on the various platforms, because its angles are so sharp. A square was therefore the next to suggest itself. The question of the stability of the Eiffel Tower, on account of its great height, involves considerations that do not arise in ordinary buildings. For the base of the tower remaining constant, it is clear that the moment of stability (weight X \ length of base) varies, roughly speaking, as the height, whereas the overtiiming moment of the wind varies THE EIFFEL TOWEE. 147 as the product of the height and the distance of the centre of pressure above the ground, i.e. as the square of the height roughly. . Hence this wind action acquires special import- ance, and some way must be found to provide against it. The peculiar and characteristic curve of the tower is the result. Theory of the Curve. — We can show that any force can be resolved into three components along three arbitrary straight lines in its plane (Fig. 2) ; for if the force P cut one of the straight lines BC in D, then P may be resolved along BD and AD, and AD in its turn may be resolved along the other sides AB and AC. In the case where P passes through an angular point B, it resolves at once along BA and BC alone, and we get a zero- component along AC. Now, in the tower let ABCD {Fig. 3) represent any one of the storeys, and EF all the rest above it. Let the action Fig. 3. of the wind on this latter section be collected at P. Then this force can, as above, be taken by the three girders AB, BD, CD. And to allow for wind from the contrary direction we shall require another girder joining CA. But if it should 148 THE EIFFEL TOWER. happen that P passes through the intersection of AB and DC, it will resolve along AB and CD alone, and there will no longer be any need for the cross pieces BD or AC. Thus a great expense and weight will be saved. Hence: the broken line of the toiver must he such that the opposite ascending girders of any section vieet on the line of action of the ivind pressure in that part of the tower which remains above that section* * When the sections are indefinitely diminished in height and in- creased in number, the outline becomes a continuous curve. The theory of this curve has been investigated by Mr. A. G. Greenhill in the *' Cambridge Philosophical Society's Proceedings," vol. iv., p. 66, from the above property, observing that the " girders of the section " must be replaced by " the girders tangent to any section at its two opposite highest points." A Fig. 4. Ihus, if the tower (lying sideways, Fig. 4) be represented hj A E B, and we assume that the centre of pressure on the area A E B coincides with its e.g., then if x,y be the co-ordinates of A referred to E as origin, we have — ^p_fy^dx fydx Again, since ^P is tangent .*. £P= a; — -^ ay dx fxiidx y Assume v= fjdx and z=fvdx so that i/ = dx" THE EIFFEL TOWER, 149 Expermiental verification. — [This model, and one like it, shown during the reading of the paper, were executed for me by the kindness of Mr. (now Professor) Selman.] Let AB, BC, CD {Fig. 5) be three freely hinged rods, which stand Fig. 5. for any section of the tower, and let E, a perpendicular to BC, rigidly fixed to it, stand for the rest of the tower. Let P, Q, E,, be strings fastened at various points, which can bs pulled so as to represent the action of the wind on the part we obtain- dv J x—ax =a:- -^, or integrating the left hand by parts- V ay dx I XV —Jvdx y V dy dx vdx^y^ or ^ = -^ V dy dz dy or dx dx dx 150 THE EIFFEL TOWER. E. If the string P (which is fastened at the intersection of AB, DC) be pulled, the structure remains firm and upright. But if either Q or R be piTlled, the frame collapses. In the first case, the rods AB and CD turning leftwards about their pivots, and in the second case, rightwards. Fig. 6. It will be observed, that in the well-known outline of the tower these requirements are approximately fulfilled {Fig. 6). dz dy dx=^dx .', log 3= log 1/+ constant z y .'. y = kh where k is some constant drz dx t = kh .' .z = Ae^''+ Be-** d'z .•.y=^2=Ce**+De-^* {C=Ak^, D=Bk^). This is . • . the equation to the curve. If the tower goes off to infinity in the negative direction, we get the logarithmic curve y = Ce'^, which is probably the one in the Eififel Tower. If the tower comes to a point at the origin (and is .*. a spire), we get y = CSinh kx, the curve of '• shines." Mr. Greenhill also gets the logarithmic curve as the best for a tree, but from independent considerations. THE EIFFEL TOWER. 151 Thus the resultant wind pressure on the highest section EF, (marked 1), acts through the meeting-point of GF and CB, and so the section GFBC is in equilibrium under a push along BC and a pull along GF. Next, including GFBC and FEAB as one section, the pressure on it (marked 2) acts through the meeting-point of HG and DC, so that the section HGCD is in equilibrium. Thus, since each portion of the tower is in equilibrium, so also is the whole tower, and that without the help of cross pieces HC, GD, FC, BG, which are therefore omitted as being unnecessary. While discussing the stability of the tower, we may inquire whether a system of uniform freely jointed rods, as AB, BC, CD, is stable for small displacements when the W a. Fig. 7. link BC is weighted at its middle point {Fig. 7). This is essentially the case of the lowest stage of the tower, and, indeed, of every stage. The system is unstable. This can be shown in an elementary way as follows : Invert the whole frame so that it swings from AD. Clearly now it is stable for small dis- placements, for one cannot conceive of its being otherwise. This shows that for a symmetrical position of the rods x is a maximum. But restoring the system to its previous position, this is precisely the condition for instability. It is hardly necessary to point out that this is not a pressing element of danger in the tower, because the overturning forces for small displacements are infinitely small and amply counteracted by the virtual rigidity of the joints. 152 the eiffel tower. 5. Utility of the Tower. I. Strategic Observations. — Light can be flashed from it to a distance of 39 miles, and observations taken at a dis- tance somewhat less. II. Meteorology. — The tower will lend itself to the observa- tion of the strength and changes in direction of the wind, the chemical composition of the air, and the formation of mist, dew, fog, rain, etc., at different altitudes, and the law of the decrease of temperature. III. Physical Experiments. — Falling bodies and resistance of the air, oscillations of pendulum, electric phenomena. rV. Astronomical Observations. — This point is doubtful, as one cannot make sure that the tower will have only a motion of translation and no rotary motion. But it may be useful for spectroscopic work and researches in atmospheric refraction, as it rises above the ordinary level of fog and dust, and sometimes even above the clouds. But after all, the great utility of the tower is the lesson it affords in working with iron. 0ota, ^^ait0uii0e, 1|I)0iTctix Spelling, By ARTHUR B. PROWSE, M.D., F.R.C.S. Abstract of Paper read April Atli^ 1889. Sound is caused by vibrations, transmitted by the air. Sounds are classified into noises, musical sounds, and vocal sounds. The lowest number of vibrations perceived by the ear is from 15 to 20 per second, and the most acute sound audible is caused by from 20,000 to 70,000 in the same period of time. Voice, or vocal sound, is produced and modified by certain parts of the human body, named the vocal organs ; and language is '' articulate voice." Originally the term ' language ' was limited to Speech, but its meaning has since been extended — so that we now talk also of " written language " and the " language of gesture." It is a fallacy to maintain, as some have done, that mind is created by language. The custom .of accepting as truth theories built upon very shaky foundations is far too preva- lent in these days. An instance of this " science, falsely so-called," is the very widely accepted theory of the " evolution of species ^''^ and the still wilder ideas based upon its assumed truth ; for while, with one breath, scientists confess that the crucial facts to establish Darwin's ingenious hypothesis are utterly wanting, with the next breath they 153 154 VOICE, LANGUAGE, PHONETIC SPELLING. tell us it must be accepted ! Again, a few years ago it was insisted that similarity of language was sure evidence of racial affinity; and because a very large number of our words happen to be allied to the German forms, it was assumed that we came of the same stock as the Germans. It is now, however, acknowledged by all competent author- ities that language is not a sure and certain test of race, but only of social contact. There are 7?o knoicn facts which prove that we Britons belong to the so-called Aryan family. The sound of voice is produced by the vibration of the edges of two elastic bands — the vocal cords — which are situated in the larynx, or upper part of the windpipe ; and the sound, conveyed by the air, is modified in various ways by alterations in the shape of the mouth and throat, and in the relations borne by the tongue, palate, teeth, and lips to each other. The simple vowel-sounds of our language are 12, and the consonant sounds 24 in number, making together 36 simple sounds ; for each of which there ought to be a letter, which should itself be used for no other sound. With such an alphabet of 36 letters, all the sounds of the language could be truthfully and consistently represented, and there would be no difficulty whatever in spelling. The lecturer then briefly discussed the chief types of writing in existence, commencing with the simple pictures (iconographs) of natural objects made by prehistoric man, of which diagrams were shown, and as a contrast to them, a copy of a North American Indian letter, in which, though the hieroglyphs were similar in character, they served to convey a series of ideas from the mind of the writer to other minds. Such symbols are called ideographs. Phono- graphs, or sound-signs, are a further improvement ; and these are either syllabic (representing whole syllables) or alphabetic (representing elementary sounds). VOICE, LANGUAGE, PHONETIC SPELLING. 155 In reference to the Aztec, Chinese, and Egyptian writ- ings, and the cuneiform characters of the Assyrians and Persians, it was stated that all include specimens of ideo- graphs and phonographs, but that the proportion of the second class of signs increased successively in these languages in the order given. Finally, in the Hebrew, Phoenician, and Samaritan writings we first meet with an alphabet consisting of phonographs only. From these alphabets the Greeks and Ancient Romans derived theirs, and our own was a slight modification of the later Roman. Sounds are the essential elements of language, while the true and only function of letters is to represent these sounds. With our present very defective alphabet it is quite im- possible to do this truthfully, and an utterly chaotic condition of spelling is the result, more especially because every letter is used to represent various sounds, and most sounds are variously represented by many letters. Thus, the letter 0 is used to represent five different sounds, while the sound of 0 (as in the word " no ") is represented in at least 12 different ways. A complete analysis of the signs employed for different sounds shows that the five simple vowel letters and 83 combinations thereof have together no less than 281 values ; and, as regards the consonants, there are 119 different arrangements, with 251 values. With such confusion, it is certain that, as Dr. Morell states, "The ear is no guide in the spelling of English ; rather the reverse." Professor Max Mtiller says, " English spelling is a national misfortune, and in the keen international race between all the countries of Europe, it handicaps the English child to a degree that .seems incredible till we look at statistics." Rapp, a dis- tinguished German writer, says: "Did not a whimsical, antiquated spelling stand in the way, the universality of 156 VOICE, LANGUAGE, PHONETIC SPELLING. this language would be still more evident ; and we other Europeans may esteem ourselves fortunate that the British nation has not yet made this discovery." Similar testimony was quoted from several other philologists and educationalists of note, both British and foreign. The results of attempting to teach our present spelling maybe summarized briefly as follows: — (1) In the elemen- tary schools of the country less than one scholar for each teacher employed, and less than two scholars for each school inspected, reached the very moderate requirements of Stan- dard VI. in reading and spelling. (2) To attain even this mediocrity takes at least six or seven years of school life. (3) A few years ago, in the United States, a Grovernment inquiry revealed the fact that 25 per cent, of the teachers themselves were seriously deficient in spelling. (4) As re- gards the so-called higher classes, it is a well-established fact that 95 per cent, of the Civil Service candidates that fail are plucked for spelling. The immense waste of time and the almost complete failure in national education are bad enough, but what is worse is the actual mischief done by subjecting young minds to such illogical training as the current spelling gives them. Everything they have to learn in reading and spelling is irrational ; one rule contradicts another, and each statement has to be accepted simply on authority. The exercise of the reasoning faculty is useless. As a simple example, consider the different sounds expressed in the words on, one, done, tone ; and the various sounds of ougJi in the nine words hough, though, through, rough, borough, plough, cough, hiccough, ought. How different are the results actually obtained by teach- ing children a purely phonetic system of spelling ! To quote one only : " By the use of phonetic spelling it takes at the yOICE, LANGUAGE, PHONETIC SPELLING. 157 utmost one year to teach a child of six or seven years of age, and of average ability, to read and spell fluently, without fatigue or strain to either child or teacher ; and 75 to 80 per cent, of the children master the phonetic reading com- pletely in six months only, if they are regular attendants at school. A few months more will then give them the same facility in reading words spelled in the ordinary way." The results attained are well summarized in an article in " Chambers's Encyclopaedia " as follows : " There can be no doubt that phonetic spelling would greatly facilitate the acquisition of the power of reading, and consequently the education of children and of illiterate adults ; as well as tend to the reduction of dialects to some common standard, and to further the diffusion of our language in foreign countries. To learn to read from perfectly phonetic charac- ters would be merely to learn the alphabet ; and to spell would be merely to analyse pronunciation. A child at school could be made a fluent reader in a few weeks. All uncertainty of pronunciation would vanish at the sight of a word, and dictionaries of pronunciation would be quite superfluous." The four principal objections raised against spelling reform were then considered : 1. The Linguistic objection, which is that phonetic spell- ing will alter the sounds of our language. This statement is ' due to gross ignorance of what phonetic spelling is ; and partly also to the idea that language consists of written signs rather than of sounds. A change of spelling is not a change of language. Phonetic spelling will tend to preserve the sounds, of which language is composed, in their purity. 2. The Etymological objection : People say phonetic spell- ing destroys etymology. That this statement is untrue is abundantly proved by the unanimous testimony of all living W8 VOICE, LANGUAGE, PHONETIC SPELLING. philologists and etymologists of note. Professor Skeat, of Cambridge, author of the most valuable etymological dic- tionary we have, says, " In the true interests of etymology I should be glad to see all spelling purely phonetic." Rev. A. H. Sayce, Deputy Professor of Philology at Oxford, says, " The objection that a reformed spelling would destroy the continuity of a language, or conceal the etymology of its words, is raised only by ignorance and superficiality. English spelling is good for little else but to disguise our language, to hinder education, and to suggest false etymologies." ' Several other high authorities were then quoted in favour of phonetic spelling being an aid to etymology, and finally Max Miiller's opinion : " Language is not made for scholars and etymologists, and even if the whole race of etymologists were really to be swept away by the introduction of spelling reform, I hope they would be the first to rejoice in sacrifi- cing themselves in so good a cause." 3. The Historical objection. The simple fact, attested by all scientific students of language, that there are hardly any words which are now spelled " historically," as it is called, is sufficient answer to the assertion that phonetic spelling would destroy the history of our words. It is generally supposed that the current spelling has been in existence from some very remote period ; but the simple fact is that it may, in the main, be traced back to Johnson's dictionary (1755), and to what Max Miiller calls " the capricious sway exercised by the large printing offices and publishers." ^ 4. The Homonymical objection, which is that by spelling phonetically words which are now spelled differently, though they have the same sound, great confusion would be caused. The superficiality of this objection is manifest when it is remembered that we do not now get. confused VOICE, LANGUAGE, PHONETIC SPELLING. 159 when using the hundreds of words in our language, which, with different meanings, have nevertheless the same sound and spelling. To be consistent, these objectors ought to use different spellings to indicate the eight different meanings of the word hox^ and the six different meanings of the word hay^ etc. One of the advantages of phonetic spelling is that it would serve to distinguish between words, which, with different sounds and meanings, are now spelled alike, e.g.^ how^ teavj rtiinute^ ivound, read, etc. Several of the objec- tions urged against spelling by sound are very trivial ; and time does not allow of their consideration. In spite of our corrupt and chaotic spelling, which is the great difficulty foreigners have in learning it, our language is making its way into all parts of the world. This is partly owing to our world-wide distribution and commercial influence ; partly to the fact that, apart from its spelling, our language is one of the most easily acquired by other races ; and it is, as many foreign philologers have remarked, the best vehicle of communication the world has ever seen, freed as it is from grammatical forms, declensions, genders, and the like. No other tongue can compete with it, not even that extraordinary production of continental jealousy of Britain and her world-wide influence, Volapiik, which is destined to die a natural death ere long. When the day comes, as come it will, when truth and reason shall have prevailed, and our " corrupt and effete " orthography, as Max Miiller terms it, shall have been dis- carded in favour of spelling by sound, then the last barrier will have been levelled which at present hinders our " pure language ^' attaining the goal it is approaching, and which delays the fulfilment of its manifest destiny as the lan- guage of the world. , Reports of lllwlnigs. GENERAL. THE past session has been characterised by two fea- tures of more than usual interest. At the November meeting Dr. Dallinger, F.R.S., gave his lecture on " Putre- factive Organisms," and on April 26th the Society held a very successful Scientific Soiree. In addition, the papers and communications which have been given at the remain- ing seven meetings of the Society have been fully up to the average merit and number; the members meeting, as usual, at the University College, excepting on the occasion of Dr. Dallinger's address, when they met in the Lecture Koom of the Bristol Museum. On Thursday, October 4th, 1889, Professor Leipner ex- hibited the fruit and foliage of the Bladder-nut (Staphylea pinnata) found by him in a shrubbery in Buckinghamshire, and Dr. Munro Smith gave a demonstration of Apparatus used in physiological research. On November 6th the Rev. Dr. Dallinger gave his lecture upon "Putrefactive Organisms," illustrated by the oxy- hydrogen light. An abstract report of his address appears at page 86. At the meeting held December 6th, Mr. C. K. Rudge, on behalf of Mr. Charbonnier, exhibited and commented upon specimens of Pallas's Sand Grouse (Syrrhaptes paradoxus) 160 REPORTS OF MEETINGS. 161 angi' Eider Duck, also a yomjg Puffin found at Cheddar. Papers were read by Mr. G. I. Trusted on " Talpa (Mole), and some Remarks on its Habits " (see Proceedings, page 56), and by Mr. C. Jecks on " Suggestions as to the Causes of Difference in Colour between Flowers and Foliage of Tropical and Temperate Regions," which will be found at page 121. At the January meeting, held on Gth inst., Mr. Charbon- nier showed a specimen of Grey-backed Shrike, or Butcher- bird, shot at Abbot's Leigh. Dr. Munro Smith exhibited and remarked upon the Water-cells of the Camel's Stomach (Proceedings, page 118), and Prof. Leipner gave a paper on " Plant Life." On February 7th, Dr. A. J. Harrison read a communica- tion upon the vexed question of ophidian fascination, headed " Do Snakes Fascinate their Victims ? " (see page G7), which was followed by an interesting communication from Dr. W. Duncan on a similar subject, entitled, " Notes on Trigono- cephalus lanceolatus, the Fer de Lance Snake of Santa Lucia and Martinique." On March Gth Prof. Lloyd Morgan gave a paper on " Per- ception of Animals." An abstract of this will be found at page 116. At the meeting held April 4th, Dr. Arthur B. Prowse gave an exhaustive and interesting paper upon "Voice, Language, and Phonetic Spelling," an abstract of which is printed at page 153. At the last general, which was also the 27th annual, meeting, the Hon. Sec. (Prof. Leipner) read the Report of the Council, the balance-sheet was presented, and the officers for the ensuing season were appointed. The Hon. Secretary urged upon the members the importance of individual effort in extending the influence and limits of the Society, point- M 162. REPCETS OF MEETINGS. ing out that tlio value of its work was well attested to by the ever-increasing demand from kindred societies, both at home and abroad, for the Bristol Society's published pro- ceedings, the exchange list at present including fifty-nine British and thirty-four Colonial and Foreign Societies. Mr. Oharbonnier then exhibited a specimen of the Bell Bird, so named from its note, a native of British Gruiana, remarkable for the curious appendage to its beak. Mr. C. K. Rudge showed, under the microscope, a rare fresh- water Polyzoon, Cristatella mucedo^ and Prof. Leipner brought for the inspection of the members a complete series of Comatula rosacea,, the rosy Feather-star dredged up by him off Ilfracombe, and a slab from the Lias of Lyme Regis containing some beautiful specimens of an ancient allied form, Pentacrinus Briarius. HENRY A. FRANCIS, Hon. Reporting Secretary. REPORT OF THE BOTANICAL SECTION. THE exploration of the Bristol Coal-field has gone on, although it is chiefly due to the work of outsiders that " Supplemental Notes " are being published, containing particulars of four species new . to the local " Flora," as well as information of scarcely less importance relating to other uncommon plants. J. W. WHITE, F.L.S. July 9, 1889, REPORTS OF MEETINGS. 163 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL SECTION. ri^HE Section lias held four meetings since the last -L Report, and a number of papers have been read, one of which is printed in the Proceedings. The following are the names of gentlemen who have read papers during the Session : Mr. A. Campbell, Mr, G. F. Schacht, Mr. C. E. Crawford, and Mr. D. Rintoul. A. RICHAEDSON, Hon. Sec. GEOLOGICAL SECTION. THERE has been one meeting of the Section, at which Mr. A. Wharton Metcalf was elected Secretary. The Rev. Morley B. Saunders read a paper on " Mountain Building," which is printed in our Proceedings. The President stated that he was engaged on a piece of geological work in the neighbourhood of Tytherington and Grovesend, and briefly alluded to some of the features seen in the Yate and Thornbury railway cutting. A paper on the subject will be found in the pages of the Proceedings ; and it is proposed to make an excursion to the district. The President also alluded to the Brislington section on the Great Western Railway, and promised to read a paper on the section during the next Session. An excursion of the Section was made, at Whitsuntide (1888), to Frome. On the Saturday the chalk outlier of Cley Hill was visited. On Monday the members examined the Mountain Limestone, and the Rhcetic fissure-infillings of Nunney and Holwell. On Tuesday the railway section near Old Down Inn and the rocks in the neighbourhood of Binegar were visited. The President, the Rev. H. H. Winwood, Mr. Joel Lean, and others drew attention to the salient features of the geology of the district. 164 REPORTS OF MEETINGS. ENGINEERING SECTION. ON the 30tli of June, 1888, an excursion of members and friends, to the number of thirty-five, was made, tinder the guidance of Mr. Charles Hichardson, President, to the Severn Tunnel Pumping Stations. After visiting the Stations, the party dined together at the Black Rock Hotel, Portskewet. On the 20th December, 1888, about twenty-five members dined together at the Queen's Hotel, Clifton. A farewell dinner was given on the 22nd March, 1889, at the Queen's Hotel, to Mr. Sutcliffe, member of Committee, on the occasion of his leaving Bristol for an appointment at Goole under the Aire and Calder Navigation. During the Session eight Meetings were held. The fol- lowing Papers w^ere read : — " The Severn Tunnel : its Origin and Construction," Mr. Charles Richardson, C.E. (President) ; " Sewerage Systems," Mr. A. P. I. Cotterell ; "Mechanical Testing Machines, and the Behaviour of Metals under Stress," Mr. D. C. Selman ; " Bells and Bell-Eounding," Mr. J. D. Noble ; " The Ware- housing of Grain," Mr. J. M. McCurrich ; "The Eiffel Tower : its Conditions of Stability," Mr. D. C. Selman. In connection with Mr. McCurrich's Paj^er about thirty members visited on the 5th April, 1889, the New Granary, Princess Wharf, Bristol, and by the kind permission of Mr. Girdlestone, Docks Engineer, inspected the building and machinery. NICHOLAS WATTS, lion. Sec. Note. — All the papers w^ere read prior to April IGth, except Mr. Selman's on the Eiffel Tower. — N. W The following Publications of the Bristol Naturalists' Society may be obtained either from Messrs. Fawn & Son, Royal Promenade, Bristol, or from the Honorary Secretary. Proceedings, ! Yol. I., Part 1, 1873-74. 4s. New Series". j> >» 2, 1874-75. 5s. 5> >» 3, 1875-76. 4s. M. „ II. 1, 1876-77. 3s. Gd. J> >> 2, 1877-78. 3s. 6d. »J >» 3, 1878-79. 3s. Gd. „ III. ) ti 1, 1879-80. 3s. 6(Z. t> «> 2, 1880-81. 3s. 6d. )l t) 3, 1881-82. 3s. 6d. „ IV. > ti 1, 1882-83. 3s. 6d. M >> 2, 1883-84. 3s. &d. l> 11 3, 1884-85. 3s. 6d. » V. 1, 1885-86. 4s. )l l» 2, 1886-87. 5s. Qd. )f >* 3, 1887-88. 5s. „ VI •> >> 1, 1888-89. 4s. Flora of the B ristol Ooal-Field. By James Walter White. One vol. bound. 6s. The Fungi of the Bristol District. By Cedric Bucknall, Mus. Bac. Part IV. Species 690 to 836. 4 plates, 3 coloured, 1 black. Is. 6d. „ V. „ 837 to 934. 2 „ 1 „ ... Is. „ YI. „ 935 to 1023. 1 plate, black Is. „ VII. „ 1024 to 1084 6d. „VIII. „ 1085 to 1144. 3 plates, coloured .... Is. 6i. „ IX. „ 1145 to 1240. 4 plates Is. „ X. „ 1241 to 1321. 4 plates Is. On the Newly-Discovered Phenomenon of Apospory in Ferns. By Charles T. Druery, F.L.S. Illustrated. Is. Contributions to the Geology of the Avon Basin. By Prof. Lloyd Morgan, F.G.S. I. " Sub- Aerial Denudation and the Avon Gorge." Coloured Map. II. " The Millstone Grit at Long Ashton, Somerset." With Map. Is. III. " The Portbury aud Clapton District." IV. ♦' On the Geology of Portishead." 2 coloured maps and 2 plates. Is. 6d. Sleep and Dreams. By George Munro Smith, L.K.C.P. Lond., M.B.C.S. 2 plates. Is. The Bone-Cave or Fissure of Durdham Down. By E. Wilson, F.G.S., Curator of the Bristol Museum. 2 plates. Is. Notes on a Common Fin Whale, lately stranded in the Bristol Channel. By E. Wilson, F.G.S., Curator of the Bristol Museum. Photograph. Is. The Severn Tunnel. By Charles Richardson, C.E., and Notes on the Geology of the Section by Prof. Lloyd Morgan, F.G.S. With geologically coloured Section of Tunnel, map and plate. 2s. The Mendips: A Geological Eeverie. By Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan, F.G.S. Is. The Arch. By Charles Eichardson, C.E,, with illustrations. Is. ADOLPH LEIPNEE, Hon. Sec. 47, Hampton Park, Clifton. NEW SEKIES, Vol. VI., Part II. (1889-90). Price 3s. 6d. PROCEEDINGS OF THE BRISTOL NATURALISTS' SOCIETY. EDITED BY THE HONOKARY SECRETARY. Berum cognoscere causas.'' — Virgil. BRISTOL Printed for the Society. MDCCGXC. NEW SEEIES, Vol. VL, Part II. (1889-90). Price 3s. 6d. PROCEEDINGS OF THE BRISTOL NATURALISTS' SOCIETY, EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARY. "Rerum cognoscere causas.'" — Virgil. BRISTOL : Printed for the Society. MDCCGXC. TABLE OF Contents. NEW SERIES, VOL. VI., PART II. Three Geological Papers. By Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan, F.G.S. : ^^^^ I. The Brislington Cutting Ig5 IL Mendip Notes jgg III. The Geology of the Wick Eocks Valley . . .183 The Fungi of the Bristol District. Part XII. By Cedric Bucknall, BIus. Bac -j^oQ Rainfall at Clifton in 1889. By George F. Burder, M.D., F.R. Met. ^°^ .' ... 195 Observations of Temperature at Clifton, 1889. By D. Rintoul, M.A. Cantab ^gg Observations on a Pair of Blackbirds. By H. Percy Leonard . 202 Some British Wild Bees. By Henry A. Francis, F.E.M.S. . . 213 On the Reconstruction of Viaducts on the Cornwall Railway. By Albert P. I. Cotterell, Assoc. M. Inst. C.E 217 Investigation of the Board of Trade Formula for Strength of Fire- box Girder Stays. By J. W. I. Harvey ."^ . . . .232 Reports of Meetings, General and Sectional . . . .243 I. . CIk ^risIingtiDiT Culling. By Prof. C. LLOYD MORGAN, F.G.S., Assoc. R.S.M. THE Great Western Railway Company have recently con- verted the No. 1 tunnel between Bristol and Bath into a wide wall-sided, cutting. Mr. Charles Richardson kindly took me to see the cutting in an early stage, and with the permission of Mr. W. K. Lawrence, I have since frequently visited the spot. Mr. Lawrence was good enough to promise me a copy of the section he was having drawn to scale. I learn from him, through Mr. Richardson, however, that this section has been mislaid. I have therefore drawn a rough sketch, which indicates the geological features exposed in the cutting (Sig. 1). The second sketch (Fig. 2) shows on a larger scale, and with greater accuracy of detail, a portion of the cutting on the N. side about twenty yards W. of the existing signal bridge. The cutting runs from a little N. of West to a little S. of East. At the Bristol or Western end the whole face of rock exposed is in the Trias ; but soon the ancient Palseozoic floor rises in an undulating line, so that, as seen in Eig. 1, the rock exposed at the Eastern end of the cutting is entirely Pen- nant. These strong coal-measure sandstones have a general 165 N 166 THE BRISLINGTON CUTTING. % dull-red colour, though in the deeper frac- ture the rock, especially where it is more massive, is bluish grey. The dip is from 20° to 30° S. 10 E. It is much jointed and troubled with little faults of small throw. The main joints run N. 20° W. In the Pennant were a number of large rounded or oval shrinkage nodules similar to that which stands on a pedestal at the Bath end of the cutting. Similar shrinkage nodules were found in the Millstone Grit of the Patch- wa}' tunnel. The Triassic beds dip N. 70 W. at a gentle angle of about 5°. The basement beds immediately overlying the Pennant are red and tolerably hard, and had to be blasted in the engineering operations of the cutting. From their hardness and the similarity of colour, they were not readily distinguishable at a little distance from the Pennant itself. Examined with the lens, the rock is seen to contain rounded or sub- angular grains of sand cemented with cal- careous matter containing a geod deal of red oxide of iron. Treated with acid, the stone effervesces freely. A hundred grains thus treated yielded 57J grains of red sandy residue. The material dissolved contained no magnesium, and was" almost entirely carbonate of calcium. There can be little doubt that this carbonate of lime was precipitated w^th the sand from the saline waters of the Keuper Lake as they gradually THE BEISLINGTOX CUTTING. 167 extended over the Bristol district. There is nothing here of the nature of the so-called Dolomitic Conglomerate which is found fringing the islands of the Keuper Sea. A thin bed of marl (now bricked in) separates a lower and 168 THE BEISLINGTON CUTTING. thicker mass of this calcareous sandstone from an upper and thinner stratum of similar materials (see Figs. 1 and 2). The u23per j)art of the section at the W. or Bristol end consists of ordinary red Triassic marl. This is now a grass-grown slope. The slope is carried along the whole length of the section (as indicated in Fig. 1 by the line conformable to the surface). This gives the appearance of the marl overlying the red calcareous sandstone unconformably, an appearance which deceived me at first. Subsequent examination, when the sloping bank was being trimmed back, led me to see that the slope to the Eastern end of the section is not in Trias marl, but in decomjDosed calcareous sandstone, in which occasional nodules which had escaped disintegration could be found. Fig, 2 was sketched while the walling up of parts of the face of the cutting was in progress. At the surface is the Triassic marl, now grass-grown. Below it is the band of red calcareous sandstone, followed by a band of marl bricked in. Between this and the Pennant at the base of the section are the red calcareous basement beds. But the parts dotted and partly bricked in, in the sketch, are composed of very soft friable yellow and brown ferruginous sand. In it there are nodules of calcareous sandstone of various sizes and shapes. There were many such irregular patches of ferruginous sand, so soft that it could be scraped away with the hand. These are now bricked in. There can be little doubt that these were produced by the solution of the cementing calcareous matter by water, con- taining probably carbonic acid gas dissolved in it. The contained nodules are masses of the original material which have escaped disintegration in this way. II. By Prof. C, LLOYD MORGAN, F.G.S., Assoc. R.S.M, NOTWITHSTANDING the admirable geological work, official and unofficial, tliat has been done in the Mendip Hills, there still remain many points which, to me at least, are far from satisfactorily explained. No one has yet given an adequate explanation of the system of faults and thrusts by which the Vobster and Luckirigton Lime- stones have reached their present position. The bands of grit and shales associated with the Vobster limestone point to the fact that the beds may probably be referred to the Upper Transition Beds (Upper Limestone Shales) of the Avon section. Little is known, however, concerning the Mendip beds of this horizon. We possess, in fact, very little accurate knowledge concerning the Millstone Grit and under- lying beds in the Mendips, and that little seems to point to conditions of deposit somewhat different from those which obtained further north. In a memoir I have promised to prepare for the Bristol Naturalists' Society, On the Geology of the Avon Basin and the Mendip Hills, I hope to publish the results of my own observations in this interesting district. There are one or 169 170 MENDIP NOTES. two points, however, to which I projDose to direct attention, withoiit further delay, in the following notes : — Emborrow. South of Emborrow, near Lechmere Water, one can, on the Geological Survey map, cover with the end of a cedar pencil Old Red Sandstone, Lower Transition Beds (Lower Lime- stone Shales), Mountain Limestone, Millstone Grit, and Coal-measures. A fault is indicated between the Old Red and Lower Transition Beds on the one hand, and the Mill- stone Grit and Coal-measures on the other. But even when the fault is taken into consideration, it is difficult to see how samples of all . these Palaeozoic beds come to be huddled together around Lechmere Water. In the Survey Memoir we read : — " South of Emborrow a small tract of rather complicated ground occurs, and it will be best to consider here all the rocks embraced in it. South-east of the church black coaly shales have been dug up, apparently an old shaft having been sunk. At Lechmere Water we find an adit level driven into the hill towards the church. Commenced in the Lower Limestone Shales, it is continued into the Old Red Sandstone, showing the passage between the two. Old Red Sandstone is seen by the cottage on the south side of the water. These beds must be faulted against the Coal-measures. To the south-east, on the northern side of the ravine, Millstone Grit occurs, and it stretches probably to Emborrow Church, where it is concealed by the Lias chert. . . . The trace of Coal-measures w^hich is exposed no doubt comes out conform- ably above the Millstone Grit, which again overlies the Carboniferous Limestone. These beds are faulted against the Old Red Sandstone and Lower Limestone Shales " (p. 16). MENDIP NOTES. 171 Some years ago my attention was drawn to this pretty and interesting spot by Mr. Henry E. Hippisley. I was puzzled and dissatisfied. Last summer I went over all the ground very carefully with Mr. Hippisley, and came to conclusions which differ from those expressed in the Survey publication. Mr. Hippisley also lent me some MS. notes made by his father in 1854 and 1857, when certain trials for coal and iron were being made in the neighbourhood. These notes con- firmed the results of our re-examination of the locality. There are neither Lower Transition Beds nor Old Red Sandstone near Lechmere Lake. The beds that have been accounted such are probably shales and sandstones of the Millstone Grit. The so-called Coal-measures are probably carbonaceous seams in the Millstone Grrit, or that series which, overlying the Mountain Limestone in the Mendip area, answers to the Millstone Grit. If this be so, then, in place of the puzzling patchwork of the Survey Map, we have beds of Millstone Grit faulted against the Mountain Lime- stone. The following are some of the facts and observations on which my conclusions are based : — (1) The Limestone to the East of Lechmere Water, where, according to the Survey Map, it adjoins the Lower Transi- tion Beds, contains no encrinital stems and no Spirifers, as it should do were it Lower Limestone ; but does contain Lithostrotion, which points to Upper Limestone. (2) The adit or heading described" in the Survey Memoir, as commenced in the Lower Limestone Shales, and continued into the Old Red Sandstone, is twenty-seven yards long, with, near its mouth, a drift of ten yards driven to the E. It passes through grey micaceous shales with carbonaceous specks, and reaches hard close sandstone resembling Millstone Grit. About three-fourths of the way in there is red sand- 172 MENDIP NOTES. stone resembling Old Red Sandstone. In the drift there is a thin coal-seam, together with shale, resembling the " pan " of coal-miners, in which there occur indications of Stigmaria rootlets (dip 27° SSE). The shales do not resemble those of the Lower Transition Beds, which may be examined in the cutting near Maesbury Station two or three miles further South. A'hundred yards or so to the West of this adit is another heading which was driven about thirty-seven yards. It was, as described in Mr. Hippisley's notes, " carried as far as water flint bed seen in the pond bank" (^^e., a white, close, Millstone Grit), " a vein of coal and two inches good fire-clay proved." ''Three beds of laminated cla^'^-stone. Good iron shown in crucible." A hundred yards or so still farther West is another head- ing, " carried to stout rocks thirty-four yards from hedge, Farewell rock to wit." Here, as in the first heading, there is, near the mouth of the heading, hard close Millstone Gri't, together with fragments resembling very closely Old Red Sandstone. Yet farther West, a little bej^ond the end of the pond, there is a cowshed built of Millstone Grit, of which Mr. Hippisley notes that it has " Farewell rock for floor." These headings and exposures are to the West of the adit mentioned in the Survey Memoir. To the South-East of it, on the other side of the road, a heading was driven ninety- five yards in " very faulty ground." The beds were perpen- dicular and irregular." In it were found the " end of a (coal) vein," and "indications of a vein and fire clay." And again, a little farther East, and higher up the hill, there was made, in 1857, " a gutter for draining six feet deep along hedge. At bottom, coal-measures, clay, and greys." (3) In the Survey Memoir we read : " Old Red Sandstone MENDIP NOTES. ITST is seen by the cottage on the South side of the water." This Sandstone is lithologically very like Old Red. The dip is 35° SSE., that is to say, similar in direction to but rather steeper than that in the adit. About two hundred and fifty yards to the South- West there are several old pits in the spoil heaps of which fragments of shale, resembling pan, with little bits of coal, may be found in abundance. Another two hundred and fifty yards or so further South-west are beds resembling Millstone Grit. These are some of the observations, past and present, u^Don which I base my conclusion, that Old Red Sandstone and Lower Transition Beds are coloured in on the Survey Map as the result of the erroneous interpretation. Of course, if Lower Transition fossils can be found, the existence of these beds could not be questioned. I have searched in vain for such fossils, and found instead coal-flecks and indications of rootlets. On remapping the ground on the six-inch scale, I find that the probable run of the fault is from " 707 " to the north of " Quar Tyning " on that map, through the middle of the large R of Emborrow ; or on the one-inch map from the S.W. point of the fault, as marked on the Geological Survey's publication, to between the h and the m of the word " Lech- mere " in " Lechmere Water." To the N.W. of this line Millstone Grit, with beds of pan, thin coal seams, and some clay-iron, has been brought in. Ebbor. In the picturesque little valley which runs in a north- westerly direction from the mouth of the Ebbor Gorge we have again a puzzling association of Old Red Sandstone, Lower Transition Beds, and Millstone Grit. Here again the insertion of Old Red and Lower Transition Beds is due to erroneous interpretation. 174 MEXDIP NOTES. " A little east of the lane " (between Easton and Priddy), we read in the Survey Memoir (p. 30), " near the bend, there is a shallow hole, apparently a trial shaft, from which black Carbonaceous Shales have been obtained, and which, no doubt, are beds belonging to the Millstone Grit." Farther down the valley is another much more recent pit. Of it, Messrs. Bristow and H. B. Woodward write {Geological Magazine^ vol. viii., p. 501, 1871): "We were astonished, when paying a visit to the spot in October, to find a shaft was being sunk in search of coal in the Lower Limestone Shales, which had evidently been passed through, inasmuch as the rock then brought to the surface was Old Red Sand- stone. The fragments of Carbonaceous shale in the old trial-shaft had probably misled the prosecutors of the second undertaking to suppose that the coal-measures were present, and that lower down in a southerly direction, they would be likely to succeed in finding coal. " A more unpromising j^lace for finding coal could scarcely have been selected an3'"where in the neighbourhood, for the spot where the shaft was being sunk is closely surrounded on all sides by rocks of greater age than the Coal-measures ; in fact, the little valley in which the works were being carried on may, in general terms, be described as two narrow strips of Lower Limestone Shale and Old Red Sandstone a few chains wide, and surrounded by higher ground composed of Mountain Limestone. The sinking of this shaft under such manifestly hopeless conditions shows a want of know- ledge of the elements of geology and coal-mining that could scarcely be supposed to exist in the present day on the part of persons likely to embark in a search for coal within five miles of a cathedral city." There is a touch of irony in the fact that those who thus spoke of the blunders of others should in the same para- graph have committed a more serious blunder themselves. MENDIP NOTES. 175 There is no satisfactory evidence of the parallel strips of Lower Transition Beds and Old Red Sandstone. In the illustrative section given in the paper from which I have quoted, the Mountain Limestone at the mouth of Ebbor G-orge is figured as Lower Limestone just above the Lower Limestone Shales. If so, encrinital ossicles should be abun- dant, and Spirifers should not be absent. On the other hand, the rocks show Lithostrotion, and have the appearance of Upper Limestone. I cannot accept this section as truly or satisfactorily interpreting the facts. I do not propose, however, to do more in this note than indicate the evidence which leads me to conclude that the insertion of Old Red and Lower Limestone Shales is incor- rect, and that Millstone Grit, with associated carbonaceous shales, extend down the valley. Near the top of the valley, where the lane from Easton to Priddy crosses it, near the gate, strong beds of Millstone Grit are seen in situ dipping about 75° S.W. A hundred yards or so south of this is the old pit mentioned in the Survey Memoir, in the spoil-heap of which are not only Carbonaceous Shales, but fragments of true coal. South and a little East of this there is another old pit, a little below the footpath that crosses the valley, with similar shales. An ash tree is now growing in it. Fifty yards or so farther down the valley, across the hedge, is yet another old working with similar black shales in the tip. So far as I Qan judge from the one- inch Survey Map we are here already in the supposed Lower Limestone Shales. But the three old pits form a chain : the shales which lie around them in the old spoil-heaps are in the main similar, and there is no evidence of a great fault, with a throw of some thousands of feet. Less than two hun- dred yards farther down the valley are the workings of 1871, said to be in Lower Limestone Shales, and penetrating to Old 176 MENDIP NOTES. E.ed Sandstone.* There is certainly no evidence of a great fault in this two hundred yards. I can scarcely distinguish a specimen I obtained from the older tip from one I obtained from the more recent heap. There is, in fact, nothing to lead one to sujDpose that of this continuous chain of pits some are in the Millstone Grit, some in Lower Limestone Shales. Furthermore, all down the North-eastern slope of the valley, as far as, and to a considerable distance beyond, the 1871 workings the sides of the hill are strewn here and there with blocks of Millstone Grit. Is there any discordance of strike which would lead one to suppose that the shales in the upper part of the valley are of a different series from those in the lower j^art of the valley ? No. The dips are high, nearly vertical in places ; and the strike is nearly uniform N.W. and S.E. Is the lithological character of the beds markedl}^ differ- ent ? No. The shales and sandstones of the coal-measure tyjDC in the various old workings seem to have been on the whole similar. There are nearly vertical shales in the Priddy lane, which closely resemble nearly vertical shales two hundred yards or more beyond the 1871 tip. I cannot but suppose that the similarity of some of the sandstone to Old Red led to the insertion in the Survey pub- lications of a strip of this rock. But here, as at Emborrow, I say, if Lower Transition fossils can be produced from the shales, the question of the exist- ence of these beds at Ebbor is at once settled. I have searched for them in vain. I may here note that there is evidence of one more trial pit. It is two or three hundred yards to the West of the entrance * The Rev. H. H. Winwood informs me that on lithological grounds he was led to regard the sandstone which had been brought to sur- face as Pennant or a rock of the Coal-measure Sandstone type. MENDIP NOTES. 871 of Ebbor Gorge, near a ruined building. The shales in the tip are dull red ; and the trial must have been made close to the Mountain Limestone. There may be a fault along the slope of the hill here. The relations of the two masses of Limestone, one on either side of the valley, are j^nzzling. I do not think either of them belong to the lower or encrinital series. At present all I am prepared to contend for is the abolition of the strips of Old Red Sandstone and Lower Limestone Shales and the mapping of Millstone Grrit, or that which seems to take its place in the Mendip area, in their stead. It may here be noted that near the top of the Ebbor Valley, and yet farther West where the old ruined farm buildings stand, the strong Millstone Grit band is conform- able to and at once succeeds on the Mountain Limestone. I have not at present found evidence of bands of grit in the Limestone below this. It would seem, therefore, that the Millstone Grit succeeds directly on the Limestone without the intervention of the Upper Transition Beds of the Clifton section. As before stated, however, the relations of the beds which form the upper part of and succeed on the Mountain Limestone in the Mendips need further elucida- tion. I think it may be found that in the Southern Mendips the Upper Limestone is (1) succeeded by shales grits and thin coal beds as at Emborrow and Ebbor ; and (2) these again succeeded by Limestone. In^ this way the outlying Limestone hills south of the Mendip area would be less puzzling ; and if this could be proved south of the Mendips it might throw light on the Luckington and Vobster Lime- stones. The mantle of secondary rocks, however, over all the lower ground must render it very difficult to test the correctness of this view, which is here thrown out merely as a suggestion. 178 MENDIP NOTES. DURSDONj NEAR WOOKEY. Geologists are well acquainted with the line face of Dolo- initic Conglomerate, here forming the basement beds of the Trias, beneath which the Wookey stream issues. This Dolomitic Conglomerate occupies an old valley stretching up into the Mendips as far as Dursdon. When the Mendips were sinking slowly and gradually beneath the waters of the Triassic sea or lake, the fragments which strewed the sides of the hills were collected into this fringing deposit which here and there, as in the old Wookey Valley, forms tongues or inlets into the Palaeozoic area now exposed by a later denudation. Near the upper end of this tongue there are well-marked, and now well-exposed, deposits of iron ore and mangani- ferous iron ore which are being worked by the Soinerset- sliire Manganese and Iron Company. The deposits are very irregular, and occur mainly in the Dolomitic Conglomerate. But they are also described as passing down into the under- lying Mountain Limestone, whether as lodes or as infillings of cracks from the surface is uncertain. I incline to the latter view. There are also sparry veins containing little strings of Galena. The locality is well worth a visit, and I have to thank Col. Harcourt and the Secretary of the Company, Mr. J. Bicknell, for kindly giving me the oppor- tunity of examining it. Cheddar. " Old Ked Sandstone of a very compact nature occurs about one mile to the South-east of Cheddar, accounted for probably by a fault. The surface of the ground is sloping and much overgrown with furze, but the stone has been quarried in two or three places where tolerably good sections are exposed." (" Survey Memoir of East Somerset," etc., p. 16. From Mr. Blake's Notes.) MENDIP NOTES. 179 Concerning this locality, I will only transcribe the note I made on the spot. " In an orchard np on side of hill, much overgrown with bracken and some furze, many fragments of red sandstone or quartzite. Many of them very hard like Millstone Grit ; some of them with rusty spots like the Mill- stone Grit near the dilapidated buildings West of the lane from Easton to Priddy, near the Ebbor Valley, some softer and more like Old Red Sandstone. In a field below, cattle pond, sides of which have very hard Red Sandstone like Mill- stone Grit. On the whole I am inclined to regard this as Millstone Grit not Old Red Sandstone. The relation to other rocks not clear." BuRRiNGTON Combe. I have been desirous of obtaining satisfactory data for estimating the thickness of the various subdivisions of the Lower Carboniferous series of deposits in the Mendip area, and have collected a considerable body of observations. It has been mentioned above that there seems some doubt whether the Upper Transition Beds (Upper Limestone Shales) of the Avon Section are represented as such in the Mendip area. The Lower Transition Beds are, however, well represented, and contain the equivalent of the Biyozoa Bed of the Clifton Avon Section. They may be measured with fair accuracy at Burrington Combe, where it is al^o possible to estimate the thickness of the Lower or Encrinital Limestone, and the equivalent of the Gully Oolite of the Clifton Section. It may be possible also to estimate the thickness of the Lower Transition Beds in the railway cutting between Binegar and Maesbury, near the latter station (misspelt Masbury by the G.W.R.). The lower limit is there, however, obscured, and I have not, as yet, calculated out the thickness. 180 MENDIP NOTES. Figs. 3 and 4 give a map and section at Biirrington Combe. From the observations there recorded the estimated thicknesses are as follows : — Feet. Upper or Lithostrotion Limestone (including " Mitcheldeania " Beds of Clifton Section) . 700 Gully Oolite 250 Lower or Encrinital Limestone . . . 1,300 Lower Transition Beds 350 2,600 About 60 feet below the top of the Oolite is a parting of orown argillaceous Limestone with reddish shales. Near the top Productus rcticulatus occurs. Above the Oolite Lithostrotion is abundant. Below the Oolite the Limestones are characteristically encrinital. The Lower Transition Beds begin near Cloatchurch Cavern, in the more westerly of the Twin Brooks. The Bryozoa Bed is found in the more easterly of the Twiu Brooks just above the path connected with the rifle butts. The Lower Transition Beds are slightly, the Lower Lime- stones considerably, thicker than in the Avon Section. Notwithstanding that the upper beds of the Upper Lime- stone are hidden by the Basement Beds of the Trias, the total thickness of Lower Carboniferous beds here exposed is thicker than the total thickness of these beds at Clifton. If my estimate of the thickness of the Lower Limestone is correct, it is more than double that in the Avon Section. LUCKINGTON. I may here note that in a quarry in Ihe Luckington Lime- MEXDIP NOTES. 181 F ic . 4-. Scale 6 inches to 1 mile. * 182 MENDIP NOTES. stone, Mr. Winwood, Mr, McMurtrie, and I, noted black shaley beds overlying the limestone. These at first sight looked like Coal-measure Shales, but proved to be Hhoetic or Penarth Beds resting uncomformably on the Mountain Lime- stone. Avicula contorta was found ; and the Bone Bed. Mr. Winwood is describing the section (with a figure) in the Proceedings of the Bath Field Club. I cannot conclude these brief notes without saying that if I have been led to differ from the conclusions reached by the gentlemen of the Geological Survey in certain details of mapping, I do so with some diffidence and in the interest of accuracy. I yield to no one in my admiration of the w^ork of the Survey in the Bristol and Mendip areas. III. By Professor C. LLOYD MORGAN, F.Gl.S., Assoc. H.S.M. THE picturesque little valley near Wick, through which the little brook called the River Boyd jlows, affords to the geologist an opportunity of examining an interesting little patch of Palaeozoic rocks. As the geology of this locality does not seem to be well understood, I propose to supply a few notes in illustration of the accompanying sketch map. If we enter the valley at its lower end from the Marsh- field road (lower left-hand corner in the map), we see some indications of the Basement Beds of the Trias, and then find ourselves in Millstone Grit. The beds are variable. There are fissile sandstones with mica ; some strong close-grained light-coloured sandstones of great hardness and durability ; shales and marly beds ; a bed a few inches thick which gives an excellent tough clay ; and several thin but well- marked seams of coal. Beyond some indications of carboni- ferous plant remains, I have found no fossils, except in one 183 184 THE GEOLOGY OF THE WICK EOCKS VALLEY. F/c . 5s Hcule 6/f^CM£i TO /Mlit THE GEOLOGY OF THE WICK ROCKS VALLEY. 185 band some crinoidal ossicles. The dip is from 40° to 50° in a direction a little (5°-10°) to the South of West. Just beyond, where the path crosses the stream, on the north side of the little bridge, are two quarries close together (at the point marked f on the map). They should be ex- amined carefully, since the incoming of calcareous conditions (i.e., the commencement of the Upper Transition Beds are very clearly seen. In the more westerly exposure in these quarries there is first a pebble bed, five feet thick, with milky quartz ; then a foot and a half of fine close-grained grit; then another pebble bed also 1| feet thick, followed by grits and marly shale. Between the two quarries, for they are adjacent to each other, there are 7|- feet of shale very carbonaceous, almost coal, below. Then follow twenty to twenty-five feet of solid grit, with strong pebble beds at base. These are succeeded by a bed with a curious irregularly mam- millated surface. It is about one foot thick, very dense and solid, and effervesces with acid. This is the first bed with calcareous matter, and I think we may fairly regard it as the first bed of the Upper Transition series, the strong pebble bed being the base of the Millstone Grit. The calcareous bed yielded Mr. H. H. Winwood and myself two species of Lingula^ one of which appears to be L. parallela. Beneath this Lingula bed is a friable bed, from which the lime has been partially or completely removed by water, laden with carbonic acid soaking through. It is crowded with fossils, among which Producta (? species) is con- spicuous, together with a bivalve (? Nucula). I hope to work out the fossils from these beds more fully. From this point onwards limestone bands, many of them richly fossili- ferous, are the prevalent rock, though there are also shales and strong grit. They are the Upper Transition Beds. 186 THE GEOLOGY OF THE WICK EOCKS VALLEY. I may next draw attention to the quarry just beyond tlie cottages, between them and the rolling mills, now used for grinding the ochre obtained from the Trias of the neigh- bourhood. Working from above downward, there are first about 35 feet of dark bluish-grey limestone, oolitic above, then highly bituminous. Cyatliopliyllum occurs here. This is followed by 2\ feet of grit, and then 14|- inches of red and grey marly slate. Then come twelve feet of strong dense grit, iron-stained along the joints, and this is followed by a thin coal-seam a foot or less in thickness. Beneath this is broken faulty-looking rock in which is an old adit 15 yards long — a bit of the " old men's " work. A little lower down there are a few feet of thin carbon- aceous and sandy beds with thin bedded grits. These are the last sandy or gritty beds visible. Near the dam for the mill strong oolitic limestones are found, with Cyatlio- phyllum and Producta, They are clearly Upper Lime- stone. The junction of Upper Transition Beds and Upper Limestone may be placed at the mill. There is no sign of a fault. The occurrence of the thin coal-seam in the Upper Transi- tion Beds, within 50 or 60 feet at most of the Upper Lime- stone, is worthy of note. The beds have a fairly uniform dip of 55° W. The thick- ness of the Upper Transition Beds may thus be estimated with approximate accuracy at 600 feet. On either side of the pond, which is dammed back for the mill, there is solid limestone, which is being worked in large quarries on both sides of the stream along the strike of the beds. If Ave follow on the right hand side of the valley, still working up stream, we can scarcely fail to notice at the point indicated on the map the sudden incoming again of THE GEOLOGY OF THE WICK ROCKS VALLEY. 187 the Millstone Grit. This is due to a fault whicli runs nearly- North and South (N. 10° W. to S. 10° E.). The limestone seems to dip nearly due W. The faulted-in Millstone Grit N. 70° W. The fault is undoubtedly a reversed or thrust fault, since at the upper part of the northern slope of the valley the limestone is thrust further East than it is further down the slope. The Millstone Grit thus introduced may be followed up the stream on the southern (right hand) slope of the valley and preserves a dip of 65° in the direction N. 70^ W. It is followed in due succession by calcareous beds and well- marked sandy limestones, indicating the incoming of the Upper Transition Beds which retain the same dip to N. 70° W. Suddenly, however, we come upon strong grits, with pebble beds of milky quartz with quite a different dip, viz., 75°-80° in the direction S. 10° W. These dips are not found in an isolated patch of rock, but are seen on both sides of the stream near Cleeve Bridge. The incoming of Millstone -Grit again, and that with a dip in quite a different direction, can only be accounted for by a second fault, which, according to my estimate, runs N. 30° W. to S. 30° E. Beyond Cleeve Bridge the Palaeozoic beds are covered by Trias. The geologist, instead of retracing his steps down the valley, may take the little path from Cleeve Bridge to the Wick E/Ocks quarry, where he will see the Upper Limestone (in which there are strings and veinlets of Galena) well exposed. At the points marked o c on the map, pits are being sunk in the Trias for ochre, which is being ground by Mr. Phipps at the Wick rolling mills. At (o cV for example, a bed of 188 THE GEOLOGY OF THE WICK ROCKS VALLEY. brown ochreous rock four feet thick was (21st June, 1890) being worked. It was about eight feet from the surface, and overlain by red (and green) marls, being imderlain again by red marls. Plate 1. C, BucK,r,ali. del ad nat /. Lejatostroina Thragmitis , Fi: 3. Cribana inLcrocarjja, Twst. 2. Hendef^sonia hajaalocystis, Cooke 4. Tnchia coittorta, Jicst. ^Ije JfHn0i of tj)£ grislal gistrkt. PART XII. By CEDRIC BUCKNALL, Mus.Bac. nriHE following species are either hitherto unrecorded as -L British, or have occurred for the first time in Britain in this district : 1363. Agaricus (Collybia) floccipes, Fr. Hym. Eur., p. 116. Cooke^ Illus. t. 1168. 1378. Leptostroma Phragmitis, Fr. Sacc. Sijl., Vol. III., No. 3419. Plate I;, fig. 1. 1379. Hendersonia hapalocystis, Cooke, Grevillea, Vol. XVIIL, p. 74. Plate I., fig. 2. 1380. Cribaria microcarpa, Rost. Mon., p. 336. Plate I., fig. 3. 1381. Hemiarcyria Bucknalli, Massee, Grevillea, Vol. XVIIL, p. 27. Plate II., fig. 5. 1382. Oligonema nitens, Rost. Massee, Revis. Trich., p. 23 J. 29. 1395. Pirott^a veneta, Sacc. Michelia, Vol. /., p. 424 Plate IL, fig. 9. 189 190' THE FUNGI OF THE BEISTOL DISTRICT. 1363. Agaricus (Collybia) floe-") cipes, Fr. Ilym. Eur., p. > Leigh Woods, July, 1889. 116. Cooke, Ilhos.t 1168.) " Pileus rather fleshy, campanulate, then convex, umbonate, even, silky, becoming pale ; stem fistulose, straight, rooting, pallid, rough icith fioccose punctiform black squamules ; gills adnexed, ventricose, rather distant, thick, white." — Grevillea, vol. xviii., p. 26. This small but interesting species was found, for the first time in Britain, in an old decayed stump in Nightingale Valley. 1364. Agaricus (Omphalia) ) t • i ttt j o i. ioon ^ in r Leigh Woods, Sept., 1889. maurus, Fr. 3 j r j This and the next species occurred on the patches of ground in the Leigh Woods, where the underwood which had been cut down was burnt. The first fungi to make their appearance amongst the ashes were Peziza melaloma and P. omphalodes, and these were succeeded by an abundant crop of hundreds of specimens of Polyporus perennis, together with the usual inhabitants of burnt ground, Agaricus atratus, A. carbonarius, CanthareUvs carbonarius (a single specimen), and also fine and beautiful specimens of A. cyathiformis. 1365. Agaricus (Omphalia) hepa- ") t • i ttt j -v- -\ oon ticus, i?«(.5c/i. j Leigh Woods, :Nov. 1889. 1366. Agaricus^^(Eutoloma) seri- j gt^^i.t^^^ __ igSV. 1367. Agaricns^(Pholiota) durus, | p^^^j^^^^y^ j^ay, 1890. 1868. Agaricus (PaBa^olus) cali- ) ^ ^ gjjj q ggg gmosus, Jungli. J ' ' 1369. Coprinus domesticus, i^r. j Clifton (L. Rogers, ^ ' ( Esq.), winter, 1890. 1370. Bolbitius Boltoni, Fr. The Avon, July, „ 1371. Cortinarius (Phlegmacium) | Leigh Woods, Sept.- triumphans, Fr. j Nov., 1889. A rare and beautiful species, and an interesting addition to our local flora. It would appear strange that such a well marked species should have so long escaped notice in this well worked locality ; but, from the resemblance of the pileus when growing to some common species of Agarics, it may easily be mistaken for them, until gathered. THE FUNGI OF THE BRISTOL DISTRICT. 191 1372. Cantharellus carbonarius, | Leigli Woods, Nov., 1889. A. & S. 3 „ „ June, 1890. 1373. Marasmius fuscopurpureus, | Blaise Castle Fr. {?). ) Woods, Sept., 1885. 1374. Merulins tremellosus, ) ^eigh Woods, Nov., 1889. Sclirad. 3 1375. Merulins lacrymans, Fr. \ -ry. ' " -iQ-p TT ;] 11-1 a (Sea Mills (C. K. Rudge, 13^6. Hydniim coralloides, Scop. | ^^^^-^^ Autumn, 1888. 1377. Cyphella g^i^eo-pallida, j ^.^^^^^^^^ Weimnan. 1378. Leptostroma Phragmitis, | ^^^ ^ ^^^ ^gc^Q^ Fr. Plate I., fig. 1. 3 " Perithecia lanceolate, rather large, 1-lJ mm. long, J mm. broad, distinctly rimose ; spores fusoid, 15-20 x 3^ - 4 [x, 4-nucleate, curved, hyaline." — Sacc. Sijl. vol. Hi., No. 3419. On dead stems of Phragmites. Saccardo, not being in possession of an authentic specimen of Fries' plant, has taken his description from specimens collected by Magnus, so that he is in doubt as to whether it is identical with that of Fries. My specimen agrees exactly with the above description, except that the perithecia are scarcely rimose. They would probably become so with more advanced age. 1379. Hendersonia Cke. Plate X hapalocystis, 1 ^j^^ ^ ^ -j 1335, ate 1., fig. 2. ) 1 r 1 " Perithecia scattered, immersed, scarcely visible except by cutting away the wood. Spores large, 45-50 x 18 /i, four-celled, the two median cells large, subglobose, flattened at the junction, dark brown, nearly black, ultimate cells small, hyaline, almost like an apiculus at each end. On decorticated twigs of ash, etc." — Grevillea, vol. xviii., p. 74- 1380. Cribaria microcarpa. East. Plate I., fig. 3. Clevedon, April, 1889. " Sporangia globose, small, erect or cernuous, stipitate, calyculus ahsevt, primary ribs of neticork radiating from apex of stem as elongated, broad bands, anastomosing laterally, and forming elongated meshes, passing upwards into an irregular network of very thin threads, connecting large, brown, irregularly stellate knots crowded with granules; stem slender, 192 THE FUNGI OF THE BRISTOL DISTllICT. elongated, straight or flexuous, erect or curved above, brownish purple ; spores globose, very pale, viinutely verruculose, 5-7 u diameter. Rost. MoTu, p. 236. Distinguished from G. argillacea, Pers., the only other British species without a calyculus ( = the entire cup-like basal portion of sporangium), by the long slender stem, and small globose sporangium. Gregarious, 2-5-3 mm. high. On dead Sphagnum, etc., in a stove, Claremont, Clevedon (Mr. Baker). * Trichia contorta, Rost. No. ) t • i att i -< ooi 13ol ante Plate I I Leigh Woods, 1881. iJ£?A ante. I'late i., >Yatton, Dec, 1888. 1381. Hemiarcyria Biicknalli, ") o, i , ^oo^k Massec. Plate II., fig. 5. j Stapleton, 1880. " Sporangia sessile on a broad or narrow base, seated on a very thin hypothallus, circular, reniform, or subangular from mutual pressure, wall very thin, gilvo-ochraceous, soon disappearing ; mass of spores orange ; capillitium well developed, threads combined to form a wide-meshed network, with many free ends, 4-5 fi thick, walls with annular ridges mostly crowded, but here and there scattered, and sometimes passing into a spiral, the ridges with numerous thin, straight spines 3-4 /jl long, the free tips irregularly swollen and bristling with spines, as are also cer- tain interstitial swollen portions ; spores globose, pale yellow, minutely warted, 7-9 jj, diameter. Generally crowded, about -5 mm. diameter, but extending to 1'5 mm. when isolated and elongated. Most closely allied to H. Wigandl, Rost., but at once distinguished by the larger size of the sporangia, the mark- ings on the elaters being in the form of rings, and not spirals, and in being furnished with numerous spines.'' — Grevillea, vol. xviii., j)- 27. This occurred on the old beech stumps in Stapleton Park, in the year 1880, in company with Trichia scahra, for which, in consequence of its great external resemblance, it was mistaken, and remained undetected until last year, when, having occasion to examine microscopically the species of Trichia in my herbarium, the great difference in the sculpturing of the elaters in some of the specimens under the name of T. scahra, at once made it apparent that this belonged not only to another species, but to a different genus. Being unable to find any description to which it would correspond, I submitted my specimens to my friend Mr. George Massee, who pronounced it to be different from any species yet described. 1382. Oligonema nitens, Rost. Abbot's Leigh, June, 1889. Sporangia densely crowded, often several layers superposed, sessile on THE FUNGI OF THE BRISTOL DISTRICT. 193 a broad or slightly contracted base, clear primrose yelloiv, very smooth and shining ; mass of capillitium and spores yellow ; elaters scanty, variable, 4-5 /x tbick, simple or branched, perfectly smooth, or loith scattered narrow rings, sometimes with an indistiiict, very open spiral on the whole or por- tion only of an elater, tips usually abrupt, rarely ending in a short api- culus ; spores globose, icith narrow raised ridges of varying thickness, forming an irregular network, 11-13 ix diameter. Massee, Revis. Trich., p. 23. Only a single minute sporangium of this species was found. It oc- curred on rotten wood from a stump in the clay pits at Abbot's Leigh, and, as I know of no foreign source from which it could be derived, I fed justified in recording it as an addition to the British Myxomyoetes. 1383. Periclieena depressa, Lib. Clevedon, Nov., 1888. 1384. Puccinia salii, Pers. 7 tt i r\ ^ ■\ 0,0,0, /m 1 ^ \ \ Hanham, Oct., 1888. (Teleutospores.) ) ' ' 1385. „ bnllata, Pers. 1 Black Eock (Teleutospores). j Quariy, April, 1890. 1386. Melampsora hypericorum, ) Portishead B.C. ] Woods, Sept., 1889. 1387. Peziza tectoria, Cke. Clevedon, Ju^ly, 1889. 1388. Hymenoscyplia tuberosa, 7 -r- • i -rx- ^ a -i -\ac\c\ "^jD 11 ' ^ Leigh Woods, April, 1890. * Mollisia discolor, Mont. This species, which appears to be common in the district, has been mistaken for P. vulgaris, Fr., and is so recorded in Fungi Bris. Dist., Part II. The latter species was omitted by Mr. Phillips in the " British Discomycetes," as he had never been satisfied that he had the true species of Fries ; but he has now recorded it as occurring at Shere and also at Carlisle. 1389. Mollisia arundinacea, B.C. S. Philip's Marsh, 1882. ^^^^' Platelrt'' 6^'^' ^^''''' ] ^^'^^ "^^^^^^ ^^^y' 1^^^- The exterior of the cup is rugose, whereas in typical M. palustris it is even. 1391. Mollisia dilatella, Fr. Yatton, Jan., 1890. 1392. Lachnella hinnnlea, B. & Br. ^ I Leigh Woods, June, 1890. On the patches of burnt ground, before referred to as producing so many species of fungi. 194 THE FUNGI OF THE BEISTOL DISTRICT. * Laclmea lapidaria, Cke.\ Phil. Brit. Disc. , p. 211. Pcziza hyhrida^ No. y Bristol, J^ty? 1885. 1074 ante. *13o9 ante. Plate II., fig. 7. ^ 1393. Lachnella grisella, Rehm. \ GreviUea, Vol. VIII., p. > Sandy Lane, June, 1890. 84. Plate II., fig. 8. j 1394. Lachnella melaxantha, i^/'. { -rfr -, ^r i -.orw-* ' 3 Woods, Marcn, 1890. 1395. Pirottsea veneta, Sacc, ") Black Rock Plate IL, fig. 9. 3 Quarry, June, 1885. Cups sub-superficial, gregarious, scutellate, sessile, ^-^ mm. dia- meter, black, nearly closed when dry, clothed with cuspidate, sparingly septate, dark fuligineous bristles, 40-50 x5 /jl, which are more crowded at the margin ; external structure distinctly parenchymatous, cells easily separating; asci cylindraceo-clavate, 40-45 x 8, sub-obtuse at the apex, sub - sessile, 8-spored ; paraphyses linear ; sporidia cylindric, ends rounded, 14-15x2, binucleate, hyaline. On dead stems and leaves of Helleborus virldis. Saccardo, Michelia, vol. i., p. 4^4- My specimens are on dead herbaceous stems, but certainly not on Hellebore. 1396. Hypocrea rufa, Pers. Sandy Lane, June, 1890. 1397. Poronia punctata, Fr. ClevedoD, Dec, 1889. 1398. OpHobolus terpotrichus, j ^.^^.^^^ ^^^.jj^ ^^^^ 1399. Lophiotrema semiliberum, j Desm. Since the note on p. 2 was written, I have again, on June 19th, visited the patches of burnt ground in Leigh Woods, and find that they are still productive of fungi, notwithstanding the comparative dryness of the season, and the paucity of fungi in other parts of the woods. The following species were observed: Agaricus rubescew, A. carbonarius, Cantharellus carbonarixis (several small specimens), Polyporus perennis, Pcziza omphalodes, Lachnea hemispherica, and L. hmnulea. Plate 11 ^ If em la.T'Cit/ru/. Buc/tHixll.i , Massee. 6. Molli^ut palnsdr/s, Ro'h. Vocr. 7. Xachnea laptdaria~,6hoke. 8. L/x-chnellcc qrisel/a, R^-hrri.. painfull at Cliftffii iir 1889. By GEORGE F. BURDER, M.D., F.R.Met.S vlFALL. oc. TABLE ( DF RAir 1889. Average of 37 years. Depaiture from Average. Greatest Fall in 24 Hours. Number of Days on which •01 in. or more fell. Depth. Date. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. January . . 0-844 3-193 -2-349 0-203 28th 10 February . 1-538 2-258 -0-720 0-507 10th 15 March . . 4-383 2-282 + 2-101 1-826 8th 15 April . . . 4-766 2-144 + 2-622 0-963 7th 20 May . . . 2-687 2-413 +0-274 0-874 24th 16 June . . . 0-512 2-539 -2-027 0-262 1st 6 July . . . 4-428 3-042 + 1-386 0-967 24th 14 August . . 3-328 3-423 -0-095 0-905 5th 16 September . 2-268 3-287 -1-019 .0-917 23rd 9 October . . 2-264 3-612 -1-348 0-435 19th 24 l^ovember . 1-221 3-063 -1-842 0-406 24th 7 December . 2-253 2-875 -0-622 0-491 21st 16 Year . . . 30-492 34-131 -3-639 1-826 Mar. 8th 168 195 196 RAINFALL AT CLIFTON IN 1889. Remarks. — The year 1889 was on the whole a dry year. The total downfall was barely 30J inches, against a long average of about 34 inches. The two driest months of the year were January and June, each of which showed a deficiency of over two inches. June was a splendid month, with twenty-four rainless days, and a total fall scarcely exceeding half an inch. It was the driest June recorded at this station in 37 years. The last five months of the year were all below the average, in varying degrees — August only slightly ; September, October, and November considerably. From August 22nd to September 18th dry weather prevailed with little interruption. October presented the paradox of a deficient rainfall with an unusually large number of " rainy " days. The weather was very unsettled thronghout the month, and the falls of rain, al though seldom heavy, were very frequent. November also was somewhat inconsistent with itself. As regards the number of rainless days, it was but little behind June, and it included a period of eighteen days of almost absolute drought ; yet such was the prevail- ing humidity of the air, that the surface of the ground was at no time completely dry. Specially wet months in 1889 were March, April, and July — a circumstance the more noteworthy, in regard to March and April, because these months, with Eebruary, constitute, on an average, the driest portion of the year. March will be long remembered in the low-lying parts of Bristol for its disastrous floods, a repetition of which was threatened in the early part of April. In the forty-eight hours elapsing between midnight of March 6-7 and midnight of March •8-9 the downfall was about 3*2 inches ; or, if we take into account the melting of the residue of a previous snow-storm, we may estimate the quantity of water to be disposed of as equivalent to 33 inches of rain falling in sixty hours. On RAINFALL AT CLIFTON IN 1889. 197 the 8th of April, with portions of adjoining days, over two inches of rain fell in forty-eight hours. March was the wettest March since 1867, and April was the wettest April recorded. July was in the main a showery month, the fine weather which had prevailed in June coming to an end about July 8th. In August also the weather was for the most part broken, although the dry period at the end of the month brought the total fall below the average. On the whole, the months of July and August somewhat disappointed the hopes regarding the harvest which had been raised by the brilliant weather of June. The only heavy falls of snow in the year occurred on February 10th, when the depth was four inches, and on March 4th, when the depth was five and a half inches. There was but little drift on either occasion. scrbations of SD^mpcraluit at ' Cliftmi Colk^e, 1889. By D. EINTOUL, M.A. Cantab. npHE outstanding facts about the temperature of the year are to be seen in the following tables. It will be noticed that the mean temperature of the year was 49*41"r'., thus higher than the mean of nine years by •Sl^F. This excess was mainly due to the months of April, May, June, and November. There were periods of excep- tionally low temperature in the beginning of January, the lasi four days of February, and the first six days of March, and again in the end of November and beginning of Decem- ber. The mean temperature was above the average in May and June on all but ten days. r38 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TAKEN AT CLIFTON. 199 1889 TEMPERATURES. MONTH. Maximum in Shade. Minimum in Shade. Mean in Shade. Minimum on Ground, lowest recorded. Hif»-hest recorded. Mean. Lowest recorded. Mean. January . 51-8 41-49 22-2 32-83 37-16 21-8 February . 52-1 44-01 27-5 33-92 38-96 18-2 1 March . . 69-2 47-40 27-3 85-61 41-50 22-0 April . . 62-3 62-20 34-1 39-95 46-07 28-2 May . . . 78-9 62-85 41-5 48-73 55-79 37-9 June . . 80-5 69-42 47-0 53-17 ; 61-29 44-0 July. . . ! 77-3 68-00 49-4 54-16 61-08 44 0 August 76-8 65-08 46-5 63-28 59-18 43-0 September 79-5 63-21 39-3 50-65 56-93 35-0 October . 60-1 63-98 35-3 43-61 1 48-79 33-1 November \ 58-0 50-91 30-5 42-53 1 46-72 27-0 December. 52-8 44-11 24-0 34-77 1 39-44 21-3 Year 1889. | 80-5 55-22 22-2 43-60 49-41 18-2 Year 1888. 79-1 54-19 22-3 42-74 48-46 1 18-0 Year 1887. 82-8 i 56-0 20-4 40-9 48-4 11-7 Year 1886. • 83-5 1 54-90 21-7 43-17 : 49-03 16-3 Year 1885. 87-8 1 53-98 ! 22-1 42-53 i 48-09 20-1 Year 1884. 87-5 j 67-44 1 22-6 44-07 ; 50-66 23-7 Year 1883. 82-5 1 54-54 20-9 42-88 48-71 19-3 Year 1882. 78-5 1 55-46 21-9 43-62 49-54 20-6 Year 1881. 86-9 . 55-44 12-3 42-92 49-18 5-8 200 METEOEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TAKEN AT CLIFTON. MONTH. N limber of Days on which the Minimum Ground Temperature was below 32°F. Number of Days on which the Minimum Air Temperature was below 32°F. Number of Days on which the Maximum Air Temperature was below 32°F. Number of Days on which the Mean Air Temperature was below 32*t!\ January . . 23 10 3 5 February . . 17 11 0 0 March . . . 18 8 1 2 April . . . 4 0 0 0 May . . . 0 0 0 0 June . . . 0 0 0 0 July . . . 0 0 0 0 August . . 0 0 0 0 September . 0 0 0 0 October . . 0 0 0 0 November . 5 3 0 0 December 21 13 1 5 Year 1889 . 88 45 5 12 Year 1888 . 93 60 2 16 Year 1887 . 148 63 2 11 Year 1886 . 102 64 1 22 Year 1885 . 68 40 1 6 Year 1884 . 51 19 0 1 Year 1883 . 79 40 0 6 Year 1882 . 63 26 2 7 Year 1881 . 94 60 11 24 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS TAKEN AT CLIFTON. 201 Mean of Eijrhfc Years. CO do CO CO o JN. CO CO lO CO r-f 00 lO 00 r-t CO lO Oi o cq CO i^O o CO 00 lO CO -* o o 00 00 i-H CO !— 1 CO CO Oi 00 CO o T-H o CO Oi lb liO Oi CI CO 00 p CO 00 T— 1 lO CO 00 Cl CO 00 T-H 00 00 00 00 CO T— 1 CO CO 00 CO Cl lO lO -*< 00 CO IjO CO lO 00 00 Cl c^ lO 00 00 r— 1 T— 1 o Oi CO CI IP >b Cl CO p CO CO CO lO r-l CO Cl rH Oi CO 00 00 CO 00 lb 00 1—1 o CO CQ o GO do lO Cl rH Cl 00 lO Cl CO 00 CO o -* I 1 GO r-l 00 CO o CO o 00 lO CO Cl lO lO lO -^ lO CO lb 00 00 -* 00 00 CO l—t 00 00 00 1-4 CM 00 CI rH lb CO • CO lo 00 Oi o CO lO CO 1^ lO 00 CO r-i CO o lO CO CO C30 1—1 CO CO CO -* p CO cq lO cq CO o CO CO lb lO CO 00 CQ ^1 00 CI 00 i-H o -* CO lb 00 cfo o iO CO lO Cl o CO 00 lO Cl o 00 00 Oi CO ip 00 00 CO CO CO Ci CO o CO CO Oi CO lO lb CO 00 00 CO lO lO 00 00 00 o Cl ! 6i ! ^ 1 MONTH. p Eh < OS t-5 -l-i m bo < o O o B o o o p o bscrbatians 011 ix "^mxd ^Vliuhbirtis. By H. PERCY LEONARD. Read February Gth, 1890. r I 1HE paper which I have the honour of reading before -*- you to-night will consist for the most part of observa- tions which I have made on a pair of blackbirds which have for a twelvemonth past haunted our back garden. I cannot chronicle anything new or striking with regard to the habits of these birds, but I have thought that a truthful account of ^' the short and simple annals " of the blackbird might be of interest to the Society. There are several reasons which induce the blackbirds to leave the open country?- and to frequent the neighbourhood of human habitations. The country blackbird is in constant jeopardy from the sparrow-hawk ; and though I have on two occasions seen this bird in the neighbourhood of Redland, it is of rare occurrence in the suburbs of a town. Then in the nesting season the magpie and jay are fre- quently successful in stealing the eggs and the young, and from these tyrants man's presence is a protection. In summer the birds find the fruit-trees an attraction, and the slugs and snails are more abundant in well watered 2(2 ■ OBSERVATIONS ON" A PAIR OF BLACKBIRPS. 203 gardens than in the scorched hedgerows of the country ; while in the winter season the evergreens in the shrubberies form a protection from the wind, and the bacon rinds and bread crumbs show a decided advantage over the famine which prevails in rural districts. I must now introduce my characters. In accordance with the rules of polite society, I shall take the hen bird first, and simply state that she is quite an ordinary specimen of turclus mej'ida^ and is of course brown, and not jet black like her mate. The cock bird is however distinguished from the rest of his species, and is I believe quite a public character in Clifton ; he is none other than the white-headed blackbird probably known to many of you by sight. The sides of his head are pure white, and he has besides white spots near the base of the tail. White and pied specimens occur not infrequently, and in a district near Paris they are numerous, the title to a certain estate being kept up by the annual presentation of a white blackbird to the lord of the manor. This phenomenon is known to science by the name of "albinism." In the Museum of Natural History, South Kensington, will be found a case quite filled by albinos, a white kangaroo, a white jackdaw, a white sparrow, and many other creatures who, for some obscure reason, were not able to supply colouring matter for their feathers or hair, and in consequence could not grow coloured coverings like the rest of their kind. Besides natural albinism there is artificial albinism. When from any cause the lower cells of the skin which contain the pigment are destroyed, they are never replaced ; and though the external layers of the skin which produce the hair are renewed, they, being deprived of the colouring matter, are white. This explains the white spots so fre- quently to be seen on a horse's back; the harness in time 204 OBSEEVATIONS ON A PAIK OF BLACKBIRDS. past has fretted the skin and made a sore place, the colour- ing cells once destroyed are not renewed, and though the hair grows again, it grows white. A scar on a negro is white from the same cause. But to return to the blackbirds. About the end of February 1 began to notice a hen blackbird frequenting a corner of the garden where a laurustinus, an aucuba, a lilac, and a walnut tree form a small shrubbery. My suspicions were aroused, but not till I saw her one morning dis- appear into the bushes with a tuft of root fibres in her beak did I feel sure that she had decided to baild in our domain. On the 13th day of March I discovered a substantial foundation of a nest about four feet from the ground, lodged in a forked branch of the laurustinus ; but the bird was very dilatory over the business, and the work made slow progress, her movements exactly resembling those of a labourer who is paid by time and not by the piece. It is possible however that the dry east wind which prevailed at the time had made it difficult to procure soft mud, so necessary for lining the interior. She almost always approached the nest by a circuitous route, and with an easy nonchalance^ assumed for the pur- pose of not attracting attention. She evinced a strong dislike to other birds building in her vicinity, and but for her unneighbourly behaviour, I had hopes of a robin's and a thrush's nest in addition to her own. I observed her on one occasion viciously eject a thrush who had secured an eligible building site in a yellow jasmine trained against the wall. On March the 22nd she was sitting close most of the day, and, anxious to find out whether she had laid an Qgg^ I took a lantern in the evenip"". and went to the nest, honi-^'^- ^-r^ OiJSEEVATIONS ON A PAIR OF BLACKBIRDS. 205 find her " not at home." A passing breeze put out my light, and I thought I would feel my way to the nest, but, mis- judging my way, I suddenly lighted on a warm fluff of feathers, and before I could withdraw my hand the bird had left the nest. I found one egg within and then retired, dreading lest my ill-timed curiosity should make her forsake the nest. Fortunately she decided to continue with us, and three more eggs were placed by the first. On the 7th of April the occupant of the first egg broke his shell and first saw daylight, or rather would have seen it but for the fact of his being blind for the first few days of his life. His hatching took place exactly fourteen days after the laying of the egg. His example was followed at intervals by his three companions. At this period, " Father Whitehead," as we called the cock bird, first came into prominence ; somehow he kept very much in the background while the nest was in process of construction, and it was only after the young birds had made their appearance that we knew him to be the husband of .the industrious little hen. With his new responsibilities, however, he put his shoulder to the wheel, and took his part nobly in the arduous task of filling the gaping bills of the nestlings. He never sat upon the nest to keep the young ones warm, the whole of that duty devolving upon the hen ; and a very necessary duty it was, considering the cold weather and the complete nakedness of the young brood. It is somewhat hard to realise that the clumsy little crea- tures— naked, sprawling, and uncouth — could ever have con- trived to pack themselves within the narrow compass of an egg-shell. It is explained perhaps partly by the fact that their lungs are now inflated with air, and also that their digestive apparatus is distended with food, which facts, I 206 OBSERVATIONS ON A PATE OF BLACKBIRDS. think, account for their increased bulk after leaving the shell. All went well with the young family until one fateful morning when they were all four discovered dead and cold at the foot of the laurustinus bush. The cause of this fatality is probably as follows : The walnut tree hard by the nest forms the readiest means of escape from the garden for a hunted cat, and when our terrier's desires are thus baulked, he vents his disappoint- ment in a quick succession of ear-piercing yelps and barks. The evidence of witnesses went to prove that a cat used this means of escape early that morning, and the dog was heard to express himself in his usual style, and these sounds so surprising, and so near, must have frightened* the young birds, and in their efforts to fly away, their immature wings failed them, and they fell heavily to the ground. One would have liked to have been able to report that the natural affections of the parents were so harrowed by this affecting circumstance that they drooped and pined away. Nothing of the sort took place ; and though there may have been a passing regret, the old birds consoled themselves by blackbird philosophy, and that evening the cock was noticed singing lustily from the roof of the greenhouse. It may have been a funeral dirge, but it sounded uncommonl}" like a carol. Shortly after this occurrence, the bereaved parents were seen flying in and out of an ivy-covered wall which bounds the garden on one side. They examined the whole length most carefully, and a day or two afterwards commenced a new nest on the very top of the wall, partly supported by a spray of jasmine. This new situation, if not actually in a main cat thoroughfare, was so near, and so easy of access by any passing cat, that I put up a fence on either side to keep OBSEEVATIOXS ON A PAIR OF BLACKBIRDS. 207 off feline marauders. An armful of small branches, and a stone on the top to keep all steady, served the purpose very well.- Not to make this paper tedious by recording too many details, I will simply say that three out of the four eggs laid in the new nest were hatched in due course. It was while this second brood was being reared that I noticed that when one of the parents had caught a worm destined for nursery consumption, it was alwaj^-s divided on the grass plot into as many portions as there were nestlings, three pieces making a much more compact parcel than a length of wriggling worm. I remember one afternoon we had a very severe hailstorm, the ground being covered to a depth of nearly half an inch, and as soon as the fall had ceased I hurried home to see how the weather had affected my friends. To my relief I found the nest warm and dry ; no doubt the faithful hen had covered her defenceless brood, and had braved the fury of the pelting hail. I have sometimes watched until the cock had flown to feed the young ones, and have then climbed a pair of steps and looked into the nest to see if he ever sat upon them. I always found him standing quite still on the edge of the nest, anxiously looking up at me to see whether he was noticed. About this time it broke in upon the mind of Father Whitehead that we had no wi$h to injure him or his family, and he became very tame : he would sometimes sit upon the bough of an arbutus shrub, and allow us to approach within a yard of him. And now the fledgelings began to be too big for their home, and the eldest would sit outside the nest, looking down upon the strange new world in which he must so soon launch out and shift for himself. Then he left the nest never to return. 208 OBSERVATIONS ON A PAIR OF BLACKBIRDS. Yet he lingered about the neighbourhood, and was fed by his parents for some time longer, and was soon joined by the other two. Their flight at first was a very clumsy performance, and they were very loath to trust themselves on the wing, and perhaps it was this fact that made them so tame. One of them hopping on the ground near my sister's feet was frightened by the approach of the terrier, and flew on to her hat for refuge. We thought we had taken a final farewell of the family group, when the young ones were strong in flight ; but early in October the whole family appeared on the lawn, Father AVhitehead, the mother, and the three young birds, who had not yet moulted out into their respective plumage, and whose sex was therefore indistinguishable ; but I think that I could make out on the neck of one of them a faint prophecy of a white patch inherited from his father. I have here the nest built on the ivy-coveredwall. Root- fibres, leaves, twigs, and grass are the materials of its com- position ; and in the middle of the walls will be found a layer of clay as a protection from the cold wind. There is a popular fallacy to the effect that birds live in their nests ; but this is not so, the nest is merely a cradle or nursery for rearing their young ones, and when once the nestlings have flown, they never return to the place of their birth. I have been much struck with the easy character of the blackbird's life in showery weather in the sammer. In the morning he is waked by the sun and he breaks out into song, and as the light increases he redoubles his efforts and floods the air with melody. Fancy the pleasure of pouring out those flute-like notes from a tree top on a sunny morning, with the dew-spangled grass beneath and the blue vault OBSERVATIONS ON A PAIR OF BLACKBIRDS. 209 overhead. Matins being over, he descends to the nearest plot of grass, and earns a tasty and bountiful repast by the simple exertion of pulling worms out of their burrows. The rest of the day is spent in varied pursuits — courting his mate, plundering the fruit garden, or extracting the luscious con- tents of snail shells. If the weather is dry and the ground parched, the worms go down deep and the snails hide them- selves, and he has more difficulty over obtaining the supply of food. In a dry east wind in early spring his lot need excite the envy of no one, the night is spent on a branch exposed to the steady blowing of the piercing wind, the dawn breaks coldly on the earth, and beneath leaden skies he breakfasts on frozen haws or holly-berries, no juicy worm or unctuous slug, and perhaps no water to drink by reason of the frost. Those who feed the birds in winter will please note that the birds need water during frost, and that bread well soaked in hot water, and not squeezed dry is held in high esteem in feathered circles. A protracted frost is fatal to these birds, arid even a comparatively short spell of cold weather will leave them so weak that they may almost be taken by the hand. Since the autumnal moult the cock blackbird has quite changed his appearance, being much more heavily speckled with white than formerly. We intend to use all the means in_,our power to encourage the pair to build on our premises this spring, and to this end we are diligent in supplying them with every dainty that will attract them. We find that grapes, chopped dates, sweetened porridge, and rotten apples are eagerly devoured, and we strew their favourite haunts with these delicacies. If we could secure an absolute immunity from cats, we should be doing much to render our garden a pleasant asylum for 210 OBSERVATIONS ON A PAIR OP BLACKBIRDS. the birds ; but something in this direction has been done by placing sticks and twigs in the paths most used by them. If our cat was young and active, I think we should fasten a bell to his neck, which, by giving notice of his approach, would make him comparatively harmless. As it is, however, he is too decrepid and feeble to be dreaded. When the weather grows cold, and animal food becomes scarce, I intend to turn over a heap of garden refuse and expose the swarms of creeping things for the hungry birds ; for I am convinced that the red berries are a very insufficient substitute for these things, and they are only eaten when the birds have no other food available. In a mild winter they are hardly eaten at all, and may be found almost untouched hanging to the boughs in spring. If it had occurred to me earlier in the year, I should have laid in a stock of snails for the winter. If snails are put into a dry place (a basket in an outhouse, for example), they will seal themselves up, and keep for over a year perfectly fresh ; but now the snails are hidden awa}^ in their winter hibernation, and I must postpone this part of my scheme till next summer. Those who have leisure will do well to study the birds from their windows, and to this end I would advise an opera glass or small telescope to be kept always at hand ; I have found this very helpful. I think I have discovered the modus operandi of hunting for worms. The blackbird alights on the lawn and im- mediately cocks his head on one side in the attitude of listening. If he hears nothing he hops high and comes down with a thud ; then he quickly puts his beak into a worm burrow, and by dint of violent tugs brings his victim to the surface. The loud hoppings were made, I believe, to frighten the worm into making some movement, and as soon as he moves, OBSERVATIONS ON A PAIR OF BLACKBIRDS. 211 the enemy, guided by the sound, knows his whereabouts and promptly secures him. The worm would seem to be a very noiseless animal ; but is it not possible that the bristles which surround each ring of his body may make a rustling sound quite loud enough to be heard a few inches off, and which guides the blackbird to his hiding-place ? During the building of the first nest, I took a piece of stout string, and cut it into six-inch lengths, and waiting until the hen bird had retired into the bushes in which her nest was placed, I strewed the ground with the pieces of string I had prepared. She presently emerged, and I was delighted to see the alacrity with which she seized upon the two nearest pieces, and neatly folding them into a small bundle, flew straightway to her nest. The remaining pieces were subsequently taken, and I afterwards found them firmly interwoven with the substance of the nest. One piece in particular I noticed, wound round a branch, and it must have materially helped in keep the structure steady on its foundations. The hen blackbird is still a constant visitor, and has an almost daily encounter with a thrush, who pertinaciously asserts his right to hop on our back lawn. The blackbird regards him as a trespasser, and after a slight skirmish he is routed, and flies over the wall. I regret to say that Father Whitehead has not been seen for some considerable time. He must labour under some dis- advantage in comparison with those of his species less con- spicuously marked, as I believe birds of prey will always prefer to chase a white bird, and thus it is possible he has fallen a prey to some hungry hawk. Possibly he may have been secured by some zealous ornithologist, and sits perched amid lichen and moss, in company with other victims of the ruthless collector. 212 OBSERVATIONS ON A PAIR OF BLACKBIRDS. I will conclude by saying that I believe additions to onr knowledge of Natural History are more likely to be obtained by those who diligently observe and watch, than by those whose ideas of study are confined to making collections of stuffed birds and beasts, and I cannot conclude better than by quoting the words of that great apostle of patient observation — Charles Darwin — on this subject: "I gave up my gun more and more, and finally abandoned it altogether. I dis- covered, though unconsciously and insensibly, that the plea- sure of observing and reasoning was a much higher one than that of skill and sport." Bmm ISritblj Wiib g«s. HENEY A. FRANCIS, F.R.M.S. {Abstract.) IT would be too lengthy a task, in this short article, to even enumerate the distinctive characters of the two hundred and odd species of bees that are resident in our British Isles ; it is therefore my purpose to touch slightl}^ upon the more striking genera, and more especially upon those which I have had under my personal supervision. In the year 1889 I was fortunate enough to discover, within easy range of observation, a colony of Halictus ruhicundusj a bee which, in common with all its genus, is peculiarly brooded. Early in April the females rouse themselves from their hibernation, having been impregnated the previors autumn, and up to and through June appear in quantity ; but no males are to be seen. This spring brood disappears in July, after depositing their eggs and providing for the grub. Midway in August males begin to make their appearance, and in about a fortnight are succeeded by females, who, after impregnation, retire into winter quarters. The foregoing theory is Mr. F. Smith's, and I thought I would, with the chance given me, verify for myself the surmise. I therefore dug out some larvse and pupse at 213 Q 214 SOME BRITISH WILD BEES. various times, and, allowing for a slight difference in dates, which of course is immaterial, my researches, as far as they go, seem fully to bear out his idea. It is, I believe, a unique habit, peculiar to Halictus and the nearly allied genus Sphecodes, that a solitary bee should hibernate. The nest of this bee shows great industry on the part of the artisan. Although not a social insect in the strict sense of the word, yet it is very gregarious, one bank generally being, if the home of one, the metropolis of hundreds. The entrances to their burrows usually face the sun, and consist of a little tunnel running horizontally about five or six inches, with branch cells of an oval shape lying to the right and left of the main passage. The tunnel and cells are smoothed very carefully, and afterwards lined with a viscid secretion. Each cell is furnished with a little lump of pollen, nearly filling the cavity ; and upon this, near the base of the cell, is laid the egg. The larva takes about twelve days to end its first stage, and changes into a pupa ; in about five weeks from birth the imago appears, generally making its exit into the world about the end of August. It is stated that these insects burrow during bright moonlight nights ; but this I did not see. I never saw them excavating during the day, but always engaged in collecting pollen. Like many another hardworking inhabitant of this world, Halictus is greatly troubled with parasites which fatten at its expense, literally taking its children's bread. Such an intruder is the wasp bee, Nomada varia, a true cuckoo, which lays its egg on the pollen provided for the offspring of Halictus, and profits by that which cost her no labour. Bolder robbers, such as Cerceris and Philanthus, capture the living insects and carry them off to feed their young. A very favourite resort in the autumn for Halictus is the flower of the yellow ragwort, Senecio jacobcea ; had I been SOME BRITISH WILD BEES. 215 murderously inclined, during one heavy wind from the south-west, I could have collected some hundreds off the heads of that plant. The genus Halictus is readily dis- tinguished by the long labrum, or upper lip, of the female, and also by a curious vertical rlma on the last segment of the abdomen. A very common spring bee in Clifton this year is Antho- phora pilipes. Few insects differ so much in the appearance of the sexes. The male is a yellowish-brown, with curious long hairs on the forelegs ; the female a very black-bodied bee, with the tibia or shank of its hind legs covered with dark golden hairs. It is one of the burrowing bees, and is often found in considerable numbers. Mr. Walcott, of this city, captured a hermaphrodite specimen, and a second was secured by Mr. P. Smith at Barnes, in April, 1836 ; it is figured in his catalogue of British bees. I now touch upon one of the most ingenious workers in this family Britain can boast of, the genus Osmia. It is not uncommon in this locality, one member, 0. rufa, being rather plentiful at Stapleton. In this abstract it is only possible to instance one proof of its power of suiting its wants to its circumstances. The usual habit of 0. rufa is to form a burrow in cliffs or- decaying trees ; but should it come across an empty snail-shell in a hidden situation, it, finding a cavity ready made, promptly seizes the opportunity, and forms its cells within it. An allied genus, Megachile^ is also found YQvy plentifully in this locality, and is popularly known as the leaf-cutter bee, from its habit of cutting out pieces from rose leaves or other plants for the purpose of lining its cells. A very favourite plant this spring with the Andrenidce and the hive bee is the wood spurge, Eupliorbia amygda- loides. 216 SOME BRITISH WILD BEES. A list of bees found this year by me in the vicinity of Bristol up to the first week in June (weather not very suitable for the tribe) may be of interest to local hymenop- terists, and with that I will conclude this brief epitome of my paper : — Bombus hortoruin^ B. terrestris, B. virginalis, B. lapidariiLS^ Andrena albicans^ A. nitida^ A. atriceps, Osmia rufa, Anthophora piiipes, and Psithyrus vestalis — the last suspiciously in attendance upon B. virginalis. Some of the Nomadce I have also noticed on the wing. Coniblj ^iatruds. By a. p. I. COTTERELL, Assoc. M.Inst.C.E. Read Tuesday^ January 21s^, 1890. THE Cornwall Railway, which extends from Plymouth to Falmouth for a distance of QQ miles, was opened in 1859 as a broad-gauge single line, though most of the bridges were built to eventually accommodate a double line of broad gauge. The West Cornwall Railway, which joins the Corn- wall line at Truro, and extends to Penzance, was opened in sections. It was originally a narrow-gauge single line only ; but when the Great Western Railway bought it up, they laid down a third broad-gauge rail throughout, so that it is now a mixed gauge. As might be expected from the hilly nature of the country, the Cornish lines are anything but flat. Steep gradients follow one another almost without intermission, and sometimes continue for miles. In the Glynn Valley, between Bodmin and Liskeard, the line rises at the rate of 1 in 60 to a height of about 450 feet, gradually ascending from the level of the River Fowey, till it reaches the top of the hills and disappears over the ridge. As it rises it crosses numbers of side ravines, some deep and some shallow, which are mostly spanned by viaducts, there being of these no less than seven in a distance of four miles. 217 218 CORNISH VIADUCTS. There were originally forty-two viaducts in the 66 miles on the Cornwall Railway between Plymouth and Fal- mouth, exclusive of Saltash Bridge ; and their total length amounted to about 4| miles. On the West Cornwall Rail- way, between Truro and Penzance, the viaducts are ten in number. All the old viaducts were constructed for a line of single broad, and measured, as a rule, 14 feet between the parapets, a width that would never be tolerated by the Board of Trade now-a-days. Some of these were constructed entirely of timber ; but the greater number consist of masonry piers, from the tops of which timber struts radiate and support the beams which carry the decking. They were designed by the great Brunei, and although they are unfortunately built of such a perishable material as wood, they are beautifully proportioned to the work they have to do. Doubtless the im- mense cost of the railway, amounting to £30,000 per mile, — a very large sum for a single line in those days — precluded him from using anything more durable. The wooden viaducts of course require continual watching and constant renewals, which become proportionately greater and greater the older that they grow. The timber used in their construction and subsequent renewal is Quebec yellow pine, treated with Kyan's process, i.e. soaked in a solution of corrosive sublimate. This process will preserve the wood very fairly, provided it be in a dry situation, although it fails under water, and the corro- sive sublimate is apt to volatilise. Kyanising was preferred to creosoting on account of the liability of creosoted timbers to catch fire from the sparks of a passing engine. As it is, a large tub of water is placed at each end of the viaduct, in which a swab is kept ready for any emergency. The platelayers keep a good look out on the viaducts ; and if, after the passage of a train, they observe smoke rising from the CORNISH VIADUCTS. 219 timbers, tliey are instructed to run immediately for the wet swab, and beat out the fire before it has become too large to be manageable. Such cases have only occurred once or twice, however ; and the tubs of water, being sunk into the ground, and as a rule overgrown with long grass, now serve to form a chilly trap for the unwary pedestrian, who uncon- sciously ventures near them. The average life of the timber is about eighteen years, — some more, some less. The masonry of the piers varies very much with the locality. Some of them, those in the Grlynn Valley, for instance, are admirably built ; but others, such as those of the old Moorswater Viaduct, are rather poor. The stones are, as a rule, small ; but this is only natural at a time when they did not have the appliances which we now possess, and had to haul all their materials up by hand or horse cranes, instead of the handy steam derrick cranes which we find so useful now-a-days. There is scarcely a straight viaduct throughout Cornwall. Doubtless this is in great measure due to the necessarily sinuous nature of a railway which has to be continually winding in order to seek the easiest ground ; but the old builders seem almost to have taken especial pains to put their viaduct on the curve, when, as has been done in reconstruction, they might easily have built it on the straight. The vibration on these viaducts as a train passes over them is something rather larger than considerable. The author himself has often been in one of the manholes which project beyond the parapet at intervals, and has never quite got over the feeling that he was going to be shot over the side of the viaduct like a stone out of a catapult. Since 1871, fourteen of these viaducts out of the forty-two ha\'e been replaced by more durable structures. Two have been done away with altogether, one having been substituted 220 CORNISH VIADUCTS. by a high embankment, and the other by a retaining wall and bank. Ten have been replaced by masonry arched via- ducts, and two, St. Pinnock and Largin, in the Glynn Valley, by iron girders with masonry piers. The total length of wooden viaducts thus renewed now amounts to about 1'2 miles. On the West Cornwall Line, out of ten viaducts seven have been rebuilt in stone and iron. All of these are built to eventually accommodate a line of double narrow gauge. As a rule the masonry viaducts differ but little from one another. Now that nearly all the higher ones have been rebuilt, there is little cause for any distinct departure, and a standard pattern has consequently been adopted, which is preferable, not only on account of the labour saved in calcu- lation, but also because of the immense reduction in the cost of centering, etc. The standard arch, of which thirty- three are being or have been built upon five viaducts, averaging 90 feet mean height, has a span of 56'7 feet by 20 feet rise, the radius of intrados being 30 feet. The piers have a batter of about 1 in 50, and are built of Westwood slate stone and quoins of granite, upon concrete bases. The arches vary in thickness from springing to crown, and also from face to centre of viaduct, the voussoirs, which are of granite, being thinner than the rubble backing behind. Jack arches fill the spandrils, and together with the arch are covered with a good coat of asphalte before the ballast is laid. The parapets are very plain, and have open spaces, protected by iron bars, left at intervals to act as manholes. With the exception of one or two of the earlier ones, all the reconstructed viaducts on the Cornwall Railway have been carried out by the Company themselves. This course was adopted in preference to the usual one of employ- CORNISH VIADUCTS. 221 ing a contractor, as being not only much more convenient, but cheaper. The Kailway Company is fortunate in possessing an excellent quarry of building stone upon their own land at Westwood, in the Grlynn Valley, and are necessarily the carriers of all the materials brought upon the works. As, also, most of the viaducts do not differ materially from one another, it is plain that one well-trained gang of workmen would accomplish the work far more efficiently and expedi- tiously than would be the case if with every new viaduct a fresh contractor brought a new and comparatively raw set of hands upon the works. Taking these facts into considera- tion, they decided, after trying one or two contract viaducts, to employ a resident engineer and experienced staff of in- spectors, and to place all the responsibility entirely in their hands. These remarks apply only to the Cornwall Railway. On the West Cornwall Railway the case is different. Here the new viaducts are being built under contract in the usual manner, under the supervision of the resident engineer. For a fuller consideration of the various types of new viaducts, I propose to select three — Moorswater, Bolitho, and St. Pinnock — as fairly representing the different styles of reconstruction. Moorswater is the largest viaduct on the line, being no less than 320 yards long, and 147 feet high. This noble structure consists mainly of eight segmental arches, in spans of 80 feet, with a rise of 32 feet, and springing from an average height of 90 feet above the ground. It has a little more ornament displayed upon it in the way of string course, etc., than has fallen to the lot of subsequent viaducts, and altogether forms one of the finest structures to be seen in the West of England. Moorswater was originally intended to be built by contract, but was finally withdrawn and built by the Company themselves, at a cost, it is stated, of 222 CORNISH VIADUCTS. £32,000. It was commenced in April, 1878, and completed and opened for traffic in Feb., 1881. The new Moorswater Viaduct, and in fact all the early viaducts, were designed by Mr. H. J. Cole, of the Great Western Office, Plymouth, who also acted as resident engineer upon the works under Mr. P. J. Margary, M. Inst. C.E., chief engineer of the Cornwall Railway. The new viaduct is built alongside the old one, and is quite straight, with the exception of a curve of 1,440 feet radius at its western end. A good foundation for the piers was found upon the slate rock at an average depth of about 12 feet below the surface. The excavations were then filled up with Portland cement concrete to the level of the ground, forming an even base upon which to build the piers. This concrete was mixed in the following proportions : — 1 measure of Portland cement, 3 of sand, and 3 of clean broken granite of the size of road metalling, and here and there large granite spawls were imbedded in the proportion of f ton to 1 ton of concrete. Two kinds of stone were used at Moorswater. For the quoins, voussoirs, string courses, and other ornamental work, granite from the Cheesewring and Luxulyan quarries was employed. The remainder, and by far the larger proportion of stone, was obtained from the Westwood quarry, and con- veyed by special stone train to the top of the bank. From there it was lowered to the bottom by means of an inclined plane, on which the full descending truck pulled up the empty one. This stone is stated to be " a slate rock inter- sected with veins of carbonate of lime. The general colour is blue, like roofing slate, with white veins. It has a first- rate natural bed, and throughout the works was used in blocks up to 2| tons weight." The mortar consisted of blue lias lime mixed with sea CORNISH VIADUCTS. 223 sand and furnace ashes in the proportion of 1 of lime to If of sand and | of ashes, and ground with water in a steam mortar-mill. The average tenacity of this mortar was found to be 70 lbs. per square inch, twenty-eight days after mixing. The piers had not progressed very far when an accident occurred, which involved the death of the resident engineer, Mr. H. J. Cole. To unload the stone trains from the quarry, a small travelling crane was used, kept on a siding on the top of the bank. These cranes are generally provided with clamps to tie them down to the rails when a heavy weight is being lifted. By some means or other these clamps were not, or could not be, used, and upon the arrival of the stone train, the driver was unloading so slowly, that the resident engineer became impatient, and jumped upon the crane to show the driver how he wanted it done. In lifting a heavy stone, however, he upset the crane, which, falling upon him, crushed and scalded him to death instantly, and so injured the driver that the poor fellow died a few days after. Mr. Cole was succeeded by Mr. T. H. Gibbons, M. Inst. C.E., who has carried out the construction of all the subse- quent viaducts, and fortunately, on those built by the Com- pany themselves, without the loss of a single man. Accidents have, of course, been numerous, one man having fallen from a height of 60 feet ; but when the extremely risky nature of the work is considered, it is certainly remarkable that the casualties have not been more numerous. The piers are intended to diminish with an even batter of 1 in 60 on all sides. As a matter of fact they do not quite do this, it being discovered when nearly up to the springing that the face had set out all the way round, thus making the inclination steeper. This seems to be due to a greater settlement of the outside stones, which it does not appear 224 CORNISH VIADUCTS. possible to avoid, and as difficult to properly accoiint for. It has since been obviated by working the batter to say 1 in 57 instead of 1 in 60. I need hardly say that these piers, as well as abutments, are magnificently built. The stones are splendidty bedded and bonded together, without a sign of that abominable scamping which so often ruins well-designed work. It was, of course, impossible to use an overhead way in building these piers, on account of their great height, and it would have been equally absurd to use scaffolding. Steam derrick cranes were therefore emplo^^ed, provided with 70 feet jibs, and capable of lifting a weight of 3 tons. These were placed on stages 70 feet above the ground, thus enabling the cranes to set stones up to 120 feet above ground level. The men were also taken on and off the work by means of cranes. When the impost courses were set, wrought iron lattice girders, made on the ground out of old rails, were hoisted up and placed upon them. These girders were curved at the two ends to the radius of the arch, so that by means of hand cranes placed upon them, the arches and backing were built up to 10 feet above springing. The timber centres were then placed upon the girders, the weight being transmitted from the centre to the girder through sand boxes. These sand boxes were introduced for the purpose of slackening the centre more easily. When the arch was keyed, the sand was removed through a small hole in the bottom of the box, and the centre was lowered. Sand boxes were found to be pre- ferable to slackening wedges, the objection to them being that the loosening of the wedge blocks always causes an un- comfortable jar to the work. This defect does not occur with the sand box, where the centre comes away quite easily. Two temporary roads were constructed, one on each side CORNISH VIADUCTS. 225 of the girders, projecting beyond the face of the arch, in order to carry materials. An overhead road was also made on the top of the centre, upon which worked a hand travelling crane. By these means the remainder of each arch was finished, beginning at one end of the viaduct and proceeding in order to the other. " Twenty-five girders were constructed for five arches out of the eight, and timber centres were provided for four arches out of the eight, so that the girder work was one bay ahead of the timber work till the last arch was reached." The abutments ^vere also carried to the solid rock, and were built of solid masonry 20 feet thick at the base, and pro- vided with splay wing walls, battering 1 in 3, to retain the bank. On the arches came two rows of jack arching, which brought the whole surface up to a nearly even level, a slight slope being made from piers to centre of arch to allow for drainage of water, and from these points pipes were carried through the arch to enable the water to run off. The whole of the jack arches were covered with a layer of asphalte, thus absolutely preventing water from getting in and washing out the lime from the joints, to form stalactites on the arch below. All that now remained was to finish the string course, man- hole corbellings and railings, and to form the permanent way approaches on either side by means of tipped earth and dry walling. The whole viaduct was now ready to receive the ballast and rails. It was then passed by the Board of Trade, the line was diverted between the trains, and Moorswater Viaduct was opened for traffic. Bolitho Viaduct, which was also undertaken by the Com- pany, is 182 yards long, and 113 feet high. It was built under peculiar circumstances, on account of the Company being unable to obtain extra land without great cost. They 226 CORNISH VIADUCTS. were therefore cramped inside their own fences, and adopted the expedient of building the viaduct in two halves, divert- ing the line to the one half whilst they pulled down the old viaduct and built up the other. The piers were spaced so as not to interfere with the existing ones, thus enabling the whole of the concrete foundations to be laid at one time. Strips of hoop iron were left projecting all the way up the unfinished sides of the piers and abutments, and built into the second half in order to assist in bonding the two thoroughly together. This they seem to have done ; for no unequal settlement of the two halves appears to have taken place, the whole viaduct being perfectly homogeneous, as if it had all been built up together. Since Bolitho is one of the standard pattern viaducts, it may be well to detail in order the works in connection with its construction, and this explanation will apply to all the later viaducts. The survey having been made, and the drawings prepared and approved, the extra land, if necessary, is negotiated for. The new centre line of railway is then ranged out, and the bases of the piers and abutments marked out for excavation. When the concrete is set, the centre line is again picked up, and the quoins of each pier, or abutment, as the case may be, are carefully set out with steel tape and theodolite, the four first quoin stones being set upon the spot, whilst the engineer is present. The masonry, which is then carried up, is left with a rough rock face in "random range work." The error in batter is allowed for, as already explained, and the pier is carried up to springing by the derricks. Here the following method is adopted for supporting the centres. Wrought iron bands are built into the pier, with their thin end downwards, pro- jecting a few feet on each side. Ordinary wooden brackets CORNISH VIADUCTS. 227 are then attached to these, and upon the struts rest the tim- ber centres, which, unlike Moorswater, are all in one piece. Sand-boxes are again used to transmit the weight of the centre. The advantage of this double bracket is that the weights of two centres, or rather of their superincumbent unfinished arches, are transmitted evenly on to the pier with- out tending to pull it over. Also that very little material is wasted, since all the timber struts come in for use again, the wrought iron only been left behind, sawn off close to the pier. Generally four arches are centred at a time. Before striking one set of centres, two arches are keyed, the third centre is rather more than half, and the fourth centre about a quarter, covered. In these unfinished arches, the side nearest the arch whose centres are to be slackened, is built about 5| feet farther up the centre than the opposite side. By thus averaging the heights of the various portions of the arches, the horizontal pressure arising from the first arch when slackened is gradually reduced to a minimum, and does not damage the piers. The overhead way, with its travelling crane, is brought into use as soon as possible, and continued over each arch as the centering proceeds. The remainder of the work is then similar to that already described at Moorswater. St. Pinnock and Largin Viaducts differ entirely from the others. They are constructed, as already stated, of lattice iron girders on masonry raised upon the old piers. The superstructure was completely transformed in a most suc- cessful manner without endangering the safety of a single 228 COKNISH VIADUCTS. train. The traffic was not disturbed for a single day, although the very decking upon which the permanent way was laid was taken up and replaced. St. Pinnock Viaduct is 211 yards long, and 151 feet high, and is the loftiest viaduct on the Cornwall Bailway. The masonry piers of the old viaduct, which was built for a single broad gauge, were in such good condition that it was decided to raise them 23 feet, so as to carry, outside the timber works, wrought-iron girders, with a floor of sufficient width to admit of two lines of narrow-gauge rails. It was very fortunate that the old piers admitted of this mode of construction ; for to have entirely rebuilt so lofty a viaduct would have cost quite double as much as what it eventually came to. St Pinnock Viaduct consists of eight central spans of 6G feet (centre to centre of piers), and two short end ones of 50 feet. It was renewed by the Company themselves, and was opened for traffic in 1882. The general course of alterations can be described as follows : Temporary ways were first of all constructed on baulks projecting from the viaduct on both sides, in order to balance. Small hand cranes worked upon them, and by these means the piers were built up to the required level. The advantage of these temporary ways was that the main line was thus kept perfectly clear. Whilst raising the piers the timber struts had, of course, to be interfered with as little as possible, or the whole viaduct might have come down. For this purpose a large arched opening was left in the centre of pier and the inner struts were drawn into it. The outer struts which could not be moved were built round and drawn out afterwards. The diagonal bracing was removed to the inner struts. On the new tops of the piers large bed stones for the main girders were set. These stones were each five tons in weight, and were lowered by a travelling crane from the CORNISH VIADUCTS. 229 main line of railway. The piers were then ready to receive the iron work. This consisted primarily of two main lattice girders to each span, each weighing fifteen tons, 66 feet long, and 9 feet high, placed 16 feet apart. They were of a some- what box-latticed construction, the top and bottom booms being of this form, and the verti- cals thus (like the web of an _i ordinary gir de with bar diagonals of various widths. The lower boom was therefore quite hollow, but was provided with a bearing- plate, where it rested on the bed stones. The cross girders, which were ordinary plats girders, were attached to the verticals about half-way up, being strutted also from the main girders by means of T bars. Upon them came the longitudinal rail girders, which, together with the main girders, carried the decking. This consisted of Barlow rails laid side by side. The girders were built by contract, at Cheltenham, and sent down to the Westwood quarry, which • is close at hand, on a special truck. From the siding the main girders were taken out as required, hanging from the ends of two 10-ton travelling cranes drawn along by a loco- motive. They were then swung over the side of the old via- duct and lowered into place. '' Two girders have been thus fetched from the siding one after another, brought out to the viaduct, lowered into place, and the cranes put back in the siding in less than an hour." In a letter the author received the other day from the resident engineer, he mentioned that they were taking a main girder out to Largin Viaduct that very afternoon. The large girders having being placed, the . cross girders were brought out by the main-line travelling R 230 CORNISH VIADUCTS. crane, and deposited on the main girders near to where they were to be fixed. They were then hauled up into position, and ri vetted to the main girder without interfering with the main line. The little rail girders were then lowered through the floor of the viaduct, and the weight of the decking, when they were fixed, was transferred to them. The timbers of the old viaduct, which was built on the straight, had become in some places rather warped with age, and it was found neces- sary to cut half through some of them before the main girders could be finally placed in position. When this was the case the girders were first placed as near as possible into exact position, the cross and rail girders were attached and made to support the decking, and the whole affair was jacked into its final resting-place in the intervals between the trains. The girders once fixed, the old decking was taken up in 10-feet lengths, and replaced with the Barlow rails. The railings were then fixed and the finishing touches given, thus completing the reconstruction. Although the cost of renewing the viaducts has been heavy, it has been estimated that the interest, etc., on borrowed capital necessary to do the work amounts to less than the pre- sent annual cost of repairs, so heavy have they now become. When a new viaduct is completed, the timber superstruc- ture of the old viaduct is taken away, and in some cases the piers are demolished. As a rule, however, they are left partly standing, as not being worth the risk of removal. Thus they rather take off from the architectural effect of the new construction, which, though plain, has certainly a most substantial and satisfactory appearance. The old viaducts are certainly very picturesque, perched, as they often are, among the tree tops ; but the new viaducts quite make up for all this in their increased solidity and stateliness. CORNISH VIADUCTS. 231 In each case during reconstruction, the main line was pro- tected by an efficient set of signals. Every care was taken to prevent accidents, and the drivers of passing trains were requested to whistle when approaching the viaduct. It is highly satisfactory, and very creditable to those concerned, to know that not only has no mishap occurred to the traffic, but that not a single train has, so far as the author is aware, been delayed any length of time in consequence of the alterations. In conclusion, the author must mention that he is indebted to the resident engineer, Mr. T. H. Gribbons, who has most kindly provided him with many details in connection with the reconstruction of these Cornish viaducts. |nb£stigali0iT of lljc goarb of Crabc's ^axmxxlR for tlje <^trtit0tlj of ^cttan- 0itlar SSlroHgljt-lioii <^irt-bof dlirtrcr ^lajis. By J. W. I. HARVEY. ^^ 1 m *< /) -><-- — ^ >• When W = width of combustion box in inches. „ P = pitch of supporting bolts in inches. ,, D = distance between the girders from centre to centre in inches. 239 FIRE-BOX GIEDER STAYS. 2B3 When L = length of girder in feet. „ d = depth of girder in inches. „ ^ = thickness of girder in inches. ,, c = 500 when the girder is fitted with one support- ing bolt. „ c = 750 when the girder is fitted with two or three supporting bolts. „ c = 850 when the girder is fitted with four support- ing bolts. then — ^ =»= W.P, = Working pressure. {W-P)DxL For wrought-iron the " Resistance to cross-breaking," or " Modulus of Rupture," is taken = 54,000 lbs. per square inch, when all the dimensions are expressed in inches ; but as the length of the girder in the Board's Formulse is ex- pressed in feet, the " Modulus of Rupture " becomes = — , 12 and the " Factor of Safety " is taken = 6. Assuming, as is almost uniformly the case, that the sup- porting bolts are pitched at equal distances along the girder, so that the weights are symmetrically disposed about the centre, then the " Moment of Rupture " will be greatest at the centre of the girder ; and in the case of girders with two or four supporting bolts, will be constant along that part of the girder contained between the two supporting bolts which are situated immediately on either side of the centre, so that in all cases where the above conditions obtain, it is suffi- cient to consider the ''Moment of Rupture" at the centre of the girder which is equal to the sum of the " Moments of Rupture" produced at that point by each of the weights separately. In a beam of this character it is not necessary to consider 234 FIRE-BOX GIRDER STAYS. the " Shearing Forces," because, provided there is sufficient material to resist the '' Bending Moment," there will always be an excess of material to resist the " Shearing Force." Now let us consider the four cases for which the Constant c is given in the formulse, for girders having one, two, three or four supporting bolts respectively. And if we take I = the length of the girder, and IV = the total weight supported by the girder, we shall see how the " Moment of E-vipture " is affected by the method of distributing the weight, and first take the case of the GIRDEE, WITH ONE SUPPORTING BOLT. Then if we take leverages about the abutments, the '' Moment of Rapture " at the centre will be equal to I I M= icxil 2" _ The stability of a loaded girder depends upon the equality that must always exist between the " Moment of Rupture " = M, and the "Moment of Resistance" of the material =R. So that 31 =^ R. Now for a solid rectangular girder the " Moment c\i FIRE-BOX GIRDER STAYS. 235 Kesistance " is expressed by the equation R = , in which c = the " Modulus of Rupture " of the material, d = the depth of the girder, t — the thickness of the girder. So that taking the " Modulus of Rupture" of wrought-iron = 54,000 lbs. per square inch, we have the equation 1/ _ ^v xl _ Gx d^ xt _ „ . ' 4 ~6 But as the length of the girder in the formulae is expressed in feet, and the Factor of Safety is to be = 6, the equation becomes T^f _ wxl _ cxd"xt_p 4 6 X 12 X 6 ~ ' or, M=iv xl = '^'' cxd^xt ^ j^ 6 X 12 X 6 And substituting the proper " Modules of Rupture " for r,^ .^ , 4x54000xc?^x^ n M = 10 X I = = Jx, 6x12x6 ^r 7 216000 xd^xi p or, 31 — 10 X I = = M. 432 or, 31 = IV X I = 500 xd'xt = E, bOO xd'xt - and IV = I Now IV ~ the total load on the supporting bolts, and is equal to the area of the fire-box supported by the bolts x by the working pressure ; and when P = the pitch of the supporting bolts, W = the width of the fire-box. 236 FIRE-BOX GIRDER STAYS. D = the distance between the girders from centre to centre, WP = the working pressure, then w;=(Tr-P)xDxTFP, and by substituting these factors for iv, in the above equation we get (Tf-P) X Z> X J^P = , V which is the Board of Trade equation, 500 X c?- X ^ {W-P)^D^WP^L in which the constant factor c= 500 for girders with one supporting bolt. Next take the case of the GIRDER WITH TWO SUPPORTING BOLTS. r< ^ f I -> < — H -> j \ IJ \J ^ ^ Then assuming that the length of the girder and the total weight on the supporting bolts remain the same as m the first case, then the " Moment of Rupture " at the centre will 'be equal to I I I I FIEE-BOX GIRDER STAYS. 237 , I- tax I IDxl lYl = + 12 12 M = 2(w?x 12 1) = M = luxl 6 Now M= R so that j^ _ 10 xl __ cxd^xt 6 6 and in consideration that the length of the girder is ex- pressed in feet, and that the " Factor of Safety " = 6, the equation becomes ^6 12 x 6 X 6 ~ ,, ^ Qxcxd^ xt 75 or, M = iDxl = — E 6x12x6 And substituting the proper "Modulus of Rupture" for d, ,, , 6xb4:OOOxd^xt ^ 6x12x6 ,, , 324000 x(Z-x« „ or, M = ivxl = ^- = ±1 432 or, M = tvxl = 750 xd- xt = R T 750 xd-xt and t(j = I But as before ?(; = the total load on the supporting bolts, and as in the first case tv = (TF-P) xDxWP, and by substitution we get (w^- p) X i) X TFP= 152^^-^!!_^ I 238 FIRE-BOX GIRDER STAYS. and this is the Board of Trade equation — 750 X ^3 X f (TF-P) xDx WPxL in which the constant factor c = 750 for girders with two supporting bolts. Next we have the case of the GIRDEH WITH THREE SUPPORTING BOLTS. yy Then assuming that the length of the girder, and the total weight supported by the bolts, remains the same as in the two previous cases, then the "Moment of Rupture" at the centre of the girder will be equal to M = ^w X jZ X iZ . ^w x^lxU ^iv x^lx^l I + I M = UcxU^ . \io>^tI^ ^wx^l^ I + I + I -AT _1VXI IV Xl XV xl 24 12 24 24 M = IV xl FIRE-BOX GIRDER STAYS. 239 Note that the "Moment of Rupture" = If in this case is the same as in the previous case ; so that, provided that the length of the girder and the total load upon the bolts remain the same in the two cases, then the " Moment of Rupture " at the centre of the girder is the same whether two or three supporting bolts are employed. But as before M=R so that _ __ _ and in consideration that the length of the girder is ex- pressed in feet and that the " Factor of Safety " = 6, the equation becomes 6~"" 6x12x6 ~ , , 7 GXCXCP Xt r, or 31 = IV X I = = it 6 X 12 X 6 and substituting the proper " Modulus of Rupture " for C. ,, , 6xb4000xd^xt „ 6x12x6 ,, , 324000 xcZ~x^ „ or M = ivxl = = li 432 or M = iuxl = 150xd^xt = R 750 xd^xt and w I But as before to = the total load on the supporting bolts and to = {W-P)xDx WP 240 FIEE-BOX GIRDER STAYS. Then by substitution we get 750 X rf2 X « {W-P)xDx WP I and this is the Board of Trade equation 750 xcPxt (W-P)xDxWPxL in which the constant factor c = 750 for girders with three supporting bolts and subject to the foregoing conditions remains the same whether two or three supporting bolts are used. And lastly we have the case of the GIRDER WITH FOUR SUPPORTINa BOLTS. K -- 5 -->. f i --if— J ^ —X- J t -— ^— -^ L—-^ Then assuming that the length of the girder and the total weight supported by the bolts remains the same as in the previous cases, then the " Moment of Rupture " at the centre of the girder will be equal to ^r -^t;x^ZxAZ lie X II X \l \ic xllx\l ^^ox^lxll 1\1 — r + :: + I + I I I I I I I I wxl wxl IV X I wxl M = + -H -H 40 20 20 40 M = FIKE-BOX GIRDEK STAYS. 241 6(w X I) M = 40 S(iv X I) 20 And as before so that M = E, ^= 20- =— ¥" = ^ And in consideration that the length of the girder is ex- pressed in feet, and that the Factor of Safety = 6, the equation becomes 3(it; xl) cxd}xt 20~'"6xl2x6"^ And substituting the proper Modulus of Rupture for c, j^_^{w X I) 54000 xd^xt_T. 20 - 6x12x6 20 X 54000 xd^xt „ ^=^^-'= 3x6x12x6 =^ 1080000 X c?^ X « „ ^^^^^^^ 1296 =^ M=wxl = 833-3 xd^xt = R and w; = 833-3 xd"xt. But as before w = the total load on the supporting bolts, and w = (W-P)xDxWP, and by substitution we get 833-3 xd'^xt {W-P)xDx WP= I 242 FIRE-BOX GIRDER STAYS. And this is the Board of Trade equation 833-3 X ^^ X ^ {W-P)xDxWPxL in which the constant factor c = 833-3 for girders with four supporting bolts. The constant c in the Board's Rule is given as — 850. This is not strictly accurate, the exact figure is 833 3 ; but the Board have adopted the constant 850 because it is a round number easily remembered and suffi- ciently accurate for all practical purposes. ^.■- ejjorts 0f gltctittgs. GENERAL. r I iHE past Session has been characterised by some dis- -^ tinctive features in the papers read and subjects sub- mitted to the members of the Bristol Naturalists' Society. On Thursday, October 3rd, 1889, Mr. Cedric Bucknall, Mus.Bac, gave a resum^ of the Fungus Eoray of the Wool- hope Club, and brought for inspection a large number of specimens. Professor Leipner, E.Z.S., also read a paper upon " The Dispersion of Fruits and Seeds," illustrating his address with diagrams. The next meeting, which was held at the Victoria Rooms, Clifton, on November 7th, was one of peculiar interest, the Society having engaged Mr. Eadweard Muybridge, of the University of Pennsylvania, to deliver an address upon " Animal Locomotion in relation to Art and Design." The lecture, which was illustrated by means of the zoopraxiscope and projections by the oxy-hydrogen light, was largely attended, and the Society is to be congratulated upon a marked success. On December 5th, Mr. Phibbs gave a paper on " Phos- phorescence," treating a very interesting subject in an exhaustive manner. The next meeting, which was held January 2nd, 1890, was by the decision of the Council devoted to the exhibition, 243 244 KEPORTS OF MEETINGS, of specimens brought by various members of the Society. Mr. G. C. Griffiths, F.E.S., exhibited a collection of Lepidoptera, illustrating mimicry among that order ; Mr. C. K. Rudge, a number of the boring Mollusca ; Miss B. Jecks, a collection of British Birds' Eggs ; Mr. H. Francis, a case of British Wild Bees ; Mr. Jecks, three specimens of conglomerate (Sussex granite), vertebra and part of femur of Iguanodon from Wealden Clay, Volcanic Ash from the coast of Argyllshire, Glacial Drift (Lower Silurian) from North Wales, part of the Carapace of South African Land Tortoise, Carapace of the Spider Crab — Maia Squinado — from the Isle of Wight, teeth and part of jaw of Otter and a Crab from the Norwich Crag, teeth and part of jaw of fish from the Norfolk Chalk, and Ammonite from the Lias. Mr. H. Charbonnier showed a Bittern from Tiverton, an Albino Lark from Salisbury, a Hawfinch from Stoke Bishop, and a small collection of East Indian Crustacea. The majority of the exhibitors gave short discourses upon the several objects they had brought. At the meeting on February 6th, Mr, G. Munro Smith read and illustrated a paper on " Muscle," and Mr. H. Percy Leonard gave the result of his " Observations on a Pair of Blackbirds," which had nested in the garden of his house, and which awoke additional interest from the fact of the male being a piebald bird. The paper is printed in the " Proceedings." On March 6th, Dr. D. S. Davies gave an address on " Modern Methods of Disease Prevention." The meeting on March 18th was a special one, and sum- moned for the purpose of hearing Mr. James McMurtrie, F.G.S., of Radstock, who had kindly consentsd to give a paper " On a Comparison of the Somersetshire Coal-field with the Coal Measures of Belgium and the North of France." EEPOETS OF MEETINGS. 245 On April 3rd, Mr. S. H. Swayne exhibited the heads of a Gaur Bull (Gavceus gaurus), Capra Megaceros^ Capra Sihirica or Asiatic Ibis, Capra Bezoardica or Black Buck, and a skin of Thibetan Snow Leopard or Ounce. Mr. H. A. Francis, F.R.M.S., then gave a lecture on " Some British Wild Bees ; their Structure and Habits," illustrated by the oxy-hydrogen light. At the May meeting, which was also the twenty-eighth annual meeting, the Report of the Council was read by the Honorary Secretary, the balance-sheet was presented, and the officers for the ensuing session were appointed. Dr. Francis Edgeworth then gave an address upon "Hypnotism," demonstrating his remarks, practically, upon the human subject. Captain Dyas sent for exhibition a set of four tusks of the Hippopotamus. During the past session nine meetings have been held, eight at the Bristol University College, and one (Mr. E. Muybridge's) at the Victoria Rooms, Clifton. . HENRY A, FRANCIS, Hon. Repoi'ting Sec. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL SECTION. FOUR meetings have been held by this section during the past session, at which papers were read by the following gentlemen: Professor S. Young, Professor Ryan, Mr. Chattock, and Dr. Richardson. The number of members and associates is 31. ARTHUR RICHARDSON, Hon. Sec. 246 REPORTS OF MEETINGS. GEOLOGICAT. SECTION. THE section held two meetings. At the first, the Presi- dent gave some account of his investigation into the geology of the St. David's district, the results of which are published in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society for May, 1890. He also briefly described the Brislington cutting between Bristol and Bath on the Great Western Railway. At the second meeting the President exhibited and illus- trated the use of a rock-section cutting or lapidary machine, and showed slides of oolitic limestone, and St. David's igneous rocks. He also exhibited sections of Mountain Limestone chert, showing crystalline, chalcedonic, and amorphous silica. Crinoidal ossicles and other fossils converted into white silica were also shown ; and Professor Lloyd Morgan explained that he had obtained them by treating the limestone of Pore Hill quarry, Portishead, with dilute acid. The limestone dis- solves, and the silicified ossicles remain. A similar lime- stone with similar ossicles is found on Denny Island. Two excursions were made. The first was to Ebbor, near Wookey. Professor Lloyd Morgan explained the geology of the Ebbor Valley, and briefly described the geology of Em- borrow. The substance of his remarks will be found in the Mendip Notes on a previous page. The second excursion was to the railway cutting (by the courteous permission of the authorities of the Midland Hail- way Company) between Tytherington and Thornbury. The President explained the geology as described in his paper in the last number of the Proceedings. A third excursion was planned to Burrington Combe and Cheddar, but had to be abandoned owing to heavy rain. REPOliTS OF MEETINGS. 247 ENGINEERING SECTION. IN the session 1889-90, seven meetings were held. The following papers were read : " An Investigation of the Board of Trade Formulse for Strength of Fire-box Girder Stays," Mr. J. W. I. Harvey (Vice-President) ; " The Transmission of Power, with special reference to Friction- clutches," Mr. E. Shaw ; " The Severn Tunnel, with some further Points of Detail " (two papers), Mr. Charles Richard- son (President); ''The Reconstruction of Viaducts on the Cornwall Railway," Mr. A. P. I. Cotterell ; "Hydraulic Propulsion, with special reference to the Hydraulic Railway at the Paris Exhibition of 1889, Professor D. C. Selman ; "The Expansive Use of Steam," Mr. G. A. Newall. An excursion took place on June 15th, 1889, to the Barry Docks. About thirty-five members and friends attended. On arrival at Cadoxton, the party proceeded under the charge of Mr. A. Hood, Director of the Barry Docks, and Mr. E. D. Jones, Engineer to the Contractor, to the Docks, where Mr. Evans, General Manager, and Mr. John Robinson, Resident Engineer, joined the party, who were taken round the works in brake vans. The President expressed the thanks of the visitors to the gentlemen who had so kindly conducted them. NICHOLAS WATTS, Hon. Sec. J Part 1, 1873-74. 4s. „ 2, 1874-75. 5s. „ 3, 1875-76. 4s. (Jd. , „ 1, 1876-77. 3s. Qd. „ 2, 1877-78. 3s. Qd. „.. 8, 1878-79. 3s. M. , „ 1, 1879-80. 3s. 6d. „ 2, 1880-81. 3s. 6d. „ 3, 1881-82. 3s. 6d. , „ 1, 1882-83. 3s. Gd. „ 2, 1883-84. 3s. (jd. ,, 3, 1884-85. 3s. (Jd. , „ 1, 1885-86. 4s. „ 2, 1886-87. 5s. M. „ 3, 1887-88. 5s. ., „ 1, 1888-89. 4s. Coal-Field. By James Walter The following Publications of the Bristol Naturalists' Society may be obtained either from Messrs. Fawn & Son, Royal Promenade, Bristol, or from the Honorary Secretary. Proceedings, ) Vol. I. New Series. \ ,, ,, „ n., »> j> j> >) „ III., 5> 1> »> »» „ IV., )> »> „ V „ VI. Flora of the Bristol Coal-Field. By James Walter White. One vol. bound. 6s. The Fungi of the Bristol District. By Cedric Bucknall, Mus. Bac. Part IV. Species 690 to 836. 4 plates, 3 coloured, 1 black. Is. 6^. V. „ 837 to 934. 2 „ 1 „ .... Is. VI. „ 935 to 1023. 1 plate, black Is. VII. „ 1024 to 1084 6r7. VIII. „ 1085 to 1144. 3 plates, coloured .... U.Gd. IX. „ 1145 to 1240. 4 plates Is. X. „ 1241 to 1321. 4 plates Is. XI. „ 1322 to 1362 Gd. On the Newly-Discovered Phenomenon of Apospory in Ferns. By Charles T.'Druery, F.L.S. Illustrated. Is. Contributions to the Geology of the Avon Basin. By Prof. Lloyd Morgan, F.G.S. I. " Sub-Aerial Denudation and tlie Avon Gorge." Coloured Map. II. " The Millstone Grit at Long Ashtou, Somerset." With Map. Is. III. " The Portbuiy and Clapton District." IV. " On the Geology of Portishead." 2 coloured maps and 2 plates. Is. CvL Sleep and Dreams. By Gkorge Munro Smith, L E.G. P. Lond., M.R.C.S. 2 plates. Is. The Bone-Cave or Fissure of Durdham Down. By E. Wilson, F.G.S., Curator of the Bristol Museum. 2 plates. I'?. Notes on a Common Fin Whale, lately stranded in the Bristol Channel. By E. Wilson, F.G.S., Curator of the Bristol Museum. Photograph, Is. ■ The Severn Tunnel. By Charles Eichardson, C.E., and Notes on the Geology of the Section by Prof. Lloyd Morgan, F.G.S. With geologically coloured Section of Tunnel, map and plate. 2s. The Mendips: A Geological Eeverie. By Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan, F.G.S. Is. The Arch. By Charles Eichardson, C.E., with illustrations. Is. ADOLPH LEIPNEE, Hon. Sec 47, Hampton Park, Clifton. NEW SERIES, Vol. VI., Part III. (1890-91). Price 4s. 6d. PROCEEDINGS OF THE BRISTOL NATURALISTS' SOCIETY. EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARY. '^Rerum cognoscere causas.^^ — Virgil. BRISTOL : Printed for the Society. MDGCCXCl. NEW SERIES, Vol. VI., Part m. (1890-91). Price 4s. 6cU PROCEEDINGS OF THE BRISTOL NATURALISTS' SOCIETY. EDITED BY THE HONORARY SECRETARY. *^Rerum cognoscere causas.'^ — Virgil. BRISTOL Printed for the Society. MDCCCXCI. TABLE OF CONTENTS. NEW SEKIES, VOL. VI., PART III. PAGE Portrait and Obituary Notice of Mr. William Sanders, F.R.S. The Nature and Origin of Variations. Presidential Address by Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan 249 Bristol Fungi. Part XIII. By Cedric Bucknall, Mus.Bac. . 274 Phenological Observations for 1890 278 Rainfall at Clifton, 1890. By George F. Burder, M.D., F.R. Met.Soc 287 Observations of Temperature at Clifton, 1890. By D. Rintoul, M.A. Cantab 290 The Frosts of Recent Years. By George F. Burder. M.D., F.R.Met.Soc 294 Landslips. By Charles Richardson, C.E 301 Some of the Water-bearing Strata, and Wells sunk in same. By H. W. Pearson, M.I.C.E 327 Observations on British Mice. By H. Percy Leonard. . . 342 Hypnotism. By Francis H. Edgeworth, M.B., B.Sc, B.A. . 359 Language and Race. By Arthur B. Prowse, M.D., F.R.C.S. . 390 Cassava. By William Duncan, L.R.C.P.^ 418 Reports of Meetings, General and Sectional 421 Index to Bristol Fungi. By Cedric Bucknall, Mus.Bac. . . 425 Index to Plates of Fungi 472 Title-page and Index to Vol. VI. of the Proceedings, 1888-91. CV ^rtsibtiitiai ^bbri:ss* By Prof. C. LLOYD MORGAN. THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF VARIATIONS. NATURAL selection is dependent upon (1) the law of increase, or the tendency of every known species to increase in nnmbers ; (2) the struggle for existence, by which the tendency to increase is held in check ; and (3) the occur- rence oi' variations. In the absence of variation those individuals which succumb in the struggle for existence would be similar to those which survive. The numbers w^ould indeed be reduced, and the tendency to increase would be held in check ; but the species would remain un- changed. Given, however, the occurrence of variations in the offspring, the struggle for existence w^ill act differentially. Those which fall below the standard of mediocrity will be eliminated, those which reach this standard or excel it will survive to procreate their kind. We may express this roughly and diagrammatically thus :— a-^ — m'' etc. a^ — m' h^ a3 — m * b' a^ — m^ b'' ai — m2 b^^ a — m^ b- in b^ b The letters m, in\ etc., stand for the mean or average of 2,9 T 250 PEESIDENTIAL ADDEESS. the individuals born : a, a^, etc., represent the individuals above the average : b, b^, etc., represent the individuals below the average. The individuals represented by 6, &\ etc., are eliminated through the struggle for existence in each generation. There survive in each generation a, a}, etc., and m, vi^, etc. ; and these interbreed. Take, for example, the first group a, m, b: b are eliminated : a and 7n survive and intercross. Their offspring are again arranged as a^, m^J and b^. But m^ stands at a higher level than in, having been raised by the intermixture of m and a. Similarly of succeeding generations. The average of the species at 771^, '?7z^, mK tn^, and so on, is step by step raised through the action of natural selection. Such a progressive improvement of the species has been termed monotypic evolution. So far there is no divergence. Divergence involves the segregation or isolation of the diverging groups. The segregation may depend on geogra- phical, ph3^siological, psychological, or other conditions ; but there must be some means by which intercrossing and the interblending of the divergent characters are prevented. We may represent this roughly and diagrammatically thus : — g4 1^4 \^i I s2 m2 b2 I s^ m^ b^ s m b b* m' c* b^ m^ c^ b- an^ c^ I b m c Here the divergence of a strong variety (s, s"", etc.) from a cunning variety (c, c^, etc.) is represented. Mediocritj'' is again indicated by ?72, iii^, etc., and the individuals below the average in these respects by 6, 6^, etc. These are PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 251 eliminated. The vertical line represents the bar to inter- crossing which permits divergence. Do away with that bar and the divergence ceases. The individuals on either side of it interbreed, their characters will be blended, and there will be monotypic evolution. The race will perkaps increase in combined strength and cunning; but there will be no divergence into two races, the one strong and the other cunning. Thus to render possible either transmutation or diver- gence, under natural selection through elimination, varia-- tion is essential. For Darwinism variation is a sine qud non. But Darwinism, as such, is not bound to account for the origin of variations. It is sufficient that they occur. Evidence of their occurrence is rightly demanded by the student of bionomics. And in answer to this demand Mr. A. R. Wallace has collected a large body of evidence in the chapter on " The Variability of Species in a State of Nature " in his Darivinism. So successful has he been in showing that variations in size '' usually reaching 10 or 20, and sometimes even 25 per cent, of the varying part," and occurring in 5 to 10 per cent, of the specimens examined,, do occur under nature, that one's faith is, perhaps, a little shaken in the inexorable efficiency of the struggle for existence as an eliminating agency. In any case it em- phasizes a fact on which I have elsewhere endeavoured to lay stress, that a variation must reach a certain amount, and be of a fatally deleterious character, before it becomes of elimination value. We have been apt to suppose that a species is so nicely adjusted to its surrounding conditions that all variations from the type, unless of a very insignifi- cant character, would be rapidly and inevitablj^ weeded out. This, it is clear, is not true at any rate for some species. 2o2 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. At all events, however, the occurrence of variations is abundantly proved. Next as to the nature of the variations. Mr. Wallace says that the " variability extends, so far as we know, to every part and organ, whether external or internal." But I do not think the evidence brouo-ht forward justifies either the assertion or the denial that all possible variations occur — possible, that is to say, within the limits of the organization of the species. It may be so. But it may be that the variations occur in a number of definite and determinate lines. If this be denied, — if it be said that the evidence shows that variations of all kinds occur in equal proportions, — the opponent of Darwinism will perhaps be tempted to answer : What then is your Natural Selection doing? If variations of all kinds, within the limits you assign, are there in equal proportions, the presumption is that no varieties have been eliminated, and that natural selection, so far as these species are concerned, is inoperative. And the candid biologist must, I think, admit that the evidence in Mr. Wallace's chapter — I refer, of course, to the chapter on the variability of species under nature, not to the work as a whole — while conclusive as to the occur- rence of variations, gives on analysis little or no evidence of any selective agenc}^ at work. I do not regard this absence of evidence as damaging to the Darwinian position. It is due to the incompleteness of the evidence — an in- completeness which also precludes our saying whether the variations are indefinite or along certain determined lines. Evidence on this head is indeed particularly hard to obtain. If we look to established varieties and species, and, noting their determinate characteristics, are tempted to regard this as evkleuce of determinate variations, we are met at once hy the Darwinian assertion that these characteristics are determinate through selection froPxi PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 233 among all other possible variations — variations which were not only possible, but which actually occurred, only elimina- tion swept them away. Does the evidence afforded by fossil remains help us here ? Those American zoologists who have studied the evolution of mammalian teeth contend that the occurrence of new points and cusps is not indeterminate bnt deter- minate. New elements of tooth-structure appear in, definite positions. There is nothing to indicate selection from among indefinite variations. Other evidence of like implicatian is adduced by American evolutionists ; but this of tooth- structure is put forward as the strongest case. I am in- clined to think that the facts of palseontology, so far as they go, point in this direction. But I question whether they can be regarded as conclusive. In criticising the position stress may be laid on the imperfection of the geological record ; and it may be urged that the number of individuals in our palaeontological collections is not sufficient to constitute a truly representative sample. Furthermore, on the hypothesis of selection, the individuals possessed of teeth with points and cusps in other than these adaptive positions must have been weeded out in the early stages of life. In view of these objections the evidence cannot be said to be convincing, though in my opinion it affords some presumption in favour of determinate variation. Some direct evidence in this matter might be obtained' by a careful, extensive, and long-continued series of obser-- vations on fish, amphibians, and insects, by rearing and' examining all the individuals hatched out from a considerable number of batches of ova. It would not be sufficient to examine merely the numerous progeny of a single individual, since they would be likely to present in excess particular inherited tendencies. But if such determinate variations 254 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. were found in the progeny of a number of individuals, the ^presumption would be that there was a race tendency to these determinate variations. The investigation would be laborious, and perhaps in the end not altogether convincing. In all cases the variations must be restricted within the limits of the organization of the species ; and what exactly these limits are it is not easy to determine. The question is rendered more complex by the correlation of variations. That when an organ such as the beak in- creases or decreases in length, adjoining and related parts such as the tongue and the orifice of the nostrils tend to vary conformably, is a comparatively simple case of corre- lation. That if the legs of pigeons be feathered the two outer toes are partially connected by skin, involves a corre- lation less simple. That in several breeds of the pigeon the length of the beak and the size of the feet are correlated, and that young pigeons of all breeds, which, when mature, have white, yellow, silver-blue, or dun-coloured plumage, come out of the egg almost naked — in these and sundry other well-known cases the nexus of correlation is by no means obvious. The whole question of co-adaptation which has recently come to the fore in discussions on Weismannism, is one of great difficulty. The development of the long neck of the giraffe and the gigantic horns of the extinct Irish reindeer must have involved numerous admirably co-ordi- nated modifications of structure. These have been brought forward by Mr. Herbert Spencer as presumptive evidence •in favour of the inherited effects of use and disuse. Mr. -Piatt Ball, in his recent \Niork, in criticising this position, has stated that Mr. Spencer's arguments were " so poorlj' founded as to be rejected by a far greater authority [Darwin] on such subjects." But Darwin himself said : " Although natural selection would thus tend to give to the male elk PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 255 its present structure, yet it is probable that the inherited effects of use, and of the mutual action of part on part, have been equally or more important ; " and this can hardly be regarded as very emphatic rejection ! Of course it is open to the thorough-going Darwinian to say that the result has been reached by the selection of now one, now another, and subsequently yet other sets of correlated variations or co-adaptations, not produced by, but chancing to coincide with, effective utility. It would seem, however, that the occurrence of such co-adaptive sets of variations might fairly be regarded as indicative of directed or determinate variation, however originating. And in general the facts of corre- lation and co-adaptation seem, so far as they go, to point to determinate variation. Still it may fairly be urged that such determinate variation may itself be the outcome of a long course of natural selection. If the individuals in which an adaptive correlation a h n t occurred were there b}^ placed among the survivors, while the individuals in w^hich the non-adaptive correlations a c in .s, ah q 2, etc., occurred were thereby placed on the elimination list, it is clear that there would be ingrained in the species a tendency for the correlation a h n t to occur. Thus in a horned animal size of antlers and strength of supporting structures would be correlated ; these again with proper blood-vessels and nerves ; and so on. And again, in the ancestor of the giraffe, a number of co-adapted correlations would already be established, and these would form a sufficient basis for variation in the direction of the special and peculiar co-adaptations in the giraffe itself. In other words, even if the determinateness of the variations in any species be established, it does not follow that this is not the result of long selection among variations primitively indeterminate. 256 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Is there any evidence wliicli will help ns to decide whether correlated variations are in all cases the result of natural selection through elimination? When we con- sider the evidence which is afforded by domesticated animals, the impression left on the mind (at any rate in my own case) is that the variations from which selection has been made have been determinate, and that if the tendency in particular directions is the result of natural selection there is not much direct evidence of the fact. In many cases the new varieties have originated in " sports " — that is to say, in determinate and somewhat marked aberrations from the type. The races of domestic pigeons so fully considered by Darwin, and summarized by Mr. Wallace, have probably originated to a greater extent from particular " sports," the characters of which have been intensified by selective breeding, than by the slow accumulation of small deviations from the original type. Here it would seem that there lies open a profitable field for experimental observation, with the object of throwing light on the direction or directions of variation in particular cases, and the dimen- sions so to speak of the steps of variation. Are the steps small and uniform, or does nature stride and even leap sometimes, and if so to what extent? The way in which pigeons tumble back in reversion is most remarkable and perhaps instructive. Darwin crossed white fantails with black barbs, and obtained black, brown, or mottled mongrels. He crossed a barb with a spot, and obtained dusky and mottled mongrels. He then crossed the two sets of mongrels ; and forth stepped the wild rock-pigeon (or its counterpart) with blue colour, barred and white-edged tail, and double- banded wings. In reversion there are very considerable jumps. Darwin, as is well known, thought it probable that varia- PRESIDZXTIAL ADDRESS. 257 bility of every kind is directly or indirectly due to changed conditions of life. Are the effects of such changed con- ditions determinate or indeterminate? There can be no question that in many cases the changes are quite definite. Changed food or changed climate produce particular and almost startling alterations. Instance the case of the Texan Saturnia^ which when fed in Switzerland on a new plant {JiigJans regia instead of J. nigra) was so altered both in colour and form that it appeared to be a new species. Instance again the remarkable changes in brine-shrimps produced by changes in the salinity of the water. Few biologists will be likely to question the determinate effects of the action of the environment on the individual. On the whole, having lately had occasion to review the evidence with regard to the nature of variations, I am drawn toward the following conclusions : (1) that correlated variations tend to occur in definite or determinate lines ; (2) that under natural selection some of these determinate variations have presumably been eliminated ; but (3) that there is no sufficient evidential justification of the assertion that the determinate lines of variation are solely the pro- ducts of natural selection. "We come now to the question of origin. Undoubtedly an important source of origin of the varia- tions which occur in the higher animals and plants is parental commixture. When two parents each contribute something towards the formation of offspring, there are four logical possibilities : (1) Characters may be inherited exclu- sively from one parent or the other. If all the characters are inherited from one parent, the offspring will resemble that parent. If some characters are inherited exclusively from one parent, and other characters from the other parent, the offspring will present a new combination of the parental 258 PRZSTDEXTIAL ADDRESS. characteristics. (2) The characters of the parents may blend in the offspring, the characteristics of which will be the means or averages of the parental characteristics. (3) The characters of the parents may, so to speak, conspire, so that a strong characteristic in each parent may be yet stronger in the offsjDring, and a weak characteristic yet weaker. (4) The characters of the parents may combine, so that from the union of characteristics derived from the two parents a new and slightly different characteristic may be produced. It is probable that all four methods occur in nature. Mr. Galton has pointed out that exclusive inheritance is the rule with such characters as the colour of the eyes. It is also exemplified in the Ancon breed of sheep. Blending is pro- bably very common. Breeders of domestic animals seem to regard the fact that characters conspire and strengthen in the offspring as in some cases established. And the com- bination of characters to give rise to new developments must have taken place again and again, unless we are to look out- side parental commixture for a source of origin ; for other- wise no such new developments could have arisen. It may be said that such new developments are of for- tuitous or chance origin. The term is perhaps convenient for expressing a mode of origin of which we at present know absolutely nothing. But it clearly does not open up any field for discussion or for observation. And if we say that determinate variations under the in- fluence of environment or through parental commixture are due to laws of organization, the only practical value of such a suggestion will be that it may induce us to try and ascer- tain what these laws of organization are. If the phrase is less misleading for students and the general public than " fortuitous origin," in that it implies a causal nexus, it will be perhaps more misleading if it should lead to the supposi- PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 25^ tion that the causal nexus is in any sense adequately known. Still, for myself, I prefer it to the " fortuitous " phraseology. The analog}^, and it is at best a distant one, is with " laws of crystallization." We know that under different conditions the same chemical substance will crystallize as either calcitr. or aragonite^ another as either hornblende or augite, another as either 7narcasite or iron pyrites. It is part of the in- herent nature of the substance in each case : we cannot at present say much more than that. Similarly determinate variations, under different environing conditions, or under special combinations of characters, may be the outcome of the inherent nature of the organism concerned. That is probably the utmost we can say at present. Of course those who wholly disbelieve in determinate variations will murmur " moonshine." Let them prove their case. Let them show that the apparently determinate variations are not really such, or if they are such that they result from selection from among indeterminate variations. And let them explain the origin of new characters.. If they are successful, I shall be one of the first to congratulate them. I am not wedded to any opinion. All I contend for is free- dom of discussion and further observation. In effect the question, so far as we have got at present, is between "determinate variation under laws of organization," and " indeterminate change under a law of inherent variation." We now come to the vexed question of use-inheritance, a convenient term coined by Mr. Piatt Ball to express the transmission from parent to offspring of characters not innate in, but acquired during the lifetime of, the parent. In evidence of this transmission of the effects of use and disuse, Mr. Herbert Spencer has adduced the diminution of the jaws in civilized races of man, the diminished biting muscles in lap-dogs, the development of the sesthetic 260 PEESIDEXTIAL ADDRESS. faculties in man, and inherited epilepsy in guinea-pigs; while Mr. Darwin cited the reduced wings of birds in Oceanic islands, the drooping ears and deteriorated instinct of domesticated animals, the diminished wing-power and en- hanced leg-strength in domestic ducks, the short-sightedness of civilized folk, the large hands of labourers' children, and the thickened sole in infants and even embryos. This evidence has lately been carefully considered and rigidty criticised by Mr. Piatt Ball in a little w^ork, entitled, Are the Effects of Use and Disuse Inherited ? Mr. Ball's criticisms are by no means of uniform cogency, and are at times decided^ weak. But he has done ^vell in emphasizing the extreme difficulty of excluding the effects of selection and elimination by breeders and under nature. In illustra- tion of this we may take the following case. Sir J. Crighton Browne has shown that in the wild duck the brain is nearly twice as heavy in proportion to the body as it is in the com- paratively imbecile domestic duck. At first sight this looks like evidence of inherited effects of disuse. But it may fairly be urged that, owing to its stupidity, this imbecile may be more readily kept in domestication. Imbecility has thus been a character steadily selected by breeders, and has carried wdth it a reduction of brains. This may perhaps sound a little far-fetched as a mode of accounting for a reduction of nearly fifty per cent., but it emphasizes the difficulty or impossibility of excluding artificial selection as a factor in the observed modifications of domestic animals. So, too, with regard to natural selection. When we are told by Mr. Ball that " natural selection would favour thickened soles for walking on, and might also promote an early development which w^ould ensure their beiug ready in good time for actual use," we may be tempted to question whether a thicker or thinner sole to the foot is a character PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 261 of elimination value, whether it would determine survival or elimination, and make all the difference between passing or being plucked in life's great competitive examination. But if Mr. Ball likes to maintain that every advantage, no matter how slight, is of elimination value, there, so far as he is concerned, is an end of the matter. It is, of course, open to any one to argue thus : Selection is all-pervading ; the slightest advantage is selected ; therefore all advantageous modifications have been effected through selection, and there is no necessity to imagine the existence of any other factor. Although logically correct, I regard such an attitude as biologically and scientifically false. Even if selection be rightly regarded as by far the most potent factor in evolu- tion, this does not of itself justify " grave doubts of the alleged inheritance of the effects of use and disuse," but rather shows the difficulty of proving or disproving such use-inheritance by special examples. In Science we must not say : Here are the major factors ; these practically do all the work. Never mind about minor factors, the major factors are quite strong enough without them. We must endeavour to study the minor factors, or test their existence by the careful elimination of the major factors. It is, however, as a source of origin of variations that use- inheritance is operative if operative at all. Granted that the imbecile ducks have been steadily selected ; granted that the thickened sole has been favoured by natural selec- tion ; the true question is whether a tendency to variations in the direction of thickened epidermis and in the direction of diminished brains has been generated or fostered by use and disuse. Or take the case of the shifted eyes of flat- fishes. The question is not whether, given sufficient time, natural selection could or could not reach these results through the elimination of those fishes in which this particular varia- 2G2 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. tion did not chance to occur ; the question is whether use- inheritance has increased the percentage of these particular variations. And it is a question on which, as it seems to me, it is exceedingly hard to obtain satisfactory evidence one way or the other. Those who are disposed to regard use-inheritance as a factor in evolution have generally laid stress on the fact that it is the effects of persistent use or disuse through a series of generations that are effectual in giving a permanent set to the species. I am surprised, therefore, that Mr. Ball should attempt to show that use-inheritance, if it existed, would be detrimental to the species. It is surely self-evident that use-inheritance as a source of origin of variations would be beneficial to the species. According to Mr. Ball, adaptation is the result of the selection of favourable variations ; use- inheritance, if it occurs, would provide an increased per- centage of these favourable variations, and not leave the matter to chance. Surely this would be a clear gain. This, however, is no valid argument for its occurrence, unless we are prepared to take the questionable ground sometimes occupied by extreme selectionists, and say. Variations of all kinds are constantly occurring ; a variation in the direction of use-inheritance would be beneficial ; natural selection fosters and develops beneficial variations ; therefore natural selection has developed use-inheritance. Grant the possi- bility of use-inheritance and this reasoning may hold good ; but the whole question at present is as to the actual occur- rence of use-inheritance or not. What we really want is evi- dence which, through the elimination of disturbing factors, shall point definitely in one direction or the other. We have seen that the American school of biologists con- tend that variations, for example in tooth-structure, are determinate and not indeterminate. They also contend that PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 2G3 these variations are largely due to the inherited effects of use and disuse. They tell us that in a large percentage of cases the new elements of tooth-structure appear in regions of ancestral wear and abrasion. Granting the determinate variations, we may perhaps inquire whether the abrasion may not be due to the presence of incipient points rather than the development of points to increased abrasion. It is admitted that the new points do not always occur where there has been previous abrasion. Granting the determinate variations, therefore, it does not appear to be satisfactorily proved that they are due to the effects of inherited use and disuse. Seeing the nature of tooth-growth and development, one needs very cogent evidence of the production of new points or cusps at regions of marked ancestral abrasion. The development of certain elements of vertebrate limb-structure and concomitant dwindling of other elements may be adduced as more readily comprehensible effects of inherited use and disuse. But here we have not the same evidence of the determinate nature of the variations, and the theory of selection from among favourable indeterminate variations is not to the same extent, on the showing of the American school themselves, excluded. It seems, then, that where the evi- dence for determinate variations is strong, the theory of use- inheritance is difficult of acceptation, and where use-inheri- tance is more readily comprehensible there is less evidence that the variations are determinate. To carry conviction it must be shown (1) that the variations are determinate, and (2) that the determination is due to the inherited effects of use and disuse. And of this there is at present no adequate proof. To account for the diminution of organs or structures no longer of use, apart from any inherited effects of disuse, Mr. Romanes has invoked the cessation of selection : and Mr. 2G4 PKESIDEXTIAL ADDRESS. Francis Gallon has, in another connection, summarized the effects of this cessation of selection in the convenient phrase " Regression to Mediocrity." This is the Panmixia of Pro- fessor Weismann and his followers ; but the phrase regression to mediocrity through cessation of selection appears to me preferable. It is clear that so long as any organ or struc- ture is subject to natural selection through elimination, it is, if not actually undergoing improvement, kept at a high standard of efficiency through the elimination of all those individuals in which the organ in question falls below the required standard. But if, from change in the environment or other cause, the character in question ceases to be subject to selection, elimination no longer takes place, and the high standard will no longer be maintained. There will be rever- sion to mediocrity. The probable amount of this reversion is at present a matter under discussion. Unless the principle of atavism is called into play to an extravagant extent, it does not seem probable that the reversion would be large in amount. Pive per cent, would appear to be a very liberal estimate. In any long-established character, such as wing-power in birds, brain development, the eyes of Crus- tacea, no shortcomer in these respects would have been per- mitted by natural selection to transmit his shortcomings for hundreds of generations. All tendency to such short- comings would, one would suppose, have been bred out of the race. If after this long process of selection there still remains a strong tendency to deterioration, this tendenc}^ demands an explanation, unless we call into play reversion to ancestors dimly ancestral. The matter, however, should not be left to the arbitration of a priori reasoning. Definite experiments should be instituted to determine by observa- tion the amount of regression. If the tendency to deteriora- tion be strong, it should be found that the mean valii3 of tho PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 265 cLaracter in the individuals born is marl^edly inferior to the mean value of the character in the few individuals which would normally be selected for survival. It might be found that the inferior individuals are for some reason prepotent over superior individuals, so that when an inferior and a superior individual are mated, the offspring inherit the in- feriority to a greater degree than the superiority. Carefully directed experiments in which the possible effects of disuse were carefalty excluded might do much to put this matter upon a more satisfactory basis of observed fact. It has often been pointed out that reversion to mediocrity places a serious obstacle in the way of the establishment of new varieties when such arise sporadically. It is of course clear that where the variation is merely quantitative, a matter of excess or deficiency, this obstacle will not occur. There will be a certain proportion of variations in excess of the mean, and a certain proportion in the direction of defi- ciency. The latter will be eliminated, the former selected. There is no difficulty here. But if the variety.be a peculiar and special one, not liable to frequent occurrence, the chances against those which happen to possess it mating together would be numerous, and, on the principle of blended inheritance, the reversion to mediocrity would tend to obli- terate the new character. On the principle of exclusive inheritance this would not be so ; and if, as in the case of the Ancon breed of sheep, the variety preferred to mate together rather than to mate with the parent form, segrega- tion would take place, and reversion to mediocrity would be barred. But without some mode of segregation the sporadic variety Vv^ould stand but a poor chance. Take in further illustration of this point the shifted eyes of flat-fish. In the absence of distinct and definite evidence of the fact, one may suppose that an asymmetrical disposi- U 266 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. tion of the eyes, with accompanying asymmetry of the skull and adjoining parts, is a variation of not very frequent occurrence. Still less frequent must be the asymmetry in the particular direction required. The chances against individuals possessing these very infrequent favourable variations happening to mate together would be many to one. And I take it to be exceedingly questionable whether the non-possession of an incipient asymmetry would con- stitute a character of elimination value. In which case there would be no selection of the incipient asymmetrical variety. It is possible, however, that asymmetry in a marked degree occurred as a sport like the Ancon ram ; that this sport was subject to exclusive inheritance ; and that in this way there arose a variety which, being in harmony with the conditions of life, throve and multiplied, and eventually ousted the parental stock. If species have frequently arisen in this way, we must give up the old adage Natiira nil facit per saltum. And in this connection we must remember that Darwin regarded the occurrence of a sudden strong deviation from symmetry as highly improbable. He says : " Mr. Mivart remarks that a sudden spontaneous transfor- mation in the position of the eyes is hardly conceivable, in which I quite agree with him." Mr. Darwin's own account is entirely based on the view that the acquired effects of " straining the lower eyes so as to look upwards " are in- herited. In considering the swamping effects of intercrossing, Dar- win candidly states that, until he read the now celebrated article by Professor Fleeming Jenkin in the North British Review, he " did not appreciate how rarely single varia- tions, whether slight or strongly marked, could be perpetu- ated." And he says further on : " It should not, however. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 267 be overlooked that certain rather strongly marked variations • . . frequently recur, owing to a similar organization being similarly acted on, — of which fact numerous instances could be given with our domestic productions. . . . There can also be little doubt that the tendency to vary in the same manner has often been so strong that all the individuals of the same species have been similarly modified without the aid of any form of selection" {Origin of Species^ p. 72). Now in the case of our flat-fishes' eyes the similar modification of considerable numbers of individuals (which would seem to be a sine qud non on the hypothesis of gradual transformation) may be either due to laws of organization or to the inherited effects of use. A twisted skull and asymmetry of eyes seems a priori unlikely as the outcome of any inherent organic tendency, even though it were, as is possible, correlated with the concomitant tendency to lie on the side. The inherited effects of use and disease would in this, and a great number of other cases, convenient^ account for a large number of individuals varying in exactly the required direction. But this in itself does not justify us in accepting this view of the matter, unless it can be conclusively shown that all other explanations are barred by their improbability. The consideration of this case, however, suggests a possible line of experimental observation. Would it not be possible, without in any way maiming or giving pain, to induce in domesticated animals or birds, by weighting or handicapping one side of the body, a lop-sided development? If this were continued through a series of generations, without any selection, it might then be seen whether there was any tendency for this lopsidedness to be inherited. High action in the horse can be induced by weighting the limbs. I am not aware whether this has been done for a series of genera- '268 PEESIDENTTAL ADDRESS. tions, and whether there is any indication of such high action being inherited. By differential weighting, however, a differential action might be established, and any hereditary tendency would be the more readity observable. Prelimin- ary experiments in this direction on rapidly breeding ani- mals would probably soon lead to indications of the most convenient form of continuing the experiments and observa- tions. In single-lop rabbits there is a decided twist or set to the skull. There is no distinct evidence, at present, whether this is due to correlated variation or to the in- herited effects of the lop. It would be possible, I suppose, to induce a lop in other strains of rabbits, and perhaps in guinea-pigs, and that quite painlessly by artificiallj^ weight- ing the left ear. A number of the rabbits or guinea-pigs •might be at the outset divided into two groups, which should be kept as far as possible under similar, conditions, except that in one set the left ear of each individual was kept slightly weighted. After four or live generations, certain individuals of the weighted group should be set aside, unweighted from their birth, and observed ; while observa- tions and measurements of the skulls of some of them should be made and recorded, and carefully compared with those made on the skulls of individuals weighted from birth. If it should be found that at the end of twenty or thirty generations, though the effects on the individual were well marked, there was no evidence of any inherited effect, such negative evidence would be pro tanto of value, while positive evidence obtained in this way does not seem to be open to damaging criticism. Satisfactory proof of the inherited ejBfects of increased use by itself will, I imagine, be difficult to. obtain under experimental con li tions ; observations on the effects of disuse, by itself, wiuld be complicatsd by the panmixia PKESIDE^'TIAL ADDRESS. 269 question ; but observations such as I suggest, directed towards the inheritance of differential use, would be less open to these objections, and to the criticism that the effects might be due to the conditions of domestication. In any case, in my opinion, this question of use-inheritance will not be settled one way or the other without experi- mental evidence and definite observation. Neither side will be satisfied with a priori arguments. And it is a question of wide bearing. In psychology, not only does it assume importance in all considerations concern- ing the origin of instincts, but it profoundly affects the arguments of the modern experiential school, which holds or has held that what is psychologically innate is largely due to inherited experience. If the growing disbelief in use- inheritance be justified on the ground of experimental observation, psychologists, not for the first time, will have to readjust their conclusions so as to harmonize with the teachings of biological science. The social bearings of the question are also by no means unimportant. The advocates of fuller and freer education have for the most part believed that the improvement of one- generation will in some degree be transmitted to the next. If use-inheritance be disproved, there is no such transmis- sion. The average innate intellectual and moral capacity of the generation of Englishmen now being born cannot on this view be much higher, and is probably somewhat lower than it was some half-dozen generations ago. Commenting on this social aspect of the question. Professor Le Conte, in a recent paper (Alonist, vol. i., no. 3), says : — " If it be true that reason must direct the course of human evolution, and if it be also true that selection of the fittest is the only method available for the purpose ; then, if we are to have any race-improvement at all, the dreadfid law of destruction 270 PEESIDEXTIAL ADDEESS. of the weak and helpless must with Spartan firmness be carried out voluntarily and deliberately. Against such a course all that is best in us revolts. The use of the Lamarck- ian factors (use- inheritance), on the contrary, is not attended with any such revolting consequences. All that we call education, culture, training, is by the use of these. Our hopes of race-improvement, therefore, are strictly conditioned on the fact that the Lamarckian factors are still operative, that changes in the individual, if in useful direction, are to some extent inherited and accumulated in the race." Now even if the outlook were as gloomy as Professor Le Conte believes it to be, this will not alter the stern facts of inheritance. To say, " The consequences of my view are so much more comforting than the consequences of your view, that my view' must be true," can hardly be regarded as valid argument. Such pleading for use-inheritance is, however, presumably not addressed to the man of science as such, but to the philanthropist as such. But, without forejudging a case which is still, 1 contend, sub jtidice, I think that, sup- posing use-inheritance be disproved, the possibilities of race- improvement do not lie wholly in a ruthless and pitiless system of social elimination. The race, like the individual, is moulded in relation to its environment. Now for the human race, as human, the environment is largely and increasingly a matter of ideas and ideals. I have not time to enter into this question, but I utterly disbelieve that natural selection is the main deter- mining factor of human progress. Now, what we seek to do by the spread of intellectual training, and of that which is more important by far, moral training, is to let each succeed- ing generation grow ujd in closer and closer touch with an improved and improving environment of intellectual ideas and moral ideals. If each generation grows up in better PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 271 harmony with a better social environment, it will be so far better than its predecessors. The race will be improved by the extension and improvement of the social environment. If in addition to this, the race, through inherited effects of this environment, starts in each generation at a slightly higher level, so much the better. But this is just the ques- tion at issue — a question which can only be decisively settled by reducing it to its simplest terms and applying it to the touchstone of experiment and observation. In last week's Nature (vol. xliii., p. 581) Mr. Thistleton- Dyer writes : " I have met with one plant in which I thought that I had got a case of the transmission of an acquired habit. Mr. Churchill procured for us seeds of Arahis anachoretica^ ' a form of A. alpina^ L., with thin tissue-papery leaves, growing in hollows of the rock, where neither sun nor rain reach it, just as Saxifraga arachnoidea^ as also Heliospermu7n glutinosum., and Zahlhruclinera para- doxal all which have very thin tissue-papery leaves.' Alas, on cultivation at Kew it reverted forthwith to common- place Arahis alpinay This is a good illustration of the influence of environment on the race. Had the seeds ger- minated in the rock-hollows beyond the reach of rain and sun, the leaves, it appears, would have been tissue-papery. But removed to a less abnormal environment they assume their ordinary form. Such a case does not necessarily dis- prove use-inheritance. But it shows the extreme plasticity of the individual, and it shows that the influence of the normal environment is prepotent over the effects of use- inheritance if such occur. It also seems to show a particu- lar determinate effect of a peculiar abnormal environment, not only on this plant but on others. And since the effects of environment are thus seen to be potent and determinate, it leads us to look in other directions than experiments with 27'2 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. changed environment for crucial observations with regard to use-inheritance. . In experiments to test the question of use-inheritance, the difificulty is to exclude the effects (1) of selection and (2) of individual plasticity. As to the first difficulty I have said enough. With regard to the second, all admit that the individual, especially in the early stages of life, is plastic and to some extent moulded by the environment under the influence of which it develops. To what extent is it plastic ? And if the individual effect is in any degree hereditary, what percentage of the individual effect is handed on to the next generation? Those who maintain that the effects of the environment, or of individual use, must, if they are to become ingrained in the race, be long continued and per- sistent, hold, I presume, that only a small percentage of the individual effect is transmitted. If this be so, if the " heredi- tary effect " is but a small percentage of the " individual effect," it will require great care to insure that the small " hereditary effect " (if such there be) is not lost sight of from its being masked or hidden by the far larger " indi- vidual effect," The subject is full of difficulties, logical and biological, and we must be careful not to slur them over. In conclusion, I am anxious that the attitude I assume and advocate in this matter of use-inheritance should not be misunderstood. We hear both on the one side and on the other somewhat dogmatic utterances. We are told on the one hand that natural selection has no need of the assistance of a Lamarckian factor of the effects of which there is no shadow of proof, and the modus operandi of which is an inscrutable mystery. We are told on the other hand that natural selection is tottering to its fall. I advocate an anti- dogmatic attitude. I desire to see the matter fairly and temperately discussed, as Darwin would have discussed it PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 273 (with a breadth and sweep of view how difficult of attain- ment !) ; and, above all, I desire to see it sabmitted to the touchstone of patient, well-planned, rigorous, and decisive experimental observation. Whatever the answer may be to this particular question, I am convinced that the nature and origin of variations on which I have ventured to address you to-night is a question which will occupy an increasing share of attention on the part of evolutionists in the near future. ®j)c Jfiingi flf llje Bristol ^btrirt. PART XIII. By CEDRIC BUCKNALL, Mds.Bao. f I 1 HE following species are either new, or have occurred ± for the first time in Britain : — 1401. Agaricus (Collybia) eustygius, Cooke, Ulus. Supp. t. 1185. 1404. CoRTiNARius (Phlegmacium) testaceus, Cooke^ Illus. Supp. 1 1190. 1419. Oligonema furcatum, Bucknall, n. sp. 1429. Helotium deparculum, Karst. Myc. Fejin., p. 150. 1430. Lachnella globulifera, Fckl. 1431. Lachnella fragariastri, Phillips in litt. 1400. Agaricus^^(Trjcholoma) im-J^^^^^^,^ ^eigh, Sept., 1890. 1401. Agaricus (Collybia) ensty- j gius^Cooke^ Illus. Supp. > Leigh Woods, Sept., 1880. t. 1185. ) " Pileus rather fleshy, convex, then plane, sometimes depressed (3- 5 cm. broad), even, smooth, becoming shining when dry, tough, dingy white, a little darker about the disc, margin thin, smooth, occasion- ally flexuous ; stem stuffed, rarely hollow, attenuated downwards into a rooting base (5-8 cm. long, 6-8 m.m. thick), white above, sprinkled with small punctate scales, darker below, and often becoming fuligi- nous, somewhat longitudinally striate or fibrous ; gills rather broad, rounded behind, not crowded, dark grey. Sjaores white, globose, 4-5 fi. Odour of rancid meal. Whole plant in drying becoming black." Cooke in Grevillea, vol. xix.^ p. 40. One specimen of this well-marked Collybia was found in the Leigh 274 THE FUXGI OF THE BRISTOL DISTRICT. 275 Woods in the year 1880, and it had not been noticed since that time, until 1890, when several specimens were met with at an excur- sion of the Woolhope Club to Whitfield, near Hereford. The upper figure in Cooke, lllus. t. 1185, is taken from a drawing of the Leigh Wood specimen, the others from those from Whitfield. 1402. Agaricu3^(Pluteu3) ephe-U ^j^j^ ^-^^^^^ g^p, _ ^ggp^ *^^7'ot Que^^^^ ^"'^'■""l Sandy Lane, Aug, 1877. 1403. Agaricus (Stropharia) mer-U ^^ , ^.^ ^ ^89q darius, Fr. j & > & i 1404. Cortinarius(Plilegmaciuni) J Westridge l%pTh9o"'''' ^^'''' ) W^^^' Sept., 1881. " Pileus fleshy, convex, then flattened and obtusely umbonate, or depressed (7-10 cm. broad), brick-red, rather vinous, growing paler with age, smooth, even, viscid ; stem (8-9 cm. .long, 1^ cm. thick) attenuated ujDwards, from a sub-marginate, bulbous base, whitish above, becoming rufous about the base, solid, longitudinally fibrously striate below ; flesh rather flesh-coloured, becoming ruddy at apex and base ; gills broad (1 cm.), scarcely crowded, adnate, a little emarginate behind, dusky cinnamon ; spores elliptic, narrowed at each end, rough, 16 x 8 /x." Cooke, Hevis. Hd.-hk. Brit. Fungi, p, 378. This species, like A. etmtygius, was met with in this district some years ago, in 1881, and is recorded at No. 860, vol. III., jd. 264, as Cort. russus. It was also found at the Fungus Foray at Whitfield, a few hundred yards from where A. eustygius grew, and, being found to differ entirely from Cort. ruasus, was described as new by Dr. Cooke. The larger figure in the ''Illustrations " is taken from a drawing of the Westridge Wood specimen. *Cortinarius (Phlegmacium)\Brockley purpurascens, Fr. j Coombe, Oct., 1890. 1405. Cortinarius (Inoloma) vio-1 t ^ • i. ttt i n . -.or>r^ laceus, Fr. j^^^g^ "^^^^^^ ^^P^'' l^^^' 1406. Cortinarius (Dermocybe)l t • x. -i^r j o x -lonr^ orellanus,A. , ^JLeigh Woods, Sept., 1890. 1407. Cortinarius (Telamonia)K • i, ^xr j at ionn rigidus. Scop. JL^^g^ ^°^^^' ^^^^ l^^O- 1408. Lactarius trivialis, i^r. fBrockley ' \Coombe, Oct., 1890. 276 THE FU:vGI OF THE BRISTOL DISTRICT. * Lactarius fnliginosus, i^r. Haw Wood, Aug., 1877. Recorded in Vol. II., p. 212, as L. acris. 1409. Russula cserulea, PersA r^ x. xr-n r\ i. lonn Cooke, Illus. t. 1052. r""'"*^* H^"' 0°*-' 1^^°- 1410. Russula rubra, var. sapida,! t • -u tt- j 0x1 oc\r\ Cooke, Ulus.t. 1087. 'jLe.gh ^oods, Sept, 1890. 1411. Russuk granukaa, f^ooft.,\^j^^^j,^ Leigh, Sept., 1890. 1412. Russula puellaris, FrAr - v. ^^r ;3 at iqoh Cooke, Illus. t. 1065. j^^'S'^ ^°°'^^' ^''^•' 1^^°- 1413. Marasmiuserythropus, i^?'. Portishead, Sept., 1890. 1414. Boletus tenuipes, Cooke. Leigh Woods, Sept., 1890. 1415. Polyporus j)icipes, Fr. Abbot's Leigh, Sept., 1890. 1416. Craterellus crispus, Fr. Leigh Woods, Oct., 1890. 1417. Peniophora velutina,(7ooA:e. Leigh Woods, July, 1890. 1418. Cyphella rubi, Fckl. Clevedon, July, 1890. 1419. 01igonemafurcatum,5z^cA:~U^^ , Leigh, Nov., 1890. naii^ n. sp. j o > ? Sporangia scattered, globose, shining, hrigJtt chrome yellow as well as the capillitium and spores ; elaters cylindrical, simple or branched, slightly thickened at the obtuse ends, with a faint open spiral, 3-4 /ul diameter ; spores globose, minutely tvarted, 11-12 /ll diameter. Superficially, closely resembling Oligonenia nitens, from which, how- ever, it is quite distinct in the minutely warted spores, and the absence of thickened rings in the usually furcate elaters. On a rotten trunk. 1420. Perich8enaconfusa,il/assee^7^Z^Y^., \ Ellis, N. Amer. Fungi, No. 726 I {as Ophiotlieca umhrina, Berk.). I Yatton, Jan., 1890. Perichcena variabilis, Post. Physarum vermiculare, Sz. j Sporangia hemispherical and scattered or sethalioid and often forming an irregular network, pale umber or dingy ochraceous, de- hiscing irregularly ; capillitium well develoj^ed, forming an irregular loose network, threads 2-4 fx thick, irregularly notched ; spores sub- globose, 13-14 IX diameter, smooth ; mass of capillitium and spores dingy ochraceous, sometimes with a suggestion of olive. THE FUXGT OF THE BRISTOL DISTRICT. 277 1421. Piiccinia men thee, Pers. \ West Uredo and telentospores. jHarptree, Sept., 1890. 1422. Piiccinia prnni, Pers. Ure-|(.^^^^^^^ g -^g^Q^ dospores. j ^ 1423. Pucciniacoronata, Corda.^rj.-^^^^^^^^ ^cidiospores. ^ci- V jj-jj j^^ ^^^^ dium crassum. ) On Rhamnus catliarticus. 1424. Ustilago tragopogi, Pers. | ^levedon, Sept., 1890. U. receptacidontin, Fr. j ^ ' 1425. ^cidium punctatum, ] Pers. VClevedon, May, 1891. jE. quadrijidum, D.C. J 1426. Volutella ciliata, Fr. Clevedon, July, 1890. 1427. Peziza poly triclli,>S^c7^^im. The (xully, May, 1891. 1428. Morcliellaesculenta,Lz?i72. Brentry, May, 1879. 1429. Helotium deparculum, \ ^Tnn /^'''% 7^'-""- >Ashton, July, 1885. p, 150., Pseudhelotiiim i ' "^ ' deparcidum^ Sacc. } Gregarious, at first sj^heroid, then nearly plane, when dry hemi- spherical and concave, sessile, furfnraceo-puberulous, pallid or pallid yellow, when dry ochraceous or reddish-yellow, -OS-'Oi m.m. broad ; asci cylindraceo-clavate, 4-spored, 30-45 /x x 4-5 /jl ; spores linear- fusoid, straight or curved, simple or iDseudo-septate, 12-15 ;uxl"5 /u.] paraphyses few, slender. On dead stems of Spiraea ulmaria. 1430. Lachnella globulifera,| ^.^^^^^ 1431. Lachnella fragariastri,) Clevedon, Phillips, n. sp. in litt.]M.Y.^. Baker, June, 1890. Gregarious; atipitate, firm, cyathiform, faint purplish-red, paler near the margin, clothed with short, hyaline simple hairs, usually enlarged at the summit ; asci subclavate ; sporidia 8, fusiform or oblongo-fusiform, 5x1-2^; paraphyses acerose, rather stout, some- what abruptly acuminate. On dead or dying strawberry stems. I)tn0l0gtral '^crorbs for 1890. PLANTS. Recorders : Miss Annie Baker, Bridgwater (A.B.) ; Mr. David Fry, Corston (D.F.) ; Mr. H. S. B. Goldsmith, BridgAvater (H.S.B.G.) ; Mr. Lewis W. Rogers, Clifton (L.W.R.) ; Mr. H. Stuart Thompson, Bridgwater (H.S.T.). Abhreviaiions. — Ann., first appe^ratife above pronn'l ; Bud. b., first buds burst- ing; Fol., almost in full foliage ; Fl., first flower ; R. fr., first ripe fruit. 1. Anemone nemorosa (Wood Anemone). — Fl. March 20th, near Bridgwater, H.S.T. ; March 20th, Combe Dingle, L.W.E. ; March 27th, Stantonbury Hill, D.F. ; March 29th, Durleigh, near Bridg- water, H.S.B.G. 2. Ranunculus ficaria (Pilewort, Lesser Celandine). — Fl. March 7th, Combe Dingle, L.W.E. ; March 14th, Corston, D.F. 3. Ranunculus acris (Upright Crowfoot). — App. April 15th, Long Ashton, L.W.E. ; Fl. April 24th, Hamp, A.B. ; May 3rd, Ham Green, L.W.E. ; May 9th, Corston, D.F. 4. Caltha palustris (Marsh Marigold). — Fl. March 14th, Canning- ton, near Bridgwater, H.S.B.G.; March 20th, near Bridgwater, H.S.T. ; April 1st, Corston, D.F. ; April 5th, Markham Bottom, L.W.E. 5. Papaver rhoeas (Red Poppy). — Fl. June 12th, Corston, D.F. ; June 20th, Hamp, A.B. 6. Nasturtium officinale (Watercress). — Fl. May 19th, Hamp, A.B.; May 26th, in quantity, Kilve, near Bridgwater, H.S.B.G. ; June 2nd, near Compton Dando, D.F. 7. Cardamine pratensis (Cuckoo Flower). — Fl. April 3rd, Stantonbury Hill, D.F. ; April 5th, Markham Bottom, L.W.E. 8. Alliaria. officinalis {Jack by the Hedge). — App. Jan. 7th, the Gully, Durdham Down, L.W.E.; Fl. March 8th, near Bridgwater, H.S.B.G.; April 8th, Corston, D.F. 9. Draba verna (Whitlow Grass). — App. Jan. 7th, Gully, Durdham 278 PHENOLOGICAL RECORDS FOR 1890. 279 Down, L.W.R.; Fl. March 10th, same locality, L.W.R.; March 27th, near Street, H.S.T. ; R. fr. April 3rd, Corston, D.F. 10. VioJa odorata (Siveet Violet). — Fl. March 14th, Corston (purple- flowered variety), D.F. 11. Pohjgala vulgaris (Milkwort). — Fl. May 24th, Cannington, A.B. ; June 3rd, near Pensford, D.F. 12. Lychnis diurna (Red Campion). — Fl. May 1st, Hamp, A.B. ; May 3rd, Corston, D.F. ; May 4th, Dodington, near Bridgwater, H.S.B.G. 13. Stellar ia holostea [Greater Stitcliwort). — Fl. April 2nd,Hamp, A.B. ; April 9th, near Compton Dando, D.F. ; April 9th, Frome Glen, L.W.R. 14. Cerastium pumilum (Mouse ear). — Fl. April 6th, Gully, Durdham Down, L.W.R. 15. Malva sylvestris (Common Mallow). — Fl. May 30th, Stawell A.B. ; June 12th, Corston, D.F. 17. Hypericum perforatum (Perforate St. John's Wort). — Fl. July 8th, Durleigh, A.B. ; July 18th, Clevedon, D.F. 18. Hypericum pulchrum (Upright St. JohVs Wort). — Fl. July 4th, Keynsham, D.F. 19. Geranium Robertianum (Herb Robert). — Fl. May 4th, Doding- ton, H.S.B.G. ; May 7th, Hamp, A.B. ; May 11th, Corston, D.F. 20. Euonymus europceus (Spindle tree). — Bud. b. March 14th, Cor- ston, D.F. ; Fol. May 4th, Corston, D.F. ; Fl. May 24th, Corston, D.F. ; May 27th, Darleigh, A.B. 21. Acer pseudo-platanus (Sucamore). — Fol. April 28th, Corston, D.F. ; April 28th, Bridgwater, H.S.B.G. ; Fl. same date and place, H.S.B.G. 22. JEsculus hippocastanum (Horse Chestnut). — Bud. h. March 26th, Bridgwater, H.S.T. ; April 7th, Newton St. Loe, D.F. ; Fol. April 27th, same locality, D.F. ; Fl. May 1st, Newton St. Loe, D.F. ; May 4th, Bridgwater, H.S.B.G. ; May 5th, Hamp, A.B. 23. Cytisus laburnum (Laburnum). — Bud. b. Corston, D.F. ; Fl. May 12th, Corston, D.F. 24. Trifolium repens (Dutch or White Clover). — Fl. June 4th, Cor- ston, D.F. 25 Lotus corniculatus (Bird^s-foot Trefoil).^ — Fl. May 4th, Dodington, H.S.B.G. ; June 3rd, Corston, D.F. 26. Vicia cracca (Tufted Vetch). — Fl. July 11th, near Compton Dando, D.F. 27. Vicia septum (Bush Vetch).— Fl. April 26th, Sea Mills, L.W.R. : April 28th, Newton St. Loe, D.F. ; R. fr. July 4th, Keynsham, D.F. 28. Lathyrus pratensis (Meadoio Vetchliug). — Fl. June 2nd, Durleigh, A.B. ; June 25th, near Queen Charlton, D.F. 29. Prunus spinosa (Sloe or Blackthorn). — Bud. b. March 27th, 280 PHEXOLOGICAL EECORDS FOR 1890. Bridgwater, H.S.T. ; April 16fch, Corston, D.F.; Fol. May 4th, Cor- ston, D.F. ; Fl. March 29th, Corston, D.F. ; April 4th, near Durleigh, A.B. ; April 5th, Durdham Down, L.W.E,. 30. Spircea ulmaria [Meadoio -sweet), — Fl. June 9th, Durleigh, A.B. ; June 27th, Keynsham, D.F. 31. Potentilla anserina (Silver-iceed). — App. April 9th, Frome Glen, L.W.E. ; Fl. May 20th, Hamp, A.B. ; May 31st, Burnham, H.S.B.G. 32. liosa canina [Dog Rose). — Bud. b. March 17th, Corston, D.F. ; March 20th, Bridgwater, H.S.T. ; Fol. April 23rd, Corston, D.F. ; Fl. May 26th, Hamp, A.B. ; June 3rd, Corston, D.F. 33. Fyrus aucuparia {Mountain Ash or Rowan). — Fl. May 7th, Locks- ley Wood, in full bloom, A.B. 34. Pyrus aria {White-beam). — Fol. May 1st, Leigh Woods, L.W.E. 35. Crataegus oxyacantha {Haiothorn). — Bud. b. March 22nd, Corston, D.F. ; March 27th, Bridgwater, H.S.T. ; Fol. April 6th, Durdham Down, L.W.E. ; April 26th, King Square, Bridgwater, H.S.B.G. ; April 27th, Corston, D.F. ; Fl. April 26th, King Square, Bridgwater, H.S.B.G. ; May 11th, Hamp fields, A.B. ; May 15th, Corston, D.F. ; E. fr. Aug. 19th, Hamp fields, A.B. 36. Kpilohium hirsutum {Great Hairy Willoio Herb). — App. April 9th, Frome Glen, L.W.E.; Fl. July 9th, Ehode Lane, A.B.; July 14th, Corston, D.F. 37. Epilobivm mnnfaniim (Broad Willoio Herb). — Fl. June 11th. Cor- ston, D.F. ; E. fr. July 16th, Corston, D.F. 38. Angelica sylvestris {H'ild Angelica). — Fl. Aug. 16th, Hound- street, D.F. 39. Daucus carota {Wild Carrot).~Fl. July 18th, Clevedon, D.F. 41. Cormis sanguinea {Dog Wood). — Fol. May 15th, Corston, D.F. ; Fl. June 9th, Hamp, A.B. ; June 13th, Corston, D.F. 42. Adoxa Moschatellina {Moschatel). — App. March 7th, Combe Dingle, in foliage, L.W.E. ; Fl. March 18th, same locality, L.W.E. ; March 20th, Bridgwater, H.S.T. ; April 1st, Corston, D.F. 43. Syringa vulgaris {Lilac). — Bud, b. March 15th, Corston, D.F. ; Fol. April 28th, Corston, D.F. ; Fl. April 26th, Bridgwater, in the Square, H.S.B.G. ; April 28th, St. Mary St., Bridgwater, A.B. ; May 8th, Corston, D.F. 44. Galium aparine {Cleavers). — Fl, May 8th, Hamp, A.B. ; May 21st, Corston, D.F. 45. Galium venun {Yellow Bedstraw). — Fl. June 25th, Queen Charl- ton, D.F. 46. Dipsacus sylvestris {Wild Teasel). — App. May 3rd, opposite Sia Mills, L.W.E. ; Fl. July 28th, Corston, D.F. PHENOLOGICAL RECORDS FOR 1890, 281 47. Scahiosa succisa {DcviVs hit). — Fl. August 16th, near Marks- bury, D.F. 48. Petasites vulgaris {Butterbur). — Fl. March 15th, Corston, not fully in flower, though many of the florets were perfectly expanded, and must have been open some days before that date, D.F. 49. Petasites fragrans.—F\. Dec. 20th, 1889, Bank of Avon, L.W.E,.; Jan. 10th, Bridgwater, H.S.T. ; Fol, February, L.W.E. 50. Tussilago farfara (Coltsfoot).— FL Feb. 10th, Corston, D.F. ; March 8th, near Bridgwater, H.S.B.G. ; March 10th, Clifton, L.W.E. 51. Achillea millefolium {Yarrow). — Fl. June 25th, Pensford, only a few florets expanded, probably in full flower a day or two later, D.F. ; July 1st, Hamp fields, A.B. 52. Chrys'inthemuni Uucanthemum {Ox-eye). — Fl. May 30bh, near Corston, D.F. 53. Artemisia vulgaris {Mugicort). — Fl. August 4th, near Compton Dando, D.F. 54. Senecio Jacobcex {Ragwort). — Fl. June 12th, by canal, Bridg- water, A.B. ; July 18th, Clevedon, D.F, 55. Centaurea nigra. — Fl. June 16th, near Compton Dando, D.F, 56. Cardans lanceolatus {Spear Thistle). — FL July 11th, near Compton Dando, D.F. 57. Cardials arvensis {Field Thistle). — Fl. July 11th, near Compton Dando, D.F. 59. Hieraciiim pilosella {Mouse-ear Haiok-weed). — Fl. May 31st, Saltford, D.F. ; May 31st, Barnham, H.S.B.G. 60. Campanula rotundifolia (Hair-bell). — Fl. July 1st, St. Mary Street, Bridgwater, A.B. ; July 29th, near Bath, D.F, 61. LigustriDii vulgare (Privet). — Fl. June 9th, near Durleigh, A.B. ; June 16th, Corston, D.F. 62. Convolvulus sepium (Greater Bindweed). — Fl. July 5th, Corston, D.F. 63. Symphytum officinale (Comfrey). — Fl. April 27th, Corston, D.F. ; May 16th, Hamp, A.B. 64. Pedicidaris sylvatica (Red Rattle).— Fl. April 30th, Pill, L.W.E. 65. Veronica chamcedrys (Germander Speedwell). — Fl. April 25th, Corston, D.F. ; April 26th, Saa Mills, L.W.E. 66. Mentha ccquatica (Watermint). — Fl. Aug. 16th,IIoundstreet, D.F. 68. Prunella vulgaris (Self-heal). — Fl. May 26th, near Wembdon, A.B. ; June 12th, Corston, D.F. 69. Nepeta glechoma (Ground Ivy). — Fl. March 14th, Corston, D.F. 70. Lamium galeobdolon (Archangel). — Fl. April 9th, Frome Glen, L.W.E. ; May 14th, Kelston, D.F. 2S2 PHENOLOGICAL EECOKDS FOS 1890. 71. Stachys sylvatica {Hedge Woundwort). — Fl. May 25th, Hamp, A.B. ; June 12th, Corston, D.F. 73. Primula veris (Cozcslip). — Fl. March 27th, near Street, H.S.T. ; April 8th, Sea Mills, L.W.E,. ; April 9th, near Compton Dando, D.F. 74. Plantago lanceolata (Ribioort Plantain). — Fl. April 21st, Hamp, A.B. ; May 17th, Corston, D.F. 75. Mercurialis ■perennis (Dog's Mercury). — Fl. March 18th, Clifton Down, L.W.R. ; April 3rd, Stantonbury Hill, some flowers with ripe pollen ; April 9th, mature stigmas, D.F. 77. Salix caprea (Great Sallow). — Fl. March 15th, riverside, female fulJy developed, male somewhat later, L.W.E. ; March 16th, Bridg- water, probably in flower a fortnight earlier, H.S.T. 78. Fagus sylvatica (Beech).— IBud. b. May 4th, Corston, D.F. ; Fol. May 10th, Corston, D.F. 79. Corylas avellana (Hazel). — Bud. b. April 2nd, Corston, D.F. ; Fol. May 17th, Corston, D.F. ; Fl. March 14th, Corston, D.F. ; in few catkins the pollen was ripa and few stigmas mature. 80. Orchis maculala (Spotted Orchis). — Fl. May 4th, Dodington H.S.B.G. ; June 3rd, near Pensford, D.F. 81. Iris pseud-acorus (Yellow Iris). — Fl. May 26th, Petherton Levels, A.B. ; June 16th, near Compton Dando, D.F. 82. Narcissus pseudo-narcissus (Dajj'odil). — Fl. April 4th, Failand, L.W.E. 84. Scilla nutans (Blue-bell). — Fl. April 13th, Goathurst, near Bridgwater, H.S.B.G. ; April 18th, between Duideigh and Wembdon, A.B.; April 23rd, Corston, D.F. ; April 25th, Markham Bottom, L.W.E. BIEDS. Recorders : Miss Annabella Alleyne, Leigh Woods (A. A.) ; Mr. H. S. B. Goldsmith, Bridgwater (H.S.B.G.). 2. Muscicapa grisola [Fly -catcher). — First seen May 18th, Eownham House, A.A. Seen May 27th, Bridgwater, date of arrival not known ; young flying July 10th ; date of leaving not known, none seen Sept^ 20th, H.S.B.G. 3. Turdus inusicus (Song Thrush).— Song, January ; j'oung flying May 3rd, in garden, A.A. Young nearly fledged on April 21st, H.S.B.G. 4. Turdus pilaris {FiLldjart). — First seen Oct. 24th, Dodington, H.S.B.G. 6. Daulias luscinia (Nightingale). — Song, May 3rd, Shirehampton, A.A. Seen and heard singing May 1st, Wembdon, near Bridgwattr, H.S.B.G. PHENOLOGICAL RECORDS FOR 1890. 283 7. Sa.vicola c&nanthe (ir/ifaiear).— September 18th, about twenty seen on the Downs, A.A. 9. Phi/Uoscopwi trochilus {IVillow Wren). — First seen and heard sing- ing April 22nd, Leigh Woods, near top of Nightingale Valley, A.A. First seen March 30th, at Durleigh, near Bridgwater, among the bushes overhanging Durleigh stream, only one seen ; song May 2nd, same locality; May 12th, Enmore, near Bridgwater, five eggs fresh, H.S.B.G. 10. PJiylloscopus colhjbita [Ghiffchaff). — First seen April 20th, at Leigh Woods, top of Nightingale Valley ; song April 22nd, A.A. Song April 1st, Puritan, near Bridgwater, two heard about 5.30 p.m. ; heard also at Dodington, near Bridgwater (autumn note), Sept. 15th- 20th ; nest. May 3rd, Kilve, near Bridgwater ; eggs May 20th, in the same locality, five in number (many nests found during May and June), H.S.B.G. 12. Emhenza schosniclus {Reed Bunting). — May 24th, near Taunton, saw old birds going with food to nest, but not able to see young, nest among some rushes in a swamp ; June 1st, near Bridgwater, nest with five eggs, slightly incubated, H.S.B.G. 14. Emberiza cirlus [Girl Bwiting). — Eggs, May 26th, at Kilve, Bridgwater, three in number, slightly incubated. 15. Fringilla coelebs (Chaffinch). — We see them all the year round, but in winter very few cock-birds, A.A. Song, April 21st (not the " chink "), H.S.B.G. 18. Ciiculus canorus {Cuckoo). — Song, April 24th, Leigh Woods, A.A. Seen and heard singing April 29th, Durleigh, near Bridgwater, two seen ; also I heard the low churning note. 19. Hirundo rustica {Sivallow or Chimney Swalloiv). — First seen April 15th, flying round the house, A.A. April 14th, a few at Puritou, near Bridgwater, reported to have been seen a week earlier in the same place, only seen in any numbers on the 21st, and the first time in the town on the same day; nest with four eggs Aug. 19th, Stowey, near Bridgwater, hatched June 3rd, Dunwear, near Bridgwater. Main body of birds gone October 1st, latq brood left North Petherton, the last place of their stay near here, Oct. 12th. Young of first brocd feeding young of second, see my letter in Zoologist, H.S.B.G. 20. Hinindo urbica {House Martin). — First seen May 17th, Leigh Woods, round the house; very few seen here this year, A.A. Seen April 14th, a few at Puriton, near Bridgwater; reported to have been seen on March 29th, in the same place ; the first was in the town on the 20th, and the main body on the 2l3t ; last seen Sept. 24th, H.S.B.G. 284 PHENOLOGICAL EECORDS FOE 1890. 21. Hirundo riparia {Sand Martin). — First seen April 14th, Puriton, near Bridgwater ; reported to have been seen on March 19th, in the same place ; none seen on my return to Bridgwater, Sept. 20th, H.S.B.G. 22. Cypselus aims {Swift). — Seen May 17th, round the house. Swifts unusually numerous, A.A. First seen May 7th, Bridgwater, a pair ; last seen August 10th, Bridgwater, H.S.B.G. 23. Ca-primulgxis europaus {Goatsucker, Night-jar, or Fern Owl). — First seen August 31st, Over-Stowey, Bridgwater, H.S.B.G. 24. Columba tiirtur {Turtle Dove). — Nest, July 20th, Bridgwater, con- taining two eggs very slightlj^ incubated, H.S.B.G. 25. Perdix cinerea {Partridge). — Nest with eight eggs at Kilve, May 26th, one pheasant's egg in nest also, H.S.B.G. 27. Totamis hypoJeucos {Common Sandpiper). — Seen April 21st, on the river about a mile above Bridgwater ; saw three on some old claj^ pits that were being filled uj:*, July 6th, H.S.B.G. 28. Crex pratensis {Corncrake or Landrail). — Song May 4th, at S'owey, near Bridgwater ; heard again the following day, H.S.B.G. INSECTS. B'ccorder : Geo. C. Griffiths, Clifton. Ahhreviations.— Ay>. first appearance ; G.c. getting common. 1. Cicindela campestris {Tiger Beetle). — G.c. May 26th, Leigh "Woods; abundant in sunshine, and had probably been out several days. 2. Melnlontlia vulgaris {Cockchafer). — Ap. May 23rd, Portishead. 15. Vesjya vulgaris (n'asjj). — A large numb:!r of Avasps visited the sitting-rooms, Caledonia Place, during September, and several nests were, I am told, noticed on Durdham Down. 17. Pieris rapce {Small Garden White or Cabbage butterfly). — Ap. March 27th, Ashley Hill ; seen by Mr. W. H, Britton flying over south border (1 specimen) ; April 18th, Tyndall's Park, one specimen seen by Mr. H. A, Smith ; G.c. May 21st, abundant everywhere from May 21st to middle of June. I saw specimens of second brood July 17th, for the first time. 18. Pieris napi {Green-veined White Butterfly). — I did not see one specimen during the season. 19. Pieris brassicce {Large Garden White or Cabbage Butterfly). — May 21st, Bristol'; was much le ^s common than usual this season. 20. Anthocharis cardamiws {Orange-tip Butterfly). — Not observed durino; season. PHENOLOGICAL RECORDS FOR 1890. 285 21. Epinephile janira [Meadow Brown Butterjly). — Much less com- mon than usual in Bristol district. 22. Eriogaster lanestris {Small Egger Moth). — Not observed. 23. Amphidasys prodromaria (Oak Beaty ]\Ioth). — Not observed. 24. Tephrosia crepuscularia (Small Engrailed Moth). — Ap. April 19th, Leigh Woods, one specimen, fine condition, probably just emerged. April 25th, Leigh Woods, two specimens, good condition; specimens taken at intervals up to May 27th. 25. TcBiiiocampa Gothica (Hebrew Character Moth) ; 26. ,, instah His (Clouded Drab Moth) ; 27. „ stab ilis (Common Quaker Moth) ; 28. „ cruda (Small do. do. ) ; 29. „ munda (Twin-spot Moth) ; Leigh Woods, etc., abundant at Sallows, March 26th-28th, and probably earlier : Mr. Prideaux, Vyvyan Terrace. 30. Brephos parthenias (Orange Underwing Moth). — Ap. March 29th, abundant March 30th : G.c. March 30th, Mr. Prideaux. 31. Diurnea fagella. — Ap. April 4th, Leigh Woods, twelve speci- mens seen, all apparently newly emerged ; G.c. April 7th, Leigh Woods, newly emerged ; S3en in considerable numbers during the whole of April. The season of 1890 will be looked upon as one of the most unproductive of recent years, rivalling in that respect the cold, wet summer of 1888. The early spring was full of promise, and the number of larvae which fell to our beating- trays during Ajoril and May was almost phenomenal ; but with June a change seemed to come over the season, and from that time until late in autumn it was most disappoint- ing. July and August are almost perfect blanks in my diary as far as outdoor work is ct)ncerned ; on the 12th August a friend and I sugared a large number of trees in Leigh Woods, and found not one single moth; on the 20th of that month I again tried, and found only four specimens of the commonest species. Sugar as a mode of caj^ture seems to have been an utter failure in almost all localities. Ivy- bloom also v/as quite unproductive at its first appearance^, 286 PHEXOLCGICAL EECOEDS FOR 1890. and np to the middle of October ; after that time, however, it improved in a rather remarkable manner, and many species were found in fair average numbers. The regular ivy-frequenting species were thus very late in their appear- ance, and it seems probable that many late summer and autumn insects were so ; at Bournemouth during the last week in August, Safyrus semele were ^jing in beautiful, fresh condition, this being fully three or four weeks after their usual time of emergence from pupa. A stud}^ of irre- gularities such as these, in connection with meteorological and botanical observations during several years, might be of the greatest value in determining the causes which govern the abundance or scarcity of insect life. ainfiiU at CUftaiT iit 1890. By GEORGE F. BURDER, M.D., F.R.Met.Soc. TABLE OF RAINFALL. 1890. Averacfe of 38 years. Departure from Greatest Fall in 21 Hours. Number of Days on which •01 in. Depth. Date. or more fell. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. January . . 3-898 3-212 + 0-686 0-514 26th 22 Fel^riiary , 0-579 2-213 -1-634 0-190 14th 4 March . . 1-109 2-252 -1-143 0-274 24th 11 April . . . 1-140 2-117 -0-977 0-270 23rd 13 May . . . 1-869 2-399 -0-530 0-749 9th 13 June . . . 3-021 2-551 + 0-470 0-437 29th 16 July . . . 3-411 3-051 + 0-360 1-175 17th 18 August . . 2-932 3-410 -0-478 0-734 9 th 21 September . 1-431 3-238 -1-807 0-566 17th 11 October . . 1-673 3 561 -1-888 0-506 7th 15 Xovember . 2-551 3-050 -0-499 0-503 6fch 18 December . 1-300 2-834 -1-534 0-335 20th 13 ' Year . . . 24-914 33-888 -8-974 1-175 July 17th 175 ^87 28S EAINFALL AT CLIFTON IN 1890. Eemarks. — From the table it will be seen that the rainfall of the year 1890 was seriously deficient, amonnting to barely 25 inches, and falling short of the average by nearly 9 inches. The deficiency was even greater than in 1887, which will be remembered as a very dry year. So small an annual fall has not been recorded since 1870, when the total was 23'429 inches. In 1864 a still smaller amount was collected, namely, 22*746 inches, and that was the driest year in a period of 38 years. It is worthy of note that of the last four years three have been marked by a considerable deficiency of rain, and one by a trifling excess. The average annual deficiency during the four years has been about 5 inches, or nearly 15 per cent. Regarding the rainfall of the past year in detail, we find that three of the months — January, June, and July — pre- sented an excess of rain, but the excess was in no case large. The other nine months were all short of the average. Janu- ary was the rainiest of the months, February was the driest ; the former yielding nearly four inches of rain, the latter not much more than half an inch. Notwithstanding the general dryness of the year, the dis- tribution of the rainfall was such that indications of drought were seldom conspicuous. In the summer months, when from various causes a deficiency of rain attracts special attention, the weather was frequently unsettled and showery, and at no time of the year was there any such prolonged absence of rain as characterised the year 1887. The longest intervals of nearly rainless weather were — (1) from January 28th to February 14th (17 days) ; (2) from February 19th to March 7th (16 days) ; and (3) from August 29th to September 17th (19 days). In neither of these periods did the down- fall amount to more than a few hundredths of an inch. EAINFALL AT CLIFTCN IN 1890. 289 Sncw (the melted equivalent of which is alwaj-s counted as rain) fell on the 18th to the 21st of December to an average depth of eight inches. This was the only heavy snow of the year. ^bscrbations of temperature at Clifton College, 1890. By I). PJNTOUL, M.A. r I 1HE following tables and diagrams contain a general -*- record of the temperature of the year. It will be seen that the mean temperature is slightly above the average of the last ten years. The month of January was much warmer than usual, the mean temperature being 4*35° higher than the normal. The year, however, is distinguished most for the remarkablv cold weather, which commenced on the 25th of November and continued without intermission till the 22nd of January, 1891. The mean temperature of December, it will be seen, is • more than nine degrees lower than the average, and no December in the last ten years has had a mean temperature approaching it within eight degrees. The mean daily temperature was below the average on every day from the 25th of November till the end of the year, and not only so, the maximum daily temperature never rose so high as the average mean daily temperature during that time. The mean temperature was below freezing point from the 9th of December till the end of the year, and on fourteen days the thermometer never rose above freezing point. In this way the winter of 1890-1891 will long be memorable for its long-continued frost. The diagrams show the daily maximum and minimum temperature in the shade, the intermediate line being the course of mean temperatures and the smooth curve repre- senting the average temperature deduced from observations by the late Dr. Thomson of College Road — observations extending over more than twenty 3''ears. 210 January Tebruary Ma r c h I a 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 2021 22 23 24 2526 27 28 293031 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 1213 14 15 16 17 18 19 202122232425262728 12345678 9 10 II 1213 1415 16 17 18 19 2021 222324251 90 80 70 EXPLANATION. — MAXIMUM IM SHADE — MINIMUM IN SHADE — MEAN — AVERAGE MEAN TEMPERATURE 2324 25262/28283031 April 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 to IM2 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 2021 22 23 24 2S26 27 2829 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 May 9 10 II 1213 14 15 16 17 IS 192021 22 23 24 252627 28 293031 June I2345G789I0II 12 131415 16 17 1819202122 2324252627 282930 ■-T' / 1 / \ A / / A ' / A / \ An a / V \ \ / \iK'-L'yJ/ V . A ^Z^ixU--'^''^^ ^ /x ax7 \ / \ \ l\J OBSERVATIONS OF TEMPEEATURE AT CLIFTON. '291 1890 TEMPERATURES. MONTH. January February . March April May. June July Ausrust September October November December , Year 1890. Maximum in Shade. 41-5 76-0 Highest recorded. Mean. 54-3 48-49 52-1 41-33 59-3 50-23 63-6 53-62 77-3 62-98 71-3 63-76 71-0 65-03 74-1 65-76 76-0 66-53 69-1 57-98 57-3 49-91 33-28 55-16 Minimum in Shade. Lowest recorded. 19-1 19-1 Mean. 21-8 39-04 26-9 33-09 20-4 39-14 31-0 41-04 39-3 46-87 1 41-8 51-32 : 47-0 53-25 i 41-5 53-00 1 42-1 52-81 32-0 44-53 ! 23-7 39-80 1 26-97 43-40 Mean in Shade. 43-76 38-71 44-68 47-33 54-92 57-54 59-14 59-38 59-67 51-25 44-83 30-12 49-28 Minimum on Ground, lowest recorded. 21-1 24-3 18-8 27-3 37-2 38-0 44 5 39-7 39-1 27-0 23-7 17-2 17-2 Year 1889. 80-5 55-22 22-2 43-60 49 41 18-2 Year 1888. 79-1 54-19 22-3 42-71 48-45 18-0 Year 1887. 82-8 56-0 20-4 40-9 48-4 11-7 Year 1886. , 83-5 54-90 21-7 43-17 49-03 15-3 Year 1885. 87-8 53-98 22-1 42-53 48-09 20-1 Year 1884. 87-5 57-44 22-6 44-07 60-66 23-7 Year 1883. j 82-5 54-54 20-9 42-88 48-71 19-3 Year 1882. 78-5 55-46 21-9 43-62 49-54 20-6 Year 1881. 86-9 1 55-44 12-3 42-92 49-18 5-8 292 OBSERVATIONS OF TEMPEEATUllE AT CLTFTOX. MONTH. IS umber ofDHys on which tlio Minimum (irouud Tcmperaturo was l>clow 32°F. Number of Days on which the Minimum Air Tempcr;itiire wiia below 32,° b'. Number of Days on which t,}je Maximum Air Temi)ci'at,urc was below 3:i°F, Number of Days on wliich thu Mean Air TemperHtute was below 32°F. January . -. 8 4 1 1 February. . 17 15 0 0 March . . . 9 5 0 3 April . . . 10 1 0 0 May . . . 0 0 0 0 June . . . 0 0 0 0 July . . . 0 0 0 0 August . . 0 0 0 0 September . 0 0 0 0 October . . 1 0 0 0 November . 7 5 2 4 December . 27 27 13 23 Year 1890 . 79 57 16 31 Year 1889 . 88 45 5 12 Year 1888 . 93 60 2 16 Year 1887 . 148 63 2 11 Year 188(5 . 102 64 1 22 Year 1885 . 68 40 ] 6 Year 1884 . 51 19 0 1 Year 1883 . 79 40 0 6 Year 1882 . 63 26 2 11 7 Year 1881 . 94 60 2-1 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 131+ 1516 17 18 19 1'O 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 282930 31 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 192021 22 23242526 27 28 29 3031 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 2021 22232425 26 27 'U "> iirrnRFR ^^ IMOVEMBEK i/totmocn 26272S29301 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 ;3 14 IS 18 17 18 19 2021 22?324252627 28 293031 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 2021 2223 24P526 ?7 28 2930 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 1213 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 2324 2526 27 282930311 r— 1 CO O O IN. 1—1 00 Ci Ol CO 00 CI r— 1 1—1 CO OO Ci )0 o i-O 00 00 IN. 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