RST SP gS coe Ss Naga Maar Bk ES i a We \
: KS ‘ Lae ee Oi i i. :
UY 7
BCD pen
: : 49 ' ff} i
C Ve at

Hi. PROCEEDINGS

Se Oe

The Canadian Institute.

14170

NEW SERIES.
Volume I.

TORONTO:
HENDERSON & CompaNy, 8 AND I0 LomBarD ST.

1898.

ERRATA.

Page 5, line 18, for ‘‘ Macaites,” read ‘‘ Macaizes.”’
Page 6, line 36, for ‘‘ Antoeus,” read ‘‘ Antaeus.”
Page 6, line 37, for ‘‘capturing,” read ‘“‘attacking.”

Same line, for ‘‘who became the willing slave of their Queen,” read
“that willing slave of Queen Omphale.”

Page 6, line 40, for ‘‘ Cassiopea,” read ‘‘ Cassiopeia.”

CONTENTS:

PAGE

Extract from the President’s Annual Address ...........é.....ccesecceccecc... I
A. B. MACALLUM, M.B., PH. D.

Bemcmoirosmtaticen at’ WOroms@e aio. 85a «chen seekics «foie. ceevaciecoscses heloceces 2
JOHN MAUGHAN, JR., ESQ.

senerweaklomestic Attiials-Of Pyenties. ..)...1....-.0.cccdslececcocshdacccane 3
R. G. HALIBURTON, QIC., F.R.S.

he Gametophyte of Botrychium. Virginianum.......0.2..<.hecse.csalescseoce. 8
EDWARD C. JEFFREY, B.A.

The History and Physiology of the Gastric Glands .................0.000.. II

R. R. BENSLEY, B.A., M.B

Natural Resources of the Country between Winnipeg and Hudson’s
Re OL OTL ETM OMe eee pf od ped ek eth hiay cuss oy taanee Meee dah cy

LIEUT.-COL. T. C. SCOBLE.

eieut-anis— Ganadian ‘Indian “Slavery... 2 isso... ds.cewscesloseade ole nodes ebelas 1g
J. C. HAMILTON, LL.B.

Secondary Wndulations on Tide Gauges. 025005 .2..0heeccbedcacsibantecccocces. 28
NAPIER DENISON, ESQ.

Note on the Publications of The Canadian Institute........................ 32

Some lapsed Names in Canadian Local Nomenclature..................... %

REV. HENRY SCADDING, D.D.

Origin of the Salishan Tribes of British Columbia and Washington... 39
JOHN CAMPBELL, LL.D.

Ue Ae TRS OS AG RR aoe A oR SP Rn oe CTRL Ey 51
THOMAS W. GIBSON, ESQ. ; 7

Ree Great lakes’ as’ a* Sensitive Barometer... .... 220k. oc eek cele. 55
NAPIER DENISON, ESQ.

Mineralosical“ Notes ‘on Sudbury ‘Anthracite, ...02.0...... 0.2 hese theoseydenees 64.
G. R. MICKLE, B.A.

Seniicale NOLES OD? SUMUDUEY WCOa ls. ia... 5... deeemantdenAerdnens etdoeuegenteade 67
W. HOGDSON ELLIS, M.A., M.B., AND WM. LAWSON B.A. SC.

ehe Constructions with, detert atid Enterest..:... 2... vicesscecunkedesacessees 69
A. J. BELL, PH.D.

ecw Orcurrenee Ol. kapies! In) Ontario, 1.20... .ncserevesseesdecdllcwsdssavsecs cose 72
J. J. MACKENZIE, B.A.

PAGE.

Note on Scirpus Debilis and Scirpus Smithii............ Set Maa sth See eE AS iy
WILLIAM SCOTT, B.A.

Recent Contributions to Gaelic and Manx Literatures ..................... 74
REV. NEIL MACNISH, B.D., LL.D.

guhe? Indian’ Character)... 200. 2 cides. udseae ts ccad es eee ee 7g
E. M. CHADWICK, ESQ.

indian Ghosts and Conch |Feastsii. ee aaa ey booth a 81

R. G. HALIBURTON, F.R.G.S., ETC.

Some Basic Dykes and Volcanic Rocks of Eastern Ontario and
(CIS (2) BY eco aaa a ACMA ANUP MU es NSA E ol Flee RR SEIN tess

W. G. MILLER, M.A.

Wapor densions of Iiquid: Mixtures: 385.7 ue ee ETRE
W. LASH MILLER, PH.D., AND T. R. ROSEBRUGH, M.A.

New) species olCanadian, Mongivgs). wal ay ee 89
J..B. ELLIS AND J. DEARNESS.

Elam) Macdougall tytn tc cuguncs (ck sues eeneaes 0 eer ee eC ++ 56s eee pe oy

Public Wibraries aneCanada) 2.27 RE RED, SU ae eiedsnaeth Sia chek a 95

JAMES BAIN, JR., ESQ.

Niar ara tas “ay Dimeplece:.c jo/s eum | {ca kaee ts lye ee ER ee eee osama IOI
DR. J. W. SPENCER.

The Cree Ban guage vie.) yuna fi Je oo, 0.) sr a 104

REV. E. B. GLASS, B.A.

Recent Views, on ‘Caloun.22c aes see eg). ee 107
ALBERT H. ABBOTT, B.A.

Seismological, Observationsgar Warontole-..)..:...... aes) eee shat BROW
R. F, STUPART, ESQ.

General Elistonyuol the Welts seep. )/e cen itunes be teh sisal en 112
REV. NEIL MACNISH, LL.D.

Anatomy’ of thes@rang-Onbamo heen. ous on eel eee er 11g
A. PRIMROSE, M.B.

The Transportation Question.......... Se ee PET NS ilo, cena eee ee 122
J. S. WILLISON, ESQ.

@rigin of Ocean Tidal Secondanyy Undulations:...0 \-5-. 6s ae aga
F, NAPIER DENISON, ESQ.

Nr SR eg EE 2 ot

PROCEEDINGS

OF

Hae CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

EXTRACT FROM THE ANNUAL ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT, A. B. MacaLium,

M.B., Pu.D.

(Delivered November 7th, 1896.)

The success which the Council has achieved during the past session in the
management of the Canadian Institute has enabled the Editing Committee to
formulate an improved method of publication, a method which is more in accord
with the present requirements of Science. In the past our volumes of “ Trans-
actions ’’ appeared at irregular intervals, and in some cases very long after the papers
published in them had been read before the Institute. Speedy publication for
scientific papers of value is a great desideratum. No investigator relishes the
prospect of having his results held over for an inconveniently long time, with the
chance that when they are published they may be out of touch with the literature
of the subject appearing between the date of presentation and that of publication.
In this case, also, he must face the risk of his results being anticipated by another
worker in the same field. He, therefore, looks for speedy publication of his papers,
immediately they are completed, and those means are sought which offer this
advantage.

In consequence of these considerations, and desiring to attract scientific papers
of merit to the Institute, the Editing Committee has decided to change the present
mode of publication. It will not affect the ‘‘ Transactions,” which will be published
as heretofore, but at the end of the Session, and containing only carefully selected
papers worthy of publication in extenso. The point of departure is in the
institution of “ Proceedings,’ one number of which is to appear every two months
during the session, and each will contain the short papers, and the abstracts of
others read before the Institute in the preceding interval. This will ensure speedy
publication, and at the same time put a premium upon brevity, while it will enable
the Editing Committee to exercise greater freedom in the choice of papers for the
volume of the “ Transactions.”’ If the Institute is to maintain its large list of
Exchanges, it must strive for a high standard in the papers which it publishes.
Having had in the past but one mode of publication, it was natural that the
Editing Committee should have difficulties to contend with. Papers which con-
tained matter of interest, from a scientific, historical, or other point of view, but
were of inordinate length, were frequently offered for publication. These had to be
accepted outright or rejected summarily. There was no middle course. With the
plan now adopted, the Editing Committee can offer, for very short papers of value,
such an opportunity for speedy publication as will considerably offset the sacrifices
made for brevity. I trust that the men of science in the Dominion will avail
themselves of the advantages now offered, and that the new venture will be a success.

2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. i 4

Rare Birps TAKEN aT Toronto. By Joun Maucuan, Jr., Eso.
(Read April 13, 1895).

Great Black-Backed Gull (Larus Marinus). Locality, 8 miles out from Toronto,
Island in Lake Ontario. Date, 8th February, 1894. Measurements: spread 5 ft. 93 ins.,
wing 2 ft. 7 ins., length 2 ft.6 ins., leg Ir ins., tarsus 34 ims., tail 83 ins., bill 23 ins.,
bill, from gape, 43 ins., middle toe 3} ins. Sex o’.

Peregrine Falcon or Duck Hawk (Falco Peregrinus Anatum). Locality, Toronto.
Marsh, Ashbridge’s Bay. Date, 25th June, 1894. Measurements: length 193 ins.,
tail 74 ins., wing 19} ins., spread 44% ins., tarsus 2 ins., middle toe 2% ins., bill I in.,
gape I} ins. Sex <.

Remarks.—Plumage very light ashy, feathers very much battered and bare.

Marsh Hawk (Circus Hudsonicus). Locality, Toronto Marsh, Ashbridge’s Bay
Date, 20th May, 1894, and 2nd April, 1895. Measurements: length 183 ins., wing 20
ins., spread 3 ft. 6 ins., bill 1 in., gape 14 ins., leg 10} ims., tarsus 2% ins., middle toe
12 ins., tail 8} ins. Sex G\ and ©.

Remarks.— Both these hawks are noted for their being old males in the “ Blue
Plumage.” Colour: very light bluish ash, with pure white under wings and upper and
under tail coverts. Measurements are practically identical.

Razor-Billed Auk (Alca Torda). Locality, Hamilton Bay, Ont. Date, 9th Decem-
ber, 1893. Measurements : spread 27+ ins., tail 33 ins., wing 12 ins. Sex cj.

Remarks.—This species is undoubtedly very rare here, as records of only two have
been noted before this one. No doubt it came along with the Guillemots that were
taken in such numbers at different points during the winters of 1893, 1894 and 1895.

Red Phalanpe (Crymophilus Fulicarius). Locality, Toronto Island (east end).
Date, 6th October, 1894. Measurements: bill 1 in., spread 15 ins., wing 63 ins., tail
2 ins., leg 3 ins., tarsus 15-16 in., middle toe 15-16 in. Sex ©.

Leash or Yellow Rail (Porzana Noveboracensis). Locality, Centre Island, Toronto.
Date, 6th October, 1894. Measurements: length 6} ins., spread 10% ins., wing 4% ins.,
leg 32 ins., tarsus Zin., tail 7-16 in. Sex cf.

Purple Sandpiper (Tringa Maritima). Locality, Toronto Island (east end). Date, ~
27th October, 1894. Measurements: length 9 ins., tail 2 ins., wing 7#ins., spread 152
ins., bill 14 ins., leg 34 ins., tarsus 7 in., middle toe r in. Sex <.

li

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 3

Tue Dwarr Domestic ANIMALS oF PycmiEs. By R. G. HALiBuRTON,
Seer RIG.S.

(Read November r4, 1896.)

For years I have enjoyed the honour of being a corresponding member of the
Institute, but up to the present I have contributed nothing to its Transactions. If
I have not shared the fate of the proverbial “‘ unproductive fig tree,” it is due to the
forbearance of the Institute, and their charitable hope that, if spared by them, I
might do better in future.

It is, therefore, with great pleasure that I offer my first instalment, a paper
of interest, not on account of the way it is dealt with, but because it opens up for
the first time an untrodden field of science that is likely, in proper hands, to yield
important results. Whatever will hereafter account for the diminutive size of the
domestic animals of pygmies will also explain the origin of the dwarf races of men;
and, possibly, this may be true vice versa.

Before dealing with these little animals I must explain that, when my paper on.
“Dwarfs and Dwarf Worship ” was read at the Congress of Orientalists at London,
1891, the subject of pygmy races was considered to belong rather to myths and
marvels than to science. A quarter of a century ago Schweinfurth revealed the
then incredible fact of the existence of little tribes of hunters and warriors, not,
much exceeding four feet high, and dwelling near the great lakes of equatorial
Africa. At first he was discredited and ridiculed; but Stanley and others have
since that more than confirmed his statements. But to reluctantly admit that this
was the case in that remote region was the limit of endurance of incredulous
scientists. When, therefore, I openly claimed that the very same race of dwarfs
were to be found in the Great and the Saharan Atlas, some of them only a few
hundred miles from the Mediterranean, there was a howl of indignant incredulity.
My paper, which created an unexpected amount of public interest in London,
and was reported in full in The Times, was denounced by it, The Standard and
other papers in abusive and personal editorial critiques rarely seen in the press.
I was called a Munchausen, and an inventor of Gulliver narratives; my Moorish
servant and I must have been in league with the sixty or seventy natives who had
testified to impose pygmies on the simplicity of the scientific world.

As the Congress had awarded a medal to me, I withdrew a reply which I had
sent to The Times, and made up my mind that to republish these articles in four
or five years’ time, by the light of the discoveries that would be made, would be
the: most bitter reply that could be devised.

In my paper it was suggested that in early ages these Atlas dwarfs must have
found their way to Europe, and that they still survive there in popular tradition as
fairies and dwarf smiths with magic powers: and that dwarf tribes were also the
subject of very similar traditions in the West Indies and America.

After that it was discovered and shown by me that there are dwarf survivals in
the Pyrenees, and also in America.

One of my most persistent critics was among my friends, called “ fascinating
subject,’ as this was a pet term of his. Judge my dismay in June last, on reading
in an article on ‘“ Pygmy Races,” the following ominous sentence, with which it
begins. “Professor Starrs article on ‘Pygmy Races of Men’ in The North
American Review contains much interesting information regarding a curious and
fascinating subject.” To my relief I found that he admitted most fully all my
contentions. The existence of dwarf tribes in the Atlas, similar to the Akkas of

4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

Equatorial Africa, “had been demonstrated”; that there are diminutive Nanos in
the Pyrenees was also admitted; and also that strong evidence had been adduced as
to the existence of dwarf survivals in America. I could hardly believe that the
writer was my old friend but for a significant omission. He fully accepted my
discoveries, but forgot to mention my name in connection with them. Still, to:
have converted him to that extent was eminently satisfactory.

\ He concludes with some very sensible remarks, which are especially interesting
in connection with an even still more fascinating subject, ‘The Dwarf Domestic
Animals of Pygmies.” “It is evident that the existence of pygmy races has passed
out of the region of myth and fable into that of history and science. Our infor-
mation regarding these strange races is still incomplete and inexact, but it is being
steadily augmented and brought in line with accepted results in biology and
anthropology. The facts already adduced ‘suggest many interesting reflections,

but perhaps raise more problems than they solve. It seems clearly impossible (?)

to regard the pygmy races as owning a common origin, although their tendency to
conform to a single fairly well-defined type is very curious.

“Ts their case one of degeneration, owing to some special circumstances of
climate and environment, or do they represent a remnant still remaining in a stage
of development long since left behind by the rest of the human species ? We cannot
say with certainty, but such questions may yet become capable of solution, when our
information on the subject has become more extensive and exact.”

In 1890, when I visited Morocco to look into the subject of racial dwarfs there,
one of my first informants as to their small animals was a halfbreed dwarf at Tangier,
about four feet high, who is to be seen in the Soko, or market place there. In my
“ Dwarfs of Mount Atlas” (p. 25), we find him say, “the dwarfs are very brave, and
great hunters of ostriches, having small, swift horses, that are called by a name,
meaning ‘those that drink the wind,’ and that are fed on dates and camels’ milk,
and are very lean, and, judged by their looks, would be set down as worthless.
This description of these ostrich hunters agreed with that given me by my Berber
servant in 1888.” A Rabbi from Ternata, on the Dra, also said (see p. 29), “ There
are many of them (the dwarfs) near the Soudan. The Arabs fear them, and pay to
be allowed to pass through their country. Their horses can do without water for
four days, and are called dwiminagh (‘they that drink the wind’ ).” -

There is a place called Adwarfi, two or three days to the south-east of
Tafilet, which is a great resort of the dwarfs, and a part of the Saharan Atlas, in
that region (I assume), is called the Black Mountains, where is the River Dora, and
where there are many caves, in which the dwarfs live with their cattle. They have
an Arabic name, meaning “the people that own cattle.” A little Ait Atta from near
Adwarfi, and also afterwards a Jew from that region, described the dwarfs there as
living in hillocks, in which there are very small entrances, leading to a central
chamber, into which, at night, they drive their cattle, which are very small. Mr.
MacRitchie, in his ‘‘ Testimony of Tradition,’ speaks of the “ weems” of Scotland,
which are precisely similar structures to the hillocks of the Sahara ; and in one of
them, he says, in its central chamber, were found the bones of a small ox.

In 1893 Mr. Carlo Bruzeau, of the Villa de France Hotel at Tangier; told me
that twenty years ago, during a time of famine, he “saw a man bringing into
Mogador for sale, a string of shaggy ponies. When asked whence they came, the
Moor replied. ‘from the mountains (the Saharan Atlas); there, horses, sheep.
goats, cows, men, all are very small.’ ”

In the same year the dwarf tribe that inhabits the Great Atlas, not much more

than a day’s journey from the city of Morocco, were described to me as owning little -

sheep, donkeys, goats, and cows ; and a Moor offered to bring some to Mogador,
should I wish to buy some of -them..

The Barbary donkey is well known, a pretty tiny specimen of the breed, gen-

erally black, and very active and strong for its size.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, 5

Nearly always, wherever pygmy tribes exist, or must have once existed, we
find very small domestic animals. Bent, in his “ Mashonaland,” says that they are
very diminutive throughout South Africa, This even extends to the poultry. A
hen’s egg there is hardly larger than a pigeon’s egg.

This is also the case in Europe. Wherever there are survivals or very distinct
traditions of early dwarf races, there we invariably find small breeds of domestic
animals. In Brittany we not only have occasional survivals of very small people,
but also very diminutive cows and ponies. In Shetland and the Hebrides: we have
very conclusive traditions as to dwarfs, and there, too, we find little Shetland ponies,
small, “ black-faced sheep,’ etc. In Wales, too, with its undersized, dark-com-

‘plexioned people, we meet with little Welsh sheep and cows. In the same way in

Kerry, where the tales of the Skillimilinks, and “the little red-headed blacks” are
to be met with, there we have .the same types of animals. The little Kerry cows
are famed for their good qualities. In Galloway, too, in Southwestern Scotland,
where history tells us of the warlike, small-sized Pechts, who claimed the right to
lead the van in armies, we find the well-known ponies called “Galloways,” as well
as small cows.

The popular belief of the herdsmen and cheesemakers (Macaites) of the
Vosges Mountains, not only that there are pygmy herdsmen there, who dwell in
caves in the precipitous cliffs of that region, but also that these dwarfs have dwarf
cattle, is most interesting. On this point I may quote the following passages from
my paper on “Dwarf Survivals and Traditions as to Pygmy Races” (see Proceed-
ings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Vol. XLIV.,
1895) :

“Thirteen years ago my attention was attracted by the name of.some cliff
dwellers in Abyssinia, which Jean Temporal, in his translation of an early Portu-
guese book on that country, calls ‘Vosges.’ As I had, in 1863, suggested (see
Haliburton, New Materials for the History of Man (1863), pp. 14, 23, and note,
41, 74) that there must have been a migration from Africa to Europe in early ages,
I made a note of these facts, intending some day to inquire whether there are not
traces of cliff dwellings, or cliff dwellers, in the mountainous country of Alsace,

-‘the Vosges.’ In 1892, as Admiral Blomfield Pasha, of Alexandria, and Mrs.

Blomfield, were about to spend six weeks in the Vosges, I asked them to look into
the question. In a few weeks I received a local guide-book, which more than bore
out: my anticipations. In the Guide Joanne, Geradmer (Paris, Libr. Hachette &
Cie, p. 26), we are told that La Schaume, of Nisheim, which surrounds Wurtzelstein,
it is believed, is inhabited by a kindly-disposed race of dwarfs, who, when the
herdsmen descend to the lower valleys with their herds in the autumn, pasture their
cattle, which are of very small size, in the upper pastures, and make cheese til
the spring. Among different authorities cited is The Foyer Alsacien, by Chas.
Grad.” “In 1893 (i. e., after I had heard from Blomfield Pasha), I learned in
Morocco that, two days south of the Great Atlas, there is a high mountain called
Voshe, the inhabitants of which are dwarf cave-dwellers, who are called Ait Voshe
(the Voshe Tribe). Professor Schlichter says that the Akka dwarfs of Equatorial
Africa are known to their neighbors as Voshu, and also Tiki-Tiki, names con-
nected with the Akka dwarfs of Southern Morocco, who are also called Jed-ibwa
“the Fathers of our Fathers’).”

The range of the name for dwarfs, Tiki, or Tuiki-Tiki, is almost world-wide.
Of the 49 primordial dwarfs, whose creation preceded that of the human race,
according to Voluspa of the Icelanders, one was called Nain, and another Theckr.
In Germany we meet with the name Tuecke-Kobbold, and in Polynesia with
Tiki-Tiki, the name of the dwarf Creator, and in Peru the Creator was called Ticci
Ccapac.

When the Akka, or Tiki-Tiki of Equatorial. Africa wandered north to Europe,
they must have brought their diminutive cattle with them, for in Baker’s “Albert

6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

a region where the widespread Akka, or Voshu, are to be

N an aie 1866, - OI),
yanz ( p. 91) The goats and sheep are

found, we are told that “the cattle there are very small.
quite Liliputian.”
In Ceylon, the o

often ‘‘ Devil-dancers’
small size is put down to some wonderful myth about Buddha. These oxen are

very nimble-footed, and are used in carriages by the natives, as they can easily travel
eight miles an hour.

A friend of mine told me recently that in a part of Bengal where he lives, there
is a very diminutive breed of oxen, which are very swift ; and it is considered by the
rich Hindoos the correct thing to have a carriage drawn by six or eight of them.

But all this was known to the ancients over 2,000 years ago. Ctesias, a physi-
cian of Artaxerxes, who travelled in Asia, and described the pygmy race that he
there saw, says that they owned diminutive flocks, sheep the size of a lamb, small
donkeys and oxen, and horses and mules not larger than a ram is in Greece.

(See Ctesiae fragmenta, No. 57, 11, Didot).
Aristotle states that the pygmies live near the lakes from which the Nile flows,

riginal inhabitants of which are the diminutive Veddahs (called

“and this is no fable, for there is really, it is said, a race of dwaris, both men and

horses, which lead the life of Troglodytes.” (See Hist. Animal, VIII. 2). -

Strabo, who was a sceptic as to the pygmies, though he described small races of
men, says of the Western Ethiopians (evidently the dwarts of the Dra and the
Northern Sahara, whom I have alluded to), ‘‘ their mode of life is wretched. They
are, for the most part, naked, and wander from place to place with their flocks.
Their flocks and herds are small in size, whether sheep, goats or oxen ; the dogs
also, though fierce and quarrelsome, are small’? (See Bohn’s Classical Library,
Vol. III., p. 270, 1857). ;

It was pointed out in 1891, in my ‘‘ Dwarfs of Mount Atlas,” that pygmies are
supposed in Northern Morocco and in Nubia to be Cyclops, and that, as the dwarfs
of the Atlas, like other natives of Southern Morocco, wear a singular bournous,
on the back of which is worked an immense eye, a yard in length, “the people with
the eye”’ must in time have become “the people with only one eye.” This view,
as well as my contention that the dwarfs of the Atlas have little domestic animals,

are confirmed by Robert Brown, Jr., who, in his “ Neptune,” says that the Cyclops _

of the Odyssey were an agricultural people of North Africa, who had diminutive
cattle, the milk of which yielded very rich cream.

The dwarfs of the Atlas revenged the death of their giant brother, Antoeus, by
capturing Hercules, who became the willing slave of their Queen. Under many
different names, this great African Queen frequently appears in early Greek
mythology. Dating back to an era before the dawn of astronomy, she and her
daughter, as Cassiopea and Andromeda, were, with Hercules, placed in the heavens
as northern constellations by that father of astronomy, Atlas, who, according to
Homer, “ knew all the stars, and the remotest parts of the ocean,’ and who taught
Hercules astronomy. “The fat Queen of Pount” still survives on the monuments
of Egypt, which, according to Mariette Bey, represent her as a pygmy, and in
popular traditions as to the ruins of Poun or Pount, at the head of the Dra Valley.

in Southern Morocco, where, in time of drought, Queen Mena is still invoked. Her

mantle, no doubt, was believed to have descended on that brave Jewess, called by
the Arabs, Queen Kahina (“the sorceress’? ), under whom the Berbers for a time
rolled back the tide of Moslem invasion. A vague idea has for years existed south
of the Atlas that Queen Victoria is destined to rule over that country !

T have omitted to refer to two curious points : that there are, in several isolated
and inaccessible localities in the Southern States, little communities, composed of
survivals of those pygmy tribes that have disappeared from the west coast of Africa :
and also that there are on the Atlantic seaboard little ponies, the descendants,

’), there is a very diminutive breed of sacred oxen, for their

Se meee
Ji eee +

1+.
tS ay)

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 7

probably, of a small breed that belonged to these dwarfs, and that were shipped
with them to America. Strange to say, their name is “ Teki horses.”

Dr. Weir’s interesting article in the Popular Science Monthly for June, 1896,
on “The Pygmy in the United States” (which, however, does not refer to these
small horses), will well repay a perusal.

I invite the attention, not only of anthropologists, but also of zoologists, to this
subject: Are these little breeds the original stock and have domestic animals
gradually become larger and stronger, just as cultivated plants have; or have
scores of thousands of years of privation dwarfed them and their pygmy owners ?

It is very desirable that zoologists should carefully study and apply the investi-
gations of Yale naturalists and palaeontologists as to the origin of the horse in
America, which would seem to indicate that the ordinary horse had an even smaller
prototype than the little “ drinkers of the wind” of the Sahara, in a fox-like animal
with five toes, developing in later ages into a larger, horse-like animal with a cloven
foot. ‘“‘ After that the deluge’’—some catastrophe that put a final stop to horse-
raising in America in primordial times.

I also suggest a point which zoologists may follow up with good results.

Mr. Cunninghame Graham, three or four years ago, in an article on Argentina,
says that the horse of the Pampas differs from the ordinary horse, the lumbar
vertebrae of which are one more in number than those of the Pampas horses. This,
he says, also applies to Barbs, and he thinks that the Spaniards must have brought
out Moorish horses with them to Argentina. I tried, when last in Morocco, to
get a skeleton of a Barbary horse examined by a veterinary surgeon, but did not
succeed.

If the Barb differs also from ordinary horses, it probably got its peculiarity
from the little breed of ponies in the Sahara.

It is also very important to ascertain whether the latest type of fossil horses in
America resembled the Barbs or the common horse in this respect.

Henceforth we have immensely improved chances of solving the problems of
the origins of small breeds of domestic animals, and of pygmy races of men—for
what will explain the one, will also settle the other.

As respects the latter, the tendency of scientific thought is to regard dwarf
races of men as having been the original and earliest specimens of humanity on the
earth, and to yield to them the place so long occupied by a supposed “ missing
link.” The latest traveller in Africa, Professor Donaldson Smith, writing last
summer to The World an account of Abyssinian dwarfs discovered by him, says :
“Although they live among other native tribes, they differ totally from them as
respects their principal ethnological features. This fact strengthens the theory that
the African pygmies are not degenerate specimens of the tribes among whom they
live, but are the remnants of the first and original population of the Dark
Continent.”

Mer. Lerey, Papal Nuncio to East Africa, says the same thing, and asserts that
the dwarfs think so, too, and despise all the larger races as parvenus. They claim
to be the first, and oldest, and noblest inhabitants of Africa.

* (Note)—After this paper was written it was found that the fossil horse
resembled the Barb in this respect. It may be worthy of mention, that a review of
the latest book on Anthropology, Hutchinson’s “ Prehistoric Man and Beast” (Ap-
pletons, N.Y.), says: “Certain analogies lend weight to the idea that possibly Stone-
henge was erected by the dwarfs or fairies, who, in a previous chapter, are shown to
have been a real people. Various writers have come to the conclusion that a dwarf
population akin to the Lapps were the actual inhabitants of the “ fairy knowes,”

or underground megalithic structures, and became in time the elves and fairies of
folk lore.”

8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

THE GAMETOPHYTE OF BoTRYCHIUM VIRGINIANUM. By Epwarp C. JEFFREY,
_B.A., Lecturer 1n BioLtocy UNIverRsitTy oF Toronto.

'

(Read November 21, 1896.)

A complete dase atn of the gametophyte of the Ophioglossaceae has pes been
a desideratum.

Since the discovery by Mettenius, in 1856, of the subterranean i pornallaes of
Ophioglossum pedunculosum, and by Hofmeister, in 1857, of that of Botrychium
lunaria, nothing has been added till recently to their necessarily incomplete
accounts of the gametophyte in these species. Our latest knowledge on this subject
is derived from a brief description of incomplete material of the prothallium of
Botrychium virginianum found in 1893 at Grosse Isle, Michigan, by Professor
Douglas Campbell, which was published in the proceedings of the Oxford meeting
of the British Association in 1894.

During the summer of 1895 the writer secured a large number of prothallia of
the same species at Little Metis in the Province of Quebec. On examination it was
found that the material thus obtained afforded a complete elucidation of the
development and structure of the antheridia and archegonia, and a less satisfactory
series of stages in the segmentation of the embryo. Last summer the remaining
prothallia were removed to the number of about six hundred, and, although they
have only been partially studied yet, owing to technical difficulties in embedding
them, those examined have supplied all the lacking stages of the development of the
young sporophyte.

It is proposed at the present time to furnish a brief account of the features of
interest—a fuller description will shortly appear in the Transactions of the Canadian
Institute.

All the younger prothallia were found in a single circular depression of
sphagnum moss about ten feet in diameter, near a corduroy road, running through
the wooded margin of a peat and huckleberry swamp at Little Metis, P.O. Older
prothallia were abundant with those bearing fertilized and unfertilized archegonia
and younger embryos.

I have also found young sporophytes of several years’ growth in the woods on
the heights back of Metis; in the “ Flats” below the “ Whirlpool” on the Niagara
river, and also in rich woods along the valley of the Don, near Toronto. In all
the examples last referred to the young spore plant was still attached to the
gametophyte. It seems probable that the prothallia of our common Canadian
species of Botrychium are much commoner than has been hitherto supposed. It
is necessary to add, however, that although my attention has been directed to the
subject for some three years past, I have not yet succeeded in finding the younger
stages of the prothallia in any other spot than the sphagnum basin in the swamp
at Little Metis.

The gametophyte of Botrychium virginianum is of flattened oval shape, the
narrower end of the prothallium being terminated by the growing point. My
examples are from two to eighteen millimetres in length, by one and a-half to eight
millimetres in breadth. Their thickness increases from the growing end backwards.
The sides and lower surface of the prothallium are covered in younger specimens
with multicellular hairs. In older plants these tend to disappear. The middle of
the upper surface is occupied by a well-defined ridge, upon which the antheridia

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 9

are situated. The archegonia are found on the declivities which slope away from
the antheridial ridge.

As might be expected, the younger sexual organs are found nearer the growing

point than those of greater age.

,

A cross section of the prothallium reveals to the naked eye the fact that the

lower part of the gametophyte is composed of tissue which is yellowish in colour,

and from which a thick oil exudes, even when the plant has been lying in ninety
per cent. alcohol for months. The upper portion of the prothallium tissue, upon
which the generative organs are situated, is white in colour and free from oil. A
long section of the prothallium shows the same distribution of yellow oil-bearing
and white oil free tissue as the cross section, but demonstrates that the oil-bearing
stratum is both absolutely and relatively much thicker in the older parts of the plant.

Microscopic examination shows that the oleiferous tissue has its cells occupied
by an endophytic fungus and a very abundant protoplasm.

The fungus, so far as it has yet been studied, seems to be a sterile Pythium,
possibly the same as that found by Treub, Goebel and others in the prothallium of
species of Lycopodium. The writer hopes to study the fungus more closely in a
living condition during the next period of vegetation. The fungus filaments can be
seen passing from the prothallium to the outside medium by way of the root hairs.

The antheridia, as has been already stated, occur in numbers on a ridge running
lengthwise on the upper surface of the prothallium. The young antheridia originate
behind the growing point from a single superficial cell. This divides transversely

‘the outer half, giving rise to the outer antheridial wall and the inner half by

repeated simultaneous divisions to a large number of spermatocytes. The fully-
developed antheridium is largely embedded in the antheridial ridge, and projects
only slightly above its surface. The formation of the spermatozoids has not yet
been carefully studied, but seems to resemble closely that described in the Marat-
tiaceae and Equisetaceae.

The spermatozoids are unusually large in size, but otherwise resemble the
ordinary fern type, and consequently differ from the biciliate, moss-like sper-
matozoids of the Lycopodiales.

‘The archegonia are confined to the sloping sides of the upper surface of the.
prothallium. Unlike the antheridia, young archegonia, although most abundant
near the growing point, maybe formed on almost any part of the archegonia-
bearing surface. The archegonium mother cell is superficial, and is distinguished’

from its neighbours by a larger nucleus and a more abundant protoplasm. It first-

divides transversely into a shallow outer cell and a deeper inner cell. The inner-
cell divides again, and as a result the young archegonium consists of three cells.
The most external of these, by subsequent divisions, gives rise to the neck of the
archegonium. The internal cell is the basal cell. It also divides into a plate of cells
sometimes composed of two layers and distinguished by their richly protoplasmic
contents. The middle cell of the young archegonium series gives rise by division
to the neck canal cell and the ventral cell. The former becomes binucleate, but
never divides into two cells. The latter, just before the maturation of the arche-
gonium, divides into the egg-cell and the ventral canal cell. The ventral canal cell
is broad, like that of the Marattiacez.

In the ripe archegonium the nuclei of the cells of the upper stories of the
archegonium neck become chromatolysed. I do not know yet whether this feature
is peculiar to Botrychium.

The fully-developed archegonium is sunk into the prothallium, and only the
neck projects above its surface. The cervical cells are in four rows as in the other
Pteridophyta, and the terminal ones spring apart when the egg is ripe.

Spermatozoids are frequently found in contact with the egg. After fertilization
the egg grows to many times its original size, and the reduced protoplasm contains

a large hydroplastid.

‘ ae | > af) Sal SN eee NA ee AO ae ee ee

‘10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

The first division of the o-ospore is across the long axis of the archegonium.
The next division is parallel with the long axis of the prothallium, and at right
angles to the first. The third cross wall is in the transverse direction of the pro-
thallium, and at right angles to the other two. I have been unable to follow
satisfactorily the subsequent divisions.

The organs appear very late, and only after the embryo has attained a large size.
The root is the first of them to emerge, and the proliferation of cells, indicating its
place of origin, is long unmarked by the presence of an apical cell. The cotyledon,
stem apex, and foot appear nearly simultaneously.

The root and cotyledon originate from the upper part of the embryonic mass ;
the foot and stem apex from its lower cells.

The apex of the root in many cases is in the same straight line with the canal
: of the archegonium neck.
ie It seems hardly possible to derive the organs from definite octants of the
embryo.

The growth of the root ruptures the calyptra, and its exit is followed somewhat
later by that of the cotyledon. The latter is not a bi-lateraily symmetrical
structure, as in most ferns, but is of the same palmate type as is found in the
Osmundaceae. The cotyledon begins to assimilate as soon as it reaches the surface
a of the ground, and thus resembles that of Ophioglossum pedunculosum.

There seems to be no evidence to indicate that more than the cotyledon appears ;
See above ground in the first season of the young plant’s growth. In following
Je summers apparently only a single leaf is produced, as is the case with the older
plant. I have found young sporophytes, bearing their sixth leaf, still attached to

the mother prothallium; and, as I have never found more than one leaf on the

spore plants at once, and as the leaves, like other organs of this species of

Botrychium, are extremely resistant to decay, I am reasonably certain that such

: examples were in the sixth year of their existence. This longevity of the gameto-
ee ‘phyte is of some interest. : ;

One frequently finds two sporophytes on a single prothallium, and in many of
these cases the apex of the prothallium is bifurcated. In one case I found two spore
‘plants which had arisen from a single embryo. In another case I discovered two
tracheids in a prothallium in the vicinity of a decayed young spore plant. The latter
may have been of apogamous origin, as a similar phenomenon generally accom-
panies apogamy. I have not yet studied thoroughly the growing region of the
prothallium, as it is best examined in longitudinal sections of the gametophyte. So
far as I have investigated the matter, there seems to be evidence of the existence
of an apical cell.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. If

Tue HisToLoGy anp PuysioLoGy oF THE GasTRIc GLanps. By R. R.
BENSLEY, B.A., M.B., Assistant DEMONSTRATOR OF BioLocy, UNIVER-
SITY OF TORONTO.

(Read November 28, 1896.)

PRELIMINARY NOTICE.

In nearly all vertebrates, in which the histology of the stomach has been inves-

tigated, the mucous membrane of that portion immediately preceding the pyloric
orifice has been found to contain glands differing in certain characters from the
glands of the rest of the stomach, and known technically as the pyloric glands.
The morphological relation of these glands to the other gastric glands in the
lower vertebrates has excited little interest, but in the mammalia, in which the
subject assumes great physiological importance, this relation has been the subject
of numerous researches, and has been examined from widely different points of
view. Heidenhain* and Ebstein? compared the cells of these glands with the
chief cells of the fundus glands in respect to the action on them of dilute acids
and alkalies, and to the appearances presented in different phases of secretory
activity, and came to the conclusion that the two kinds of cells were of similar
nature. Further force was imparted to this conclusion by the discovery that the
pyloric mucous membrane contained a ferment capable of digesting fibrin’ in the
presence of dilute hydrochloric acid, and by the experiment of Heidenhain,? who
established a pyloric sac entirely separate from the fundus mucosa, which, even
after five months yielded a secretion rich in pepsin.
: The method adopted by Heidenhain and Ebstein in diveshiparins the physio-
logical and morphological value of the pyloric glands was to a certain extent the
correct one, and the reason that it did not lead, in their hands, to a more convincing
result was that they examined cells in which only a portion of the elements of the
living cells was preserved. The researches of Langley,4 alone, and in conjunction
with Sewall, have taught us that the secretion of pepsin is intimately, connected with
the formation and disappearance of coarse granules in the chief cells, and he has
offered us the most convincing proof that these granules are the zymogen of
Heidenhain,5 Ebstein, and Grutzner,® and comparable to the granules observed in
the pancreas and salivary glands. Any cytological research which does not take into
‘consideration these zymogen granules cannot fail to lead to erroneous results.
Unfortunately, it has been found difficult to preserve these granules, and in his first
observations on the mammalian ‘glands, Langley depended largely on fresh, or living
material. Subsequently he found that in some animals the granules could be fixed,
and the part taken by them in secretion investigated by the use of solutions of osmic
acid. i

Langley and Sewall observed that the coarse granules discovered by them in
‘the fundus glands were not to be found in the pyloric glands, and concluded that
the appearance of granules in the cells was not a necessary feature of zymogenesis.

(1) Arch. fur Mik. Anat. Bd. VI., p. 368.

(2) Arch. fur Mik. Anat. Bd. VI., p. 515.’

(3) Pflueger’s Archiv. Vol. XVIII.

(4) Journal of Physiology. Vols. II., I1I., and others.

(5) Pflueger’s Archiv. Vol. X.,and Hermann’s Handbuch, Vol. V.;
(6) Pflueger’s Archiv. Vol. VIII.

Pate eg i dee eT Mimi ae Stetina Ns 9:

12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

Relying on their observation that in the rabbit there is a gradual diminution in the
number of granules in the chief cells, from the fundus along the greater curvature,
and on the undoubted fact that the pyloric secretion contains a proteolytic ferment,
these observers concluded “that the pyloric gland cells and the chief cells of the
fundus are fundamentally the same,” and that ‘the chief cells of the fundus” are “a
highly differentiated form of the pyloric gland cells.” Stohr? in 1882 arrived at a
similar conclusion, as a result of his researches on the stomach of man, the cat, dog,
and badger.

Many investigators, Aaa as a result of physiological experiment and
observation, have come to the conclusion that the pyloric gland cells are something
quite different from the chief cells of the fundus gland. Among these may be
mentioned Nussbaum,® Sappey,? Bonnet, and Bikfalve, who regard the pyloric
glands as mucous glands. The most recent contribution to this subject is that
contained in the Lehrbuch der Vergleichenden Mikroskopischen Anatomie, pub-
lished this year by Oppel, of Freiburg. From an exhaustive examination of the
literature of this branch of research, and from personal observation, this authon
concludes that ‘‘ Die Pylorusdrusenzellen sind Zellen sui generis welche sich sowohl
vom Oberflachenepithel wie von den Hauptzellen unterscheiden. Sie sezernieren
pepsinhaltigen Magensait.”

One has only to consider the conflicting nature of the results achieved, or to
observe the various ways in which similar observations have been interpreted, to
convince oneself that the solution of the problem of the morphology and physiology
of the mammalian pyloric gland is not to be attained by the ordinary methods of
physiological research.

It appeared to me that some information might be afforded by a careful study,
of the structure of the cells of the various gastric glands, at different periods of
digestion, together with a comparison of the structure of the cells in the various
vertebrate classes. In order that this investigation might not be open to the
objection I have urged in reference to the work of Heidenhain and Ebstein, it was
necessary to find some agent that would fix equally well the form and contents of
the cell. To the difficulty of accomplishing this, I have already alluded, in speaking
of the work of Langley, who found that by the use of osmic acid he could preserve
the granules in the chief cells of a few mammals only. It has since been found that
mercuric chloride, in saturated aqueous solution, would fix perfectly the zymogen’
granules of many glands. This reagent, as well as the various osmic acid mixtures,
were tried and found to possess certain disadvantages. Whilst they fixed perfectly
and satisfactorily the cells of the surface, and of the deepest portions of pieces of
mucous membrane immersed in them, the zymogen granules had quite disappeared
from the middle regions of the glands. Alcoholic solutions of mercuric chloride
‘were then tried, with the result that whilst the zymogen granules of the whole gland
were well preserved, the cells themselves had undergone considerable change of
form. It was'subsequently found that the addition of an equal volume of two per
cent. aqueous solution of potassium bichromate to the alcoholic solution of
mercuric chloride, would prevent the shrinkage of the cells, and at the same time
effect a satisfactory fixation of the zymogen granules in all parts of the glands
containing them.

With the help of this reagent I have investigated the stomachs of several
mammals, and of members of the lower vertebrate classes, and have been led to
conclude, that the relationship of the pyloric glands to the glands of the fundus
region is, within certain limits, a constant one, and that the pyloric glands are to be —
regarded as feebly differentiated structures, corresponding in the nature of their
cells to the upper portions of the fundus glands.

(7) Archiv f. Mik. Anat. Bd. XX.
(8) Archiv f. Mik. Anat. Bd, XXI,
(9) See Oppel. Lehrbuch der Vergleichen Mikroskopischen Anatomie, p. 269.

ae eee

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 13

Among mammals, I have found the cat most suited to experimental research,
on account of the large size of the zymogen granules, and in this preliminary paper
I will confine myself to an account of the results attained by observation of the
gastric glands of this animal in various stages of secretion, and reserve for the
full paper, to be published shortly, the confirmatory facts elicited from an examina-
tion of the stomachs of other mammals, fishes, amphibia, and reptilia.

_ The chief cells of the fundus glands may be divided into two groups, those of
the body and those of the neck of the gland. The differences between these two
kinds of cells will be minutely described.

If the fundus glands of an animal that has fasted for twenty-four hours be
hardened in the alcoholic sublimate bichromate mixture, the chief cells present the
following characters:—They are cubical or pyramidal in shape, the base of the
pyramid being usually directed towards the lumen of the gland. In preparations
stained in haemalum and eosin, the body of the cell is found to contain a network
of large polygonal meshes of equal size, and pervading the whole cell. In secretions
stained in saffranin, or gentian violet, or the iron alum haematoxylin of Heidenhain,
the cell is filled with granules of large size, the zymogen granules. In the Ehrlich-
Biondi mixture the network stains red, and it is then seen that each mesh of
network corresponds to a zymogen granule. The apparent network is really the
optical section of the partitions between the spaces in which the zymogen granules
lie. The nuclei are round or oval, occasionally slightly irregular, and placed near
the base of the cell. They possess a well-defined chromatin network, and one or
two large eosinophilous nucleoli. I have directed considerable attention to the
structure of the nuclei in the different phases of secretion, with a view of determining
if changes similar to those described by Platner, Ogata, and others in the nuclei of
the pancreatic cells are to be observed in the gastric chief cells. So far, however, I
have been unable to demonstrate any changes, with the exception of the slight
irregularity of outline sometimes seen in the resting cell. This, I feel inclined to
attribute, rather to compression by the secreted products, than to spontaneous
change of form.

In an animal that has been continuously digesting for a period of six hours
the chief cell is distinctly marked off into two zones. The inner zone is still filled
with large granules, between which may be seen in Ehrlich-Biondi stained sections,
the red stained meshwork of hyaline protoplasm. The outer portion of the cell
contains no granules, but is occupied largely by a substance which has a peculiar
affinity for nuclear dyes, such as haematoxylin. This substance possesses an
obscurely fibrillated structure, the fibrillae being placed side by side in the base of
the cell, so that one is at first reminded of the appearance of the striated epithelium
of the intralobular ducts of the salivary glands. On closer examination it may be
seen that the fibrillation in the outer portion of the chief cell is not so regular, nor
are the fibrillae as distinct from one another as in the salivary ducts. The fibrillae are
also of larger size, and irregularly swollen at intervals so as frequently to mask the
fibrillated structure. The form taken by this substance in the base of the cell,
particularly when it is present in small amount, frequently reminds one strongly of
the figures published by Macallum, Eberth, and Mueller," and others, of the
nebenkerne in the pancreatic cells of the amphibia, and one is led to inquire if these
structures are not of similar nature. The amount of this fibrillated substance in
the cell, under normal conditions, varies inversely with the number of zymogen
granules, and one can only conclude that the chromophile substance in the base of
the cells breaks down during rest, and thus takes part in the formation of zymogen
granules, which is then actively progressing. Mouret’ takes a similar view of the
nature of the chromophile fibrillated substance in the outer portion of the

(10) Transactions of the Canadian Institute, Vol.I. 1890.
(11) Zeitschrift f. Wissenschaft. Zool. Bd.53. Supplement.
(12) Journal del’ Anatomie. 1895.

14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN “INSTITUTE.

pancreatic cells of the dog, and he suggests the name of “pre-zymogen” for the
substance. Some information as to the nature of this substance is afforded by the
researches of Dr. Macallum, who describes the differences in staining exhibited by
the nucleus and plasma of the exhausted and resting pancreatic cell, and explains this
difference as follows:—‘“The chromatin of the nucleus of the pancreatic cell gives rise
to a substance which we may call “prozymogen,”’ sometimes dissolved in the nuclear
substance, sometimes collected in masses (plasmosomata), and finally diffused into
the cell protoplasm, uniting with a constituent of the latter as zymogen.” In a
subsequent investigation™ into the distribution of assimilated iron compounds in
animals and vegetable cells, Dr. Macallum found diffused in the cytoplasm of the
outer zone of the chief cells, and, with two exceptions, in the cytoplasm of all other
glands examined by him, a firm compound of iron, and his observations led him
to conclude that this iron compound was the prozymogen of his earlier researches.
It seemed probable that the fibrillar chromophilous element observed by me in the
outer zone of the chief cell was the prozymogen of Dr. Macallum’s investigation;
and this proved to be the case. A convenient means of proving this was afforded
by the fact that the chief ceils of the greater curvature of the rabbit’s stomach
contain at all periods of digestion a very large amount of the chromophile substance.
which in the exhausted phase almost fills the entire cell, the zymogen granules being
then confined to a narrow band next to the lumen. Sections of this mucous
membrane give no immediate reaction for iron with ammonium sulphide, but after
three hours’ treatment with a three per cent. solution of sulphuric acid in alcohol, at
a temperature of 4o degrees C., those portions of the chief cells containing the
chromophile substance take, with acid ferrocyanide solution, a deep Prussian blue
color, which is so intense as almost to mask the nucleus of the cell. The
Prussian blue reaction also shows the same fibrillar structure as is observed in
sections stained in haematoxylin. We may, therefore, use the term “ progymmowen ai
for this substance wherever it occurs.

It is not in the chief cells of the stomach and in the pancrestie cells alone that

the prozymogen assumes the fibrillar form. I have observed similar structures in —
the serous glands of the gustatory area of the rabbit and dog, and it is possible
that the rod-like structures described by Solger’ in the basal portion of the cells
of the human submaxillary gland, and by Erik Mueller in the cells of the
submaxillary of the guinea pig, may belong to the same category. The fibrillation
in the prozymogen of the gastric gland cells may: be observed in the fresh cell,
examined in aqueous humour, and is, therefore, not the product of the action of
reagents. It may be also seen in sections fixed in Hermann’s or Vom Rath’s
Osmic acid mixtures, and in aqueous sublimate.
‘The cells of the neck of the gland are quite different in appearance from those
of the body. At no period of digestion do they contain either prozymogen or
granules of zymogen. The same remark is applicable to the chief cells of the short
collecting duct (sammelgang of Bizzozero), and to the cells of the lower portion
of the mouth of the gland. The cells of these three regions have many features in
common, and will be described together. As a starting point, I will describe the
cells of the upper portion of the neck of the gland.

These cells are usually conical or pyramidal in shape, wedged in between the
larger oval border cells of this region of the gland in such a way that the broad
base of the cell is directed towards the lumen. In vertical sections of the mucous
membrane, from one to four of these cells may usually be observed between each
pair of the border cells. Two zones may be distinguished in the cells, an outer
‘protoplasmic zone of fine reticular structure, staining readily with eosin, and an

(13) Op. Cit.

(14) Quarterly Journal Microscopical Science. Vol. XXXVIII., Part II. New Ser.
(15) Anatomischer Anzeiger, Bd. IX. ;

(16) Archiv f. Mik. Anat. Bd. XLV.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. T5

inner zone presenting an irregular network of much larger meshes, and containing
a secreted substance, which behaves in a peculiar way to staining agents. By the
ordinary stains this portion of the cell appears clear and transparent. The substance
contained in the inner zone of the cell appears to be in some respects similar to
mucin. It gives a faint metachromatic red stain with thionin, and stains intensely
with Bordeaux R. and Indulin. The latter dye has rendered me considerable service
in determining the distribution of this kind of secretion in the stomach. I have
found the most satistactory method of applying this stain to be in the form of
Huber’s blood fluid, consisting of two grammes each of indulin, eosin, and
aurantia, dissolved in thirty grammes of pure glycerine, and diluted with four
hundred times its volume of distilled water before use. Sections of the fundus
mucous membrane immersed in this fluid for one-half hour or longer, show all
parts stained red, with the exception of the blood corpuscles, which are yellow,
the nuclei of the cells and the mucigenous borders of the surface cylindrical cells,
which take a faint haematoxylin tint, and the secretion in the cells of the upper
portions of the glands, which takes an intense dark blue color. Stained secretion
may also be observed in the lumen of the gland. In sections stained thus the
appearance of the inner zone of the cell is different from that above described. It is
now found to be pervaded by a close-meshed network of coarse fibres, both the
network and the substance enclosed in its meshes being indulinophilous, and
often presenting a vacuolated appearance. This appearance seems to me to be
due to the formation of a secondary reticulum by precipitation in this form of the
solids of the secretion. At the junction of the two zones of the cell the reticulum
of the outer zone is much finer in texture and is chromophilous, so that in sections
stained in haematoxylin alone, the cell appears to be subdivided by a blue stained
band into the two zones. In sections stained in the indulin mixture it is frequently
seen that a small quantity of indulinophilous material is diffused through that
portion of the outer zone of the cell, between the chromophilous band above
referred to and the nucleus. The size of the indulinophilous zone varies with the
position of the cell. In the upper part of the neck of the gland it involves only a
small portion of the cell, but on passing down the gland, increases gradually in
width, until at the lowest portion of the neck of the gland it fills nearly the whole
cell. The nuclei of these cells are placed. near the base, and vary in shape with the
amount of secretion present ; in those cells, which possess a large protoplasmic zone,
the nuclei are oval or round; in the cell filled with secretion they are irregular
and flattened. It is only in cells, however, in which the indulinophilous zone
extends to the nucleus that any irregularity of shape is to be observed. Mitoses
may frequently be observed in those cells, even when filled with secretion. Among
the indulinophilous cells of the lower portion of the neck may be observed a few

- zymogenic cells. An occasional induiinophilous cell may also be observed among

the chief cells of the body of the gland, and these are probably the cells observed
by Pilliet,” Trinkler,*® and others, and regarded as stages in the transformation
of border into chief cells, or vice versa.

The cells of the collecting duct, and the lower cells of the mouth of the gland,
also contain indulinophilous secretion, in the shape of a rounded clump in the
midst of the protoplasm of the cell, near the nucleus, possessing the same structure
and staining properties as the inner zone of the cells of the gland neck. Passing
up the mouth of the gland, this clump gradually approaches the free surface,
and loses its indulinophilous character, finally fading into the mucigenous border
of the surface epithelium. In these cells, as Bizzozero * observed, the mitoses are
more frequent than in the neck cells.

There is some evidence that the indulinophilous cells of the neck of the gland

(17) Journal del’ Anatomie, etc. No.5. 1887.
(18) Archiv f. Mik. Anat. Bd. XXIV.
(19) Archiv f, Mik. Anat. Bd. XLII.

16 “PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

are young cells, which will ultimately grow down into the body of the gland, and
take on the function of zymogenesis. This evidence will be offered in a later paper,
in which also the regeneration of the surface epithelium will be discussed.

The discovery of the different nature of the cells in the neck of the gland affords
a cytological basis for the division of the gland into two regions, called respectively,
the neck and the body of the gland.

The length of the neck of the gland varies in the different portions of the
stomachs of different mammals. I have not been able to demonstrate any change
in the appearance of these cells in the different periods of digestion. In sections
fixed in alcohol sublimate bichromate solution the branches of the lumen leading
out to the border cells, as well as the fine intracellular secretion capillaries of the
latter, may be perfectly seen.

The pyloric gland cells contain at no period of digestion. either zymogen
granules or prozymogen. They resemble closely in internal structure the cells of
the middle portion of the neck of the fundus glands, and contain a similar secretion.
As in the fundus glands, this stains intensely with indulin and Bordeaux R., and
gives a faint metachromatic red stain with thionin. The reticulum observable in
the indulinophilous portion of the cells is, as a rule, finer than in the neck cells
of the fundus glands. Here, also, it may be observed that the indulinophilous cells
pass, by gradual transition, into the mucous cells of the surface, and it is in the
transitional portion of the gland that mitoses are most abundant, although they —
may be frequently seen even in the deepest portions of the glands.

The identity of the cells of the neck of the fundus gland with the pyloric gland
cells in the cat may be demonstrated by a study of the so-called intermediary zone.
Here I have found, not the mixed fundus and pyloric glands of other observers,
but a gradual transition, brought about by the lengthening of the neck region of the
gland, and the gradual disappearance, first, of the zymogenic cells, and finally, of
the border cells, as the pylorus is approached.

- CONCLUSIONS.

1. During digestion a substance similar in chemical properties to the chromatin
of the nucleus makes its appearance in the outer clear zone of the chief cells of the
fundus glands. This substance, which may be called prozymogen, stains deeply
and readily in haematoxylin, and presents a characteristic fibrillated appearance.
During rest this prozymogen is used up in some way, giving rise to zymogen
granules.

2. The chief cells of the neck of the gland do not contain at any period of
digestion, either zymogen or prozymogen, but are engaged in the formation of
a mucinoid secretion, which has a powerful elective affinity for indulin and Bordeaux
R., and stains metachromatically in thionin.

3. The pyloric gland cells, likewise, form neither zymogen nor prozymogen,
and are similar in structure, in staining properties, and in the nature of their
secretion to the cells of the neck of the fundus gland. “ :

4. The cells, both of the pyloric glands and of the neck of the fundus gland,
pass, by gradual transition, into the mucous cells of the surface, to which they are
obviously closely allied.

bed Cee es el
naa nace statis
roo
tt ag
> ween
4 \

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 17

‘THe NaturaL Resources oF THE CouNTRY BETWEEN WINNIPEG AND

Hupson’s Bay: Our NorTHerN Ovurttet. By Lievurt.-Cot. T. C.
ScCOBLE.
(Read December 5, 1896.)

The area draining into Lake Winnipeg embraces 432,000 square miles, and
includes the valleys of the Red, Winnipeg and Nelson Rivers, the overflows of Lakes
Dauphin, Manitoba and Winnipegosis, and nineteen tributary rivers. The area of
the Red River Valley alone is nearly 42,000 square miles, of which 7,000 square miles
afe within the Province of Manitoba, and constitute the home of the famous wheat
known to commerce as “No. 1 Manitoba hard.” The only impediment to navi-
gation on the lower Red River is at St. Andrew’s Rapids, where there is a fall of
about fifteen feet, distributed over ten miles of the river, and this could be easily
overcome by dredging. North-western Ontario, being the height of land, draing
through the Winnipeg River into the lake at its south-eastern extremity, and the
Great Saskatchewan, with its 1,513 miles of navigable channels, enters at the north-
western extremity. Lake Winnipeg is 270 miles in length and 72 miles in breadth,
from east to west, at the mouth of the Great Saskatchewan, its area being 9,400
square miles, or 2,070 miles larger than Lake Ontario. The precise elevation above
sea level, Col. Scoble considers not yet determined, as authorities disagree. The
average depth is from 42 to go feet, and there are few obstructions to navigation.

So far only two industries have been developed, those of lumbering and fishing.
The spruce lumber cut annually in the Lake Winnipeg district amounts to about ten
millions of feet, board measure; value, $170,000. The fisheries in 1894 yielded
5,443,780 pounds, valued at $188,014. The Inspector of Fisheries was quoted with
regard to the inexhaustible supply of whitefish and sturgeon in these waters.

The geological formation is Laurentian on the east side and Devonian on the
west side of the lake, showing that the dividing line between the two systems.'is
covered by its waters. In some of the islands the two systems are in juxtaposition.
On Black Island there is a most valuable deposit of soft brown hematite iron ore,
yielding from 44 to 62 per cent. of metallic iron to the ton. Gold and silver are also
found on the same island, with several other minerals of economic value. At Berens
River and other points red hematite iron ore exists in vast quantities, and gold had
been discovered on Bad Throat River and at Pipestone Lake on the Upper Nelson
River. Beyond Lake Winnipeg north and eastward the whole country is intersected
by lakes and waterways existing in the depressions in the Laurentian formation,
The falls and rapids of the Nelson River were described in detail.

The boat route over which the Hudson Bay Company carried its traffic for over
a century was next described, and the curious phenomenon of two rivers, one
flowing east and the other flowing west from a narrow height of land only twenty-
nine yards in width, was commented upon. Then the lecturer pointed out that the
difficulties to be encountered in improving either of the two routes before described
might be overcome by crossing the height of land to Molson’s Lake. By this route
out of a distance of 681 1-2 miles from Winnipeg to Hudson Bay, only fifty-seven
miles would need any improvement to secure continuous: seven-foot navigation, and
of this distance only ten and a half miles would require canalling. Eight dams and
thirty-four locks were all he estimated as being necessary in order to overcome the
descent. No “locking up’ would be required to get over the height of land, and
the whole drainage area of the Winnipeg basin could be employed if necessary to
develop the system. A mineral belt, similar to that of the upper Lake Superior
system, crosses the country, and promises well to explorers.

18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

The varied resources of Hudson Bay were described, and the question was
asked, ““ Why should not these resources be exploited for the benefit of Canada ?”
American whalers had taken out millions of dollars’ worth of oil and bone, and
would continue to do so until Canadian rights were asserted. It was necessary
in the interests of Canada as a whole, as well as for the North-West, that a new
outlet to the ocean should be opened via Hudson Bay:

PROCEEDINGS OF ‘THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. IQ:

THe Panis—An HistoricaAL OUTLINE OF CANADIAN INDIAN SLAVERY IN
THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. By JaMES CLELAND Hamitton, M.A.,

LEB.

(Read December 12, 1896.)

I. Examples of early American slavery among the Portuguese, Spaniards, and.
New Englanders. Story of Inkle and Yarico. Reference to panis in
writings of Hennepin, Charlevois, Colonel Landmann, and Captain Knox,
Dr. D. G. Brinton, J. G. Shea, and Horatio Hale as to the Pawnees and
Pani stock and their habitat. The New York and other early Colonial docu-

ments referred to.

II. The Lower Canada records as to panis in cities of Quebec, Three Rivers, Mont-
real, and elsewhere. The punishment of slaves, the pillory, carcan and the
rack. Panis in ‘Montreal Hospital, in the seigniories.

TII. Legal position of Canadian slaves: The statutes, ordinances, and edicts as

to them.
IV. Panis in Upper Canada, at Niagara and Amherstberg. The Huron Treaty of

1764. The last pani.

I. The Portuguese in 1500 sent out an expedition to North America under
Gaspar Cortereal, which entered Hudson’s Straits. They brought away fifty-seven
natives, to be. sold as slaves and used as laborers.

The supposed excellent quality of these kidnapped natives, and the large supply
which the country was likely to furnish, caused it, as our author alleges, to be
called Terra Laborador, or the land of laborers, whence its present name (1).
This seems to have been the beginning of the subjugation of aborigines on the
North American Continent to slavery by Europeans and their descendants.

Before this the Spaniards had been active in Hayti and Jamaica in reducing
the natives there to servitude, working them in the mines, and exporting many to
the home slave market. In 1498 Christopher Columbus sent 600 of the natives to-
Spain and wrote as to them in impious blasphemy: “In the name of the Holy
Trinity there can be sent as many slaves as sale can be found for in Spain, and they
tell me 4,000 can be sold.’’ He is said to have repented of his cruelty after being
in turn sent to Spain in chains by Bovadilla. Tennyson makes him thus bemoan
his fate, and theirs:—

“Ah God, the harmless people whom we found
In Hispaniola’s island paradise—
Who took us for the very gods from heaven,
And we have sent them very fiends from hell.
And I, myself, myself not blameless, I
Could sometimes wish I had never led the way.”

The Spaniards’ cruelty in the Antilles was only paralleled by their conduct
toward the natives of Mexico. The enslavement of red, as well as of black men,

(1) History of Nova Scotia and other British Provinces, by James S. Buckingham, p, 168, Other
derivations have been given, but the above seems appropriate and well founded.

20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

:

was not unfamiliar to even the Puritan Colonists. In 1675 many towns, villages,
and farmsteads in Massachusetts and Rhode Island were destroyed by the

-‘Wampanoags, under the famous King Philip. ©

There were few families in the region attacked who did not mourn some of their
members. When Philip had fallen, his chiefs, sachems and bravest men were put
to death ; the remainder were sold as slaves.

The son of Philip, whose only crime was his relationship to this great chief,
was among the prisoners, and was sent as a slave to Bermuda, whence he never
returned. An attempt to supply such labor for the New England home market led
to speedy repentance. ;

A New Hampshire Provincial Law of 1714 recited that notorious crimes and
enormities had of late been committed by Indians and other slaves within Her
Majesty’s plantations, and forbade the importation of any Indians to be used as
slaves.

Washington Irving was among the first who criticized the stern and cruel
features of the Puritans. They, he cried, trained the Indians for Heaven and then
sent them there (2).

The story of Inkle and Yarico, as told by Steele, and familiar to all readers of
The Spectator, illustrates the cruel practice of Europeans of the seventeenth century
in treating all persons of darker complexions than themselves as proper subjects
for barter.

Young Inkle, an English merchant adventurer, wanders from his ship on the
American main, is found and saved by Yarico, an Indian girl, with whom he lived
in tender correspondence for some months, when both escaped jon a passing ship
bound for Barbados. Here, as each vessel arrived, there was an immediate market
of the Indian and other slaves, as with us of horses and oxen. The prudent and
frugal young Englishman sold his companion to a Barbadian merchant. Had
Yarico been carried to the old Province of Quebec she would have been called
a pani (3). :

From these instances of native American slavery beyond our: immediate bor-
ders, we pass to consider how far such a system obtained in Canada.

Canadian negro slavery has been before described, (4) and reference is now
made to the enforced servitude of red men in the French Province of Quebec, and
the later Provinces of Lower and Upper Canada.

The Recollet Father, Louis Hennepin, was with LaSalle in 1679, and, writing
at Niagara, says: “The Iroquois made excursions beyond Virginia and- New
Sweden * * * from whence they brought a great many slaves.” (5)

A vessel, called “the Griffin,’ was built on Lake Erie, and in this these early
adventurers crossed through that lake, the River St. Clair, and Lake Huron to
Mackinac, where LaSalle parted from Hennepin, the vessel having been, meantime,
lost in Lake Huron. Hennepin professes to have gone down the Mississippi, and
to have been the hero of many wonderful adventures. This part of the story is
questioned by Mr. Shea and others, but such details as Hennepin did not personally
witness are, no doubt, taken from LaSalle’s Journal, and are substantially correct.

As the Pawnee nation had its habitat on, and west of, the Missouri, we do not
find them or their relations, the Caddoes, Wichitas and Huecos, mentioned in this
interesting volume. It is stated that the Illinois Indians were accustomed to make

i (2) As to Indian Slavery in the United States see Kent’s Commentaries, part vi., lec. 61. and the author-
ities there cited. Winthrop’s History of New England, vol.1, pp. 192 to 237. In Carolina hostilities were fomented
among the tribes in order to purchase or kidnap captives and sell them as slaves to the West Indies. Thesale
and slavery of Indians was deemed lawful and the exile and bondage of captives in war, of all conditions, was
‘sanctioned by the sternest Puritans. Bancroft’s History, 1, pp. 41-182. The war with the Pequots in 1637, and the
‘confederacy of Indian nations in 1675 by Metacom, Sachem of the Wampanoags, commonly called King Philip,
‘would seem to have been formed for protection and through patriotic views. Chalmers’ Political Annals,
p. 291. Indian Slavery ceased in Virginia only in 1705. Magazine of American History, vol. 21, p, 62.

(3) The Spectator, No. 11, March 13, 1710.

(4) Transactions of Canadian Institute, 1890, vol. 1, p. ro2.

(5) Louis Hennepin's ‘‘ Discovery of America,” cap. 18, pp.19-37.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 2I

excursions far to the westward, and bring slaves from thence, which they bartered’
with other nations.

The southwestern Indians raided by the Illinoisans may be inferred to have
been Pawnees. From their captors they passed to the white settlers in French
. Louisiana and Quebec.

Forty years after La Salle’s time, intercourse between Louisiana and Quebec
became comparatively common, and families coming up by the Mississippi, brought
their negro and pani slaves with them.

Charlevois, who visited Canada in 1721, refers to a nation settled on the banks
of the Missouri, from whom persons taken captive were made slaves. He remarks :
“The Arkansas River comes, it is said, from the country of certain Indians, who are
called Panis Noirs—I have a slave of this nation with me (6).”

Next in date, refer to the story of the adventures of Alexander Henry, the fur
trader at Michilimacinac in 1763, when that outpost of Canada was taken and the
garrison massacred by the Chippewas and Sacs, he was led to a hiding-place by a
faithful pani slave woman, and ultimately escaped. Her owner was Charles Lang-
lade, a French halfbreed merchant and interpreter, and afterwards one of the early
settlers in Wisconsin, but her name is not given. The Sacs and Chippewas were
then at enmity with the Pawnee nation, and made slaves of such of them as they
captured (7).

Colonel Landmann relates that, in 1800, when journeying from Amherstburg
to St. Joseph’s Island, he found a large Indian camp in busy preparation for the
burning of a female prisoner, with a child at her breast. The usual horrors of
torture had begun, and death was threatened, but the woman, in stoicism only
expected from the other sex, was apparently indifferent to all. The Colonel
negotiated for the purchase of both mother and child, and secured them in con-
sideration of six bottles of rum, “that is,” writes the careful chronicler ‘*two of rum,
mixed with four of water.” The woman showed no apparent feeling, nor did she
express thanks for her delivery from a terrible fate. This was but a part of the
stoic manner of her race. She told all to her people, and before the young officer
left St. Joseph’s Island, a number of the woman’s relations came and, to show their
gratitude, made a considerable present of the finest skins they had been able at the
instant to collect. The woman and child so saved were Pawnee captives (8). The
Capitulation at Montreal had taken place on the 8th of September, 1760, and we
find the word pani used in its 47th section, which provides that the negroes and
panis of both sexes should remain in their condition of slavery, and belong to their
French and Canadian masters, under British rule, as they had been before under the
French regime, and that the masters were to be at liberty to retain them or to sell
them, and to train them in the Catholic religion, except those who had been made
prisoners of war.

Captain Knox visited Canada soon after this, and, commenting loosely on this
section of the treaty, states his belief that panis imply convicts condemned to
slavery (9). He gives no authority, and is entirely mistaken. This is the more to:
be regretted as others, assuming to write Canadian history, have copied his remarik,
traducing the character of the humble, early servant of the old Canadian home-
steads. It is also remarkable that the part occupied by them in the social fabric
has not been introduced into books of fiction and other writings descriptive of the
seigniorial times.

May we not have a gentle Yarico, taking the place of Briseis or Helen, in an
epic of the old regime ; or even the story of a devoted Friday ?

The stately mansion of Belmont, overlooking the St. Charles, home of the

(6) Charlevois’ Journal, vol. 3, pp. 212 and 410.

(7) Henry’s Travels, part 1, cap.10. Parkman’s Conspiracy of Pontiac, vol. 1, cap. 18.
(8) Adventures and Recollections of Col. Landmann, vol. 2, cap. 6.

(9) Historical Journal, vol. 2, p. 42°.

22 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

brave bourgeois, Philibert; the manor house of Tilly on the shores of the St.
Lawrence ; the Chateau of Beaumanoir, famous for the bacchanalian revels of i
intendant Bigot; the castle of St. Louis, and other “Seats of the Mighty ”
New France, have often been described, but who has pictured the little huts in their
courtyards, of the negro and pani? .

Dr. Daniel G. Brinton says that the Pani stock was scattered irregularly from
the Middle Missouri River to the Gulf of Mexico. The Pawnees proper occupied
the territory from the Niobrara River south to the Arkansas. The Niobrara River
courses in an easterly direction through the northerly part of the State of Nebraska.
and falls into the Missouri. The territory ‘indicated embraces now the States of
Nebraska and Kansas, and parts of Iowa and Missouri. It includes many cities
and. towns, among them being Des Moines, St. Louis, Topeka, and Omaha. The
Arikari and. Skidi branches. of the nation separated at an early date and went north,
while the Wichitas, Caddoes, and Huecos roamed over Eastern Louisiana and
Western ‘Texas.

_ The Pani stock, as a ile had an excellent physique, being tall and robust, with
well- proportioned features, the lips,and eyes small. Their marriage customs were
Jax ; agriculture was more in favor with them than generally on the plains. Their
religion somewhat resembled that of the Mexicans, and indicates a southern origin.
‘One of their divinities was Opirikut, who represented the deity of fertility and agri-
culture, At the time of corn planting, a young girl, usually a captive, was sacrificed
to this. divinity. The victim was bound to a stake and partly burned, her breast was
‘cut open, ‘her heart was torn out, and flung into the flames. Her flesh was then
divided into small pieces | and buried in the corn field, to secure an abundant crop.
In Mr. Grinnell’s book this idivinity appears under the name of Ti- -ra-wa, and this
sacrifice seems to have: been: most used by that portion. of the nation known as the
Skidi, . whose home was on the Platte and Loup Rivers in Nebraska. _ “
oy) la 1806 the: Pawnee tribe had.a population of 6,223, with nearly 2,000 warriors,
The Caddoes were of the. same stock, and were also. numerous: on. the western
plains. “Since the removal of these people to reserves, mostly in the Indian
‘Territory, the evidences. ‘of their progress towards civilization are. cheering ; but
their character has changed. In the old barbaric days they were light- hearted,
merry,, makers of jokes, keenly alive to the humorous side of life. Now they are
Serious, grave, little disposed to laugh. Then they were like children, without: a
care. Now they are like men, on whom the anxieties of life weigh heavily. Civiliza-
tion, bringing with it some measure of material prosperity, has also brought care,
responsibility, repression. No doubt it is best, and it is inevitable, but it is sad, too.”
Recent information as to the remnant of this nation is given by Mr. Geo. B. Grin-
nell, from whom we have just quoted.. Many of the young men were embodied into
companies of armed scouts, under Major ‘North and other officers, during the con-
struction of the Union Pacific Railway in 1863, to guard against the depredations of
the ‘Sioux and Arapahoes. . _They:were brave and reliable soldiers,.and it is to be
regretted that. the tribe of. Pawnees_ proper is. reduced to a few hundred souls,
while the whole Caddoan or Pani stock does not probably exceed in number two
thousand. (10)

The American Cyclopedia, article Pawnee, aecerines the pike as warlike, ious
resident in Nebraska-on the Platte River and its tributaries. The name Pawnee
or Pani is from the Illinois language, and is said to be from Pariki, meaning a horn,
referring to the peculiar scalp lock, dressed to-stand erect and curve slightly back
like a horn ; the rest-of the hair was shaven off. They were constantly at war with
the Sioux sind other. nations, and, being considered irreclaimable savages, were per-
mitted to be held as slaves in Canada, when bought from guns tribes ; wherefore,

(10) U.S. Bureau of Ethnology, Vol. 7, pp. 61, 62 and 113, date 1885-6. “The present rie of the
Caddoan stock is 2,259, settled in Fort Berthold Reservation, N. Dakota, and some on the Indian Territory,

‘some on the Ponca, Pawnee, and Otde Reservations, and others on the Kiowa, Comanche and Wichita Reser-
' vations.’ They are now self. supporting.

2 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 23

any Indian held in bondage was called a pani. As to this our worthy and renowned
Canadian ethnologist, Mr. Horatio Hale, writes me: “ Pani and Pawnee are un-
doubtedly the same word, in different orthographies.” He states that the article last
quoted is from the pen of J. G. Shea, the distinguished ethnologist, and editor of
Charlevois: ‘All that he wrote on Indian matters is of the highest authority—
what Mr. Brinton writes is also entirely trustworthy.” ‘‘The Pawnees were true
Ishmaelites. They had no friends upon the prairies, save those they had conquered
and held by fear (11).”’ In addition to the Pawnees, there was certainly another tribe
which contributed slaves to Canada (12). In 1712 the Renards, or Foxes, en-
deavored to capture and destroy Fort Detroit, but were defeated and compelled, to
surrender at discretion. Those found in arms were massacred, the rest were dis-
tributed as slaves among the victors.

There are a few references in the New York Colonial Documents to panis, or
to Indians enslaved by whites. A narrative, presented to the Mayor’s Court of New
York City, 24th January, 1689, complaining of the violent acts of the Lieutenaunt-
Governor, Jacob Leysler, states that an Indian slave of Philip French was, by him,
dragged to Fort William on the 23rd of the previous December, and ‘there im-
prisoned, but French was himself arrested by order of this bold Governor, and
spent his Christmas in durance, for various matters of alleged contempt to His
Honor. (Vol. 3, 676.)

“Colonel Heathcote reports to Lord Townsend, British Colonial Secretary, July
i6th, Tt. that the Indians complain that their children, who had been bound, out
for a limited time to be taught and instructed by the Christians, were transferred to
. other plantations and sold for slaves. He adds, “ And I don’t know but that there
may be some truth in what they allege.” (Vol. 5, 433.) M. La Galissoniere’s
Journal of events in Canada, under date Nov. 11, 1747, says: “ The four negroes
and a panis, who were captured by the English, would be put on board a small vessel
bound for Martinico, to be there sold for the benefit of the proprietors.” (Vol. 10, 138. )
Colonel William Johnson writes to Governor Clinton, of New York, 22nd January,
Tse Wee A! am very glad your Excellency has given orders to have the Indian
thildren returned, who are kept by the traders as pawns or pledges, as they call it,
but rather stolen from them, as the parents came at the appointed time to redeem
them, but they sent them away before hand, and as they were children of “our
friends and allies, and if they are not returned next spring it will confirm what the
French told the Six Nations, viz.: that they are looked upon as our slaves, or
negroes, which affair gave me a great deal of trouble at that time to reconcile. I
cannot find that Mr. Abeil, who has a Seneca child, or Vandrieson, who has got a
Missisagey, are to deliver theirs, which I am apprehensive, will cause a great
disturbance.” (Vol. 6, 546.)

We find references of a similar character in the diary of David Zeisberger, the
good Moravian missionary (13) He was loath to believe ee such cruelty was
practised, and ascribed the stories he heard to “ lying rumours.” Yet it is clear that
these were’ well founded. Writing in 1795 at Fairfield-on-the-Thames, now known

as Moraviantown, Ont., he says: “We had many lying rumours which the Indians
hatch out, that the Indians here are entrapped by the white people, and will not be
let go until they have all been sold as slaves. . . . The Chippewas have war with

the North-western Indians. They have brought into Macinaw one hundred pris-
oners, a part of whom they sold to the whites. This is a nation with which they
have waged war for many years.” (14)

II. Next refer to the records in the old Province of Quebec relating to Panis.
For these we are mainly indebted to the Abbe Tanguay’s. researches, made and

: (1) ‘‘ Pawnee Hero Stories and Folk Tales,” by Geo. B. Grinnell, 1889, p. 307.
(12) McMillen’s History of Canada, p. 91.

(13) Diary of David Zeisberger, by Eugene F. Bliss, published by the Historical and Philosophical
Society of Ohio, 1885, Vol. II., pp. 411 and gor.

(14) A Travers les Registres, Montreal, 1886.

;

y

\
eR.
. es

24 i PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

published in 1886 under the Quebec Government. In the church registers at the

City of Quebec, under date 1718, it appears that “in the course of that year severall

Panis, being introduced from Louisiana, being slaves of Quebec families, were
baptized.” ‘

In 1730 and following years the Church registers of Three Rivers contain
records of baptisms and burials of several such slaves belonging to the principah
families of the town. ;
| November 4, 1756.—‘‘Marie Judith, agée de trieze ans, a ete baptisee,”
appears on the register of the parish church at Longue Pointe.

January 22, 1757.—A record shows that a pani slave called Constant, belonging
to Madame de Saint Blain, was condemned to the punishment dw carcan, and to be
perpetually banished from Montreal. The mischievous character of this red woman
was fully equalled by a negro slave of Madame de Francheville, who, in 1734, caused
a great conflagration which destroyed part of Montreal. This negress was born in
Portugal, and purchased by her mistress in New England. She was subjected to

Roy? severe examination (“a la question ordinaire et extraordinaire”), when, it is stated,
Ont she confessed her guilt. (15) These cases are mentioned together, as they seem to
ey be the only instances on the published records of such slaves being punished through
the courts of Quebec ; nor do panis appear on the Civil Court records, though their
darker companions’ names are often to be found there.
ies The carcan was an iron collar, placed around the neck, and connected by a chain
to a post or to a wall, so compelling the prisoner to stand for a stated time, often
for long, weary hours, in a strained position, and subject to ridicule. It was similar
to the English stocks.

“La question extraordinaire’ was the French name for the rack. These modes.
of punishment were not abolished in France until 1832.

We will now look at the records of the Montreal General Hospital, and we find,
in a table prepared by the Abbe Tanguay, of families possessing slaves of the nation
of the Panis that seventy-nine such slaves died in that hospital between 1754 and
Me 1799. The birth, age and time of death of each are here given, and we have a record
fy) “full of interesting facts and suggestions. Each poor slave has his or her Christian

name, and the names were evidently given when the rite of baptism was performed.
, Mons. De la Verandrie had two, Joseph and Marie. Saint Luc la Corne had his
BPs Pani, Marie Joseph, who died in 1799, aged 100 years.
Se Among the masters were some gentlemen of aboriginal stock, or connected witlr
: Indian missions: M. Perthuis, interpreter of the Iroquois; De Quiensek, chief, and'
De la Garde, missionary to the Algonquins. (16)
‘ Seigniorial, or well-known, families are represented in the masters, Descham-
' bault, De Bleury, Chevalier de la Corne, De Veaudreuil, Benoit, Desriviers, Perigny,
Reame, Decharme, Dames Deslignery and Monier, Messrs. De la Ronde, Delisle,
De Longueil, La Coste, Leschelle, Senneville, De Barne and Clignanceur.
There is nothing in the record relating to the origin of these Panis except im
regard to the last two, when we find that M. Gamelin had Jacque Cesar and M.
iG Longueil had Marie both put down as Panis noirs, or black Indians of the plains,
ay who were of darker hue than those in wooded lands. This being a distinctive term,
om places them as derived from the Pawnee nation proper, as designated by Charlevois.
The Montreal newspapers of 100 years ago had occasional advertisements as to

b)

When a negro was wanted, he was shown running with naked body, save a cloth
around the waist. The Pani was represented standing erect, with a feather head-

(15) Abbe Ferland’s History of Canada, Cap. 20. re

(16) Holding captives as slaves was, as is well known, common with the Indians. The Cherok (
; Choctaws also had many negroes in bondage. There are some instances in Canada of red men holdin Hee
it The most notable of these was Colonel Brant Thayendinagea, who had several, among them being his body-

servants, Patton and Ganseville, referred to in the writings of travellers such a
Duke de Liancoutt, . 8 s Colonel Landmann and the

runaway slaves, and these were adorned with wood cuts representing the lost chattel.

=—,. =

enh SS

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 25

dress standing upright and a feather waist-covering, the body tattoo-marked. This

comical figure, whether by accident or design, coincides with Mr. Grinnell’s
description of Pawnee Picts, or tattooed Pawnees. Rollin Michael Barrin, Count
de Ja Gallissoniere, above mentioned, was Governor of New France, and a gentleman
of scholarly taste and refinement. He is one of the leading characters in Mr. Kirby’s
excellent story, ““ The Golden Dog,” the opening scene being laid in Quebec in 1748.
Among the masters of Panis is the name of De Veaudreuil, who succeeded as
Governor, and of the Chevalier la Corne St. Luc, a gallant soldier, who remained
after the capitulation, and became a loyal defender of British rule. Other names,
such as Benoit De Longueil and La Coste, are familiar to all readers of Canadian

_ history.

Some months ago a worthy member of the Canadian Institute, with a handful
of ashes from an ancient kitchen-midden, by means of a microscope brought up
the Huron inhabitants and their surroundings as they were when Champlain un-
folded the fleur-de-lis on the Georgian Bay. Our attempt is now, with these
disjointed historic fragments from the ashes of time, to produce for development
some features of these humble persons, the domestic slaves, and of their sur-
roundings in those grand old times, when slavery was a thing of course and the
seigniorial tenure most flourished in the old regime. The Pani no doubt spoke in
a patois of French and Illinoisan. His dress was a rude commingling of the styles
of Quebec and the wild South. He had no taste for work at the tail of the plough,
but supplied venison and fish, made bows and lacrosse sticks for the boys, and joined
them in games and hunting. The squaws waited on table, were the ladies’ maids,
the children’s ayahs, and fashioned moose-skin moccasins, adorned with bright-
tinted quills of the bristling porcupine. Removed from his native wilds, the Pani
doubtless followed, to some extent, the religion of his masters, with its rites and
ceremonies. But when he gazed on the rising sun, away from the presence of the
Black-robe, we may imagine him imploring the protection of the dread Opirikut,

god of his fathers; and when, in the winter evenings, the aurora flashed across the

vault above, he saw the spirits of his friends in flight from the far south land, and

then his heart filled with longings for the banks of the Niobrara, where the ancestral

tents were set and the buffalo shook the plains.

+ With such suggestions, names and facts as have been placed before us, it only
needs the wand of imagination to raise the curtain of six-score years and show the
home of the seigneur among his habitant friends and neighbours beside the St.
Lawrence, the St. Francis.or the Chaudiere. And when there comes that happiest
hour of the day, when the work is done and the night as yet is young, they gather
into the great room, beech logs blaze and cast their light on bronzed features as
they enter, capotes are thrown back, waist-sashes loosened, and the snow is shaken
from homespun coats and deerskin leggings. Pleasant greetings and kind enquiries
pass around, and the news of the day is exchanged. The cure, the seigneur and the
notary sit where all can see and hear. In and out flits on moccasined feet a dusky

‘figure almost unnoticed, yet not unwelcome. He quiets barking dogs, brings a coal

to light a pipe, or stirs the logs to a fresh blaze. He is the Indian slave, the pani.

III. The edict of Louis XIV. in 1688, authorizing the importation of slaves from
Africa, referred only to negroes.

Some doubt seems to have existed as to the legal status of panis, and, to remove
these, Jacques Raudot, Ninth Intendant, issued an ordinance at Quebec on April
1ath, 1700, referring to negroes and the Indian people called Panis, and declaring,
“We, therefore, under the good pleasure of His Majesty, order that all the panis
and negroes who have been bought, and who shall be purchased hereafter, shall
belong in full proprietorship to those who have purchased them as their slaves.”
Then followed an injunction, prohibiting the slaves from running away, and pro-
visions for imposing on those who aided them in so doing a fine of 50 livres

Hocquart, Intendant under the Marquis de Beauharnois, Governor-General,

26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

in 1756 issued an ordinance, declaring null all enfranchisements not made in com-
pliance with certain regulations, and registered. ‘

~ A declaration of the Paris Royal Council of 23rd July, 1745, declared that slaves
who follow the enemy to the colonies of France, and their effects, should belong to
His Most Christian Majesty.

This was a precedent of General Butler's famous order, made more than a
century later, confiscating slaves coming into the Union ranks as “ contrabands.”

The Parliament of Great Britain was, when Canada was secured to the Empire,
very favourable to the importation of slaves into the plantations, and had passed
many Acts to aid that object.

Proceedings in the Montreal courts towards the end of last century tended to
weaken the master’s claims, and ultimately entirely broke them, with more regard to »
the rising public sentiment in England and France against slavery than to the actual
state of the law, as has been shown in our previous paper. (17)

A census taken in 1784 states the number of slaves in Lower Canada at 304, of

whom 212 were in the District of Montreal, 88 in that of Quebec, and 4 in Three

Rivers. No distinction is there made between negroes and panis. An attempt was

made in the first Parliament of Lower Canada, in 1793, to obtain an Act similar to

that passed in the Upper Canada House at Niagara, which would have declared all

slaves then held, to be in bondage for life, and only given freedom gradual'y to their

offspring ; but this proposal, though warmly debated, was not successful. In 1799,

and again in 1800, Mr.. Papineau presented petitions from many inhabitants of

Montreal referring to the ordinances of Intendants Raudot and Hocquart, also to

the Quebec Act, maintaining the former laws and usages to the people of
Canada, and also to an Act of George III., under cover of which the petitioners

allege a number of slaves, panis and negroes, were imported (18). Bills brought in

on these petitions were much discussed, but sentiment was against their object; the

declaration of the rights of slave-holders, and they failed to pass into law—thus

slavery disappeared from Lower Canada. (19) It practically ceased at this time in Nova

Scotia also and New Brunswick. The Upper Province had no such judicial and

legislative experience as Lower Canada in regard to domestic slavery. When

separated from the Mother 'Province in 1791, civil rights, including the law and

customs as to slaves, still held in force. The Upper Canada Act of 1793 passed

without difficulty, and ‘there was no enactment here between that and the Imperial

Act, which freed the few remaining slaves in 1834. While slavery existed, its char-

acter was modified, and personal cruelty guarded against by the code noir and

provincial ordinances. As for the Indian slaves, there was also sympathy through ~
the fact that not a few of the inhabitants were connected with the tribes by marriage.
Mr. Parkman says with much truth: ‘ Spanish civilization crushed the Indian,
English civilization neglected him, French civilization embraced and cherished
him. (20)

IV. There are few instances of panis in Western Canada. That of Mr. Lang-
jade, who saved the life of Henry, the trader, at Mackinac, has been referred to. By
the second article of a treaty of peace and amity, made by Sir W. Jchnson with the
Hurons 18th July, 1764 (21), it is provided that “any English who may be prisoners
or deserters, any negroes, panis, or other slaves amongst the Hurons, who’ are
British property, shall be delivered up within one month to the commandment of

the Detroit.” It may be concluded that there were a considerable number of panis
in this western region then.

(17) ‘De Lesclavage in Canada,” by Sir L. H. Lafontaine, Proceedings of Societe Historique de
Montreal, 1858, and “Slavery in Canada,” by J. C. Hamilton. Transactions of Canadian Institute, 1890.
fol. I., p. 102.

(18) 14 Geo. III., cap. 83; 30 Geo. III., cap. 27.

(19) Journal of 1799, p. 123, and of 1800, p. 51.

(20) “The Jesuits in North America,” p. 44.

(2t) Mr. S. White has the original treaty, but for copy see N.Y. Colonial Documents Vol. VII., p. 650.

a PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 27
ee :

A In The Niagara Herald of 25th August, 1802, Charles Field forbids all persons
_ harbouring his Indian slave, ‘ Sall.’”’ Old residents of Essex County remember a

pani who lived at Amherstburg filty years ago.

Mr. Solomon White, lately member of the Legislative Assembly for Essex, is
one of those who speak of him. When a child Mr. White saw “a little yellow man”
at church, and he asked his mother who he was. “That is Mr. Caldwell’s pani,
Alexander,” she answered. Though set free in 1834, he continued generally to reside at
the old homestead, near the banks of the beautiful Detroit river. Here he was content

_ to stay, passing an humble, happy existence.

There were many coloured people formerly slaves in the neighbourhood, and not
far away was a settlement of the Hurons, but he preferred to look on the face and
follow the footsteps of his old master, the late Mr. John Caldwell, enjoying the
same civilization and religion. He died when on a visit to Detroit. His faith

_ was that of his white protector, and his hope was, not to go to any happy hunting

ground of his savage ancestors, but to participate in the white man’s future. Witly
him passed from Canada the last of the panis.

(22) As to Indian slavery in the south-west, see Mr. Lucien Carr’s ‘‘ Mounds of the Mississippi Valley,”
Smithsonian Report, 1891, p. 532, quoting ‘‘ Narrative of Father Marquette,” p. 32, and ‘‘ Memoir of the Sieur de
Tonti,” pp. 56-71. ‘The Saukie warriors generally employ every summer in making excursions into the
territories of the Illinois and Pawnees, from whence they return with a great number of slaves.’ As to sun-
worship among these Indians, Mr. Carr states, p. 549, “According to Charlevois the Indians claimed to have
received the calumet from the Panis, to whom it had been given by the sun. . . . In trade, when an exchange
has been agreed on, a calumet is smoked in order to bind the bargain, and this makes it in some manner
sacred. . . . The Indians, in making those smoke the calumet with whom they wish to trade or treat,
intend to call upon the sun as a witness, and in some fashion asa guarantee of their treaties, for they never
fail to blow the smoke towards that star.” The Sieur de Tonti describes temples dedicated to sun-worship,
met in the course of his trip with La Salle down the Mississippi, A.D. 1682, one such temple was like the
cabin of the chief, except that on top of it there were the figures of three eagles which looked toward the rising

sun. It was forty feet square, and the walls ten feet high and one foot thick, were made of earth and straw

mixed. The roof was dome-shaped, about fifteen feet high. Around this temple were strong mud walls, in
which were fixed spikes, and on these were placed the heads of their enemies whom they sacrificed to the
sun. These temples were found from Arkansas to the southern extremity of Florida, and in point of time they
cover the 180 years between the expedition of De Soto and the visit of Charlevois in A.D. 1721. When the
Illinois came to meet Marquette on his voyage, the first ever made by a white man on the Lower Missis-
sippi, they marched slowly, lifting their pipes to the sun, as if offering them to him to smoke.

(23) In P. Campbell’s ‘‘ Travels in North America in Years 1791-92,’’ at p. 236, an account is given of
adventures among the Ottawas. Campbell killed two Indians who had attaeked him in his tent at night. He
‘was soon after this made a prisoner, and said to his captors that he supposed they would avenge on him the
death of the two Indians. He was answered that they cared little for what he had done, “that the men killed
were not Ibawas but Pannees (sic), 7.e., prisoner-slaves taken from other nations,”

28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

A PROBABLE SOLUTION OF THE SECONDARY UNDULATIONS FouNnD Upon
SELF-RECORDING Tipe Gauces. By Napier Denison, Esg., Toronto
OBSERVATORY.

I yt ie |

1" HV (Read January 16, 1897.)

‘)) | JAS this is the year set apart throughout the scientific world for special cloud
observation and the study of the upper atmosphere as a means of improving the
present methods of weather forecasting, and being one of those engaged upon this
work for Canada, it seems an opportune time to bring the following investigations
before the public :

In June last the writer's attention was first drawn to small, rapid changes of
water level on Lake Huron, at the mouth of the river at Kincardine, where a rise
and fall appearing to be regular, a set of observations with a temporary float were
taken, and a uniform rise and fall of about three inches was found to occur,
averaging nine minutes, that is about eighteen minutes for each undulation, the
float moved up stream at the rate of a mile and one-half an hour. Upon returning
to Toronto in July, by permission from Mr. Stupart, Director of the Meteorological
Service, a simple instrument was devised to automatically record such oscillations,
and set up at the mouth of the Humber River, where, ever since, most interesting
results have been obtained. (1) By comparing these with the sensitive photographic
barograph traces of the Observatory, it was found when a rise and fall of about
four inches in water level occurred a corresponding, but slight change, in atmos-
pheric pressure is noticeable; also a marked twenty-minute interval between these
waves. To fully investigate this phenomenon another instrument, similar to that
at the Humber, was placed at the Burlington Canal, and records from both
instruments plotted, in conjunction with the barograph traces and different types
of weather, as taken from the bi-daily weather charts.

It has been found, ever since the introduction of self-recording tide gauges
throughout the world, peculiar oscillations within the normal tidal curves have been
noted and commented upon, but to my knowledge, the cause not fully accounted
for. These oscillations are most marked at tidal stations situated near the ends of
bays, owing to the favourable configuration of the shore, and the shallowness of
the water. They are not, however, of constant occurrence, but vary in intensity
upon different days. Some months ago my attention was drawn to this peculiar
-phenomenon by a paper read before the Royal Society of Canada in May, 1895, by
W. Bell Dawson, Ma.E., C.E., in charge Canadian Tidal. Service, (2) who graphically
demonstrated the existence of these secondary undulations, but left their cause
unexplained. Thinking the above lake researches might help to solve the cause of
these secondary tidal curves, through the kindness of Mr. Dawson, copies of the
tidal records for Halifax, N.S., and St. John, N.B., were obtained for a number of
days, including different types of weather. To fully investigate all the phenonema
pertaining to these curves, days in succession were taken, chiefly those preceding
and during stormy weather, for instance, the 5th, 6th, and 7th of February, 1806.
‘These curves were plotted upon one-tenth inch squared paper, allowing one inch to
the foot for Halifax, which has a range of about six feet, and one inch to five feet
for St. John, which has a range of about twenty-eight feet, (3) and allowing one-
tenth for every five minutes, being careful to minutely measure the extent and
duration of every oscillation; above this was plotted the readings of the Halifax
‘barometer, taken every three hours, also the hourly direction and velocity of the
~wind.

(x) A full account of these lake researches to be published shortly.

(2) Note on secondary undulations recorded by self-registering tide gauges. Vol. I., Sec. III. i

(3) The St. John tidal curve is not included in above table, as only the most pronounced undulations
care noticeable due to the reduced scale necessary where such high tides occur,

INSTITUTE. 29;

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN

The following table gives a brief summary of results

‘eur
-10U 9Aoge j99} FI Sem 9AINO
8} Spl} YSIy UWoOoUaIO; JO ourT}
ye SAAN 94} Wor sulmolq
INS ees a}e1epowm e ‘}q48IU
-piu Aq uayorqun }sOwye sAInD

“‘q°S pue ‘Ss Woy saptu Ih ‘yaa
“XBUI JO OUII} Os[e ‘so}nuUTW
OZ Jo [eAIO}UI OSeIBAe UL Y}IM
,I 0} ,Q° Wosjy SursueI “ure 9
0} I WOJJ SUOT}ET[IOSO WINWIxe

‘inoy sed satu 09 s}10da1
‘puny jo Aeg oy} ul ‘ueue
purely) ‘xvylyez{ 0} surpus}zxe
gies ‘Ajpides Sure} toyowo1eg

‘u0jsog 0} Sulpus}xe afes
Ajzaysea 10} jUsIpeis “We
Q 0} I WO; Wed puIM ‘q}9
‘We g [IjUN SUISII IoJ}OWOIeg

2° ZUIpesoxe OU
jnq ‘jnoysno1y} suoljeynpun
peproep ‘wd 11 0} uoou wo

“‘SHUVINAY

oor o£€
Ogz oof
ozb ogS
cLY OOO!
Clz CLYr
oSL1
Petes!
Ooca a
ext pp DO oe
ioe oo £
aos whe D
02 0 Dera
5 (O x Go
io
gpd Bien
2.4 8 3D
— s ot
@ i?) — °
n — a]
= ata Oo t
na-| 238

(06°gz)
Spurys] usyepseyy

(0682)
ON
‘pueji0d fo 4}A0N

(o£.gz)
Ajtd YIOK MON JIAO

(00.6z)
eA
‘sanqyouAdy 1900

(o€.6z)

lV
‘k19wWO8}UOJ] ISAO

(gv .6z)
suva]IO MON 19A0

SuIpeoyy
IayowWIOIeEg
qm
91}U9D) WI0}S
jo uolye00°]

‘BULYSIUL
“WIp suorzeT[IOsO

9°
ynoqe suot}eT[I9
-so jo opnyidwmy

‘ond

‘b+ Burpasoxa
U9}JO ‘SUOT}E][INSO
peounouoid jsojy

£1072]
-npun Alpapio9q

‘uayoiquy)

OI. |"‘MN| 02@ Apno[9 z0.6z
CAD 1| SINS | eo A830] go.6z
rail igatsS gz | ulrey yq | 06.62
fo) fo) oO Mey €z.0€
Co) aS € Apno]9 gI.o£
co) el € Apno[9 Z1.0€
| BUG
2) SET eas Bo
et ryieVeMm | 228
> a
s | BULAN 13
5 . a
‘SN ‘Xv4alIvH

‘aAIND [ePLL
jo uol}Ipuod

‘ude

‘urd g

“ue g

“OuILL,

"YZa =

‘WW9

‘aye q

is

5 ie

ge a
es

30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

From the tabulated data and the other tidal curves, studied in connection with |
the bi-daily weather charts, which bear out the increase of oscillations preceding
the approach of atmospheric depressions, it appears that these secondary undulations
are due to atmospheric waves or billows set up in the upper atmosphere.

We are told by the late Professor Von Helmholtz, (4) who has made a special
study of these waves from theory and analogy with ocean waves, and has calculated
their possible forms and dimensions, that “As soon as a lighter fluid lies above a
denser one, with well-defined boundary, then, evidently, the conditions exist at
this boundary for the origin and regular propagation of waves, such as we are
familiar with on the surface of water. This case of waves, as ordinarily observed on
the boundary surfaces between water and air, is only to be distinguished from the
system of waves that may exist between different strata of air, in that in the former
the difference of density of the two fluids is much greater than in the latter case.
Since the moderate winds that occur on the surface of the earth often cause water-
waves of a metre in length, therefore, the same winds, acting upon strata of air, say
10 degrees difference in temperature, maintain waves of from two to five kilometres
in length. Larger ocean waves, from five to ten metres long, would correspond to
atmospheric waves of from fifteen to thirty Romer: such as would cover the
whole sky of the observer.”

Mr. Clayton, of the Blue Hill (Observatory (5) has graphically shown the-
coincidence and easterly progression of the larger atmospheric waves by means of
the daily synchronous barograph traces from stations south and east of his, plotted
upon the same time sheet, and has also shown that the maximum number of waves
occur during a northeast wind, and the minimum when the wind is from the south-
west, and that the greatest number were recorded during the winter months.

After referring to the above valuable investigations by two such well-known
scientists, let us return to the foregoing table and frame a few leading questions,
‘with the answers which appear to me most satisfactory. Further discussion will
doubtless throw more light upon this subject.

I. Why do the secondary undulations become decidedly marked from noon of
the 5th, although the barometer is steadily rising, and the wind at the earth’s
surface light or calm? ,

Because the upper part of the lower stratum of air, not being retarded by
friction due to contact with the earth, and of greater specific gravity than that to
the south and west of it, begins to move towards the region of lighter air, viz.: in
a southwesterly direction, the barometric gradient being small, the movement is
slow, but being in an opposite direction to the upper stratum, which is less dense,
and rapidly moving polewards (mean winter rate, 112 miles per hour), (6) but
inclined to the east. According to Helmholtz, this should be sufficient to produce —
along the boundary surfaces of the two strata, waves which may extend to the earth.

2. From 8:00 p.m., after the storm centre had passed to the north of Halifax,
and a moderate gale still blowing from the northwest, why do the rapid undulations
decrease until they almost form an unbroken curve by midnight ?

The wind being westerly, a decided decrease of the undulations should be
expected, on account of the lower stratum of the air, now moving approximately in
the same direction as the upper layer, and as the force at the surface of the earth
is still that of a moderate gale, greater velocities may be looked for at higher levels,
where friction (viscosity not included), caused by contact with the earth, is
inappreciable, thereby tending to equalize the easterly rate of movement of both
strata; also well-defined boundary surfaces are not so likely to exist, owing to the
more uniform temperature throughout both strata.

(4) Paver read before the Prussian Academy of Sciences at Berlin, on July 25th, 1889, and translated in
the Smithsonian Reports by Professor Abbe.
(5) Blue Hill, Mass. Meteorological Observations. Vol. XL., Part III., Appendix E., 1893.

(6) From Blue Hill cloud observations.

_ PROCEEDINGS OF THE ‘CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 31

3. Why do the greatest number of atmospheric waves occur during northeasterly
winds, and the least number with southwesterly winds ?

A stratum of lower air, set in motion from the northeast towards the southwest,
would be moving in an opposite direction to the upper or poleward stratum,
therefore, the greater the velocity of the lower layer towards the westward, caused
by the differences of atmospheric pressure, over the earth’s surface, the greater will
be the opposing forces at the boundary surfaces of the two strata, where great
atmospheric billows may be found, especially when the densities vary greatly,
caused by large differences of temperature between the two strata. The result would
be similar to a high wind blowing against a strong surface current of water.

The minimum number of waves recorded during southwesterly winds is due to
the lower stratum of air moving in the same direction as the upper, or poleward
stratum.

4. Why do the greatest number occur during the winter months ?

The winter being the time of the greatest differences of temperature between
the equator and the poles, and consequently a more rapid movement of the poleward
current, slight changes of velocity of the lower atmosphere tend to set up waves
along their boundary surfaces, where, in all probability, greater differences of
temperature exist than in summer. As in the case of an important storm centre
moving northeasterly from the Gulf of Mexico, bearing large quantities of heat and
moisture, while pronounced anti-cyclonic conditions, attended by great cold, prevail
in the northern portions of the continent.

5. How can these atmospheric waves, which correspond to: only a_ few
hundredths or thousandths of the barometric inch at the earth’s surface, cause such
rapid and extreme oscillations as appear upon the tidal records ?

The peculiar configuration of the coast line and varying depths of water, being
the main causes of the different heights of the tides at separate stations, may we not
apply the same to account for these peculiar oscillations, by asserting that the
atmospheric waves or billows, in passing over the surface of the sea (in this case in
the vicinity of Halifax harbour), tend to form minute undulations upon the surface,
corresponding to the length of these billows, which, as they move farther into the
bay, become magnified as they reach narrower and shallower portions, until finally
they assume the proportions as found upon the tide gauge, a distance of about nine
miles from the entrance to the harbour. That these oscillations do become more
pronounced the farther one enters a long bay, have been noted by those in
connection with tidal work. (7)

In conclusion, if the above Bolanatons are correct, would it not be of great
scientific and commercial value, in place of eliminating these secondary undulations,
when tabulating the primary ones, to increase the amplitude of these secondaries,
by lengthening the cylinder, use one sheet per day to prevent confusion of traces, and
make a special study of them, respecting their intensity and time interval, in
conjunction with synoptic charts during different types of weather ? It appears as
if these gauges are extra sensitive barometers, locally forewarning the approach of
important storm centres many hours previous, in fact, during a rising or stationary
barometer and before the shift of wind.

Improved tidal gauges of such construction are likely to be of incalculable
value at all coast stations, more particularly by those on a western seaboard, such

as that of the British Isles.

(7) Among others by Major Baird, R.E., F.R.S., Manual for Tidal Observations, 1886.

NoTE ON THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

In 1852 The Canadian Institute began publishing its Proceedings under the name
of “The Canadian Journal” in quarto. In this form it issued forty-one numbers,
making three volumes.

In 1856, with the same name, the form was changed to octavo, in which size,
up to 1878, ninety-two numbers were issued, making fifteen volumes.

In 1879 the name was changed to ‘“ Proceedings of the Canadian Inst under
which title twenty numbers were issued, in seven volumes.

In 1890 the publication was enlarged and the name again changed to “ Transactions.
of the Canadian Institute.” In this form, up to the present, nine numbers have been
issued, making four volumes and part of a fifth. It is now proposed to issue two sets of
publications, the ‘‘ Proceedings” to contain short papers and abstracts of longer papers,

‘to appear more frequently than hitherto, and as soon after the reading of the
papers as possible’ The “Transactions” to be issued at longer intervals and to
contain such extended papers as it may be deemed proper to publish in full.

ss =".

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 33.

Some Laprpsep Names IN CanapiaAN Locat NoMENCLATURE. By Rev.
Henry Scappine, D.D.

: (Read November 28, 1896.)

It is a matter of some curiosity to notice the vicissitudes which have taken place,
in several instances, in the names of places, rivers, and other natural objects, during
our short history here in Canada. In some cases, names imposed by royal procla-
mation, or other competent authority, have failed to be used, or have been displaced
by terms and titles, resting solely on popular usage. It may be considered a matter

of some interest to recall some of these now disused, or, as we may say, lapsed

names, ,and to review very briefly their history.
The name of our own capital, Toronto, itself covers a lapsed name, so to speak,
_ When first laid out as a town, Toronto, as we all know, bore the name of York,
and was so known for a period of forty years. It was then, viz., in 1834, incor-

‘porated as the City of Toronto, which, singularly enough, was a return to a name

_ which had lapsed, the locality having been for a considerable time previous to 1794,

rT - > Pk

=——

=:

known by the appellation Toronto, of Indian origin. This, again, was a name, which
there is good evidence to show, had fallen into disuse elsewhere, and had been
adopted here. In the time of La Salle, 1680, the lake which we know as Lake Simcoe
was known as Lake Toronto, while the site of our city was marked as Ti-ai-a-gon on
the maps, a name which La Salle also employs. This word Ti-ai-a-gon, I am as-
sured, signifies a landing, and it here denoted the landing place for voyageurs, bound
for Lakes Toronto and Huron, via a trail or portage well known.

When the Wyandotte population, inhabiting between Lakes Toronto and Hears
was extirpated by the Iroquois, the name Toronto came to be gradually attached
solely to its Ti-ai-a-gon, or landing place on Lake Ontario, where it survived. And
here, again, we have a glimpse of another lapsed name.

The trading post at the landing had been officially named “Fort Rouillé,’ in
honor of the then Minister of Marine of that name in Paris, but the popular usa
having become familiar with the word Toronto as applied to the landing, failed to
adopt the expression, Fort Rouillé, and employed only that of “Fort Toronto”
instead. Hence the survival!of the beautiful word Toronto, hereabouts, to this day.

It may here be conveniently added that the neighboring Humber River is BAS

in the first Gazetteer of Upper Canada, dated about one hundred years back, as “ St.
John’s River,” from a French settler named St. jean who had a waeuide inn, or
' place of entertainment, at its mouth. “Humber” displaced. a long and rather

34 ' PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

uncouth Indian name, which appears on the maps ; at the same time “ Don” replaced
an equally unmanageable Indian name, describing the river at the eastern end of our
harbour. The interpretation of these two lapsed Indian names I am not able at pres-
ent to give, but d6ubtless they were both significant. At the same time that the
names * Humber” and * Don” were imposed upon these two streams, the name
“ Nen” was, by authority, given to the next river to the eastward, previously known
as the Rouge or Red River. ‘‘ Nen,” however, became a lapsed name, and the
Rouge retained, and still retains, its original appellation. ‘‘ Nen,” like ** Humber”
and “* Don,” was. the name of a river in Yorkshire. It was the evident aim of the
authorities to Anglicise the river names, and the notable river, still known as the
Grand River, entering Lake Erie from the north, was enjoined to be known only as
the ‘‘ Ouse,” another Yorkshire river name ; but again popular usage prevailed, and
“Ouse” became another instance of a lapsed name. ‘“ Grand River,” of course, had
nothing distinctive in it, and every river of a considerable size was, amongst the
French, a ‘‘ Grande Riviere.’ The Mississippi was so par excellence among the
indians, such being, in an emphasized way, the signification of that word.

A widely-received French appellation for our Canadian Thames was La Tranche,
until forcibly over-ridden by royal proclamation.

More than one lapsed usage in regard to the River Niagara may be in place here.

Wherever the name occurs in early English verse, the metre obliges us to make the.

penultimate syllable long in quantity, showing that such was the prevailing pro-
nunciation at the outset. Further, it appears from the early records, that an O has
been dropped off from the beginning of this word, as has happened likewise in the
case of other Indian appellatives ; thus we have Miami and Omiami, Swegatchie

and Oswegatchie, Chouegon and Ochouegof (the modern Oswego), Mimico and
- Omimico, Chippeway and Ochipway, Tessalon and Otessalon, and some others.
So Niagara was once Oniagara, a form of the word now entirely lapsed. There is
reason to think that a like clipping off of an O has taken place in ‘‘ Toronto,” together
with the suppression of a final N. Sagard, in his Huron, or rather Wyandotte
vocabulary, gives both “ Toronton” and ‘‘ Otoronton.” The expression signifies a
large quantity, whether of human beings or of provision for their sustenance, both
O and |N probably representing a nasal sound very familiar to us in former days, in

Indian viva-voce utterances. Another substitution in modern times of a short A for

a long one in an Indian name, seems to be shown in Moore’s “ Uttawa’s Tide”
(read Uttah-wa’s tide ) meaning the River Ottawa, the first syllable of which name
he evidently caught as U and not O.

We are slowly becoming accustomed to the style and title of “ Niagara-on-the-
Lake,” used in modern times for the purpose of distinguishing the old town of
Niagara from what is now designated as Niagara South, meaning thereby Drum-
mondville, which is expected hereafter to become a lapsed term, although, of course,
it will take a long time to bring that about. Old Niagara might have fallen back
upon a lapsed name of its own, viz.: Newark, the name borne by its site when the first
Parliament of Upper Canada was held there. The place we now call Queenston was
known aforetime as the “ Carrying Place,” the place of debarkation for the “ Grande
Portage’ round the Falls of Niagara, in the voyageurs’ route between Lakes Ontario

and Erie. Another lapsed name for Queenston, in the same regard, was the

“Lower Landing.”

Burlington Bay, at the head of Lake Ontario, received that name by proclama-
tion on July 16th, 1799. Previous to this date it had strangely borne the name of
Geneva Lake ; so we are informed by the first Gazetteer of Upper Canada. The lapsed
name, we may suppose, arose from the picturesque beauty of the sheet of water
indicated. ;

On the north shore of Lake Ontario, close to Burlington Bay, a name has
lapsed into disuse within the past few years. I refer to Wellington Square, now

known as Burlington. The word “ Square,” I believe, referred originally to a square —

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 35

tract of land granted to the Indian chief, Joseph Brant, at this spot. Wellington, of
course, referred to the Iron-Puke, but we already had a memorial of him in the
name of the County of Wellington, in Western Ontario. A general name for Burling-
ton Heights, and the whole range of high land on the west side of Lake Ontario, ap-
pears to have been ‘‘ Dorchester Mount,” when D. W. Smith’s Gazetteer was con-
structed, but that expression has now long since ceased to be heard. A familiar name
for the swamp now traversed by the Des Jardins Canal, leading from Burlington Bay
to Dundas, was “ Coote’s Paradise,’ an expression now fallen into disuse. Coote

was an officer in the regular army, an enthusiastic sportsinan, who found in the

wild fowl and other game frequenting this marsh a never-failing means of indulging
his favorite pursuits.

Two grand thoroughfares were marked off and partially cleared out, at the very
outset, through the Province of Upper Canada, one named Dundas street, and the
other Yonge street. The latter continues as a well-defined highway, leading from
Toronto to the Holland Landing, and thence virtually across the country, via Shanty
Bay and Penetanguishene, to Lake Huron and the far West.

I fear the railway authorities are doing something to render Penetanguishene a
lapsed name, or at all events, partially so. They are encouraging the practice of
writing and printing “ Penetang,’’ instead of Penetanguishene.” The name, tlius
mutilated, can have no complete sense, the whole word being descriptive of a land-
mark at the entrance to the Bay, consisting of a bank where the sands run down. (r)

Dundas street as a grand thoroughfare has, unhappily, not retained its name

throughout. For a long time the whole route, from Chatham to Dundas, and thence

to Toronto, was pretty generally known as Dundas street. The popular name for a
portion of it, among settlers in the west was, for a while, and, perhaps may continue
still to be, the Governor’s Road, and it will be remembered, possibly, by many of us,
that what is*now called Queen street in Toronto, was, in its western portion at least,
styled Dundas street, although ‘“ Lot street’ was its more customary designation, as
it passed on eastward to the River Don, from which point the leading thoroughfare
became better known as the Kingston Road ; but in well-engraved early maps the line
of road eastward is to be seen marked as Dundas street, all the way to where it strikes
the Ottawa, a few miles from the entrance of that river into the St. Lawrence.

The whole route from Chatham, in the west, to the Ottawa, in the east, was
designated a street, with allusion to the great Roman roads (viae stratae), remains of
which are traced everywhere in the Island of Great Britain and throughout the Con-
tinent of Europe—paved roads securing an easy transit for armies, arms and ammuni-
tion, and at later periods for merchandise. A noted instance of these is Watling
street, reaching from Dover all the way to Chester, and passing through London,
where a fragment of this same Roman highway is still known as Watling street. It is
to be regretted, perhaps, that our “ Dundas street” has become a lapsed term in so
much of its route, but, happily, Yonge street still remains to us an interesting re-
minder of the past. On this street, six miles to the north of Toronto, “ Hogg’s
Hollow ” has been changed to the more euphonious expression, “ York Mills.” Of
these mills, Mr. Hogg was the original builder and proprietor. Along the great
thoroughfare, originally known as Dundas street, proceeding eastward from Toronto,
we meet every now and then with lapsed names.

In connection with Toronto itself, two may be mentioned, in addition to those
already given. The township in which the city stands was, and is still named York,
but previously, strange to say, it seems to have borne the name of Dublin. Thus, in

our old, oft-quoted Gazetteer, we have, at page 55, ‘ Dublin, now called the Town-

ship of York ; which see.’’ No further explanation is given. It was expected, per-

(x) Other lapsed names besides “ Lake Toronto” are covered by Lake Simcoe's present name, The
French styled it for many years Lac aux Claies (Hurdle Lake), from some arrangement for the capture of fish
at the Narrows, a name sometimes corrupted by the English into Lac le Clie. Two islandsin this lake have
likewise lost names once borne by them: Francis Island (so called by Governor Simcoe from the name of his
son), and Darline’s Island (commemorative of a favorite aide-de-camp of the Governor's), are now respectively
known as Grape Island and Strawberry Island.

36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

haps, to be attractive to the Irish settler, but it quickly became a disused term.
Previous to the setting off of Upper Canada as a Province, the region about here had
been known as the District of Nassau, and various localities to the eastward had
designations sounding very German-like given them, such as Charlottenburg, Lunen-
burg, Osnabruck, etc. Such names were simply compliments to the reigning Hano-
verian family, or might be expected to attract German settlers ; but if not actually
become lapsed terms, they have\ceased to draw. The other lapsed name in connec-
tion with Toronto is “Gibraltar Point,’’ meaning the western portion of the Island in
front of Toronto, and having a humorous allusion to the solitary Block House,
erected there for the defense of the harbour and protection of a commissary store-
house. “Gibraltar Point” has lapsed into disuse, although we still occasionally
hear Blockhouse Bay for one of the inlets at the “ Point.”

On the lake front of the Township of Whitby there was, for a time, the town of
Windsor, on Windsor Bay, where it appears, thus named, on the engraved maps of
Canada a few years since. Windsor is now a lapsed name, obliterated, possibly, by
the greater importance of the western Windsor on the Detroit River. Its site is
included ‘within the limits of the modern town of Whitby. In passing, it may be
mentioned that the site now occupied by Port Hope is marked on some of the old
maps Ti-ai-a-gon, which, as we have already seen, simply meant “a landing,” this
having been a distinguished landing place for Indians and voyageurs en route to the
waters to the north, entitled by us Rice Lake. (2)

The name “ Cobourg” is not, as might have been supposed, a survival of one
of those German-sounding names prevalent in Canada just after the taking of Quebec.
Like Guelph, it appears to have been a modern compliment to the reigning Han-
overian family. It alluded, probably, to the husband of the lamented Princess Char-
lotte, Prince Leopold of Saxe-Cobourg. The place, we are told, was for a short
time good-humoredly styled “ Hard Scrabble,” by settlers near the locality, but this
was simply a transient jest.

At Kingston we have to recall the now lapsed names of Cataraqui and Fort
Frontenac. An attempted Latinized form of “ Kingston’’—Regiopolis—was for a
time heard of in ecclesiastical quarters, but, mongrel as it was, between Latin and
Greek, it is now dropped. As to the name “ Bay of Quinté’”—the original word was
an Indian one—Kenté or Kanti. French pronunciation produced the form Quinte,
conveying some notion of “five or fifth.” While passing Gananoque on our way
east, it should be recalled that, strange as it may sound, the river which enters here
and bore the name of Gananoque, was. at a very early period styled the Thames.
This we learn from a proclamation by Lord Dorchester, better known as Guy
Carleton, bearing date July 24th, 1788, wherein he speaks of a boundary line running
north and south, and intersecting the mouth of the River Gananoque, now called
“The Thames.” Tihis seems to have become a lapsed name at the time when the
Province of Upper Canada was set off and separated from the old Province of Que-
bec, when the previous arrangement of the region into four distinct sub-divisions
was dropped, and the terms District of Lunenburg, District of Nassau, District of
Mecklenburg, District of Hesse ceased to be heard. The town of Cornwall, just be-
low the Long Sault Rapid, was formerly known as New Johnstown, from the name
of a neighboring township. For the inhabitants of Cornwall the lapsed name, New
Johnstown, must, of course, possess some interest.

In regard to the Long Sault Rapids, Guy Carleton, in the proclamation just
above referred to, makes use of a good English word, now fallen somewhat into
disuse. He speaks of “ rifts,’ meaning thereby interruptions in the navigation of the

(2) The river at Port Hope still bears the homely name of ‘‘ Smith’s Creek.’ The Indian name of the
stream, rightly treated, would have had a finer sound. Major Rogers, in his journey westward from Fort
Frontenac to Toronto, in 1760, passed two rivers bearing respectively the names of ‘‘ The Grace of Man” and
“The Life of Man,” according to the somewhat fanciful translation which he gives of their Indian appellations.
It is not easy to identify these streams, but Smith’s Creek may have been one of them. “ Lyons’ Creek,” a
little to the west of Smith’s Creek, was once known by an Indian term signifying “the river of easy entrance.”

ry PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 37

iver. He describes the mouth of the River Gananoque as being situated “ above the
rifts of the St. Lawrence.” In early maps of Canada and North America generally,
‘ the term rifts is to be seen at the several points of a river, where now we should see
the word “ portage ” used, indicating thereby that the navigation at that point was
interrupted by cataracts or dangerous rapids. Apropos of rapids, it may be sub-
_ joined that a certain swift portion of the St. Lawrence, not far from Cornwall, used
to be designated by an English-speaking lumberman, “The Mill Rush,” thereby
barbarizing the neat expression, ‘Les Mille Roches,” used by the French when |
speaking of the same spot in the river. The same lumberman has made Bobcaygeon
out of some such Indian term as Baba-kad-juan, descriptive of the lockage between iy
Pigeon and Sturgeon Lakes. ‘ q
We now approach Montreal and Quebec. The Indian term for the former place
is stated to have been Hochelaga, and of the latter Stadacona. These two can
scarcely be termed lapsed names, as they still maintain a good standing in the prim-
itive and poetic accounts of Canada. The ecclesiastical title of Montreal, Ville
Marie, like that.of Regiopolis for Kingston, is now seldom employed by the English-
speaking portions of the community. The name of a town, situated at the mouth of
the River Richelieu, on the St. Lawrence, a short distance from Montreal, must be
mentioned. This is Sorel, which is another instance of the prevalence of popular
usage over authoritative decrees. The name imposed on the spot by the English-
speaking authorities was William Henry, a compliment to a Prince of the Royal
Family, but the earlier French name of Sorel has survived, as being doubtless the
fittest.
I here bring toa close my list, after all, not by any means perfect, of lapsed
local names in Canada. To enter upon the changes that have taken place in street
- names in our cities and towns would be an undertaking too large for the present :
- occasion. I cannot refrain from remarking, however, a usage which I observe to be ‘
growing, in regard to the name of one great, conspicuous thoroughfare in Toronto. |
A few years since it was universally known as Spa-dee-na Avenue. Dr. W. W. Bald-
win evolved out of some such Indian expression as Eo-pa-dee-nong, the quite ele-
gant and shapely name of S-p-a-d-i-n-a (pronounced by himself and all his belong-
ings, Spa-dee-na). It denotes, I am assured, a rise of land, and has reference to the
slight ridge whiclk bounds the site of Toronto on the north side. A considerable
portion of this ridge was owned by Dr. W. W. Baldwin, and here was situated his
family residence, Spadina House, exactly at the extreme northern terminus of the
great avenue, bearing to this day the fine, modified Indian title just spoken of, the
_ polite pronunciation of which seems to be threatened, although it is to be con-
fessed that Regina, Carolina, etc., certainly favor the innovation. Below the shield of
arms on Dr. Baldwin’s book-plate 1s to be seen “ Baldwin, of Spadina, in the
_ County of York, Upper Canada.”
. One word in regard to the names of two outside cities, with which, in Canada, we
are sometimes brought into very near relations—Buffalo and Chicago. In some
respects it seems a pity that these names have not lapsed and been replaced by
others of a more becoming form, and nobler significance. Buffalo took its name,
no doubt, from the accidental circumstance that the stream, at the mouth of which its
first buildings began to arise, was named Buffalo Creek, in French, Riviere des
Boeufs, that is, the river of the Buffalos or Bisons. If the word Buffalo had to be
retained in the composition of the place-name, it should have been furnished with

some customary prefix or suffix, to denote the fact that it was a place-name. We
< have, in classical geography, the city or town of Elephantine. The termination de-
notes that it was the city or town of the elephas or elephant. The founders of the
place would have had scruples as to calling it Elephas (Elephant) pure and simple.
So, another rather famous classical name—Bucephala—really meant the ; city of
a Bucephalus, that is, the city rendered famous as being the burial place of Alexander's
_ steed, Bucephalus. It would have doubtless been thought very anomalous to have

pwn et Se ea > ek a

38. PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

called the place Bucephalus, wholly unchanged. The name of the city of Buffalo
might have been a modification of the native Indian term for the bison or buffalo,
showing, by an affix or final syllable, that it was the name of a place, and not of an
animal. In regard to Chicago, the name, it is sad to say, intrinsically has a sig-
nificance somewhat ill-savored. It involves as its root element the Otchipway
Jikag, which denotes a polecat or skunk, as Baraga informs us in page 572 of his
Otchipwe Dictionary, Cincinnati, 1853. If Chicago should ever become a lapsed
name, it is to be hoped that its place will be taken by one constructed on an entirely
different basis. We hear of this city sometimes as the Windy City. Let now good
Otchipwe be found for Windy City, and let that be transformed by a committee
of experts into a euphonious place-name for the great capital of Illinois.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 39

|THE ORIGIN OF THE SALISHAN TRIBES OF British CoLuMBIA AND Wasu-

~<a” CU

INGTON. By Joun CampBetit, LL.D.
(Read January 16, 1897.)

__ So little of the nature of history attaches to the aboriginal races of Canada as
to make a survey of them a mere study of the baldest anthropology. Yet even
mere anthropology is not biology; its object is man possessed of a soul and a soul’s
record. It is hardly probable that a race has passed through the four thousand
odd years of post-diluvian history without taking some part in its historic events.
The modern Chinese are supposed to be the descendants of the ancient Baby-
lonians. The degraded Yeniseians and the ambitious Japanese are equally derived
from those Hittite tribes that conquered Egypt and overthrew Assyrian Monarchy.
In Mexico, the native Aztecs or Nahuatl are most of what remain of the Nahiri of
Mesopotamia, who contended in ancient days with the Thothmes and the Tiglaths;
while Homer’s Dardanians, the expelled Toltecs from that same American state,
are now to be found in the aborigines of Peru. The records of the League, which
we term the league of the Iroquois, are engraved on the rocks of the Sinaitic
Peninsula, some of them in characters as old as the patriarch Isaac. Old inscriptions
and old books tell part of these stories, but most of them lie hidden in language, in
proper and common names, in grammatical constructions, as well as in legends and
traditions of the past. Just as old families fall into decay and poverty by the
misbehavior of ancestors, so nations that once ruled the world become pariahs;
exempli gratia, Amalek, the first of them all, whose name now lives in the Amalig-mut
of the Eskimo. There are very ancient families with far more than sixteen
quarterings among our most degraded tribes.

I have looked into the antecedents of the Salishans, not because I know
anything of them personally, but because they live largely on Canadian soil, and
because I know their grammar, and can thus reason back into their past history-
If you would like to become acquainted with the books that treat of them, get
the late James Constantine Pilling’s “ Bibliography of the Salishan Languages,”
published by the Bureau of Ethnology at Washington, and Major Powell’s * Indian
Linguistic Families,” in the report of the same bureau for 1885-86. If language be
your quest, consult the vocabularies of Gibbs, Tolmie, and Mengarini in the first
volume of “‘Contributious to North American Ethnology,” published by the United
States Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region; and
“Comparative Vocabularies of the Indian Tribes of British Columbia,” by Drs.
Tolmie and Dawson, given out by the Geological and Natural History Survey of
Canada. According to Major Powell, the Salishans of the United States number
5,500, and those of Canada, that is, of British Columbia, 12,325. Of the latter, the
larger number are connected with the Fraser River Agency, but the Kamloops
Agency overlooks over 2,500, and others report to the Williams’ Lake, Cowichan,
Okanagan, and Kootenay Agencies. Major Powell gives the names of no fewer than
sixty-four septs or tribes belonging to this family. The earliest record of them is
that of Alexander Mackenzie, in his ‘‘ Voyages from Montreal Through the Continent
of North America,” published in 1801. On page 257 he gives a brief vocabulary of

the Atnah sept, and, on page 276, a shorter one of the Friendly Village Indians.’

The Salishans have erroneously been called Flatheads, a term that applies to their

neighbours, the Tsinuks.

40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

In attempting to affiliate the Salishans, I rely altogether on language. It has
two parts—the grammar and the vocabulary. Father Mengarini’s grammar I have
not seen, but the “ Niskwalli Dictionary ” of Dr. George Gibbs exhibits the Salishan
grammatical system sufficiently for comparative purposes. That system is pre-
posing. It makes use of prepositions, not of postpositions. It also places the
governing word before its genitive, the adjective before its noun, the temporal index
before the verb. In these and in other particulars, Salishan grammar is not that
of Northern Asia, as are Iroquoian, Dakotan, Muskhogean, etc., nor that of Melan-
esia as the Haidah is, but that of the Malay-Polynesian area. Seventeen years ago
I exhibited, in a paper read before the Institute, the relation of the Algonquian
dialects to that same Malay-Polynesian family. It is not easy to draw a line
between what is Malay and what is Polynesian, either in grammatical forms or in
vocabulary, yet the Algonquian dialects may be called more Malay than Polynesian.
This appears most prominently in the word for man, which in Malay is oran or ulun,
whence the Ilinoans of Borneo have their name. But in America, the Delawares
are the lenni Lenape or the Lenape men, the State of Illinois was so called after the
Algonquian Illeni, and the Micmac calls himself u/noo, a man. The Polynesian,
on the other hand, ‘terms himself tangata or tamata, and that seems to be the
original of the Salishan tamihu, tamekhw, tumikh, temokh, tobesh, and stobush. i
therefore, a line is to be drawn between Malay and Polynesian, it may be inferred
that the Salishans are more Polynesian than Malay.

In comparing the vocabularies, I have restricted myself, so far as the Salishan
dialects are concerned, to the Niskwalli. This is not for lack of material, since I
have vocabularies of over twenty other dialects, but for the sake of brevity and
clearness. The Niskwalli is that of Dr. George Gibbs, and the Malay-Polynesian
terms are taken from Crawford, Wallace, Belcher, Hale, and a variety of other
sources too numerous to mention. The words compared are the commoner nouns
and adjectives, a few verbs, the personal pronouns, the numerals, and some
particles, altogether over 150 in number. The evolution of the Salishan term from
the standard Malayan or Javanese is sometimes quite easy to follow, but in other
cases my comparative vocabularies have failed to present all the links desired. Most
of the distinctive Malay terms are conspicuous by their absence from the Niskwalli
vocabulary, such as kapala head, muka face, mata eye, talinga ear, idung nose,
mulut mouth, lidah tongue, tangan, lima hand, langit sky, ayer water, api fire,
But there are many evident Malay analogies, as of the Niskwalli kobatit axe, to
the Malay kapak; toligwut blood, to darah; tus cold, to tyjok; eluks end, to alos ;
ashuts fear, to coquet; silels forehead, to alis; and tsoks seven, to twjuh. He would
be a bold philologer who would identify the Niskwalli skwallup ashes, with the Malay
abu ; but abu becomes the Bali habu, the Sunda Jabbu, the Bouton orapu, and the
Mysol gelap. A far more extraordinary metamorphosis is that of the Malay kaszh,
to give, into the Niskwalli abshits. It first becomes the Bali swkahake, then the
Bisayan maghatag, next the Iloco pannangted, the Biajuk manenga, in another Bali
dialect bahang, afterwards the Tagala bigai, the Tahitian evaha, the Hawaiian hoatu,
and the Tobi wacito, which is not abshits, but is near enough to it for all practical
purposes.

The Salishan dialects disguise their relationship with prefixes and affixes, the
meaning of whichis little known. Take, for instance, the words for moon and sun.
The moon is slok-walm, in which the latter syllable is plainly the almost universal
Malay-Polynesian wulan, bulan, fulan, hulan, the moon. The sun is klok-watl, and
here again the second syllable is the Malay-Polynesian mataari, matalo, watalo,
batalo, the sun. What slok and klok or slo and klo mean, the dictionary does not
state. The peculiar progress from labial to sibilant and guttural through the
aspirate effectually obscures the unity of roots. This is apparent in chetla, the

oes PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 41

Niskwalli word for a stone. The Malay form is batw, the Timuri fatuk, the Javanese
watu, the Fijian vatu, the Rotumahathu, the Maori kowatu. But the 1 of chetla, which
otherwise might arise between hathu and kowotu, appears in the Biajuk batro, and,
out of place, in the Malagasy varto. A strange word is the Niskwalli stodwk, a
‘slave. Its original was the Malay budak, which assumes in Javanese the form addi,

~ recalling the Semitic ebed and abd. The b, thus made non-initial, dropped out in

the Bugis and Macassar ata, and in the Malagasy andavo, at first, probably, after the
fashion of the Bouton otwko, a post runner. Some other law of the permutation of
letters than that of Grimm must be found to enable the student to trace out Malay-
Polynesian derivations in America. The term for nose in Malay, Javanese, Madura,
and Lampung is idung, irung, elong, egong. This is paralled by the Cree of Moose
Factory, the Plains, English River, and the East Main, whose relative word for man
is ililew, ininew, ithinew, and eyiyew. The derivation of the Niskwalli muksn, the
nose, from the Malay idung proceeds through the Lampung egong, the Bali kunguh,

* the Bugis. ingok, the Bali ceremonial hungas-un, and the Samang muk, with the san

t

~~ - eae 8
am, es |

a el

of the preceding.

The Malay-Polynesian character of the Niskwalli numerals is incontestable, yet
that denoting 5, namely ¢tsalats, which means ‘the fingers,” is utterly unrepresented
by the various forms of rima and lima, which indicate the hand and five. It is
probably derived with inversion of parts from the Tambora roma-toha, 5, answering
to the Lariki /ima-hatu, finger. Here toha and hata are governing words, and in true
Malay-Polynesian, as opposed to Melanesian, order should stand first. The Tongan
word corresponding to them is cow, and cow-nima denotes the fingers. Then the
Tambora toharvoma. must by degrees have become tohavon or tohalon and afterwards
tohalet. In some vocabularies the Tambora word for five is given as kutelin, which is
just an inverted form of the Lariki lima-hatu, with the lima fallen to lin. The Tidore
vuntoha, 5, exhibits the same phonetic decay, and restored to Malay structure, would
be toharun. As lima,5, becomes /ib in one of the dialects of the Caroline Islands, lin
might become /it, dental replacing dental in some other dialect. I confess, however,
that I have not yet come across an instance of such conversion of Jima, the numeral,
within the limits of the Malay-Polynesian area. The nearest to it is the lok of the
Lampung chiu-lok, the hand. To one conversant with Lower Canadian patois, who
has heard omelette and patate pronounced as omelaque and pataque, the transition from
chiulok to ts-alats will not appear strange.

The Salishan name is probably derived from that of the inhabitants of the Sooloo,
or more correctly the Suluk, Archipelago, between Borneo and the Philippines, who
are represented in the vocabulary by twenty-two words. The dialect under consid-
eration, namely the Niskwalli, seems to be that of Mysol, which lies between Ceram
and the north-western corner of New Guinea. It is represented by seventeen words,

many of which closely resemble those of the Niskwalli. These might be largely

increased. For instance, the Mysol name for man is mot, which in Salibabo becomes
tomata. If, therefore, we find Niskwalli in Mysol, we may be justified in finding two
other Salishan tribes. the Shwoyelpi and the Skoyelpi, in the people of the Salibabo
Islands, between Gilolo and the Philippines. The mot of Mysol and the tomata of
Salibabo furnish a beginning of the Polynesian word for man, as differentiated from
the Malay, and that is the original of the Salishan term. ‘he Mysol motni, belly, is
probably the original of the Niskwalli smukha; bit, black, of hitotsa; kachun, boy, of
chachas ; wai, child, of bibad ; patoh, cold, of tus ; yem, dog, of komai; gaf, feather, of
stokw (in Skoyelpi it is stakapzsten, and in Salish proper, skapussel); kanin, hand, and
Raniuko, finger, of chalesh and shalatsh, by / replacing n; wamut, flesh, of beyets ;
_kasebo, finger-nails, of kohwachi ; gakawatu, root, of aspud ; umblo, soft, of esmetlin ;
jiyu, wife, of chugwush ; lu, two, of salew ; fut, four, of bos; and tit, seven, of tsoko.

These 17 words are additional to the 17 of the comparative vocabulary, and thus

a ee ee ee, eee oe

.~<,.

42 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

furnish evidence of the common origin of the Niskwalli, of the south-west corner of
British Columbia, and of the natives of Mysol, in the Malay Archipelago.

The Salish are regarded by Latham and other writers as an inland people,
although some of them, such as the Niskwalli, dwell on the sea coast and on islands.
They are, however, to a certain extent, cultivators of the ground, as are the inhabit-
ants of the Malay Archipelago. The latter use the word jagung to denote maize, ‘
but the absence of that English term in all my vocabularies of the Salishan, save the
Niskwalli, forbids the tracing of jagung to this continent. The Niskwalli word for
maize is stulels, and this is undoubtedly the Saparua halal, the Liang allay, the
Wahai allan, the Cajeli halai, and the Batumerah allai, which mean rice. In
Polynesia the term is applied to the chief article of vegetable food, the Colocasia
esculenta, called taro in Maori, talo in Tonga, and telaa in Rotuma. The Niskwalli
stulels is an indication of a bread-making people, who are of necessity husbandmen. —
The principal Salishan deity seems to have been Dokwibutl. The first part of this
word resembles dugwe, thou, and may thus represent invocation. Among the Dyaks
of Borneo the chief god is Battara; the Tagalas worshipped Bathala Meycapal; and
the people of Tobi called their divine progenitor, Pitakat. According to the Samoans,
the first man was the product of the male principle Fatu and the female, Ele-ele, .
whence his name, Fatu-ele-ele. It is likely that these forms conceal the name of
some eponym of the Malay-Polynesian people, or, at least, of a portion of them. In
Sanchoniatho’s Phcenician History, the second son of the ancestral Ouranus is called
Betylus, and many things favour the derivation of the Malays from Canaanites of
Semitic speech. Crawford says that Batara Guru, whom the people of Celebes call
the first of their kings, is a local name of Siva. This statement is worthy of more
than doubt. 3 ‘

Indian invasions of the Malay Archipelago, both Buddhist and Brahman, took
place in or before the twelfth century, and, towards the close of the fifteenth, the
-Mahometans followed. These invasions caused great displacements of population

for it is the warlike code of the Pacific Islanders to offer the conquered party the
alternative of expatriation or extermination. Doubtless such alternatives were
offered prior to the Asiatic invasions. It is clear, however, that the Salishans have —
not been displaced since they reached the American coast, while the Algonquins, of
similar origin, have been driven into the far East, even to the shores of the Atlantic.
The immigrants from Northern Asia reached British Columbia and Oregon as early
as the beginning of the eighth century, and, finding the Algonquins there before
them, drove them inland and eastward. The tide’of northern Asiatics, called Toltecs
and Aztecs, Otomis and Chichimecs, Sonora and Pueblo Indians, Muskhogeans,
Iroquois-Cherokees and Dakotans, continued to flow by Behring’s Straits and the
Aleutian chain for fully a century, so that the Salishans cannot have settled in
America before the ninth century, and may not have settled before the fifteenth.
No trace of either Sanscrit or Arabic appears in their language to shew that their
period of emigration from the Malay Archipelago was posterior to the dominance of
Hindoos and Mahometans. The divergence of their forms of speech from those of
the present occupants of their ancient homes suggests a time when Malay forms
were not so firmly rivetted in speech as has been the case since Europeans first
knew the Pacific Islanders. It is likely that all our Indian tribes of oceanic deriva-
tion found their way to the shores of America before its coasts were known to
Columbus and his followers. It is, of course, a guess. in the form of a compromise,
but it may be suggested, that the Salishans have been on this continent since the
thirteenth century. The Maya-Quiches, of Yucatan and Guatemala, and the Algon—
quins must have preceded them some six hundred years.

The Rev. S. J. Whitmee, an authority on matters Polynesian, leaving the Malay

Archipelago proper out of sight, has proposed a three-fold division of the insular

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 43

area. The people of negrito features and a postposing grammar in New Guinea,
_ New Caledonia, the New Hebrides, Australia, etc., who have been termed Melanesian,
he classifies as Papuan. The other islanders he divides into two groups. Those of
_ Eastern Polynesia and New Zealand he calls the Sawaiori, a name compounded of
the words Sa-moa, Ha-wai-i, and Ma-ori, denoting three representative peoples
belonging to the race. To those of the north-western islands he gives the title
Tarapon, from Tara-wan and Pon-ape, representative islands in the Gilbert and
_ Caroline groups. A judgment based on partial vocabularies can hardly be a definite
one ; still a court must decide on the evidence before it, and render a verdict liable
to revision should fuller testimony afterwards be forthcoming. At present the
Malay element in the Niskwalli is represented by 51 Javanese, 45 Malay, 22 Sulu,
21 Sunda, 17 Bali and Mysol, 15 Tagala, 14 Bugis, 12 Bisayan, Madura, Wahai,
and Tidore words. This decides nothing but the general fact of the Malay-
_ Polynesian origin of the Salishans, save that in Tagala, Bugis, Macassar, Mysol,
_ Menado, Salibabo, Saparua, Awaiya, Camarian, etc., the tamata or Polynesian form
_ of the word for man appears, which is also Salishan. The Tarapon or Micronesian
division of the South Sea Islands has but a small representation of some thirty
words. But the Sawaiori division counts 51 Maori, 30 Tonga, and other verbal
_ equivalents, showing that the Salishan stock is Sawaiorian. It has also verbal
affinities to the languages of the Pelew islanders and the Malayan aborigines of
Formosa, which suggest the route by which the Niskwalli and their brethren passed
_ from the Malay Archipelago to the Hawaiian Islands and thence to the American
coast.

The Malays have been called the Phcenicians of the East, and I have already
hinted that Phcenician blood is in them. The enterprise that carried them to
Madagascar in the west, and to Easter Island in the east, which sent them to the
_ fishing grounds of Australia and to the ports of China, which pirate-wise swept the

seas with hundreds of large war prahus and well-provisioned craft of many sails;
_ that enterprise which brought to Central America the culture of the Maya-Quiches,

and overflowed into the West India Islands long before Columbus reached their
shores, became paralyzed when European voyagers, headed by the Portuguese,
invaded their domain. Before they came, Hindoos, Arabians and Mongols had
effected large displacements of population, but till late in the Sixteenth Century,
- fleets of three hundred sail, carrying fifty thousand combatants, were not unknown
in their eastern seas. Of the Malay-Polynesian tribes, however, there is no such
thing as continuous history. Their traditions blend with their mythology, and it is.
little to be wondered at that they and their widely-separated relatives should have
preserved no record of their migrations, when the same is true of some of the most
_ highly civilized nations.
Like the Malay-Polynesians, the Salishans are not scalpers, but decapitators or
head-hunters, as were the extinct Beothiks of Newfoundland. Their canoes, also, are.
_ dug-outs, as originally were those of all tribes of insular origin. They tattoo the
. jaw and wear scanty clothing. When first met with they were not hunters and looked
3 upon venison with disgust. Their fish-hooks, made of wood or bone, were similar to.
those of the South Sea Islanders. In regard to their mortuary customs, Dr. Franz
- Boas says: “‘ The face of the deceased is painted with red and black paint. *
. A chief’s body is put in a carved box, and the front posts supporting his coffin
are carved. His mask is placed between these posts. The graves of great warriors
- are marked by a statue representing a warrior with a war club. * “se * After
the death of husband or wife, the survivor must paint his legs and his blanket red. At

—

_

the end of the mourning period, the red blanket is given to an old man, who deposits
Bit in the woods.” The Salishan lament of a mother over her dead child is, ‘* A;
~seahb! shedda buddah ah ta bud! ad-de-dah !”’ or, ‘* Ah chief, my child is dead! Alas !’’

44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

So, one of the verses of a Tonga mourning is, ‘‘ O zaooe ! gooa mate e!” or, * Alas! he
is dead!” The funeral customs of the Maoris of New Zealand, so a at least as

chiefs are concerned, are, as described by Von Hochstetter, similar to those of the
-Salishans, even to the erection of a wooden image of the deceased over the grave and
clothing it with his favorite articles of dress.

There are 18,000 Salishans in Canada and the United States, the result, it may
be, of six centuries’ development. Supposing their population to have gone on

doubling within the reasonable rate of a century, or three generations, they must —

have landed on the Pacific Coast a little over 280 strong. Now, it is related that a
Tonga chief set sail for the Fiji Islands, with two hundred and fifty followers in three
large canoes, carrying also provision for the voyage. Four such canoes would have
been ample accommodation for the Salishan immigrants, from whatsoever point they
directed their course to the American shore. Their numbers can hardly have been
less, in order to protect themselves from destruction by hostile tribes or incorporation
in a stronger nationality. They do not seem to have come into contact with tribes
of Northern Asiatic derivation to any extent, for their peculiar arts such as the birch
canoe and the fabrication of pottery, were unknown to them. There is, therefore,
nothing to traverse the testimony of language, which brings the Salishans from an
ancient seat in the northern part of the Malay Archipelago.

COMPARISON OF NISKWALLI WITH MALAY-POLYNESIAN.

English. Niskwalli. Malay-Polynesian.

adze kwalius galeleh Salibabo (axe)

all bokwi, bebkw kabeh Fava, Madura ; fooabe Tonga.

ant mitchilola misisin Massaratty, mosisin Cajeli, pokoma

Maori, mokohoola Tonga.

arm chalesh kaligh Formosa.

arrow shauks - tkugh Formosa.
nokwed anakpanah Malay, gnahow Tonga, ngasau F%2ji,

ashes skwallup gelap Mysol, orapu Bouton, labbu Sunda.

axe kobatit kapak Malay, Sulu; badog Sunda, badi Baju,

: beda Ahtiago.

‘bad kullub hala Fava.

‘belly kwiyukh awak Bali, Sunda (body), hatuaka Liang.
smukha cheong Samang, nanaka Liang (body).
klatch troke Malagasy, raga Bali (body), kaleh Salayer,

kalakalath Pelew (body).
bird stlekelkub - kakep, tekayap Mysol (fowl), topatopa Maori.
(water) skwakwelush walilis Sunda (teal).
black hitotsa : hitam Malay, hidung Sunda, kokotu Tidore,
kitkudu Gant, kokotu Sahoe.

blanket salitza klosso Fava, kalasa Gani (mat).

blue hitotsa kotteetow Pelew.

blood toligwut darah Malay, gute Fava.

boat kelobit yalopei Telutz, lopi Salayer, Bugis.

klai saloi Borneo, hol Teor.

body dautsi dada Morella.

bone sblauyu balung Fava.

bow tsatsuts tito Atw.

boy chachas (little) cheka Sahoe, ichi ichi Tevnate (itl

bread, food satld telaa Rotuma.

to break ohwutl patah Malay, whawhati, ngawhere Maori. ~

breast skubo uma Maori.

Sa et a

~ English.
burn >
child

cloud

to

to

to

to

cold
come

crab
day

dog

door
ear
earth
eat —
ess
end
eye
face
father

fear

feather
field

finger

fire’

flesh
flower
fly

foot
forehead
girl

give

go

good

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 45

Niskwalli.
ohod
miman
bibad
skwushub

tus
atla, utla

beskwu, beskhu
hawetsa
hauwilo

slahel

kobai
komai
shugwtl
kwillade
swatekhwten
oatld

oos

eluks
kalus
satzus
man

bad
ashuts
ashekwub
stokw
makwob

shalatchi

hod, hot
beyets
sekaisim
hwaio

shid

silels

chachas slane
abshits

ookh

ohob

klob, tlob

Malay-Polynesian.

joting, Bali, tahu Maom, katia Fiji.

ninana Sulu,

bibigi Tonga.

hapas Rotti, hambubu Bali, kapua Maori,
yabbath Pelew.

tiis Sunda, toe Atui, tijok Malay.

haere Maori, iraua Formosa, alowei Awaiya,
dirawoei Fava.

papaka Maori, bokoti Wahai (prawn),

kapiteng Fava, Bali.

ulai Cajeli (prawn).

allo Salayer, alli Moluccas, lilew Teor, kluh Mysol,
kila Teluti, kaseiella Wahai, malal Gah, liar
Massaratty, ari Malay.

kapuna Menado, kafuni Gah.

kamia Rotuma, segawon Fava.

batal Mysol, yebuteh Gah.

herenatia Amblaw, karin Teor.

cootoom Pelew, thanthan Rotuma.

tauri P77.

gosi Tidore, hua J/aori.

alos A/alay, hilianga Tonga.

karu JZaori, lau Tidore, lako Galela.

sotyo, socho Fava (eye), gati Sang’wr.

amana Bouton, mam JVysol.

pito Fava, medua Tahiti.

takut, coquet J/alay.

magtahap Bisayan, hopohopo J/uort.

hokai JZaori, dokoi Sanguir, gogo Tidore.

twawfa Tonga, kabun Sulu, sabah Lampung,
sawah Fava.

jariji Bali, garikih J/adura, saranga Bouton,
koroiti J7Zaori.

hatete J/aori, kidjaik A/ille.

nggatu Fiz, putun Sanguir.

paa Tagala, mbithi Fiji, wat Formosa, waouti
Awatya. :

puspo-kusumo Fava, kaotutun J/assaratty, se-
kar Fava.

tawon Fava (bee), tuiau Maori (flea), owei
Mysol (mosquito), guphu Tidore.

siki Sulu, kadan Wahai, hoots Malagasy, wed
Gani, oweda Matabello.

alis Malay, lae Tonga, Fakaafo.

lehani Rotuma (daughter).

haweh Fava, wacito Tobi, evaha Tahiti, anna-
bookeeth Pelew.

ligkau Sulu, jog Mysol, iko Wahat, ako Ahtiago,
wiko Massaratty.

bo Mysol, aou Wahai, taboi Borneo, ngawa
Maor.

malopi Saparua, rap Tarawan, taloha Galela,
rawe Maort.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

English. Niskwalli.
grasshopper kekowuts
grease swus
great hekw
hair skadzo
beard kwed
hand chalesh
hard swagwil

klukhu
head shaiyus
heaven shukh
hot skwul, otsgulla
. nuskwullum
house alal
husband chesthu
insect slitlalkub
iron snokw
kettle sialt
knee lakalotsid
leaf chuboba
life hale, halikh
louse beskchad
maize stulels
man stobsh, stobush
chief siab
people atsiltelmu
mat kot
skwegwut
moon slokwalm
mosquito kwad
mother skoi
mountain skwatutsh
spokwab
mouth kadhu
nails kohwachi
name sda, sdas
neck kaiukhkwa
night klakh, sklakh
slakhhel, sklakhel
no hwe
nose inuksn, mukshid

Malay-Polynesian.
kakopi Liang, kohati Wahai (butterfly),
gososo Galela.

agang Malay, daco Bisayan, koiwi Maori,

jackabey Malagasy, bagewa Salibabo.

hutu Tidore, Galela.

couder Malay.

chiulok Lampung, ala Awaiya, harau Fava,
ngalan Tagala, arsiu Rotuma.

hagal Madura, mukola Wahai.

karas Lampung, kereh Kisa, kras Malis, las-
elasea Fiji.

chetuk Madura, jahe Mangaret, kahutu J7Zysol,
oyuko Telutt.

hakoso Fava, shurga Sulu.

wera J/faori, vela Tonga, pelah JZysol, asala
Alfuros.

mogall Pelew.

balay Bisayan, fale Fakaafo, falle Tonga, are
Raratonga. ;

as-auah Tagala, essah Salibabo, heieiti Wiles,
(man), tahu JZaori.

lalangow Borneo, ralugoh J/enado (fly).

saloko Fava (silver).

kwali AZalay, quall Pelew, gooloo Tonga.

lukut, lutut J7Zalay.

chafen Teor, lai obawai Amblaw. ©

ara Tahiti, ora (/ao7r1.

okutu Bouton.

halal Saparua, allar Liang (rice).

taowe Bugis, tumata Saparua, tomata Sinenbel
taumata JZenado, tamata F7j2.

sau Rotuma, Fiji, how Tonga.

tiyang-jalmi, jalmo Fava, jalama Sunda.

katini JZassaratty, junguto Galela.

|

ee re ee ee

¥ ts ee

savata Sulu, moamata Tarawan, takapau JZaori, —

Tonga.

wulan Fava, hulani Batumerah, hulan Wahai, 7

allong AZille.
seugeti AZassaratty, suti Cajeli, kias Borneo.
koka AZaori, nggei Fiji, yaiya Tidore.
vohitcht Malagasy.
chubuk Samang, buguid Bisayan, waukein,
Formosa, eothiva, Fiji.
igad Sulu (lips), gnootoo Tonga, nhoutou Ticopia,
ngutu Fakaafo, ngutu J7Zaori (lips).
kuku J/alay, kuyat Gani, wuku Gah, oggok Mille.
wasta, fava, yatha Fiji.
kaki Maori, kia Rotuma, gia Tonga.
galap JZalay (dark), marok JZille (dark).
garagaran Gah, kloowaizeris Tobi (dark).
hea Tonga, akea Tavawan.
muk Samang, hungasan Bali.

Sees Sere pried sdb DEPSS COncer

old

* prawn

rain

rat

SE NE ee ee Se a ee ee Oe, Se ae NLT ».
len}
oO
jon}

ee ee
ate
5

soft

B+. sour
) 2

to speak
spear

English.

rainbow

squirrel

_ Niskwalli,
lolutl
tusak

boluto
saikh
skal

kobatshid, komachin

skad
pelkutchi

hekwetl

stolukw

aspud

. kwulotsid

kakam
hwultsh
olabit
gwuddel
stoduk
betsuts
wekhpush

bako
hudzamit

miman

mimad

chachas
esmetlin, asbetlil
ochapab
ohothot
tseakwuts

tatl

stetkwub
skadzu

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 47

Malay-Polynesian.

kolot Sunda, lakalaki Cagayan.

tuhak Samang, tuah JJalay, tawhito Maori,
tuha Lampung.

burowi Tidore, filuan Ahtiago.

kasaua Mysol.

kull Pelew, ulah Amblaw, hura Galela, karu
Tarawan, golim Mysol.

kuwung Fava, Bali.

tikus Malay, tikuti Massaratty.

warset Fava, barut Sunda, balawu Bugis, blaha
Salayer.

kula Fakaafo, Fiji, desoella Galela, kohori
Tidore, coola-coola Tonga, whero, towhero
Maon, habrit Fava.

laialak Rotti, walungan Sunda, ylog Tagala,
lungei Borneo.

gamut Sulu, aiwaht Ajtiago, eiwaati, Morella,
aiwaat Lariki, owati Amblaw, hatimootoo
Tidore.

ludah Malay, tohulah Sapavua, tehula Liang,
haware Maori.

garam Malay, asin. Bisayan, teisim Alfuros,
asing Menado, masima Tonga, Fiji.

wolat Gani, belot Mysol, olat Cajeli, alud
Borneo, lajit Mille.

liat Malay, lewa, lelewa Fiji.

kuduk Borneo, tuturu JZaori.

ata Bugis, budak A/alay, taurereka JJaori.

taksoko Fava, ngata Fiji, tekoss Gah, katoun
Menado.

ekeb Samang, savha Bouton, pok JJysol, dipa
Borneo, tofagin JJatadello.

huka J/aort.

usam Wayapo, usum Cajeli, asava Batumerah,
mot-kehin J/ysol.

moemoe Tonga, meamea Rotuma, nohinohi
Maori, anaanin Alfuros.

munti Tagala, umit Borneo, mohintek Belang.

cheka Sahoe, ichi-ichi Ternate, chiyut Fava.

lam-but J/alay, lem-but A/adura, malumu
Wahai, mamalin Ahtiago.

dakiopi Galela, mateibi Gah, pep JZysol, asam
Fava, kawa Maori. '

kata Malay, taitai Tarawan, whakatu JZ/aori.

wahos fava, tawaki Amblaw, sagusagu Tidore,
hoata Maori, tcao Rotuma, kwukeou Fiji,
bakabota Tarawan, taofotoi Tonga.

tara Tavawan, golo fava, tite Wahat, galagala
Teor.

tuba Ahtiago, tabi Tarawan.

katek Fava (monkey), keso Amblaw, kesoi
Cajeli, kesi Awaiya, kuyad Borneo (monkey).

48

English.

star
stone

sun

sweet

teeth
tongue

tree

You
They

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

Niskwalli.
chusud

chetla

klokwatl

okwagwab

dzadis
klalap

tsukhwul
stukhum
ko
hokokh

shukhhum

tsetsal
chugwush

slade, sklane

hokwats
babaad
atsa, kets, chid

dugwe, kats, chu.

tzil, tzinil
shi, sha

debetl
sutshid

shil, chitl

gullapo
detl, tsataditl

Malay-Polynesian. A ;
chetu Atwui, tahwettu Tahiti, tuitui Tarawan,
tokun Teor, hetu Paumotua.
selo Fava, batro Biajuk, batu JZalay, wahto
Formosa, hathu Rotuma, kowata J/aor1i.
matalo J/acassar, lacloh Rotti, adlao Bisayan,
matalou Borneo, kaliha Sanguir, kluh J7/ysol,
woleh Gah, yaro Tobi, komaru J/aor71.

masoma Camarian, masuma Lariki, mosuma —

Saparua.

gigi Jalny, isi Sanguir, Bugis, ngisi, MZenado,
ngedi Sahoe, ngutu Savu, dongito Bolanghitam,
danto Fava.

lila Bugis, Macassar, hilat Bali, lilah Sulu, kelo
Garam, alelo Sandwich, lella Malagasy, elelo
Tonga, alele Rotuma.

tangkhal Sunda, garager Pelew, kalu Sanguir
(wood), ngahere JZaori (wood).

pohon Madura, ayun Timuri, chuk Samang,
cago Iloco, tawhao J/aori (wood).

chai Sunda, hoi Timor, aki Ratahan, akei Menado,

aki Sanguir, Tidore, komo Paumotua.
puteh Malay, maydac Batan, babut Ahtiago,
botcibotc Tobi, savasavu Fiji, kowse Pelew.
angin J/alay, kanging Bali, kalm Bah, hangin
Tagala, matangi Marquesas, kohengi JJaori,
koyyoou Pelew. ;

teyholi Awazya, keheil Wahai, tula Sanguir,

wakul Gah,

sawah Sulu, sawa Sanguiv, saua Borneo, sowom
Cajeli, sengwedo Fava, ahehwa JZatabello.

lanjang Sunda (girl), lehani Rotwma (daughter),
rin J7ille (wife), leva Fiji, erire Paumotua,
elwinyo Amblaw, lako Baju (wife), gallu Fava,
loh Bali, lubawe Biajuk.

bahendak Biajuk, koothoo Pelew.

muda Malay, punua Maov1.

aku, saya, Malay, kito Fava, gita Tonga, atu
Tahiti, tia Tarawan, zaho Malagasy.

diko Fava, dika Wadura, kowe Fava, Ponape,
kow Pelew, kwe Mille, coy Tonga, koe Maori,
sia Sunda, iko Bugis, go Tarawan.

ini Malay, anre Macussar, kania Sulu, tena
Tarawan, diri, sandiri Malay.

dia Malay, iya Lampung, siya Sulu, yea Tagola,
izi Malagasy.

giwotoloo, Tonga, kendaru Fiji.

kita Malay, Sulu, Ponape, tatou Tahiti, Paumo-
tua, Maori.

kula Fava, sira Batan, tautolu Tonga, derro
Mille, ara, ngaira Zavawan. -

kowe Fava, korua Maori, Paumotua.

nautolu Zonga.

oat die, eter th, che

a

:

; English,

100

this, that

Niskwalli.
ulgwa, delgwa

dutcho, asdutcho
assale, salew

icine neklekiw

bos, asbos

tsalats
dzelachi

tsoks
tkachi

hwul

paduts

salachi

sumkwachi

ti

ki, kwi
la, le, til

gwat
hwulte
todi, altodi
chicht

lel, lalel

shishukh, shikabuts

PROCEEDINGS, OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 49

Malay-Polynesian.

eris Rotuma, la, latou Samoa, raua, ratau
Tahiti, Paumotua, Maon.

tadday Cagayan, tatsaat Formosa, tasi Fotuna,
Fakaafo, tahi Maori, Uea, Marquesas, taha
Tonga, tot Caroline, tseekaee Malicollo,

kaleh Fava, serou Papua, dalaua 7agala, kalae
Tambora, rua Lampung, golu TJobi, heluk
Yengen, oroo Pelew, erooa Otaheiti.

telu Fava, kolu Sandwich, atlo Philippine, tatlu
Tagala, gatil Sulu, kal Kissa.

pat, papat Fava, opat Sunda, epat Biajuk, effats
Malagasy, upat Sulu, Bisayan, opats Bugis,
pobits Yengen, ebats Malicollo.

luwi Malagasy, kuklin Zambora, lailem Mille,
delima Salibabo.

loacha Uea, chalemen Lifu, dildjino Mille laen
Rotti, Zimuri, hol Caroline, guarum Tuham.

tujuh Malay, tuju Sunda, tik Papua, tuju
Sambawa, tujuh Samang, tujoh Salayer, hiku
Sandwich, iko Kissa.

hasto Fava, kutus Aali, tofkangi TZernate,
koneho Zambora, gatahua Sulu, tufkangi
Tidore, itupangi Galela.

jalatien Aiajuk, asera Bugis, lali Zambora,
siwer Zzor, sior Malagasy.

sadasu Fava, dasa Aali, painduk Yengen, putusa
Servang, manud 7uham, mackoth Pelew, boto
Cajeli, hutusa Awaiya, hutu 7Jeluti, fotusa
Alfuros, huta Teor.

kalehdoso Fava, calohaan Bisayan, oloyuck
Pelew, ruatekau JZaori, sisarone Zambora. -

sangagasut Jloco, hangutoos Sulu, sangdaan
Tagala, usakagatos Bisayan, magatu Cagayan,
mahasu Menado, Sanguir.

itu Malay, eta Sunda, heto Piajuk, tudeh
Samang, taua JZaort.

iki, ika, fava, iyak Sunda, iya Batan.

reyah, rowa, girowa Madura, yari 7agala, raua,
tera Maori.

sinten fava, yewe Liajuk, isiu Sulu, siapa
Malay, kohai Jonga.

hiriki, diriki Bali, korini Augis.

ditu ali, disitu Malay, ditu Sunda, disah,
kahdisah Madura, didto Bisayan, didtoo
Sulu, dita Iloco, etonai Zobz.

jauh, dakat Malay, chadak, Favz, asideg Iloco,
tutatu M/aor.

bela Macassar, mabela, Bugis, halayo Bisayan,
arayu Cagayan, malayo Jagala.

asa Bugis, atas, Malay, kepeng Samang,
ybabao Zagala, saitaas Bisayan, hataas Sul,
hage Jonga.

_—) >. > ae

b Sikes a

50

English.

behind

below

by
from
in

to

with

within
without

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

Niskwalli.
lak, tulak

klep

twul

tul —
dekhw
ta, tud
tul, gwul
twul

dekhw
shalbekhw

Malay-Polynesian.

licuc Cagayan, licudan Iloco, licurran Zagala,
blakang Malay, iligan Mille, tukalek Tobi,
tuara Maori.

ngandap Fava, dibawah Malay, andap Sunda,
rawa Macassar, oleeakem Pelew, gilalo Tonga,
lausilopo Rotuma, kabawah, Sulu, sulib
Tagala.

ulih Jalay, ri Bugis.

dari Malay, Madura, huleh Bali.

di Malay, Sunda, Lampung.

dateng Fava, tako Fava, di-Batan, atoo Tonga.

wor Zobi.

karo, kalih Fava, kalawan Lampung, barang
Bali, Madura.

dalam Malay, Madura.

salebetting Favu (within), saliwang Augis.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 51

4

a

P Moss Litter. By Tuomas W. Gisson, Esg., Bureau oF MINES.

q (Read January 30th, 1897.)

3 Agriculture and mining are the chief members of a group of arts which lie at

the base of all others—without which, indeed, none others could exist. Agriculture
4 supplies the primal necessities of man by giving him food and clothing, and both
_ together furnish him with the raw materials for that wonderful and complex series

of manufactures, with which his ingenuity strives to gratify his tastes or satisfy his

-wants—tastes and wants which enlarge with his expanding civilization. They have
both the same arena—the capacious bosom of Mother Earth—and both strive to
_ turn to advantage the substances which nature there has placed. One enlists in her

service those vital forces which draw the atoms of inorganic matter from air and
soil, and which raise them from the mineral into the vegetable, and from the vege-
table into the animal kingdom ; the other deals directly with the mineral substances
themselves, and by the mere act of changing their situation and separating them
from one another, rescues them from inutility and makes them subservient to the
wants of man. One may be called an adaptive industry, whose processes, if rightly
conducted, move in a circle, and appear capable of being carried on for all time :
the other may be termed a destructive industry, concerned with large, yet strictly
limited quantities of material, which, once brought into play, are forthwith made
subject to decay and waste, and are scarcely, if at all, capable of being restored to
their original condition. Agriculture and mining touch each other at many points.
The farmer feeds and clothes the miner ; the miner warms the farmer, supplies, ‘him
_ with fertilizers, keeps him in ploughs and harrows, and puts gold and silver into
his purse. Noe market is worth so much to the tiller of the soil as a mining camp
in full blast. Miners usually want the best, and are quite willing to pay for it.
There are processes performed on the surface of the ground which, in their
nature, seem intermediate between agriculture and mining, and to partake of the
character of both. One of these is the reclamation of peat bogs, and the utilization
of the material of which such bogs are composed. As agricultural operations, such
processes restore to cultivation considerable areas of land, previously lying waste
and barren, while, viewed as incidents of mining, they convert to man’s use actual
portions of the earth’s crust unchanged except by a certain amount of manipiu-
lation.

_ The origin of peat bogs is well understood. They are found chiefly in the colder
parts of the globe, where evaporation goes on less actively than in the more tropical
regions, and occur in low situations, or where some natural or artificial obstacle
' impedes the drainage. The abundant moisture iavors the growth of a low order of
plants, such as the sphagnum mosses, of which some fifty or sixty varieties are
known. This plant is distinguished above all others by its capacity for absorbing and
storing water, for which its peculiar structure eminently fits it. The epidermis of
the stalk and the leaves of the plant are mainly composed of large, empty cells,
into which the water is drawn through a number of small holes. The cells are pro-
vided with ring or spiral-formed thickenings on their inner sides, which keep
7 them from collapsing. They are consequently always distended, and always ready
- for use. Smaller cells occur between the larger ones, which contain chlorophyl an.
supply the plant with nourishment, but these occupy comparatively little space.
The whole arrangement is that of an aggregation of reservoirs in successive layers,
which are kept filled by the force of capillary attraction, even when the plant
itself is above the water level.
fh, It is curious to note that the properties of the sphagnum moss, which render
it so well adapted for living in a low and moist situation, tend also to bring its
- existence to an end. It requires a constant supply of moisture, yet it is continually

o_o”

52 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

pumping up to the surface of its tufts the water in which it stands, thus promoting —
evaporation ; while at the same time, by regularly decaying at its roots, it deposits
the detritus which adds to the solid contents of the bog. This process continues
until the bog is raised above the level of the surface water, when the sphagnum
vegetation ceases, having exhausted the conditions which made it possible. In this
way bogs of considerable depth are formed in process of time. As the mass
increases, decomposition takes place in the lower portions, which become con-
solidated into a black or dark-brown earthy substance, that in various parts of the
world is extensively converted into fuel. The usual method of utilizing it as such
is to dig up the peat in cakes, or blocks, and dry them by exposure to the wind
and sun, after which they are stored and used as required. Hand labor is generally
employed, though numberless attempts have been made to facilitate the process by
the introduction of various kinds of machinery. The great difficulty in ‘the economic
employment of mechanical processes is the tenacity with which the peat retains the de-
«ree of moisture remaining after it has yielded all that naturally evaporates in the air.
Pressure and artificial heat have been resorted to in order to overcome this ditfh-

‘culty, but, while the end aimed at is capable of achievement, it has usually been

attained at too great an expense for economic results. A process which would
put us in possession of a good and cheap peat fuel would be a national benefit to
Ontario, destitute as the Province is of workable beds of coal.

It is these absorptive properties of the sphagnum moss which have led to its
employment as litter, or bedding for cattle, in lieu of straw or other materials com-
monly used for such purposes. Its suitability for litter was doubtless recognized at
an early date by people living in the vicinity of bogs, but it was as late as 1880 that
the preparation of moss litter as an article of commerce was first begun by Holl-
man at Gifhorn, in Hanover. Since that time it has come rapidly into use in the
countries of Continental Europe, and in Great Britain, as well as to some extent
in America. The advantages claimed for the litter are that it affords drier and
healthier bedding for horses and cattle than any other material ; that by reason of
its great power of absorbing moisture, it binds the valuable portion of the animal
excrements, and consequently yields the best manure ; that it acts as a disinfectant
and improves the air of the stable, and that a smaller quantity of it is required
than would be meeded if straw were used. Experience with the litter in European
countries seems to show that the claims made for it are well founded, and that it is
the best article for the purpose yet introduced...

The cells of the sphagnum moss in the manufactured article retain much of
their power of attracting and holding water, and the litter is in consequence able
to take up ten or fifteen times its own weight of moisture. It has the faculty of
absorbing gases as well, and hence fixes the ammonia always present to a greater
or less degree in the atmosphere of buildings in which animals are confined and
fed. The soft, springy, elastic moss litter forms a more comfortable bed for cattle
than straw, and greatly facilitates the task of keeping the animals and stables clean,
a fact which has an important bearing on the welfare of man, as in the case of
milch cows whose product is used as an article of human diet.

Careful trials of moss litter in army stables in Germany, where formerly straw
was employed, showed its superiority in the following respects : dry beds, and
dry, fresh air, free from ammonia ; the ceilings, walls and leather trappings remained
free from moisture and mould. If proper care was taken to remove those portions
of the litter which became charged with moisture, to shake it up every day and fork
it from one part of the stall to another, the horses found their quarters very
much improved. Their skins remained clean and in activity, catarrhs of the nose
and eyes, generally the result of bad air in stables, were «less frequent ; wounds on
the legs healed more speedily ; colic was almost eliminated ; inflammations of the
glands seldom occurred, and rotting of the frog was almost entirely prevented. In
cases of contagious disease, the litter proved of great value, and surpassed all other

53

pe, disinfectants. In other cases, too, moss litter, mixed with superphosphate, has had
_ the effect of protecting cattle from foot and mouth diseases, even while the infec-
_ tion spread to an alarming extent on neighboring farms. This property would
_ doubtless make it valuable for use in railway cars employed in the transportation of
live stock. Many cases have been known in which disease was introduced or
spread by cars in which infected animals had been carried.
The manurial value of moss litter, after it has served its purpose in the stable, is
greater than that of straw, for the reason that there is less evaporation of the liquid
and volatile constituents. It would appear that no greater proportion of the potash,
. lime, or phosphoric acid is recoverable by means of the litter, but the easily-soluble
nitrates are retained to a much larger extent than in the straw, which allows of
_ their escape in the form of ammonia. As the agriculturist well knows, the nitrogen
thus rendered available for plant food is a most valuable element of manure.

Pe Tae oe ee eee poe

4 In the manufacture of moss litter, as carried on in Europe, a fine dust is silted
-_— out at a certain stage of the process, which, as well as the litter itself, is used as a
? _ deodorizer and absorbent of sewage and fecal matter, especially in small cities,
5 where no proper systems of sewerage or drainage exist. Accumulation of noxious
matter of this sort often gives rise to epidemic and infectious diseases. The use of
i - moss litter and peat dust not only remedies this evil, but actually transforms dele-
___terious waste into valuable fertilizers. The absorbent properties of the litter check
E. the growth of bacteria, and retard the decomposition of organic substances. Fresh

fish, fruit, and vegetables are all said to have been preserved in excellent condition
for a long time by being packed in peat moss. There are many other uses to which
moss litter is put, such as raw material for coarse'textile fabrics, a non-conductor of
heat or noise in house building, paper pulp, ete., with greater or less success.

The peat bogs of Canada, and of Ontario in particular, are of vast extent. By
virtue of their immense stores of carbon, they constitute a potential source of fuel
supply when the right process of manufacture shall have been invented and applied.
Meantime, a beginning has been made in the utilization of these bogs in the manu-

_ facture of moss litter. In the townships of Wainfleet and Humberstone, in the
‘County of Welland, between the feeder of the Welland Canal and Lake Erie, and
about five miles from the town of Welland, lies a peat bog of some 5,000 acres,
‘owned by the Canadian Peat Fuel Company of Toronto. At the northern edge of
this bog the company has erected a plant for the manufacture of the litter, according
to a process which in some respects differs from that prevailing in Europe. The
2 upper layer of the bog consists of undecomposed sphagnum moss, varying in depth
q from 18 inches to 4 1-2 feet, is said to be free from sand or inorganic material, and
4 to be well fitted for litter. The works have been erected and put in operation, and a
, considerable quantity of product has been turned out. The first stage of the process
is to cut the moss into pieces about eighteen inches square, which are piled together
3 in rows on the surface of the bog. When the moisture has sufficiently evaporated
___ these blocks are gathered and wheeled in small cars, over a portable tramway, to the
4 storing sheds. They are then passed through the picking machines, two of which

earn th!

2

Pg Lee De
z

stand side by side. These are provided with heavy revolving cylinders, armed with
: strong teeth, which act upon similar teeth set in the concave surface of a breast,
¥ against which they work. In the pickers the moss is torn and loosened apart, the
_ ~ object being to separate the fibres, rather than break them. The piekers discharge
the moss upon moving carriers, three in number, to each machine, ranged above one
3 - another, which carry it horizontally through a drying chamber, or tun-
i nel, 116 feet in length, 8 feet high, and 16 feet wide. These carriers
travel against a current of hot air, drawn through the tunnel by a dise fan
‘revolving at the farther end, the object being to remove the greater part
“of the moisture remaining in the moss. The heat for this purpose is
generated by a furnace, situated parallel to the tunnel, whence the hot air is drawn
by the suction of the fan into a mixing chamber, where the temperature can be

54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

regulated by the admission of cold air. The hot blast, after passing over the moss,
emerges, laden with moisture, into a wooden shaft, and so into the outer air. At
the end of the drying tunnel the moss falls into a conveyer, from which it is ele-
vated into a weighing bin, or hopper, situated above a baling press, or packer. The
hopper works automatically, and as soon as a sufficient weight is received it de-
posits its load in the press, which is;a machine of peculiar design, worked by
steam power. On a revolving circular platform are four stout wooden moulds. In
one of these wooden slats are placed to assist in securing the bale after it is pressed ;
it passes under the press, the workman above moves a lever, and a plunger descends
with a pressure of 200 tons, forcing the moss firmly into the mould. The platform
makes a quarter revolution, and while the second mould is being filled, number one
is being secured with wire, and at the third turn the finished bale is removed,
ready for shipment. The weight of a bale is 250 to 260 pounds. A knuckle-joint
press is subsidiary to the steam press, but is seldom required. The bales are stored
in the sheds, whence they can be shipped as called for, over the Michigan Central
Railroad, a spur of which runs into the property.

In the finished state the litter contains about 30 or 35 per cent. of moisture,
and in this condition it goes into use. It‘is said to take up liquids more readily in
this state than ‘when the cells of the plants are completely deprived of water,
and it is not so easily broken up under the feet of horses. The output of the factory
is about 40 tons per day of ten hours, but can easily be increased. The consumption
in America is about 18,000 tons a year at the present time, and the article has
hitherto been imported exclusively from Europe. New York, Brooklyn, Boston,
Baltimore, Philadelphia, Chicago, and other large cities, are the chief places of use
in the United States, but the market for litter is rapidly growing. It is employed
in the stables of milk and transportation companies, liverymen, and other large
owners of cattle and horses, and even in the stables of many private individuals.
The Canadian Peat Fuel Company has entered into a contract for supplying an average
quantity of 22,000 tons per year, for five years, in the United States. They do not an-_
ticipate any trouble in marketing this quantity. One ‘difficulty in the way of a more
general use has been the cost of storing cargoes at the point of importation. Moss
litter is a bulky article, and the rates charged for storage in large cities are high. These
will be evaded in the case of the Welland factory, as the litter can be kept on hand
there and shipped only as required to customers. The price at which it retails in
New York is $15 per ton. In London, England, it sells at 35 shillings per ton. The
factory at Welland is the only one of the kind in America. The machinery used in
it is from the designs of Mr. A. A. Dickson, the President of the company, and is
patented in Canada, the United States, Great Britain, Germany, and other countries
of Continental Europe. Beneath the layer of moss suitable for litter on the Welland
bog, lies a very large quantity of dark, decomposed peat, which it is the intention of the -
company to manufacture into fuel. The depth of this peaty section varies from a foot
or two at the edge of the bog to 20 feet in the centre. The process of converting the
_ crude peat into fuel is also one patented by Mr. Dickson, and, as now perfected, does
away with the use of artificial heat. The peat is cut and air-dried, after which it is
pulverized by being passed through a picker and automatically deposited in a hopper,
which feeds a steel tube about two inches in diameter, and fifteen inches long. The
pulverized peat, is forced through this tube by pressure and formed into cylindrical
blocks about three inches in length, almost equal in density to anthracite coal.
This part of the business has not yet been brought into operation. Below the bed
of peat lies a deposit of clay, which experiments have shown to be of fine quality
for the manufacture of vitrified brick, pottery, etc. The prospect is that a very
large business will be done by the company in the manufacture of moss litter, and,
perhaps, eventually also in peat fuel. In the utilization of such dormant resources
this company by its operations is really adding to the wealth of the community, and
whether it can command success or not, it certainly deserves it.

wn

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

THE GrReaT Lakes As A SENSITIVE BAROMETER. By Napier Denison, Esq.,
ToRONTO OBSERVATORY. [ILLUSTRATED. |

(Read February 6th, 1897.)

For many years fishermen and.sailors upon our Great Lakes have noticed, with
intense interest and curiosity, the rapid rise and fall of the water, most marked at
the head of shallow lagoons, as at our Island, and have considered it to be an inex-
plicable phenomenon. While in the vicinity of Lake Huron last summer the writer’s
attention was attracted by what appeared to be a regular ebb and flow, at rapid in-
tervals, at the mouths of rivers. At Kincardine, by means of a special float, a set of
readings were taken, and a variation of level of over three inches obtained, averaging
nine minutes (that is, eighteen minutes for a complete undulation); the float moving
up stream at the rate of a mile and one-half per hour. Upon returning to Toronto,
by permission of Mr. Stupart, Director of the Meteorological Service, a simple in-

PIG T

strument was devised for automatically recording upon paper these peculiar oscil-

lations, and was set up at the mouth of the Humber river. ; .
The following is a brief description of this instrument (Fig. 1). It consists of a

recording cylinder 24 inches in circumference and six inches wide, placed horizontal-

Bot PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE,

ly, which by means of clockwork. completes one revolution every 24 hours, the He
intervals being, therefore, each one inch. Resting upon this cylinder is a self- inking
pen, attached to an arm, which slides freely upon a horizontal tubular guide. To one
side of this arm is fastened a silk line, which is attached to and wound several
times around a small grooved pulley, which is part of ong four times its diameter,
Upon the grooved circumference of the larger pulley is fastened another line, which,

after several turns around it, passes down through the case to a float, enclosed in
a special shaft, so constructed as to admit the water only through several small holes,
and thus to prevent any sudden movement of the float being caused by local wave
motion. To the other end of the sliding arm is fastened another line, which, after
passing over a small grooved pulley (shown at the left of the illustration), descends
through the case, and has attached to it a weight sufficient to balance the float. The
record is obtained in the following manner: As the float rises and falls, the pen
correspondingly moves up and down upon the paper, which is revolving at the
rate of one inch per hour. |

The ratio of movement between pen and float is as 1 to 4, so that an actual
rise of one inch of water level corresponds to a movement of one-fourth of an inch
upon the paper on the cylinder. To facilitate the measuring of these traces, one-
quarter inch squared paper is used, the vertical lines marking fifteen-minute inter-
vals, and the horizontal, one inch change in water level. To prevent the water from
freezing in the shaft during the winter months, oil was used, which had the effect
of depressing the water level below the frost line.

In order to increase the value of these records, a similar instrument. was set up
at the Burlington Canal last September. Before bringing before you some inter-

esting tracings taken from these instruments, permit me to summarise previous in-
vestigations in other countries.

This phenomenon had been noted by Duillier as matt as 1730, aoe the "Ne
lakes, where it obtained the name of seiche, owing to the apparent “ drying up”
recession of the water upon one side of the lake, when rising at the other. In a
De Saussure remarks that he believes local variations in the air pressure may be the
cause, In 1804 Vaucher published his researches on the subject. His conclusions
are briefly as follows :—

(1) Seiches more or less considerable occur in all lakes.

(2) They occur at all seasons and at all hours, but most insane in spring
and autumn.

(3) The condition of the atmosphere is the governing cause ; the more settled
this is the less are _ the seiches, and the more variable it is:the more marked

are they.

(4) Although most frequent in spring and autumn, the greatest ont
always occurred in July, August, or early in September.

(5) Although the duration of these seiches is extremely variable, their intervals
do not exceed 20 to 25 minutes, and are frequently less. :

(6) They varied much in amplitude at different points on the lake shores, being
on the Lake of Geneva greatest at the mouth of the Rhone.

Vaucher supposed that the atmospheric pressure diminished over one part of
the lake, while over another it remained constant or increased. If this change in
pressure, occurred suddenly, the water which had thereby been set in motion would—
not come to rest again until after a number of oscillations. ;

Professor -Forel agrees with this theory, which has also been accepted by
Studer, Meyer and Favre. From 1854 to 1856 an important series of observations
were made by six observers, placed at different points on the shore of Lake
Geneva, who, using a system of signals to warn each other of the approach of an
oscillation, noted the variations of the barometer and of the lake level. As Professor
Forel in his article entirely disregards these barometric observations, they do not
appear to have been published. In 1870 Professor Forel studied the seiches at the

a.

Harbour of Morges, upon Lake Geneva, and obtained a mean of 4 min. 24 sec. for

‘a

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. SH

their total duration. At Geneva Vaucher’s observations give a mean duration of
26 1-2 minutes. De Saussure and Duillier refer to seiches of 1 1-2 metres in ampli-

tude, and M. Venie mentions one at Geneva of 2.14 metres, but usually they vary

from about four inches to one foot. He (Forel) suggests that these are not true
waves or progressive undulations of the water surface, but a movement of “ oscilla-
tion of balance,” or fixed oscillation, which may be both longitudinal and trans-
verse. (Archives des Sciences Naturelles, Geneva, 1874.)

-In 1876 Forel set up an automatic instrument to register these movements, and
from records extending over four months, he deduced the existence of three vari-
utes; intermediate, duration 25 minutes.
eties of seiche, viz: transverse, duration 10 minutes; longitudinal, duration 70 min-

Upon this instrument he also observed movements of what he terms “ vibration,”
caused (1) By steamers. The interval between these is from 9 to 60 times greater
than that between ordinary waves, and they preceded the approach of a vessel by
about 25 minutes, or when it was 9 1-2 kilometres distant, continuing for two or
three hours afterwards.

(2) By wind, having no regular time or rhythm, and varying in amplitude from
nothing to 10 millimetres, and in duration from 45 seconds to three or four minutes.
He remarks that “ sometimes there are little or none with a strong wind.”

It may be mentioned that Guthrie has experimented upon this movement of
oscillation, or balance in water, using, however, vessels in which the depth exceeded
half the length, thereby eliminating the influence of depth altogether. (Proceedings
Phys. Soc., Vol. I., 1875).

Lord Kelvin gives a theoretic law for the duration of these seiches in any lake,
viz.: the semi-period of an oscillation is equal to the time that a body, travelling at
the rate which it would acquire in falling from a height equal to half the mean

depth of the lake would take to traverse the length of the lake. Thus, the

duration of a seiche is’ proportional to the length of the lake, and _ in-
versely proportional to the square root of its mean depth. (Archives des
Sciences Naturelles, Geneva, 1876). Applying this to Lake Ontario, and assuming
the mean depth to be 300 feet, we obtain a theoretical duration for a longitudinal
seiche, of over five hours. As will be shown later, the mean interval between the
longest undulations, as taken from the Humber traces, is about 4 hours and 49
minutes.

In 1880 Professor Forel, in a letter, states that the smaller and more rapid
oscillations may be accounted for by dividing the lake surface into more than one
nodal point. (Archives des Sciences Naturelles, Geneva, 1880).

That you may more fully understand the following illustrations, it is necessary

‘to become somewhat familiar with the movements of the upper atmosphere, where

the chief cause of these lake oscillations is to be found. Permit me to quote a few
lines from the late Professor Helmholtz, ‘of Berlin (although previously cited in
an earlier paper), who made a special study of atmospheric waves from theory,
and analogy with ocean waves: “As soon as a lighter fluid lies above a denser
one, with well-defined boundary, then, evidently, the conditions exist at this bound-

ary for the origin and regular propagation of waves, such as we are familiar with

on the surface of water. This case of waves, as ordinarily observed on the boundary

surfaces between water and air, is only to be distinguished from the system that may

exist between different strata of air, in that in the former the difference of density of
the two fluids is much greater than in the latter case. Since the moderate winds
that occur on the surface of the earth often cause water waves of a metre in length,
therefore the same winds, acting upon a stratum of air of 10 degrees difference in
temperature, maintain waves of from two to five kilometres in length. Larger ocean
waves, from five to ten metres long, would correspond to atmospheric waves of from

thirteen to thirty kilometres, such as would cover the whole sky of the observer,
ahd would have the ground at a depth below them less than that of one wave-

ae i

58 f PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

length.’ He also states that “ waves of smaller and smallest wave-length are theo-
retically possible.”

His theory is borne out by observations taken at the Blue Hill Observatory,
near Boston, by Mr. Clayton, who has found that the larger waves, as marked upon
the barograph traces, have a maximum frequency with northeasterly winds, and a
minimum frequency when the wind is from the south-west, and also that the greatest
number occur during the winter months.

Too much importance cannot be placed upon the above statements, as they are
likely to prove of inestimable value in helping us to a better knowledge of the
mysterious forces at’ work in the upper atmosphere.

In the accompanying diagram the upper, or poleward current, is represented as
moving approximately from the south-west to the north-east, in its spiral course
around the globe. Its average velocity is 60 miles per hour in summer, which
increases to 112 miles per hour during the winter months. ;

The heavy lines indicate the lower stratum of air as travelling in an opposite
direction to the upper current, which would be the case during the approach of a
storm from the south-west. At the upper surface of this lower stratum huge
atmospheric waves, ot billows, are set up, due to the rapidly moving, opposing,
upper poleward current of a lesser density. The influence of these huge waves
often extends to the earth’s surface, where they have been recorded upon barograph
traces. The lighter lines represent a second form of wave movement in the lower
stratum of air (say cumttli level), caused by the two subsidiary strata of the lower
air travelling at different velocities and directions to one another, as is often
observed during the approach of an important storm centre. These waves also
extend to the earth’s surface, where the larger:ones are found recorded upon the
barograph traces as short and rapid oscillations. These are well shown upon the
Observatory photographic trace, now before us (Fig. 2), which is a record during

FIG, 2.

seers ke lea oe A fiteh AL [ae ie af 7p-=-—————
a

il
ill .

“A Ys HE 2 fo jum 2 TA ORG 40 “ 6 x» 1 thm

. the approach of a storm from the south-west, upon which you will observe the
larger undulations begin before the barometer falls, and are evidently caused by
huge billows, set up at the boundary surfaces of the upper poleward current and
the lower air stratum, which, owing to the position of the storm centre, would be
rapidly moving in opposite directions. As the storm approached the undulations
become more rapid, with a marked time interval of Io minutes. These appear to
correspond with the waves set up along the still lower, or cumulus level. As well
as from the barometric record, the existence of these atmospheric waves, under
certain conditions, may often be observed in the formation of the clouds above us;
for instance, during fine, anti-cyclonic weather, one has frequently noticed great-
parallel bands of cirri appear in the west, and rapidly extend eastward, in advance
of a cyclonic area, then over the Southern States. These represent the crests of the
larger billows mentioned by Helmholtz, and are caused by the lower; denser stratum
of air being forced up into a lighter and colder level, where condensation takes
place. The following illustrations plainly demonstrate the existence of air waves
found along the cumulus level. These forms, no doubt, are familiar to all present,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 59

and, as you will observe, in the second one they are of such a regular character as
to be commonly termed “ roll cumulus.” ;

Let us now examine the Burlington and Humber records for the 4th of
October, 1896 (Fig. 3), during fine settled weather throughout the continent,
plotted upon the same time sheet. As previously mentioned, these squares, when

y
=
= FIG. 3.
5
2
bi
ee
4
j
F
3
5,
: +
mi ae
: Laenaaaay CHEE
| BEE an
3 oS e>, QoS seageeD Emname
Seen t het betel ets
JLRS eae ae Genes
. Pisce eia iach ray
mela brent io aa mae ES
E Dee DORR 5 a a a DO
3 mi et hie) Por COED RSE EE er
4 BEEEE CCE CCEECE Ee
BEE abe aa
7a oe eee ee male Pate
EEE EEE EERE
5 i Baas C
| 5

measured vertically, correspond to one inch change of water level, and, horizontally,
to every fifteen minutes of time. It is interesting to note, not only the marked coin-
cidence of these undulations, but the agreement of their time intervals, viz.: 22.8 and
4 22.0 mins. The greater amplitude of the Humber trace is due to the configuration of
the adjacent shores and shallowness of the Bay. To obtain an idea of the prevailing
atmospheric conditions, let us look at the morning and evening synchronous weather
charts for this day. At 8 a.m. you will observe an important high area over North-
ern Ontario, while to the west of Lake Superior there is a well-défined area of low
pressure. The weather is fine, and the direction of the wind northerly, throughout
the lake region, but immediately to the westward the winds are from the south-
ward. At 8 p.m. the high area has moved eastward, while the western low is dis-
persing over Lake Superior. As the winds have become southerly, the upper and
lower strata of air are moving approximately in the same direction, therefore,
according to Helmholtz, the upper atmosphere should be in an undisturbed condi-
tion. As a fair type of rapid undulations upon the lakes, during light winds and
j fine weather preceding a severe storm, let us take the Humber and Burlington
: traces from 8 a.m. to 3 p.m. of the 28th of September, last (Fig. 4). Here, again
you will observe a decided coincidence between the two traces, and a wonderful
agreement of time intervals, being 14.4 and 14.1 minutes respectively : also, the
oscillations are much more rapid than when preceding settled weather. The move-
ments upon the Humber instrument appear to be about double those upon the
Burlington one. On the latter trace at 1 p.m. a peculiar rapid rise and fall of over
an inch is seen, due to the passage of the Hamilton boat. In fact all vessels, large

60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. ~

and small, are duly registered upon this instrument. You see by this, chart for

8 a.m. of the 28th that the centre of the storm which is causing these violent lake
undulations is over the State.of Florida, a distance of 1,300 miles from Toronto.

FIG. 4.

i |

PCE
a a baal

The lowest isobaric line, when drawn to tenths,of an inch within this disturbance,
was only 29.90, but owing to this time of year being favourable for the northerly

movement of West India hurricanes, a careful watch was kept upon it by our ©

forecast officer, who, finding after completing the 8 p.m. chart a slight development
of this depression, warned all our lake stations for a heavy easterly gale. This chart
for 8 a.m. of the 30th of September shows how the storm centre travelled slowly
but directly to the lake region, where it caused a severe gale and a heavy general
rainfall. To illustrate the value these lake instruments are likely to prove when
studied in conjunction with the daily weather chart for assisting in the successful
forecasting of precipitation as well as wind storms, let us examine the chart for
§ p.m. of the 19th of January last. Approaching the lake region from the north-
west is a well-defined low area (centre about 209.70), while to the far south-west
there is what appears to be a minor depression (centre about 30.00). Under such
~ conditions it would be of great value to know if this latter area were going to develop

and move towards us, as then it would be an easy matter to predict easterly winds

with precipitation for the lake region, while, on the other hand, one would base
their prediction upon the approaching north-west low, which usually gives southerly
winds and fair milder weather. In this case, upon looking on the chart for 8 a.m.
next day, you will observe the south-western low had developed, and was rapidly
moying up the Mississippi valley, while the north-west low was quickly dispersing.
The 8 p.m. chart for the 20th shows a still further development of the southern low,
which has moved to the State of Ohio (centre, 20.70), while the northern depression
appears to have completely dispersed, or to have been absorbed by the former. At

4 p.m. of this day it began to snow, and continued till next morning, when over six

inches had fallen at Toronto, and a general snowfall prevailed throughout the lake
region. A few days later, upon receiving the Humber records, marked abnormal
oscillations were noticeable during the night of the roth; also similar but minute
undulations were found upon the Observatory photographic barograph trace. These
records prove that, although the surface air was moving from the south, the upper
or boundary surface of the lower air was rapidly moving southward, that is, in
opposition to the superincumbent upper poleward current, therefore causing atmos-
pheric waves or billows upon its boundary surface of sufficient magnitude to
disturb the air nearest the earth. These lake records appear to prove conclusively,
some time before the ordinary mercurial barometer and ditection vane showed the
change, that the southern Jow area was developing and the northern one dispersing.
As the atmospheric conditions for the next few days are very much disturbed, and
are followed by a most pronounced anti-cyclone and great cold in the North-west
Territories, which eventually extended to the lakes, we shall look at a sequence of
weather charts in conjunction with some very interesting Humber records. As

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 61

will be seen (Fig. 5) the trace began to rise at midnight of the 21st, and continued
till noon of the 22nd, when it had risen over five inches ; during this period large

' undulations of forty-five minutes’ interval and from one and a half to two inches in
, amplitude are very marked. From noon to 4.15 p.m. the water level remained
Pt,
op
: ; RIG. 5.

7 1 3 6
4 i a
SRG

; i

Pn

E ry :

a BaB

; ee

: Pact

2 tt

. iia

2 |_| | | bol | | bb

2 stationary, while the oscillations became more rapid ; then the water commenced to

_ fall quickly, reaching its lowest point, a distance of nine inches, at 9.30 p.m., that

4 . : t Pi 5 Ss .

; is, in five hours and fifteen minutes. From this hour you will observe a decided

4 undulatory curve, not merely due to the small rapid oscillations, but marked large

undulations, whose average height from trough to crest equals three inches, with
a mean time interval between crests of four hours and forty-nine minutes. (Fig. 7.)

_ __ As previously stated, these appear to be the longitudinal “‘seiches” for our lake. From

a careful study of the lake records from their beginning in July last this phenomenon

a is not to be found except at a time preceding or during tremendous atmospheric

q disturbances, similar to those at which we are about to look. In the present case

; this curious phenomenon lasted for three days, and was the precursor of a heavy

s northerly gale, which at this time of the year also means intense cold.

4 Let us hurriedly look at the weather charts during this period. At 8 p.m. of

_ the 21st the low area which had given us snow had moved eastward, causing a

j snowstorm throughout the Maritime Provinces, while another depression lay east

4 of Manitoba. In the far North-west an important high area, or anti-cyclone, had

_- appeared. Qu’Appelle reported 10 degrees below zero and. a heavy gale blowing.

9 The water of the lake began to rise at midnight. By 8 a.m. of the 22nd the storm

3 centre was over the State of Michigan, causing a high southerly wind with snow

. throughout Ontario, while the North-west anti-cyclone had developed and extended

3 eastward, Winnipeg reporting 18 degrees below zero and a gale of forty miles

4 ner hour.

a At 8 p.m. of the 22nd the wind was westerly in the lake region, but blowing a

: heavy gale. At 9.30 p.m. the water had reached its lowest point. At this hour these

a large undulations, or longitudinal ‘‘ seiches,’ appeared, and were noticeable during

3 the following three days. In the North-west the pressure was increasing and the

“->

temperature falling, while a heavy north-westerly gale prevailed from Manitoba to
the lake region.
At 8 a.m. of the 23rd a north-westerly gale still was blowing over Ontario, while
in the North-west the barometer had risen to over thirty-one inches, and the tem-
perature fallen to 40 degrees below zero.

ee

62) PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

At 8 p.m. of this day Medicine Hat reported 52 degrees below zero. On the
24th and 25th the cold wave, though greatly diminished by lake influence, ner
reached Toronto, giving a minimum temperature of 8 degrees below zero.

After carefully measuring and tabulating the duration of the larger wave inter- ;
vals taken from a great number of these lake records, it was surprising to find a

FIG. 6. F

z | | 2 al Ke

Em ae Be
ERE PEEEEEE CEE PARA wT AT TT ET TT Tf Ht
MP ible LE et Tl AL dol, Webel,
ah Dcih dd awl al Ci el OS os
Sal a teletstet Walsall GOBMen GEE.
ee REBRSERSAaRe EL
BERETA EA EE EEE pak label Pete

marked 20-minute interval. There appears to be a correspondence between these ~
time intervals and those marked upon the barograph records for the same period.

Professor Forel suggests that the smaller, and more rapid oscillations observed
upon the foregoing traces, may be due to the lake surface becoming divided into
many nodal points of rest, similar to the nodes upon a violin string, when set
vibrating. Although these researches cover too short a time to make any definite
assertion, there seems to be a wonderful correspondence between the lake waves, as
recorded at the Humber, and those found upon the Observatory photographic
barograph traces. To illustrate this, let us look at the Humber record, plotted with
the photographic barograph trace, during a thunderstorm on the 20th of July last.
Here you will observe a marked coincidence between the two; that is, as the
atmospheric pressure varied, so did the water rise and fall. The smaller and more
rapid movements are not recorded upon the barograph, as it is not sufficiently
sensitive. The sudden fluctuations and great range of water level preceding and
during thunderstorms, are almost beyond conception until graphically shown, as be-
fore us. Here you will note, shortly after 4 p.m., a rise of water of five and a halt
inches in six minutes, followed by a fall of six inches in five minutes ; the rise
almost exactly corresponding to ‘the crest of a decided barometric wave. This cer-
tainly points to local action, which would not be of sufficient extent to set the whole
surface of the lake into multi-nodal vibrations.

These peculiar oscillations appear to be probably due to the action of atmos-
pheric waves or billows, in passing over the surface of the lake, which tend to
form minute undulations upon the surface, corresponding in length to these billows,
-and as they move farther into the bay, become magnified as they reach narrower
and shallower portions, until, finally, they assume the proportions recorded upon the
instrument. If not thus, how are we to account for the secondary undulations
found upon the ocean tide gauges situated at the end of bays, where the shores
cannot encircle the disturbed body of water, save at three sides at most ? (1)

(1) “A Probable Solution of the Secondary Undulations Found Urfon Tide Gauges.” Read 16th
January, 1897. Supra, p. 28. i

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 63,

‘As neither the ordinary mercurial nor aneroid barograph is sufficiently sen-
sitive to record the more rapid and smaller atmospheric waves, I have devised, by
‘Mr. Stupart’s permission, a simple form of self-recording air barometer, which is
seventeen times more sensitive. Most interesting results are now being obtained
from this instrument, which may furnish material for a future paper.

: To form some idea how sensitive even the photographic barograph is, you will
notice two large and well-defined atmospheric undulations upon the trace before
us. These are due to a great atmospheric wave, which was formed over Krakatoa,
in the Indian Archipelago, during the tremendous eruption there, which caused such
fearful loss of life and property in its vicinity. This catastrophe is vividly recalled to
our memory by the brilliant red sunsets observed here for many months after-
wards, caused by the volcanic dust in the air. This wave reached Toronto in four-
teen hours, on its way to the antipodes of Krakatoa, from whence it was reflected
back, repassing Toronto on its return, 8 hours and 20 minutes later. It was reflected
back and forward, between its point of origin and antipodes, several times, leaving
in all seven traces upon our barograph record.
q Finally, permit me to draw a few conclusions in connection with what has
been brought before you to-night. Meteorologists are unanimous that further
advance or improvement in weather forecasting is not to be expected without a
better knowledge of the movements of the upper atmosphere. The foregoing investi-
gations seem likely to prove of service in this direction. In connection with the
5 international system of cloud observations, now being carried on throughout the
9 world, interesting and useful results might be obtained by careful observations of
the undulatory forms assumed by clouds, and probably due to atmospheric billows,
- of the kind to which reference has been made to-night.
Since these peculiar undulations almost certainly occur upon all waters and
lakes, large and small, if simple instruments, similar to that in use at the mouth of
the Humber, were placed at several points on the shores of our great lakes ; or,
still better, if it were possible to have them in different parts of the world, and
especially along a western seaboard, such as that of Great Britain, or our own
British Columbian coast. results of great interest might be expected, and our
knowledge of the extent, direction, and rate of movement of these atmospheric
waves very greatly increased.

Fishermen also would find such instruments of great service, since their records
furnish approximate indications of the probable force and direction of an approach-
ing high'wind. Already, those fishermen who live near the Humber have learned
the advantages of consulting the records before going out to set their nets. A rise

of the water level at the west end of the lake precedes, by many hours, the arrival of
an easterly storm ; as, on the other hand, a coming westerly wind is marked before-
» hand by a fall.

These phenomena are evidently due to differences of barometric pressure over
the extremities of the lake, although, of course, at a later stage, the change of level
is augmented by the direct action of the wind.

rs

—_

64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

Mineratocica, Notes on SupBuryY ANTHRACITE. By G. R. Mickte, B.A.
(Read February 27, 1897.)

On the map of the Sudbury District, published by the Geological Survey De-
partment, an oval area about 8 miles wide and 30 miles long will’ be observed.
This oval area is made up of a central part of “ dark argillaceous and gritty sand-
stones” and a border of “blackish, siliceous volcanic breccia and black slate in
places.” The rocks found in this area are possibly Cambrian, but no fossils have
been found to determine the age definitely. The deposit, or vein, which will be
here described, is in the border. Another deposit or vein has been found about five
miles further west, near the shore of Vermillion Lake.

_ The writer’s attention was first called to this occurrence of coal-like substance
early in June last year, when he made some preliminary tests on this peculiar min-
eral, which showed that it acted like anthracite. Shortly after this the surface soil
was stripped off, and when visited by the writer, early in July, there was a consid-
erable quantity of this mineral in sight. During the summer the vein was uncovered
for about 70 feet, the average width being probably about 9 feet. The strike is about
N. 20 degrees W., and the dip apparently about 45 degrees to E. Intermixed with
the coal there is in places a considerable amount of quartz, and occasionally a little
iron pyrites. The quartz forms, sometimes, a network, in which rectangular frag-
‘ments of coal are imbedded; in other places the coal is almost free from quartz.
Tf one of these rectangular fragments is partially burnt, and then examined by a
-glass, minute veins of quartz can be seen traversing it.

The mineral has a lustre like anthracite, only higher. Its hardness is between
3 and 4. This is considerably harder than ordinary anthracite, which is given as
2—2.5. The specific gravity, as determined by Mr. Lawson, ‘s 1.865, the specific
gravity of anthracite being 1.4—1.7; the average of ten commercial samples from the
western middle coal fields of Pennsylvania was found to be 1.658; from the other
coal fields of that State it was less (Penn. Geol. Survey, 1895, p. 1929). Some
Rhode Island anthracite has specific gravity 1.81 (Dana). A mineral closely
resembling this one was found in the Huronian formation near Lake Onega, in
Russia. The lustre is described as adamantine metallic; hardness, 3.5-4; specific
‘gravity, 1.84, and chemical composition similar to the Sudbury mineral (Naumann
Mineralogie). The hardness and specific gravity of this interesting mineral frora
Sudbury are, therefore, on the extreme outer limit of.anthracite. Another coal-like
‘substance, which is shown in the sketch, is classed by Mr. Miller, of Kingston, as
anthraxolite. Mr. Miller says: “The anthraxolite which I sent was collected by
me ‘in situ,’ about six miles north of this city. It occurs in a vein which has
been worked for barite on the farm of John Woodruff, the north part of lots 16
and 17, in fourth concession of the Township of Kingston. The vein, which is
nearly vertical, is about 2 1-2 feet wide, and cuts the limestone of the Black River |
formation of the Silurian system. This limestone is very fine grained, and litho-
graphic in character, and forms a comparatively thin layer over the Laurentian
gneiss, which is exposed at places in the valleys. The most abundant mineral in
the vein is barite, but calcite and fluorite are also found, as well as anthraxolite
‘This vein can be traced across country for over one anda half miles in the
limestone ; it is, however, not found in the valleys where gneiss is exposed.

The anthraxolite has been deposited after the barite and other minerals, as it
‘coats them and fills crevices in them. It is probable it has been derived from the

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 65

Z Zoom: : SSS

: Z AWTS) ness } \\ SSS

ZAIN INIT S Lae
Zyy\ Uf} \\ 7) \\ \\\ aN : 368
ly | Way \

beara! MIi\\\ U4] \\

HII Mf} ANG

OUTCROP OF COAL
£07 ‘(0 ~CONs BALFOUR

SKETCH OF OUTCROP ANO SECTION OF VEIN

RTER 49

JOHN. PO!

@®_ OuTCROP OF VEIN

SECTION OF BARITE VEIN AT WOODRUFFS
SS ea ie LINE OF VEIN

66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

bituminous matter in the limestone. Crystals of fluorite in the Niagara limestone
have been found which enclosed small amounts of petroleum.”

This anthraxolite of Mr. Miller’s has a duller lustre than the Sudbury mineral,
has conchoidal fracture, and resembles bituminous coal more in appearance. It is
considerably softer than the Sudbury mineral; its specific gravity is 1.365, and,
chemically, it is entirely different. The anthraxolite described by Chapman is
‘black, lustrous, resembling anthracite in general characters, but very brittle.
H. 2.25—2.5 ; specific gravity, 1.35—1.55 ; generally decrepitates when heated B.B.,
a small fragment loses its lustre, but exhibits no further change. Composition
essentially carbon, with from 3 to 5 per cent. volatile matter, including a small
amount of moisture. The ash, as at present observed, varies from 0 to 10 per cent.
When present it exhibits under the microscope no trace of organic structure. This
substance, in all probability a product of alteration from petroleum or asphalt,
occurs in narrow veins in rocks of various kinds, and in small masses and thin
layers or coatings in strata of the Utica and other formations. * * * As it differs
essentially by these conditions of occurrence from anthracite proper, the name
anthraxolite has been given to it, but simply as a convenient term for present use.”
(Chapman, Min. and Geol., Ont. and Que., 3rd ed., p.143.) The Kingston mineral is
evidently the anthraxolite of Chapman. An analogous occurrence of coal in a vein and

not in a bed, and which shows no trace of vegetable origin, is the well-known Albertite —

of New Brunswick, in appearance, specific gravity and chemical composition widely
different from the Sudbury coal. Messrs. Bailey and Ells say in their report :
“There can, we think, no longer exist a doubt that the deposit here so extensively
worked is a true vein, occupying irregular fissures among highly disturbed strata,
and in no way presenting any analogy to an ordinary coal bed.” They regarded

Albertite as an altered petroleum. This Albertite was discovered in 1849, had its ~

maximum production in 1863-5, when 17,000 tons were produced annually, and in
1876-7 was producing 6,000 tons; the depth was then 1,260 feet, and a ‘trial hole
put down 100 feet further showed its continuance. In extent the.vein was 2,800
feet long, and was very irregular in size, thickening from a few inches to ten or
fifteen feet in a few yards, and much fractured and broken by faults. (Geol. Sur.
Rep., 1876-7, pp. 368-388.)

With regard to the origin of the Sudbury anthracite, which occurs in quantities
which compel attention, its presence in rocks which are supposed to belong to the
Cambrian period, and in which no fossils or traces of vegetable remains have ever
been discovered, is very surprising, and cannot be accounted for by the usual
‘theory of the formation of coal from vegetable matter. There are two absolute facts
which should be kept in mind, and our theories should be moulded to suit them.
In the first place, this mineral occurs certainly in quantities of some hundreds,
probably thousands, and possibly an indefinite number of tons; and ‘secondly, the
chemical analysis and physical characteristics agree with some anthracites closely;
it has, in fact, become more anthracitic than most anthracites. The conclusion
which is inevitably forced upon one is that coal can be formed in some other way
than by decomposition of vegetable matter. Possibly the development of these
veins or deposits will throw some light on this subject.

Note.—The sketch of the Sudbury deposit or vein was made by Mr. J. W. Evans, and the sketch
of the Kingston vein by Mr. W. G. Miller.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 67

q
; CuemicaL Notes on THE So-calLeD SupBury Coat. By W. Hopcson
Erxis, M.A., M.B., anp Ww. Lawson, B.A.Sc.

(Read February 27, 1897.)
_ ‘Prof. E. J. Chapman has described (Canadian Journal, Vol. X., p. 410) a vein

of anthracite om the lower copper- bearing rocks of Lake ete an analysis
| of which gave:

Q

7 SH DULS Foe SA Rae > YC 2.08
2 1 TENSHIGSC Sn 2221 AAS RG 2 ic OA le Ne 3.50
: Pixed carbo. ss .0.3 <2 ado yaneaine lapel crete a sah Dae tecan steve tle: setae 94.36
a Be edge Pa oe Sct shet ne MMe, ci! ces ee oR yooh 0.00
f one
hs 100.00

In his “ Minerals and Geology of Central Canada” Chapman applied the name
“Anthraxolite” to this and similar substances occurring ‘“‘in veins, with quartz,
in the altered strata of Lotbiniere, in the Eastern Townships, and also in regularly
banded veins with quartz and iron pyrites on Thunder Bay, Lake Superior” and
elsewhere. He regarded it, probably justly, as a “product of alteration ‘from
petroleum or asphalt.”

In Bulletin No. 2 of the Ontario Bureau of Mines on “Anthracitic Carbon, or
_ Anthraxolite,’ Dr. A. P. Coleman describes a coaly deposit occurring in a vein
in slate in Balfour Township, near Sudbury, to which he applies Phonmen s name
of -Anthraxolite.

We have received specimens of this substance jaa Mr. Blue, Director of the
Bureau of Mines, from Mr. J. M. Clark, from Dr. Coleman, and from Mr. G. R.
Mickle, which we have submitted to chemical examination. The samples differ
greatly with regard to the amount of minerals, chiefly quartz, with a little iron
pyrites, associated with the coaly substance, on which account the ash varies greatly.
We found 36.5 per cent., 30 per cent. and 20 ’per cent. of ash in different samples
~ given us, otherwise the composition of the substance is quite uniform.

The following is the proximate analysis of an average and'of a selected sample :

, Average. Selected,
IN Troysy spite Sy eRe aR ames» 9 usb a CRS a ee I ER 4.00 4.00
NAOH AC Lem TTA beets atta seevgaicrera ee Gave bo Ses ates ans I.30 1.80
HE iticcee Glow Gea Ts OTD re) ve ota ete eleva ealet auc teyeie alert aofte ow) 016 74.20 go.10
: ENGR scjp ae 3 i CAR Re he A 20.50 4.10
100.00 100.00

We have also made an ultimate ‘analysis of a carefully-picked specimen, freed
as much as possible from associated quartz, etc. The following are our results :

J. 116 Mean,
REMOTE) cee cate ne Caddy ska cdebemaae nee sidhatiee 94.90 94-94 94.92
EM GMOS U sei caanoicies cbiecinveltens-same>e oe e's 0.55 0.48 0.52
INTER OSC fe cae nnckaanncogeceaecsensar-ncens ere 1.04 1.04 1,04
' MAE Se eae lainhiewaie an tpleinie We cinco ed cannes ve 0.30 0.33 0.31
UNG LMM e ESA eine Sacenstiacteeme eccmcnaies vsclis cs 1.54 1.50 1.52
Oxygen, by difference ...........:eeesse0e+ 1.67 bike 1.69

100,00 100.00 100.00

68 PROCEEDINGS-OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

The specimen contained 2.48 per cent. Ayerescome moisture. Its specific
gravity was 1.865. f

The combustion was made in a‘current of oxygen, the nitrogen was determined
by Dumas’ method, and the sulphur by Nakamura’s method.

The striking characteristic of the mineral, as shown by this analysis, is the very
small percentage of hydrogen it contains, a quantity much less‘than that contained
in ordinary anthracite.

With a view to comparison we made an analysis of'a specimen of anthraxolite
from Woodruff’s farm, near Kingston, kindly given us by Mr. W. G. Miller, of the
Kingston School of Mining. The specific gravity of this mineral was 1.365 5 -5t
- contained 0.96 per cent. of moisture. The'analysis of the dry substance gave :

; Ty Te Mean.
CACO sr reese ae eee a enlo sek ounueone 90.27 90.23 90.25
PAY GOL EN ese. ak saccades cen cteas ose e oases 4.18 4.14 4.16
Watrog enty cette soo8e se Beas coe tomes 0.52 0.52 0.52
Sulphurecse Fa er erie ac Mee asthe OnE 0.66 0.66 0.66
ZS DE VA See Wien uae tacts oea cmaae whe ete 0.63 0.80 0.72,
Oxygen, by ditieren ce): s..<sss-teces dss ss 3-74 3.65 3.69

100.00 I00.00 100.00

In this sample the percentage of hydrogen is higher than in most anthracites,
and very much higher than in the Sudbury mineral, which, indeed, differs from it
as much as the average anthracite differs from bituminous coal.

We have determined the calorific value of the Sudbury “coal” by means of
Fischer’s calorimeter. We found that one gramme of a sample ‘containing 3.99 per
cent. of ash gave on burning 7,490 calories. This will gave a calorific value of
7,800 for the ashless fuel.

On the large scale, so far as the deposit has yet been examined, the ash runs
from 20 to 30 per cent. The calorific value will, therefore, be correspondingly lower.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 69

THE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH REFERT AND INTEREST. By Pror. A. BEL,
PH.D.

(Read February 28th, 1897.)

The constructions in question are thus described in “Allen and Greenough’s Latin
Grammar”:

“The impersonals interest and refert take the genitive of the person, rarely of the
thing, affected,—the subject of the verb, being a neuter pronoun or a substantive clause,
as Clodii intererat Milonem perire (Cic. in Mil., 21).

(a) Instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the corresponding possessive is.
used in the ablative singular feminine after interest and refert: as quid tua id refert >—
magni (Ter. Ph.) ; vehementer intererat vestra qui patres estis (Plin.).

(b) The accusative with ad is used to express the thing with reference to which one
1s interested : as magni ad honorem nostrum interest” (Fam. XVI. 1).

The question is: How is it that, while the person interested is expressed by the
genitive of the substantive in Clodii interest or eius refert, it is expressed by the ablative
singular feminine of the possessive adjective in mea interest or tua refert, while the thing
concerned is expressed by the accusative with ad in ad honorem nostrum interest ?
Indeed, the question is really somewhat more involved ; for in the last construction,
instead of the accusative with ad we find the dative: as in non referre dedecori (Tac.
Ann. 15.65.), and the dative is also used instead of the genitive to express the person
interested: as in quid refert intra nature fines viventi (Hor. Sat. I. 1. 49.). Indeed the
distinction given regarding persons and things, while the rule, is not universal: cf.
multum interesse vei familiaris tue (Cic.ad Fam. 4. 10. 2.) with quid id ad me aut ad
meam vem refert (Pl. Persa. 513), and in this inquiry we may disregard this distinction.
There is, as yet, no agreement among grammarians about the solution of this question,
though what seem to me to be correct solutions of the main difficulties involved have
been stated or suggested by some of them.

Of the constructions mentioned above, those represented by mea refert or mea
interest and illorum refert or illorum interest have always been felt to be the cardinal
ones, those on the solution of which a correct understanding of the nature of the
remaining constructions depends. And first let us notice some of the solutions that
have been proposed. Donatus, whose grammar was the text-book of the Middle Ages,
in a note on Quid tua, malum, id refert ? (Ter. Ph. 753) suggests that twa is for ad tua;
and his explanation is evidently based on the idea naturally occurring to anyone who
examines these constructions, that, whatever constructions are in fact found with refert
and interest, the dative is the case we should expect to find dependent on them. But in
Donatus’ day, in the first half of the fourth century of our era, in ordinary thought and
conversation the dative had in all likelihood been supplanted by the accusative with ad,
the construction that takes its place in the Romance Languages. A like view seems to
have been in the mind of Scaliger, when he explained tua nil refert as equivalent to twas
ves non repraesentat, i.e., affert. Sanctius, the famous Jesuit grammarian, and Ruddiman
agree in thinking fwa here an accusative ; but Sanctius prefers to make mea interest, the
more usual form of expression in Golden Latinity, his starting point, and explains it
as equivalent to est inter mea. Vossius and Bentley showed that mea here could not be the
accusative as the a is long, and the view was abandoned. It was revived, however, in our
day by Emanuel Hoffmann, who, in a paper in the Jahrbuch ftir Philologie for 1878, suggests
that mea interest is equivalent to est inter mea, and explains interest omnium as equivalent
to est inter omnium, proceeding from a consideration of such phrases as im Diane, ad

Fo PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

Carmentis,—phrases in which he would not saly an accusative. But the quantity of
the a in mea seems fatal to his view.

Priscian thinks of mea in mea refert as ablative, and would supply in ve, making the
full construction mea in ve vefert equivalent in meaning to 7m mea utiltate refert. In this
he is followed by Valla, but. Sanctius denies that mca in ve can have this meaning; and
Vossius, who thinks with Priscian that mea is ablative, prefers to supply causa or gratia.
Later supporters of the view that mea is ablative—such as Reisig, Krueger and Schmalz—
recognize that in the first syllable of refert the e is long, and that it is properly written as
two words, ve fert; and from the analogy of the Plautine phrase, ¢ ve mea ‘to my
advantage,” they explain mea vefert as for e mea re fert, “it bears to my advantage.”
This explanation, which is the one now usually adopted, while it isa possible one, has
no support from the ancients, and affords no explanation for the constructions in vefert
viventi or ad me refert quoted above.

A third explanation given by the Romans, and the oldest of all, is that found in
Festus’ Compendium of Verrius Flaccus’ work, “ De Significatu Verborwm,” where we
read (p. 282 M.) “ Refert cum dicimus, errare nos ait Verrius ; esse enim rectum veifert, ==
dativo scilicet, non ablativo casu; sed esse jam usu possessum.” That is to say, in the
phrase mea ve fert, Verrius thinks mea re primarily a dative and equivalent to mea
vei, but acknowledges that the words in question are—jam usu possessum—generally
acknowledged to be ablatives, on account of their form, the identity of which with the
ablative is obvious, while into their real and primary nature few pause to inquire. But
Verrius was one of the few men who make it their business to inquire into the real
nature of such phrases, and of all Romans who engaged in such investigations, his
authority best deserves our attention. He lived in the reign of Augustus, who appointed
him tutor to his grandsons, Gaius and Lucius Cesar; and from the epitomes of his
work, “De Significatu Verborum,’ made by Festus and Paulus Diaconus, we can see
that it was an exhaustive dictionary of Archaic Latin, made at a time when materials
were best available for such a work. Gerard Vossius feels the weight of his authority,
and is willing to acknowledge that refert may be for rez fert, being probably influenced by
Czesar’s statement that the proper and usual endings of the dative singular in the fourth
and fifth declensions is not wz and e, as given in the compendia of later grammarians,
and as written by later scribes, but vu and e. But mea, Vossius thinks, cannot be the
dative, and for this: reason he rejects Verrius’ explanation. But, in the light of the
testimony afforded by older Latin inscriptions, Vossius’ reason for rejecting this
explanation becomes, it seems to me, our strongest reason for accepting it. In the
first volume of the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum we find eleven instances of
undoubted datives of the first declension ending, not in ae, but in a, as for example in
Fortuna dedi or matre matuta dono dedro. W.M. Lindsay, in a paper in the Classical
Review of December last, recognizes in old Latin two forms of the dative singular for a
stems, represented by Fortunai and Fortuna, both derived from the primary Fortuna + ai,
but for the differentiation of which he cannot account. So we find for 0 stems two forms
of the dative in old Latin, populoi and populo, both derived from the primary populo + at;

. but here it is the shortened form that has held the field. Mea re is, then, if we accept
the testimony of Czesar, and of the oldest inscriptions, as good a dative as mee rei ; and
mea ve fert'is, according to our oldest authority, equivalent to mee rei fert, “it bears to
the advantage of my affair” ; which is precisely the explanation of the meaning of the
phrase now generally accepted, but attained without resorting to the Jesuit’s trick of ©
the ellipsis, and presenting us with a noteworthy confirmation of the latest view with
regard to the form of the dative in Archaic Latin. This explanation seems to me,
moreover, to be confirmed by some of the parallel constructions that are in use for mea,
the ablative so-called. Horace, as we have seen, wrote re fert viventi, using an Andometed
dative. As far back as Plautus we find, used as a substitute for the dative, the prepo-
sition ad with the accusative, which takes its place in the Romance languages. And it is

ort PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 71
used as a substitute for mea in mea refert, for we read in Plautus, quid id ad me aut ad
meam refert (Persa. 513). Two of the constructions, then, that can take the place of mea,
y in mea vefert, are the dative itself and the ordinary substitute for the dative, a fact
_ strongly confirming Verrius’ view that mea here is itself a dative.
But what of the genitive with vefert. It appears much later than the genitive with

interest, belonging properly to Silver Latinity, while the genitive with interest is very
_ common in the Golden Latinity of Cicero. No instance of a genitive, other than the
genitive of value, is found in Archaic Latin in connection with interest or refert, if we
except the following example in the Lex Acilia Repetundarum (C. I. L. 198. 32), quod
eius vei quaerundat censeant refere, where the genitive eius rei quaerundai is certainly not
parallel to that in evws interest or illorum refert, but seems rather a predicative use of the
genitive of characteristic, parallel to imperium regium quod initio conservande libertatis
fuerat (Sall. Cat. 6,7). If this is correct, the use of the genitive with refert is the older
construction of the two. Hoffmann’s view as to its origin we have already noticed, and
he is certainly correct in thinking that it cannot be connected in origin with the older
construction of the dative with interesse in its personal use, as in interfui praelio. An
example in Cicero (ad Fam. 4. ro. 2), suspicarer multum interesse rei familiaris tuae, leads
Schmalz to explain it as primarily a partitive genitive, and he evidently understands the
passage as meaning, “I should suspect that much of your estate was involved.” But
this is not a typical example of the construction, being a genitive of the thing, not of the
person. Most probable seems a solution suggested to me by Mommsen’s version
of the Lex Acilia, and which I find hinted at in Allen & Greenough’s Grammar (P. 222
Remark), that the genitive with znterest is formed after the analogy of the predicative
genitive with est. The analogy, is, perhaps, best stated in the following way: The idea
of possession is originally distinct, in the mind of the Romans, from that of ownership,
_ but later by wswcapio, i.e., by possession for a number of years, two at most in Gaius’ day;
ownership is acquired. Res est alicuius (jure Quiritium) is the Roman formula for
ownership ; ves est alicut (in bonis), that denoting possession. But what of the thing
that, being in the possession of anyone, is passing into his ownership? Can we say, Res
fit alicuius ? We read in the Lex Acilia (66), ves populi fiet. Did the Roman, then,
come to feel that, in the thing then in his possession and passing into his ownership, he
had-any proprietary right? Gaius speaks of a thing as being subject to a duplex
dominium, that of the person in whose fotestas it is,—its owner in the proper sense,—and
that of the person in whose possessio it is, and into whose fotestas it is. consequently
passing. It seems to be this latter dominium which finds its expression in the phrase
interest alicuius. Or, to put it more briefly, est Marci means “‘it is the property of
| Marcus”; fit Marci, “it is becoming the property of Marcus” ; interest Marci, “it partly
_ belongs to Marcus,” or “ Marcus has a proprietary interest in it,”—a meaning closely
_ related to the usual meaning of interest eius. That refert, as early as Plautus’ day, was
_ not regarded as two separate words, but as one, is clear from such a construction as
quae ad rem referunt (Persa, 591), or quoi rei te adsimulare refert (Truc., 394). In Cicero’s
. day its meaning differs but little, if at all, from that of terest, In such an assimilation

of meaning the influence of analogy usually leads to a confusion of constructions origin-
ally distinct. The way in which this influence would work may be stated as follows
; refert =interest, therefore mea refert=mea interest; and so for mea refert, the only form
occurring in Archaic Latin, mea interest comes into use in Cicero’s time. In like manner
‘ terest =refert, therefore onium in tterest =omnium refert ; and so beside interest with the
~ genitive, the usual construction in the Golden Latinity, there appears in Silver Latinity
the genitive with refert. And as interest has thus acquired a regimen that is primarily
and really a dative, it is not strange to find it joined with a construction commonly used
- as a substitute for the dative, viz. the accusative with ad, as in ad honorent nostrum
interest. That it is never joined with the dative itself, is probably due to a fear of
confusion with the ordinary personal use of interest in interfuit epulis.

Pore eek PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

THE OccuURRENCE OF RaBIES IN OnTarRio. By J. J. MackeEnziz, BA.
BACTERIOLOGIST TO THE PROVINCIAL ae OF HEALTH.

“(Read December 12, 1896.)

There is good evidence that there have been at least five outbreaks of this disease
in Ontario since 1890. We have knowledge of eight individuals having been bitten by
rabid dogs and having been subsequently treated at the Pasteur Institute, New York.
A study of the Registrar General’s returns for the Province of Ontario since Confederation.
does not show that rabies has ever been set down as a cause of death.

The evidence that rabies occurs in Ontario rests chiefly upon the results of inocu-
_lations made upon rabbits in the Laboratory of the Provincial Board of Health, in the
case of an outbreak in the County of Middlesex, in 1895, and another in the town of
Paris in 1896.

It has not been possible to trace any connection between these various outbreaks,
although it seems probable that the one which occurred in Paris, in 1896, was preceded
by one in 1895, in the district surrounding that town. This outbreak, however, was not
investigated.

The question as to the origin of the disease in Ontario is a difficult one to deere
It does not seem probable that it is due to wild animals, as all the outbreaks occurred in
the southern and older parts of the Province. It is more likely due to the introduction
of the virus in imported dogs, chiefly from the United States.

In regard to the prevention of the disease, it seems as if the destruction of masterless —
dogs and the enforcement of a muzzling law for some months after an outbreak in any
district in which it occurs would be sufficient.

A general muzzling law cannot be regarded as necessary.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 73

Note on Scirpus DesBinis aND Scirpus SmitHu. By Wm. ScorT,.BcAg
_ VicrE-PRINCIPAL OF THE Toronto NorMAL ScHOOL.

(Read March 13, 1897.)

These two species were found by me last season. This is the first record of
these plants being found in Canada. S. debilis, Pursh, was found growing in a
ditch on the railroad near Queenston Heights, and S. Smithii, Gray, was growing on
Toronto Island.

Regarding these two plants, N. L. Britton and A. Brown, in their “ Illustrated
Flora,” say of S. Smithii: ‘‘Perhaps only a form of the preceding, S. debilis.’ A
careful study leads me to the conclusion that they are entirely distinct species:

(1) Their mode of growth is very different. S. Smithii grew in detached plants,
and tillered from the root like grain. S. debilis grew in clumps. Many plants were |
clustered together. Careful search on various occasions was made, but no isolated
plants could be found in the one case and no clustered ones in the other.

(2) The involucral leaf is almost a prolongation of the culm in Smithii; in debilis
it is very divergent. It is almost always turned at right angles to the culm.

(3) In Smithii the scales are oblong; in debilis they are oval or elliptical.

(4) In Smitha the seeds are brown obovate, flattened, and have no glossy
_appearance. In debilis they are black, broadly obovate, rounded, and are glossy.
Under a lens they are as easily separated as barley and wheat with the naked eye.

74 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

REcENT CoNTRIBUTIONS To GAELIC AND Manx LITERATURES. By ReEv.
Nei: MacNisu, B.D., LL.D.

(Read March 20, 1897).

A yeritable Renaissance has in recent years been observable in the study of
Gaelic and of Gaelic literature. Never since Fingal was King of Seallama, and
Since Malvina gladdened the declining years of Ossian, has so much attention been
paid to Gaelic, and to Gaelic traditions and folk-lore; and have so many men of
scholarly ability and taste devoted themselves to the study, and, indeed, to the
development of Gaelic. For it has always been conceded that Gaelic possesses
intrinsic qualities of an extraordinary kind; and that, therefore, it can, in able hands,
take on beautiful and diversified forms and developments. Evolution, in the truest
acceptation of the term, is characteristic of Gaelic ; insomuch that, were scholars of .
ability and ingenuity to turn their careful attention to it, it could continuously
assume larger and wider proportions. Such a momentum in favour of the language
and literature of the Gael has now been gathered, that anything like retrogression
is not to be apprehended, so far as regard is had to the production of Gaelic poetry
and prose. Eisteddfod is the appellation that is given to the annual gatherings of
the Welsh—which, having their origin in the unrecorded past, call forth unabated
enthusiasm wherever they are held. Prizes are wont to be given which are very
piuch appreciated, as they deserve to be, for superior excellence in prose and verse ;
in vocal and instrumental music, and in other avenues of intellectual effort’ and
research in connection with the history and language of the Cymri. The Gaels of
Scotland have.been very slow in instituting any gatherings similar to the Welsh
Eisteddfod. Regrets are now unavailing, that the other members of the large Celtic
family did not, centuries ago, follow the example of the Welsh in the way of
holding annual gatherings for the honouring and perpetuating, in healthful and ever-
increasing vitality, of their own particular language with all its literature, and with
all its traditions, that could in that case be found to pertain to it. Had such gath- .
erings been in existence for centuries, it may’ be confidently maintained that
Scottish and Irish Gaelic as well would to-day have treasures of valuable literature
in prose and verse of which too high an opinion could not be formed ;—treasures
which, unhappily, have sunk into the deep sea of forgetfulness. Much praise is to
be awarded to those intelligent and enthusiastic Gaels, who were successful some
six years ago in establishing the Gaelic Mod,—an annual gathering at which prizes
are given, after the example of the Welsh Eisteddfod, for the best productions in
Gaelic prose and verse, in vocal and instrumental music, as well as in other attain-
ments of a literary and artistic character.

The fifth Mod was held in October of last year in Perth. It was very successful.
Unmistakable indications are available that the Mod is growing in popular esteern,
and that it promises fairly to intensify the ardour of Gaels for their language and
their traditions, and thereby to subserve the patriotic and very commendable purpose
which its founders had in contemplation. The next Mod is to be held in Inverness,
which possesses the best and most intellectual Gaelic Society in the world—a Society
that has already published some twenty volumes of Transactions, which contain
papers of a very instructive character, dealing, as they do, with an extensive variety
of Gaelic subjects.

ted da tal _ ——e ee, ~— ye wee ‘ i -

= 7"

“)

*

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, 75

In the centuries that have gone, there must have been a continuous intimacy
between the Gaels of Ireland and the Gaels of Scotland. A reciprocal influence
must have been thus created in the development of the literature and customs of
the Irish and Scottish Gaels.

“Ultonian Hero Ballads, collected in the Highlands and Western Isles of
Scotland from the year 1510 and at successive periods till 1870'’; such is the desig-
nation of a book which was published some time ago by Hector MacLean, under
__ the auspices of the Islay Association. The Gaels of Islay evince a laudable willing-
3 ness and liberality to honour and befriend any native of their island who succeeds
_ in making a name for himself in the domain of Gaelic learning. To that number
belonged the late Hector MacLean, who arranged and translated the Ultonian
; Hero Ballads. He has rendered in other respects important services to the cause
: of Gaelic literature. He was an able coadjutor of the late Mr. Campbell, who

compiled “Leabhar na Feinne.” “The large amount,” Mr. MacLean writes, “ of
Irish Saga literature belonging to the Ultonian cycle dates in its form back to the
tenth century, and there is MS. tradition of part of it extending back to the seventh
century. Different forms of the same Saga can be discriminated as far back as there
are means of research, and these Sagas have undergone the same harmonising
process, but not the same euhemerising process as the earliest annals. The same
mediaeval school was conspicuous in this one case as in the other. These ballads
have for many centuries been sung and rehearsed in the Highlands.” Mr. MacLean
has made an important beginning in, investigating, a department of literature which
concerns Irish and Scottish Gaels alike, and which demands much more extensive
~study than it has yet received. .
Tain Lom MacDonald is one of the most talented and satirical poets in the
entire range of Gaelic poetry. The largest and best collection of the poems of
_ this famous bard was published some time ago in Antigonish, Nova Scotia. The
Rey. A. MacLean Sinclair, who prepared the collection in question, has already
gained for himself a great reputation for his unremitting devotion to Gaelic litera-
ture, and to the perpetuation of Gaelic poetry. He takes an affecting leave of his
- labours in behalf of Iain Lom in these words: ** Beannachd leat Jain Luim, chuir
mise d’orain a mach cho maith ’s cho ceart ’s a b’ urrann mi. Tha mian doch

as gu tig aon eiginn am dheigh a ni na’s fhearr.”
“Lyra Celtica” is the name of an anthology of representative Celtic poetry,

which is edited by Elizabeth A. Sharp, with an introduction and notes by William
Sharp. The “ Lyra Celtica’’ was published during 1896. It is a large, varied and
interesting collection of Celtic poetry, containing, as it does, ancient Irish and
Scottish poems, ancient Cornish and early Armorican poems, early Cymric and
| mediaeval Welsh; Irish modern and contemporary Scoto-Celtic (middle period),
modern and contemporary Scoto-Celtic, contemporary Anglo-Celtic poets (Wales),
contemporary Anglo-Celtic poets (Manx), contemporary Anglo-Celtic poets
(Cornish), modern contemporary Breton, the Celtic Fringe. Miss Sharp has
accordingly travelled over a very extensive field in her desire to gather poetical
pomets for. her Celtic anthology. It is remarked in the preface, that the volume
‘is no more than an early, and in a sense merely arbitrary, gleaning from an
abundant harvest.”
Of recent years, we have had many works of the greatest value in Celtic
Bi ethnology, philology, history, archaeology, art, legendary ballads and romance,
- folk-lore and literature. In the national libraries of Great Britain alone it is esti-
mated that if all the unedited MSS. were printed, they would fill at least 1,200 or
1,400 octavo volumes. Though the songs and poems and ballads that the “Lyra
Celtica” contains appear in an English dress, it is possible, however, for the
student to discern the peculiarities of the mind and heart, of the thoughts and
: feelings, customs and manners of the various Celtic races. There are to be found

“ .

te ed

76 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

side by side in the “ Lyra Celtica” translations of the songs and poems that were
wont to be sung and to be admired in distant days of Celtic warfare and exploits
by Welsh and Cornish and Armorican Celts, and by Irish and Scottish Gaels
and Manxmen. There must be those who, elated by the strong vitality which is
pulsating now through the arteries and veins of the Celtic races, will call in question
the accuracy of the statement “that the Celtic race stands now with averted torch,
and the light of it is a glory before the eyes, and the flame of it is blown into the
hearts of the mightier conquering people. The Celt falls, but his spirit rises in the ~ P
Heart and in the brain of ae Anglo-Celtic peoples with whom are the destinies ;
of the generations to come.’

It must be regarded as a strong indication of the present vitality of the Gaelic
language that a translation of the Book of Common Prayer into Gaelic, for the 7
benefit of the Gaelic members of the Scottish Episcopal Church, was published
during last year. The translators have performed their work well, asa general rule.
With commendable propriety, advantage was taken of the Gaelic version of the
Bible, which is in common use in Scotland, for the purpose of presenting, in a
Gaelic dress, those portions of Scripture that, along with the Psalms, go to form
a considerable portion of the English Prayer-Book. It, is, at least, interesting to
know that in Argyllshire itself there are several Episcopal ministers who conduct
religious services in Gaelic. It may be safely inferred, that if the bishops of the
Scottish Episcopal Church were apprehensive that Gaelic was sadly on the decline,
and was hurrying to the day of its death and consequent extinction, they would
not have taken the pains of translating the English Prayer-Book into Gaelic. .

As might be expected, owing to the great dissimilarity which exists between~
English and Gaelic idioms, the Gaelic translation of the English Prayer-Book is
occasionally stiff. Praise rather than blame, however, is to be generously bestowed
on the translators, who have done their work with much ability and accuracy.

In the introduction to his grammar—the first Gaelic grammar which was
published—Shaw had this doleful statement to make when it was published in 1778:
“But at present I much doubt whether there be four men in Scotland that would
spell one page the same way. The taste, at this day, of the clergy—a lettered and
respectable order—is to understand the English, content with what Gaelic enables
them to translate of a sermon they originally wrote in English. And, although
they are obliged to speak in public once in seven days, there are not five ministers
in Scotland who write their discourses in their own tongue,” Almost one hundred
and twenty years have passed since Shaw had occasion to give such a lamentable
account of the defective Gaelic scholarship of his time. Immeasurable progress
has, in the interval, been made in the grammatical study of the Gaelic language,
and in the acquiring of ability and facility to speak and write it fluently and accu-
rately. It would be simply ridiculous to apply the strong condemnation which
Shaw attached to the Gaelic scholarship of his own time, to the wide and thorough
scholarship which obtains in our day. Were correctness in the understanding and
in the writing of Gaelic to be taken as an infallible criterion of the utility of that
language, the conclusion could not be resisted, that the chances of a prolonged
- existence are altogether on the side of Gaelic as we know and speak it now.

“A Course of Gaelic Grammar, by Duncan Reid, F.S.L.A., teacher of Gaelic
in the High School of Glasgow:” Such is the writing on the title page of a very
useful and intelligible grammar, which was published in August, 1895. The author
thus writes in his preface: ‘‘In compiling this course of Gaelic grammar, I have
adopted the plan which I have followed during the last few years in teaching the
students of the Gaelic class in the High School of Glasgow. It! is chiefly intended
as a text-book for Highland schools and pupil teachers, and is designed to meet the
requirements of the Scotch Education Code. The ordinary student will find here
sufficient material to. enable him to acquire a good knowledge of Gaelic grammar.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 77

“ The exercises are carefully graded, and the selections for reading, towards the end,
are from the standard works of some of the best writers of Gaelic prose and poetry.”’
i Though exception may be taken to portions of Reid’s Grammar, it has to be
admitted that it is very concise and simple, so that the ordinary student can easily
obtain a sufficient knowledge of the language, whereby he can be enabled'to appre-
ciate its peculiar beauties, and to derive enjoyment from its treasures in prose and
' verse, - :
a ““Elementary Gaelic Grammar or the elements of Gaelic grammar, based on the
_ work of the Rev. Alexander Stewart, D.D., by H. Cameron Gillies.” Such is the
_ name of an able and instructive Gaelic Grammar, which was published a few months
ago. Dr. Gillies resides in London, England, and is engaged in the practice of
_ medicine. He has for several years devoted much attention to Gaelic. He has
a keen critical faculty, insomuch that he finds particular pleasure in prosecuting his
_ studies in the somewhat abstruse domain of Celtic philology. The present position
of Gaelic, favourable in a satisfactory degree as it is in London, the metropolis of
_ the world—owes very much to the fine enthusiasm, the diligent learning and the
unfailing earnestness of Dr. Gillies. According to his own averment, Dr. Gillies
has based his grammar on the work of Dr. Alexander Stewart. It has always to
be conceded that Stewart's Grammar, so far as it goes, is the best Gaelic Grammar
which has ever been written. Dr. Stewart was minister of Moulin, in Perthshire,
a when he wrote his grammar, involving as it does—for the field of Gaelic grammar
was at that time largely, if not entirely, fallow ground—great acumen and pains
‘and reflection. The splendid Irish scholar, O'Donovan, found abundant reason in
the honesty of his heart—able grammarian as he himself was—to bestow warm
praise on the ability, industry and acumen of Dr. Stewart. It was Dr. Stewart who
- corrected the proof-sheets of what is known as “ Sinclair’s edition of Ossian,”
which was published in 1807. In the preface to his Grammar, Dr. Gillies thus writes :
“The purpose of this Grammar is to afford assistance to such as may desire a
living and intelligent acquaintance with the Gaelic language of Scotland. I
~-endeavoured to have special regard to the phonetic basis of the language, and have
always appealed to it whenever it was necessary to do so. As Gaelic Grammars
are continually making their appearance, it cannot be denied that Gaelic still pos-
sesses the pulsations of a healthy and vigorous existence. If a language is dying,
and, like the withered leaves of autumn, is showing unmistakable signs of decay
and death, no man can have the courage and energy which the writing of the
grammar of such a language involves. A decrepit language, an enfeebled and
helpless language, a language which is on the brink of the grave, and which is
suffering the loss of all its former friends, can by no reasonable possibility induce
any man—unless he is enthusiastic to an unwonted degree—to consume the mid-
night oil in preparing a grammar which, as he honestly thinks, is able to meet
the requirements of his own time, and to impart even a moderate amount of life
and strength to the language which he loves as the language of his ancestors, and,
therefore, of those who are dearest and greatest in his imagination and memory.’
The inhabitants of the Isle of Man are conspicuous for their zeal in collecting
the literary remains that can be found in their island, whether they assume the
form of poetry, or folk-lore, or historical narratives, or carols and ballads. Since
the Manx Society was established in 1858, very much has been done to rescue
from oblivion many of the literary links that connect the Isle of Man of to-day
with the Isle of Man of the days that have gone. At an expendituré of endless
P énergy and trouble, Mr. A. W. Moore. M.A.. Cronkbourne. Douglas, has conferred

7

great benefits on the literature of his native island. Through his indefatigable
PS exertions much that will prove to be very valuable in the lore of Manxmen has
~ been! recovered and published. In addition to other _publications with which he
E had to do he published. in 1801, ‘ The Carvalyn Gailchagh,” or Manx carols. * Manx

a
by

te

78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. ~

Ballads and Music” is the name of another collection which he published toward

the end of last year. ‘‘ The object of this publication,” he asserts, “‘as that of the .

Manx Carols, is to collect in one volume a curious literature, the greater part of
which was threatened with almost certain loss.” Though he has been assiduous
in collecting those ballads, and in thus preserving from oblivion songs which were
wont to be sung by the peasantry of Man, he has no high opinion of the poetical
merit of many of them. He divides them into ‘‘ mythical, semi-historical and
historical ballads ; children’s songs and ballads connected with customs and super-
stitions ; love-songs, patristic ballads, nautical ballads and miscellaneous ballads.”
He thinks more highly of the Manx melodies than of the ballads, forasmuch as
they are in most cases. older, as well as superior to the words which are now set

to them. He has strong reasons for entertaining the hope “that the results of
this little book will be to admit the music of the Isle of Man to a distinct though —

humble share in the great body of national music which is now being so generally
collected,” and that in it may be found, in the striking words of a recent writer,

“the national idioms in their simplest and most unsophisticated expression.” As

the music to which ballads are sung intensifies the great regard that the peasantry
of any country entertain for their songs, it may naturally be expected that the

publication of their songs, along with their appropriate music, will increase the —

zest wherewith the inhabitants of the Isle of Man sing such songs as “ Coayl jeh ny
‘Baatyn-Skeddan,” ‘“ Mannin veg veen,” and ‘‘ Na Kirree fo Niaghtey.”

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

THe Inpian CuHaracTer. By E. M. Cuapwick, Esq.
(Read April 10, 1897).

, This paper was read, as views on the same subject had been presented by a
reader before the Institute some time previously. Such former paper had not, in
the opinion of the present reader, exhausted the subject, nor treated it quite justly
or in due proportion, but had rather enlarged upon the faults of the Indians without
giving due weight to their better qualities, the reader being impressed with the
importance of understanding and recognizing what good there is in those under
our care and tutelage, and how many unfortunate mistakes may have been in the
past, and possibly may be in the future, avoided by a better knowledge of what
the Indian has been, is, and may be.

The Indian, as a subject of which so many have ecisa has been‘, in this
respect at a great disadvantage, and has been treated with much injustice, because,
firstly, his history has, for the most part, been written by his enemies ; secondly,
most writers have formed their impressions from tribes which have been deteri-
orated from contact with unscrupulous whites, diminished by intemperance and
the diseases which have ever marked the advance of civilization, impoverished by
the destruction of their accustomed means of subsistence, and disheartened and
dispirited by the change in their circumstances ; and lastly, because it has been
a common practice to gauge the Indian by a European standard. This last, however,
may be regarded as an unintentional but very marked tribute to the innate merits
of the Indian, for other uncivilized people have been described either without
reference to other conditions than those in which the writers happened to find
them, or by comparison with people of similar circumstances.

The reader reviewed the various traits of the Indian character at length, and
concluded as follows :

While the policy of our Government has ever been wise and commendable,
and has been generally honestly carried out by the executive agents and officers,
I cannot but think that in one respect a grave mistake has been) commonly made
by those charged with duties bringing them into immediate contact with the
Indians, both officials and others, and perhaps especially missionaries, whose
methods are apt to be unduly patronizing. The Indian is in many respects child-
like, knowing that the white man’s knowledge is superior to his, and, therefore,,
when his tutelage begins he enters into a relation as regards the whites similar
to that of pupil and teacher. This condition is one of much difficulty, requiring
management with a tact and skill such as few people are able to exercise. If the
Indian were treated as a friend and equal rather than as a pupil or dependent, I
believe his advancement would be more certain and speedy. Individual cases of
Indians revolting, and perhaps ‘with little or no, apparent reason, from the guid-
ance or control of agents or missionaries will no doubt occur in the experience
of such people, without their perceiving that) a certain amount of fault may lie
with themselves. I do not wish to be understood as unduly criticizing either agent
or missionary, for in Canada I am convinced) that our Indian agents as a class
are men competent and well worthy of the great trust and responsibility imposed
upon them, as I certainly know some of them to be ; and for the missionaries I
have the highest respect, believing that upon the faithful performance of their

Sete ys

80 : ’ pROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

duties, more than anything else, depends the future welfare of the Indian as aes

civilized citizen. But even missionaries are human, and sometimes make mistakes,
and they have many serious difiiculties to contend with, for not only have they
to overcome such as necessarily arise from the character of the Indians, and customs
and circumstances of their former life, but they have also to fight the devil incarnate
in the persons of evil and unscrupulous whites, who, for their own gain or grati-
fication, do not hesitate to bring moral and physical ruin upon the Indian.
It is to me a matter of much regret that in the process of bringing the Indian
into civilization there has been an effort to make him forget his past history and

customs. Much of the history of some, at least, of the Indian nations is by no
means a thing to be wiped out of memory, and, though some of their customs —

must necessarily be disused,as being inconsistent with both Christianity and civili-
zation, the romantic and picturesque, which ever attended the life of the Indians,
and surrounded them with a charm which has produced abundant material for
writers, of fiction and poetry, is surely worth preservation, and, in my judgment,
should be no more a hindrance to their advancement than somewhat similar con-
ditions have been in the case of the Highlanders of Scotland. I am convinced that
an Indian who holds the memory of his forefathers in respect, and looks back with
honest pride upon the antiquities of his nation, and is permitted to do so, will
make a better citizen than one who is taught, as is evidently too often the case, to
consider all such things as contemptible, and to be put aside and buried in, the
past. Among the Six Nations, those who are disposed to keep alive their tradi-
tions and such of their ancient customs as are not unsuited to their present manner
of life, are subjected to a kind of mild social ostracism. I venture to believe that
to be a great mistake, and for my part would regard an Indian who had the
courage to appear in buckskin and feathers, without being paid for doing so, as excel-
lent material from which a valuable citizen might be made if judiciously treated.
The system which is followed, I believe, with all due deference to those who have

more experience than I have, to be calculated to make such men and women use- —

less members of society, and thus indirectly ta lower the general social and moral
tone of the people. A loyalist at heart, if injudiciously treated, may be made a rebel
in act.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 81

InpiAN GHosTs AND Concu Feasts, By R. G. Hatisurton, F.R.G.S., Erc.
(Read April 10, 1897).

Had the natives of Jamaica any connection with the races of North or South
America ? This is a question which we cannot discuss in the limited state of
our knowledge of West Indian natives. This arises partly from the fact that the
cruel power that is now deluging Cuba with blood, succeeded in little more than
a century in exterminating the friendly and peaceable natives of the West Indies.

No page in the history of our race presents such a blank as that which refers
to those people. The Spaniards said that the natives reminded them of the people
of Majorca ; but that race was a small one, and no doubt an offshoot of the dwarf
stock that, according to Professor Sergi, migrated from North Africa to the islands,
and to the Northern shores of the Mediterranean. The Spaniards probably referred
to the little Caribs. In the Atlas region of Morocco the dwarfs and their large off-
shoots are called “the little Haritin” and “the large Haritin.: When I first,
1890, saw one of the latter, I said ‘“‘that man must be a Carib.’ The dwarfs range
from 4 feet to 4 feet 10. Their larger kinsmen are from 4 feet 10 to 5 feet 4 inches,
and both have that peculiar, bright-reddish complexion, that so generally charac-
terizes dwarfs. My Berber servant (thanks to whom I became their discoverer)
said, ‘‘they have a red complexion, quite different from that of other races in
Morocco. It is like that of the red Indians of America.’ A recent color chart by a
German anthropologist makes the Tupi Guarani and most other races of South
America have the same tint as the Berbers. The fact that their names for spirits,
or ghosts, Cemis, and Tona, are to be met with in Central America, and as far
north as the Pueblos, leads us to suspect that the people of the islands, and of
Central America must have sprung from the same stock.

Brasseur de Bourbourg’s idea that the Popul Vuh was historical, even fant
he was backed up in it by Max Muller, he had to abandon in his old age. It was
a mythical work, containing astronomical legends that are as wide-spread as the
wanderings of our race. Within the past two years cave deposits and inscriptions
have been found in Yucatan, that lead to the idea, that the Mayas, when they arrived
there, were already a semi-civilized people.

We must be patient, and must collect in properly managed museums all that
can be gathered together as to the aborigines of the West Indies. In time this
great blank in anthropology will be filled up, but we now have tantalizing glimpses
of affinities, that serve only to stimulate and baffle our curiosity.

Bishop Hanna was right in his conjecture, that aboriginal remains would proba-
bly be found, if sought for, in Pedro, Jamaica. The contents of the caves there are
well-known, although it is possible that treasure-seekers, or even antiquaries, may
a century or two ago have carried away or destroyed much in them that would have
been of interest. On the top of a hill at Malvern Chase, it was said, when I was
there eleven years ago, that there was an Indian burial place. I employed a couple
of men for one or two days in opening some places that seemed promising, but
the results were on the whole disappointing. On digging. down in some places
there, we found an almost solid mass of little shells, about two inches thick, in a
regular layer. But we found no skeletons or human bones, although we came across
a large quantity of broken pottery, which seemed to have been an offering to the

ae

Pera. Oe

ay ~~ -,

ew es ee ee ee ee

~~

» - 3
.

—_—\) & ae

82 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

dead, for when an article is broken, it belongs to the spirits. On Haugmena night,
New Year’s Eve (for “ Haug” means a “ ghost,” and the spirits then’ pay the earth
a visit, as they do also at Hallow-eve, and the Eve of May-Day), it is a custom
among Highlanders to drink a toast, and then to thiow the wine-glasses over the
left shoulder, no doubt once a mode of making an offering to ancestral ghosts.
The Maori used to always offer a grace to ancestors by throwing a little food over
the left shoulder. On spilling salt, many people, to avert ill-luck, throw salt over
the left shoulder. All this dates back to an era when our ancestors were some-
what like the old aborigines at Pedro. 3

The ashes and a few bones were quite consistent with funeral, or memorial
feasts. There were indications that the place had been opened before, and it is
possible that skeletons may have been carried away,

The pottery we found was of singular interest. There were some dishes about
six inches long, very shallow and graceful in shape, with handles formed of frogs’
heads most artistically executed. I have not seen anything of the sort to equal
them in the Peabody Museum collection from Central America.

The frog was the symbol of rain and of the rain-god in Mexico and in Central
America. The pottery was evidently intended to be hung up, as it was pierced, or
had handles for that purpose, like Guanche pottery. The gypsies, who, like the
Berber tribes on the coast opposite the Canaries, hang up their drinking cups, believe
that if they are allowed to touch the ground they are thereby consecrated to the
dead, and must be broken in pieces.

Before I dismiss the subject of destroying articles as a made of offering them
to spirits, I may mention a singular custom of the Spanish gypsies, who at a cet-
tain feast collect many bushels of confections made (if I remember right) of white
powdered sugar. These are thrown on the floor of the dancing room, until it is
covered with a layer two or three inches deep. Of course the cost of this pro-
ceeding is a very heavy one. The Gypsies then, men and women, commence a
weird, frenzied dance, in which they work themselves up into a delirium and then
sink down exhausted. The sugar clogs their feet, and covers their legs and
garments, and when they cease dancing, they present a most singular and sorry
picture.

Though archaeologists cannot conjecture the origin of this custom, we may
form a shrewd guess as to what this dance means. The ghosts are in for a big
candy frolic, and the sweetmeats must be destroyed before the spirits can own then.
The rationale of these ideas is, I think, capable of a very simple explanation. With
primitive races of men everything in nature has its spiritual double. The soul of
the hunter’s dog goes to the Land of the Blessed and hunts game there for his master,
just as he did on earth ; and the warrior fights, loves, and feasts as heartily as he
did when in the flesh. (x)

In the Peabody Museum of Anthropology there is to be seen half a bushel of
pearls, some of large size, that have been subjected to the action of fire. They
have not been destroyed ; they have only been translated to the necks and arms
of tawny warriors. Who knows that the only pale-faced ghost, that of the late
George’ Washington, that ever found its way into the Red Man’s Paradise, may
not have often seen and admired them ?

All this serves to explain the meaning of the Mysteries, or initiations of pre-
historic man, and of antiquity. With Christians admission to the’ society of the
blessed must be obtained through the atonement. With primitive man this was

(1) Maspero in,‘‘ The Struggle of the Nations,’’ a translation of which has just been published by Applet« n
& Co. (N. Y., 1897), since the above paper was read, says (p. 523) of the mummies of pets of the deceased placed
in Egyptian. tombs, ‘‘A few of the principal objects were broken or damaged, in the belief that by thus
destroying them their double would go forth and accompany the human double, and render him their accustomed
service during the whole of his posthumous existence.’

This is a singular confirmation of my conjecture, and shows how much of prehistoric man survived in
the Egyptian.

PROCEEDINGS. OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 83

accomplished by initiation. To,become a blessed spirit, a man must die. Hence
“the death of the Mysteries,” or ‘‘ Cabeiric death,” which was brought about by

_ exhausting ordeals, long tastings, and the use of narcotics, under the effect of which

the aspirant lost consciousness, and fell into a death-like trance. He was then
buried and resurrected, but he returned a blessed spirit. An American Indian who
has been initiated indulges in the boast, “I am a spirit.’ Death thenceforth has no
spiritual terrors for him (2).

This was the Egyptian belief. The deceased worshipper of Osiris, who had

been initiated into “the Mysteries of Isis,’ himself became an Osiris, and, as a
“ Blessed Osirian,”’ reigned with the gods. These ideas can be detected in the
Apocalypse, a work permeated by the astronomical imagery, the symbolism of
numbers, and the allegorical spirit of the venerable Mysteries. Read by the light
of primitive cults, the following significant passage becomes a little more intelli-
gible than it has hitherto seemed.

“ Blessed and holy is he that hath part in the first resurrection; on such the
second death hath no power, but they shall be priests of God and of Christ, and shall
reign with Him a thousand years” (Rev. 20:6).

In 1888 I mentioned to Professor Maspero verbally, and afterwards by letter,
that the “‘Osirian cult’’ still existed in America. Osiris is the Greek form of Hoesari
in Egyptian, which in Phoenician and in the traditions of southern Morocco and
the western Soudan is /Jsiri. Among the Caribs and the Abipones of South
America the name is Hoscheiri, or Ischeiri, and the initiated becomes an Ischeiri
after death.

I shall hereafter bring out these points in a paper on “ Vestiges of the Osirian
Cult in the New World.”

Shell mounds are to be found from the icy North to the Straits of Magellan.
At a suitable time of the year the Indians used to pic-nic for weeks on the seashore.
in New England they bequeathed their indigestible but tempting “clambake” to
the Pilgrim Fathers and their descendants ; and their memory will bd preserved
green as long as “ clam-chowder ” endures.

On the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, where oysters took the place of the ven-
erated clam, there are many “ shell-islands” where there are enormous deposits of
oyster shells. I spent the winter of 1882-3 on one called Tiger-tail Island, where
that terrible Seminole Chief, Tiger-tail, was wont to roast and bake oysters, in place
of Yankees.

In the Caribbean Sea the conch took the place of the oyster. I chartered a
schooner in 1870 and explored the network of little islands and inlets'in the British
and Foreign Leeward and Virgin Islands, which no one ever visits. As Pere Labat
speaks of heaps of shells left by the Caribs at Anegada, I thought I would take

a look at them. The island is surrounded by a network of coral reefs extending

ten miles to the seaward, and but few strangers reach it except those that have
been washed ashore. I found the people there (about two hundred in number I
should think), much disturbed by my visit, and they refused at first to come with
me. But the next morning the whole population seemed to turn out to’aid me. I
afterwards learned that on my arrival they had held a meeting, at which it was
resolved that, as no man in his senses would think of opening a heap of old conch

, (2) The following passage, from Mr. Lyman Abbott's article in the Outlook (Mar. 1897), is anplicable to the
belief of prehistoric man: ‘* What is God's way of doing things according to evolution? It is to develop life by
successive processes, until a spirit akin to this appears in a bodily organism, akin to that of the lower animals
from which it had been previously evolved. This bodily organism is from birthin a constant state of decay and
repair. At length the time comes when, through disease or old age, the repair no longer keeps pace with the
decay. Then the body returns to the earth, and the spirit to God who gave it. . =F But every death isa
resurrection of the spirit. What we call death, the New Testament calls ‘an exodus, or an emancipation from
bondage, an ‘unmooring,’ or setting the ship free from its imprisonment. | The spirit is released from its confine-
ment, and the release is death. Death is, in short, nota cessation of existence, not a break in existence: it is
simply what Socrates declared it to be, ‘the separation of the souland body; and being dead is the attainment
ofthis. When the soul exists in itself, and is parted from the body, and the body is parted from the soul, that
is death.’ (See Phado, Jowet's Trans,)”’

84. ; PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

shells, I must be in search of Captain Kydd’s treasure. They then generously re-

solved that I be permitted to open these mounds, but at my own expense ; and they
further resolved, that while they would help me to find the treasure, they would
never allow me to carry off a penny. Anxious to have a hand in the “ find,” they

flew upon the shell mounds like demons ; but I did not wish to pay all the people ©

of the island, and therefore selected three or four, who opened half a dozen. shell
mounds, watched with intense anxiety by the rest of the people. We found only
shells and ashes, nothing of interest, and, sad to say, no vestige of Captain Kydd
and his hoards.

I encouraged that idea about Captain Kydd by looking very mysterious, con-

sulting my notebook, pacing off the distance between certain objects, and behaving
generally like a truant land-surveyor. My benevolent object was, I subsequently
learned, most fully accomplished, for the people there are now the highest living
authorities on the subject of Carib shell mounds. For a fortnight after I left, the
whole population turned out, and overhauled all the numerous shell mounds in the
island ; but, unfortunately, they found nothing. They then concluded that I had
inherited some invaluable notebooks and maps from my worthy ancestor, Captain
Kydd, and that I had slipped ashore in the night, and had carried off millions
of “pieces of eight” and “ Spanish Joes.”

A friend, ‘Chief Justice Semper of St. Kitts, warned me never to venture nea~

that island again, and I have taken his advice. It was the cheapest bit of archaeo-
logical exploration on record.

This fish diet must have greatly contributed to the vitality and vigor of ae
Indians. The prevalent idea that fish is so little nutritious that.to dine on ‘fish is
equivalent to fasting. was a little shaken by the fact, that communities that live on
fish are very prolific. A gentleman, whom I met recently at the Toronto Club, and
who had spent some winters at Hudson’s Bay, told me that it was a favorite amuse-
ment there to pit the fish-eating against the flesh-eating Indians in trials of ere
and that in every case the former came off victorious. E

4
>.

f sini in

— es?)

—e-

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 85

Note on Some Basic Dyke and Vo.tcanic Rocks or EasterN ONTARIO
AND QuEBEc. By W. G. MILLER, M.A.

(Read April 18, 1897).

Dr. F. D. Adams, in his recently published “ Report on the Geology of a Portion
of the Laurentian Area Lying to the North of the Island of Montreal” (1), describes
a series of post-archeean dykes which are stated to be “probably pre-Potsdam
in age.” The rocks in these dykes are of three different kinds, viz.: diabase, augite
porphyrite (spilite type), and a rock which “is neither a diabase nor a gabbro,
having neither the ophitic structure of the former nor the hypodiamorphic granular
structure of the latter. The structure is rather a porphyritic one . . .”

It may be interesting to note that'a similar series of basic rocks occurring in
dykes is characteristic of the Kingston district, which is distant about 150 miles from
the area referred to by Dr. Adams.

In a paper (2), published some time ago, Mr. R. W. Brock and the present
writer described two rocks which with diabase are the'characteristic basic dyke and
volcanic rocks of the eastern part of Frontenac county and the adjacent portions
of the counties of Leeds and Lanark. One set of dykes, which occurs near the village
of Seeley’s Bay is, judging from Dr. Adams’ description, practically identical in
character with those he has described in the district north of Montreal, and which
he calls augite porphyrite (spilite type).

The rock referred to by Dr. Adams as being “neither a diabase nor a

-gabbro” is represented in the Kingston district by a rock which resembles

it closely. The Quebec rock is apparently somewhat more basic than its
Kingston representative, and contains phenocrysts of both augite and _plagio-
clase, of which the former is the older. Unless, however, a series of analyses
were. made of specimens selected from different parts of the dykes, it would not be
possible to make a satisfactory comparison of the ascidity of the dykes in the two
districts. One of the striking characteristics of these rocks from both districts is
the occurrence in them of micropegmatite or a granophyric intergrowth of quartz
and feldspar. Dr. Adams says, “ This micropegmatitic or granophyric intergrowth
of quartz and feldspar will probably be found very widespread in its occurrence in
the dykes cutting the archean in Canada, as it is known in diabases of Templeton,
in the County of Ottawa, in the Province of Quebec, while Dr. Lawson describes it
as occurring abundantly in the dykes of the Rainy Lake district to the west of
Lake Superior.”

Prof. C. H. Smyth has described a group of diabase dykes among the Thousand
Islands, St. Lawrence River, in the southern part of the County of Leeds (3).
These also have representatives in the area described by Dr. Adams.

Different varieties of plutonic rocks related to gabbro are found in the two
districts. Letting the term gabbro stand for these, norite and anorthosite, we have
an interesting series of rocks in the two districts, including—if we consider the rock
containing micropegmatite to belong to the dyke division proper—plutonic, dyke

(x) Pp. 134 to 139, Part J. Annual Report, Vol. VIII., Geol. Survey of Canada.
(2) Canadian Record of Science, October, 1895.
(3) Transactions N.Y. Academy of Sciences, Vol, XIII,

ae

ele ih Neh ns el al

‘be. phe 2 See

i

86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

and volcanic representatives of the gabbro group. Their relations may be shown
in tabular form as follows:

g Jeibviveraicuesa ae co sesenepcerer Gabbro.

°

PO Dy Ke eee Pe teeeuisens s Cosode Gabbro porphyrite.

°

=)

2 : Diabase.

Gaol MOlCAINIG Geena hsi stn. 5s es porphyrite. |

G

Whether the rock here placed under the dyke division be considered to belong
there or under the volcanic division we have an interesting series which includes
the characteristic pre-Potsdam basic rocks of the two districts. Representatives of
other sub-divisions of the gabbro dyke rocks, viz.: gabbro aplite (or beer-
bachite) and gabbro lamprophyre (or odinite) have not as yet been found in the
districts under consideration.

ee ee |. Ue
raped % e b
the §
Zip

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

Oo
“I

Tue Vapor Tensions oF Liguip Mixtures. By W. Lasu MILteEr, Pu.D.,
AND T. R. Rosesruau, M.A.

(Read April 24, 1897).

Much of the recent remarkable progress in physico-chemical work is due to
experimental and theoretical investigations on the vapor tensions of solutions, and
Professor Van ’t Hoff’s paper showing the relations between the tensions, freezing-
points, boiling-points, osmotic pressures and compositions of solutions marks a new
epoch in the science. In his celebrated monograph “On equilibrium in hetero-
geneous systems” Prof. Willard Gibbs has deduced an equation (1) trom which may
be obtained a relation between the alterations produced in the vapor tensions of
the components of a liquid mixture by altering the composition of the mixture. A
close examination of this result of Gibbs’ and of the method by which it was ob-
tained, shows that his equation contains as special cases many of the results of
Van ’t Hoff referred to above; it is consequently very desirable to subject the
equation in its most general form to a direct comparison with experimental results.
Such a control would be afforded by a set of measurements of the tensions and
compositions of the vapors given off at any constant temperature by mixtures of
two liquids in different proportions, but curiously enough no complete set of meas-
urements of the nature referred to seems as yet to have been,published. We have
undertaken to supply the requisite data by an investigation of the case of mixtures
of alcohol and water ; the present paper contains a short description of the ap-
paratus employed, the results of the measurements, and their comparison with the
theory will form the subject of a subsequent communication.

The apparatus, as finally constructed, consists of a cylindrical vessel to hold five
litres, made of tinned copper, and provided with five openings. Of these, the first
is fitted with a thermometer, the second with a means of filling and emptying the
vessel, the third with means of electrical communication to a heating coil sus-
pended in the, liquid ; while through the fourth passes a glass tube to convey the
vapors to a condenser, from which the condensed liquid drops back through the
fifth opening into the apparatus. When desired, small quantities of the condensed
vapor may be removed and their composition ascertained; these analyses, together
with a knowledge of the composition of the contents of the copper vessel and meas-
urements of the temperature and pressure, give all the data necessary for testing
the accuracy of the equation of Gibbs referred to above.

In order to protect tha vapor from partial condensation (and consequent
fractionation) on the way to the condenser, the tube through which it passes is
wound with insulated wire and may thus be kept hot, electrically; errors due to
splashing of the boiling liquid have been provided against by a special construction
at the bottom of the tube ; condensation on the walls of the copper vessel itself
is prevented by surrounding the latter with a tin cylinder wound with wire and kept
at the temperature desired by means of an adjustable, electrical current, while the
absence of super-heating, and a thorough equilibrium between vapor and liquid,
are secured by the use of perforated copper plates (under the surface of the liquid)
through which the vapor must find its way.

(1) Trans. Connec. Acad. III. 143. Egn. No. 97.

Se >

i
%
;
,
y
:

ae ee

4

sie es

~

> te
ae dae

88 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

As it is desirable that the boiling points of the mixtures should be varied at
pleasure, a subsidiary piece of apparatus has been constructed by means of which
the pressure in the boiling vessel may be maintained constant at any desired point
from 20—1200 mm. This pressure-regulator consists of two five-gallon jars, of which
the first is attached directly,to an air pump, and the second to a U-tube manometer
and to the boiling apparatus (between condenser and fifth opening); communication
between the jars is afforded through a tap, which is usually closed, but may be
opened by an electrical device set in motion whenever the mercury of the mano-
meter (in the open limb) rises high enough to form contact with an adjustable
platinum wire.

By

. PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 89

New Species of Canapian Funci. By J. B. Enis anp J. DearNneEss.
(Read April 24, 1897.)

HYMENOMYCETES.

PoRIA SUBRUFA, E. & D.

Resupinate, effused, mostly in small patches 2—4 cm across, inseparable, soft,

_juicy, creamy-white when fresh, becoming reddish when dry; margin thin, membran-

aceous, narrow, almost wanting. Pores round to sub-angular, !—1 cm. long, 3—4

mm. wide, dissepiments thin, margin acute but not lacerate. Spores elliptic-oblong
4X34.
On a rotten beech log at Granton, Ont. Novy. 1896. No. 2442 in Herbarium of

J. Dearness.

Apparently allied to Poria cruentata, Mont., but the pores cannot be called
“very short,” and their surface is uneven.

PYRENOMYCETES.

ROSELLINIA COMPRESSA, E. & D.

Perithecia scattered or often in small groups of 4—6 or more, sometimes 2 or 3
sub-confluent, superficial, rather depressed, globose, about + mm. in diam., membran-
aceous, sparingly clothed with short (20—30 ,) spine-like, black hairs; ostiolum
minute, papilliform. Asci cylindrical, 75 x 10—11,obscurely paraphysate. Sporidia
uniseriate, elliptical, obtuse, brown, strongly compressed, 12—16 x 8—10 » and
about 3 » thick,

On decorticated elm, Granton, Ont., Canada. Herb. D., No. 1791.

DipyMOSPH2RIA THALICTRI, E. & D.

Perithecia gregarious, depressed-globose, 200 to 250 » in diam., visible through
the darkened epidermis which is barely pierced by the papilliform deciduous ostiolum.
Asci oblong, short stipitate, paraphysate, 8 spored. Sporidia biseriate, at first
fusoid-oblong, sub-hyaline, 4-nucleate, but finally uniseptate and slightly constricted,

sub-inequilateral or slightly curved, pale brown, 13—15 x 33 pu.

On dead stems of Thalictrum polygamum, London, Can., Aug. 1895. Herb. D.,

No. 2297.
DISCOMYCETES.

PSEUDOHELOTIUM CANADENSE, FE. & D.

Ascomata scattered, short-stipitate, whitish, with a yellowish tinge, about
I mm. in diam., puberulent; margin fringed with tufts of short, pale hairs, and
when dry the opposite sides rolled together so as to become elliptical or triangular

in outline; texture, fibrous; apparently sessile, but short-stiped. Disk concave,

yellowish. Asci, clavate-cylindrical, paraphysate, about 40 x 4 4. Sporidia biseriate,

oblong, obtuse, mostly straight, hyaline, 8—12 x 13}—2 y.

_ No. 2340

On dead stems of Arctium Lappa L., London, Can., Aug., 1895. Herb. D.,

PO a ee

ol
- ——s <>”

Swe

ES de, -

ee gr age

Co ple!

90 ' PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

Coccomyces RupicoLa, E. & D. :

Ascomata covered by the adnate epidermis, hemispheric-prominent; the pus-
tules pierced in the centre, then radiate-cleft and open, exposing the pale, whitish
or wood-coloured disk, }—1 mm. in diam., bordered by the toothed margin of the
ruptured ascoma. Asci, oblong-cylindrical, sessile, 60—70x 7 yp. Paraphyses,
filiform, curved or bent at the tips. Sporidia fasciculate, linear, nucleate, hyaline,
sub-attenuated below, 45—60 x 2—23 p.

On dead stems of Rubus strigosus, Granton, Ont., Aug., 1895. Herb. D.,
No. 2352.

C. Rubi (Fr.) is a foliicolous species, having sporidia only 6—8 y. long.

HYPHOMYCETES.

RHINOTRICHUM HERBICOLUM, E. & D.

Effused, light yellow, becoming brown in the centre. Hyphe, coarse, septate,
branched, nearly hyaline, 8—ro y, thick. Fertile hyphz, sub-undulate above, tips
swollen and bearing the globose, sub-hyaline, finely echinulate, 7—9 ., conidia.

On dead stems of Solidago Canadensis, London, Can., Aug. 1895. Herb. D.,
No. 2314.

This species differs from R. Curtisiz, Berk., in its coarser hyphz and its smaller
echinulate conidia. :
STYSANUS TUBERICOLA, E. & D.

Stem composed of parallel fibres, 700 to 800 » high, 1o—12 » thick, tips of the
fibres relaxed and bearing the elliptical, brownish, 4—5 x 2}—3 conidia, forming a
terminal oblong head 110—130 x 3550. The fibres forming the stem spread out
at the base forming a loosely interwoven grayish mycelium.

This fungus developed on pieces of potato in a moist chamber. which had been
used for culture purposes. Other pieces of potato were inoculated with it and thus a
considerable quantity was obtained. London, Can., Apr: to June, 1894. Herb. D.,
No. 2261.

RAMULARIA ARISEMA, E. & D.

Spots oval, tan coloured, turning pale or yellow-white by concentric rings from the
centre outwardly, } toz2cm. Conidial tufts minute, very numerous, mostly epiphyl-
lous, giving a grayish cast to the pallid area of the leaf, the tuft consisting of a few
close, almost sessile, conidia. Conidia hyaline, grumous, nucleate, straight,
20—22 X 3—3z /.

On leaves of Avisema triphyllum, Torr., Granton, Ont., July 1893. Herb. D.,
No. 2139.

ToRULA CarIcina, E. & D. ;

Hypophyllous forming dense dark olive, orbicular or elliptical patches, 1—2 mm.
diam., composed of erect, simple or branched from the base, chains of closely con-
- nected, smooth, translucent, pale brown conidia, 20—30 , long, consisting -of 10 to
15 conidia about 3 » in diameter.

On dead leaves of Carex lupulinus var—; London, Can., Sept. 1896. Herb. D.,
No. 2403.

T. graminis, Desm., also occurring on species of Carex, has conidia 5 to 6 in
diam., becoming black.

CLADOSPORIUM (?) MYRIOSPORUM, E. & D.

The fungus first appears as pale specks on the pea-pod; it soon becomes erum-
pent in small, light-coloured tufts, and finally confluent, forming a scurfy or faveolate
scabby coat on the pod. From the first the much-branched, fertile hyphe produce

z
z

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. gi

abundantly minute hyaline conidia, little over 1 » long, but as the tuft develops the
branches darken and the spores become larger, darker, and some of them septate,
_ Their shape is mostly oblong, slightly pointed at one end, truncate at the other, show-
ing the circle of attachment. Continuous spores vary from 1} x 1 to 14 x 44, septate
ones from 10x 3to 30 x6—8y. Under a high power all except the smallest are
seen to be rough or minutely echinulate. The hyphez are sub-fasciculate, simple or
septate, sub-geniculate, varying in colour from hyaline to olivaceous, sub-dentate or
entire above, 40—8o x 3—6 u.

On pea-pods, communicated by Dr. J. Fletcher, Ottawa, from South Vancouver,
B.C., and by B. C. Buffum, Laramie, Wyoming. Aug. 1896. Herb. D., No. 2395.

This fungus was so injurious in the British Columbia locality that the crop was
not threshed.

CLADOSPORIUM AcuUTUM, E. & D.

Black tufts, }—1 mm. diam., thickly scattered over the lower surface of the
leaf, sparingly confluent. Fertile hyphe cespitose, olive brown, nearly straight, 3—5
septate, 80—110 x 33—4 yw, abruptly and mostly obliquely pointed at the apex. Con-
jdia elliptic, 1-septate, becoming brownish, 10o—15 x 6—8 up.

On fallen ash leaves, London, Can., Oct. 1896. Herb. D., No. 2441.

CERCOSPORA Caricina, E. & D.

Tufts punctiform, minute, seriate between the parallel ribs of the leaf. Hyphe
czspitose, mostly continuous, brown, notched and crooked above, 15 to 25 x3 to 34 m,
Conidia slender, obclavate-cylindrical, hyaline, continuous, 34—73 (mostly 35—50)
X34

The leaves of the host are at first dotted with brown specks and blackened, finally
becoming dead and then lighter in colour.

On leaves of Carex rosea, London, Can., Aug. 1896. Herb. D., No. 2390.

CERCOSPORA LESPEDEzZ@, E. & D.

Spots irregular, red, bounded by the veinlets, 2 to 5 mm. Tufts of conidia
epiphyllous, hyphz continuous, pale brown, 1o—25 x 4. Conidia clavate-cylin-
drical, 35—50 x 43 4, I—5-septate.

On leaves of Lespedeza capitata, Michx., London, Can., July, 1893. Herb. D., No.
.2135; N.A.F., No. 3094.

SPHAROPSIDE.

PHYLLOosTICTA HERACLEI, E. & D.

Spots large, 1—2 cm., reddish brown, indefinite, finally confluent and covering a
large part of the leaf, which becomes pale and dry. The spots at first are margined
with a faint yellowish zone. Perithecia mostly epiphyllous, nearly black, sub-erum-
pent, 110—125 . Spores hyaline, oblong, continuous, 33 x 1} 4.

On leaves of Heracleum lanatum, Michx., London, Can., September, 1892. Herb.
D., No. 2026.

: PHYLLOSTICTA HISPIDA, E. & D.

Perithecia gregarious, innate, globose, with a broad round opening, small
(75—80 1) visible on both sides of the leaf, but more distinct and prominent below.
The leaf is clouded with dark, indefinite patches, but there are no distinct spots.
Sporules oblong-cylindrical, obtuse, 3—4 x 15 p.

On leaves of Smilax hispida, Muhl., London, Can., Sept.-Oct., 1896. Herb. D.,
No. 2424.

: PHOMA PANICULATA, E. & D.

Perithecia scattered, convex, hemispherical, about { mm. in diam., covered by the

epidermis which is raised into little black blisters and finally irregularly ruptured.

Aes eee Be

wee

ga ae PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

Sporules oblong, 20—30 x 8—10 y, rounded at the ends, hyaline, filled with granular —
_ matter.
Ley On dead limbs of Cornus paniculata, London, Canada, May, fa53 3. Herb. D., No.
See iees 9/2099.
oe This differs from Phoma Corni, Fckl., and P. Corni Suecia (Fr.), in its much larger
sporules.
DENDROPHOMA Poarum, E. & D.

Perithecia erumpent superficial, papillate, hemispheric to conical, 150 to 200 »
in diam. Sporules oblong-fusoid, hyaline, with a small nucleus in each end, 1o—12
Mea e x 2—24 , terminal and lateral on dichotomously branched basidia, 20 x 13 yp. :
sy On culms and inflorescence of Poa annua, London, Can., June, 1894. Herb. D.,
No. 2266.
VERMICULARIA SAMBUCINA, E. & D.

Perithecia gregarious, numerous, erumpent, hemispheric-depressed, 9g0—180 p,
thickly beset with dark dark-brown, short bristles 4o—100 », mostly about 45 p.
sy _ Sporules hyaline arcuate-fusoid, nucleolate, 24 x 3—33 pu. ;
a) On dead young stems of Sambucus sp., London, Can., Aug., 1895. Herb. D., No.
ee 2310.
oe , DieLopia THALIcTRI, E. & D.

Perithecia sub-gregarious, sub-cuticular, depressed-spherical or elliptical, small,
150200 p, visible through the thin epidermis which is raised into pustules and
pierced by the papilliform, soon deciduous ostiola. Spores oblong- cyan
obtuse, 1-septate, pale brown, not constricted, 8—r1o0 x 34 w

On dead stems of Thalictrum polygamum, London, Can. Herb. D., Nos, 2211
and 2206.

AscHOCHYTA LEoNuRI, E. & D.

eM ye Spots I-—13 mm., numerous, thin, appearing as if the tissue were eaten out by a
minute leaf-miner ; round or angular, small, becoming confluent and then causing the
part of the leaf to drop out. Perithecia 150—170 yp, visible from both sides of the
leaf. Sporules oblong-cylindrical, uniseptate, pale, 14—17 x 33—4 p.

Perithecia larger and spores different, otherwise like Phyllosticta decidua, E. & K.
On leaves of Leonurus cardiaca, L., London, Can., July, 1893. Herb. D., No. 2160.

HENDERSONIA DiIscosIoIDES, E. & D.

Spots deep red-brown, definite, sub-orbicular or irregular in shape, 210 mm. in
diam. Perithecia epiphyllous, discoid, about ; mm.-diam., bordered by the ruptured
epidermis, black. Sporules oblong or clavate- SplOne: 3-septate and slightly constricted ~
at the septa, smoky-hyaline, 14—16 x 4—5 ,.on slender pedicels about as long as
the sporules. The spots finally become whitish in the centre.

On leaves of Crategus sp. London, Can., Aug. 1893. Herb. D., No. 2186.

H. foliorum, Fckl., has curved, darker sporules than this species.

HENDERSONIA OSTRYIGENA, E. & D.

- Perithecia scattered, about } mm. in diam., buried in the bark which is blackened
over them and raised into pustules pierced by the minute ostiola. Sporules oblong,
3-septate, not constricted, brown, obtuse, 10—12 x 4 w, exceptionally with one cell
divided by a longitudinal septum.

On dead limbs of Ostrya Virginica, London, Can., May, 1893. Herb. D., No. 2170.

CAMAROSPORUM ULmi, E. & D.

Perithecia gregarious, subglobose, about 4 mm, in diam., soft, slate-colour inside,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 93

buried in the bark, their minute punctiform ostiola piercing but scarcely raising
the epidermis. Sporules ovate, 3-septate, sub-muriform, brown, 12—13 x 6—8 p.
On dead branches of Ulmus sp., London, Can. Herb. D., No. 2286.

ASCHERSONIA CARPINICOLA, E. & D.

Stromata convex, erumpent, about 2 mm. in diam., seated on the inner bark,
loosely embraced by the lobes of the ruptured epidermis, of carnose texture, nearly
amber color when fresh, darker and sub-rufous when dry, easily deciduous.
Perithecia minute, buried in the stroma with their dark-colored papilliform ostiola
erumpent. Sporules elliptical, hyaline, 15—20 x 6—8 , on short basidia.

On bark of dead Carpinus Americana. London and Dorchester, Ont. Herb. D.,
No. 2173.
SEPTORIA HyDROPHYLLI, E. & D.

Spots brown, at first 2—4 mm., circular, at last angular; smoky beneath. Peri-
thecia epiphyllous, numerous, 50—8o0 4. Sporules straight or curved, hyaline, 35—
45 X 1d p.

On leaves of Hydrophyllum Virginicum L., London, Can., May, 1893. Herb. D.,
No. 2130.

SEPTORIA HE tiopsipis, E. & D.

Spots irregular, beginning reddish brown, becoming darker, numerous, 2 to 5 mm.
in diam. The part of the spot in which the perithecia develop becomes pallid so that
the brownish spots become mottled with white areas. Perithecia amphiphyllous, on
small whitish areas, sunken, dark-brown, 85—100 ». Sporules, straight or flexu-
ous, 23—54 “, mostly 40 x I w.
On leaves of Heliopsis levis Pers., Thamesville, Ont., Aug. 1892. Herb. D.,

No. 1981.
PiagecotiA NeEGunpinis, E. & D.

On leaves of Negundo aceroides. Perithecia minute, subglobose or subelliptical,
50—70 y diameter, connate in minute, flattened, punctiform tubercles thickly
scattered over the lower surface of the leaf, and at first covered by the epidermis, but
soon exposed. Sporules oblong, hyaline, continuous, 2}—3 x I py.

Differs from P. Fraxini B. & C. in its smaller sporules.

On living leaves of Negundo aceroides, London, Can., Sept., 1896. Herb. D.,

No. 2402.
MELANCONIEZ.

GLOEOSPORIUM CARPINICOLUM, E. &.D.

Spots sub-orbicular, definite, dark brown, 2—5 mm.in diam. Acervuli innate, 4

numerous, minute. Conidia minute, 3—4 x 13—2 uy, issuing on both sides of the
_ leaf in snow-white tendrils.

On leaves of Carpinus Americana. London, Can., June, 1893. Herb. D.
No. 2122.

Distinct from G. Carpini (Lib.) and from G. Robergii Desm., which have conidia
over 10 » long.

GLOEOSPORIUM CONFLUENS, E. & D.

Spots small, }—3 mm., sub-orbicular, greenish at first, becoming horn-color and
finally dull white and transparent in drying, often confluent over a large part of the
leaf which then may become rusty brown. Acervuli minute, inconspicuous, soon
confluent so as to be indistinguishable and filling the whole interior of the spot with

_ the oblong elliptical, continuous, hyaline, 8—1o0 x 3—3} u, conidia.
On leaves of Sagittaria variabilis. The acervuli also appear on the petioles, and
then the conidia are expelled in small white heaps. London, Can., July 1895, Herb.
D., No. 2285.

q

Q4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

ALAN MACDOUGALL.

Alan Macdougall, F.R.S.E., M. Can. Soc. C.E., M. Inst. C.E., for ten years
Secretary of the Canadian Institute, died on 23rd April, 1897, at Exmouth, Devon-
shire, England, after a lingering illness. For a long time his health had been failing,
and early in the summer of 1896 he went to Scotland in the hope that change of
scene and a visit to his native land would lead to his recovery. But the hopes of
his family and friends were to be disappointed, and he died at the comparatively

‘early age of fifty-five. His services to the Institute as Secretary for ten years were

of inestimable value, and numerous papers read by him on subjects more or less
connected with his own profession of engineering bear testimony to his scientine
zeal and diligence. He was son of the late Col. Macdougall, of Edinburgh, Scot- —
land, and received his education in that city. In 1859 he entered the service of the
North British Railway Company, and continued with that company till 1868, when

-he came to Canada, and became connected with the Toronto, Grey and Bruce

Railway, then in course of construction, after which he was employed for about
four years in some important lake and river improvements by the Department of
Public Works of the Dominion. From 1877 to 1882 he was again in the employ
of the North British Railway Company, but in the latter year he returned to
Canada, and for a season was a divisional engineer on the Canadian Pacific
Railway in Manitoba, after which he engaged in private practice in Toronto until,
in 1887, he was made assistant city engineer. As such he conducted some inter-
esting and. valuable experiments to determine the velocity and direction of the
currents in Lake Ontario, and made surveys in connection with the water supply
of the city. He did not long retain his connection with the city service, and after
his resignation he devoted his attention chiefly to sanitary science, being consulted

as a sanitary engineer by many municipalities all over Canada, from St. John’s,

Newfoundland, to Victoria, British Columbia. To his enthusiastic devotion to
civil engineering is very largely due the formation, in 1887, of the Canadian
Society of Civil Engineers, and to the last he bent every energy to the elevation
of the status of his profession in Canada. He was an ardent Scot, and took much
interest in the work of the St. Andrew’s Society, of which society he was elected
Secretary for the year 1896; but, unfortunately, his failing health compelled him
to resign after a few months’ tenure of the office. He was also a member of the i
Gaelic Society. He was genial and kindly in His intercourse with his fellow-men,
and will be long held in grateful remembrance by those who were associated with
him on the Council Board of the Canadian Institute.

ak | aa ole 1) ay E
a) iii ic’
oo
ay

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 95

Pusiic LispraRiES IN CanaDA. By James Bain, Jr., Esq.
(Read December 11, 1897.)

| There was a time, shortly after the discovery of printing, when it was possible
_ for a man like Casaubon to say that he knew the contents, more or less thoroughly,
of every printed book. But the limits of human endurance were speedily passed,
| and to-day the enormous mass of literature taxes the ingenuity of the librarian to
p mould it into organized form. Each successive generation adds its own stratum,
3 and the whole forms the storehouse from which the new generation draws its Inspira-
_ tion and facts. This is especially true of the scientific worker, dependent on the
accumulation of minute facts, recorded by long series of patient observers. It is
_ for this reason, therefore, that I bring before you an institution devoted to science,
_ a paper on the “ Libraries of the Dominion.”
| The art of printing was introduced into the infant colonies at a very early period.
In Halifax the Gazette was published in 1756, the first-born of a numerous progeny,
and was followed by the Quebec Gazette in 1764. In 1779 a number of the officers
stationed at Quebec and of the leading merchants undertook the formation of a
subscription library. The Governor, General Haldimand, took an active part in the
work, and ordered, on behalf of the subscribers, £500 worth of books from London.
_ The selection was entrusted to Richard Cumberland, dramatist, and an interesting
‘letter from the Governor, addressed to him, describing the literary wants of the town
and the class of books to be sent, is now in the public archives, Ottawa. The books
arrived in due course, and, while no catalogue survives, I think it would not
be difficult to name a large proportion of them. The book world in which Dr.
Johnson moved was yet a small one. A room for their reception was granted in
the bishop’s palace, and as late as 1806 we learn from “ Lambert’s Travels”’ that it
was the only library in Canada. Removed several times, it slowly increased, until
in 1822 it numbered 4,000 volumes. The list of subscribers having become very
much reduced, it was leased to the Quebec Literary Association in 1843. In 1854
a portion of it was burned with the Parliament Building, where it was then quar-
tered; and finally, in 1866, the entire library, consisting of 6,999 volumes, was sold,
subject to conditions, to the Literary and Historical Society for the nominal sum
of $500.

Naturally, on the organization of each of the provinces, libraries were established
in connection with the Legislatures. In Upper Canada the small library in the Par-
liament Building was destroyed by the Americans, and the one by which it was
replaced by the fire of 1824, so that, when the two libraries of Upper and Lower
Canada were united in 1841, there appears to have been little left of the early fugitive
literature of the province. At the end of the past year the legislative libraries of the
4 Dominion numbered nine, and contained 48,834 pamphlets and 309,305 volumes.
By far the most important of these is the library of the House at Ottawa. Originally

established on the union of the provinces of Upper and Lowér Canada in 1841, it

was stccessively removed with the seat of government from Kingston to Montreal,
- to Quebec, to Toronto, again to Quebec, and finally to Ottawa—a wandering life,
which effectually prevented its attaining large proportions.
3 The unfortunate fires in Montreal and Quebec still further injured it, robbing

it of much that was very valuable, and which could not be replaced. On the
- federation of the different provinces, in 1867, the library of the two provinces only
_ passed into the hands of the Federal Government. The beautiful building in which
- it is placed behind the House of Parliament presents a prominent feature in the
: magnificent pile of buildings which crown the heights overlooking the Ottawa
- River, and from the windows the spectator gazes across the rocky gorge and the

Sa oe

96 Dit PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

Chaudiere Falls toward the Laurentide hills, forming one of the most picturesque
scenes on the continent. In the eyes of the librarian the library has only one
serious defect—it is complete—no arrangement has been made for extension. —

On the confederation, in 1867, of the provinces which now form the Dominion,
the union which existed between the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada was
dissolved, and, as we have seen, the library passed into the hands of the Federal
Government. Each of these provinces, now known as Ontario and Quebec, estab-
lished new libraries in Toronto and Quebec city.

The sixty-two colleges and universities of the Dominion are provided with
libraries containing 627,626 volumes and 24,894 pamphlets, an average of 10,123
volumes and 402 pamphlets. It is scarcely fair, however, to depend on an average
of the whole number, as some half dozen universities possess at least half of the
total number.

The senior of these, Laval University, Quebec, is famous as being, after Harvard,
the oldest on the continent, being founded by Bishop Laval in 1663. During the
dark days which witnessed the long struggle, first with the Iroquois and afterwards
with the English and Americans, little progress was made in the collection of books,
and it was not until it was converted into a university, in 1852, that its library com-
menced to increase rapidly. On the suppression of the Jesuit Order and seminary
these hooks were transferred to it. It numbers considerably over 100,000 volumes,
and is unrivalled for the extent and character of its French collection and its many
scarce books in early French-Canadian literature and history. Their collection of
the relations of the early Jesuit missionaries is only surpassed by the Lenox library,
New York.

Our own Province of Ontario was for long the only one which attempted to
grapple with the question of public libraries.

Miss Carnochan, of Niagara, has given an interesting account in the Transac-
tions of this Institute for 1895, of the formation and history of the first circulating
library in Upper Canada (1800-1820), established by some enterprising citizens of
the Town of Niagara, for the supply of their own immediate wants and of those
who could pay the small annual fee. It was successful until the destruction of the
town by the American troops in 1813 wasted its volumes and impoverished its
subscribers, so that it shortly after quietly passed out of existence.

In 1848 the late Dr. Ryerson drafted a School Bill which contained provisions
for school and township libraries, and succeeded in awakening a deep interest in
the subject. Ever anxious to impress on his hearers the importance of libraries as
the keystone to a free educational system, he urged it on every opportunity. Lord
Elgin, at that time Governor-General, was so strongly impressed with the import-
ance of the movement that he styled it the ‘‘ Crown and glory of the institutions of
the province.” In 1854 Parliament passed the requisite Act, and granted him the
necessary funds to carry out his views in the matter. The regulations of the Depart-
ment authorized each county council to establish four classes of libraries : —

An ordinary common school library in each schoolhouse for the use of the
children and ratepayers.

A general public lending fincas available to_ all the ratepayers in the
municipality.

A professional library of books on teaching, school organization, language and
kindred subjects, available for teachers oly.

A library in any public institution under the control of the municipality for the
use of the inmates, or in any county gaol, for the use of the prisoners.

To aid this work a book depository was established in the Education Office to
enable the smaller libraries to obtain readily good literature. The books were sup-

plied at cost, and a grant of 100 per cent. on the amount remitted was added in books

by the Department. During the thirty years of its existence 1,407,140 volumes
were so supplied, . é

ey ;
v Zz = <
=
tee i eI
q ai
Sb Sees 1 eee

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 97

she 2? he- SR to establish the second class was, however, premature, and accord-
ingly, finding that Mechanics’ Institutes, supported by members’ fees, were being
developed throughout the many towns and villages, the Educational Department
_ wisely aided the movement by giving a small grant, proportionate to the amount con-
_ tributed by the members, for the purchase of books, and reaching a maximum of
_ $200, aiterwards increased under altered conditions to $400 annually. In 1869 these
had grown to number 26, in 1880, 74, and in 1896 to 292. The number of books
possessed by these 292 libraries was 404,605, or an average of 1,385 each, with a total
' membership of 32,603. The issue of books for home reading was 700,958, or an
_ average of 24.6 for each member, which is a very creditable return, considering that
only thirty per cent. of the books were fiction.

In 1895 the Minister of Education brought in a bill, which came into force in
_ May, changing the name, “ Mechanics’ Institutes” into ‘“ Public Library.” By
this Act the directors of any Mechanics’ Institute were empowered to transfer the
__ property of the Institute to the municipal corporation on condition that the library
' be free. This can be done without passing a by-law or requiring a vote from the
4 people. A large number have already availed themselves of it.

In the cities and larger towns, however, the Mechanics’ Institute, with its limited
3 number of subscribers, was found unequal to the task assigned it, and accordingly,
in 1882, the Free Libraries Act was passed, based upon similar enactments in Britain
| And the United States.
a The first Free Library established under the Act was in 1883, and in the period
1 between that date and 1896 fifty-four have successfully come into operation. They
contain 254,091 volumes and circulated during 1%95, 1,216,407. Two of them, Toronto,
and Hamilton, take rank, both in number and character of their books, among the
best libraries of the Dominion.

_ Unitedly the 346 Public and Free Libraries of the Province of Ontario have
on their shelves 658,696 volumes, and supplied in 1895, 1,917,365 books to their
readers. Their revenue was $183,688, of which $42,741 was contributed by the Pro-
vince, and they spent of this in books $49,417.

; The Province of Quebec has not yet introduced a Free Library Act, but the
generosity of the late Mr. Fraser and of a number of gentlemen in Montreal has
_ provided a fund for the establishment of a Free Library in that city, which was
opened in October, 1885, under the title of the Fraser Institute. The Mercantile

Library Association transferred to it 5,500 English books and L’Institut Canadien

7,000 French.
er. In St. John, N.B., a Free Library was founded in June, 1883, to commemorate
the landing of the Mayalists a century previous, and in Halifax a Free Library owes
its origin to the generosity of the late Chief Justice Young, both of which have been
a very successful. A sister society, the Library and Historical Society of Manitoba,
~ has been the means of introducing a Public Library, and, with the assistance of the

F municipal authorities of Winnipeg, has laid the foundation of an extensive and
. _ valuable library.

In the lack of trustworthy information, I have not attempted to give any
4 particulars of the Law, Medical, Scientific, Collegiate Institute and Young Men's

os

a.

Christian Association Libraries, further than they are summed up in the following
condensed tables, showing the character, and the Province in which they are placed,

? of the 480 libraries of a more or less public character in Canada.

aR ;

4

q ' KinD No. PAMPHLETS, Books,

MeL Outre tensa «ten anacesa sa vavataes ses sesevessscecucredhgensasp. sens 21 1,92 105,788

a IL SETS EAE) FL pease et een REP a Be Se Sc ee 9 48,834 309,395
AULER Teg ea cha oecaicc ae Sok oa dnc e Seeing odbc antaacc ad beegesUeedeaasaneens 325 17,535 663,125
NE OHEPIACE CLC. iiencccscesrcoscucesccaccatecvencussedbeaseacsnqseeese 62 24,894 627,246
ORM CES eeetaet apcti tet ccncarteccconsstvsnss aa sencusmegeeeaasess vee 2 15,22 96,918
SIC CLAM Neos ce Minas cyacasnetieeocssteussosresnnaneeueBlagacs+-sece 2 14,330 18,500
VEE. Cp ASSOCIATIONS) (3.5.......deecsoevencecustnpuvccdencoceess eMC pe) PRONE Soe. 23,660

BIR tALS*. 7. can. ccecunsepeantaeeedtaeoaceese<3 480 122,746 1,874,632

eee. eee ee

‘
Se Oe

rs
+ a
gimp

ca

js

eee Oe ene ee a

98 _. PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

By provinces the 48o libraries are distributed : : ie
PROVINCE. No. PAMPHLETS. Books.
ROMTATION 20. le eevaecadgecctatenc sec selec pee Neto sas) - Hecoustnes 374 32,922 942,187 ;

MweEbec Aa ey NOON ss coenehaeg 39 31,841 531,350
IN OVA SCOLA Woes keto ccccs sean sarees aca P eMC S Un eacs sacecebnnaes 26 17,756 971521
NEW BLUNSWICKs oi: s.tesscbuccnerseedere MME ed els cau seesareens 15 2,689 54,787
Princede ad waedel sland ie peste ere) 25) DA ae 3 500 8,528
Manitoba tess cessed srcesmctcucnen a: commen te. 5. GabRu nha to) 5,014 341739 ;
British, Columiblaviencecccacera st eateesetere toes: so cneccunee 10 1,554 11,303 :
North-West, Territories) sc.ccccactielemeeeies cos cdaucelonees I 140 2,15C
476 93,416 1,682,572
DOMINO avec aaa eae oot ORs os os cevousone 4 29,330 192,060
WB OLAS eRe eS ec teseeeeme cewise vcs vsven nes 480 122,746 1,874,632

We may conclude, therefore, from these figures, that so far as the ordinary reader
and University student are concerned, Ontario, at least in the cities and towns, is not
badly served.. lhe percentage of books per head is not unworthy of a Province
which has only been redeemed from the wilderness during the past fifty years. In
two directions, however, do we find shortcomings, if not actual want. Outside of
the larger cities, towns and villages lies a large proportion of the population of this
Province as well as in the others, which are entirely without access to books. There
are whole townships and numbers of villages where the weekly newspaper is the
only connecting link with modern science and literature.

Ii we wish to create an attachment by the farmer for his farm, to give an interest
in life to his children in their surroundings instead of in the city, and, in other words,
to lay the basis for a successful and pleasant country life, we must try to make his
intellectual surroundings more attractive and profitable.

And this is not a new problem. Men who have had their country’s good at
heart have tried for years to meet the difficulty. The late Dr. Ryerson, as we have
seen, attempted to make every school-house in the country a centre of “light and
sweetness” by the school library, but failed because the effort was premature and
because no effort was made to add to or exchange the books.

Since 1892 an effort has been made in New York State to meet it in a different
manner. The State law of that year authorized the Regents of the State Library
to lend for a limited time selections of books from the duplicate department of the
State Library, or from books specially given or bought for this purpose, to Public
Libraries under State supervision or to communities meeting required conditions.
Out of $25,000 appropriated for Free Libraries, a portion was at once set apart to
buy and prepare books to be loaned under these rules.

The rules then adopted provide that a selection of one hundred books may be
lent for six months to the trustees of any Public Library in the State on payment
of a fee of five dollars to cover the expense of cases, catalogues, stationery and
transportation both ways. Where no such library exists, the books will be lent on
petition of any twenty-five resident taxpayers. Special collections of books may also
be lent to the officers of a University extension centre, reading course or study club,
if properly registered. A later rule offers selections of fifty volumes for a fee of
three dollars. In 1893 the Librarian at Albany began to send out a number of
small libraries, of 100 volumes each, to such of the small towns and villages as were
not provided with Free Libraries. One of these small libraries remained in the
community but six months, and was then exchanged for another—hence the name
“travelling libraries,’ which has been applied to them.

The leading purpose seems to have been to incite communities to found permanent
local libraries, but the scope of the work has been widened, and the system now
provides smaller collections of books for rural communities. So successful has it
proved that in 1895 the State of Michigan appropriated $2,500 to buy books for a
similar system and in 1896 the State of Iowa set aside $5,000 for a like purpose.

In the same year Mr. Hutchins reports to the State Library Commission that
in two counties of Wisconsin similar work had been commenced by private individuals.
He says that each small library was put up in a substantial case, with double doors,

eae

a ti

Leelee

Ny ee ee

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 99

ia, lock and key, and so carefully packed that it could be safely shipped by freight.

It was provided with a complete but simple system of blank records, so that it could
be placed upon a table or counter, unlocked, and be ready for as effective and
methodical work as any larger circulating library. In order to insure good care
for the volumes and a continuous local interest, the libraries were only sent to

communities which organized a local library association of twenty members who

agreed to care for the books and to place them where they would circulate freely
‘under the simple library rules prescribed. Each local association elected a secretary,
who acted as its executive officer, and each paid a fee of one dollar for each library

as a partial payment of the transportation charges.

Twenty-six libraries in one county were sent out in this way. They were visited
about two months after by Mr. Hutchins, and he found them even more popular
than had been expected. The most interesting accounts are given of the avidity
with which the young especially seized the books. The movement is yet too young
to allow of accurate statistics, yet they have proved that in Wisconsin, as in New
York and Michigan, they supply an urgent need that has not been supplied by any

. other agency.

They have carried into hundreds of homes new thoughts and information, higher
aspirations and ideals, new forces that are making for a better individual, family and
social life. Their books are warmly welcomed by families whose doors are closed
to the reformer or the missionary. Hundreds of small communities in Wisconsin
have attempted to do such work for themselves, but have nearly always failed. They
have raised money by entertainments or private subscriptions, and have started
libraries with high hopes. In most cases their selection of books has been unfor-
tunate, and when the few entertaining books have been read by most of the patrons
and no new volumes are added the popular interest dies, and the library is either
put in an obscure place or its volumes are scattered.

By the new system only wholesome and entertaining books are bought, and
they are constantly appealing to new readers until worn out by use, and not merely

shelf worn. Every six months a library is new to some public, and its arrival is a

matter of comment and draws new interest to the library station. The books are
bought at the lowest, and substantial editions are selected. They can be occasionally
examined and repaired, an important economy, for with books as with clothing, a
“stitch in time saves nine.” In the making of rules and regulations a wide body
of experience can be drawn upon, and in the printing much economy exercised.

Finally, it practically takes the selection of the reading of great numbers of
untrained readers from the hands of blind chance, and puts it in the custody of
trained experts, who can draw for assistance upon the library experience of the
world. Our great and costly system of public schools works unceasingly to teach
children how to read and then leaves too many of them to go through their adult
lives without using that power to the best advantage, because of lack of opportunity.

The. travelling libraries offer an unexpectedly cheap, efficient and practicable
method of broadening our educational system to include in its beneficent purposes
every one who goes out from the brief course of our common schools, and to enable
them to pursue a life-long system of education.

Such a system as has been described seems feasible in Ontario. No part of
the Province is beyond reach by rail or steamer, and in no part need there be lack
of readers. Our school system, by providing school sections of moderate area, each
with its school-house and teacher, seems to have placed the machinery ready to

hand. In Wisconsin about one-third of the libraries are kept in the postoffice, one-

half in farm houses and the remainder in small stores. But with the school master
as librarian and the school-house as the distributing post, the most widely-scattered

farm population could be easily reached, while the results of the daily tasks would

be more satisfactory. By supplying also in this way the smaller existing Public
Libraries, which are barely able to add to their collections, boxes of 100 new books

%
‘
"-
t

wv

\

Pee FEF ee ne es

j
?
an
“8
FST EN

100 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

every six months, fresh life would be thrown into them and their readers brought
into contact with the literature of the day.

The Minister of Education ‘might justly consider the proposal to cane the
grants for libraries, amounting to over $42,700, and devote the saving to the estab-
lishment of travelling libraries.

The second want is found at the other end of the scale. Our best libraries have
not reached the stage of meeting the wants of our best! scholars, and with the
limited means at their disposal the time seems far distant when they will be able
to do so. Rivalry is out of question with such great libraries as those of Harvard,
the Astor-Lenox, Smithsonian, and others in the United States, not to speak of
Great Britain, France and Germany, or even Russia; but if our students are to remain
at home, some provision must be made to meet their wants. As a nation we cannot
afford to be entirely dependent upon others for our highest culture, so that it is
incumbent on us to consider carefully our position, and if possible, by combination
and economy of energy, endeavour to supply our want.

We have in the City of Toronto some fifteen, more or less, public libraries,
all of which, except four, are devoted to special subjects. These four are: the
Legislative Library, the University of Toronto, the Public Reference Library, and
the Canadian Institute. The first three mentioned are somewhat on the same lines,
special departments being added to each to meet special requirements. In the past
efforts have been made by the librarians to prevent the duplication of expensive
books and sets; but necessarily a large proportion of the books are alike, and much
waste of money, time and energy has ensued. The Legislative Library, established
to supply the demands of our legislators, has been forced to add to its shelves quan-
tities of general literature. It has now outgrown the chamber provided for it, and
it will be necessary for the Government at an early date to provide further accom-
modation. The City Public Reference Library has in like manner grown to about
45,000 volumes, which are housed in a building unsuitable for the purpose—exposed ~
to danger from fire and in need of additional space for expansion. The Canadian .
Institute, with its valuable collection of Transactions, is in much the same condition,
with the additional disadvantage that the student finds here only a portion of his
work, though an important one, and a lack of proper catalogues and literary
assistance.

We have here three libraries which partially overlap and which fail to make
full use of their opportunities by reason of special circumstances, and yet which
if worked in harmony would do much to remove the present reproach.

It has seemed to me, after careful consideration, that the best interests of the
Province and city would be served by adopting a proposal such as the following:

The Province of Ontario and the City of Toronto to unite in the maintenance
of a common Provincial Reference Library, the books in which would be free to
every person in the Province.

The Province, in consideration of the value of the books in the Public Library,
to erect suitable buildings in a suitable locality.

The Legislative Library to be confined to such books as are actually required
for legislative purposes, and the balance of the books transferred to the joint library.

The Canadian Institute to hand over their collection to the joint library, receiving
in consideration a suitable meeting room.

Regulations made by which students in all parts of the Province could share in
the use of the books, due regard being had for their safety. ;

In this way a library could be instituted—free to the citizens of Toronto, as their
own is to-day—furnishing the highest literature to every student in the Province.
properly housed with little more expense than the three libraries are at present
costing, in which would be found room for extensive geological, mineralogical,
botanical and other departments, so much wanted, forming a National Library
worthy of the Proyince and of the City in which it is placed.

See Hy .
Wa
PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. tot
4 qq
C-
4
0

NIAGARA AS A TIMEPIECE. By Dr. J. W. SPENCER.
| (Read January 22, 1898.)

Although probably a thousand papers have been written upon Niagara, com-
mencing with the discoveries of La Salle and Hennepin, it is still less than twenty
years since the physical history of the river began to be understood. La Salle and 4
Hennepin visited Niagara, accompanied by an Indian chief; in 1678. Although they
were the first white men who saw Niagara, its existence was made known by Indians
to Jacques Cartier when he visited Montreal in 1535. Hennepin’s rough sketch of
Niagara appears'to have been the only one made for along time. The oldest
drawing approaching accuracy, known to the writer, was one made by Lieut. Pierie
in 1768. :

In spite of the prejudices then existing against the antiquity of the earth, Andrew ‘
Ellicott, the surveyor and engineer, more than a hundred years ago, recognized
that the gorge had been excavated by the river, and concluded that its age was about

55,000 years. Subsequent estimates were made, but that of Sir Charles Lyell became Ie
the most popular. Upon his conjecture that the Falls receded a foot a year, he ,
estimated their age at about 35,000 years. Prof. James Hall made the first instru- :
mental survey of the cataract in 1842, from which comparisons of the amount of §
recession can now be made. In 1890 the fourth survey was made, and the mean q
annual recession was found to be about four feet. This factor would reduce the /
age of the Falls to between 9,000 and 10,co0 years, had it been a case of simple,
uninterrupted recession. But as the volume of water and the descent of the river ;
_ have varied so as to increase the time required, the estimate made by Lyell was ;
nearer the true one. Subsequent to the classic writings of Lyell and Hall, of more ‘]
than fifty years ago, one of the first papers which reopened the study of the physics ‘

of the river was written by the writer, in 1881, showing that the Erie basin was not
drained by the Niagara river in pre-glacial times. This was confirmed by Dr.
Julius Pohlmaes, who, two years later, discovered certain fragments of ancient
streams, the valleys of which were taken possession of by the modern Niagara.
Again, Prof. G. K. Gilbert found, in 1886, that the river had a greater descent at ; 4
one time than now; but the earlier, long-continued and inferior height of the Falls |
was first pointed out by the writer. Upon the backing of the water after the maxi-
mum descent of the river, the surface of Lake Ontario rose above the present level,
so as to again considerably reduce the height of the Falls. This second reduction
of their height is, perhaps, the last discovery in the physics of the river, and has
_ hitherto not been announced.
| Perhaps the most important change discovered in the physics of the river was
(in 1887-1888) that the three upper lakes—Huron, Michigan, and Superior—did not
drain into Lake Erie until recently, but emptied, through Georgian Bay, towards
the north-east. Thus for a long period Niagara river drained only the waters of the
Erie basin. These discoveries show that the determination of the mean rate of
recession of the modern Falls had to be greatly qualified in order to arrive at an
approximate determination of the age of the cataract; but the difficulty remained
of ascertaining the amount of work done during the different episodes. However,
at Foster's Flats the bed of the old river and fragments of lateral terraces were
found in 1893. From these and other features the key to the situation was partly
obtained. Some of these results have since been confirmed by the estimate of the
depths in the different basins of the modern channel made by Prof. Gilbert.

102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

The modern Niagara took possession of the old Tonawanda channel, which had

drained a portion of the Niagara tableland in pre-glacial times. Its valley was about

one and a half miles wide and ninety feet deep, and crossed the course of the modern
river. The rapids above the Falls represent the site of the modern waters, now
descending over its side into the ancient Tonawanda channel, which had been filled
with drift. This ancient valley is now buried, and continues westward of the whirl-
pool to form the St. David’s Valley, about which so much has been written. The
whirlpool gorge is only a modern enlargement of a small valley starting, in pre-
glacial times, from near where the railway bridges are now located, nae forming a
little tributary of the Tonawanda channel, just mentioned.

The older geological features and the character of the strata have been known
for fifty or sixty years, but the features here mentioned are those directly bearing
upon the physics of the river, which were not formerly understood.

The episodes of the river may be briefly outlined. The first was of long dura-
tion, when the descent of the river was about 200 feet, and the volume of water
one-fourth of that of the present amount (only the drainage of the Erie basin).
Then we have all the waters of the upper lakes flowing over Niagara, and shortly
afterwards the surface of Lake Ontario was lowered to 420 feet below the upper
level of the river. Thus, in a general way, we have arrived at the time when the

Falls had reached the foot of the whirlpool rapids, by which time the waters of the

Ontario basin rose sixty feet or more above their present level. In the meanwhile
there were three principal cataracts, the lower gaining upon the upper. But by
the time the Falls had retreated to just above where the railway bridges cross the
gorge the Ontario waters were again lowered, so that the modern descent of Niagara
river is 326 feet. The physics of the short section along the whirlpool rapids is
not yet understood; but even in spite of this, with the consequent errors in the
theoretical determination, the age of the Falls so far has not been found to greatly
differ from the computations made in 1893, which assigned the period between the
time when the Niagara was a strait and the present day to be 32,000 years.

These changing episodes, which appear complex, are after all largely assignable
to one cause, namely, the unequal elevation of the earth’s crust in the lake region,
the amount being greater towards the north-east than in the opposite direction.
With the rise of the land, the Huron, Michigan and Superior, collectively named
the Algonquin basin, was eventually drained by way of the Nipissing and the Ottawa
valleys; and the waters of the Lundy basin, the name for the united Erie and Ontario

basins, were lowered so as to leave only an insignificant Lake Erie, and the Iroquois

gulf, extending in the Ontario basin to the foot of the escarpment at the mouth of
the Niagara river, into which the Falls descended directly at their birth. With the
continued rise of the land the waters of the Ontario basin sank, in so far as they
affected Niagara, to eighty feet below their present level. The land, now rising
more rapidly towards the north-east than the south-west, tilted the river of the
Algonquin basin so as to raise a barrier across the Nipissing outlet (worked out
by Mr. F. B. Taylor), which diverted the waters of the upper lakes into the Niagara
drainage only some 7,000 or 8,000 years ago. The same kind of movement raised
the barriers at the outlets of both Lake Erie and Lake Ontario so as to back their
waters towards the heads of the basins; and, in the case of Lake Ontario, its surface
rose some sixty feet or more in the lower part of the Niagara gorge. But a portion
of the barrier at the outlet of Lake Ontario, being composed of drift, has recently
been washed way by the St. Lawrence river so as to reduce the surface of Lake
Ontario to its present level.

The movement is slow. The rise of the land in the Niagara district is about
one and a quarter to one and a half feet a century; about the region of Lake
“Nipissing, nearly two and a half feet, and about the outlet of Ontario, between four
and five feet a century. These upward movenrents were determined from geological
observations made at Niagara, and their effect upon the tilted beaches, which had

BAN ADEs INSTITUTE.

over the ie eins but until 1893 all attempts made at determining
of errestrial changes defied investigation. The north-eastward movement ¢
co inuing, as recently determined by Prof. Gilbert. Under these conditions
es in the drainage of the pepper lakes’ become imminent : thus the

iG
Sree

The Chicago canal is not considered! in this calculation,

m Shorten the time e the last-named events. These calculations, based upon
ecological data, are very close to those of Prof. Gilbert, based upon other measure-
t In the meanwhile the waters about Buffalo will rise somewhat higher than

Before this change is accomplished,
and thus for only

Die t ieee excavation of the Niagara gorge.
‘Falls will have receded scarcely two. miles farther southward;

ch was posterior to the ice age proper. Upon the computation of the age of
Falls (32,000 years) it has been found that the end of the ice age was more than

TO4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.
.

THe CreE Lancuace. By Rev. E. B. Grass, B.A. (Victoria).

(Read January 20, 1898.)

I.

Of the Algonquin stock, the Plain and Wood Crees use, perhaps, the purest and
most euphonious branch amongst the Cree dialects:

EUPHONY.

On the Saskatchewan ‘ duck’ is ‘sesep’; ‘duckling,’ ‘sesepis.’ At Moose Factory
these words are ‘sheshep’ and ‘sheshepish.’ The former two words please the eye
and ear, and are readily enunciated. There is a natural tendency to place a vowel
between consonants in order to secure agreeable sounds. ‘Iron’ or ‘ metal,’ is ‘ pewa-
pisk,’ ‘road’ is ‘maskunow’ and ‘rail’ or ‘iron-road’ is ‘ pewipisko miaskunow.’
‘ Kiyds,’ ‘ old,’ ‘ kakwiya,’ ‘ things’; ‘old things’ is ‘ kiyase kakwiya.’

These Indians do not stammer—they are noted for ready utterance and elo-
quence. Rapid delivery is necessary on account of the syllabic character of the

language, as distinct from the alphabetic of the English and most European langua-

ges; therefore euphony must be studied to aid pronunciation. I shall give an illus-
tration :

‘* The new Government wishes to know how the Crees are prospering,” has six-
teen syllables. This in Cree is, “ Ka oske “*puminii‘kik weyusoowawin wekiskaye‘tum-
wuk ma‘te kespin Naheyiiwi peyechechenikoo‘chekayekwanik,” and contains
thirty-seven syllables. Hence it can be seen that to convey the same idea in the
same time as the Englishman, the Cree must speak more quickly.

PRECISION.

There is a definiteness about this tongue that is very striking, and in contrast to
the ambiguity of many other tongues. If an elder brother is referred to it is
‘nistas,’ ‘my brother,’ if a younger brother, the word is ‘ nisém.’ My (elder) sister is
‘nimis ’; ‘ my (younger) sister,’ ‘nisém.’ It is observed that‘ nisém’ is either ‘ my
(younger) brother’ or ‘ my (younger) sister’; but it is usual to add, in this case, by way
of explanation, ‘ napao,’ ‘ man,’ and ‘iskwio,’ ‘ woman,’ as ‘ nisém iskwao.’

All verbs are precise in first and sécond plural, and third singular aud plural.
In English, French, Latin, Greek, ‘‘ we advise,” for instance, is indefinite; but in
Cree these forms of the verb leave no doubt in the mind of the reader or hearer
addressed. ‘‘ Ne se‘ke’kamunan,” ‘‘we advise,” excludes second person or persons,
including only first and third; ‘‘ ke se‘ke‘kamunow,” ‘‘ we advise,” takes in first and
second only.

In addressing the Deity it is unpardonable to say ‘* kemoostowinanow,” “ we
desire it,’ which form embraces the first and second persons; “‘ ne moostowinanan”’
must be used.

If I ask a friend whether Mr. Jackson’s son is home, the answer is ‘“‘ apéyewa,”
not ‘‘apéu”’; the latter word is, in substance, “he is home,” and refers to Mr. Jack-
son himself; but ‘‘ ipéyewa ”’ has the relative ending ‘‘ yewa,” relating to the second
party mentioned, that is, the son.

My friend may then say, referring to Jackson and son, “‘nitawaye'tum kita
paetu'tat ooti” “he desires to come here,” that is, Jackson. If it is said, “ naitaway-

e‘tum kita pietu'tiyit ootii,” the relation extends to the son, and the meaning is

that Jackson wishes his (son) to come here.”

(*The Greek or Scotch aspirate [*] cannot be omitted in many words.)

}
a
7
Pi
;

eatin Menge all pe

e .

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE 105

_Noonecan dispute the ambiguity of the following: ‘‘The chief spoke to the
thief in his house.” Such indefiniteness has no place in Cree. If the chief’s house
is meant the sentence is, ‘‘ Okemow ke weche pekiskwamao okimotiwa weki'k”’; if the
thief’s house is meant, the last word has the relative (relating to another) ending
“ yitk” added, making “ wekeyi‘k.”

Suppose that a man wishes to take a horse home. The form of verb he employs
indicates whose horse. If his own horse he says, ‘‘Ne ki, kewa'tahow,” “I will take
him home.” If another’s, ‘‘Ne ka kewa'tihimowi,” ‘‘ 1 will take his (horse) home.”’

SYNTHESIS.

A few examples will give some idea of the constructive peculiarity of this
language.

The root “ wi’ signifies ‘‘ light” or ‘‘ white colour.’’ By a system, the Cree has
added to this root endings that are significant and unique: “ Wiapeo,” “he sees”’;
“ wipewin,” ‘sight’; ‘ wipamun,” ‘‘ mirror”; “ waipa‘tum,” “he sees it”; wapa-
mao,” ‘‘ he sees him ”’; ‘‘ wipehao,” ‘‘ he causes him to see.”

Again, upon the root “ pim,” “coursing” or ‘‘ going,” is built another set of
words: ‘“‘ Pimo‘tio,” “‘he walks’; ‘‘ pimo'tawin,” “‘ walking,” 7.e., the noun; “ pimo'-
tahao,” ‘“‘ he causes him to walk,” or go; ‘‘pimé‘yow,” “‘ he flies”; “pimiskow,” ‘‘ he
paddles”; “‘ pimisiw,” ‘‘ he sails or goes with the wind”; “ pimipa‘tow,” ‘“‘he runs”’;
‘‘pimipa‘towin,” ‘‘running’’; “ pimipiiyiw,” ‘‘he passes running ’’; “‘ pimipéyiwin,”’
the noun “running ”’ in passing by.

II.—THE NOUN.

There is a disposition on the part of some to underestimate the importance of
the noun in Cree. It is difficult to see the reason of this when it is considered
that the language abounds in names of all kinds conceivable, and possesses the
genius or ability of naming everything that civilization presents as new. It is true
that many nouns are formed from verbs by prefixes and modified endings, but this
fact is no argument (as will be seen) that the noun is not a prominent part of speech
or that it does not naturally occur in the language.

1. Names are given “ directly” to objects—késik, sky; atim, dog; asinee, stone;
nipé, water; nipio, man; kona, snow; pimé, oil, grease; musttis, a cattle beast; muswa,
moose; muskwa, bear; minahik, pine; aské, earth, a country; pe'kd, ashes; mé‘kd,
blood. In the last two words the “ rough breathing ” of the Greek is used, to secure
the 4 sound in English, after € in each word. The force of the breathing is exactly
the same as that in the name Lochaber, a district of Inverness.

2. Names are given ‘indirectly ’—that is, they are suggested or derived:

‘(a) Of these the verb originates many nouns by the prefix 6, as kistek&o, he
farms; Okistekdo, farmer: ayamehow, he prays; dtiyamehow, one who prays, a
Christian. The? is here inserted between two vowels for easy utterance, or euphony.
Méyosoo, she (mas. or fem.) beautiful; Gmtyosoo, the beauty. Kéyiiskéw, he lies;
okéyiskéw, a liar.

(b) The verb originates other nouns by .an affix, or by both prefix and affix,
to the third person, singular, present tense. Nikumoo, he sings; nikumoowin,
singing. Chékiékao, he chops; chékitkiwin, chopping. Tipahumikao, he pays;
tipahumakawin, payment. Nipia‘tikao, he committs murder (mas. or fem.); dnipa-
‘tikask, a murderer. Ayumcthia‘kiisoo, he pretends to pray; otaéyuméha‘kasusk, a
hypocrite. The last three examples show that nouns may be formed by a prefix and
the affix sk to a modified ending.

LOGE: PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

(c) By dropping the ending of the third person, singular, and adding kin, nouns
are derived from verbs: Késképoochékao, he saws (crosswise); késképoochékan, cross-
cut saw. Tiisképoochékado, he saws (lengthwise); tisképoochékan, rip-saw. Péko-
pichékao, he plays; pékopichékiin, plow.

(d) In a number of cases the noun formation consists in omitting the pronominal
prefix of a verb, third, singular, and adding kun or chékun to the ending, from which
the consonant is elided. Ne mini‘kwin, I drink; mini‘kwikun, or mini‘kwachekun,
a cup, or drinking vessel. Ne kise'kwin, I wash my face; kiise'kwikun, wash basin.

(e) A class of nouns is formed from other nouns by adding kan, a vowel being
inserted between the consonants, the new formation denoting something simulative
or artificial. Awéiisis, child ; awasisékan, doll. Pésim,the sun; pésimo‘kan, a clock.
Manitoo, God; manito‘kin, an idol. Pa'kwisekun, flour ; pai‘kwasekune‘kan, wheat;
in this derivative one would expect the word for flour to be derived from that which
signifies wheat, according to rule, but this is the exception.

(f) If wian is added to the name of an animal, a name is obtained for: that
animal’s skin. Wa&apoos, rabbit; w&apooswian rabbitskin. Mooswié, moose; moos-
wian, mooseskin.

By affixing wagin to the same names of animals, a name for a part of the skin
is supplied. Moostoos, a cattle beast ; moostooswagin, a piece of oxhide, or leather.
Mooswagin, a piece of mooseskin. These derived cognate nouns are much in use.
The word for book is musiniekun ; if agin is added, as in musiniekunagin, the name
for paper is obtained. Papakéwian, shirt; papakéwianagin, shirting.

(g) Diminutives are formed by means of an affix ‘‘is,” ‘‘oos,” or an ending of
like sound. Sésép, duck; sésépis, duckling. Napado, man; napasis, boy. Iskwao,
woman ; iskwasis, girl. Ma‘ka‘k, barrel; ma‘ki’koos, keg. Musiniékun, book; musinté-
kunis, letter. Musiniékunagin, paper; musiniékunaginoos, a bit of paper. Sépé,
river; sépésis, creek. Misehaio, hen; misehdasis, chicken.

(h) By affixing A4pwé to a noun or an adjective, the name of a liquid is obtained.
Iskootao, fire; iskootawapwé, fire-liquid or whiskey. Musinickun, book; musinié-
kunipwé, ink. Séwow, it is sour; séwépwé, vinegar. In this last word, by eliding a
’ vowel and a consonant, a euphonious word is formed.

(i) If a'tik is added to a noun, an appurtenance or part is designated. Musinié-
kun, book; musiniékuna‘tik, pen. Chékitkun, axe; chékiékuna‘tik, axe-handle.
Métisowin, eating or food ; métisowina‘tik, table.

(j) Kumik denotes abode, dwelling, or building, when affixed toa noun. Misti-
tim, horse; mistitimokumik, horse-stable. Moostoos, cattle-beast ; moostoosokumik,
cattle-stable. Sooneow, money, sooneowokumik, bank. Asi‘kiio, he gives rations ;
asi‘ kiokumik, ration-house.

(k) By prefixing an adjective or a verb to a noun, a composite noun is formed.
Pé'tukaio, he enters; ayamehowin, prayer; pét'tukaweaiyamehowin, class-meeting.
When ifiyamehio, he prays, is prefixed to Gyénew, person, there resuits the long
word ayamehiwéyénew, preacher. Ki‘che is great; dkemow is chief, ruler or king ;
iskwio is woman. Now, by joining these three in order, and remembering euphony, -
a significant noun is the result, which means queen. This word is ki'chedkemaskwao.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 2 TOR

‘¢ RECENT ViEws on Cotour.” By ALBERT H. ApsottT, B.A.
(Read January 29, 1898.)

The colour problem has three aspects : :

I. The physical problem, which investigates that energy in nature which is
especially connected with our sensation of light and colour.

Il. The physiological problem, which investigates the processes in the eye and
its accessories as the organ of vision.

III. The psychological problem, which investigates our sensations of colour, or
colour as it is experienced. The question here is: What are the mental facts of light
and colour, and on what conditions do they depend ?

The first ‘recent’ view on colour discussed was the emphasis which has been
laid upon this psychological colour problem with the rise of scientific or experimental
psychology. Both of the other aspects, the physical and physiological, must refer
continually to the facts of colour which scientific psychology discovers or estab-
lishes, as the final test of the adequacy of their theories. The facts of all sciences are
primarily facts for psychology (i.e., psychic or mental facts), and secondarily, facts for
these sciences, and hence, the conclusions and theories of all sciences must be judged
by their faithfulness to the facts of experience.

The second view on colour discussed was a modification to the ordinarily accepted
physical theory of colour, suggested by Dr. Kirschmann. The ordinary theory
contends that colour is an explicit function of the wave length. There is a difficulty,
however, in this view which is raised from the fact that no one has ever seen light or
a colour of only one wave length, and, therefore, that, could we get light of one wave
length, there is no guarantee at all that we should see it coloured. Colour of one
wave length is a purely hypothetical conception; at every point on a spectrum there is
always a superposition or interaction of wave lengths. A slit ifinitely small would,
so far as mathematics are concerned, give the pure spectral colours which advocates
of this theory demand: but, on the other hand, a plate bearing a slit which is
infinitely narrow would be for us an opaque object. Colour as seen in the spectrum
must actually be projected by use of a slit of finite width, and, therefore, it must
always be produced by the superposition or interaction of wave lengths.

This contention is based directly on psychical considerations, viz., whether we
see colour or not. To contend that that alone would be a pure colour which is to
be produced under circumstances which would prevent us seeing either light or
colour seems to overlook the fact that it is our sensations of colour which make any
science of optics possible, and surely they must be the deciding factor in such a
matter to the last.

A second line of objection to the theory that colour is an explicit function of
the wave length arises in connection with the discussion regarding purple, 7.e., the
colour which would form the transition from violet to red. This colour is not
present in the ordinary spectrum, and from this it has been concluded that purple
is not a pure but a mixed colour, and as stich it is not a constituent of white
light at all.

An experiment was shown which seems to have some bearing on the question.
By very simple means two spectra were thrown upon a screen together, parallel
and in close juxtaposition to each other. The one was the ordinary spectrum, con-
sisting of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, and the second was an “inverted”’
spectrum, consisting of blue, violet, purple, red, orange, yellow. (Note.—Purple
is absent from the first, green is absent from the second.)* This “inverted” spectrum

* The “inverted” spectrum was first shown in this connection in a lecture given by Dr. Kirschmann before
the Mathematical and Physical Society of the University of Toronto. The objection may be raised that the
colours in the inverted spectrum are not as ‘‘ pure” as those in the ordinary spectrum, but this is met by the fact
that, as sensations, the colours are quite as pure and brilliant as the ordinary spectral colours. The right of these

colours to rank physically the same as the latter colours was further demonstrated in the above-mentioned lec-
ture by the fact that both spectra show interference bands equally well.

108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

is produced by the superposition of two spectra, so that the red and violet rays act
together, and so give purple. The presence of purple, therefore, proves nothing which
could reflect on the ordinary theory, but the absence of green is of more significance.
If green is a constituent of white light, why is it absent? Where is the green ?
If we answer, Just where the purple is in the ordinary spectrum, we must undertake
a thorough discussion as to the basis of the contention that green is a constituent
of white light while purple is not. The fact is, if we prevent the rays of the ends
of the spectrum interacting we lose purple, and if we prevent the rays of the middle
of the spectrum interacting we lose green. The absence of both of these colours
from the spectra seems to be rather a property of the means used in each case than
of white light. In white light every wave acts at the same point, while in the
longitudinal arrangement of the colours, as in a spectrum, we prevent this; but
while allowing the neighbouring waves to act together we deprive the waves of
ends of the spectrum altogether of this possibility; Hence, Dr. Kirschmann
contends, the absence of these colours in each case. He suggests, therefore,
that the theory be, modified and stated as follows ; “ Colowr-quality is a function of
the superposition of wave. lengths, so that to every qualitative difference in spectral
colours corresponds a difference in the mode of superposition.* f

This position goes back to the psychology of the question. If purple were
found to play an exceptional role in our colour sensations there might be grounds
for rejecting these conclusions. But if, as is the case, purple be found to obey the
same laws which all other colour sensations follow, there is no reason whatever
for regarding it in any peculiar light. It is a colour quite as much as any other.
There is, therefore, no a priori reason for rejecting it from the list of pure colours.
If, however, it must be rejected in the case of the ordinary spectrum, surely green
must be rejected in the case of the inverted spectrum from the list of the constituents
of white light, and both for the same reason.

The third question discussed was along the line of the general psychology of
colour.

Experiments were made, showing that colour sensation could occur when
physically there was -no light of the specific colour present, e.g., as in contrast
phenomena.

The manifoldness of our colour sensations was also illustrated by a geometrical
construction known as “the colour cone,” and by means of rotating discs, showing
transitions in shades, tints and saturations of colour.

The fact that, from the psychological standpoint, there is no reason to speak of
fundamental colours was discussed, and the significance of the colour theory of
Prof. Wundt was pointed out. Owing to modifications made in connection with
this theory recently by Dr. Kirschmann, and in consideration of the modifications
suggested to the physical colour theory by the same scientist, it seems proper to
give the theory the name of the Wundt-Kirschmann Colour Theory.

*« Colour saturation and its quantitative relations.”—A merican Fournal of Psychology, Vol. VII., No. 3.

10g

SEISMOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS AT Toronto. By R. F. Strupart, Esgq.,
DirEcTOR METEOROLOGICAL SERVICE OF CANADA.

(Read February 5, 1898.)

At the Ipswich meeting of the British Association it was resolved that the two
committees which were studying vibrations of the earth’s crust, viz., “The Committee
for Investigating the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena oi Japan” and “ The
Committee on Earth Tremors” should ‘not be reappointed individually, but that
the whole subject should be referred to a new committee, consisting largely of the
members of the old committees, which should be called, ** The Committee on
Seismological Observations.” The new committee at Liverpool reported as follows:
This Committee, however, think that it would be well in this, its first report, to
state definitely what it hopes to accomplish, and how far it thinks that the British
Association should go. It has long been an unwritten rule that the Association
should initiate work, but should not charge itself with its maintenance. This is
precisely what your Committee desires. Now that it has been proved that any
important earthquake is felt all over the globe, the Committee considers that arrange-
ments should be made for the record and study of these movements. Your Com-
mittee considers that such records may prove as important as those of e.g., terrestrial
magnetism, and, just as we have magnetic observatories in various parts of the
world, so, in its opinion, should there be seismological ones. But, before advocating
their erection, it is essential that a decision be arrived at as to the form and degree
of sensitiveness of the instrument to be recommended.

This, and correspondence connected with the organization of the system, is the
work which the Committee desires to complete. Previous reports and the appendices
to the present one, show how much has been done in this direction, but the Com-
mittee desires to do much more. It wished to place side by side four good patterns
of instruments, and to compare and study their records. When this is done it hopes
to receive the support of the Association in approaching the Government with the
view to the establishment of a limited number of instruments, identical in sensitive-
ness, in this country, in India, and in the colonies, and of a small central office at
Kew or elsewhere for co-ordinating and publishing the results. As far.as the Com-
mittee can at present judge, the equipment of each station, with complete apparatus
for continuous photographic record, would not exceed f1oo. For the experimental
work of the coming year the Committee have one instrument, and can have the use
of another (constructed under a grant to Professor Milne by the Royal Society);
it wishes to purchase two others, and will have to build piers, etc., and pay for
photographic necessaries and an assistant to run the instruments, which, altogether,
would probably cost over £200. Your Committee thinks it desirable that to meet
unforeseen items it should have £250, but without £200 the work cannot go on.”

Early in 1897 a letter was received from the chairman of this Committee inviting
the co-operation of the Canadian Meteorological Service in a seismological survey
of the world. The Honourable the Minister having been pleased to authorize the
expenditure of the necessary funds, a seismograph was ordered, and the instrument
arrived in Toronto on the morning of the day that Professor Milne gave his most
interesting lecture on “Earthquakes” at Massey Hall, and he was able to have it on

the table for the inspection of those of his audience who wished to examine its

construction. The instrument consists of a horizontal pendulum with a boom two
feet six inches long; at the end of this boom is a plate in which is a narrow slit,

110 ' PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

parallel to the length of the boom. The position of this, beneath a slit at right
angles to it, is shown by a speck of light from a small lamp, reflected down, which
photographs continuously on a bromide film two inches wide, which passes at the
rate of five-feet each day. Every hour the light is eclipsed by a screen attached to
the long hand of a watch, and thus a time scale is supplied.

Aiter the departure of the members of the British Association we lost no time
in getting the instrument in position, but unfortunately were unable to begin
operations immediately, as the maker had failed to send us the necessary paper, and
it was not until the 20th September that the clock was set in motion. I say unfortu-
nately, because thete was great disturbance on at the very instant the record began,
and we have a clear record of the maximum and last vibrations caused by an earth-

_ quake which Professor Milne informs us occurred in Borneo.

There are difficulties to contend with in the management of the seismograph,
and the greatest of all is vibration of the pendulum, caused, we believe, by some
movement of the air. Professor Milne has been unable to altogether get rid of
the movement in his instrument in the Isle of Wight; he is inclined to think it is
caused by air currents. He has studied the vibrations under various atmospheric
conditions, and apparently finds, as we do, that the disturbance is most pronounced
on clear, calm nights when radiation is great. It is a subject for investigation,
whether we are not registering on our seismograph the very atmospheric tremors

or waves which cause telegraph wires to hum on clear, calm nights, and that, Mr. :

Percival Lowell asserts, are the cause of bad seeing on certain nights which, to all
appearance, ought to be good for astronomical observations.

Since the starting of the instrument we have recorded eleven very decided
quakes and nine small earth tremors; many others have perhaps been lost in the
air current disturbances. The most marked of the eleven was the first one, the origin
of which Professor Milne places in Borneo; the next in order of importance occurred
on December roth, when earthquakes were reported both from Bermuda and Italy;
this was not recorded in Great Britain. Next came one on December 28th, and was
followed by a larger one on the 29th; and both were also recorded by Milne in the
Isle of Wight.

The preliminary tremors on the 28th (Fig. 1) began at Toronto at 8h. 24m. 37s.,
Greenwich mean time, and in the Isle of Wight at 8h. 54m. 51s., or over half an
hour later. At present we have no knowledge of the origin of this disturbance. The
disturbance of the 29th at Toronto (Fig. 2) was marked by the absence of pre-
liminary tremors, and vibrations of large amplitude began at 11h. 32m. 29s. In
the Isle of Wight preliminary tremors began at 11h. 4om. 48s., and the larger waves
at 12h. om. 37s., or 28m. 8s. later than Toronto. The origin of this disturbance was
obviously near the north coast of San Domingo. Two cables were broken by it,
and, according to newspaper reports, the town of Santiago was greatly damaged at
about 1th. 29m.; which time, however, Professor Milne thinks is an error, and is
inclined to place six minutes earlier. The distance from San Domingo to Toronto is
1,510 nautical miles, and to the Isle of Wight 3,823 miles. We are endeavouring to
obtain further particulars from San Domingo regarding the time of the shake, and if
successful the comparison will be particularly interesting. The last important shock
was on January 24th, the preliminary tremors beginning in Toronto (Fig. 3) at
12h. 18m. 28s., or 32m. 39s. later than in England; this would seem to indicate a
very different origin from those of December, perhaps in Asia Minor. At the
Toronto meeting of the British Association last year Professor Milne obtained a
grant for the construction of a few seismographs, and I promised to place one of
them in charge of the meteorological observer at Victoria, B.C. The instrument is
nearly ready for shipment, and will probably be placed in position about the 1st of
June. This will be another link in the chain of seismological stations, and it is
pleasant to know that Canada is taking a very active part in this most interesting
and important seismic survey.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

FIGURE 2,

Vpn 4 8pm

4 a 4
TOR 237 .
1

Alenday Jaw* 24“ 898

FIGURE 3.

III

3

S102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

Tue GENERAL History oF THE CeLts. By Rev. Neitz MacNisn, LL.D.
(Read February 19, 1898.)

In the topographical names of the British Isles, in the names of streams and
rivers and hills and mountains and lochs and headlands, an argument plausible and
strong can be found in favour of the theory, that the Gaelic portion of the Celtic
race preceded the Cymri, or Welsh, in the occupation of Britain; and that the
Scottish Gaels of to-day speak the same language which our remote ancestors spoke,
who, of the Celtic race at least, were the first to enter and inhabit the British Isles.
Those whose hearts are warmed with Celtic blood have at least the satisfaction of
knowing that they are the descendants of perhaps the oldest race in Europe; and
that, although the early appearance of the Keltoi in that Continent is enveloped in
hopeless obscurity, it is true beyond contradiction that their Celtic forefathers
were both numerous and powerful long before the English, or German, or French,
or Italian peoples had any distinctive existence. The Celtic dialects were strong
and well developed ‘and cultivated before any of the important languages of modern
Europe were born. Pride of extraction and veneration for genealogies that reach
back into the distant past, seem to have an irresistible attraction for the human heart.
In the social life of modern days, there is a tacit admission that he is entitled to
more than ordinary respect who can establish his contention, that the blood of many
respectable generations is coursing in his veins. In addition to the acknowledged
antiquity of their presence in Europe, the Celts have the additional satisfaction, that
the stream of their particular blood has flowed down with comparative purity during
many centuries; and that in the Celts of our day, there is a large absence of that
admixture of blood and nationality which is so marked in the Anglo-Saxon race.
Mommsen asserts ‘“‘ that the Greek and Italian are brothers, and that the Celts, the
German and Slavonian are their cousins.” Max Miller thus writes: “The fourth
branch of our family is the Celtic. The Celts seem to have been the first of the

_Aryans to arrive in Europe, but the pressure of subsequent migrations, particularly

of Teutonic tribes, had driven them towards the westernmost parts, and latterly from
Ireland ‘across the Atlantic. At present the only remaining dialects are the Kymric
and the Gadhelic. In former times the Celts not only enjoyed political autonomy,
but asserted it successfully against the Germans and Romans. Gaul, Belgium and
Britain were Celtic dominions, and the north of Italy was chiefly inhabited by them.
In the time of Herodotus we find Celts in Spain and Switzerland. The Tyrol and
the country south of the Danube have once been the seats of Celtic tribes ; but
after repeated inroads into the regions of civilization, familiarizing Latin and Greek
writers with the names of their kings, they disappear from the east of Europe.”
This is the opinion of Latham regarding the Kelioi: ‘‘ This stock was indigenous
to the water systems of the Loire, the Seine, the Rhone; in other words, to the
whole of France north of the Garonne, to the south of which river lay the Iberians.
From Gaul it spread to Great Britain. Its present representatives are the Bretons
of Brittany, the Welsh, the Gaels of Ireland and Scotland, and the Manxmen of the
Isle of Man.”

The early annals of Rome record a victory which the Gauls, under their leader, °
Brennus, obtained over the Romans. At Allia, in the neighbourhood of Rome, the
Romans sustained so severe a defeat in 391 B.C. that the Gauls were allowed io
occupy the city without much or any molestation. Though the inventive genius
of Roman historians has thrown a halo of romance over the departure of Brennus
and his Gauls from the city, the stubborn fact remains that the Gauls were at that
time brave and numeréus and powerful. Further, we learn from classic story that

ry ea ee

ve va

—

ee

———s

at iy Lie

r
,
4

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. E13

Gauls under the leadership of another Brennus invaded Greece in 279 B.C., and
were prevented by some miraculous interposition from gaining possession of the
treasures at Delphi. The Gauls were defeated and their leader was killed. After
their departure from Greece they crossed into Asia Minor, and finally settled in the
province which was known as Galatia—a name which doubtless owed its origin to
the Gauls who planted their homes in that portion of Asia Minor. Max Miiller and
others are of opinion that Brennus is akin to the Welsh Brennin; and that the meaning
of the word in question is king. The conjecture may be advanced that, as the two
leaders of the Gauls bore the same name, brennus may be regarded as a distinction
of office, or as an appellation which every Gaul who occupied the highest position
bore in virtue of his office. I am disposed to believe that Brennus is a Gaelic word ;
and that in it we have a faithful if not an unmistakable reproduction of Breitheanas,
or Judgment, or better still, Breith a nuas, Judgment from above. The presence in Gaelic
annals of Vergobretus, or Fear’ gu breith, or Man of Judgment, or judicial officer,
strengthens the conjecture that Brennus is a reproduction of our Gaelic word
Breitheanas.

Various opinions have been advanced as to what the true meaning of the term
Celt is. In his introduction to the “ Beauties of Gaelic Poetry” Mackenzie writes :
“The appropriate name which this remarkable people gave themselves was Celtae,
but the terms Calatae, Galatae or Gallatians, and Galli or Gaul, were adopted by the
Greeks and Romans, and were the appellations by which in later ages they were
usually distinguished. A more probable derivation is from the fair complexion by
which the ancients characterized this race. This is the Etymon given by Greek
scholars, as if the body were Galactoi, milky-coloured. And as G and C are com-
mutable letters, it must be confessed that the Gaelic Gaelta or Cealta has the closest
possible resemblance to Celta.” Zeuss, the erudite author of the Grammatica Celtica,
suggests that Gael has its origin in a word meaning wind; and that it, therefore,
signifies a violent, stormy people. Latham contends that Kelt means Mountaineer.
In the description which Virgil has given of the various scenes that were represented
on the shield of Aeneas, reference is made to the Gauls who captured Rome, “ Aurea
Caesaris ollis et aurea vestis.’”” Two allusions are found in Herodotus to the Celts.
His words, literally rendered, are these: ‘‘ For the River Danube, beginning from
the Kelts, and the City of Pyrene, flows, dividing the middle of Europe. But the
Celts, or Keltoi, are outside the pillars of Hercules, and border on the Cynesii, who
are the last that dwell toward the west of those who reside in Europe. The Isfer,
or Danube, beginning from the Celts, 7.e., having its source at the country of the
Celts, flows through the whole of Europe. The Celts are the last of the Europeans

after the Cynesii, who live in the direction of the setting of the.sun.’’ Pausanias

thus writes in reference to the Celts of his own time: “ The custom of calling them
Galatae or Gauls has only prevailed of late. They were formerly named Celtae,
both by themselves and others.” We may conclude with at least a large measure
of reason, that the words Keltoi, Galatai, Gaul and Gael have very much in common,
and that their signification is to a large extent the same. Kelt is a more ancient,
and doubtless a more comprehensive term than Gaidheal. So strong and palpable
is the relation which Gael bears to geal (white) that there is valid ground for
believing, in consideration of the argument which Mackenzie adduces, as well as of
the reference which is found in Virgil to the yellow or golden hair of the Gaul,
that the origin of the appellation, Celt or Gael, is to be traced to the fair complexion
of the ancient members of the Celtic race.

The earliest settlers of a country are wont to leave behind them indelible remin-
iscences in the names of mountains, streams and lochs. There can be no doubt
whatever that the word Alp is Celtic; and that we have in the very name of one of
the largest mountain ranges of Europe, an enduring proof that the Keltoi, at some
time in the remote past, inhabited that portion of Europe which is embraced by the
region of the Alps. There is an old Gaelic word Alp, which signifies a height or

Bibs PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

mountain, and hence we perceive that Alp is a very expressive designation. In the

word Apennines the root ben or beann, a hill or mountain, occurs; nor can there be

any difficulty in detecting a strong likeness, if not an identity, between the name of
the mountain range in Italy and Apwinn, the name of a hilly district in the north
of Argyllshire. Pyrenees (bryn, a hill), the name of the range of mountains whereby
Spain is separated from France, is a compound of bior, sharp, and bein, Biorbheinn,
sharp-pointed hills. When it is remembered that the letters b and p are convertible
in Gaelic, the similarity of the Gaelic word, Bior-bheinn, piorbheimn, and Pyrenees
will become apparent. The Gaelic word Tabh (water) is to be found in Loch Tay
and the River Tay in Perthshire, Scotland. There can be no doubt that the same
root, Tabh (Irish Tab), is traceable in the word Tiber, Tagus, Thames. It is said
that when the Roman soldiers beheld the Tay in Perthshire they exclaimed, Ecce
Tiberim. I find that Tacitus in his “ Agricola’? renders Tay by Taus; and, such
being the case, it is evident that Taws and Tagus are largely identical, and that in
the name of the latter river we have a Gaelic word which signifies water or ocean.
In the word Jtaly the presence of a Gaelic word is traceable. Eudailt, the Gaelic
name of that country, involving, as it does, Eudail, cattle, does not bear a very
far-fetched resemblance to Italy, and indicates that the fertility of that country has
always been very great. Very few suspect that Portugal is a genuine Gaelic word—

Port nan Gaidheal, the port or harbour of the Gaels. In Oporto, the presence of the —

same word port is to be found. The very fact that the harbour which Columba
entered when he first visited Jona bears to this day the designation of Port va
Curaich, is sufficient to show that port is a genuine Gaelic word; and that its presence
in Portugal justifies us in sending our thoughts back to a time when Gaelic was
spoken in that country. .

The names of some of the rivers of France are Gaelic. Rhine is compounded of
reidh, smooth, and amhainn, river. Rhone is compounded of ruadh and amhainn, the
Red river. Garonne is compounded of garbh, rough, and amhainn, river, the rough
river. Seine is compounded of seimh, smooth, and amhainn, river, the smooth river.
In Calais we have almost an exact reproduction of Caolas, a Gaelic word, which
signifies Firth or Strait. The narrowest part of the English Channel is at Calais.
In Baile Chaolais, a little village at the mouth of the famous Pass of Glencoe, in
the north of Argyllshire, a word which in its English form, Ballachulish, baffles the
skill of the English tourist so far as pronouncing it correctly is concerned, we have
the word Caolas, the farm or village of the strait. Thousands who are in the habit
of admiring the sublime scenery of the Kyles of Bute in the Frith of Clyde, are not
aware that Kyles is exactly the Gaelic word Caoil in its plural form, and, therefore,
signifying straits or narrows. In Colintraive, or Caol un t-snaimh, the strait of swini-

ming, we have another word into which the root of Calais enters as a component —

part. Dover, which stands opposite Calais on the other side of the English Channel,
is the Gaelic Dobhar, a word which means the border of a country. The examples
which have now been given of names of mountains and countries and rivers wherein
Gaelic roots are manifestly present, may suffice to indicate that the Celts inhabited
the south and south-west of Europe in the far-off past, and that they left monuments
behind them in the names of mountains, streams and rivers—monuments which no
power of victorious armies can ever demolish—monuments which will continue to
endure and to tell in their own mute language that the Celts once owned and
occupied that portion of the world.

Many questions may be asked in connection with the Gaelic words, Calais and

Dover. Is it not clear that the Celts in those far-off days were well aware that the

narrowest channel is between Calais and Dover ? Is not the surmise reasonable, that

they availed themselves of that particular part of the channel for going to Britain

and for returning from it? Is there not ground for the conjecture that the largest
stream of population must have entered Britain through the straits between Calais
and Dover? The names Calais and Dover will always indicate that if the Celts

Pr
]

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. I15

were not the earliest settlers in the neighbourhood of those places, they were at
least powerful and important enough to leave behind them a memorial which time
cannot obliterate. Aristotle is the first writer who mentions the British Isles by
name. His words are: “ Beyond the pillars of Hercules the ocean flows round the

' earth, and in it are two very large islands called British Bperavixa Aeyopeva

Albion and lerne lying beyond the Keltoi.” While the term British is employed by
Aristotle, he applies the name Albion to what is now known as England and Scot-
land. It is evident, therefore, that so far as the knowledge of the famous Greek
extended, the portions of British Isles which are now embraced by the kingdoms of
England and Scotland were regarded, it may be, as one kingdom, and bore one

designation. Pliny’s language is very similar to that of Aristotle: ‘‘ Albion ipsi
nomen fuit, cum Britanniae vocarentur omnes insulae.”” Stephanus of Byzantium
thus writes: ‘ Albion insula est hodie Britannia dicta ab albis rupibus quas mare

abluit.”” Julius Caesar came much in contact with the ancient inhabitants of Britain.
His description of their habits and their country is, therefore, full of interest. In
his “ De Bello Gallico”’ he informs us that “the interior of Britain is inhabited
by a race said to be aboriginal—the coast by invaders from Belgium, who, having
come over for the sake of spoil, have settled in the country. For money they use
either copper or pieces of iron of a certain weight. Tin is found in the interior of
the country, iron on the coasts, but the quantity is small. Copper is imported; the
timber is of the same kind as in Gaul, except the beech and the fir. The climate
is more temperate than in Gaul, the cold being less severe. By far the most civilized
are the inhabitants of Cantium (or Kent). They do not differ much in their customs
from the Gauls. The inhabitants of the interior do not, for the most part, sow corn,
but live on milk and flesh, and clothe themselves with skins. All the Britons stain
themselves with woad, which produces a blue colour, and gives them a more
formidable appearance in battle. They wear their hair long, and shave every part
of the body except the head and the upper lips. The Druids are engaged in matters
of religion, and have the care of public and private sacrifices. They are the arbiters
in almost all disputes, public and private, and assign rewards and punishments.
Whoever refuses to abide by their decision is excluded from the sacrifices, and thereby
put outside the pale of the law. The Druids are exempt from military service and
from the payment of taxes. Their chief doctrine is that souls do not perish with

their bodies, but are transferred after death to other bodies.”

In his life of Agricola, Tacitus details the fortunes of the Romans in Britain.
He particularly describes the exploits of his father-in-law in Caledonia and against
the Gaels whom Galgacus led. The speech which, following the example of classic
historians, he puts into the mouth of Galgacus, is remarkable for the patriotic spirit
that pervades it, as well as for the ingenious argument which the brave Gael adduces
to stir up the hearts and stimulate the heroism of his soldiers. It was at the
Grampians that the battle was fought between Agricola and Galgacus. The army
of the Gaelic warrior was defeated, and found instant refuge in the rocky portions
of Caledonia. May we not discern something akin to the division into clans which
subsequently prevailed in the Highlands of Scotland in these expressive words of
the Roman historian: ‘‘ Nec aliud adversus validissimas gentes pro nobis utilius
quam quod in Commune non consulunt.” The name Galgacus is evidently Gaelic.
It is virtually Gaidheal gagach, a stammering Gael—a Gael with an impediment in
his speech. Enthusiastic descendants of the heroes who fought under Galgacus are
wont to reflect with pride that, while the Roman arms were powerful in every corner
of the world, and while the bravest races were compelled at last to succumb to the
forces of the city on the seven hills, the Caledonians were never fully vanquished.

It defied the forces of Rome and her ablest generals to bring under her yoke the

intrepid inhabitants of Caledonia. I am disposed to think that into the term Gram-
pians there enters the adjective gorm or garbh, and beinn, gorm bheinn, or garbh
bheinn, green mountains or rugged mountains.

s

116 | ~—~—~—s*~PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

Many ethnological questions suggest themselves—questions as to how Great
Britain and Ireland were first settled; as to what course the stream or streams of
population took; as to whether thete had been two streams that entered Britain
irom the continent of Europe, or whether it is possible to maintain that the differ-
ences which have existed for many centuries between what Zeuss chooses to term ~
the Irish and British branches of the Kelts in Great Britain and Ireland—arose after
‘the Celts had fairly taken possession of the British Isles. Scholars who have
examined the question very carefully are disposed to believe that the differences
which now exist between the representatives of the ancient Celts began and were
developed in the British Isles, and are necessarily to be regarded as the result of
two independent streams of population from the continent of Europe. Latham
avers that, ‘no matter how unlike the Scotch and the Welsh may be, they are more
like than the English that lie between them.’ It is altogether probable, according
to a reasonable conjecture, that the route of which the earliest Celts availed them-
selves was the straits between Calais and Dover. The earliest settlers would extend
northwards and westwards, reaching Scotland, and advancing to that portion of it
- which was subsequently known as Caledonia. As to the manner in which Ireland
was peopled, for poetical legends are fanciful, it is natural to suppose that when the
western portion of Wales was reached adventurous Celts would cross to Ireland ;
and that, when the stream of population had fairly reached and taken possession of.
Scotland, so great and marked are the facilities which the south and west of that
country offer for crossing to Ireland, that Celts could in a very simple manner plant
homes in that island. Owing to the rude interference of the Romans, and to the
prowess of their arms, as well as on account of continuous invasions in later cen-
turies from the north and west of Europe, the Britons or the early occupants of
Great Britain found shelter in the mountainous regions of the country. In this
manner we can understand how Wales and the Highlands of Scotland came to be
inhabited strictly by Celts, and to furnish a home even to our own time for the
descendants of the early occupants of the British Isles. :

It has-already appeared, on the authority of Aristotle and others, that Albion
was at one time the name of what is now known as Great Britain, or as England
and Scotland. .The term Albion is now entirely confined to Scotland. We are wont
to say: I am a Scotchman, Js Albannach mise. 1 am a Highland Scotchman, /s Gaid-
heal Albannach mise. 1 was born in Scotland, Rugadh mi ann an Albainn. He is an
Englishman, Js e Sasunnach a tha ann. He was born in England, Rugadh e ann an
Sasunn. There is no Gaelic word to represent England or Englishmen directly.
We are wont to speak of England as Sasunn, or the land of the Saxons, and of
Englishmen as Saxons, Sasunnaich. It seems to me that as the word Albién, which
at one time was an appellation for Great Britain, has for. many centuries been
restricted to Scotland, we may find an argument in iavour of the supposition that
the Highlanders or the Gaels of Scotland are the descendants of the earliest Celts
who occupied Britain; that they, therefore, continue to speak of themselves as
Albannaich, a designation which must at one time have been general enough to
include all the Celts of the British Isles, and that the Britons are a later stream of
population than the Scottish Gaels.

Albion signifies the land or country of hills or mountains. Alb or Alp is the
same root which is to be found in Alps. Albion is compounded of Alb or Alp, for
b and p are convertible letters, and fonn, or with the aspirate fhonn, Alb- fhonn.
The root fonn or fhonn occurs in Eilean, eil fhonn, another land. Filean is the Gaelic
name for island. The same word, foun or fhonn, occurs in Oban, a term which
strictly means the land of bays or creeks, an apt designation, as anyone will admit
who has seen Oban in Argyllshire, and who has taken notice of the physical features
of that bay and its neighbourhood. The same root, foun or fhonn, is to be found in
Sasunn, England, the land of the Saxons, and in Eirinn, Ireland. The derivation of.
Albion (ab albis rupibus) from the white rocks of Britain is not to be regarded with :

BO te PROCEEDINGS OF THE

ay, + Mi.
“aia! Ae ty 2
ie

CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 117

any serious attention. The common derivation which is assigned to Eirinn (Ireland)

is I iar-fhonn, the land of the western isle; or, the land of the island of the west.
The letter I (island) occurs in Iona, Islay and many other topographical names.

Max Miiller gives in a footnote in his first series of lectures on the Science of

Language, a very learned and elaborate disquisition by an eminent Irish scholar on
the etymology of the word Eirinn. The most enthusiastic admirer of the Celtic race
can scarcely maintain that the Celts of those far-off times had even an -approxi-

mation to the philosophical ingenuity that is involved in the disquisition on the word

Eirinn, to which allusion has just been made. I hold the opinion that the common
explanation of Eirinn is correct, and that the disquisition to which Max Miller has
given a place in his lectures is too learned to be of any practical value.

Various derivations of the word Breatuun have been advanced. Js Breatunnach

mise, lama Briton. Rugadh mise ann am Breatunn, I was born in Britain. Breatunn
and Breatunnach are, therefore, Gaelic words, and are very commonly employed.
Some one has contended that Breatunn is a compound of brait, extensive, and m, an

island; and that, therefore, the signification accordingly is an extensive island. The

presence of a fertile imagination is so unmistakably manifest in that interpretation
of Breatunn that no importance can be attached to it. An ingenious explanation of
Breatunn has been given by Mr. Clark in his “ Caledonian Bards,’ where he contends
that the components of the word in question are Braigh, top, and tonn, waves. The
argument whereby it is sought to defend that interpretation is very ingenious :
“That Britain was at first peopled from the opposite coast of Gaul is a rational
hypothesis, and accordingly it has been adopted by the most eminent historians.
As Britain was within sight of Gaul, the inhabitants would bestow on it some name
before they crossed the channel, is a supposition not altogether improbable.
Ingenuity could certainly suggest no term more significant of the appearance of
Britain from France, viewing it over the convexity which the globe forms in the
breadth of some part of the channel, than the land on the top of the waves.’ To over-
throw the fanciful interpretation that Britain means the land on the top of the waves,
it is sufficient to consider that there is no syllable to correspond with land in Breatunn ;
and that in the last syllable win there is evidently present the same root which forms
the termination of Albion, Eirinn, Sasunn. The word Breatunn has also been resolved
into Breac Innis, the variegated island. I find that Prydain is the name of the first
legendary King of Britain, and that from him the British Isles have taken the appel-
lation, Ynis Prydain. To contend that Breatunn had its origin in Breton, the name
of that portion of Gaul from which the Celts emigrated to Great Britain, is merely
to thrust the difficulty aside, and not to explain it at all. Professor Rhys, of Oxford,
has in recent years advanced another interpretation of Breatunn. THe asserts that
when the Romans came to Britain they: learned the name Britannia or Brettann,
which the Brythones gave themselves. He is of opinion that Britanni and Brettaini
are regarded as of the same origin as the Welsh brith. spotted, parti-coloured—
feminine braith; and that there can be found in them a reference to the painting or
tatooing the body, already alluded to more than once. “It would appear,” he writes,
“that the word Brythan and its congeners mean a clothed or cloth-clad people.

There is no reason why the name should not be treated as exclusively belonging

in Britain to the non-Goidelic branch of the Celts of. the second invasion. But
some time later, there arrived another Celtic people with another Celtic language,
which was probably, to all intents and purposes, the same as that of the Gaul. These
later invaders called themselves Brittones, and seized cn the best portions of Britain.
driving the Goidelic Celts before them to the west and north of the island.” It
seems, however, to be impossible to explain the term Breatunn in a manner that can
be regarded as altogether satisfactory.

‘The Picts and Scots are by common consent admitted to have played a promi-
nent and restless part in the early annals of Great Britain. In a paper which I
prepared for the Canadian Institute last session, I entered somewhat fully into the

118 ; PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

discussion of the question as to who the Picts and Scots were. In his dissertation
on the poems of Ossian, MacPherson remarks that the Caledonians, who possessed

the east coast of Scotland, applied themselves to the raising of corn or to agricul-

ture. It was from that employment that the Gaelic name of Picts proceeded, for

they are called Cruithnich, 1.e., the wheat or corn-eaters. I may add that the ety-—
mology of Cruithnich is identical with that of Crwithneachd, the Gaelic word for

wheat; cruth, form, and sneachd, snow, the reference doubtless being to the white

colour of the flour which is extracted from wheat.

With regard to the term Caledonia, it has to be observed that it was never applied
by the Gaels of Scotland to their own country; and that it comprised that portion
of country which lies to the north of the Forth. Dunkeld, in Perthshire, has been
regarded as the capital of the Caledonian Gaels when the Romans first invaded that
portion of Scotland. Dunkeld, or Duncalden, forms the substratum of Caledonia.
Among the various explanations which have been given of Caledonia, the most
plausible seems to be Dun a Chaltuinn, the hillock of the hazel, and not Dun Cael-
dhaoine, the stronghold of the Gaelic people. St. Columba is said to have resided at
Dunkeld for some time about 570 A.D. There rose then at Dunkeld a royal mon-
astery, which subsequently attained to great eminence.

Zeuss prefers to divide the Celtic tribes and languages of Great Britain and
Ireland into the Irish and British branches—the former including the Celts of Ireland, —
and of the Highlands of Scotland and of the Isle of Man, the latter including the
Welsh and the Armoricans in Brittany. It is abundantly evident that those in whose
veins the blood of Galgacus and his heroes, of Taliessin and Ossian, of Fingal and
Arthur is now flowing, are honouring themselves by taking a warm interest in the
language which, venerable with years and use, continues to be still spoken, and to
have in many cases the vigour and persuasiveness of olden times. Max Miller
affirms “ that the language of England may be said to have been in succession Celtic,
Saxon, Norman and English. The history of the Celtic language runs to the present
day. It matters not whether it be spoken by all the inhabitants of the British Isles
or by only a small minority in Wales, Ireland and Scotland. A language, so long
as it is spoken by anybody, lives and has its substantive existence. The last old
woman, Dorothy Pentreath, that spoke Cornish, and to whose memory it is now
intended to raise a monument, represented by hesselt alone the ancient language of
Cornwall.” ef Fae abi

ee el —
ae ee re

ee

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. IIg

Tue ANATOMY OF THE OranG-OutTanc. By A. Primrose, M.B., EDIN.
(Read December 18, 1897.)

A good specimen of the arimal was obtained in the Anatomical Department
of the University of Toronto during the autumn of 1897. This animal, which is
the chief representative of the Anthropoid Apes in Asia, is found in the islands
of Borneo and Sumatra. A series of phatographs were made of the creature, and
by this means the external characteristics were readily studied. The shape of the
cranium is very similar to the human type, but the facial region of the skuil pro-
jects very prominently, so as to produce a markedly diminished facial angle.
Thus the photograph taken in profile shows a projecting muzzle, which is far
removed from anything cf the kind found in the skull of man. The nose is short
and depressed, so that the anterior nares look upwards and forwards. The fore-
head is high and fairly prominent, in this respect differing from the condition
found in the Chimpanzee, in which the forehead is retreating; in the Orang, in fact,
there are frontal eminences to some extent developed. The eyelids are wrinkled,
so that a series of grooves parallel to the free margin exist in both the upper and
the lower eyelid. The eyes are never widely open in the Orang. From the margin of
the lid project well develcped eyelashes. The lips are very wide, and possess a
great degree of mobility: the degree of mobility may be appreciated even in the
dead animal when one separates the lips and exposes the jaw arches. The dental
formula is similar to that of man—in this specimen a noticeable feature was the
width and flatness of the central incisors. There is no prominence in the region
of the chin. There is a very gradual curve extending from the free margin of the
lower lip and merging below into the outline of the neck. The ear of the Orang and
the Chimpanzee is said to be curiously like man; this statement is borne out in the
present instance. The ear stands out fairly prominently from the side of the head,
but not more so than in many men. Along the edge of the infolded margin of
the ear, near its upper part, there exists in man a blunt-pointed process, to which
Darwin has called attention, and which is supposed to represent that part of the
ear which exists in many monkeys as an upper pointed extremity without any
infolding. We find that a well marked process representing Darwin’s point is

present in this Orang. There is no lobule; it is entirely absent. In man the

lobule is very frequently absent also. The Orang possesses a short, thick neck, of
ereat strength. Lastly, in connection with the head of this animal one must note
the absence of any wrinkles in the forehead. In man the wrinkling of the fore-
head forms one of the most characteristic forms of expression, but we find no
trace of such in this Orang. The fact that this form of expression is not possessed
by the Orang has been noticed by various observers.

The long arms of the Orang, reaching below the knees, and the comparatively
short lower extremities, are noticeable features of the animal. In this respect it
differs from man, in whom the lower extremities exceed the upper extremities in
iength and are much more strongly developed, thus serving more efficiently as a
basis of support in the erect attitude. It must be remarked, however, that this
remarkable elongation of the upper extremities in apes is also reproduced in many
negroes, and occasionally in Europeans.

In an eddress delivered at the recent meeting of the Anthropological Section
of the British Association, in Toronto, Sir William Turner selected as his subject
“Some Distinctive Characters of Human Structure.’ Among other things he

ae

I20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

referred to the markings which are found in the integument in the palm of the
hand and the sole of the foot. I have made photographs of the palm and the
sole in the Orang, and these well illustrate the conditions found as described by
Prof. Turner in the Anthrepoid Apes. The two oblique lines which run from
the base of the index finger to the inner side of the palm in the human hand indi-
cate the lines along which the fingers are bent in towards the palm. The obliquity
of these lines in man is in contrast to the transverse direction of the lines as
shown in the photographs of the Orang. It is quite obvious that the oblique

direction in man indicates that the fingers are more directly opposed to the thumb

in man than is the case in the Ape. Thus, in the Orang, the fingers are folded
more directly into the palm, as would-be the case if the animal were grasping a
cylindrical object, hence transverse lines result and the fingers are not to any appre-
ciable extent opposed to the thumb, which, by the way, is a very rudimentary struc-
ture in the anthropoid apes as compared with the thumb of man. This rudimentary
thumb in the Orang, is, however, capable of opposition, and therefore we find that
the deep groove which is found separating the eminence at the root of the thumb
in man is also found in the Orang. In the Orang we find, too, that there is a well
marked groove marking off an eminence at the root of the little finger. When
we come to examine the sole of the foot in the Orang we find here a very charac-
teristic condition. A well-marked line is developed at the root of the great toe,
indicating the line along which the great toe is opposed to the other toes. This
is a characteristic not possessed by man, in whom the great toe is not capable of
opposition and in whom this mark is entirely absent. Further, the lines at the
roots of the toes are in reality more oblique in the foot of the Orang than in the
hand of the same animal. This would indicate that the foot is better adapted for
grasping objects than the hand, and that opposition of the smaller toes to the great
toe is more perfect than is the similar movement of opposition in the hand. In
the foot of the Orang, further is to be noted the great length of the toes, producing
a marked resemblance to a hand. The great toe is very much shorter than the
remaining digits, but it is strongly developed otherwise and is much more effec-
tive aS a grasping agent than the corresponding digit in the hand. This foot of the
Ape so much resembles a hand that it has been called a foot-hand; the term “ pedi-
manous’’ has been used to describe the condition. When we come to examine the
structure of the foot, however, and study the bones, muscles, ligaments, etc., we find
that, morphologically, we are dealing with a foot, and from that standpoint it is in
no-sense a hand. Physiologically, however, it performs the functions of a hand
as well as of a foot. Turner alludes to an interesting point regarding the develop-
nient of the markings on the palm, namely, that they are found in the human
embryo at a very early stage of development, long before they could be accounted
for by movements occurring in the hand of the embryo. This would indicate that the
markings themselves were hereditary and are not simply acquired - after the vari-
otis movements which they indicate are brought about.

The Orang possesses a highly developed brain. In the particular animal we
are describing the brain was removed and examined. The antero-posterior dia-
meter of the brain is less in proportion to the transverse diameter than it is in man.
The brain of the Orang may be described as a round-oval. The characteristic
fissures and convolutions of the human brain are readily distinguished in the Orang.
The external occipital fissure is much longer than in man. This is so characteris-
tic of the brain of apes that it is known as the “Simian Fissure.” The Island
of Reil is completely overlapped in the Orang by an operculum. The third frontal
convolution—said to be characteristic of man—is certainly not well defined in the
example before us. This convolution of the left side in man is the so-called “speech
centre.” The convolutions about the fissure of Rolando—the Motor Area—are well
developed. \

Ss seek ae

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. I21

The abdominal viscera were examined and one noted the existence of a long,
well developed vermiform appendix. This structure is present in the Orang and
the Chimpanzee among Anthropoid Apes, but is generally absent in Monkeys and
in the majority of Mammals. One noted also the entire absence of those redupli-
cations of the mucous membrane of the small intestine which are described in

man as the “ Valvulae Conniventes.”’

The author of this paper proposes to make a complete dissection of the Orang,
and hopes to make a further communication to the Institute when the work is
complete.

122 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

THE TRANSPORTATION QueEsTIoN. By J. S. Wixtison, Esq.
(Read April 16, 1898.)
te

A discussion of the transportation problem in the language of hysterical Popu-
lism unfits the public mind for a sane judgment and drives Legislatures and Parlia-
ments to attempt legislation so rash, extreme and impracticable that rational reform
is embarrassed, disastrous reaction invited and the public authority discredited.
Too often that class of vociferous patriots who move against the railway corpora-
tions with a fleet of froth and an army of adjectives accomplish no other result
than to inflame the public temper, disturb legitimate private investments and hurt
the national credit. Always in the field of economics the forces of order are “ turn-
ing to scorn with lips divine the falsehood of extremes.” Indiscriminate denunci-
ation is the vice of the press and the pastime of democracies. We in Canada, in
recent days, have had much hearty denunciation of railway monopoly, and corpora- ~
tion-baiting threatens to become the chief business of some of our influential journals
and of an active and aggressive wing of our politicians. It is beyond doubt that we
have made grave mistakes in railway policy. We have been cheated by the phantom
of railway competition. We have unwisely duplicated pioneer lines. We have
rashly vested great tracts of the public heritage in railway corporations. But we
are a young community, at least in range of settlement and in measure of develop-
ment, and we have had great problems to solve; and it was perhaps inevitable that
just as we gave noble forests of timber to the fire in clearing the virgin lands of
older Canada, so we should make a prodigal use of the resources of the west in
laying the lines of rail communication across the continent. Now, as to these
grave follies of statesmanship and grave errors of policy, we can perhaps do nothing
better than to say with Bacon: ‘“ That which is past is gone and irrevocable, and
wise men have enough to do with things present and to come; therefore they do
but trifle with themselves that labor in past matters.”

Wh ; ;

We should remember, too, that railway transportation has not been a pro-
fitable business in Canada, that millions of English capital have been sunk irre-
trievably in the Grand Trunk, that with the slow growth of settlement in the west
only exceptional resource and exceptional enterprise could have maintained the
Canadian Pacific as a going concern, and that both of our great through roads
have been heavily burdened with unprofitable branches. Canada’s reputation in the
money markets of the world depends upon a few of its great enterprises. For half
a century the spectre of the Grand Trunk has stood at the elbow of the Canadian
financier and promoter on the London money market, and all over this country
there are idle mines, and untilled acres, and rich fields of natural wealth undeveloped
that would have been opened and occupied by the strong arm of British capital —
if the melancholy story of the Grand Trunk had not been written in financial Lon-
don. If the Canadian Pacific had met a like fate, a blow would have been dealt
us from which we could not have recovered for a generation. We can imagine
what a blow would be dealt at the private and public credit of the United States
if half the railway system of the Republic were to be plunged into bankruptcy, and
when we face the fact that the Canadian Pacific system embraces half the railway

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 123

mileage of Canada, it is manifest that the maintenance of its credit is of vital im-
portance to the Canadian people. The improving credit of the Grand Trunk and
the established credit of the Canadian Pacific are facts of great consequence to
Canada among the nations who supply capital for the development and men for
the settlement of new lands; and while we do right to be jealous for the authority
of this free community over its carrying corporations, we should be slow to work
ourselves into the passionate temper of western Populism, and thereby check the
movement of capital from the uneasy centres of the United States into the undevel-
oped Canadian Provinces. Capital is mobile. It will not rest where it is constantly
menaced by political agitation. It will not seek investment where political con-
ditions are unstable, and established enterprises harassed by revolutionary political
experiments. The best service we can do for Canada is to introduce into our
public controversies and to incorporate into our code of laws the prudence, the sanity,
the steadiness of the British political temper and the sober courage and inflexible
justice of British legislation.

i,

One lesson that a democracy finds hard to learn is that legislation cannot be
made omnipotent. In Great Britain, more than in any other country, the practical
limitations of Parliamentary authority are understood and appreciated. There,
after fruitful centuries of trial and experiment in all the fields of coercive legislation,
from statutes fixing the wages of laborers and the prices of goods at wholesale and
retail, to statutes declaring the value of money and restraining the freedom of trade,
private employments are at length safe from the British legislator, while over public
employments the authority of Parliament is absolute and unquestioned. Railways
operate in the field of public employments, exercise rights of expropriation and hold
public franchises, and therefore the inferiority of the carrying corporations to the
sovereign authority of Parliament is established and the right of regulation and
control freely asserted. In truth, the authority of the people over transportation
agencies is well settled in all free countries, and argument upon that point may
rest. Having settled that these powers are vested in Parliament, the question is,
through what machinery they can best be exercised. The Railway Committee of
the Privy Council at Ottawa has large powers, but these have been but feebly em-
ployed for the protection of the public interest, and the technical defences of skilled
counsel and the active zeal of equally skilled lobbyists make its procedure tedious
and complicate its judgments with political considerations. Then the dealer, who
may be prejudiced by discriminatory favors to a competitor; the farmer, whose
safety may be imperilled by a dangerous crossing; the town or village, whose pro-
gress may be checked by the concession of lower freight charges to a rival com-
munity; the carrier that may be refused reasonable interchange of traffic by a com-
petitor—each and all of these have found the Railway Committee inadequate to
give satisfactory redress. The individual citizen, aggrieved by railway greed or
vindictive discrimination, cannot go to the capital and lay his grievance before the
committee. The cost is too great, the undertaking too onerous. He requires the
privilege of communicating his complaint to a public commissioner, and upon the
commissioner should rest the responsibility of investigating the complaint and
redressing the injustice. The commission must operate through methods of con-
ciliation as well as through methods of compulsion. There is no doubt that in
many cases the American advisory commissions, that is, the commissions with
power only to report the facts and leave to public opinion, either acting directly
on the railway corporations or through the Legislature, the remedy for the evils
established, have been influential in redressing the more flagrant discriminations
and injustices of railway managers, and in Massachusetts, for example, it has not
been thought necessary to adopt more drastic legislation. But at most the power

124 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

of the advisory commissions is no greater than the force of public opinion and
public opinion ‘is likely to be inactive, except during seasons when the transpor-
tation question is a main issue in the press or in politics, or some very special griev-
ance looms large in the public eye.

IV.

It is a common notion that in Great Britain the railways are effectually con-
trolled by the Board of Commissioners created in 1873, and vested with the powers
of jurisdiction exercised by the Court of Common Pleas under the old law (Act
of 1854). Mr. Stickney, in his new book on State Control of Trade and Com-
merce, declares that this Act is ‘‘amply sufficient to redress any substantial injuries
done by common carriers to the public,’ and that in the field of private employ-
ments the growth of the law “has been from a condition of minute and annoying
restriction to one of complete freedom,’ while in the case of public carriers it “ has
been from a condition of comparative freedom to one of complete and adequate
supervision and control.’’ This conclusion will not bear investigation. It was the
judgment that I had reached from a study of the American books dealing with the
railway question, but even a perfunctory and inadequate study of the question on
the ground made it plain that the laws regulating common carriers are not as well
enforced in Great Britain as in the United States. The great British railway cor-
porations have enormous political and commercial power. There are now 140 rail-
way directors in the Imperial Parliament. The British railways support the Par-
liamentary bar, they control influential organs of financial opinion, they keep a
strong hand upon the course of legislation, and they discriminate against the do-
mestic in favor of the foreign shipper to a degree that is intolerable. It seems to
be the fact that grain and other food products are carried from Calcutta or from
New York to London for rates much lower than are charged on similar home
products from mid-England into the metropolis. The British agriculturist suffers
almost as seriously from railway discrimination as from hereditary landlordism,
and German and Belgian and American competition with British manufacturers
is greatly aggravated and materially promoted by the secret discriminations and
lower rates made for foreign competitors with British industries.

a

There is combination to maintain domestic rates and open or secret competi-
tion for the carriage of foreign goods. This, in fact, seems to be a feature of railway
administration the world over. The policy of the railway managers everywhere
is to enforce the maximum rate on home traffic, and to compete for foreign ship-
ments at any rate that may be necessary to secure the business. The subsidized
railways of Canada carry American goods at rates so much lower than the charges
exacted tipon native products that in many cases the discrimination more than
offsets the advantages of the Canadian tariff. No doubt the result of this policy
is to increase the bulk earnings of the Canadian roads, and, it may be argued, en-
ables the companies to reduce the average of transportation charges. But the
inevitable tendency is to build up foreign rather than Canadian ports and foreign
tather than home industries, and to unduly burden local traffic in the interest of
through business. As between Germany or Belgium and Great Britain the effect is
peculiarly and particularly objectionable. The German and Belgian railroads are
owned and operated by the State. There are, therefore, no secret rates or discrim-
inations on the German and Belgian roads, and the embargo which British railways
put upon British trade is unknown within Germany and Belgium, and the British
manufacturer enjoys no such advantages in the German or Belgian market as the
German or Belgian manufacturer and trader enjoy in the market of Great Britain.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 125

But the British people are moving. Some of the younger British politicians have
been making a close study of the State railways of the continent; there is unrest
among the agricultural population, and manufacturers are awakening to the in-
justice of these intolerable discriminations in favor of their foreign competitors.
And once the British people are thoroughly roused to the existence of an injustice,
reform comes speedily and thoroughly. It may be that for the moment the British
people would not consider State ownership, but we must remember that they have
taken over the telegraph service, that that service is operated as efficiently as the
postal service, and it is at least my conviction that before the world is much older
we shall have in Great Britain a formidable movement for State ownership of the
carrying corporations, and that public ownership rather than public regulation will
be the future railway policy of England. More than half a century ago, as far back-
as 1844, Mr. Gladstone put through the British Parliament a measure, to take effect
21 years thereafter, declaring the right of the State to take over the railways al
such time as the people might determine to be propitious and advantageous, and
that the price should be 25 years’ purchase of the ‘‘ annual divisible profits estimated
on the average of the three then next preceding years;’ and it is a noteworthy
fact that, notwithstanding this Act, some of the ablest advocates of State railways
in Great Britain counsel delay on the ground that the railway corporations have
such vast political power that they would force Parliament to pay for their roads
a price far in excess of their actual value.

VI.

Mr. Clement Edwards, in his new work on Railway Nationalization, makes an
interesting estimate of the possible financial results of State purchase of the British
railways. The profits of the British roads are put at £38,046,065, or 4 per cent. on
the capital invested. He believes that the State railway stock would be taken up
at 21-2 per cent. as a maximum. This would leave a margin of nearly 1 1-2 per
cent. on the transaction. He estimates saving by unity of management at £10,-
000,000. Thus he would increase the profits from £38,000,000 to £48,000,000, and after
deducting 2 1-2 per cent., £23,775,000, to cover the interest on the Government rail-
way stock, he would get a net profit to the State of over £24,000,000. He would
thus be enabled to reduce freight rates by 20 per cent., absorbing 48,807,000, reduce
passenger fares by 20 per cent., absorbing £7,472,000, and use £4,000,000 to reduce
hours of labor and improve wages, and still have nearly £4,000,000 to provide for a
sinking fund and exceptional contingencies. Mr. Edwards adds: “The recoup-
ment from increased traffic could be used for still further reducing rates and fares,
and augmenting the sinking fund to facilitate redemption of purchase, remembering
always, however, that the lower the rates and fares are reduced to a certain point,
the greater the traffic, and the better for the nation.” This is an optimistic calcula-
tion, but in sober truth it seems to be warranted by the experience of State operation
of railways on the continent.

VIL.

A remarkable illustration of the effect of cheap fares on passenger traffic is
afforded by the introduction of the zone system in Austria and Hungary. In these
countries, under this system, one may travel first-class by fast express at a penny
and a third a mile, and third-class at less than a half-penny a mile. In Hungary,
for the four years from 1889 to 1892, the number of passengers carried increasee
from 5,684,845 to 38,325,151, and in Austria, for the six years from 188 to 1894.
the increase in the number of passengers ran up from 42,582,726 to 102,897,828, an
increase of 600 per cent. in Hungary and of 140 per cent. in Austria, as compared
with 1 per cent. increase in Great Britain. Then, while the Hungarian railways were

126 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.
paying 3.48 per cent., when the zone system was adopted they paid 6 per cent. in
1892, and while in ’89 the Austrian railways paid 4.01 per cent., in ’94 they paid
4.08 per cent. It is quite likely that in Great Britain the zone system and cheap fares
would yield as good results, and possibly in the United States and Canada the
results would be hardly less satisfactory. The main fault to be found with passen-
ger rates on this continent is that they are made to carry a great percentage of
deadheads, and of the very class who are best able to travel at their own expense.
li this mortuary department were abolished there is little doubt that the Canadian
railways could give a two-cent rate without impairment of revenue, even if but a
very moderate increase of passenger traffic were secured.

VIII.

The United States has a better railway literature, a greater body of railway
legislation, and has made, at least in some of the States, a more determined attempt
to regulate and control the carrying corporations than any other country. The re-
sults have not been wholly satisfactory. The operation of the laws has been embar-
rassed by a conflict of jurisdiction, the half-heartedness of Legislatures, and the
hostility, or at least the unsympathetic attitude, of the courts. Only such traffic as
originates and terminates within a State is subject to the State Commissions, while
the authority of the Interstate Commission is limited to interstate traffic. This con-
dition requires concurrent action between the State and Interstate Commissions,
creates confusion, gives occasion for technical disputes, necessitates a divided soy-
ereignty, and blocks and complicates the work of the commissions. Still much
has been accomplished, particularly by the strong State Commissions, and the work
oi the Interstate Board has been by no means unfruitful or ineffective. In The
Atlantic Monthly for April there is an admirable review of the work of the Federal
Railway Commission since its creation in 1877. The writer, Mr. H. C. Adams, is
the statistician of the Interstate Commerce Board, and ranks high among the
authorities on the subject. He tells us that the idea of the commission was that
“authoritative principles of railway transportation should be developed very much
as legal principles attain their growth,” that to this end it was necessary that a large
variety of cases of discrimination and unjust rates should be considered, and that
in some way this result must be realized if the control of railways through com-
missions is to prove a permanent part of the political organization, and he argues
that “had the courts been willing to grant the commission the interpretation that
Congress assured for it when it was passed, the railway problem would by this
time have approached more nearly its final solution.” Notwithstanding this, how-
ever, there has been a marked movement toward uniformity in administration, a
useful service of statistics has been developed, and a far step has been taken to-
ward a uniform system of railway accounts. He points out that ‘‘if there be but
one system of accounts for all corporations subject to the jurisdiction of the com-
mission, it is necessary only to master the principles, rules and classifications of
one system in order to gain a mastery of all,” and he declares that “out of the
opinions expressed upon cases there has begun to develop a system of authoritative
rules and established interpretations, which, sooner or later, will come to be recog-
nized as a body of administrative law for inland transportation.”

IX.

Mr. Adams gives this compact statement of the main conclusions that have
been reached by the commission:

“Tt has been decided that a just schedule of rates will not tend to acetate the
natural advantages for the production and sale of goods possessed by localities;

as -

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 127)

ard when the same commodity is transported by two or more different modes of
carriage the charge should be uniform for the unit of commodity.

“Group rates, by which a given commodity produced at different points
within a prescribed territory is rated as though shipped from a single point, do not
constitute a discrimination repugnant to the law; but this opinion is limited to
the cases presented and is not set forth as a general principle.

“A rate on one commodity in a class, or on one class of commodities, cannot
be justly depressed so as to become a burden on the transportation of other commo-
dities or classes of commodities.

“The law does not impose upon the carrier the duty of providing such a rate
that goods may be sold at a profit to their producers.

“The car-load, and not the train-load, is the proper transportation unit, but
higher charges may be made for goods in less than car-load lots; with this excep-
tion, the decisions of the commission have been consistently against the application
of the ‘ wholesale’ principle in the adjustment of railway charges.”’

“Not only must a just schedule of rates rest on a just base, but the relative
rates on competitive articles must be such as not to disturb the natural order of
competition.

“A just schedule of rates will conform to the competitive equities that exist
between goods shipped at different stages in the process of their manufacture.

* All shippers should have at their disposal equal facilities of transportation;
but in judging of local advantages, care must be taken not to confound those that
are artificial with those that are natural.

x

It has to be added that the experience of the United States has established
beyond controversy that in order to the successful operation of railway commis-
sions authority must be granted to compel witnesses to testify, that the investiga-
tions of a commission must be final on matters of fact, that an order of the commis-
sion must be enforced unless the courts shall find some material error in its pro-
ceeding and judgment, and that a commission must have the right to prescribe a
reasonable rate, as well as to declare that a rate fixed by a carrier is unreasonable.
The closing words of Mr. Adams’ sane and moderate paper are well worth quoting.
He says: “ The record of the Interstate Commerce Commission during the past
ten years, as it bears upon the theory of public control over monopolistic industries
through the agency of commissions, cannot be accepted as in any sense final. It
may ultimately prove to be the case, as Ulrich declares, that there is no compromise
between public ownership and management on the one hand and private ownership.
and management on the other; but one has no right to quote the ten years’ ex-
perience of the Interstate Commerce Commission in support of such a declaration.
This is true, because the law itself scarcely proceeded beyond the limit of suggesting
certain principles and indicating certain processes, and Congress has not, by the
amendments passed since 1887, shown much solicitude respecting the efficiency of
the Act. It is true, also, because the courts have thought it necessary to deny
certain authorities claimed by the commission, and again, Congress has not
shown itself jealous for the dignity of the administrative body which it created.
And, finally, it is true because the duty of administering the Act was imposed upon
the commission without adequate provision in the way of administrative machin-
ery, and ten years is too short a time to create that machinery, when every
step is to be contested by all the processes known to corporation law-
yers. For the public the case stands where it stood ten years ago. Now, as
then, it is necessary to decide on the basis of theory, and in the light of political,
social and industrial considerations rather than on the basis of a satisfactory test,
whether the railways shall be controlled by the Government without being owned

128 a PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

or controlled through Governmental ownership. The danger is that the country
will drift into an answer of this question without an appreciation of its tremendous
significance.”’

XI.

The public regulation of railway rates in Canada is not beset with some of the
most formidable difficulties that have embarrassed and crippled the commissions
in the United States. We have practically only two great through railways, in the
main they operate under very similar territorial conditions, and by the Federal
Acts declaring most of the Provincial branch railways to be roads for the general
advantage of Canada the Federal Parliament would seem to have authority over the
entire railway system of the country. We may be sure, however, that the validity
of the laws which have authorized the summary seizure of the Provincial railways
will be tested when we come to establish and attempt to operate a Federal railway
commission. There are three possible courses open to the Canadian people: (1)
The present system of spasmodic railway competition, and enduring and unregulated
railway combination; (2) regulation and control by a strong Federal commission;
(3) public ownership and operation. The third is no doubt the final solution, but
it is probably remote in Cauada. I do not believe that it would be sound policy
to attempt to regulate great through systems by building patches of Government
read in various parts of the Dominion. There is, however, much to be said in favor
oi natural extensions of the Intercolonial and the acquirement of natural and pro-
fitable branches of the Government railway. But in the main one must have either
a system of public railways or a system of private railways. For the Government
to go into the business of competition with private railways would be unwise, and
would mean the adoption of a policy discredited by the experience of Germany and
other countries. The result would be either the ruin of the private railways and
enormous deficits at Ottawa, or the public roads would simply fetch and carry for
the private corporations. In the end we would have to take over the pfivate roads
or hand our Government roads over to the private concerns, and in either case we
would then find the country burdened with hundreds of miles of unnecessary rail-
way. Our best and soundest policy for the time is to create a strong railway com-
mission, vested with power to abolish discriminations as between particular indivi-
duals and rival communities, to force a fair interchange of traffic between rival lines,
and to establish some reasonable relation between local and through charges. If
we can regulate by commission we can regulate without Government railways. To
adopt the double method would be costly and absurd. If we can make regulation
effective over the Grand Trunk and the Canadian Pacific it would be folly to create
a new great through line in order to divide the traffic and increase railway charges
to the farmers and traders of the country. For every mile of new railway you con-
struct an additional charge is jaid on the people for railway support, and at least
in a sparsely settled country it is only by increase of traffic that material reduction
oi rates can be secured.

XII.

There are grave objections to the policy of subsidizing railways out of the
Federal Treasury. Most of us are convinced that the system of Provincial subsidies
was a mistake, although if we look far enough we shall probably agree that upon
no other condition could we have induced the eastern Provinces to come into the
Confederation and surrender their control over customs revenue. But the subsidies
to’ Provinces are arbitrarily determined by growth of population and the terms of
union. While in the case of Federal subsidies to local railways there is no fixed
_ basis of distribution, localities and Provinces are not unlikely to engage in a com-
petition for Federal favors, and in too many cases party considerations rather than

&

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 129

the public interest determine the distribution of the public money. We are fond of
saying that railways should be undertaken purely as commercial enterprises; but
with an empire to colonize, vast spaces to open in the west and enormous natural
obstacles to overcome, and settlement scattered over wide leagues of prairie, it is
doubtful if any practical government could conclude that liberal aid to pioneer
roads or the construction of pioneer roads by the State was not a wise and legiti-
mate feature of any well-considered plan of colonization. Theory counts for a good
deal more in print than in government. We owe something to remote and strug-
gling settlements, and if we proceed wisely we reap a return in growth of markets,
expansion of trade and increase of revenue. It does seem clear, however, that we
should vote no more public money to our great through systems, and that, richly
and prodigally endowed as they have been out of the public treasury, they should
now construct their own branches, and even as in the case of street railways, where
they enjoy a monopoly in any rich territory, they should be required by Parlia-
ment to push out new branches as increase and extension of settlement demand.

XIII.

It seems for the moment to be the policy of Parliament to reserve running
rights over new roads for possible competitors. It may be that this policy involves
the continuation of the system of subsidies. In cases where heavy public subsidies
are voted to aid in the construction of railways that become the property of pri-
vate companies, it is perhaps not unreasonable that the State should reserve the
right to give future competitors the privilege of running over rails that have been
laid with public money. But in the case of roads that are built wholly by private
capital, it would seem to be an extreme exercise of the public authority to give
competitors, seeking to share in a business they had done nothing to create, the
right to use the roadbed and station accommodation of the pioneer corporations.
This policy was tried in England, but was found to operate as a very serious check
to railway building, and was abandoned as unprofitable and impracticable. Perhaps
all that can be said on the point is that it is a policy that can be applied to existing
railways only by mutual agreement, and to such railways hereafter to be con-
structed as may receive large grants of public money. It was well in the case of the
Crow’s Nest Railway, where a mountain pass was to be held for the people, that
this right of running powers should be clearly and unequivocally reserved, and it
is fair to point out that a subsidy granted with this material reservation is some-
thing very different from a grant of aid without conditions. It is, in fact, almost
equivalent to public ownership, and will give a roadbed through the mountains
to any railway, private or national, that may hereafter be constructed across the
western prairies into British Columbia. Perhaps a more practicable policy would
be to acquire the right of way and build the roadbed of new railways with the money
of the State and lease the rails to private corporations. This would be to stop mid-
way between public ownership and operation and would make the final stage easy,
and as it is not at all difficult to fix the carload rate per mile for freight business,
public regulation of charges under such conditions could be made very effective.
It seems to me it would be well to consider this policy in developing a railway sys-
tem in northern Ontario, where as yet the claims and franchises of private corpora-
tions have only a slight foothold, if we are not ready to accept the more heroic
policy of public construction and operation.

; XIV.
One hardly finds it necessary to prove the waste of competition, the fact of
combination, the existence of discriminations in Canada. There is for the time a
war of passenger rates between the two great Canadian railways, but this will be

\
130 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

of short duration, and the settlement that will shortly be reached will probably
be followed by a more rigid enforcement of the maximum charges for passenger
traffic all over the Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific systems. As to freight rates,
there is an inflexible combinatien between the two great Canadian roads. One
road will not give a reduced rate to a community or to a class of shippers except
through consultation and agreement with its competitor. If ever secret discrimina-
tions are made they are probably granted to some great trading corporation or
some great business house whose shipments are of very material consequence to
the railway, and just as there is secret surrender to these powerful concerns the
position of the ordinary shipper is prejudiced and business monopoly established.
Live stock is carried from Chicago. to Montreal for as low rates as are charged
from points in western Ontario to the commercial capital. Grain is carried from
Winnipeg to Fort William, 500 miles, for 171-2 cents per hundred, and from Fort
William to Montreal, 1,500 miles, for 20 cents per hundred. On the main line of
the Canadian Pacific the passenger rate between stations is five cents a mile all
through British Columbia, while the through rate from older Canada to Vancouver
is less than half a cent a mile. On freight shipped to Kamloops, Ashcroft and
other points along the main line of the road in the interior of British Columbia
the charge is the same as if the goods were shipped through to Vancouver and
brought back two, three or four hundred miles to the point of destination. It has
been established that a carload of self-binders is carried from Toronto to Australia
for less than the through charge to the Northwest. A veduction of rates from
Edmonton and points on the Calgary and Edmonton road’ gave new life to the
Alberta district, and made all the difference between comparative comfort and a
bare, hard living to hundreds of western settlers, and probably increased the traffic
earnings of the railway. Great for adversity or for prosperity are the powers of
railway corporations.

OVE

At the Union Station every day we have eloquent evidence of the waste of so-
cailed competition. At the same hour each morning and night two great express
trains start for the east, both perhaps half loaded, each carrying passengers at
the same rate, making about the same time, and traversing very much the same
territory. How much better it would be if we had one well-equipped, well-bal-
lasted, fast express service, and a well-ordered system of branch roads. What a
waste of railway mileage we’ shall have on hand if we ever take over the private
railways, and how important it is that we should not repeat the blunders of Ontario
and Quebec in western Canada.. But if we deny the people competition we must
give efficient regulation, and even with satisfactory regulation we should keep
always in view the probable final acquisition of the railways by the State, and
strive so to distribute our new roads that the State shall not be required to take
over thousands of miles of unnecessary and unproductive railways. It is esti-
mated that in the United States there are 37,000 railway stations, that not more
than eight per cent. of these are junction points, and therefore at nine-tenths of the
shipping points of the country the shippers and buyers of goods must always be
dependent on the facilities and rates offered by a single line of railway. In Great
Britain there are about 6,000 railway stations and about 1,500 junction points. In
Canada the ratio of possible competing points to the number of stations is cer-
tainly much less than in the United Kingdom, and probably lower even than in
the United States. Our country, at least our developed country, is of unhappy
geographical formation, and transportation over such enormous distances is very
costly, and to create another through road to compete with the Grand Trunk and
Canadian Pacific for Canadian traffic would be very like the enactment of a statute
to impose a tax of 20 or 25 per cent. on all interprovincial trade. However effec-
tive we may be able to make a law for the regulation of common carriers, it is at

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 1 gis

least beyond controversy that in competition there can be found no satisfactory
solution of the railway problem, and we must look for the present to regulation
by commission,(and finally to public ownership and operation.

XVI.

A question of perhaps greater importance to the west than even the regula-
tion of railways is the taxation of corporation lands. As the Minister of the
Interior told Parliament the other day, we have 67,000,000 acres of land in Manitoba
and the Northwest Territories reserved from settlement. ‘‘ On that 67,000,000 of
acres,’ said Mr. S#ton, “I, as the Minister of the Interior to-day, cannot give a
man a homestead entry. Nor can I sell a single acre of it, although there are
millions of acres of that land that never have been and never will be nor can be
earned by any railway company. But they are reserved by order in Council, the
good faith of the Dominion is pledged to that for ever, and no Government can
interfere with that reserve until the bond is literally fulfilled to the last letter.”
Much of this land is held by the Canadian Pacific Railway Company, but there are
also several millions of acres held by other railway corporations, and these lands,
while not exempt from taxation by deliberate enactment, are not immediately tax-
able, because patents are not issued until the land is paid for by the purchaser from
the railway. The clause in the Canadian Pacific charter under which its lands are
exempt from Dominion, Provincial and municipal taxation, reads:—‘‘ The lands
of the company in the North-West Territories, until they are either sold or occupied,
shall also be free from such taxation for twenty years after the grant thereof from
the Crown.’ The charter is dated February, 1881, and makes provision also for
the granting of alternate sections of land on each side of the railway. Whether
this exemption extends from the time the surveys are made and the lands become
the property of the company, or from the issuing of the patents by the Govern-
ment, is a point of first-rate importance. If the twenty-year exemption extends
from the time the lands become the property of the company, the bulk of the
railway reserve will soon become subject to taxation. If the exemption extends
from the issue of the patents, it is, under existing conditions, perpetual. The

company has its land secured and will take out the patents only as the land is

bought by the settler. Under this interpretation the clause has the same effect as
if it had simply declared the land free from taxation until sold or occupied. It is
perhaps not too much to say that when the charter was granted to the syndicate
the popular impression was that the exemption from taxation was to run for only
twenty years, but a popular impression and the technical meaning of a railway
statute are likely to bear a very different significance in the final analysis. One
would think that it would be wise policy for the western railways to put their
rates down to the very lowest figures that would yield a living revenue and thereby
increase the value of their great landed estates. There is no doubt that low freight
charges would do more than any other conceivable influence to promote settlement,
and as settlement grows, as roads are made, schools opened, villages and towns
established, the alternate blocks held by the railways rise in value, and the corpora-
tion grows steadily richer and richer through the sweat and toil of the settlers.
The farmer who may have the ambition to acquire an adjoining railway section will
feel that for every dollar of additional value his improvements give to his own
property he adds to the value of the adjoining land which he aims to acquire, while
he and his neighbors are refused even the privilege of imposing legitimate Provin-
cial and municipal taxation upon these vacant spaces.

XVII.

This means practically a railway sovereignty and a subject population in the
west, and there is no escape for the people from this unhappy condition except

132 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.
through the exercise of the power of taxation. It is, therefore, of the very first
consequence that the Government of Canada shall give early and close attention
to the Land Question in the West, seek an authoritative decision from the courts
as to when these lands become subject to taxation, if there be any doubt, and use
to the full the power of Parliament to force the early issue of patents and to re-estab-
lish the authority of the people over the wide-stretching areas that we have rashly
surrendered to railway corporations. We have here a question of tremendous
import to the future of Canada, and we may be sure that as the seeds of irritation
germinating at the roots of this problem spring into life and vigor, only by wise.
and patriotic handling of the situation will we be able to secure justice for the
people without doing injustice to corporations that were deliberately created by
the Parliament of Canada and deliberately endowed with these vast estates. But,
even in the face of a problem like this, we may hope that this British community
will move toward reform and readjustment in the spirit of justice and fair deal-
ing, and not in the temper of confiscation and destruction. As yet there is no very
serious indictment to lay against our railway corporations. The Grand Trunk, with
all its mistakes and all its misfortunes, has done splendid service for the Canadian
people, and we can afford to regard with kindly eye and sympathetic mind the
labors of the Grand Trunk management to redeem the fortunes and restore the
credit of that great pioneer in the carrying business in Canada. And as one passes
over the great length of the Canadian Pacific road, with its thin fringe of popula-
tion stretching for thousands of miles through wastes of rock, and wide reaches
of sparsely-settled prairie, and great overhanging mountains and pioneer villages
and scattered homesteads, he must conclude, despite all the clamor of the press
and all the vehement eloquence of the politicians, that it is one of the marvels of
this time, even when we take account of its great public subventions, that the road
has been established in the financial centres of the world as a revenue-earning and
dividend-paying property. i

The Book tells us that there is “a time to get and a time to lose, a time to
keep and a time to cast away,” and it seems to me that now is the time for Cana-
dians to get new inspiration and new courage, to cast away old prejudices, to rise
superior to old quarrels and to seek a new and a common dedication to the work

of building up in this new land a civilization that will have all the freedom without

the license of the earlier western democracies, and that will have the stability of the
old British constitutional system without the pomp and circumstance of privileged
and governing classes. To my mind, the test of civilization is not in flags, or in
fleets, or in armies, is not in dominion over leagues of land or over
leagues of sea, but in the average material comfort and moral safety
of the masses of the people. The hungry mouth is the great problem
of modern civilization, and that country that can feed the multitude
and have even twelve basketsful to spare will take the primacy among the
nations. We should so direct our policy and so fashion our legislation that great
fortunes will be hard of accumulation, that our corporations will be the servants
rather than the masters of the people, and that equality of opportunity shall be
preserved to all elements of the population. The danger to democracy comes from
unequal social conditions, from the bare foot and the empty hand; and we, with

all our rich natural heritage and all our wide, unoccupied lands, may still escape

many of the evils of the old world and many of the follies of the new; may still
make the remnant of the natural wealth of the country the possession of the whole
people, reserve some fair percentage of the revenue from natural resources and
natural opportunities for public uses and for the public treasury, and establish here
in our own rich and spacious domains a freer and a better civilization than any
the world has known. Many of us could, perhaps, do more than we are doing to
maintain a sane public opinion in the country. There is nothing easier than to
shriek the shibboleth of a mob. It is vastly easier to make an unjust attack on

} 3
PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 133

a corporation than to make a just defence of a corporation. It takes courage to
turn in the teeth of a mob or a wave of sectarian or national prejudice and strike
a man’s blows for one’s own opinions. But, after all, the citizen who speaks his
own mind, rests on his own judgment even in the face of press or caucus or
pulpit, is the only free man and the only man worthy of representative institu-
tions. A needless war against corporations is a menace to credit and a drag upon
progress, but we are far more likely to surrender unduly to the corporation lobbyist
and the concession hunter than to be over-vigilant for the rights of the people in
public franchises and natural resources. _We cannot hold for the people too much
of what is left; we cannot too soon establish the right of control and of taxation
over what has been surrendered. But, after all, the outlook is hopeful. We are
neither oppressed nor in peril of war or famine. We live in a land of plenty and a
time of peace. Within the past year or two there has been a wonderful upgrowth
of Canadian feeling. Here at home we feel a new impulse to progress, a splendid
confidence in ourselves, and across the old world the name of Canada is ringing
as it never rang before. It is not a time to bicker and snarl as to what man or
what party is responsible for these happy and hopeful circumstances and condi-
tions. It is not a time to revive the memories of old quarrels and deliver judg-
ment on the mistakes and follies of earlier days. Are we sure that we would have
done better if we had had to bear the responsibilities of the fathers ? Let us
rather unite to honor all men who give us faithful public service, to recognize the
good intent of all men who labor for the public betterment, and to make the
splendid promise of to-day the more splendid achievement of to-morrow.

The golden fleece is at our feet,
Our hills are girt in sheen of gold,
Our golden-flower fields are sweet
With honey hives. A thousandfold
a More fair our fruit on laden stem
Than Jordan’s tow’rd Jerusalem.

134 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

THE ORIGIN OF OcEAN TiDAL SECONDARY UNpuLatTions. By F. NAPIER
Denison, ToRONTO OBSERVATORY.

(Read April 23, 1898.)

Last year the writer had the honor of reading before the members of this
Institute a short paper, entitled ‘A Probable Solution of the Secondary Undula-
ticns Found Upon Ocean Tidal Records.’’ As the information then obtainable
was extremely limited, the important points were set forth as suggestions for criti-
cism, Since the publication and widespread distribution of your valuable “ Pro-
ceedings’ containing this paper, the writer has received numerous encouraging
letters bearing upon this subject from various quarters of the globe.

In order to still further pursue this most engrossing and what is to be hoped
valuable investigation, arrangements were made by Mr. Stupart, Director of our _
Service with the Marine Department at Ottawa, whereby the writer was granted
free access to all the Canadian Tidal records now under Mr. M. W. Bell Dawson,
Engineer in charge of the Tidal Survey, who also assisted me in every way possible.
Tracings were made from over 1,000 daily tidal records, showing different types —
of undulations, from the following stations:—Halifax, Anticosti, St. Paul Island,
Forteau Bay, St. John, N.B., Father Point, and Point Levis; also the original
records were obtained from the temporary tidal stations at Carleton, P.Q., Pictou,
N.S., Souris, P.E.I., St. Peter’s Bay, P.E.I., and the Grigdstone Island Baro-
graph records from 1893-1894 to study with the corresponding Anticosti tidal
traces, also tracings from several St. John, N.B., barograms. Upon returning
to Toronto these records were carefully studied in conjunction with the corres-
ponding synoptic weather charts at the Observatory. The result of this inyvestiga-
tion clearly demonstrated that these undulations are due to the direct action of
atmospheric waves or billows, as they pass over the harbours or Bays, which tend
to form minute undulations upon the surface of the water, and as these small water
tndulations advance farther into semi-enclosed basins become magnified as they
ceach narrower and shallower portions where the tide gauges are situated. Permit
me briefly to summarize what has already been observed by others bearing upon
this interesting subject.

In 1838 this phenomenon was observed at Swansea, England, where a regular
time interval of from fifteen to twenty minutes was noted. Some of these records
were sent to Sir George Airy, who was then unable to account for them. Admiral
Smythe referred to this phenomenon at Malta, where it had long been termed
‘‘Mirobia,’ and supposed to be due to distant storms. In 1878 Sir George Airy
read a paper before the Royal Society upon the tides of Malta, in which he speaks
of these undulations as simple harmonic curves, whose heads are sometimes notched
as by the intermixture of small waves. That they had a marked time interval of
twenty-one minutes and a range of twelve spores amplitude, much exceeding that
of the lunar tides. He believed they were “seiches” similar to those discovered
by Forel upon the Swiss lakes, and supposed them due to a reflexive action from
the shores of Sicily and the African coast. Major Baird, of the Indian Tidal
Survey, referred to this phenomenon in 1868 as being most pronounced at the ends
of bays, but offered no explanation. In 1896 Professor Duff, of Purdue University,
studied these undulations at St. John, N.B., and Indiantown, and later presented
a paper before the Royal Society of Gages, in which he also classes them as
“seiches,”’ due to some form of oscillation between the two sides of the Bay of
Fundy. He does not attempt any explanation for the abnormal movements often
observed during fine settled weather. Mr. H. C. Russell, of New South Wales,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 135

states that at Sydney what have been previously termed earthquake waves are in
most cases due to atmospheric disturbances in some yet ill-defined manner, and
have a marked twenty-six minute time interval from crest to crest.

Finally, these undulations are universal to a greater or less extent, as has been
preved by a personal study of tidal records obtained from all parts of the world.

CHIEF POINTS DEDUCED.
!

1. That the undulations are due to the direct action of atmospheric waves
upon the surface of the water at stations, and not to ground swells due to distant
storms or “‘seiche’’ movements, as found upon lakes during atmospheric dis-
turbances.

2. There is a marked relative correspondence in amplitude between the baro-
metric and water undulations.

3. That they often appear during fine settled weather, when the barometer is
high over the station but decidedly low to the south-west, frequently when over
1,000 miles distant.

4. That they increase in amplitude as the storm advances, the maximum usually
occurring shortly before and at the time of the shift of wind, which also corres-
ponds with the time of heaviest precipitation. This tends to prove that the axis
of rotation of important storms is inclined towards the direction of its future
course.

5. That after the storm has passed the station, these undulations rapidly
diminish, although a heavy westerly gale may still be blowing, provided the tem-
perature to the westward is fairly uniform; should a cold or warm wave be
approaching marked undulations appear.

6. Should a south-west storm move with diminishing energy towards the sta-
tion the undulations correspondingly decrease as it approaches.

7. That the tidal records are most disturbed during winter and least in summer,
due to the velocity of the primary poleward current being almost double in winter
what it is during the summer months.

8. The disturbed traces during the summer months chiefly occur shortly before
or at the time of showers or thunderstorms, and usually precede warm and cool
Waves,

9. Whereas many of our storms are whirling eddies, developing from above
downwards, it is hoped a further study of these undulations may throw much light
upon their future growth and course, even before the ordinary barometer begins
to fall.

10. Meteorologists throughout the scientific world now realize that for the
further advancement of weather forecasting a better knowledge of the upper
atmosphere must be obtained. Rapid strides are now being made in this direction
by means of kites, balloons and cloud observations. May we nwt add the study of
atmospheric and water waves at the bottom of this aerial ocean, which can. be
carried on during all conditions of weather by means of sensitive self-recording
instruments ?*

The various traces, termed “ hydro-aerographs,’ obtained from such instru-
ments, when more fully understood, will indicate to us certain wonderful forces at
work far above, not visually discernible either through the dense lower clouds of
an approaching storm or the clear blue sky of a fine winter’s day. Also we trust
that in the near future the installation of such instruments will become universal,
and that Canada will lead in such an undertaking.

*Fully described in a paper read before the Toronto meeting of the British Association in August, 1897.
8 97

Vol. 1. Part 1.

he Bcaeiital Rddress of ie Presictent irra aruda ape. oti
AB, MACALLUM, MB, Pa.D: 4 )2> . ro

a '

Ny:

a s taken at Toronto . sebeievaben vintwedheaacghanttets coftsaMFs cue canasvases scans

é

starts e of Brym CC OG ae a

fog a d Bees of the autre G1AMd8 once ceectentrnee

.

'R.-R,: BENSLEY, B.A., MB.

cee aes eeseressce Chace gecvavvcaeVeveevensputeerceteesceciveveeees opis

7 _ TORONTO:
-ARBUTHNOT Bros. & Co., PRINTERS, ;
i LOMBARD STREET. ae :

MAY, 1397. Vol. 1. Part 2.

fe CONTENTS.

on : vy yO Gees \ eo PAGE.
Lapsed Names in Canadian Local Nomenclature .................... 33
_ REV. HENRY SCADDING, D.D. . .

igin of the Salishan Tribes of British Columbia and Washington.... 39
REV. JOHN CAMPBELL, LL.D.

ae - J , 7 \
peter eis pris cM Le saa eas ekies Seda Heeb oe Spo 8) AN a PSHE 51
. THOMAS W. GIBSON, Esg. mae
Great Lakes as a Sensitive Barometer BME RMS tot s'- Soutla.fs thas, \ 255 55 |
_____NAPIER DENISON, Eso. 3 3
ralégical Notes on Sudbury Anchen OES TE OL Ee BODE 64
G. R. MICKLE, Esq, B.A.
smic cal Mates Mnidbary Coal ts s4c. ks eee. 67

Ww. i. ELLIS. M.A., M.B., AnD W. LAWSON, B.A.Sc.

‘Constructions with Refert and 1, SEs sh) [7 Seca oS tee a eRe TL 2 69
, ae ad ols BELL, Pu.D:

3 _ TORONTO:
ARBUTHNOT BROS. & Co., PRINTERS
LOMBARD STREET.

Saat

Dat
or

oo

nsio: s sae f Liquid 9 jc RR eee ee ree ee
we. LASH MILLERS, PH. Ds AND T. R. ROSEBRUGH, BAA. Poaercgepe ne Ss

~ PRINTED BY =e Rah Pats se aga ‘
- Pr i A et
Tae ARBUTHNOT Bros. ComPaNny OF Toronto ae ;
- LIMITED. was Ade i

»

bare f

,
i i

BBOTT, |B.

OEE CHAN, 115) 0. SR CORRE: poly, wrung ae Co Ma

\
(
}
:

_ PROCEEDINGS

OF

‘THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.

NEW SERIES.

NO. 6. . NOVEMBER, 16598. Vol. 1. Part 6,
CON-ERN-TS.
ee suatomy ofthe Orang-Outange 9.6 2665 Sad Aik. hens. oes daes 11g
| A. PRIMROSE, M.B.
~ The Transportation Question...... .............. Bath Sate: he eR eR Aa Sa ge 122
J. S. WILLISON, ESQ.
: The Origin of Ocean Tidal Secondary Undulations .................... isp es 134

F. NAPIER DENISON, ESQ.

PRINTED BY
HENDERSON & Co., 8 AND 10 LOMBARD STREET,
TORONTO.

Bie ae