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PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

COTTESWOLD NATURALISTS’

FIELD CLUB

——<—$—$

VOLUME VIII

(PRINTED BY JOHN BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER
1886

CONTENTS

THE PRESIDENT’s ADDRESS at the Annual Meeting at Gloucester
The Cannington Park Limestone. By HanDEL CossHAM

Ona Section of Strata exposed in a Railway Cutting, at Morse, near
Drybrook. By EpwarD WETHERED, F.G.S., F.C.8.

On the Minerals of Gloucestershire, with part of the adjacent Counties
of Somerset and Worcestershire. Compiled by W. C. Lucy.
Also-a List of Derived Rocks’ found in the Northern Drift Gravel
over the same area. By W. C. Lucy

On the Pisolite and the Basement Beds of the Inferior Oolite of the
Cotteswolds. By E. WiTcHELL, F.G.S.

I. On a New Species of Star Fish, from the Forest Marble Wilts.
II. On a New Species of Brittle Star, from the Coral Rag of
Weymouth. III. On a New Astacamouphous Crustacean, from
the Middle Coral Reef of Leckhampton Hill. By Dr THOMAS
Wricut, F.RS., F.GS., &c.

The PRESIDENT’s ADDRESS at the Annual Meeting, at Gloucester, 1882

Some Notes on the Occurrence at Elmore of the Garganey Teal (Quer-
quedula circia. LINN.)

The PRESIDENT’s ADDRESS at the Annual Meeting, at Gloucester, 1883

On the Occurrence of the Mineral Vivianite in the Cotteswolds. By
FREDERICK SMITHE, L.L.D., F.GS.

On the Terrace Gravels of Auchnasheen, Ross-shire. By W. C. Lucy,
F.G.S.

On an Ancient Jar, filled with ae found in a Cliff near the Sea-
shore, at Fetlar, one of the Shetland Islands. "ha TxHos. WRIGHT,
F.R.S., L. & E., F.G.S., Lond.

On the Green Colouring Matter of Animals, and Researches in eee
By Professor ALLEN HarKER, F. LS.

Hock Crib, Fretherne. By W. C. Lucy, E.G:S.

PAGE

24

30

35

56
60

64
89

112

118

121

126
131

iv

The PREsIDENT’s AppREsS at the Annual Meeting, at Gloucester, 1884
On Randwick Long Barrow. By G. B. Wirts, C.E.

Some Remarks on a Boring for Water near Birdip. By W. C. Lucy,
E.G.8.

On the Occurrence of Spores of Plants in the Lower Limestone
Shales of the Forest of Dean Coalfield. By EpwarD WETHERED,
LOGE Spy TAOS =

On the Occurrence of the Palmate Newt near Stroud. By C. A.
WITCHELL

On a Remarkable Exposure of the Kellaway’s Rock, in a recent Cutting
near Cirencester. By Professor ALLEN Harker, F.L.S.

Notes on the Breeding of Fishes. By Francis Day, F.L.S., F.Z.8

On Sinking a Well in the Lower Lias, at Gloucester. By W. C. Lucy,
F.G:S. , F : : : . . ‘ :

The PResIDENT’s ADDREss at the Annual Meeting, at Gloucester, 1885

Ona Discovery in the Kingswood Coalfield. By HanpEL CossHam,
F.G.8.

On the Southerndown, Dunraven, and Bridgend Beds. By W. C.
Lucy, F.G.S.

On the Forest Marble and Upper Beds of the Great Oolite, between
Nailsworth and Wotton-under-Edge. By E. WircHeE .t, F.G.S.

(See Corrigendum below.)

On the Structure and Formation of certain English and American Coals.
By E. WeruereD, F.G.S., F.C.S.

‘ Notes on the Breeding of Salmonide. By Francis Day, F.LS., F.Z.S.

CORRIGENDUM.

Vol. VII, Pl. IV, fig 4, pp. 274 and 279—For Nerinwa Simplex, read

PAGE
135

156

161

168

281
301

iT N.

Calcarea.” It appears that the name NW. Simplex was given to another species

by DEsLonGcHames, in 1849.

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

4 Oe

Ps

}Cotteswold Uaturalists'
FIELD CLUB

For 1881—1882

President,
Sir WILLIAM V. GUISE, Bart., F.L.S., F.GS.

Vice Presidents.
T. B. Lt. BAKER, Esa., F.S.S.
THOMAS WRIGHT, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S.
WILLIAM C. LUCY, F.G.S.

Honorary Secretary.
WILLIAM HENRY PAINE, M.D., F.G.S., F.M.S.

Contents.

§ _ The PrEsIDENT’s ADDRESS at the Annual Meeting, at Gloucester, 1881.
The Cannington Park Limestone. . By HANDEL CossHAM.
_ Ona Section of Strata exposed in a Railway Cutting at Morse, near Drybrook. By
EDWARD WETHERED, F.G.S., F.C.S.

_ On the Minerals of Gloucestershire, with part of the adjacent Counties of Somerset
and Worcestershire. Compiled by Mr. W. C. Lucy. Also List of Derived Rocks
ty found in the Northern Drift Gravel over the same area. By Mr. W. C. Lucy.

' Qn the Pisolite and the Basement Beds of the Inferior Oolite of the Cotteswolds. By
__E. WIrcH ELL, F.G.S.

_ I.—On a New Species of Star Fish, from the Forest Marble, Wilts. II.—On a New
Species of Brittle Star, from the Coral Rag of Weymouth. III.—On a New
Astacamorphous Crustacean, from the Middle Coral Reef of Leckhampton Hill.
By Dr. THos, WriGHT, F.R.S., F.G.S., &c.

The PRESIDENT’s ADDRESS at the Annual Meeting, at Gloucester, 1882.

Address to the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club, by the
President, Lizur.-CononeL Str Witiiam Vv. Guisr, Bart.,
F.L.S., F.G.S. Read at Gloucester, April 19th, 1881.

GENTLEMEN,

The return of Spring, after a Winter of unusual duration
and severity, summons anew the Cotteswold Field Club to those
annual rambles which, for thirty-five years, have contributed
so largely to the enjoyment and instruction of its members.

Since we last met the Club has to lament the loss, by death,
of Mr. Jonun Jones, one of its earliest members, and one who,
by the valuable papers he contributed to our ‘‘ Transactions,”
has made a mark in our annals, with which his name will
always be honorably associated.

_ Jones was in many ways a remarkable man. He came
of a good old yeoman family, settled at Brockworth, near
Gloucester, where his father carried on business as a tanner.
At 12 years of age Joun Jones ran away to sea. He had
previously been at a school at the Blackfriars, in Gloucester,
kept by a Mr. Sreruens, where he numbered among his
associates the present Joun Powett, Q.C., and formerly M.P.
for Gloucester. He was for some years at sea, knocking
about in the Mediterranean, where he picked up a considerable
acquaintance with the mercantile languages of that region.
He possessed an extraordinary capacity for acquiring language,
in the exercise of which he took great delight; and after his
return from sea he devoted much time to the study of modern
languages, in many of which he acquired great proficiency.
With this love of language he combined an equally ardent one
for the pursuit of natural science in all its branches, but more
especially of geology, into which he brought to bear all the
B

2

qualities of his discerning mind and his powers of patient
observation. He joined a body of youths at Gloucester who
had formed themselves into what they called a “ Philomathic
Society,” where Jonzs occasionally lectured on scientific sub-
jects. After an attempt to obtain some settled occupation in
London, he returned to Gloucester, and got employment in the
Docks. Here, without neglecting his business, he worked
steadily at his favorite pursuits, Natural History, Geology,
Heraldry, &c., and these brought him into communication with
many of those in the county who were imbued with similar
tastes. He became an active member of the Cotteswold Club,
to which he acted for a time as Secretary, and contributed
some valuable papers to its Transactions.

The first mention of Jonzs in connection with the Cotteswold
Club is at p. 30, Vol. I., in the Address of Sir Tuomas Tancrep,
where he is named as having been present at the Winter
Meeting at Gloucester, on January 18th, 1849.

In the Appendix to Vol. I. is a letter signed “ Junms Nicks.”
This humourous effusion was written by Jonus, as a specimen
of the Gloucestershire dialect, of which it is an admirable
illustration.

At the end of Vol. II. is a paper “On Rhynchonella acuta and
its affinities.”

In Vol. III.. p. 63, is a “ List of the Land, Fluviatile, and
Lacustrine Shells found in and near the county of Gloucester.”

At p. 81 “On Gryphea incurva and its Varieties.”

At p. 128 “On the Natural History, Geology, &c., of
Sharpness Point District.”

At p. 157 “ List of Reptiles found in Gloucestershire.”

At p. 191 “Correspondence between Joun Jones and R. F.
Tomes on the position of Gryphea incurva in the Lower Lias at
Bridgend.

Vol. IV., p. 175, “‘ Section of the Transition Beds of the Old
Red Sandstone and Carboniferous Limestone at Drybrook, in
the Forest of Dean,” by Jonn Jonzs and W. C. Lucy.

At p. 194 “Remarks on Drybrook Section.”

Vol. VI., p. 191, “‘ Notes on Sherston Magna.”

3

Jones ultimately removed from Gloucester, and resided for a
time in Belgium, from whence he went to London, where the
latter years of his life were passed. He led there a very
secluded life, spending most of his time in the British Museum,
where he obtained employment in transcribing ancient docu -
ments, in the reading of which he had attained to great pro-
ficiency. He died on the 5th of January last, at the age of 63.

Besides Joun Jonzs, the Club has to lament the loss, by death,
of old and valued friends in Dr. Evans, Rev. A. M. Brown,
and R. W. Hate. ;

I have the authority of our invaluable Treasurer and Hon.
Secretary, Dr. Parnes, to report that the financial condition of
the Club is sound and satisfactory; and that, notwithstanding
our losses by death and secession, our numbers are well
maintained.

ANNUAL MEETING.

The Club held its Annual Meeting on Tuesday, 20th April,
1880, at the Spread Eagle Hotel, Gloucester. The President
read his address, after which the officers of the Club for the
ensuing year were chosen when you again did me the honor to
elect me as your President, with Mr. T. B. Ll. Barer, Dr.
Wrient, F.R.S.,and Mr. Lucy as Vice-presidents, and Dr. ParnE
as honorary Secretary.

Dr. Wricut then brought under the notice of the Club several
fossil organisms believed to be new to science. Of these the
most remarkable was a new Brittle-star obtained by Professor
Buckman from the Calciferous Grit of Sandsfoot Castle near
Weymouth, named by Dr. Wricur Ophiurella nereida. The
example was finely preserved in what appeared to be a nodule
of clay ironstone. Scarcely less interesting was a portion of a
crustacean believed to be previously unknown, a “ Pseudo
glyppea” from the Inferior Oolite of Leckhampton-hill : this
the learned Doctor proposed to name “<P, Guiset” in honor
of your president. A new and very beautifully preserved
“Urchin” (Hemipedina) from the upper beds of the Inferior
Oolite of Birdlip-hill was also exhibited.

B2

+

Mr. Epwarp Weruerep exhibited an eyeless fish (Amblyopsis)
_ and a crustacean likewise without organs of sight, taken by the
exhibitor at a distance of eight miles under ground in the
Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. These afford a striking instance
of the non-development of unused organs. The absence of
visual power in animals whose lives are passed in darkness was
further illustrated by Dr. Day in the case of a small fish (scopelus
indicus) which is an inhabitant of the profound abysses of the
Indian ocean, where no light can penetrate. This animal has
the eye largely developed, but in order to supply the light
which is absent in those sunless depths, it bears along the
dorsal ridge a series of luminous specks which are believed to
act as lanterns. They are found, like true eyes to possess a
cornea and an aqueous humour, and behind all are cells which
are supposed to have the power of generating light.

The First Field Meeting of the Club for the season was held
on Thursday the 20th May. The rendezvous was at

BERKELEY ROAD STATION.

A visit to the Silurian up-thrust at Purton, which formed part
of the programme was necessarily abandoned, by reason of the
tide in the Severn not serving. The party therefore proceeded
to examine the Section in the Middle Lias opened up by the
large quarry of Tait’s Hill. The Middle Lias here, as at many
other points along the Cotteswold range, is readily distinguished
by a sort of step or shoulder, formed by the resistance offered
by the hard rocky band which presents so prominent a feature
in the formation to the denuding agencies which have shaped
the bays and promontories of that remarkable coast-line.

At Tait’s Hill, the Rey. Dr. Surrue in response to the call
of the president, proceeded to explain the divisions of the
“‘ Marlstone” or “ Middle Lias,” its geographical position, and
its relation to the overlying and underlying beds. Geologists
have found it convenient to divide these beds into zones,
distinguished by particular Ammonites, inasmuch as these
-cephalopods are found to have a limited range in time, and

5

thus to afford convenient data by which to classify the succession
of beds. In the “Middle Lias” these zones are distinguished
by the following Ammonites in descending order :—The 1st or
uppermost zone is that of “A. spinatus ”; the 2nd that of
“A. margaritatus” ; 8rd “A. Henley” or “ capricornus ” ; Ath
<A. ibe”; 5th “A. Jameson”; and lastly that of “A. armatus,”
which rests conformably on the upper beds of the Lower Lias.
Dr. Surruz showed how the “ Middle Lias” which appears but
weakly below Bath, is traceable along the western slope of the
Cotteswolds throughout Gloucestershire, and finds its greatest
development in the neighbourhood where the party were then
assembled.

The rock here proved very fossiliferous, especially on the
edges of the fissures, where the fossils were weathered out, and
presented to the hammers and chisels of the geologists quite a
museum of beautiful forms of life. ‘‘Ammonites spinatus” was
abundant, and thus fixed the -horizon as that which is specially
characterised by the presence of that Ammonite. But Dr.
Smrrne, when he visited the quarry in company with Mr. Lucy,
in the year 1878, had found “A margaritatus” (which distin-
guishes the zone below) on the same horizon, or even somewha*
higher in the quarry than the beds then under review. This
produced a lively discussion between those who believe that
these horizons do to a certain extent overlap one another, and
those who maintain that nature produced these particular
organisms as special creations which appeared at a certain point
in time and became extinct at a certain other point, when they
were succeeded by entirely distinct forms. Dr. Swrae further
stated that on the occasion of his visit to the quarry with Mr.
Lucy they were so fortunate as to acquire from a quarryman a ~
number of reptilian bones, which proved to be those of an
Ichthyosaurus of an undetermined species, but probably belong-
ing to “J. acutirostris” of Owen. These have since been
deposited in the Museum at Gloucester.

Attention was next drawn to a clay deposit of a peculiar
character, which in a finely divided state had insinuated itself
into fissures of the rock to a depth of 15 feet from the surface,

6

and had become solidified into a hard compact substance having
a conchoidalffracture. This was referred to a glacial origin
and identified with the ‘Boulder Clay” or “Till” of Pleistocene
age—so determined from the large percentage of silica (60 to 70
per cent.) it was said to contain. But to some the evidence
seemed hardly conclusive.

From Tait’s Hill the party proceeded to Melksham Court,
(now a farmhouse,) at the foot of Stinchcombe Hill, formerly a
residence of the Tyndale family, and where William Tyndale,
the Translator of the Scriptures, is supposed to have been
born. Luncheon was here discussed, and then the party, or the
larger part thereof, proceeded to mount the steep acclivity of
Stinchcombe;Hill, while the remainder with the carriages took
the road to North Nibley. Stinchcombe Hill is one of the most
prominent of those capes or headlands which project from the
Cotteswolds into the vale of the Severn, and the prospect from
its summit is one which for extent and varied beauty has few
equals in any part of the world. By the aid of aneroids its
height was determined as being 620 feet. The extreme point
of the hill is known as the “ Drake stone.” It is protected by
four lines of entrenchment, and traces of more than one hut
circle are visible in its neighbourhood. The term “ Drake
stone” is believed by Mr. Joun Bettows to be a corruption
from the Welsh “ Drych,” a sight or spectacle. Its derivative
“‘ Drychiant ” means prospect; so that in this position it must
have signified the “outlook,” or “prospect stone.” It is known
to have been a signal station in medieval times, and doubtless
was so in the time of the Romans, when its beacon fires were
visible, not only to the forts along the line of the Cotteswolds,
but must likewise have conveyed notice of an incursion of the
restless Silures to the camps on the further side of the Severn.

The descent of the hill having been effected, not without
difficulty, by reason of the abruptness of the slope and the
slippery nature of the short turf that clothed it, those on foot
made their way to North Nibley, where they rejoined the
carriages and enjoyed a pleasant drive to the Prince of Wales
Inn, near the Berkeley Road Station, where, after the heat and

7

fatigue of the day, an abundant and well supplied dinner proved
very welcome.

After dinner the President invited Dr. Surrax to offer some
further remarks on the “ Middle Lias,” to which he responded
by describing the zones of life which distinguish the softer
beds of the formation. This brought up the vexed question
of Development versus Special Creations, a question which
apparently can never be settled, because the partisans of either
theory have no common ground of debate from which to start.
The discussion, which was maintained with much animation,
occupied the attention of the company until it was time to
rejoin the train.

The Second Field Meeting of the Club was held at
ABBERLEY,

on Tuesday, 22nd of June, at which, as I was not present, I
am indebted for my report to the pen of one who was more
fortunate than myself.

The members assembled at the Worcester Railway Station,
and made for Abberley through Ombersley and Witley, to the
Hundred-House Inn, at the foot of the Abberley hills. This
was made the head quarters of the Club for the day. The
Abberleys are a prolongation of the Malverns, and present
certain upheavals of trappoid breccia in places which, if not
exciting causes of the dislocation of the adjacent strata of
“Silurian” and “Old Red,” formed lines of departure from
which the disturbance abutting upon them took its origin.
A better field for the study of intricate points in the physical
geology of the past could not be desired ; for here the Geologist
stands upon an uplift of no mere local character, but one
coincident with cosmic forces operating in a certain direction
by way of the Malvern range, May Hill, Tortworth, and thence
to Antrim, in Ireland. All along the chain are effects well
marked by faults, upheavals and axes of disturbance, besides
the presence of igneous rocks which have at intervals come to
the surface, and speak for themselves in a language understood

8

by the petrologist, and construed by means of the microscope,
the blow-pipe and the laboratory. With this general glance
at the physical nature of the country visited by the Club, we
return to the starting-point at Worcester.

The journey to the Hundred-House lay through a smiling
country; the crops seemed heavy on the red lands—peas were
being harvested, hay-making had begun, vetches were being
cut, and the air was scented with the fragrant perfume of
beans and white clover in blossom, whilst in the hop-gardens
women were fixing the bine to the poles, and otherwise taking
care for the produce. Omberley Court, the residence of Lord
Sanpys, and the old church and pretty village, with its timber-
framed houses, marked half a stage in the journey, and when
further on Witley Court and Park were reached, a division of
the party ensued, some lingering to see the fountains playing
in Lord Duptxy’s Italian gardens, whilst others pushed on to
the Hundred-House.

The geological party, under the guidance of Dr. Smrrus,
soon became deeply interested in the remarkable district under
exploration. They first examined the fine exposure of Upper
Silurian rocks at Walsall quarry. Here were presented to
view an imposing series of Upper Silurian deposits, with the
characteristic fossils of the Wenlock, Aymestry, and Ludlow
beds. The following species were here tabulated, and had
there been time to give to the work a more careful scrutiny,
the list would have been much longer, though it was noticed
that the multiplicity of marine life was due rather to the
number of individuals than to the number of distinct kinds of
organisms.

The following are the most noticeable :—

Pentamerus Kynightii, Spirifer piswm, S. elevatus, Atrypa reti-
cularis, A. compressa, Rhynconella Wilsont. R. navicula, R. deflexa,
Retzia sp., Cyrtoceras levis, Pterinea lineata, P. Sowerbii, Chonetes
lata, Holopella sp., Strophomena depressa, S. englypha, Encrinite
joints and Corals in great abundance.

Mr. Best, agent to the Earl of Duptry, had kindly ordered
that every attention should be paid to the Club, and the head

9

gardener was in attendance, with directions to have the foun-
tains played, and to show the fine gardens and park, the
mansion and its chapel, refulgent with gorgeous stained glass
of the Renaissance period, and its cupola, with gilt sheathing,
glittering like a meteor in the distance.

The park, which is of great extent, has many beautiful
conifers and clumps of rhododendron, then in full flower. The
tropical conservatory, terraces, sculpture, and artfully contrived
vistas, were all greatly admired, as well as the massive gnarled
butts of many “brave old oaks,” scattered about the demesne,
which carried the mind back many hundreds of years into
the past.

After the study of the Walsall quarry, at the west foot of
the Abberleys, the ascent had to be faced, but the slope was
easy, and the summit of 800 feet was soon reached. Here,
with the Survey map spread out, the grand extent of the
prospect, with its chequered lights and shadows, presented a
scene of rare beauty and interest: here met the eye, directly
in front, the towns of Kidderminster and Stourport, at the
entrance of the Severn valley, each capped with its canopy of
smoke, drifting to the eastward, where rose the Lickey hills.
To the left of the spectator was the little town of Bewdley,
on the silver Severn, and stretching out beyond the Forest
of Wyre, shorn of its ancient dimensions, but marking and
masking the Shropshire coal-field. Well off to the west, along
the sky-line, were the Clee hills—the Brown Clee and its
companion the Titterstone Clee—to which our Gloucester streets
and roads are indebted for the tough basaltic rock which forms
the material of their metalling. In the far distance could be
discerned, though dimly, the igneous rocks about Church
Stretton, the Longmynd and the Stiper Stones. Eastward of
this line arose the Wrekin, with Shrewsbury lying central,
Bridgnorth nearer, and from thence the valley winding north-
wards to Ironbridge and Coalbrookdale. Turning from this
glorious and instructive view of Salop, and descending, is
seen that aspect of the Malvern range to which the eye of
the dweller near Gloucester is unaccustomed, namely, the

10

fore-shortened appearance which the Malvern hills present as
one looks from this northerly direction towards the Worcester-
shire Beacon.

The dispersed members of the Club met at the table of
the inn, partook of an excellent dinner, and, undaunted by a
thunder-storm which overtook them on their way, arrived
safely at Worcester, and took the train westwards, after a day
of much enjoyment.

The Third Field Meeting was held on Tuesday, the 20th July.
The fixture was Lydney, with dinner at the Speech House, in

THE FOREST OF DEAN.

The weather was everything that could be desired, and some
40 members with their friends assembled to take part in the
excursion. They quitted Gloucester by the Midland Railway,
and had the satisfaction—a novel experience to most—of
crossing the Severn Bridge, a distance of three-quarters of a
mile, on foot; in traversing which they found ample opportunity
of admiring that magnificent example of engineering and
constructive ingenuity, while the prospect up and down the
river was one of rare beauty and interest. Arrived at Lydney
town, the party went on to Lydney Park, the residence of Mr.
Batuurst. Here they met with a most courteous reception
from the proprietor, under whose guidance they proceeded to
the Roman Camps, the examination of which constituted the
main object of their visit.

There are two camps; one a small one, occupies a projecting
Knoll, the sides of which have been steeply scarped, and is
separated by a deep valley from the larger entrenchment. It
is somewhat oval in form, and may, from the salient position
it occupies, have been used as a post of observation prior to the
Roman occupation. Pottery and Roman coins have been found
there. But the fortified enclosure which crowns the adjoining
hill is of quite a different character, and reveals in its extent
and completeness a Roman station of the most important class.
The principal building, which is considered to have been the

11

residence of the Roman Commander, extends 168 feet north
and south, by 136 east and west. Besides this, there are other
considerable ranges of building, comprising besides offices, a
bath establishment, and a detached building in the midst of
the enclosure, believed to have been a temple, in which were
found votive tablets inscribed to an unknown, but supposed
British deity named “ Nodens” or “ Nodons,” for it,tis spelt
both ways. The remains of tesselated pavements still existing
in some of the apartments of the principal building, were laid
open for inspection. But unfortunately for the preservation
of this interesting structure, it was long neglected and left
open to the diggings and grubbings of relic-hunters, until
Mr. Bensamin Batuourst, early in the present century, took the
subject in hand, and preserved to posterity all that can now be
known of this relic of Roman occupation.

The series of coins which have been discovered on the site
found a worthy collector and interpreter in Miss Cuar.orrTe
Baruurst, who arranged and catalogued them seventy years
ago. These coins range from. Aucustus to Honorivs, that is,
during the whole period of the Roman Empire, embracing a
term of 400-years. Of the Emperors Aveustus, Nero, GALBA
and Vire.uius, there are but few—one or two of each—but
with Vespasian, who died A.D. 69, they become plentiful, thus
demonstrating clearly the early occupation of the station.

It is probable that the establishment of the station at
Lydney dates from the construction of the “ Via Julia,” which
is believed to have been the work either of Juzrvs AGricoza or
of his successor Junius Frontinus, which would accord very
well with the date of the coins. Agricoza was resident in
Britain from A.D. 78 to A.D. 84. The “Via Julia” appears to
have followed the line of the British Ryknield Street from
“Glevum ” (Gloucester) to “Venta Silurum” (Caerwent.) It
has been partially traced by the late Mr. Ormerop in its course
past Lydney and Aylburton. The intermediate connection
between this main line of road and the station at Lydney is
now lost; but there is said to have been a line of way down
the hollow between the two camps which may well have been

12

that which communicated with the “Via Julia.” The subject
of Roman roads in the Forest of Dean is one which may well
occupy the attention of antiquaries. There are few old roads
in the Forest that do not show traces of Roman usage, in the
bonding-stones still to be seen in their places, and in some
instances portions of the paved way are still preserved. These
should be mapped before the encroachments of enclosures have
obliterated their traces.

Having completed their examination of the camps the party
returned to Lydney Park, where Mr. Baruursr had prepared
a very welcome reception. Scant time was there for the
examination of the Roman antiquities displayed for inspection,
which have been figured in the beautiful work by C. W. Kine,
on “The Roman Antiquities at Lydney Park, Gloucestershire,”
published the previous year. A glance at the coins, amongst
which were a few gold and many silver, sufficed to show their
number and importance, and the admirable manner in which
they have been arranged and interpreted by Miss Baruursr.

A special train from Lydney conveyed the party by a beautiful
route through the Forest to the Speech-House-Road Station,
from whence a walk of half a mile brought them to the “Speech
House,” the chief centre of Jurisdiction under the old Forest
and Mining laws. The beauty of the situation is well known,
and no more charming locality could be selected for the bourne
of a day’s outing. Here the travellers found an excellent
dinner provided at a very reasonable cost, to which in spite of
Mr. Batuurst’s hospitality they were prepared to do ample
justice; and so the time passed pleasantly away until the
exigencies of the hours summoned them to a special train in
waiting, which carried them to their destinations after a day
most pleasantly and instructively spent.

The Fourth and last Field Meeting of the Club for the
season was held on Tuesday, 17th August. The rendezvous

was at
MANGOTSFIELD,

where carriages were in waiting for the conveyance of the

18

party. The route lay through the Frome Valley, by way of
Frenchay, Glen Frome, Oldbury Court, Stapleton and Fishponds,
to the “‘ Speedwell Pits,” on the western side of the Kingswood
coal-field. Hight years previously, in the summer of 1872, the
Club‘had visited the Collieries at Kingswood. This excursion
therefore may be regarded as complementary to the former,
and of especial interest as enabling the visitors to witness the
newly-introduced application of compressed air to the ventilation
of mines.

In passing through Mangotsfield a halt was made to examine
an ancient Manor-house and the Church. The former known
as “ Rodway Hill House,” still retains about it many features
_ of antiquarian interest, but is especially noticeable as having
over the entrance-door a stone escutcheon with the armorial
bearings of the Bouryn family, of whose connection with the
place there is no record.

In the church is a mutilated female figure with the curious
mitre-shaped head-dress of the early part of the 15th century.
She is supposed to represent a member of the family of Buount of
Bitton, who were for many generations the principal proprietors,
and whose arms are to be seen on two escutcheons over the
western door-way. The arms of Broun as given by BicLanp
are “ Argent 2 Bars Azure, and over all an Escarboucle of 8
rays pometté and floretté Or.”

Passing by way of Downend and Cleeve Hill the party reached
the beautiful Frome Valley, which they traversed on foot.
The Frome river—so called according to a Cambro-British
authority from a Welsh word signifying “ running water ”—
takes its origin in, and traverses the “‘ Pennant” sandstone of
the coal measures, which forms as important a feature in the
Bristol as it does in the Forest of Dean and the Welsh coal-fields.
This “ Pennant” sandstone fornis a deep valley through which
the river Frome makes its way amid scenery of no ordinary
beauty, in which trees, rocks and water combine to present
all that is most pleasing to the eye and most grateful to
the feelings. Embowered amongst woods on the stream, is
“ Snuffy Jack’s Mill,”—a favorite subject for artists—so called

5

14

from a manufacture of snuff which was formerly carried
on there, but the whole course of the stream abounds with |
picturesque spots on which the eye and the pencil of the artist
love to dwell. Its seclusion too, so near to the crowded
outskirts of Bristol, comes with a certain surprise on the
traveller over that smoke-begrimed district.

Pursuing their way by the route already indicated, the party
reached the “Speedwell Pits” which formed the ultimate bourne
of their excursion. The splendid air-compressing machinery
was first brought under their notice. This power is no new
discovery. The compressibility of air was known as far back
as the time of Crssrsius, a celebrated mechanician, who lived
as far back as 250 years B.C.; its latest application on a grand
scale was to the excavation of the Mont Cenis tunnel. It is
believed that compressed air when it comes to be thoroughly
understood and utilised, will do more for the miner than all
the powers hitherto’ applied or invented. It will be the
motor for doing all the hard manual labour ; it will supply the
“life-giving element” pure air; it will drive the coal-cutting
machine, and blast down the coal; it will strike and turn the
rock-borer, and it will haul the debris away ; it will pump the
water, and cool the mine; in short there seems no limit to its
utility and adaptibility ; it may be said, indeed, to have solved
the problem of deep mining. Hitherto the obstacle to mining
at great depths has been the increase of temperature, which
rises in proportion to the depth penetrated; and it is found
that when the heat of the mine equals that of the human body,
muscular power can no longer be effectively wielded. This
difficulty is overcome by the propulsion of compressed air, which
effectually reduces the temperature at the greatest depths.
This was realised to-day by those—and they comprised the
greater number of the excursionists—who descended the shaft,
500 yards (more than a } of a mile) in depth, and then followed
the gallery (nearly a mile in length underground) and found the
air throughout pure and the temperature cool and equable.

Having returned safely to bank, the party found at the
residence of Mr. Hanne CossHam, within a hundred yards of

15

the pit, a sumptuous cold collation prepared under a tent, with
no lack of cooling and sparkling beverages, to which their
previous exertions disposed them to do ample justice. After
dinner Mr. CossHam proposed in felicitous terms the health of
Her Majesty the Queen, which was followed by that of your
president, who in proposing the health of their host made
reference to his great practical knowledge as a geologist, which
he had turned to such good account in unravelling the very
obscure and difficult problems of coal-mining—difficulties with
which the Kingswood coal-field abounds. In illustration of
this point, reference was made to plans of the underground
coal-seams hanging on the walls of the tent, by which it was
seen how some of the most intricate problems of coal-mining
had been grappled with and successfully overcome.

The last toast was connected with the name of their colleague
of many years, Ropert Erueripes, F.R.S., now occupying the
distinguished position of President of the Geological Society
of London, a post of honor and distinction, the well merited
reward of his own industry and ability, which have placed him
at the head of one of the most important scientific bodies in
the world. The presence of Mr. ErurripcEe amongst his old
comrades was warmly welcomed. He expressed his pleasure at
again finding himself amongst those with whom he had been
so long associated. He dwelt with emphasis upon the valuable
work done by the Club and embodied in their Transactions,
assuring them that in the estimation of men of science the
Cotteswold Club held a position at the head of all kindred
societies. But while thus awarding so large a measure of
praise to the memoirs published in the Transactions of the
Club, he expressed an opinion that much of their utility was
missed by reason that, as works of reference, they are almost
unprocurable—the result of their limited circulation—no copy
being found either in the British Museum, or in the libraries
of the Geological Society or of the School of Mines; and he
strongly advised that this omission should be repaired with as
little delay as possible. This I am enabled to say has since
been done.

16

Mr. Hanpet CossHam read a short paper on “The Pennant
Formation in relation to the Bristol Coal-field,” in which he
remarked that the “Pennant” forms one of the best proofs we
possess that the Welsh Coal-field, that of the Forest of Dean,
and that of Bristol, are all members of the same family, and
were all formed at one period; that all at one time formed one
great basin, which time and geological changes have severed
into three distinct Coal-fields. These changes have been
mainly due to the rent or “fault” now occupied by the river
and estuary of the Severn, which has not only separated the
Bristol area from that of Dean Forest and South Wales, but
has given to it a lateral thrust, which has caused the dislocations
which render the Bristol Coal-field so difficult to work.

Lastly a very interesting and instructive paper was read by
Mr. Jounson, the superintendent of the pits, ‘‘On Compressed
Air, and its application to Mining.”

The thanks of the Club were voted to Mr. Cossnam for
having so successfully planned and carried out a most enjoyable
Field Meeting, and to Mr. Jounson for his paper; after which
the party broke up and dispersed.

The first Winter Meeting of the Club was held in the Lecture
Theatre of the

SCIENCE SCHOOL IN GLOUCESTER,

on Wednesday, 9th of February, in the present year, when a
paper was read by Mr. Wrrcnett, of Stroud, on the ‘ Pree-
Cambrian Rocks of St. David’s.’ Those who read—and what
Geologist does not?—The Quarterly Journal of the Geological
Society, will have enjoyed the advantage of studying the series
of rocks under consideration, in the memoirs of Dr. Hicks, a
local Geologist, to whose researches is due the separation and
classification of this area of obscure and little-known rocks.
Mr. WircueEtt had lately had the advantage of traversing the
ground in company with Dr. Hicks, and it was with the desire
of introducing to the notice of the Cotteswold Club the nature
and sequence of these rocks that Mr. WircHeEtt read his paper,
which was well illustrated by maps and diagrams.

17

The Pre-Cambrian series of Pembrokeshire is divided by
Dr. Hicks into three groups, which in descending order are
named “ Pebidian,” ‘ Arvonian,” and ‘‘Dimetian.” These,
which consist mainly of altered or metamorphic rocks, are
wholly devoid of fossils. They are overlaid by the lowest
“Cambrians” or “ Harlech Grits,” from which they are sepa-
rated by a thick bed of conglomerate, which is deposited upon
them uncomformably. This bed of conglomerate is shown to
be persistent over great areas; it is described as of many feet
in thickness, and as consisting of rolled materials of all sizes,
shewing an ancient coast-line, with evidence of great disturb-
ance. The Rev. W.S. Symonps writes—“ It is singular that
this conglomerate bed should extend so widely at the base
of the Cambrians. I have seen it away in the Hebrides, in
Sutherland, and in S. Wales, and it occurs along the same line
in the Malvern hills.”

The underlying Pre-Cambrian beds have been so altered by
heat and pressure, that it is only after long and intimate
acquaintance, aided by patient research, that their sequence
can be determined: indeed the conclusions of Dr. Hicks have
not met with universal acceptance, many Geologists of the
highest consideration continuing to regard these deposits as
due to intrusive volcanic action.

It is well known that in America and in the north of
Scotland there exists a vast thickness of Pree-Cambrian rocks,
known as the ‘“‘ Laurentian” series: these are regarded by Dr.
Hicks as underlying the Pre-Cambrians of Pembrokeshire and
Caernarvon, which he regards as the uppermost beds of the
Laurentian series. The question is a very intricate one, and
one rendered all the more difficult by the entire absence of all
evidences of life, except in the Laurentians of America, where
the Hozoon Canadense occurs; but the presence in these beds of
lime and phosphates, both of which are constituents of animal
life, is appealed to as evidence of the existence of living beings
on the land and in the waters of that old primeval world.

There was a discussion afterwards, in which Dr. Wricur,
Mr. Lucy and others took part, having reference mainly to the

c

18

life-history of the epoch, and to the strange fact that in the
lowest fossiliferous strata, the huge “‘ Paradowides,” the giant
of his tribe of ‘“ Crustacea” (the Trilobites,) should at once
spring into existence without apparently any ancestors. Dr.
Wricut argued that this sudden appearance of new forms of
life was the case throughout all geologic history; others, how-
ever, maintain that this history is itself imperfect, whole pages
and chapters being lost and destroyed; and that it is alike
inconcievable and unphilosophic to assume that a crustacean or
an elephant came suddenly into existence without any fore-
runners from whom to take and carry on the lamp of life.

The Second Winter Meeting of the Club was held in the
Lecture Theatre of the

SCIENCE SCHOOL IN GLOUCESTER,

on Wednesday the 23rd of February, when a paper was read
by Mr. Jonny Betiows, entitled ‘“‘ Notes on certain traces of the
British or Celtic period which remain in the Forest of Dean.”
Mr. Bettows commenced by referring to the well-known
building in the centre of the Forest called the “Speech
House,” the history of which he sketched, and drew attention
to the very considerable number of hollies growing about the
spot, and to the evident great age of many of them. He then
shewed that many superstitions are connected with the holly
which have come down from very remote times, when the plant
was associated with some idea of sacredness and holiness. The
selection of its present site for the “‘ Speech House” was dwelt
upon as implying in itself a strong presumption in favour of
the spot having been used as a central point of gathering for a
period long antecedent to the erection of the present building.
Reference was then made to certain personal characteristics
still recognisable, and to habits and customs still or of late
existing in the Forest, which are probably derived from Celtic
sources; and it was shewn that these peculiarities are still
preserved in those districts wherein from the nature of the
country the Britons found refuge when fleeing before the Saxon

19

invaders. One of the customs on which the lecturer laid
especial emphasis was the division of time by which the Forest
Courts were regulated, having their set times not according to
our measure of months and weeks, but by periods divisible by
the Druidical numbers 3 and 9, as thus:—The Druidical year
consisted of 360 days; this divided by 9 gives 40 days, which
was the period for the assembling of the Verderers Courts.
Not only was this so, there were two other courts higher than
the Verderers; these were the Swainmote (or Free Tenants
Court,) which was held every 120 days—or three times a year—
and the highest of all, called the Court of Eyre, which was held
every three years. In the lower court three witnesses were
required, swearing with a stick of holly held in the hand: the
bounds were perambulated every three years: and the Justices
in Eyre sat three on the bench at the Triennial Court.

The above is but the merest outline of the long and elaborate
treatment of the subject by Mr. Bettows, who brought to bear
on it a vast amount of research, all going to show that in the
Court still held in the “Speech House ” we have the last
vestige, though perfect in itself, of the grand system of the
Druids in Britain.

In the absence of Mr. CuristopHEer Bow ty, who had intended
to read some notes on the archeology of St. David’s, Mr.
WircuEtt gave a brief description of the more important
objects of interest to archeologists in the neighbourhood of St.
David’s. These included 10 camps, all formed by making
entrenchments across the base of a rocky promontory projecting
into a valley or into the sea. Drawings of two cromlects were
_ exhibited, one at Longhouse, the other at St. David’s Head;
and reference was made to several stone circles in the neigh-
bourhood of that locality, several of which were stated to have
an area of 20 feet in diameter.

This was the last meeting held by the Club. There should
have been one held in March, but in consequence of the paper
promised for the occasion not being completed, that paper will
be read at a future day.

c2

The Cannington Park Limestone. By Hanvet CossHam.

About four miles North-West of Bridgewater there is a patch
of very compact crystalline Limestone that has long puzzled
Geologists, and has been the cause of many anxious enquiries
and some rather warm discussions.

The peculiarly compact form in which it develops, and the
almost entire absence of fossils has made it rather difficult to
read, and for the last half-century it has almost unanimously
been pronounced to be of Devonian age.

Some years ago our late lamented friend Mr. Cuas. Moors,
of Bath, hesitatingly hinted at the possibility of this formation
being carboniferous and I know, from personal intercourse with
him, that he always had grave suspicions that it would
ultimately turn out to be so. But it is to Mr. Tawney that we
are mainly indebted for a correct reading of this remarkable and
interesting formation.

Mr. Tawney, in November 1875, read a paper before the
Bristol Naturalists’ Society in which, after a careful and
valuable review of nearly all that had been previously written
(1) by Mr. Lronarp Horner in 1816, who then pronounced it
to be Limestone of the Devonian age.

(2) By the Rev. D. Witt1ams in 1837, who in a paper read
before the British Association, argued that it belonged to the
lower portion of the Devonian.

(3) In 1841 the late Professor Pariures confirmed this view,
and contended that this limestone belonged to the same age as
the Ilfracombe group.

(4) Sir Henry de la Beche, who also about the same time
contended that this rock belonged to the Devonian series, and
to be of the same age as the Quantock hills, lying on the
South-West. ,

21

Up to this period the opinion seemed to be unanimous that
the Cannington Limestone was Devonian, but—

(5) In 1851 Mr. Baker, of Bridgewater, expressed doubts on
the point and gave some doubtful proofs of the correctness of
his views.

(6) Mr. T. H. Payne followed on the same side; but (7) in
1867 Mr. Eruerimes contested the views of Messrs. Baxrer and
Payne, and boldly contended for the ancient faith—namely,
that the Cannington stone was of Devonian age.

(8) In 1871 Messrs. Bristow and Woopwarp, in the
Geological Magazines, contended that it was carboniferous, and
thus raised the issue again. I ought also to say that there are
some corals at the Taunton Museum that were said to have
been found in the Cannington Limestone, but which Mr.
Erueripecr and many other eminent geologists had great
doubts about.

(9) In 1875 Mr. Tawney did much to settle the controversy,
by the exceedingly valuable paper he read before the Bristol
Naturalists’ Society, in which he claimed to have found
Terebratula Hastata and Producta Elegans.

I was not, however, aware of this valued contribution to the
settlement of the controversy, when in August last I was
fortunate enough to be able to secure the companionship of our
distinguished President, Sir Witt1am Guts, and the learned
President of the Geological Society, Mr. ErnEripes, in a visit
to Cannington Park. We paid the visit after the last Field
Meet at Lansdown, which those who were present will remember
as having afforded a remarkable illustration of Agneous action.

We drove over that splendid field for geological investigation
—the Mendip Hills—through the romantic and deeply interest-
ing gorge of Cheddar. In visiting Cannington we had the
advantage of the local guidance of an old Gloucestershire man,
of rare intellectual culture, Dr. WinrrRBorHaM.

Up to the date of our visit, Mr. Ernertpcz was strong in his
belief that the rock we were about to inspect was Devonian, and
strong in the belief that no true carboniferous fossils had, up
to that date, been found there—though they had been often

22

sought for diligently by eminent and earnest students of
geological science.

We had not been more than half-an-hour at the quarry,
however, when a workman handed me a piece of stone which on
inspection I thought contained Productus. I brought it to Sir
Witium Guise, and he gave it as his opinion that I was right
in my impression; and upon both of us handing it to Mr.
Erueripce he, after the most careful examination, pronounced
it to be Productus Scabriculus—a carboniferous shell that made
it certain that we were looking at true mountain limestone.

Since that time I have been fortunate in obtaining the
following :—

One Specimen of “ Productus Cora,”
“ Terebratula Hastata,”
*“ Productus Semienticulator,”

> 9 >>

>> > >»

“* Rhynchonella and Spiriferon,”
* Cyathophyllum,”

>> >> >

a> 9? 29
Sixteen Specimens of “ Spirifera Glabra,”

One Specimen of ‘ Chonetes,”

All of which I have taken the precaution of getting Mr.
Erueripce to examine and confirm; and I venture to think
that we have now evidence sufficient before us to pronounce,
without hesitation, that the Cannington Rock is True Carbon-
iferous Limestone. That being so, thereon hangs a tale— .

The Mendip chain has hitherto been regarded as the last
South-Western development of the carboniferous series. I have
always reasoned that as the Mendip chain had been rent in the
centre by a protrusion of Volcanic Lava, and as the flanks of
that grand range dipped North and South of this volcanic
protrusion that divided the range, that probabilities all pointed
to there being a coal-field South of the Mendip chain—still, so
long as no coal measures, or their associated strata, had been
found on the South side of the Mendip Hills, the question
remained one of probabilities only. But I venture to say that
what was only problematical before is certain now, and that the
evidence produced is sufficient to justify the belief that at
Cannington we are standing on true Carboniferous Limestone.

23

Looking at my section you will see that the distance of the
Cannington Hill from the Mendip Chain at Bleadon Hill, is
about 13 miles. The result therefore of proving the Cannington
Limestone to be carboniferous is practically to extend the
Bristol coal-field for that distance south of the Mendip Hills,
and to make it next to certain that (to use the words of an
eminent statesman) we are within “ measurable distance” of
coal between Bleadon and Cannington, and I venture to think
that a trial shaft or boring say at Highbridge, or anywhere
east on the line of the river Brue (say near Glastonbury) from
6 to 900 feet deep, would certainly develope a coal-field and
ultimately cover that valley with hives of industry, and greatly
aid in the material prosperity of that part of the country.

The importance in a national point of view of every extension
of our mineral area can hardly be over-estimated. We are
exhausting our mineral resources in an almost ever expanding
ratio. Our latest returns show that last year we raised nearly
155,000,000 tons of coal or at the rate of nearly 3,000,000 tons
per week. With a scarcity of fossil fuel would certainly begin
our national decline, and therefore every extension of the area
from which the future may draw supplies is important.

I firmly believe that between Cannington Park and the
Mendips there is a coal-field that ultimately will prove as
valuable, and more extensive than the area that lies between
Bristol and the Mendips.

I fear the strata lying south and west of Cannington precludes
the hope that we may expect to find coal further south.

The carbonaceous deposits beyond appear to be represented
by the older Culures of the Devonian, and the Lignite of
comparatively modern times. But for the true carboniferous
it seems vain to look below the point under discussion.

But I believe that east of our present coal-fields and extending
largely under the German Ocean will yet be found vast and
valuable coal deposits that will no doubt tax the geological and
engineering skill of future generations.

But that will I hope be found not to baffle the science and
enterprise of the future in their efforts to place those resources
within reach.

On a Section of Strata exposed in a Railway Cutting at Morse,
near Drybrook. By Epwarp WETHERED, F.G.S., F.C.S.

T have to thank Mr. Lucy, F.G.S., for the pleasure of laying
before the Cotteswold Club a section of the Strata I am about
to describe; but I beg to state that he is in no way committed
to any views which I may express on the subject. During last
summer Mr. Lucy sent me a specimen of rock from Drybrook,
and enquired whether I thought it was Millstone Grit, and if I
knew of a large Pebble bed in that formation. I replied that I
knew of no such bed, and as to the rock, I was afraid to express
any decided opinion upon a hand specimen, seeing that there
were petrological characters in connection with it which did not
correspond with the millstone grit round Bristol, nor, so far as
I was aware, in South Wales. Mr. Lucy shortly afterwards
kindly invited me to accompany Sir W. Guise and himself to
see the section referred to. However, before going further into
the matter, I must briefly glance at some of the geological
features around Drybrook, in order to clear the ground for
further remarks.

The Bristol, Somersetshire, and Forest of Dean Coal-fields
are regarded as outliers of the great South Wales Coal-basin,
their disconnection having been effected by the uplifting
of the older rocks into an anticlinal curve, which has been
subsequently removed by denudation, while the patch of Coal-
measures in the Forest of Dean was preserved from erosion
by the circumstance of their being laid in a synclinal curve.
Their severance from the Bristol Coal-field was brought about
in the same way. |

By reference to the Geological Survey Map of England and
Wales, the Forest of Dean Coal-basin is shown surrounded by
the Millstone Grit and Carboniferous Limestone. There is

SECTION OF STRATA

EXPOSED IN THE RAILWAY CUTTING

AT

MORSE, year DRYBROOK
| Descwrrien orteos || eras or Bros. |

SURFACE ALLUVIAL.

,

Small Quartzitic Pebbles
embedded in a ferru-
Conglomerate... 10ft. 6” ginous matrix. Passes
almost imperceptibly into

the Sandstone below.

Variegated rose- E
coloured Sand- > 12 ft. —
stone ...

e.q Coarse and well-rounded
f grains. Bands of Marl
irregularly interspersed.

iy ah ¥. eo
;® he oo sere Large Quartzitic Pebbles,

@
HY Ss iy ry th, o ‘e% well water-worn.
BE", Fl alpteerele
Conglomerate... 10 ft. — ~° 2. eg TQ ema Quartaitic
LP Pe XY #¢ Pebbles. similar to those

*. "Pas 2'< OG -50| in the Old Red Conglom-
Pd \e' *s s
= @® ©.s¢ Se | a | erate,

a @P eo. ¢ a
¥ es
19-8 e*.3
Rose - coloured ) 4 o rd? $40)

o
” PIER AE 3 weer a
Sandstone ...{ . TiS eRe nll, ee ©.

i] Mottled Sandstone grains,
well rounded.

Angle of dip 40°
Not exposed

Carboniferous Limestone

bt
a yee
al bees:

25

however a considerable thinning out in thickness when com-
pared with the Bristol and South Wales Coal-fields. Thus the
total thickness of the Limestone at Clifton is about 2900
feet,* in South Wales the formation is from 700 to 1000 feet
in thickness, while at Purlieu, in the Forest of Dean, it is about
1102 feet.+ The Millstone grit at Bristol may be taken to
average 1000 feet thick, that of South Wales 200, whilst at
Purlieu it is represented by 41 feet of rock. t

The Carboniferous Limestone rests upon the Old Red Sand-
stone, and the passage beds between the two formations are
exceptionally well developed in the road from Ross to Dry-
brook in what is known as the deep cutting. The Old Red
Conglomerate is composed of vein quartz pebbles,§ embedded
in a ferrugino-arenaceous matrix. A section of the passage
beds, with the greater portion of the Carboniferous Limestone
which rests upon them, was made by the late Mr. Jounn Jonzs
and Mr. W. C. Lucy, F.G.S., and published in the Club’s
Proceedings. ||

The section to which I especially desire to draw your atten-
tion to-day has been exposed at Morse in the making of a
railway to Mitcheldean. The Limestone is not shown in
the cutting, nor is the total thickness of the lowest bed of
sandstone to be ascertained at this point. As seen in the
section which accompanies this paper, the bed consists of a
mottled sandstone, built up of well rounded grains of quartz.
These average about ‘01 of an inch in diameter; they are
scratched, and some of them contain cavities. A microscopic
section of this grit is represented in Fig. I., magnified 22
diameters. When I first saw this bed a doubt occurred whether
it was Millstone grit, as the lithological features were different
from anything which I had seen before, and strikingly so when

* Proceedings of the Bristol Naturalist’s Society, New Series, Vol. L.,
Part iii., 1875-6, page 316.

+ Memoirs of the Geological Survey, Vol. I., page 129,

t Memoirs of the Geological Survey. Vol. I., page 127.

§ Memoirs of the Geological Survey, Vol. I., page 64.

|| The President’s Address, 1867.

26

compared with the same formation exposed round Bristol.
Considering the close proximity of the outcrop of the northern
end of the Bristol coal-field, I was certainly not prepared to
find so great an alteration in the grit. I may state, however, that
lithological characters cannot always be absolutely relied upon
for determining the age of rocks, and great mistakes have been
made on that account. Throughout geological time we get a
recurrence of similar physical conditions, and the lithology
of the rocks simply bears evidence as to what those conditions
were, and even here we have to take into consideration
the changes which have been brought about by the chemical
affinities of the substances composing rocks, and by the per-
colation of water through them. There are however certain
special lithological peculiarities exhibited by some rocks which
may, at any rate, be taken into consideration over a small area.
Thus, in the present case, the Millstone grit of the Bristol
coal-field is composed of grains of quartz which appear to
cement themselves together (Fig. II.) In the specimen figured,
there is a little ferruginous substance to be seen between the
grains, but in specimens which I have in my collection, the
appearance presented is that of a mass of quartzite, and one
has great difficulty in distinguishing the grains, so closely are
they cemented by the cohesion of the particles of one grain
with another. Again, the grains are sub-angular, a character
which is not confined to the Bristol district. Dr. Sorsy, F.R.S.,
in his Presidental address to the Geological Society in 1880,*
referring to the Millstone grit around Sheffield, said: ‘The
grains of quartz are, on the whole, extremely angular, and as a
general rule show little trace of wearing.”

When, therefore, I first saw the bed, under consideration, I
naturally hesitated before coming to a conclusion as to its
stratagraphical position. The matter was, however, decided
on a second visit to the Drybrook section, when I found a
Lepidodendron in a quarry opened on a bed of a yellow colour,
about half a mile from the section at Morse, but in other respects

* Proceedings Geological Society, 1880, page 64.

xX 20 DIAMETERS

FIG. I!

we

x 20 DIAMETERS

27

similar to the mottled sandstone, which I afterwards found
occurred immediately under it. A third visit to the locality left
no doubt upon the subject, for I discovered another quarry to the
left of Euroclydon, the residence of Mr. Brary, (to whom I am
indebted for valuable aid in the investigation of the rocks to
which I am referring.) Near the top of this quarry was the
mottled sandstone underlying the yellow bed before referred to,
dipping at the same angle, and composed of grains averaging
‘011 of an inch in diameter. Next in descending order was a
yellow variegated sandstone of a more compact structure, the
grains of which were less rounded, and in size measured about
‘007 of an inch; then came a bed of a light grey tint with
yellow patches here and there, and the grains averaging ‘004 of
an inch in diameter. We here get a very good illustration of
the change which was taking place in the elevation of the sea
floor; a condition of things which ultimately allowed of the
growth of that vegetation which gave rise to the Carboniferous
coals. First we had a sea in which the Limestone was gradually
formed; after a time the sea bottom was elevated, and the
conditions became unfavourable to the life of those creatures
which built up the Limestone. Sediment was brought down
from the surrounding land by water agency, and deposited over
the area. At first this sediment was very fine in size, but
as the water became shallower the size increased. This is
shown by glancing at the measurements of the grains which
compose the beds of Millstone grit, and it will be observed that
they become of larger dimensions as we pass upwards in the
section.

The examination of the quarry near Euroclydon enabled me
to get the angle of dip of the beds, which I put at 40° and
which it was impossible to ascertain in the railway cutting,
though it was apparent that the angle was steep. In the
section of the Carboniferous Limestone made by Messrs. Jones
and Lucy, the dip is given as varying from 22° to 32%. Ina
supplementary section kindly given me by Mr. Lucy, the dip of
the beds higher up in the formation is put at 36°. If, therefore,
we take Mr. Lucy’s angle of 36° for the Limestone, and mine

28

as 40° for the Millstone grit, there is only a difference of 4°,
and the lowest beds of the grit are not exposed.

Resting on the mottled bed of Millstone grit in the Morse
railway section, comes a rose coloured sandstone of about eight
inches thick, composed of well rounded grains of quartz,
decomposing felspar and mica, and dipping at an angle of 19°.
Over this bed, resting upon it conformably, comes another
chiefly made up of large quartzitic pebbles, some of them
lithologically corresponding to the Caradoc Sandstone of the
lower Lickey Hills, Worcestershire. There is also a second
pebble which is identical with those in the Old Red Con-
glomerate. I am not aware that a Pebble bed, such as the
one here described, has been observed elsewhere in the Forest
of Dean, which would certainly have been the case had it
belonged to the Millstone grit.

The Pebble bed passes somewhat abruptly into a coarse
variegated Sandstone which rests upon it at the same angle of
dip, and like the 8-inch bed below is composed of well-rounded
grains of quartz, decomposing felspar and mica. A section of
this rock is given in Fig. III. magnified 22 diameters, and a
fragment of Mica from the same in Fig. IV. magnified 130
diameters. The sandstone is irregularly interspersed by layers
of mar! or kaolin.

Resting on the last bed comes a small Pebbly Conglomerate,
the pebbles being well rounded and embedded in a highly
ferruginous matrix,

This ends the section, the small Pebble bed being capped by
alluvial deposit. And now arises the question, whether the
mottled sandstone, and the beds which underlie, are of the
same age as those which rest upon it ata different angle of
dip.

In reasoning out this problem, the first possibility which
suggests itself is, as to whether we have come across the old
river bed which Sir Cuartes Lyextt described as running
through the Forest.* The same phenomenon is also referred

* Hlements of Geology, p. 510.

x 20 DIAMETERS

FIG. IV

x 130 DIAMETERS

————

29

to by the Rev. W. 8. Symonps, F.G.S., in the “ Record of the
Rocks.”* He says: “In one of the coal seams called the
‘High Delph’ is an old river bed filled with sand, clay and
pebbles. It is known by the name of ‘The Horse,’ but is
different from the ‘horses’ of the northern coal-fields, which
are merely faulted rock masses or trap dykes, and not old coal
river channels.” These remarks of Mr. Symonps induced me to
submit the Drybrook pebbles to him with the view of ascertaining
whether they were similar to those found in “The Horse.”
His reply was that they were not, but that they reminded him
of the Trias pebbles which occur at Budleigh Saulterton. This
quite coincided with my first idea as to the age of the Pebble
bed, and on comparing with the quartzites from Budleigh
Saulterton, I find a great resemblance.

To sum up my reading of the section at Morse, (1) I regard
the difference in dip between the mottled sandstone and
the beds which rest upon it, as evidence of unconformability.
(2) It is always unsatisfactory to attempt a diagnosis of the
age of rocks without fossils, but judging from the lithological
evidence I have adduced, the pebbles seem to me to be
thoroughly Triassic, and may possibly be correlated with those

at Budleigh Saulterton,+ and the beds which follow with the

lower portion of the Keuper. In short, I am disposed to regard
the beds which lie above the mottled sandstone as an outlier
of the Trias formation.

* Record of the Rocks, p. 388.
+ Iam aware that Silurian fossils are found in the pebbles at Budleigh
Saulterton, but they are not numerous.

On the Minerals of Gloucestershire, with part of the adjacent
Counties of Somerset and Worcestershire, compiled by Mr. W. C.
Lucy ; also list of Derived Rocks found in the Northern Draft
Gravel over the same area, by Mr. W. C. Lucy.

Last year I was requested by Mr. C. J. Woopwarp, F.G.S.,
of the Birmingham and Midland Institute, to supply him with
a list of the Minerals of the County of Gloucester, for a new
edition of a work on the Mineralogy of England. Through the
kindness of Mr. Wernerep, Mr. Fryer, and Mr. Brarn, I was
able to send him a part of the following information, to which
corrections and additions have since been made. I have now
added a valuable contribution from Rev. Dr. F. Surrus, F.G.S.,
of Churchdown.

Minerals from the neighbourhood of Bristol. By EDWARD WETHERED, F.G.S.,
of Cheltenham.

Name of Mineral Locality Geological Formation

Hematite Clifton, Winford,|Dolomitic Conglomerate
Weston -super-Mare,| where it is in contact with
Mendips, Frampton| the Carboniferous Lime-
Cottrell,(inthe Pen-| stone. In “Pockets” in
nant Grit) the Limestone. Forms
workable deposits in the fis-
sures of the Pennant Grit of
the Middle Coal Measures
Géthite (Crystals of a|Clevedon Dolomitic Conglomerate, only

Hydrous Peroxide in small quantities
of Iron)

Yellow Ochre ‘W eston-super:- Mare,|Weston-super-Mare, Mendips,
wherever iron ore is|_ etc.
found in “ Pockets”

in the Mountain

Limestone
Ironstone Nodules and|Kaston, Bedminster,
Black Band Iron-| Kingswood Lower Coal Measures
stone
Malachite ahs Dolomitic Conglomerate, only
in small quantities
Galena Mendips, Clevedon {In Dolomitic Conglomerate

Shirehampton and Mountain Limestone

fissures

31

Name of Mineral Locality Geological Formation
Manganese Tt is difficult to define|Carboniferous Trias’
special locality, as it
is to be found in
most rocks, especially
the Carboniferous

Celestine, Massive and|The Crystalline variety|In Mountain Limestone cavi-
Crystalline at Clifton ties
The Massive variety in/In oval or round masses at
the neighbourhood,| the bottom of the New Red
at Bedminster, &c. Marl

At Clifton and the|New Red Marl
neighbourhood

Barium, in the form
of Heavy Spar (Sul-
phate of Barium)

Baryto Celestine, re-|Clifton, in the Oakley|New Red Marl
cently discovered,| Road, when digging
the only known place| foundations for
in England building

Selenite Various, generally|Triassic, Rhetic and Liassic
‘where Celestine oc-
curs
Calcite anon In the cavities of the Moun-
tain Limestone
Dolomite Clifton, Portishead, |Trias
Clevedon, Westbury
Quartz, massive, and|Clifton Dolomitic Conglomerate
crystalline, chiefly|Kingswood Coal Measures (Lower) in
the latter— Bristol nodules of Clay Ironstone
Diamond”
House Coal Pucklechurch Upper Coal Measures
Yate Lower Coal Measures
Kingswood Middle and Lower
Easton, Bedminster |Lower Coal Measures
Gas Coal |Pucklechurch [Upper Coal Measures
Steam Coal Yate, Kingswood Lower Coal Measures
Easton, Bedminster
There is also the small
patch of Coal Mea-
sures at Nailsea
Brick Earths | Kingswood Recent
New Red Marl noramies
Fire Clay Pucklechurch
Kingswood, Yate Coal Measures
Easton, Bedminster
Mica Various Disseminated in the Pennant
| Grit and Old Red Sandstone
Silver Mendips, Clevedon Im the Dolomitic Conglome-
Shirehampton rate and Limestone, asso-
ciated with the Galena
Walton Traces in the free state in

Carboniferous Limestone
Gold, traces of |Walton |Carboniferous Limestone

32

The two last metals were discovered by the late Mr. Stoppart, (see paper
read before the Bristol Naturalist’s Society, Vol. IJ., Part 1., 1876-7. New
Series.) He found in 100 parts of the Limestone ‘003 of Silver. Mr. Merry,
of Swansea, has verified Mr. Sroppart’s observations as to Gold ; he found
three grains per ton.

Authority—Mr. W. H. Fryer, Coleford.

Calcite (Iceland Spar) Forest of Dean Mountain Limestone
Do. (Stalactite) aie Do. se Do.
Do. (Satin Spar) ne Do. see Do.
Dolomite... san See Do. e Do.
Quartz Bt sae ay Do. be Millstone Grit, &c.
Mica ne er se Do. As Upper beds of Old Red
Sandstone
Gothite Do. Ee Coal Measures
Limonite ‘ oct ec ae Mountain Limestone
Wad (Impure Binanite of ;
Manganese) ... Do. ats Millstone Grit
Calamine... oe 62 Do. “an Coal Measures
Galena eae a me Do. Af Do.

Extract of a Letter from Mr. W. Buancu Brain, St. Annals, Cinderford.

The principal Mineral in the Forest of Dean is the Red Hematite
Iron Ore, which is found in Lodes (locally termed Churns,) and contained
in a Rock called by the miners the Creese Stone, and which is situated
above the Mountain Limestone. This Ore is extremely valuable for Steel
making, being perfectly free from Phosphorus. It is to be found in the
lower basin of the Forest, which extends throughout the Forest, and can
be seen to the best advantage at the following mine works, viz. :—Wigpool,
Edge Hill, St. Annals, Buckshaft, and Shakemantle.

There are some Argillaceous Ores which occur in the Coal Shales, but these
have not been worked to profit to my knowledge. They are to be found in
small quantities at almost every colliery in the Forest.

I should have said at the St. Annals mine works before alluded to, there is
found with the Red Hematite Iron Ore a beautiful Ochre.

In the lowest Coal Seam called the Hildelph Vein occurs a small quantity
of Lead, yielding a low percentage of Silver.

A quantity of Iron Pyrites (locally termed “‘ Dogs,” because they form
blocks like Stone) is to be found in a Vein of Coal named the “ Twenty
Inches.” The Pyrites are very detrimental to the Coal (being very heavy,
and have to be cut out,) and the former is insufficient to guarantee a manu-
facture of Sulphur, although such a process has been contemplated.

33

The above, together with the several Veins of Coal, I believe, constitute
the whole of the Mineral commercial products of the Forest of Dean, with
the exception of an excellent Fire Clay, which is found just above the

Heemitite series.

Our Clays are rich in Aluminium, and I have struggled hard to extract it
on a cheap principle by means of an Electrical Furnace (before Dr. Siemens
introduced his,) but have hitherto only partially succeeded.

Minerals of Gloucestershire. By Dr. FrEDK. SM1THE, F.G.S.

Orthoclase
Plagioclase
Augite
Magnetite
Olivine
Porcellanite
Chlorite
Chert...
Prehnite
Muscovite
Calcite
Pyrites

Do.
Marcasite
Mispickel
Lignite abe ee
Chalybite (Spathose

iron of Phillips) ...
Bole .
Limonite
Clay Ironstone
Githite
Rhodonite
Dolomite
Selenite
Bitumen
Arragonite ..
Alunogen
Copralites
Gypsum 5
Chalcopyrite ...
Travertine

D

Basalts ... ... Charfield
Do. Do.
Do. Do.
Do. Do.
Do. Do
Do. Do
Do. Do

oe ae aH Damory, Tortworth
Amygdaloid trap ... Damory and Charfield
In clays and marlstones Churchdown
Throughout =e Do.
Do. ow Do.
Rhetic ... Garden Cliff, Westbury-on-Severn
In clays and marlstones Churchdown, &c., &c.
Rhetic ... Garden Cliff, Westbury-on-Severn

M. Lias, &c. ... Churchdown, &c., &c.
Spinatus Beds ... Churchdown
Tate’s Hill, Churchdown, &c.
Churchdown
nad ies Tai soe! 5 5
Coal Measures ... Iron Acton
M. Lias ... ... Gretton, Churchdown
“he . ... Thornbury
Lias_... ... Churchdown
U. Lias ... ae Do.
Ra DEYN ease aes Do.

U. Lias, Shales ses Do.
Rhetic Garden Cliff, Westbury, & Hock Crib
Trias... ... Garden Cliff, Westbury
Rhetic ... ... Garden Cliff, Westbury, &c.

Oolite and Lias ... Cotteswolds — Dursley,
Churchdown, &c.

34:
Notes on Rocks. By W. C. Lucy.

These Rocks are derived from other localities and found in the Northern
Drift Gravels near to and within a few miles of Gloucester, and generally

occurring at heights from 50 to 250 feet above sea level.

Millstone Grit

Jasper

Syenite

Quartz

Lickey Quartz (Quarizite)
Flint

Felstone
Chalcedony
Granite

Carboniferous Limestone
Chalk (rare)

At Limpury Hitt, which is about ten acres of table land formed of New
Red Sandstone, all the above rocks are found in the drift with the exception
of Felstone ; and occurring with them in slabs of various sizes, are the

following Fossils :—

Heliolites Son
Halysites catenularius
Cyathophyllum
Favosites alveolaris
Petria bina

Chonetes lata

Orthis elegantula
Atrypa reticularis ...
Phacops caudatus ...
Rhynchonella Wilsoni

Wenlock Limestone

” ”

” ”

” eh)
Caradoc
Upper Ludlow

Wenlock Limestone

” ”
” oP

Also a large boulder of Caradoc, probably from Malvern, 2 ft. long, 1 ft. 6 in.
wide, and 3 in. thick, which is now in the Gloucester Museum.

In the NorTHERN CoTTESWOLDs are found, as at LirrL—E WooLrorD,
BERRINGTON (near Campden), Goose Hii, PAXFoRD, CoMPTON SCORPION,
BLacKDOWN, BaRTON-ON-THE-HEATH, “ THE Four-SHIRE STONE,’ ASTON

Maena, MICKLETON, &¢.—

Millstone Grit

Quartz

Quartzose Pebbles

Hard Chalk

Red Chalk (Little Woolford), sup-
posed by Dr. Buckland to be from
Spilsby, Lincolnshire

Flints of all sizes, some very large
and angular

Chert

Granite of many kinds

Fine grained Trap

Mountain Limestone

New Red Sandstone

Coal Measure Sandstone, with
Stigmaria ficoides

Jasper

Syenite (Malvern)
» resembling Charnwood
Greenstone
Mountain Limestone, with encrinital
stems
Gneiss
Hornblende Greenstone
Brownstone, from the Old Red
Sandstone
Permian
Amygdaloidal Greenstone
Chalcedony
Agate
Metamorphosed Slate
Saccharoid Millstone Grit
Greensand

_ Wherever the Northern Drift occurs at places not mentioned in the above
list most of the rocks enumerated are found, and I have several rocks
in my collection which I have not been able to get named.

On the Pisolite and the Basement Beds of the Inferior Oolite of the
Cotteswolds. By E. Wircenett, F.G.S.

The deposits known as the “Pea Grit” or “ Pisolite,” are
some of the most remarkable of the Oolitic series, and are
peculiar to the Cotteswolds.

The Pisolites are well known to Geologists, but to those who
have not particularly observed them they may be described as
flat or round: grains, varying in size from the 8th to the 3rd
of an inch; the flat shape is the more prevalent, but many
are elongated or round. es

The deposit is of considerable thickness in the neighbourhood
of Cheltenham. It becomes thinner at Birdlip, and gradually
thins out westward of Stroud.

The observations which I have to make upon this deposit are
(1) as to the Structure and mode of formation of the Pisolites;
and (2) the Stratigraphical range of the Beds.

(1) The Pisolites are either concretionary structures or
rounded fragments of Limestone, or, occasionally, of Coral.

‘They are sometimes referred to as flattened grains, as if they

had been compressed at the time they were deposited or before
they became hardened. But although they are generally flat,
there is nothing in their structure to indicate that those which
are now flat were ever globular, but on the contrary, they have
every appearance of having been formed very much in their
present shape; in fact it will be found, on close examination,
that the form of each Pisolite has been determined by that
of its nucleus—those which are flat have flat substances for

_ their nuclei, and those which are globular or elongated, have

corresponding nuclei. In numerous instances the flat Pisolites

have pieces of shell for their centres ; occasionally the Pisolite is

merely a small univalve or a piece of coral coated over. In nearly
D2

36

all instances the nucleus is covered with coatings of lime, or

muddy deposit hardened into stone, but sometimes the Pisolite
is made up of an aggregation of granules similar to those
which compose the freestone, and some are merely small
fragments of coral or limestone, worn into rounded grains.
The coating of the nucleus was apparently a matter of time,
as the Pisolites rarely show one coating only; on the contrary
the better types show a succession of concentric rings, similar
to those seen under a magnifier in the granules of the freestone

the mode of formation was probably similar in both instances—
the decay of rocks or coral reefs and the lime thrown down on
the floor of the sea in the remains of minute organisms, which
have contributed so largely to the formation of limestone
rocks—or carried down to the sea by rivers and then precipi-
tated, furnished the materials, and mechanical action led to the
coating of the erratic fragments which compose the nuclei,
and to the formation of the Pisolites.

The Pisolites were probably derived from the north or
north-east, as shown in the thickness of the deposit at Cleeve
and Leckhampton hills compared with its thickness in the
vicinity of Stroud; and it would seem, from the general
resemblance in shape and size of the Pisolites, that their
formation was regular and uniform. The period of their
deposition was of considerable duration, as it appears that in
some instances they were left uncovered by subsequent deposits
long enough, according to Dr. Lycrrt, to admit of the growth
of protozoa upon their surfaces. The passage of the fragments
of shells, coral and other particles which compose the nuclei
along a sea bottom covered with a muddy deposit, minute
particles of which became attached to the moving fragments as
they passed along, might perhaps account for the concretionary
structure of the Pisolites. They might have then been heaped
up in thick beds where the first deposit occurred, as shown in
the sections at Cleeve, Leckhampton, Crickley and Birdlip,
but were subsequently spread out beyond those points over a
large area, gradually becoming thinner at Stroud, and at length
ceasing altogether.

CoE

Oe, ee ——

37

(2) The stratigraphical range of the Pea Grit in the Cottes-
wolds is considerably greater than has been supposed: it
extends from Cleeve hill to Selsley, at least twenty miles, and
from the escarpment of the Cotteswolds at the Horsepools to
Chalford, at least seven miles, and possibly beyond, but there
are no means of tracing it further in that direction. Professor
Hout, in his Memoir of the Geological Survey of East
Gloucestershire, says the Pea Grit does not extend further
towards the south-west than Painswick hill, but this is clearly
a mistake. Dr. Lycerr says that from Cleeve hill to Birdlip
hill would seem to include the limits of the Pisolite upon the
western face of the Cotteswolds, and it has not been detected
at any point far within the range eastward of a line connecting
these two hills.* The sections which I have taken will how-
ever show that it extends over the area assigned to it, even
supposing it terminates with that area, which is by no means
certain.

It is, I believe, the opinion of some of our eminent Cotteswold
Geologists that the Pea Grit forms the true base of the Inferior
Oolite. It certainly presents the Oolitic structure on an
unusual scale, and if not the commencement of the Oolitic
deposits, it deserves to be so considered; but we must take the
facts as we find them, and it will appear from the second part
of this paper that the Inferior Oolite deposits had commenced
long before the Pisolites began to form, and that the granular
structure prevailed in those deposits.

In the Cheltenham area the thickness of the Pea Grit
proper and the Pisolitic beds is considerable, but the measure-
ments hitherto published have, with one exception to be
presently mentioned, included the underlying beds, which are
not Pisolitic. I make the Pisolite, excluding the underlying
beds, but including the Pea Grit proper and the Pisolitic
Limestone, about twenty-eight feet at Crickley hill, but at the
west end of the quarry the beds are divided by seven feet of
Oolite, and’ are much thicker than in the middle or the east

* Geology of the Cotteswold Hills.

38

end. At Standish hill the Pisolitic beds are twelve feet, at
Selsley hill, Stroud and Chalford they average about three feet,
at Rodborough hill they are somewhat thicker.

Fossils from the Pisolite.

CEPHALOPODA.

Belemnites spinatus, QUEN.
abbreviatus, MILL.

Ammonites Murchisonez, Sow.
Nautilus truncatus, Sow. ”
W lineatus, Sow.

BRACHIOPODA.

Terebratula simplex, Buck. Rhynchonella Wrightii, Dav.

" plicata, Buck. y decorata, Day.
” submaxillata, Day. ” angulata, Sow.
y Sp. y Oolitica, Dav.
” Whitakeri, Dav. y cynocephala var. with
3 plications
y subtetrahedra, Dav.
GASTEROPODA.

Patella rugosa, Sow. Nerinza oppelensis, Lyc.

_-» inornata, Lyc. » Jonesii, Lyc.

Nerita costata, Sow. Amberleya capitanea, Munst.
Pileolus levis, Sow. Trochotoma carinata, Lyc.
Natica adducta, PHIL.

Buccinum carinatum, RoEM. u

Pleurotoma fasciata, Sow.
sulcata, Sow.

LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.

Pholadomya fidicula, Sow.
Astarte excavata var., Sow.

Ostrea gregaria, Sow.
» costata, Sow.

Lima punctata, PHIL.
w hbellula, M. & L.

Goniomya angulifera, Sow.
Pinna cuneata, BEAN.

w pectiniformis, SCHL.

» lycettii, WRIGHT
Pecten articulatus, ScHL.
Avicula complicata, Buck.
Mytilus aspet, Sow. (29)
Perna mytiloides, BRonn.

Cardium striatulum, PHIL.
" levigatum, Lyc.

Lucina Bellona, D’Ors.

Trigonia formosa, Lyc.

————————

39

ECHINODERMATA.
Pseudodiadema depressum, AG. Hemipedina perforata, WR.
Cidaris Fowleri, Wr. ” Bonei, WR.
v Boxchardi, Wr. u tetragamma, WR.

» Wrightii, DEsor. u Waterhousei, WR.
Diplocidaris Desori, WR. Polycyphus Deslongchampsii. WR.
" Wrightii, Drsor. Pygaster semisulcatus, PHIL.

Clypeus Plotii, KLEIN. u conoideus, WR.
Acrosalenia Lycettii, WR. Galeopygus agariciformis, FORBES
Hemipedina Bakeri, WR. Goniaster obtusus, WR.
Stomechinus germinans, PHIL. Pentacrinus, Austenii, WR.

: ” Desori, WR.

ANTHOZOA.
Latomeandra Flemingii, E. & H. Thamnastrea Mettensis, E. & H.
” Davidsoni, E. & H. " Defranciana, E. & H.

Axosmilia Wrightii, E. & H. " fungiformis, E. & H.
Thamnastrea Terquemi, E. & H. | Isastreea tenuistriata, E. & H.

The Basement Beds of the Inferior Oolite.

The strata underlying the Pisolite consist of Sandy Ferru-
ginous Limestone beds at the base, a light brown Limestone,
sometimes coarse and sometimes fine-grained, in the middle,
and beds partaking of a Freestone character in their upper parts-
These, with the Pisolitic beds and the Pea Grit proper, have been
described by several Geologists, but, judging from the summary
descriptions given, the true character of the basement beds
has been overlooked. In the “Geology of Cheltenham” * these
beds are apparently unnoticed, as the “Pea Grit” is given as
four feet only. A section of Leckhampton hill was made by
Hue Sreicxiann,+ in which the beds are all included under
the terms “Pea Grit” and “Ferruginous Oolite” (Belemnite
bed,) and the thickness is given as forty-two feet. The Rev.
P. B. Brovre also refers to these beds in a paper “On the
Basement Beds of the Inferior Oolite.t

#* Buckman and STRICKLAND, Ed. 1845.

+ Published in the “Geological Journal,” Vol. VI., p. 242.
-t “Quarterly Journal Geol. Soc.,” Vol. VI., p. 208.

40

Dr. T. Wricut, F.R.S., in a paper on “the Paleontological:

and Stratigraphical relations of the so-called Sands of the
Inferior Oolite,”* gives sections of Pea Grit, the basement beds,
and the supraliassic sands at Leckhampton and Crickley, and
of the basement beds and sands at Haresfield hill, Frocester
hill, and Wotton-under-Hdge. In the sections at Leckhampton
and Crickley the basement beds are included in the term
“ Pea Grit,” in the other three sections they are simply called
Inferior Oolite. As these sections are given rather more in

detail than the others, I repeat them seriatim.

The Pea Grit (Inferior Oolite) Leckhampton Hill. Dr. Wricut.

A. A brown, coarse, rubbly Oolite, full of flattened concretions,
cemented together by a calcareous matrix—when the blocks
weather the concretions, which resemble flattened peas—form
a very uneven surface. It contains many fossils in good
preservation.

B. A hard, cream-coloured Pisolitic rock, made up of flattened con-
cretions, with a thickness about similar to those in A.

C. A coarse, brown Ferruginous rock, composed of large Oolitic

grains ; it is readily disintegrated by the frost, and is of little
economical value. . : : : ‘ : ; about

ft. in.

The Pea Grit (Inferior Oolite) Crickley Hill. Dr. Wricur.

A. A coarse Oolitic Limestone, with large grains, and numerous
concretionary bodies, exceedingly hard and crystalline in parts.

about

B. A coarse Pisolitic Limestone composed of flattened concretionary
bodies, which are round, oval, or flattened like crushed peas.

about

C. A coarse, brown rock, very ferruginous and full of large grains.
about

* Quarterly Journal Geol. Soc., Vol. XIL., p. 292.

4]

Section at Haresfield Hill (Beacon Hill)—Inferior Oolite. Dr. Wr.

A. A close-grained Freestone resembling the same bed at Leck-
hampton, but becoming rather flaggy in the tpper part.

Ail. A close-grained yellow Oolitic Limestone, quarried for road
mending, much speckled with dendritical patches of the
peroxide of iron, and containing few fossils. It measures about

B. A yellowish sandy rock, separating into large blocks which
contain fossiliferous nodules. The fossils are in general well
preserved in this bed ; it is not used for any economic purpose,
and heaps of blocks lie close to the micaceous sands.

C A brown sandy Oolite, passing into a coarse ferruginous Oolite,
containing many fossils not well preserved. Oolitic grains of
the hydrate of iron are scattered through the brown calcareous
matrix. : : : - - é : E : 8 to

ft. in.

15 0

12 0

10 0

. Section at Frocester Hill—Inferior Oolite. Dr. Wricut.

A. A fine grained Oolitic Limestone * = * = =

B. A coarse, light, cream-coloured gritty, crystalline Oolite, traversed
at intervals by shelly layers extremely crystalline ; a great
part of the rock appears to be composed of the fragments and
plates of Crinoidea, the plates and spines of Echinide, and
comminuted fragments of the shells of Mollusca. This white
rock has a most remarkable lithological character, and glistens
brilliantly when lit up by the sun’s rays. The shelly and
pisolitic sears which traverse this bed resemble those in the
pea grit. The surface of weathered slabs disclose numerous
Microscopic objects; the rock is, in fact, almost entirely
composed of organic débris. . ! - : : about

C. A hard, fine-grained, Oolitic sandy Limestone, of a light brown
colour, lithologically different from B. It contains many fossil
shells, which are extracted with difficulty, and passes into a
hard yellow Oolite with few fossils. : : . from 8 to

50 0

10 0

10 0

At Wotton-under-Hdge, the lower bed is stated to be
represented by a yellow, loose, rubbly Oolite, resting on the

Cephalopoda bed.

42

In addition to these sections, Dr. Wricut has made a section -

of Cleeve hill, which appears in the proceedings of the Club,*
in which the beds are thus given :—

ft. in:
Hard beds of Pisolitic Oolite . : : A : ; i. 2A
Buff coloured Pisolitic Limestone c : : 2 : o£ 0
Roestone, with Pseudodiadema depressum, Acrosalenia, Lycettii,
Trochotoma carinata : : : : : : ; sit De
Pea Grit, with Ammonites Murchisonz, Terebratula plicata, T.
simplex, Aviculacomplicata,&c. . . .- . \ . 30 0
Coarse ferruginous Oolite : : ‘ 5 : : =) \OMmU
42 6

In this section also the term “Pea grit” is used to include
the greater portion of the lower beds, but an exception is made
of the coarse ferruginous bed at the base which is no longer
treated as Pea grit.

It seems rather singular that in the Sections under considera-
tion the whole series at Haresfield and the beds B and C at
Frocester are not referred to as Pea Grit, although they are
in the same Geological position and are petrographically and
palzontologically the same as those at Crickley, with the
slight variations usual in the beds of the Inferior Oolite. At
Haresfield hill the Pea Grit has apparently been overlooked,
and this may account for the underlying beds being referred
to simply as inferior Oolite. It may, however, be seen in the
bank on the east side of the road, at the end of the old workings,
about 100 yards from the present quarry.

The character of the lower beds did not escape the notice
of Professor T. Buckman, F.G.S., who in a paper on the Oolitic
Rockst+ gives the following brief section of these beds at
Leckhampton Hill :—

Shelly Freestone i : : : : : : : LO SO

True Pisolite : : . ; - F : s : om LOS)

Coarse-grained Oolite, more or less pisolitic : : - . somo

Foxy-coloured ferruginous Oolite, seldom pisolitic . : - 20 0
* Vol. IV., p. 60.

+ Quarterly Journal Geol. Soc., Vol. XIII., p. 101.

43

In this Section the change in the character of the lower
beds is distinctly noticed. A more minute description might
have led to the correlation of the beds with those at Crickley,
Haresfield and Frocester hills, and to the better understanding
of the series. Having stated the nature of the work already
done in this Field, I now proceed by the following Sections to
show the Extension of the Pea Grit and the character of the
Limestone beds beneath, in the area between Crickley hill and
Uley Bury, including the whole of the Stroud district.

Section at Crickley Hill,* near the west end of the quarry, taken by

E. Wircsett and E. Cornrorp.
ft. in.

e Two beds of brown pisolite . ae : Q : - fs
3

oo

Brown pisolite of variable thickness, and becoming thinner at

the west end of the quarry . 5 0
4, Bastard Oolite. At the West end this bed Paces ‘subdivided
by a pisolitic bed, which commences like a thin wedge and
rapidly thickens. . - 3 5 : - : : Bet Cola

5, Brown coarse pisolite 5 0
6. Several beds of coarse Oolite, itt aver of nisolite in in
partings—the upper beds more pisolitic than the lower. 11

7. ) Beds of Oolitic Limestone, composed of shelly detritus, fragments
. of spines of Echinide, and Oolitic granules. Nos. 7 and 8 are
10. white ; Nos. 9 and 10 are whitish brown.

11. Fine-grained Oolitic Limestone.
12. Coarse-grained ditto

13. Coarse brownish Oolite

14. Hard brown compact Oolite

15.( Beds of ferruginous sandy Limestone, yellowish-brown in

NDNrRRrR OW Oe wh bd
AWAnmDoneTwrwo MoCo o&

Ay colour, resting on the Cephalopoda bed ;

The Coral Reef overlying the Pisolite is about eleven feet
thick. It does not occur at the point where the Section was
taken, but is seen on the top of the eastern half of the quarry.

* In this section the beds shown in that of Dr. WriguT are given in
greater detail.

44

Section at Birdlip.
ft. im.
1. Rubbly Freestone . ; ; : : : : : we)
2. PeaGrit .

3. Whitish Oolitic Limestone, containing shelly detritus, fragments
of spines of Echinide, &c. : : : - : : og Zane

4. Hard ferruginous sandy Limestone . : 2 a : =f at
Sands.

Section at Standish Hill, near Randwick Ash.

1. Pisolite, disintegrated in part, otherwise concretionary . <r oO

2. Several ferruginous beds, with reddish-brown sand in numerous
pockets and hollows, giving to the rock a nodular appearance.
The beds are Oolitic, and are thickly speckled with large
ferruginous grains, and frequently pisolitic. There are layers
of ferruginous sand in the partings of the beds—Terebratula
plicata, Nerinzeac Oppelensis, Aviculata complicata, Lima
punctata, &c. : : : : : < ; : Stace (0,
3. Light brown Oolitic compact Limestone, with layers of detritus
of spines of Echinide and fragments of Crinoidea alternating.
The detritus is darker in colour than the other parts. . 3), 7
Two beds of white Oolitic Limestone, in some parts resembling
the building freestone above the pea grit. The granules are
small and the beds compact.
6. Several beds of whitish-brown Oolitic Limestone, composed to a
large extent of shelly detritus, broken spines of Echinide and
fragments of Crinoidea, similar to No. 3. : : : «AMO

st

Four beds of compact Oolitic Limestone ; in parts rough, in other
parts fine-grained ; the fragments of Crinoidea are numerous. 12 0

The Ferruginous Sandy Limestones are not exposed; there
is probably a thickness of not less than nine feet of the lower
beds beneath the above. The division between the Pisolitic
beds and the Limestones is well shown in this Section.

The Section is taken from the left side of the fault in the
north-east side of the quarry.

45

Section at Ruscombe Quarries, near Stroud.

ft. in.
1. Freestone rubble = : : : ; = LOO
2. Pisolite. The beds are concretionary, but vary in Atteatrtace
some portions are good Limestone. Terebratula plicata and
Nerinza Oppelensis abundant. : . : ; : Seon
3. Pea Grit. Sandy, with pisolites. x 0 3
4, Freestone, the Oolitic grains sparingly distributed. i eid
brown sand in the partings of the beds . : . 10 0
5. Oolitic Limestone—a very thick bed—hard and semi- eee ae
in the upper part, softer near the bottom. Mainly composed
of shelly detritus, fragments of Coral, spines, &c., and rather
large Oolitic grains; the upper surface plain, and covered with
small valves of Ostrea and marks of boring. A good weather-
stone. About 16 feet exposed : ; 2 L6ENO
6. Three brown sandy Limestone beds, with tayers of venga:
sand between them. é ; 9 0
7. Cephalopoda bed, containing Balieoniben: a se Frees soe
Nautilus, casts of Myacites, &c. : : : , ; ae ei, O
Sands.

To see the whole of the beds in this Section it is neces-
sary to go through the excavations which extend round the
angle of the hill. The beds are faulted, but it is not difficult
to trace them. The Ruscombe valley or Combe is in a fault,
and where the Combe enters the Inferior Oolite it is contracted
to a gorge about 100 feet deep: the principal quarry is on the
west side of the gorge. A few yards below, and at the back
of the cottages, there is an excavation in the sands; and the
beds are exposed at intervals round the angle of the hill about
100 yards, where they terminate in another quarry, in which
the upper part of the beds shown in the first-mentioned quarry
are worked. The first five beds are well exposed in the prin-
cipal quarry: they have evidently slipped from their base, and
are now lying with a dip at a considerable angle towards the
hill. This is one of the best exposures of the beds under-
lying the Pisolite in the neighbourhood of Stroud. The bed
No. 5 is remarkable for its thickness, as well as its close
resemblance in structure to the planking beds of Minchin-
hampton in the Great Oolite, but the minute shells appear
worn, and as the rock is compact, they are difficult to extract.

46

The Basement Beds can be traced round the slope of the hill -
from Haresfield Beacon to Standish hill, and are generally |
upwards of thirty feet thick. In the slope of the spur, half
a mile south-west of the Beacon, they appear in immense
blocks upwards of 10 feet thick. In the Bank above, and a
few yards to the rear, the beds become Pisolitic, and the Pea
grit is exposed. In the Beds near Haresfield Hill the rock
frequently contains rather large brown grains, giving to it the
character of a Rough Oolite.

In the small quarry at the side of the road leading « over ie
Horsepools Hill towards Scott’s Quarry, the junction of the
limestone beds with the Pea Grit is shown, and the valves of
ostrea are seen on the upper surface of the former. The
contrast between the two formations is very striking.

Section in Horns Valley, Stroud.

1. Freestone rubble (will probably be increased in thickness ¢ as the Mee
quarry is worked back into the hill) : : ‘ : 2 ie)
2. Pea grit and concretionary pisolite . ; 3 0
3. Whitish Limestone, the upper surface having bien’ filled with
ferruginous sand . ; : : 2 7 > go
4. Brown Sand, compressed and rerieisted : : 0 4

5. Freestone in several beds having the upper surface sicenle with
numerous minute valves of oysters adherent ; the second bed
is 12 feet thick, and is similar in character to the bed No. 5 in
the Ruscombe Section, about 20 feet exposed ‘ : - 20" 8
6. Ferruginous sandy limestones, thickness unknown

Section near Boultons in the Golden Valley, Chalford.

1. Rubbly freestone ‘ : : - LOO
2. Yellowish brown beds of. pisolitic rag sii is vida
weathered and distinct on the surface ; : 3.0

3. Several thick beds of light brown hard Oolitic igaaaanel fia
Oolitic grains irregular, the beds more sandy towards the
bottom, where they become a ferruginous sandy limestone . 15 O

The pisolitic beds in this Valley are less fossiliferous than
elsewhere. Terbratula plicata and Pholadomya fidicula occur
sparingly ; but in the lower beds there is a stratum full of
Hinnites and Pecten.

47

Section at ‘*The Pound,’ Rodborough Hill.

ft. in.
1. Freestone rubble 3 ; 4 0

2. Pea grit, the pisolites in ae tien tho whald aes aah:
tegrated . é 3 0

3. Concretionary pisalite, a phere fubbliy Oolite, with Abend
pisolites sparingly distributed : ; ae AO

4, Several beds of rough freestone, the lower bed cies on its
surface numerous pockets and holes full of ferruginous sand . 6 0

5. Bed of white freestone, upper surface plain with small valves of
oysters adherent ‘ : : : ; : : 5 SGML)

Nos. 2 and 3 contain in considerable numbers, T. plicata
_ Rhynchonella cynocephala, variety with 3 plications, Nerina
Oppelensis in fragments, and more rarely, Stomechinus ger-
minans, Pseudodiadema depressum, and Acrosalenia Lycettii.
One of the beds (No. 4) contains a stratum charged with
Nerinza Oppelensis.

The freestone beds continue downwards, but their thickness
cannot be ascertained; their upturned edges can be seen
in the road below, and the character of the rock appears to
resemble that exposed in the Ruscombe quarries. At Selsley
hill, nearly two miles to the west, these beds appear still
more developed, and are quarried for freestone: their thickness
cannot be less than thirty feet. The Pisolite above appears as
marly limestone, with Terbratula plicata, T. simplex, Nerinea
Oppelensis, &c.

The next exposure is in the Buckholt quarry at the top of the
old Frocester hill road. In the absence of the Pea Grit, the
thickness of the lower beds cannot be measured, but there is a
ferruginous bed running along the face of the quarry more than
30 feet above the cephalopoda bed. The next section is the
well-known one at Frocester hill. I believe the whole of the
freestone in the lower quarry, where the cephalopoda bed is
exposed, is anterior to the Pisolite. There is an old quarry of
softer freestone higher up the hill, in which the fine section
showing the oblique lamination of the beds is seen, and this may
be above the line of the Pisolite, if it extended so far, but these
_ beds are, I think, let down by a fault continued from the Combe

48

below Nympsfield, which cuts through the escarpment between
the two quarries. A mile beyond are the quarries near Uley
Bury, adjoining the farm yard on Uley hill. There is here a
thin ferruginous bed running through the quarry, with from 20
to 30 feet of freestone beneath, resting upon the cephalopoda
bed, and which, I believe, are also anterior to the Pisolite.
In proximity to the ferruginous bed the freestone is very
Pisolitic; the grains are large and flat, and there is much
probability that this bed is the termination of the Pisolitic
beds of the Cheltenham area. :

I think we can see in these sections evidence of the gradual
change that took place in the deposits of the Oolitic sea.
During the period of the formation of the sands lime appears
to have been nearly absent, but with the cephalopoda bed
calcareous matter began to be deposited. The succeeding beds
indicate an increasing amount of lime; they consist of sandy
ferruginous rocks, but each succeeding bed appears to be less
sandy and more calcareous until the formation becomes an
Oolitic Limestone. In the lowest bed the Oolitic structure caa
scarcely be observed, but as the rocks become more calcareous,
the Oolitic granules appear; they are, however, small and
sparsely distributed.

The period of the deposition of these rocks came to an end,
and a pause ensued of considerable duration, as shown in the
great dissimilarity between them and those of the overlying
Pisolite, in the well defined line separating the two formations,
in the circumstance of the upper surface of the basement beds
having been worn smooth and become covered with oysters, indi-
cating a change of level and probable denudation, and in the sterile
character of the basement beds, and the abundance of organic
remains which appeared with the ferruginous Pisolitic deposits.
The last-mentioned circumstance deserves more than a passing
remark. The lower beds are usually nearly destitute of fossils,
the few that appear consist of minute Gasteropods, with an
occasional Lima much worn; but there is a mass of shelly
detritus with small fragments of Crinoidea, Echinide, &. In
the Pisolitic beds the fossils are abundant, and usually well

49

preserved, and the greater part of them appear in these
Pisolitic beds for the first time. All the circumstances, there-
fore, point to the distinct character of the two formations.
It is true there are occasional thin layers of large grains
and shelly fragments in the lower beds, but they also occur
in the building freestones, and are not of sufficient importance
to affect the general character of the formation. The Pea Grit
comes in between the freestones and the basement beds, like a
broad wedge, the thick end of which is at Cleeve and the thin
end somewhere near Frocester hill, thinning off likewise on its
south-eastern side not far from Chalford.

I think we have overlooked these basement beds mainly
because our Gloucestershire geologists have regarded the Pea
Grit as the base of the Inferior Oolite, in consequence of that
term having been used to include not only the Pea Grit proper,
but all the underlying beds which are not properly Pea Grit nor
even Pisolitic.

I regard these beds as constituting the first stage of the
Inferior Oolite, unless the Cephalopoda bed ought to be so
regarded. They cover a considerable area, are very persistent
in their petrographical features, and can be identified with as
much certainty as any of the other beds of the Inferior Oolite.
I propose to call the series the Lower Limestone.

On a New Species of Star Fish, from the Forest Marble, Wilts.
By Dr. Tuos. Wricut, F.R.S., F.G.S., &e.

Genus.—Uraster—Agassiz, 1835.

Body, stellate; rays, five, moderately long, cylindrical or
lanceolate, deeply cleft on the under side, fringed below
with rows of small, and laterally with larger spines. Skeleton
composed of small irregularly-shaped and femur-like ossicula,
articulated together in a reteform manner. Upper surface of
the body studded with blunt or pointed spines, scattered or
grouped together in tufts, and arranged more or less regularly
in longitudinal rows. Ambulacral avenues wide, composed
internally of two rows of long femur-like bones, spaced out for
the four series of tentacula. Anal opening small, sub-central,
madreporiform body simple. This genus first appeared in the
‘Lias, and ranged onward through the Jurassic, Cretaceous, and
Tertiary periods into our existing seas.

Uraster sprnieera.— Wright, nov. sp.

Diagnosis.—Rays, five, short, broad, curved and pelatoidal ;
ambulacral areas wide; margins bordered by a series of
small ossicles, which form beaded ridges on each side of the
ambulacral spaces. The ossicles support numerous small, short,
blunt spines which lie in profusion on the sides of the rays ;
similar spines appear to have clothed the dorsal surface and are
seen “in situ” in the twisted portion of one of the rays, as
delineated in the subjoined figure, drawn by the late Mr. C. R.
Bons, and enlarged two diameters.

5]

MEE:
nee

Ay

‘\\ id
1) )) a Aili
{Ul )
ariliiiy \ \\y
( ia \
( \ ((\ Ls : iy \
\ @

ROS
am
\
\

x2
URASTER SPINIGERA, Wright.

Dimensions.—Diameter of the disk, one half-inch; length of
each ray, one inch; breadth of a ray at its widest part, four-
tenths of an inch.

Description.—This beautiful little Star-fish was collected from
the Forest Marble, near Road, Wilts, by Dr. H. F. Parsons,
who forwarded it to me for description and figuring. The
specimen came into my hands in a very bad state, but by care-
fully backing up the rock with plaster of Paris, I have given
it sufficient support to enable me to develop a considerable
portion of its anatomy.

The disk was small in proportion to the width of the rays
and the diameter of the Star-fish. The rows of small ossicles
which bound the margins of the wide ambulacral areas form an

BE 2

52

important character in this species. These bones are longest
near the oral aperture, and gradually diminish towards the end
of the rays. They form a beaded structure of considerable
strength, which supported a great number of small, short,
stout spines; these appear to have passed round the sides of the
rays and covered the dorsal surface. A few of the spines are
seen in the twisted part, which exposes a portion of the upper
surface. This spinous condition of the tegumentary membrane
has suggested the specific name which I have given to this
new Jurassic Star-fish.

The small ossicles which occupied the central portion of the
ambulacral areas are absent, and there remains only the vacant
spaces they at one time filled in (see figure.)

Affinities and Differences.—This organism differs so much
from the other fossil species of the Genus Uraster that it may
probably prove to be the type of a new genus when more details
are learned anent the anatomy of the skeleton, by the discovery
of additional materials to work upon. In the meantime I have
grouped it with the Urasters, to which it is so closely related
by general characters, whilst it differs in some others, as for
- example, in the presence of the beaded ridge formed by the
ossicles which bound and limit the ambulacral areas.

Locality and Stratigraphical Position.—This specimen was
obtained from one of the shaly beds of Forest Marble, near
Road, Wilts. It appears to be rare, as I can find no record
of any other Star-fish having ever been found in the fossiliferous
beds of that locality. .

The above drawing was very carefully made on wood, by the
late eminent artist Mr. C. R. Bonz, and engraved by Mr. Luz.
It represents the fossil enlarged two diameters, in order to
exhibit the minute details of the anatomy of this species.

a

On a New Species of Brittle Star, from the Coral Rag of
Weymouth. By Dr. Tuos. Wricut, F.R.S., F.G.S., &e.

Genus.—OpuivRELLA—Agassiz, 1835.

Disk small, membranous, often very indistinct; rays long,
slender; lateral ray-plates provided with elongated filiform
spines. All the species hitherto found are Jurassic.

OPHIURELLA NEREIDA.— Wright, nov. sp.

Diagnosis—Disk small, irregularly pentalobed, each lobe
consisting of a shield-like elevation formed by the radial plates,
which are covered by a tegumentary membrane, closely studded
over with small granules; rays five, four times the length of the
diameter of the disk. The rays taper a little between the disk
and their termination, and consist of numerous highly movable
rings, each composed of (1st) a centro-dorsal plate, which with
its fellows form a long, smooth, convex continuous chain, flat-
tened at the summit, and laid along the middle of the rings;
(2nd) lateral plates bent downwards, and closely clasping the
sides of the rays; each plate supports a small tubercle, on which
stout, thorn-like spines are articulated; (3rd) ventral plates,
which close the ray below, are very much concealed, and carry
many short stout spines. One of the arms of this Brittle Star,
as it lies on the slab before me (see figure) resembles a marine
worm, Nereis nuntia. Hence the origin of the specific name
I have proposed for this new species.

OPHIURELLA NEREIDA, Wright.

This figure was drawn twice the natural size by my artist,
Mr. Gawan, and engraved on wood by Mr. H. P. Woopwarp,
for my monograph on the Oolitic Ophiurida. The specimen was
obtained from the Calciferous grit at Sandsfoot Castle, near
Weymouth, by Prorzssor Buckman, F.G.S., who kindly sent it
to me for examination, and a description of the species for
insertion into the “ Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History
and Antiquarian Club.” The specimen belongs to Mr. Bucx-
man’s Collection.

55

Dimensions.—Diameter of the disk, six-tenths of an inch;
length of an arm, two inches and six-tenths of an inch. This
is less than what it was in the living state, seeing that none of
the rays are perfect up to their termination.

A finities and Differences.—The fragmentary condition of the
disk prevents any very definite conclusions as to the true
generic position of this Brittle Star, which, however, agrees
better with the diagnosis, of Ophiurella than any other con-
generic form. It has the proportionately small disk, with its
upper and under surfaces covered with fine granules; the arms
long, compressed and flattened; the lateral and central plates
carrying spines, which are specially articulated to the lateral
pieces. In all these essential generic characters it agrees well
with Ophiurella. I know of no figured or unfigured Ophiurida
from the Corallian or other Jurassic strata which resembles
the subject of this note. The only form occurring to my mind
is that of Ophiurella bispinosa, (D’OrB.) which was only named,
but neither figured nor described by D’Orzieny. Ophiurella
nereida differs so widely from all other described forms, that it
is impossible to make a mistake in confusing our species
with any of them.

I am indebted to the kindness of my old friend the Revd.
Professor Wiitsuire, Secretary to the Paleontographical
Society, for the loan of the wood-cut representing this fine
fossil, and for which I beg to return him my best thanks.

On a new Astacamorphous Crustacean, from the Middle Coral
Reef of Leckhampton Hill. By Dr. Tos. Wricut, F.R.S.,
F.G.S., &e.

The Astacina form a small interesting group of the Deca-
podous Crustacea, which are well represented by the common
Cray-fish (Astacus fluviatilis) so abundant in some of the rivulets
of the Cotteswold Hills.

The genus Astacus has the external skeleton partly calca-
reous and partly membranous; the cephalothorax large, and
compressed on the sides; the post abdomen flattened; the
plastron small and linear; the rostrum a prominent spear-
pointed projection; the external pair of antenne long, filiform,
and annulated like a whip-lash; supported on short round stems,
making a complete structure two-thirds the length of the entire
animal; at the external side of the antenne is a sabre-like scale
attached to the stem; the internal antennules are very short, the
two on each shaft are small filiform annulated processes which
lie above and external to the long antenne. The two eyes
project beyond the rostrum, each is seated on a moveable stalk,
wider at the base, which readily turns the eye in all directions.
The first pair of feet are weapons of offence and defence; they
are strong instruments, and terminate in a pair of didactyle
chele, forming forceps, which they use dextrously and with a
good deal of disposable energy. The 2nd and 38rd pairs of
ambulatory feet are much more slender, and they likewise
terminate ina pair of small weak forceps. The 4th and 5th
ambulatory feet are about the same thickness, but much
shorter, and terminate in short pointed claws. The abdomen
consists of six rings or somites; the upper half (tergwm) of
each somite is arched and shield-like, with two lateral wing-
like projections (plewra); the lower half (sternum) is flat
and more membranous, and in the female develops a pair of
swimmerets attached to the five anterior rings. Behind the

57

sixth abdominal ring is the telson, with a transverse fold in the
middle; and, beneath the telson on each side are two broad
plates, the highly modified swimmerets of the sixth ring. This
structure—the telson in the middle with the two plates on each
side—constitute the flapper of the Cray-fish, by the aid of
which it executes its retrograde swimming movements.

The fossil Crustacea, which closely resemble our Cray-fish,
were first separated from the fresh water genus Astacus in 1835,
by H. Von Meyer, into the genus Glyphea, erected by him for
the marine fossil forms of Astacina. In 1840 the same author
proposed the genus Hryma, for a “ neue gattung foss. Krebse ; ”
and the genus Clytia for another new form; and the genus
Bolina Minster for a form allied to Glyphea. Glyphea has
great affinities with Astacus, from which it is distinguished by
having the cephalothorax divided into three regions by well-
marked transverse lines. The first pair of feet also, instead of
terminating in stout didactyle chele nearly equal in strength,
have the upper chele formed like a bent claw, and the under
absent or rudimentary. They are found in the Lias and other
Jurassic strata.

Eryma, like Glyphea, has a large cephalothorax, divided by
well-marked lines into three regions, the middle being prolonged
much backwards. The anterior pair of feet are shorter, and
much resemble those of Astacus, and like the forceps of our
Cray-fish, terminate in a pair of nearly equal-sized chele, and
by this character alone are they distinguished from Gilyphea, a
circumstance which renders it impossible to determine to which
genus a cephalothorax belongs, unless it happens to be associated
with the anterior feet or forceps of the animal.

The fossil which I have the pleasure of introducing to the
notice of the members of the Cotteswold Club, was obtained
from the Fimbria marl of Leckhampton hill, out of the mud-
stone derived from the middle coral reef of the Inferior Oolite,
in the zone of Harpoceras Murchisone.

Astacomorphous Crustacea are very rare in our Oolitic rocks,
but the well-marked cephalothorax figured above places the fact
beyond dispute. I am inclined to place this fossil in the genus

58

Eryma, from the great resemblance the tergal folds on the
carapace have to those in EHryma elegans, (Orrrt.) from the
zone Cosmoceras Parkinsom, of Longwy Moselle. The absence
of the anterior legs which would have decided the question
of the generic place of our fossil, leaves the determination in
doubt which time may possibly soon clear up. It may with
equal justice be referred to Pseudoglyphea, (OprEt.) or Glyphea,
(Mxryer,) as to Hryma, inasmuch as the carapace of our fossil
might be placed in either genus; so until the anterior legs with
the chelew are found, I propose to call it Eryma Guisei, Wr. —

Fig. 2. Fig: th:

ERYMA GUISEI, Wright.

I dedicate this species to our much esteemed and excellent
President, Sir Witutam Vernon Guise, Bart., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
&c., as a recognition of the extreme interest he takes in all
Natural History discoveries made in the Cotteswold country.

The cephalothorax of this Astacomorphous Crustacean is
divided into three regions, by two well-marked deep lines; the
first is compressed on the sides, is narrow on the tergal region,
and extends outwards into the rostrum. The groove which
divides this from the middle region is very deep, and the entire
surface is covered with short, sharp, prominent granules, which
are much better shown in a specimen I obtained since the type
carapace was figured; this segment is not so deep as the others,

iO at

59

and is slightly inflated at the lower border. The second segment
is narrower than the first, and prolonged obliquely backwards ;
it is separated from the first by a shorter very deep groove, and
from the posterior by a longer and shallower furrow. The third
region forms nearly one half of the entire cephalothorax, and is
bounded posteriorly by a graceful sinuous line which passes
round the hinder border, where it played under the first
abdominal somite. Fig. 1 gives a lateral view of the cephalo-
thorax of Eryma Guise’, Wx., showing the deep transverse lines
which divide the carapace into three regions. Unfortunately
the outer lamina of the crustaceous covering is absent in the
figured specimen, so that the prominences appear as depressions,
whilst in another and better specimen lately collected, the entire
surface is covered with pointed granulations, which are largest
and most prominent on the tergal region and diminish in size on
the lower part of the flanks. The lower portion of the middle
region has a kind of supplementary inflated portion, and the
upper half of its.side has a second oblique line, shorter and
shallower than the divisional line. The tergal region (Fig. 2)
exhibits the three divisions of the cephalothorax, and the oblique
course they all take backwards. This view of the cephalothorax of
Eryma Guise closely resembles the same region of the cephalo-
thorax in Eryma elegans, (OPPEL.) (Mittheilungen, Tab. 1Vv.,
Fig. 7.) a species which is found in the Inferior Oolite of Pipf,
near Bopfingen, (Germany.)

The interest attaching to this fossil is great, inasmuch as it
shows that Astacomorphous Crustacea were contemporary with
the coral builders of our lower Oolites, and that they have come
down through Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary times into our
present rivers, with a marvellous persistence in their typical
structure, and exemplifying in another class of the Articulata
that persistency of form in animal types which the Anthozoa,
Echinodermata and Mollusca so abundantly afford.

Address to the Members of the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club :
read at Gloucester by the President, Srr W. V. Guise, Barr.,
F.L.S., F.G.S., on Tuesday the 18th of April, 1882.

GENTLEMEN,

At this the opening of another season let me begin by offering
my warm congratulations on the prosperous condition of the
Club, and by the expression of a hope equally warm, that in the
season now commencing we may enter with renewed energy on
those scientific pursuits and investigations which constitute our
raison d’ étre; which have afforded us so much happiness in
times past, and by which we have secured no small share of that
scientific reputation which constitutes the special honour and
glory to be sought by all such associations as ours.

Since our last Field Meeting, this Club, in common with
geologic science in general, has suffered a heavy loss in the
death of our old and valued associate, Coartes Moors, F.G.S.,
of Bath. Though during the latter years of his life a sufferer
from a chronic bronchial affection, which at length terminated
his existence, he was to.the last an indefatigable worker. His
most important discovery, for which he received the public
acknowledgments of Sir Roperick Murcutson, on the occasion
of the meeting of the British Association at Bath, was that of
the beds named “ Rheetic,”’ which had previously been confused
with the upper beds of the “ Keuper.” Another most interest-
ing discovery made by Mours was that of the infilling from the
“ Keuper” sea of fissures in the “Carboniferous Limestone,”
near Frome, of which-—with his untiring industry—he passed
whole cartloads under his microscope, and extracted thence
many thousands of minute teeth, including those of the oldest
known of all the mammals, the little “ Microlestes antiquus.”

61

The Museum at Bath remains a splendid monument of his
untiring patience and industry. This collection, valued at
£1,100, has, I am glad to say, been secured, by subscription, to
the city of Bath for ever. Moorz’s principal contributions to
geologic science are to be found in “the Quarterly Journal of
the Geological Society,” and in “the Proceedings of the
Somersetshire Archeological and Natural History Society.”
He was for many years a member of the Cotteswold Field Club,
and was a frequent attendant at our Field Meetings. He died
in December, 1881, universally regretted by all who knew him,
and leaving a gap amongst scientific workers which will not
readily be filled up.

It has only just come to my knowledge that death has, within
these few days, removed from among us one of the oldest and
most illustrious members of the Cotteswold Club in the person
of Dr. Jonn Lycert, who expired at his residence, at Scarborough,
on the 8th of this month. Some years ago he suffered from
paralysis, and his health was thereby a good deal impaired, but
his intellect remained clear and unclouded, and to the last his
leisure hours were occupied with the study of Paleontological
science. Dr. Lycrrr practised for many years at Minchinhampton,
and while there he worked hard at the geology of the district,
and his labours found expression in 14 papers contributed to
“the Transactions of the Cotteswold Club;” and in the mag-
nificent monograph published by the Paleontographical Society
on “the Great Oolite of Minchinhampton,” in which he was
associated with Professor Morris; and in the splendid mono-
graph of “the British Trigoniz,” which, so late as the month
of February last, gained for him the coveted award of the Lyell
Medal. He published, likewise, a “ Handbook to the Geology
and Paleontology of the Cotteswold Hills.”

The loss of two such men as CuartEes Moore and Jonn Lycerr
is great ; but they leave behind them for our imitation a noble
example of good work honestly and truthfully accomplished.

During the past season, our Field Meetings were instructive
and well attended; and at our Winter Meetings some good
papers were read, followed by useful discussions.

THE ANNUAL MEETING

of the Club was held on Tuesday the 19th of April, 1881, at the
Spread Eagle Hotel, Gloucester, when the Presrtpenr read his
annual address ; after which the officers for the ensuing year
were chosen, when you again did me the honor to elect me
for your President, with Mr. T. B. Lu. Baxer, Dr. Wricur,
F.R.S., and Mr. Lucy, F.G.S., as Vice-Presidents, and Dr.
Paine, M,D., as Hon. Secretary. Dr. Parnes, finding his leisure
increasingly taken up with professional work, asked for the
assistance of a Treasurer to relieve him of an onerous portion
of his duties; on the motion, therefore, of Dr. Wrieunt,
seconded by Mr. Dorrineron, Mr. Wircuett, who had kindly
intimated his willingness to accept the office, was duly elected
Treasurer.

Mr. Grorce Maw, F.G.S., drew the attention of the Club
to a curious fact which he had recently observed, which is
this: That the tail of a dead vertebrate has, on the setting in
of rigor mortis, a distinct tendency to be deflected towards the
left side. He had first observed this in the case of dead mice
caught in mouse-traps, and had noticed the same peculiarity in
the carcases of sheep. In 97 per cent. of those noted, the tail
was distinctly deflected to the left. Mr. Maw exhibited two
series of flowers of Narcissi of the daffodil type: one of the
several British forms of the “ Ajaz’’ group, allied to “ Pseudo-
Narcissus,” including the Tenby form of “ N. lobularis,” and
another form from the neighbourhood of Swansea, inter-
mediate between it and the common form. The other group
showed five or six examples of the Spanish “corbularis ”
collected by Mr. Maw from the Sierra di Guadarama in the
neighbourhood of the Escorial in Spain, showing an insensibly
graduated series in size and colour, down to the minute form
of “ N. nivalis,’’ between which no clear line of definition can
be drawn. Mr. Maw then exhibited a selection of his original
drawings for a monograph of the genus “ Crocus,” shortly to
be published, which will comprise upwards of 70 species from
all parts of the world. The exquisite delicacy and beauty of

63

these delineations, and the microscopic perfection of the
accompanying botanical dissections, were beyond all praise.

Mr. Wirts exhibited the plan of a chambered long barrow
from the neighbourhood of Notgrove, very similar in character
to that of the Nympsfield tumulus. In this barrow, which
had been at some time ransacked, one chamber remained
undisturbed, in which were found the remains of two indi-
viduals (the skulls much crushed) together with a flint arrow-
head and a curious rude bead, said to be of Kimmeridge Shale,
evidently intended for suspension as an ornament or an
amulet. A bead of a very similar character is figured in
Greenwell and Rolleston’s ‘“ British Barrows,” as having been
found in a barrow in the parish of Eyford in this County.

Dr. Wricurt offered for inspection an Ammonite which he
had received from the Rev. W. S. Symonps, with the informa-
tion that it had been found by Major Tuomas on a glacier in
Thibet, having fallen from the adjacent rocks. The learned
Doctor recognised it as the “ Ammonites biplex” of Sowzrsy,
one of the characteristic forms of the Coralline Oolite of the
Oxford series, and a common Indian fossil. He remarked on
the wide distribution of this and other forms in space, and
their limited life in time, and dwelt upon the interesting
circumstance of the occurrence of the fossil under observation
on a particular horizon of Jurassic rock at points so remote as
Great Britain and Thibet.

The Rev. W. S. Symonps remarking on the observations
made by Dr. Wricut upon the Himalayan Ammonites, directed
attention to the geographical distribution of “Cyrena flumi-
nalis.” 'This shell, which is only known in Europe in the fossil
state, occurs in the old fluriatile drifts of the Thames valley,
associated with the bones of the Mammoth and the long-haired
Rhinoceros. The same shell is found living in the Nile at the
present day, and Mr. Symonps stated that he had in his
possession examples taken fram glacial streams high up in the
Mountains of Thibet.

64

Some Notes on the Occurrence at Elmore of the Garganey Teal
( Querquedula circia.” Linn.)

At the meeting of the Cotteswold Club at Cirencester, last
year, it was proposed by Mr. H. J. Exwes that with a view to
publication by the Club, a list of the Birds of the County
should be supplied to him, to which he invited contributions.
With this purpose I offer the following observations on the
occurrence in three several years of the above-named rather
rare duck. .

The latest authorities, YarRELx, in his “ British Birds,” and
Dresser, in his ‘“ Birds of Europe,” regard this bird as one of
very occasional occurrence in this country. YARRELL says,
“though I have seen specimens in October, it more frequently
makes its appearance in the spring, and then only in compara-
tively small numbers; these birds are then on their way south.”
Dresser notes it as rare in the west of England, and not much
more common in the southern counties.

In the year 1879, on the 17th of March, a Garganey male and
three females made their appearance on a pool at Elmore, on
which are kept water-fowl of different kinds. They soon made
themselves at home, and became quite tame and fearless,
coming to feed with the rest. They remained some little time,
going and returning at intervals, but in less than a month they
disappeared, and returned no more. In 1880 none made their
appearance; but on the 17th of April of last year a pair of
Garganeys arrived on the pool. They remained but ten days,
and then went away.

_In the summer of last year I purchased a pair of Garganeys,
domesticated birds, with the carpal joint of the wing removed.
The male was shortly afterwards killed by a savage swan. In
the month of November last the duck was joined by a strange
drake, who associated with her, and mixed with the rest of the
water-fowl, coming regularly to be fed, and showing no sign of
distrust or timidity. In hopes that the drake might become
a permanent resident, care was taken that he should not be

65

alarmed, and, with that view, no gun was ever permitted to be
fired near the pool, which is in an exposed situation, a public
path running close by.

As the time approached at which in former years the
Garganeys had taken their departure, it became a subject of
speculation whether the drake would take himself off,—but
that the duck would go too was regarded as impossible, seeing
that she was pinioned, and that the piece of water is entirely
enclosed with wire netting. But nature and instinct proved
too powerful for all hindrances and allurements, and on the
12th of the month both birds were missing, and have not
since been seen. How the male enticed the female away is a
mystery: it may be that she was not sufficiently pinioned, and
could use her wings—but neither were ever seen to fly. Even
the drake on his arrival, though at first he would conceal
himself under the over-hanging bushes, was never seen to fly.
T should fear that the duck, being unable to accompany her
partner in his migration, will ultimately fall a victim to vermin.

The First Field Meeting of the Club for the season was held
on Tuesday, 17th May, at

CIRENCESTER,

where the recent excavations in connection with the drainage
and water supply of the town have opened up many new
sources of interest. It is indeed scarcely possible to move
ground in the neighbourhood of this great Roman centre
without bringing to light some vestiges of the long-continued
occupation of the site by the soldiers and citizens of that
nation; and these, as they are unearthed, find a fitting resting-
place in the noble museum presented to the town by the late
Lord Baruursr. To this point the steps of the visitors were
first directed, where the large recent additions, in the form of
Roman pottery and instruments of bronze and iron were very
noticeable. Of these Mr. Bravenper has furnished a list,
F

66

which comprises no less than 110 pieces of pottery (with the
names of the potters,) and others, amongst which are more
than 100 pieces of Samian ware of various patterns, and more
than 200 instruments and ornaments in metal—mostly bronze.
But perhaps the most interesting among the recent discoveries
is a stone altar, about three and a half feet high, which now
presents an appearance nearly perfect, though when found it
was broken into innumerable fragments. It represents a
nearly undraped male figure, standing within an arched alcove,
crowned with a radiate coronet; a cornucopia rests on the
left arm, while the right holds a patera, from which the ‘figure
is in the act of pouring a libation on to an altar. On the
architrave above is inscribed “G.S. H.V.I.S. L.0.C.,” which
letters stand for Genio Sacrum Huvjvs Loci, (Sacred to the
Genius of this place.) Much attention was directed to the
curious palindrome or squared words on a piece of painted
wall-plaister, which have at different times given occasion to
much discussion,—many believing them to be of medieval
rather than of Roman origin. The words, rudely scratched in
Roman capitals, are as follow :—

BOS ks
OR fH ROA
T EH Nie
A TEE hs |
SLB ES: NR 8 AR

It will be seen that these words read either horizontally or
perpendicularly, up and down, form the same words. Now it
is not a little remarkable that these same words, so arranged,
are recorded as having been found in a Cornish pedler’s pack
of charms so lately as 1873, and Mr. Brrcn, of the British
Museum, has found them in a M.S: of the 17th century, con-
taining magical signs and charms against wounds and bruises,
inscribed beneath with the words contra hostes et inimicos. Yet
strange to say, there seems to be no doubt that the words
so scrawled on the piece of wall-plaister in the Museum at
Cirencester are in good Roman lettering of what is known as
the “Rustic” character, of the first or second century of the

—————<—-——— - —

atid

67

Christian era. They have thus been handed down, probably
through the monks, and have subsisted as a magical formula
from the Roman down to the present time.

Some of the party went to see the gravels at the Barton
pits, but found them so full of water that the gravels which
they went to examine were not within reach. In Vol. V.,
p- 275, of the “Proceedings of the Cotteswold Club,” there
is a paper by Mr. Tutstetron Dyer on Flint Flakes found at
the Barton pits under the turf which immediately overlies the
gravel. One of these flint implements, with the authentication
of the British Museum attached, was shown in one of the
cases at the Museum, but its artificial character was much
doubted by some.

Time did not admit of a very prolonged delay at the
Museum, and the party, filling two brakes, proceeded along
the Churn Valley in the direction of North Cerney. By the
way, two halts were made, at Stratton to examine a quarry
in the “ Forest Marble,” and at Baunton to inspect a section
in the “Great Oolite,” which yielded to Mr. WircHEeLt some
pretty specimens of “ Hyboclypus agariciformis,” and a large
form of ‘“ Dueina.”? At Perrotsbrook the party left their
carriages, and under the guidance of Mr. G. B. Wrrts,
proceeded to examine some very extensive lines of entrench-
ment, which are noticed by the late Mr. G. F. Puayye in his
paper on “ The Ancient Camps of Gloucestershire,” in Vol. VI.
of the “Transactions of the Cotteswold Club.” These lines
have been traced by Mr. Puayne for the distance of a mile

and a half; they can hardly, therefore, have been constructed

solely for military purposes, but rather as a place of security
for an entire tribe with its families and cattle.

About a mile beyond Perrotsbrook is North Cerney, which
village was the limit of the excursion. The church proved to
be a most interesting structure, though a thorough scraping
which it had recently undergone had removed all the rust of
antiquity from thé interior. It is in its origin a Norman
Church, dating from the early part of the 12th century. The
chancel arch and the northern doorway are all that now remain

F2

68

of the original church, though Norman work is still traceable
in buttresses and bits of string-courses. The upper part of
the tower is very noticeable; it contains double windows of a
transitional Norman character, under a sort of projecting hood-
mould with corbels. The ashlar of this part is good, and
contrasts favourably with the rubbly masonry of the earlier
portion below. Within the church are the remains of stained
glass of fine character in mutilated figures of saints and
martyrs, and a crucifixion with figures of the Virgin and St.
John, shaming by their quiet harmonies a hideous modern
insertion in garish and discordant colours.

Having completed their survey of the church, the party
re-entered their carriages and drove to the lodge in Lord
Baruourst’s Park, known as “ King Alfred’s Hall,” a favourite
rendezvous for pic-nic parties in the summer months. Here
they found—together with a fire blazing in the hearth, which
was not unwelcome, for the day had proved cold and showery—
a repast, which though it could not be called sumptuous, was
very welcome.

After dinner, Mr. J. H. Exwes called the attention of the
Club to a subject which he considered to be of great import-
ance, namely, the collection of information respecting the
effect upon vegetation in this country, of the three preceding
winters and of the summer of 1879; a subject which at the
instigation of Mr. Exwes, has been taken up by the Royal
Horticultural Society of London. It is not difficult to appre-
ciate the importance of such an enquiry, and its bearing upon
the future of horticulture and arboriculture in England. To
nurserymen, especially, the experience thus gained and regis-
tered must be of the highest value, they having lost property
to the value of many thousands of pounds, especially amongst
roses and conifers. Mr. Euwes proposed, with the consent of
the Club, to draw up a report relating especially to Gloucester-
shire, and to publish it in the Transactions of the Club. Mr.
Exwes next called attention to the question of drawing up
and publishing a list of the birds of the county, having
reference not only to the occurrence of rare stragglers, but

69

to the distribution and breeding of the commoner sorts. He
thought the time was come when this should be done. The
British Ornithologists’ Union had appointed a committee to
revise the nomenclature of British birds, and the list they had
drawn up would shortly be published. He would be very
happy, taking this as a foundation, to collect and edit as
complete a list as possible of the birds of the county, in the
preparation of which he invited assistance from all in Glou-
cestershire who are interested in the subject.

Dr. Parner referred to the importance of a Meteorological
Register for the county, and advocated the annual collection
and publication of facts under that head.

Mr. Taunron, C.E., then offered a few remarks introductory
to a paper which he proposes to contribute to the Transactions
of the Club on the “ Valley of the Churn, and the Borings at
the Barton.” It would appear from Mr. Taunron’s experi-
ments, that the River Churn in its course over the Oolite parts
with a large proportion of its waters, which making their way
through fissures in the substratum, form an underground
stream not greatly inferior in volume to that which passes
above ground. The borings at the Barton have been directed
to the tapping of this subterranean source, which was reached
at a depth of 93 feet, when the water sprung to the surface
with considerable force, yielding with a 3} inch bore about
1800 gallons per hour. At Mr. Bowny’s brewery, with a larger
bore, and at a somewhat greater depth, water was obtained
yielding a flow of 3000 gallons per hour.

With the termination of Mr. Taunron’s address, the pro-
ceedings of the day came to a conclusion, and the party
separated.

The Second Field Meeting of the season was held on June
21st. I was debarred by illness from being present at this
very interesting meeting, and am indebted to our Secretary
for a report of the proceedings of the day.

The Club on this occasion availed itself of the recent
opening of the new line of rail from Cheltenham to Oxford,

70

to examine the section opened up between Andoversford and
Bourton-on-the-Water. Starting from the

ANDOVERSFORD STATION

the party proceeded to examine the geological sections exposed
in the railway cuttings between Andoversford and Notgrove.
There are several cuttings varying from 15 to 36 feet in depth:
they pass through Inferior Oolite, Fuller’s Earth, Stonesfield
Slate, and Great Oolite, and present a sequence of strata
without comparison in the Cotteswolds. The sections commence
with the beds which cap Leckhampton Hill, and comprise all
the succeeding strata of the several formations before men-
tioned. Each formation was identified by its fossils or its
petrological structure and position. The Gryphite bed, with
“ Gryphea sublobata,” and the “Trigonia” grit with casts of
“ Trigonia signata,” were seen in position; but the succeeding
“‘Clypeus”’ beds proved from their wealth of fossils the most
attractive—< Clypeus Plotii” (Kirn) studded the face of the
section with its bun-like form: the broken stone used for
ballasting the railway contained scores of specimens, though
perfect examples were rare. The ‘“Clypeus” grits in the
deep cutting west of Notgrove are about 20 feet thick, and
contain in addition to “C. Plot” the usual fossils of the
bed, amongst which “ Pholodomya Heraulti”? (Ac.;) ‘ Homo-
mya gibbosa” (Sow.;) and ‘‘ Myacites subelongatus” (AG. 5)
were amongst the most abundant. The “ Fuller’s Earth,”
though greatly diminished in thickness, was seen with the
underlying and overlying formations in the same _ section.
This is the only instance of the kind in the Cotteswolds; it was,
therefore, examined with great interest. The hard bands
which characterise the formation were noticed, but were found
to be more than usually sterile. The small oyster “ Ostrea
acuminata” (Sow.) of which these bands are frequently
composed, was rather rare, but “ Ostrea Sowerbyi” was in
some of the layers very abundant. The “Stonesfield Slate”
was of the usual character: in certain beds it was sandy and
fissile, in others hard and full of shelly detritus and small

ee ~

71

oysters. The “Great Oolite” consisted of rough rocks, and
was very different from the Shelly Oolite of Minchinhampton :
only one of the shelly beds was found, and that one contained
only.very small shells and shelly detritus. At the Notgrove
Station the “ Oolite Marl” and the “ Freestone ” beds appear
in the section, but these for want of time were not examined.

The next point on the programme, was the barrow near Not-
grove, referred to by Mr. Wrrvs at the Annual Meeting of the
Club. It is a long barrow or chambered tumulus, of the kind
well known on the Cotteswolds, and agreeing in most of its
details with those of Uley and Nympsfield. Like them it had
lost most of the covering stones of the chambers, but more than
20 of the upright slabs were in place, and were well preserved.
It was 140 feet long by 78 feet broad, and its greatest height at
the south-east end from 10 to 12 feet. It had evidently been
enclosed by a well-built wall, which was well exposed, as also
the fine dry walling of the central passage. This passage was
27 feet long (that at Uley is 24,) and varied in width from 4 ft.
3 in. to 5 feet. One chamber had not been much disturbed,
and in it were found beneath a flat stone, the remains of two
skeletons in a crouching posture, some bones and teeth of a
quadruped (perhaps a deer,) 30 pieces of pottery (very early
British,) one well-formed flint arrow head, and a curious bead
of Kimmeridge Shale, already referred to as similar to one
described by GREENWELL and Rouueston as found at Eyford, in
this county.

At Notgrove the party were received by the Rector, the Rev.
D. F. Vicors, who conducted them over the Church, and
explained the various points of interest.

At Bourton the Club was met by Mr. Moors, a gentleman
distinguished in the neighbourhood as an accomplished anti-
quary, who led the way to the site of a Roman Villa near the
Foss-way, close to the entrance to the village. Here Mr. Wirrs
had men at work who had exposed some of the foundations,
and on a cross cut being made through one of the walls, their
search was rewarded by the discovery of a number of Roman
coins, and a well preserved portion of the base of a column

72

about nine inches in diameter. Mr. Moore then read a very
interesting paper on the building then under examination, and
traced portions of the walls into a field on the further side of
the railway embankment.

After a hasty visit to the residence of Mr. Moorsg, with scant
time to glance at his interesting collection of coins and other
Roman antiquities, the party made their way to Salmonsbury
Camp, conducted by Mr. Moorz, Mr. Wirrs, and the Rev. E. F.
Wirts. This camp encloses a very large area, the two sides
being upwards of 550 yards long, extending in one direction to
the river Windrush. At various points of the outer boundary
the earth had been removed and the walling laid bare. There
can be little doubt, judging by its construction, that this dry
walling is of early British and pre-Roman work, though doubt-
less the British entrenchment was occupied by the Romans, in

illustration of which there was found within the area of the
entrenchment a bundle of curious unfinished iron sword blades,
similar to those discovered at Hod Hill, in Dorsetshire, and
referred to in Wricut’s “Celt Roman and Saxon.” Several of
these were seen in the collection of Mr. Moors, and examples
should, if possible, be secured for the County Museum.

As regards the word ‘“‘Salmonsbury,” Mr. Wirrs thinks there
can be little doubt of its pre-Roman construction. He is my
authority for stating that the first recorded mention of it is in
Kempsue’s “ Codex Diplomaticus,” Charter 137, Offa, A.D. 779.

The Third Field Meeting was held on Tuesday, 12th July, at
THE BLACK HORSE INN, BIRDLIP,

than which there are few more beautiful spots in the Cotteswolds.
The day was all that could be desired—cloudy, with a pleasant
breeze and a warm sun—and proved highly favourable for the
execution of the prescribed programme, which comprised an
examination of an extensive system of earth-works (not hitherto
noticed) at Cooper’s Hill, and a visit to the West Tump barrow
in Cranham woods, which had yielded such interesting results
to the investigations of Mr. Wirrs and Professor RotuEston.

73

At the appointed hour of noon, the Club mustered at the
‘“‘Black Horse,” and proceeded thence, under the guidance of
_ Mr. Wrrrs, in brakes and wagonettes, to examine the earth-
works at Cooper’s Hill. These are upon a scale so extensive,
and enclose so large an area, that it seems strange they should
hitherto have escaped notice. Even the observant eye of Mr.
G. F. Puayne, whose paper on “ the Camps of Gloucestershire,”
in “the Proceedings of the Club,” is a standing monument of
his patient research and perseverance, failed to detect them,
although he notices the remains of an entrenchment at the
point of Cooper’s Hill. It remained for Mr. Wirvs to discover
this system of entrenchments, which from its extent is one of
the most important in the Cotteswolds. The fact that these
earth-works are in all their most salient points concealed by
woodland, is doubtless the cause that they have hitherto been
overlooked by antiquaries.

Cooper’s Hill is one of the most prominent of the many capes
and headlands which project from the coast-like range of the
Cotteswolds into the vale of Gloucester. At its salient angle, as_
has been already noticed, there exist the remains of an earth-
work which may possibly have been used as a point of observation
by the Romans, who seem to have had look-out stations on most
of these commanding promontories; but the earth-works to which
attention has now to be directed have no connection with the
Roman conquerors, nor with the Danes, Saxons,or Northmen who
succeeded them, but date from a period altogether antecedent
to all these successive waves of invasion. They may be described
as two concentric lines of rampart and foss, extending from
Prinknash on the west, to a point in the Buckholt wood on the
east, a distance of nearly two miles, and resting either flank on
the precipitous face of Cooper’s Hill, which thus forms a natural
fortification, the gorge of which is defended by a double line of
vallation. The area enclosed within these boundaries is about
200 acres in extent—much too large, as it would seem, for a
military work, but well adapted for an “ oppidum,” which would
serve to protect the settlement of an entire tribe with its flocks,
herds, and cultivated ground. Further to strengthen this

74

extensive line of ramparts, there is in rear thereof, and about the
centre, a small irregular fort, less than an acre in extent, which
was doubtless used as a “‘ Place d’armes.” This, like the rest,
has to be sought in thick woodland, which is so intricate, that
even with the aid of Mr. Wirrs and the Ordnance Map, it was
not easy to determine the relation of the fortification to the
general disposition of the ground. The inner line of rampart,
where exposed, has been much levelled by cultivation, but it is
well seen on the eastern flank above Prinknash.

The party made their way to the May-pole on Cooper’s Hill,
and for a short time were permitted to enjoy the glorious
prospect from that point of vantage. From thence the party
proceeded to the West Tump Barrow, about a mile distant,
where Mr. Wirrs had had the dry walling exposed, and the
excavations laid open for examination. This tumulus was the
subject of one of the last letters written by the lamented
Professor Rotueston, who, from the first, took a most lively
interest in it, and pronounced it to be one of the oldest type
of long barrows yet discovered, being much older than the
‘chambered barrows of Uley, Nympsfield, and Notgrove. This
barrow is of the “horned” form, 149 feet in extreme length
and 76 at its greatest width. It is carefully constructed of
hand-packed stones, and is surrounded by dry walling, very
neatly put together. The true entrance was not found at the
“horned” extremity, where it would naturally be looked for,
but at a distance of 82 feet from the southern horn, a break
was found in the exterior line of walling, which proved to be
the entrance to a sepulchral chamber. Here great quantities
of human bones were found in a confused mass, but the farther
the excavators penetrated into the interior, the more perfect
became the skeletons, till at length, at a distance of 24 feet
from the outer wall, the trench terminated in a sort of semi-
circle, around the extremity of which were five flat stones, on
which, sitting in a contracted position, was the skeleton of a
young woman, with the remains of a baby in close proximity.
At this point the trench came to an end, and there were no
further signs of bones in any direction. Professor Rotueston

75

was of opinion that it was in honour of this last body that this
great cairn of stones had been piled up—who shall say how
many thousands of years ago! All the skulls found were of
the long-headed type; they have been properly cared for, and
it is hoped that some of them, carefully set up, will find a
place in the Gloucester Museum.

Mr. Wirrs read a paper on “The Barrow,” and was at great
pains to explain to those present all the points of interest in
connection with this most interesting “find,” the discovery
of which is entirely due to his acuteness and energy.

The next move was to the garden of Mrs. Bracu, at Cranham
Lodge, where the party were entertained at tea. On their
return journey to the “ Black Horse,” attention was directed
to some extensive quarries in which the building free-stone
is excavated by means of galleries, extending many hundreds
of yards underground. Candles were provided, but those who
ventured in found these subterranean passages cold, damp and
muddy, and soon returned to the open air. Meantime a select
few went on to the quarries at Birdlip Hill to view the “Pea
Grit.” Here Mr. Lucy called attention to the inclination of
the strata from below the village to the point whereon they
were standing, showing that a large amount of denudation had

taken place, whereby the whole of the Freestone, Oolite Marl,

Rag Stones, Fuller’s Earth, and Great Oolite, that once covered
up the Pea Grit had been swept away.

After dinner at the “Black Horse,” the President proposed
amid cheers, that the thanks of the Society should be given to
Mr. G. B. Wirrs for his valuable services in the promotion of
antiquarian discovery in our county, to which he had made so
many important contributions. Mr. Wirrs, in reply, made
reference to the importance of protecting and preserving from
further loss and demolition those relics of past ages which are
still left to us, but which are every day in danger from the
ignorance of some and the indifference of others. In partic-
ular, he drew attention to two round barrows in the parish of
Duntisbourn Abbotts, which are marked on the Ordnance Map,
and are described as two of the finest in the County, which

76

were then in process of demolition for road repairs. It was
suggested that measures should be taken to protect them.
This I am informed has since been done, and some excavations
made under the direction of Mr. Wirts.

The Fourth Field Meeting was held at
BATH

by invitation from HanpEu CossHam, F.G.S., on Tuesday, 16th
August. But few parts of England can vie with the neigh-
bourhood of Bath in features of natural beauty. The bold
escarpment of the Cotteswolds, and the richly-wooded undula-
tions of the lower slopes, combine with prospects of illimitable
beauty to form a whole most attractive to the lover of the
picturesque, while to the geologist the variety and complexity
of the geologic conditions present a succession of problems of
the most interesting character.

The Club, which even in the wettest seasons has been singu-
larly fortunate in its weather, was on this occasion exposed to
a reverse, which sadly marred the enjoyment of the excursion,
for it rained without intermission the whole day, and the
excursionists packed in open carriages were exposed to all the
inconveniences entailed by such a condition of things. But
their enthusiasm was equal to the occasion, and nothing
damped by the untoward influence of “ Jupiter Pluvius,” the
party proceeded to carry out its programme.

At Bitton Station the Wills-bridge “fault”? exposed on the
railway was visited by some of the party. At this spot occurs
one of the most remarkable ‘faults’ in the Bristol district,
and at the same time one of the simplest to understand. A
vertical displacement of at least 1000 feet has taken place, by
which the “‘ Pennant” or middle zone of the coal-basin has
been brought up to the level of the “‘rhetic” beds at the
base of the lias; and this by a movement so gradual that it
has scarcely shifted the ends of the beds on either side of the
“fault.” Prior to the turfing over of the “rhetic” and
“lower lias” section (the particulars of which are luckily

77

preserved through accurate measurements) it was a most
remarkable section.

Their next visit was to the Church at Bitton, a structure of
considerable interest, the peculiarities of which were explained
by the Rector, the Rev. Mr. Exracomss. It is a single-aisle
church of considerable length and height, with remains of
Norman work about it. It has undergone alterations at various
periods, including a late restoration, in which objection might
be taken to some innovations, but the general effect is good. A
north chantry, the date of which is known (1299,) is a fine
example of early “decorated”. work, and in the chancel the
beautiful sedilia, figured by Lysons in his ‘“ Gloucestershire
Antiquities,’ are well worthy of notice; but perhaps the most
striking feature is the tower, which for elegance of form and
beauty of proportion cannot be surpassed. It is well seen from
the garden of the rectory, which garden is in itself worthy of a
visit, being well known to horticulturalists for its collection of
rare plants and shrubs, for the due observation of which very
different weather was needed to that which prevailed on the
occasion in question.

The next visit was to two small but important outcrops of
carboniferous limestone, a little north of Bush Farm, and south
of the Wick Rocks. These patches have much significance in
reading the physical structure of the district, as tending to
show the precise limits of the eastern side of the coal-basin, and
the most southerly exposed extension of the carboniferous
limestone between Chipping Sodbury and Wells, on the eastern
flank of the Mendip Hills. These patches are exposed both
through the agency of denudation and the continued influence
of the “fault” from Wick. Mr. ErneripcE here briefly
described the conditions under which these bosses occurred, as
part of the main and continuous belt of limestone along the
eastern side of the northern and southern coal-fields. The
limestone beds at these two outcrops are extremely fossiliferous,
and dip to the south-east. This direction, if normal, or not
reversed by any “ fault,” would tend to show the possibility of
a still more easterly coal-tract, further east than the known

78

limits of the basin; and when we know that at Burford, in
Oxfordshire, coal-measures with characteristic fossils have been
determined at a depth of 1200 feet, this view must not be over-
looked when the question of the extension of other coal-fields
east of the Bristol basin comes to be considered. This and
other questions bearing upon the immediate area were touched
upon by Mr. Erneripes.

The party next proceeded to mount the heights of Lansdown,
where it had been the intention of Mr. CossHam, who had
prepared a memoir on the subject, to describe the general
features of the fight which took place on that ground between
the forces of the King and those of the Parliament, on the 5th
of July, 1643, in which engagement the gallant Sir Bevin
GRENVILLE was slain; whose monument, raised on the spot
where he fell, was dimly visible through the veil of descending
rain.

The broad physical features of the surrounding country would
have been explained by Mr. Eruzriper from Lansdown hill,
had weather permitted, for probably no spot within the Bath
area equals this elevated plateau, as a point from whence to
generalise upon the structure and geologic history of the grand
panorama spread out in all directions, especially that which
embraces the entire range of the extensive coal-field from north
to south—from Tortworth to the Mendip Hills. No area in
England exhibits such instructive evidence of denudation under
every possible condition; and to the student of stratigraphical
geology, especially in the Jurassic division of the secondary
rocks, the Bath area has no equal. The only drawback to the
pleasure in store for the Cotteswoldians in their anticipated
study of the area, was the weather, and if the day could be
called, in geologic parlance, “a period,” most assuredly it was a
“ Plwial” one. But there was “ Balm in Gilead,” and though
the feast of geologic lore was witheld, that of substantial
creature comforts was there in abundance to satisfy appetites
not a little sharpened by exposure to the chilly vapours without,
for upon arrival at the “Grand Stand,” on the race-course,
they found that their hospitable entertainer, Mr. Cossam, had-

79

provided for them a splendid banquet, where flowers and fruits,
intermingled with more solid dainties, invited the hungry
wayfarers to partake. After dinner a few toasts helped to pass
the time, after which the party broke up and dispersed.

This was the last occasion upon which the Club met their old
and valued associate, Mr. Cuartes Moorr, whose lamented
death has already been chronicled in the earlier part of this
address.

The First Winter Meeting of the Club was held at the
Lecture Theatre of the

SCIENCE SCHOOL IN GLOUCESTER

on Thursday, 19th of January in the present year, when a paper
was read by Mr. E. Wrrcnent, F.G.S., on “The Pisolite and
Basement Beds of the Inferior Oolite of Gloucestershire.” The
<“ Pisolite,” or “Pea Grit,” is peculiar to the Cotteswolds. It
consists of a deposit of flat or round grains, varying in size from
the eighth to the third of an inch, the flat shape being the most
prevalent. The bed is about 30 feet thick at Cleeve hill; it
becomes thinner at Birdlip, and thins out south-west of Stroud.
From a careful examination of the pisolites, Mr. WircHELL was
of opinion that their concretionary structure was due to the
ageregation of layers of muddy detritus round a fragmentary
nucleus of portions of shell or coral. Mr. WircHELL traced the
« Pigolite” beds from Cleeve to Selsley hill, and from Haresfield
hill to Chalford, an area of 140 square miles. He said that the
<< Pigolite” had been generally regarded by Cotteswold geologists
as the basement of the Inferior Oolite, and as the introduction
of the Oolitic structure. This he showed was not the case;
- and he detailed numerous sections from Cleeve hill along the
escarpment to Uley Bury, and others taken near Stroud, to
show that while in the Cheltenham area the basement beds are
thin and unimportant, they are gradually developed towards
the south-west, and consist of beds of Oolitic limestone and
freestone, some of which are of greater thickness than in any
other Oolitic rocks of the Cotteswold series. Mr. WircHett

80

considered that these beds had been somewhat overlooked,
mainly because our Gloucestershire geologists had been led to
regard as typical the section at Leckhampton, which by reason of
the meagre development of the beds in that section it was not.

, In the discussion which followed the reading of this paper,
Dr. Wricut said he quite agreed with everything in it, but
that it stopped short of the most interesting point. Mr.
Wircuett had not given the origin of the “Pisolite.” As
regards the basement beds, he was surprised that Mr. WircHELL
had not referred to his paper published in the transactions of
the Geological Society upwards of twenty years ago. He had
measured the basement beds thirty years ago, and had given
the results in that paper. The beds were not at all new to him.

Mr. WircHE Lt, in reply, expressed his regret that he had not
read Dr. Wricut’s paper. He had, however, seen a reference
made to it by Professor Hutt, in his Memoir of the Geological
Survey, in which the Professor stated, upon the authority of
the Doctor’s paper, that the “ Pea Grit” was the basement of
the Inferior Oolite and the introduction of the Oolitic structure.
Mr. Wircuett therefore concluded that Mr. Hutt, in his paper,
did not refer to the great thickness of the true basement beds
which underlie the “ Pea Grit,” and rest upon the “Cephalopoda
bed” of the Upper Lias, a thickness of more than 30 feet.

It was, after some discussion, agreed that reference should
be made to the paper published by Dr. Wricur.

Mr. WircHett next exhibited some bones from the “ angular
gravel” bed on the slope of Painswick hill, which he regarded
as an important fact. They had been found at a considerable
depth, and this he believed to be the first example of animal
remains from the “angular gravel.” The nature of the bones
was not given.

The Second Winter Meeting was held on the afternoon of
Monday, the 27th of February, under the presidency of Dr.
Wrieut, F.R.S.

A short paper was first read by the Rey. E. Cornrorp, in
which was quoted a passage from ‘‘Chron. Abb. de Evesham,

—— _ se

rere

81

p- 9, Rolls Edition,” giving a clue to the origin of the name of
Evesham. It recorded that one Eegwin, a “humble bishop
of Wicci,” who lived in the reign of Ethelred, was frequently
favored by visions, and having, he writes, “an ardent desire
in my mind if God would prosper my longings, to build a
place to the praise of our Lord, and the blessed Virgin Mary,
and all the elect of God, as well as for my own eternal reward
before I depart from this mutable life,” besought the King to
bestow Hethomme upon him, and the King granted his request.
At this place the Virgin Mary had appeared to a herdsman
named Koves. Subsequently she also appeared to Ecgwin,
and he immediately purified the spot and built a monastery
there; and in consequence of the sanctity of Hoves he named
the place Eovesham. This extract was regarded by the writer
as throwing light upon two curious pictures, the mystical
subjects of which sorely puzzled the Archzologists on the
occasion of their visit to the old Manor House at Little
Washbourn, in August, 1879, in which a peasant was repre-
sented in the dress of the period, with another in the habili-
ments of an abbot or other such ecclesiastic; and in each
picture, the narrator believed, was a representation of the
Virgin.

Dr. F. Coox, of Cheltenham, then read a short paper on a
skeleton and certain remains found therewith, two years ago,
in a quarry a few hundred yards to the south of the Roman
camp on Crickley Hill. The skeleton was that of an adult,
and from the character of the bones and the objects of female
ornament which accompanied it, was judged to be that of a
female. Within a few days another skeleton had been dis-
covered in the same quarry, which from the objects found with
it, was believed to be that of a male. The skeleton of the
first-named individual was in a perfect state of preservation,
not a bone being wanting, whereas those of the latter, from
being saturated with moisture, would scarcely bear the handling.
The great difference in the condition of each was the depth
from the surface at which the bodies respectively lay, the lady
having five feet of Oolite above her, while the male lay within

G

82

thirty inches of the surface. Both skeletons lay with their
heads due east. In the case of the female, a kind of cist was
formed of narrow fiat stones around the body; that of the male
was merely covered with rubble. An iron sword, much corroded,
lay on the left of the male skeleton; a bronze circlet and two
bronze plates were found among the bones of the skull, which
the weight of the stones had crushed: the sword was seventeen
inches in length, four in the handle, and thirteen in the blade,
two inches wide in its broadest part, and tapering to a‘ some-
what abrupt point: its weight was sixteen ounces, and it bore
on the surface the marks of some textile fabric with which it
had lain in contact. The circlet of bronze, 22 inches round,
had in some parts the appearance of having been gilt, like that
on the mirror of the lady, but Dr. Coox had been informed by
Mr. Betuows that this appearance had been produced by the
application of lacquer to the polished bronze. The two bronze
scales of concentric form, each seven inches long, had a small
dotted pattern on their outer edges, and in the centre was a
hole in which had been inserted an iron fastening to attach
them to wood or leather. In looking over the bones, Dr. Coox
found no teeth among the débris, but on examining a portion
of the lower jaw, it became apparent that the individual had
parted with his teeth long before his decease, and that the
remains were those of a very old man. An examination of the
thigh bone showed that it had belonged to a man of small
stature. Dr. Cook showed the form of Roman swords as
figured in Dr. Surrn’s ‘“‘ Roman Antiquities,’ from which he
concluded that the remains were those of a legionary soldier of
the Roman Empire. In conclusion, Dr. Coox exhibited several
relics, one being a sacrificial knife, and several smaller instru-
ments, of the use of which he was doubtful, and invited |
information.

In the discussion which followed, Dr. Wricut took exception
to the theory that the skeleton first discovered was that of a
Roman, and said it was not at all likely to be that of a female.
The remarkable angle of the jaw, and the manner in which
the teeth were ground down, indicated a powerful masculine

——-

83

a

individual, and he expressed an opinion that it was a British
skull of the pre-historic period.

Mr. E. Werueren, F.G.S., then read a paper on “ A Section
of Strata exposed in a Railway cutting at Morse, near Drybrook.”’
The Bristol, Somersetshire, and Forest of Dean Coal-fields, are,
he said, to be regarded as outliers of the great South Wales
coal-basin, and the disconnection having been effected by the
up-lifting of the older rocks into an anticlinal curve, which has
since been removed by denudation, while the patch of Coal-
Measures in the Forest of Dean was preserved by their lying
in the trough of a synclinal curve. The severance between the
Coal-fields of Bristol and Somersetshire was effected in the
same way. By reference to the Geological Survey Map of
England and Wales, the Forest of Dean Coal-basin is shown
surrounded by belts of “ Millstone Grit” and “ Carboniferous
Limestone.” There is however a considerable thinning out in .
thickness: the total thickness of the Limestone in the Avon
section at Clifton is 2,900 feet, while at Perlieu the thickness
is 1,102 feet. In South Wales the thickness of the same
deposit, according to Mr. Foster Brown, is from 700 to 1,000
feet. The “ Millstone Grit” at Bristol may be taken to be, on
a fair average, about 1,000 feet thick, but at Perlieu it is
represented by a thickness of about 41 feet, and in South
Wales of about 200 feet. The ‘Carboniferous Limestone”
rests upon the “ Old Red Conglomerate,” and the passage beds
between these two formations are exceptionally well developed
in the road from Ross to Drybrook, in what is known as “ The
Deep Cutting.” The “Old Red Conglomerate” is composed of
veined quartz pebbles, embedded in an arenaceous ferruginous
matrix. The section to which he specially drew attention has

_ been exposed at Morse, in making the branch line of railway

to Mitcheldean. The Limestone is not exposed in the cutting,
nor is the total thickness of the Sandstone to be ascertained at
this point. The bed consists of well-rounded grains of quartz
and a little felspar. The quartz grains are many of them
scratched; they average about ‘01 of an inch in diameter, and
are cemented together by Kaolin, derived probably from the

84

*

decomposition of felspar. The quartz grains also possess oblong
cavities, containing a liquid. When first he saw this bed Mr.
WerHeEreD doubted its being “ Millstone Grit,” as the physical
features were different from any which he had seen before,
and very different from the same formation as exposed around
Bristol. The matter was decided on a second visit to Drybrook,
when he procured a “ Lepidodendron” from a quarry about half
a mile off, opened on the same bed, which, however, was not
capped by the beds which overlie it in the Morse section. A
third visit to Drybrook left no doubt on the subject. He came
across another quarry to the left of Euroclydon: at the top
was the mottled Sandstone bed, and below that came a yellow
Sandstone; below that came a yellow variegated Sandstone

of a more compact structure, the grains of which were less

rounded, and inclined rather to partake of the features referred
to as characteristic of the grit from Bristol and around Sheffield.
Passing from the “ Millstone Grit” in the Morse section, we
find resting upon it a bed of rose-coloured Sandstone, eight
inches thick, composed of well-rounded grains of quartz, avera-
ging ‘050 of an inch in diameter, with decomposing felspar
and mica. The dip of this bed is 15°; taking therefore the
dip of the ‘‘ Millstone Grit” as 40°, we have decided unconform-
ability. Upon the bed of rose-coloured Sandstone rests a bed
composed of large quartzitic and trap rock pebbles; mixed
with these are smaller fragments of quartz, which are however
of a different character to the larger pebbles. Placed side by
side with the veined quartz of the ‘‘Old Red Conglomerate,” it
is difficult to distinguish one from the other. The large quartz
pebbles seem to have been derived from the denudation of
“Caradoc Sandstone” rock, similar to the beds described by
Sir Roprerick Murcuison as occurring at the Lower Lickey
Hills, in Worcestershire. Mr. Wernerep said that he was not
aware of the occurrence in the Forest of Dean of another bed
of pebbles similar to that at Morse. Had it been contempo-
raneous with the ‘ Millstone Grit,’ it was not likely that it
would be confined to the one locality of Drybrook ; it therefore
appeared to him that we must either regard the ‘‘ Conglomerate,”

a

85

and the thin bed of Sandstone on which it rests, as belong-
ing to a more recent formation, or to some local feature, such
as the old river bed, referred to by Sir Cuartes Lye as
running through the Forest of Dean. Reviewing the evidence,
Mr. WerHERED said he was quite satisfied that the lower bed
of Sandstone is the “ Millstone Grit,” though the characters
it developes are peculiar, but he was disposed to regard the
beds above as an outlier of the Trias; the pebble beds being
identical with those at Budleigh Salterton, and those which
follow as the lower beds of the ‘‘ Keuper.”

Mr. Lucy, in opening the discussion, said he could not agree
with Mr. Weruerep that this bed was the effect of unconform-
ability. He believed that the beds above and below were
* Millstone Grit,” and that this was an intercalated bed. The
beds were all in complete order, with the exception of this, and
it was necessary to account for such a complete displacement
as that of the “New Red” being thrust up between these two
beds. He hoped the Club would visit the section as being one
of the most interesting in England.

Dr. Wricur thought that the dip, showing a difference of
between 15° and 40° of angle, was a strong mark of unconform-
ability, and would require careful investigation before they
decided that Mr. Werueren’s version was not a correct one.
It suggested a great change of conditions and a great lapse of
time between the formations, and it was most important that
the point should be well worked out.

The last Winter Meeting of the Club was held at the Lecture
Theatre of the

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE anp ART, ar GLOUCESTER,

on Tuesday, the 2th of March in the present year, when a
paper was read by Mr. Hanpet CossHam, F.G.S., on “The
Cannington Park Limestone.”

About four miles from Bridgewater, in Somersetshire, is a
boss of highly crystalline Limestone, which for 40 years has
occupied a doubtful geological position, having been regarded
by some geologists as belonging to the Ilfracombe group of the

86

Devonian series, while by others it has been classed as a
southern extension of the carboniferous limestones of the
Mendips. The difference between these two opposite views
involves an important economical problem, for if the latter
view be the correct one, viz., that these limestones are of
carboniferous age, it may be regarded as in the highest degree
probable that coal within a workable distance exists in the
trough of the “synclinal” between Cannington and the
Mendips. With a view to the solution of this problem, Mr.
CossHaM, in company with R. Eruerives, F.R.S., President of
the Geological Society, and your PresipEnt, visited the locality
in the autumn of last year, and were successful in finding such
fossil evidence as satisfied them of the carboniferous character
of the limestone. The difficulty of assigning to this rock its
true position has arisen from its highly crystalline structure,
and from the almost total absence of organic remains, which
when found, are so crushed and fragmentary as to render their
determination in the highest degree difficult. Hence it arises
that so many eminent geologists have differed in their diagnosis
of the true nature and position of the Cannington Limestone.
Mr. Erueriper, one of the most competent observers, had,
in his paper on “ The Physical Structure of West Somerset and
North Devon,” given it as his opinion that the limestone in
question was a Devonian outlier, and though later observers
had come to a different conclusion, he had seen no cause to
change his opinions. It would seem that his attention had not
been drawn to a paper by Mr. Tawney, F.G.S., read before the
Bristol Naturalists’ Club in November, 1875, in which, after
summing up all the evidence upon the subject, together with
observations made by himself on the spot, Mr. Tawney came to
the conclusion that in his opinion the Cannington Limestone
had been proved to be carboniferous. In like ignorance of Mr.
Tawney’s paper, Mr. Cossaam hal drawn up a notice of the
facts, and of the conclusions from those facts, independently
arrived at by himself and his companions, by which they
had been led to recognise the carboniferous character of the
limestones in question; and it was not until after the completion

ee

87

of his paper that Mr. CossHam was made aware that the question
had already been determined by Mr. Tawney. Under these
circumstances, Mr. Cossuam’s observations could no longer be
regarded as throwing new and original light upon the question,
but merely as confirmatory of a proposition already established.
Nevertheless, the work has its value as that of independent
observers, and notably as having effected the conversion of Mr.
ETHERIDGE, who when convinced of his previous error, at once
with the candour of a lover of truth retracted his previously
recorded opinions, and recognised the carboniferous value of
the Cannington Limestones with all the important deductions
resulting therefrom.

Some observations were made by Rev. Mr. Winwoop, of Bath,
who accompanied Mr. Tawney on his visit to Cannington, and by
Dr. Wriceut, on the evidence of previous writers on the subject.

Mr. Wircurrt then made some observations on a paper
recently read by him on “The Basement Beds of the Inferior
Oolite.” These had reference mainly to some remarks made
by Dr. Wrieut, in which he claimed, in a paper published in
the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society so far back as
1856, to have already distinguished the limestones below the
“ Pea Grit” proper, which in their greater development in the
Stroud district were regarded by Mr. Wrrcuett as having been
hitherto overlooked. This led to a somewhat animated discus-
sion, in which the Doctor energetically maintained his position.

The meeting was addressed by Mr. Lucy, Mr. Lones, and
Mr. Winwoop, with a general concurrence of opinion that
having regard to the different facias presented by the same
beds in different localities of the Cotteswolds, the independent
work done by Mr. Wircnett must be recognised as a substantial
contribution to our knowledge of the basement beds in question,
and as a valuable extension to the Doctor’s earlier sections, the
truth of which were not at all thereby called in question.

With this meeting the work of the Club for the season termi-
nated, and so I take leave to close this address, thanking you all
for the kind support which I have uniformly, and now for so
many years, received from the members of the Cotteswold Club.

q Df OS.

| PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

FIELD €LUB

For 1883—1884

| President

Fs Sir WILLIAM V. GUISE, Barr, F.L.S., F.G.S.
| Vice- Presidents

q Teo 1. BAKER. Eso, Ss:

| THOMAS WRIGHT, M.D., F.RS.L. & E, F.GS.
= WILLIAM. C. LUCY, F.G.S.

Honorary Accretarp
W. H. PAINE, M.D., F.G.S., F.R. Mer. Soc.

BE Contents

_ The PrestDENtT’s ADDRESS at the Annual Meeting at Gloucester, 1883

~ Onthe Occurrence of the Mineral Vivianite in the Cotteswolds. Ly FREDERICK SMITHE,
a L.L.D., F.G.S.

& On the Terrace Gravels of Auchnasheen, Ross-shire. By W. C. Lucy, F.G.S.

On an Ancient Jar, filled with Mercury, found in a Cliff near the Sea Shore, at Fetlar, one of
_ the Shetland Islands. By THomMas WRIGHT, F.R.S.L. and E., and F.G.S., Lond.

On the Green Colouring Matter of Animals, and Researches in Symbiosis.
_ By Atten Harker, F.L.S.

_ Hock Crib, Fretherne. By W. C. Lucy, F.G.S.

_ The Presipent’s ADDRESS at the Annual Meeting at Gloucester, 1884

On Randwick Long Barrow. By G. B. WirTs, C.E.

_ Some Remarks on a Boring for Water near Birdlip. By W. C. Lucy, F.G.S.

On the Occurrence of Spores of Plants in the Lower Limestone Shales of the Forest of Dean
- Coalfield. By Epwarp WETHERED, F.G.S., F.C.S.

On the Occurrence of the Palmate Newt near Stroud. By C. A. WITCHELL

On a Remarkable Exposure of the Kellaway’s Rock, in a recent Cutting near Cirencester.
_ By Professor ALLEN Harker, F.L.S.

Notes on the Breeding of Fishes. By FRANCIS Day, F.L.S., and F.Z.S.

On Sinking a Well in the Lower Lias, at Gloucester. By W. C. Lucy, F.G.S.

JOHN BELLOWS, GLOUCESTER. 126587

“

; ee
: ;

ot

PERMANENT PHOTO. BY WILLIAM GILLARD. GLOUCESTER

Address to the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club, delivered at
Gloucester, on the 24th April, 1883, by the President, Sir
Wim Vernon Guise, Bart., F.L.S., F.G.S.

GENTLEMEN, —

In compliance with custom, I will proceed to give a
summary of our proceedings at the different Meetings of the
Club during the past season; but before doing so I will briefly
allude to the condition and prospects of the Club, which, I
am glad to say, are in all respects satisfactory. Our numbers
are well maintained, and I am glad to say that we have no
deaths to register amongst our Members. The Papers read at
our Winter Meetings are of a character to give value to our
“Transactions.” Of these I would more especially refer to
the Paper by Mr Werruerep, on “The Drybrook Beds,” which
is of great value to local Geology.

Our Hon. Treasurer, Mr Wircuetz, has been indefatigable
in his exertions to collect arrears of subscriptions, which, I
regret to say, are in some instances very large. It is strange
that gentlemen who receive the published “Transactions” of
the Society should fail to pay their annual subscriptions for
many years in succession. Our subscriptions (only 15s. a year)
are not heavy, and full value is received in the annual publi-
cations of the Society. This deficit must not continue, and
the Treasurer, acting under my instructions, will take such
steps as are necessary to secure payment. The financial
condition of the Club is, on the whole, favorable. The balance
in hand last year was £30 16s. 1ld., and this year it is
£49 7s. 5d.

I will now proceed to the report of our proceedings at the
different Field and Winter Meetings of the Club.

90

ANNUAL MEETING.

The Annual Meeting of the Club was held at the Bell
Hotel, Gloucester, on Tuesday, 18th April, 1882, under the
Presidency of Sir W. V. Guisz, who read an Address, containing
a review of the work done by the Club during the preceding
twelve months. The election of officers for the year then
took place, which resulted in the re-election of the former
President, Vice-Presidents, Hon. Secretary and Treasurer. The
loss by death of Mr Cuartes Moors, F.G.S., of Bath, and of
Dr Joun Lycert, of Scarborough, formerly of Minchinharng iin:
in this county—both old and distinguished Members of the
Cotteswold Club—was feelingly alluded to by the President in
his Address. The Hon. Treasurer, Mr WrrcHett, shewed that
the funds of the Club were in a good state, and would be better
were all the arrears got in. Four new Members were elected,
and the meets of the Club for the season were fixed.

Sir Witu1am Guise read some notes upon the appearance
at Elmore of the Garganey Teal (Querquedula cireia Linn.)
According to the latest authorities, Yarret, in his “British
Birds,” and Dresser, in his “ Birds of Europe,” the Garganey
is described as a very occasional visitant to this country, and is
noted as of especially rare occurrence in the west of England.
Their arrival has generally been observed in the spring, on their
southerly migration, though occasionally they have been seen
in the autumn.

The Club dined together, as usual, at the Bell Hotel. On
the motion of Dr Wricut, F.R.S., it was resolved that in
future there should be four Winter Meetings of the Club, to
be held in the first week of the months of November, December,
February and March.

The First Field Meeting of the season was held on Tuesday,
May 16th, 1882. The programme for the day embraced a wide
range for exploration, extending through the heart of the Dean
Forest district, from

91
COLEFORD TO MITCHELDEAN,

for which special facilities had been provided by the Engineer
of the new line from Coleford to Monmouth, a portion of
which, still incomplete, was traversed for the first time on the
present occasion. The weather was all that could be desired,
and, under a bright sun and a cloudless sky, the beautiful
scenery through which the route lay was seen to the greatest
advantage.

The first halting-place was at Coleford, where the party
was transferred to carriages in waiting, and, under the pilotage
of the Engineer-in-chief, were driven along the new and
unfinished line of rail to Newland. This was rather an exciting
journey, as the rails being only temporarily laid, the unevenness
of the road made itself disagreeably felt in a series of jolts and
bumps of rather a bone-dislocating character. After travelling
in this way for a quarter of an hour or so, the train came to a
stand-still, and the passengers were transferred to trucks with
seats nailed across, in which primitive conveyances, by means
of horse-traction, they passed through a tunnel in course of
construction, which, though possibly instructive as a lesson in
engineering, proved to be anything but an agreeable process,
the drip from above, and the splashing of the horse below,
leaving unmistakeable traces on the hats and coats of the
passengers. ‘This passed through, a short walk brought the
party to Newland, where its fine Church and the interesting
monuments both within and without, deserved a much longer
study than the time at their disposal would allow. Here Mrs
Oaxtey, the Clergyman’s wife, had a pretty collection of Roman
coins for examination, had time permitted, and refreshments
were kindly offered. Returning to the carriages by a walk
over the hill, and thus avoiding the tunnel, the party proceeded
to Coleford, where a substantial luncheon awaited them at the
principal hotel. This meal dispatched, they took train for
Cinderford, enjoying a most delightful drive through the
Forest; the woods ablaze with the many-coloured glories of
spring foliage, the citrines and russets of which displayed

H2

92

themselves in lovely contrast with the carpet of blue hyacinths
which clothed the turf beneath. On arriving at Cinderford
wagonettes were in waiting for the use of the party during the
remainder of the day.

The next halt was made at Morse, near Drybrook, to
examine a remarkable section revealed by the railway cutting
on the line of rail to Mitcheldean, to which attention was first
called by Mr Lucy, and which formed the subject of a Paper
by Mr Weruerrep, read at the last Winter Meeting of the
Club. In this section a remarkable bed is brought to light,
consisting of large rolled quartzite pebbles resting upon
“Millstone Grit; and it was principally with a view to
determine the position of this pebble-bed that the programme of
the day had been traced. Messrs Lucy and WerHerep were
both agreed that the bottom-bed was ‘‘ Millstone Grit,”’ but the
former Geologist held that the pebble-bed and overlying rock
belonged to the same formation; whereas the latter was of
opinion that they pertained to the “‘ Keuper” or ‘New Red”
series. Mr Lucy based his opinion upon the fact—which is
indisputable—that there is no instance of the occurrence of the
“New Red” within the Forest basin, while Mr WerHrerep
pointed to the manifest unconformity of the overlying beds
with the ‘* Millstone Grit”? as justifying his conclusion that
they are entirely distinct. This unconformity is as between
- a dip of 40 degrees in the “Millstone Grit” and one of
14 degrees in the overlying bed. Mr Werueren finds the
analogue to the pebble-beds in those of Budieigh-Salterton, in
Devonshire, and likewise dwells on the presence of small pebbles
of veined quartz believed to be derived from the ‘‘Old Red
Conglomerate.’’ The pebble-bed, thus unexpectedly brought
to light, is of very limited extent, as the dip of the beds causes
them to disappear at the summit of the hill, after which
there is no further trace of them. The question at issue was
critically examined and discussed by the Geologists present,
when Dr Wricut, being called upon to offer his opinion, said
it was one of the most interesting bits of Geology he had ever
seen, and they were deeply indebted to Mr Lucy for having

93

called their attention to it. Speaking as a physical Geologist,
he found the unconformity so great, and indicative of so vast a
lapse of time, that he could not agree with Mr Lucy’s view of
the contemporaneity of the beds, but was disposed to regard
Mr WerHERED’s reading as the correct one, and that the
rolled pebbles represented an old shore in the Keuper Sea.
From hence the party proceeded to Mitcheldean, where, at
the George Hotel, they found tea prepared. After tea the
Rev. Dr Smirxe drew attention to an interesting discovery
that he had lately made. He had remarked that no fewer than
three German commentators, Braun, QuEeNsTED, and OppeEL,
had mentioned the occurrence of individuals of the sub-class
“< Entomostraca”’ in the top zones of the Middle Lias, at three
widely separated points in Germany, all upon the same horizon.
He had next found that at Churchdown the same tiny crusta-
ceans occur in nodules, some examples of which he had sent
to Professor Rurrrr Jonus. He had since discovered the
same fossil Ostracods in profuse numbers both at Gretton and
Alderley ; so that we thus have these minute organisms confined
to a constant horizon, distributed over a large portion of Europe.
Dr Surrxe gave but a brief summary of his facts, promising
to prepare a Paper on the subject, to be read at one of the
Winter Meetings of the Club, with figures to illustrate the -
physiology of these minute crustaceans. _

The Second Field Meeting took place on Thursday, 15th
June, at
STROUD.

The field operations lay amongst the hills and valleys in
which nestle the town of Stroud and its neighbouring villages,
and along the ridge of the Cotteswolds, commanding grand
prospects in all directions. Save for one or two passing showers,
the day was bright and genial, and presented to the eye the
varied contours of the scenery under most favourable contrasts
of light and shade.

94

The rendezvous was at the Dudbridge Station on the Nails-
worth branch of the Midland Railway, where well-appointed
breaks were in waiting to convey the party. The first halt was
made at Cainscross, to examine the gravel-pits there, which
have at different times yielded teeth and bones of the mammoth.
The exposed section shows a river-laid gravel, about 25 feet
thick, containing land-shells. These gravels once extended
from the Cotteswold hills to the Severn; they have since been
eroded out of the main valleys, but on the flanks of the hills,
and here and there in retired bays and back-waters, the beds
of gravel remain to tell the tale of denudation of which they
are the remaining evidences. At the point in question the
lines of stratification show plainly that the gravels are the
result of very slow deposition in shallow water.

At no great distance lies Moor Hall, an Elizabethan gabled
manor-house, of the true Cotteswold type. But little is
known of this mansion beyond the fact that in the 17th
century it belonged to a family of the name of Fowter. There
is a tradition that it was erected by a son of Sir Toomas Morg,
the Chancellor of Henry VIII. There is but little note-worthy
respecting it beyond the date, 1582, and an upper chamber
panelled in oak. It is now a farm house.

The carriages left the valley, and proceeded by a long and
toilsome ascent to climb the hill to a point known as Randwick
Ash, noted as commanding one of the most extensive prospects
in the entire range of the Cotteswolds, to admire which a short
halt was made. The party then, under the guidance of Mr
WircHeELL, proceeded to examine a quarry on the north side of
the hill, which displays to view a fine exposure of the basement
beds of the Inferior Oolite. These are the beds to which Mr
Wircnett made reference in his Paper read before the Club in
the previous January. The section from the top downwards
reads thus :—

Brown Beds ibe ak ... 9 feet
Pisolite ... é AS erie Bar|
Underlying Freestones ... +e EONS

ti

SC

95

Mr Wircuett holds that the “Freestones” are distinct
from the “ Pisolites,” while Dr Wricur maintains that there
is no true separation between them; the lower non-fossiliferous
“ Freestones” he regards as representing deep sea conditions,
while the overlying “ Pisolites” represent a shore deposit, in
which the evidences of life become abundant.

Luncheon was now partaken of under the shade of beech
trees in Randwick wood, after which attention was directed to
a supposed “long barrow” in the wood. This occupies a
position on the brow of a ridge overlooking the vale below—
just the locality usually adopted for such forms of interment,
but equally well adapted for a look-out station. The finding of
a couple of handfuls of human bones, with a molar tooth and
some appearances of “dry walling,” seem to point conclusively
to its being a place of burial, and probably a “long barrow,”
similar to that of the “West Tump,” recently explored by Mr
Wirts and the late Professor RotiEesTone.

A short half-mile from hence brought the party to Standish
Park, formerly the deer-park of the Abbots of Gloucester, and
still retaining the title, though the venison is no longer there.
Here attention was drawn to what appeared to be a small
round barrow, and to two other mounds supposed to represent
a “twin barrow.” These may be worthy of further exploration,
more especially the single tump; the two others, from the
appearance of the ground, which had evidently at some time
been moved, probably in search for stone, appeared more
doubtful. A pleasant walk through the Park brought the
party to Haresfield hill and Beacon. While some went to
explore the fine fortified enclosure which occupies the salient
point of the Beacon, the Geologists applied themselves to the
further examination of the “ Pisolites” and underlying “ Free-
stones” which had formed the subject of debate at Randwick
hill. Continuing their way along the ridge, the party halted
at the quarries at the Horsepools, to examine a coral-bed
detected there by Mrs Hurron, overlying the “ Oolite Marl,” on
to which it had been let down by the removal of the interme-

diate beds. The bed is very rich in species, which have been

96

referred by Mr R. F. Tomzs* to the following :—Thecosmilia
gregaria, Isastrea tenuistriata, Thammastrea mettensis, T. Wrightia
(new species,) Microsolina sp., Microsolina regularis, Montlivaltia
sp., &c. This is the same bed as that on the hill on the
opposite side of the valley, at Worgan’s quarry. At a pointa
few yards lower down the hill the lower coral-bed of the
“Inferior Oolite” presents itself; it is largely quarried for
road-stone, and at this point is about ten feet thick. Here
Dr Wricut, at the request of those present, gave an instructive
address on the formation of coral reefs, and deduced from tlie
entire change in the forms of life of the builders of the three
known coral-beds of the “Inferior Oolite” that an enormous
duration of time must have elapsed between the deposition of
each of these beds, seeing that the vast reef of Florida, miles
of which now form dry land, has been shown by Agassiz to
have required at least 70,000 years for its formation, while the
same industrious little builders by which it was constructed are
busy at this day, continuing the work in the adjoining seas.
Mr R. F. Tomszs, in a Paper lately read before the Geological
Society, adopts in general Dr Wricut’s views as to the strate-
graphical position of the coralligenous deposits in the “Inferior
Oolite” of Gloucestershire, and gives a tabular statement of
the distribution of species in the several coral-beds, pointing
out that each of these has its own species, which do not pass
much from one to the other.

At the invitation of Mr Lucy the party adjourned to the
residence of his son, where tea was offered, and gratefully
accepted. After a hasty look (it was all the time allowed) at
the very beautiful garden, with its wealth of interesting plants,
gathered by a former proprietor from all parts of the European
Continent, and here to be seen blooming in rare perfection, the
carriages were again in motion for Stroud, where, at the Imperial
Hotel, the party found an excellent dinner prepared for them.

After dinner Dr Wricut drew attention to the fact that,
by the exertions of the Hon. Treasurer, Mr WitcHeLi in

* See Tomes’s Paper on “The Madreporia of the Cotswolds.” — Quarterly
Journal Geol. Society.

97

getting in the arrears, the funds of the Club were in an
unusually thriving condition, and he suggested that they
_ could not be better expended than in re-printing the earlier
volumes of their “Transactions,” pointing out that, owing to
the important position occupied by the Club among kindred
Societies, a demand had arisen for their “ Transactions,” of.
which complete sets could no longer be supplied ; indeed it was
believed that very few members of the Club were possessed of
_ an entire series of its publications.

This proposition proved generally acceptable, and it was
resolved that the Executive Committee should consult and
report to a future meeting.

The Third Field Meeting was held at
CHEPSTOW,

_ on Tuesday, 18th July. The Members of the Cotteswold Club,
_ though they in the main confine their rambles and researches
within the limits of their own county, do occasionally break
bounds, and seek “fresh fields and pastures new” beyond their
own confines; and thus it seemed good to them on the day in
question to make an incursion into Monmouthshire, with a
_ view more especially to visit Mathern and its neighbour Moins
Court, which were new to them, with Caldicot Castle and
_ Caerwent, both of which localities had been included in their
_ programme on a previous occasion. The Club, on the present
_ occasion, had the good fortune to be accompanied throughout
_ the day by Dr Yuars, L.L.D., a gentleman resident in
_ Chepstow, and one well acquainted with all particulars relative
_ to those points of special interest which formed the staple of
_ the day’s proceedings. .

__ A well-appointed break was in waiting at the Chepstow
_ Station, on the arrival of the train due at 10.19 a.m., when the
_ party proceeded at once to Mathern a village about three miles
distant, where is a singularly interesting and picturesque
‘residence of the former Bishops of Llandaff, and a Church
which owes its foundation to Mreurie or Maurice, the son of

98

Sr. Tewpric or THEoporic, in the sixth century. The British
were at that time Christians, and being invaded by the Pagans,
they were led to battle by Tewpric, King of Gwent, who, a
great warrior in his time, had retired into religious seclusion
in a cell near Tintern. From this seclusion he was called to
the defence of his people, and in a great battle the invaders
were completely defeated; but Trwnpric received a mortal
wound, of which within three days he died, and was buried on
the spot where the Church now stands, and the place received
the name of Mathern, or “the place of the Martyr.” A mural
tablet against the north wall of the Church records this history.
The visitors found the Church unroofed, and undergoing the
process of restoration, which promised to be so chiselled over
and renovated as to lose all appearance of antiquity. This is
much to be deprecated. The piers in the nave are Karly
English ; but there is one square column of extremely rude
workmanship, which may well be a survivor of an earlier
Church. Close by is the former palace of the Bishops of
Llandaff, now a farm house, and showing signs of neglect and
decay, which, without substantial repairs, will, at no distant
day, cause it to fallinto ruin. It is a noble and most interesting
pile of building, dating apparently from about the year 1500.

At a short distance, across a couple of fields, is Moins
or Monk’s Court, which is chiefly remarkable for an entrance
flanked by lofty square towers. For what purpose so large a
structure was erected it is difficult to guess, as the house is
small and of no importance. Over the porch are the arms of
a Bishop, with the date 1609. At the rear of the house is a
rectangular space enclosed by a ditch and mound, the latter
being on the outside of the ditch; it bears the name of the
“ moat-field.” Can it be that this was an ancient place of
assembly ? the term “mote” appears to point to it; and the
mounds on the further side of the foss may have been banks
whereon the assembled tribesmen sat.

From Mathern and Moins Court the party proceeded to
Caldicot Castle; a delightful drive, by “ hedge-row elms on
hillocks green,” with lovely prospects over the Severn to

a

99

Kingsroad and the hills beyond. Caldicot Castle is always
worthy a visit—it stands so nobly—but, like most of these
ancient strongholds, which are planted so thickly along the
Welsh frontier, it has no tale to tell. In those early days
when the Norman settlers held sway, there was many a scene
of border foray and fight around these stone structures; but
after the first Epwarp had annexed the Principality these
fortresses lost much of their raison d’étre, and they gradually
fell into decay. At Caldicot the original Norman “Castellum,”
or fortified mound, now called “the keep,” is still in excellent
preservation, and, from the perfection of its masonry, bids fair
to last to the “crack of doom.”

Caerwent has been so often and so well described that it
needs no further illustration. The party here were greatly
indebted to Mr Yeats, who brought with him an excellent
map, with the spots marked whereat remarkable discoveries
had been made. The only novelty was a portion of a tessellated
pavement Jaid bare in a cottage garden, in which, with the
usual guilloche ornament, there were fish (?salmons) in the
angles. This probably formed part of a bath establishment, of
which a portion of the heating apparatus was found in the
adjoining field. Some of the party here adjourned to the
residence of a neighbouring farmer, to examine a collection of
coins—which the spade turns up in abundance—while others
made the circuit of the walls of the old Roman fortress, still
happily preserved.

On their way back to Chepstow, the party were induced by
Dr Yeats to visit an ancient manor-house, now a farm, called
Crick, which is of interest in connection with the fortunes of

_ Cartes I. When the King was in this neighbourhood, in
1645, he had his head quarters at Raglan, and kept up

communication with Ruprerr at Bristol. Rupert occasionally
crossed the Severn to meet the King; and this house of Crick,

_ then in possession of a gentleman of the name of Moorr, a

staunch. Royalist, was used as a place of meeting. Hither on
the 22nd July, 1645, came Cuartzs, attended by the Earls of

Ricumonp and Linpsey, the Lord Asriey, and others, and held

100

council in the hall of this old manor-house, now in a state of
crumbling ruin.

After dinner, which was served at the Beaufort Arms,
Chepstow, the President read a communication from the Rey.
Mr Reaper, of the Dominican Priory at Woodchester,
announcing the discovery of a club-moss new to Britain, the
Lycopodium complanatum of Liynawus. Some three years ago
Mr Reaper, who is an accomplished and persevering Botanist,
discovered near Woodchester a Lycopodium, which at first he
took to be L. alpinum; its character however did not altogether
agree with that species, though nearer to that than any other
British species. He decided to send the specimen to Kew,
where it was unhesitatingly pronounced to be the DL. compla-
natum of Linnzus, and as such new to the British flora.
Mr Reaper states that L. complanatum, first described as a
species by Linnavs, differs from alpinum “in its more flattened
(complanate) branches, more robust habit, yellower tint, and
especially in the fruiting spikelets, which are often in pairs,
with large brown ovate toothed scales, and are altogether much
more conspicuous than in the allied species. In some foreign
examples the spikes are truly pedunculate, but in our plant
they are more properly called sessile, though the remarkably
attenuated ends of the branches give them somewhat the look
of being stalked. The Gloucestershire specimens proved to be
identical in appearance with South American ones preserved in
the Kew herbarium.” Mr Reaper adds that he “found the
plant on sandy ground (not on the oolite) amid L. clavatwm
and a flora which recalls that of the Forest of Dean, and has
little or nothing in common with that of the Cotteswold hills.
At present it forms, with Cephalanthera rubra and Allium
spherocephalum, one of a trio of Gloucestershire plants which
are not known in any other British county.

101

The Fourth Field Meeting took place at
ANDOVERSFORD,
on Tuesday, 22nd August.

Some time in the preceding month of February some
workmen in the employ of Mr Dent, of Sudeley Castle, came
upon the foundations of buildings in a wood known as Spoonley
Wood. Some tessere with Roman tiles being turned up,
aroused the interest of Mrs Drent,—a party of excavators was
set to work, lines of wall were found and carefully followed,
and gradually the remains of a Roman villa were exposed to
the light of day, after an entombment of many centuries. It
was with especial reference to this interesting discovery that
the Cotteswold Club assembled on the day in question.

The morning was fine, and a good many members assembled
at the Andoversford Station, where carriages were in waiting.
According to their published programme their first visit should
have been paid to Sevenhampton, but on the suggestion of one
of the party that at Whittington was a Church and manor-house
worth seeing, a short deflection from the direct line of route was
made for the purpose of visiting them. In the Church there is
some Norman work at the west end, but the principal objects
of interest within its walls are three monumental effigies and a
“brass.” The effigies are those of two Knights and a lady of the
14th century. The former are habited so exactly alike that there
can be little doubt of their being the work of the same hand.
They are armed from head to foot in what appears to be ‘‘ cuir
bouilli”’—not plate. The head-pieces are round, with a gorget,
which takes the form of the “ camail;” they both wear over
their armour a long robe or surcote, and bear on their shields
five lozenges, three, two, and one, with a label of three points.
These are said to belong to the family of Dz La Croupr, who
were seized of the manor in the reign of Epwarp III. The
“brass” is to the memory of one Ricnarp Corron (or Coron,
as it is there spelt,) who built the manor-house, in the reign of
Purure and Mary, and being (as it is said) killed in a duel, left
the building incomplete, as it still remains. The house, now

102

the residence of the Dosruu family, is a beautiful example of
the domestic architecture of the period when it was constructed.
It is surrounded by a moat, which seems to point to the
existence of an earlier building, better constructed for defence
than the present edifice.

From Whittington the carriages proceeded to Sevenhampton,
where the Church and manor-house were inspected. The former
is of Early English date. In a south Chapel is an Karly English
triplet, with detached shafts, the latter recent and bad. The
walls show traces of colour, and of inscriptions, which may
still in parts be read. In the manor-house, formerly a country
residence of the Abbots of Llanthony, the members of the
Club were courteously received by Mrs Lawrencz, the relict
of the late Watrer Lawrence, Hsq., who, some years since, in
association with Mr Roeers, of Dowdeswell, conducted a series
of excavations on the site of a Roman settlement at Wickham
Field, near Andoversford Inn, which yielded a large number of
objects of iron and bronze, but with little of unusual interest,
if we except a bronze statuette of an armed Roman soldier,
«bout four inches in height. It is supposed to have been the
figure of a charioteer, as the remains of reins were in one hand,
which is raised aloft; but if it were so, no trace of the chariot
could be found. Some time was here spent in examining the
large collection of objects of antiquarian interest most liberally
displayed by the kind hostess, to whom the best thanks of the
Society were tendered by their President.

Halting by the way to inspect at Charlton Abbots a fine
old manor-house, now a farm, the carriages proceeded, by cross
country roads, down precipitous hills—commanding beautiful
views over the distant country—to Spoonley Wood. To this
the carriages could not approach nearer than about three
quarters of a mile, so they had to be left, and a walk over
swampy meadows and through quaggy woodland brought the
party at length to the Roman villa of which they were in quest.
It faces west, and forms three sides of a parallelogram, of
which the central portion is about 200 feet in length, and the
wings 150. They found the centre and south wing excavated.

103

They showed many small rooms, among which are three with
tessellated pavements, a hypocaust, and acoldbath. A corridor,
which has likewise a tessellated floor, runs the whole length of
the principal front. One curious feature is the presence of a
well, still half full of water, in one of the principal apartments,
in which are other peculiarities which have proved a puzzle to
antiquaries. The principal entrance opens on to the corridor.
At a side entrance are two upright stones, the purpose of which
does not appear. A broken quern or millstone was found in
this apartment, which it has been conjectured was fixed above
the two uprights, and that the meal fell into a receptacle
below; but nothing like it has been seen elsewhere. The north
wing remained still to be excavated. As far as it was then
exposed the largest apartments seemed to be on that side—the
bath establishment, too, may be there. “But little of importance
beyond the walls and floors had then been brought to light,
some half dozen illegible coins, and a quantity of broken pottery
and bones being all that the excavations had; up to that time,
yielded. The villa cannot be ranked among the larger and
more important “finds” of the same kind, and may well have
been a “villa rustica,” or larger kind of farm. It lies about
two miles from the ancient. “Salt-way,”’ and a Roman camp
crowns the neighbouring hill.

A drive of about seven miles brought the party to Naunton
Inn, where an excellent cold dinner was served. While at
dinner rain came on, which gradually increased to a regular
down-pour, in which the party left Notgrove Station for their
several destinations,

The First Winter Meeting was held in the Lecture Theatre
of the
SCIENCE SCHOOL, IN GLOUCESTER,

on Tuesday, 21st November, when Mr Lucy read a Paper on
“The Terrace Gravels of Auchnasheen, Ross-shire.” Mr Lucy
began by describing the position of Auchnasheen, as situated
about mid-way between Dingwall and Strome Ferry. The

104

terraces of gravel to which Mr. Lucy’s Paper referred occur
near the outlets of Loch Roshk and Loch Ledgowan, which
lochs are separated by the high mountain of Leonach. There
are three well marked terraces, of which the uppermost is by
far the largest. Its height is about sixty feet; the second
terrace is twelve feet, and the third six feet; this latter is quite
recent. The upper terrace is covered with peat, in some places
four feet thick, and in it are large roots of trees. The second
terrace is also covered with peat, but of less thickness. In
both terraces are large boulders of quartz, granite, gneiss, trap,
Laurentian and metamorphosed Silurian rocks, full of mica.
There was abundant evidence of ice-action all around. The
gathering-ground of the ice which passed into Loch Roshk was
Glen Docharty, Ben Fin, and the adjacent mountains; and
that which passed into Loch Ledgowan was derived from the
mountains parallel to the loch. The ice-borne masses formed
moraines, by which the water was dammed back to a point at
which it overflowed, and in process of time planed down the
debris until they formed the present level surface of the upper
terrace. In process of time this terrace was cut through to the
depth of sixty feet, when another barrier of smaller size was
formed by the same agency, and a period of rest ensued. A
similar process was again repeated, and the lower terrace was
formed, which represents the highest flood level of the present
rivers. Mr Lucy, after some remarks on the Geology of the
district, which corresponds with that of Sutherland, with the
exception of the absence of lias and oolite, called attention to
the evidences of ancient forests, as shewn in the huge roots of
trees found everywhere under the surface soil, and in the peat
deposits, as contrasted with the present remarkable absence of
trees. At Ledgowan there are evidences of four successive
forest growths, one above the other. Mr Lvucy referred the
age of the peat-forest to post-glacial times, after the period of
the low-level gravels, and quoted a French writer, M. Beneranp,
in support of his views.

Mr Lucy’s Paper was followed by one by Dr Wricut,
F.R.S., on “The Discovery of an Ancient Jar filled with

—_——s

:

105

Mercury, in the Island of Fetlar,” one of the Shetland Islands.
The facts attending the discovery were these. In an exposed
bay, wherein the winds have piled up cliffs and dunes of blown
sand, the fall of a portion of the cliff exposed to view a hole.
A farm lass, noticing the hole, put her hand in, when her
finger entering the neck of the bottle, she ran to acquaint the
shepherd, who solved the mystery by bringing to light a bottle,
the weight of which astonished him, as he could with difficulty
raise it. On examination it proved to be filled with quicksilver,
and weighed 100 pounds. The bottle, which holds about a
gallon, is of earthenware, of the kind known as “Grés de
Flandres,” or “Greybeards,’ a ware which was introduced
into this country about the end of the 16th century, probably
at the time of the wars of Exizapern in the Low Countries,
and was in common use during the following century. No
further history attaches to the bottle. It is a very pretty
specimen, which Dr Wricur has had photographed for the

Club “ Transactions.”

The President next drew attention to two sword-shaped
iron implements, which had formed portions of a hoard of 147,
found twenty-three years since, within the ancient intrench-
ment of Salmonsbury, near Bourton-on-the-Water. Similar
implements have been found elsewhere, at Montacute, in
Somerset, at Hood Hill, at Spettisbury, and at Pimperne, all
in the neighbourhood of Blandford, and lastly at Milborne
St. Andrew, neur Whatcombe, Dorset. They are all of the
same type, and present the appearance of sword-blades in an
unfinished state. They measure about two feet eight inches in
length by two inches in width and one-eighth of an inch in
thickness ; but they have this peculiarity, that where the tang
or tongue for the handle should be, the iron is turned over so
as to form a short socket, which is too small to admit the little
finger. They have been a great puzzle to commentators 3 but
the weight of evidence—which is of a negative character—
seems to point to their being of the Celtic period. One of those
found at Bourton was tested by heat in the forge, and beaten

out, when it proved to be good hard steel. The President

I

106

announced his intention to deposit the two Bourton blades in
the Gloucester Museum.

The President next brought under the notice of the Club
the interesting fact of the occurrence of the Long-tailed Duck
(Harelda glacialis. L.) at Elmore, where an immature specimen
had lately been shot on the inundated meadows. This is a
rarity on our coasts, especially so far south, and its presence
so far from salt water is very remarkable.

The Second Winter Meeting of the Club was held in the
Theatre of the

SCIENCE SCHOOL AT GLOUCESTER,

on Tuesday, 12th December, to hear a Paper which had been
prepared by Professor Harker, of the Royal Agricultural
College, Cirencester, on “The Green Colouring Matter of
Animals, with recent researches on Symbiosis.”

The Lecturer began by making reference to Englena viridis
and its allies, of which some effective representations upon a
largely magnified scale were suspended on the walls. This
microscopically minute organism belongs to the family of
flagellate Infusoria, which form a greenish slime on stagnant
waters. It has a mouth and stomach, and is furnished with a
long “flagellum”? or whip-like process, by the rapid vibration
of which it progresses through the water. Within the body
are certain amylaceous or starchy bodies, and it is coloured
green by chlorophyll. It has long been known that the green
colouring matter of plants (chlorophyll) is not confined to the
vegetable kingdom, but occurs in various animals. So long ago
as the end of the last century Prrestiey obtained oxygen from
Englena viridis, and this was held to be proof of its vegetal
nature. In certain green planarian worms, Scuuurze, forty
years ago, found chlorophyll. In the well-known fresh-water
polyp Hydrw viridis, and the fresh-water sponge Spongilla
fluviatilis, the green colouring matter was examined spectro-
scopically by Ray Lanxestrr, and determined as chlorophyll,
while Mr Sorpy has made an elaborate investigation into the

a

107

nature of the chlorophylloid colouring substance of Spongilla,
in which he has determined its compound characters as agreeing
in this respect with the chlorophyll of plants. In a planarian
worm common on the sea-shore, Geppxs found that on exposure
to light from 45 to 50 per cent. of oxygen was given off. The
Lecturer next proceeded to relate certain experiments of his
own on the nature of the green colouring matter of Englena
viridis. At a lecture at Stroud he mentioned his desire to
procure pure gatherings of Englena. This bore fruit, and Mr
Houtanp sent a gathering which proved to consist entirely of
Englena. These were treated by Mr Hoxuanp as if for the
chlorophyll of plants, when it was found that the re-action,
both chemical and spectroscopic, were those of chlorophyll.
Further, he found that the colouring matter was a compound,
as in the Spongilla examined by Sorsy. These experiments
were repeated with the specimens sent, which were further
submitted to the action of sunlight, when the giving off of
oxygen was detected; but a most careful examination failed
to detect the presence of starch. The chlorophyll in Englena
is diffused throughout the entire animal, and is not in granules,
as in Spongilla and Hydra. The Professor next referred to
the “yellow cells” of Huxury, in Radiolarians, thought by
Haxrcxet to be secreting cells, although he found starch in
them. In 1871 Crenxowsx1 found that they survived after the
death of the animal, and thought them parasitic. In 1881
Branpt of Berlin regarded them as independent organisms,
and gave them the names of Zoochlorella and Zoanthella, of the
nature of alge, and parasitic. Similarly he considered the
green cells of Hydra and Spongilla to be alge. Therefore he
concluded that the chlorophyll does not pertain to the animal,
but to the parasitic alge. In 1882 Geppxs confirmed Branpt
to a certain extent. He found the walls of the yellow cells in
Radiolaria to be true plant cellulose, and advocated the theory of
mutual interdependence, to which has been applied the term
“Symbiosis.” In the spring of this year Professor Harker
found in his tank a Rhabdocell Planarian, with green chlo-
rophyll, not resembling any known algal; it lived in distilled
12

108

water four weeks. The green colouring matter was in distinct
cells, and the presence of starch was very evident on testing.
The summary of the new matter in the Paper is as follows :—
Detailed examination of the colouring matter of Englena, which
corresponds with Sorpy’s examination of Spongilla. (2.) The
fresh-water Rhabdocella worm, with the green colouring in
special cells which contain starch, and which worm lived in
distilled water for four weeks.

A cordial vote of thanks was accorded to the author.
Dr Wricut, F.R.S., in seconding the vote, expressed his
admiration of the clear way in which the Professor had worked
out this difficult subject, which, the Doctor observed, was not
new to him. He welcomed this Paper as a happy divergence
from the dry and dusty roads of Geology into the living lands
of nature. But that which the Doctor regarded as most
suggestive in the Paper was the discovery of the remarkable
facts conveyed in the term “Symbiosis,” which seemed to
furnish a clue to the very obscure subject of disease-germs,
and to the mode by which they may be propagated.

The Third Winter Meeting was held at the

SCIENCE SCHOOL IN GLOUCESTER,

on Tuesday, January 30th, 1883, when Mr G. Emprey read a
Paper on “ Variations in Starch Granules.”

After reviewing the mode in which plants obtain their
food, and making especial reference to the production of starch,
attention was directed to the following summary of the general
characters by which starch granules may be distinguished from
one another, and their source determined.

1st. Those obtained from the roots, rhizomes and stems, are
ovate in form, have excentrically arranged rings, the nucleus at
one end, polarise powerfully, and have an unsymmetrical cross.

2nd. Those obtained from the seeds of leguminous plants
are elliptical in form, rings concentric, an elongated nucleus,
polarise moderately, and show a cross by the union of two
crescents.

109

3rd. Those obtained from the seeds of grasses are spherical,
nucleus central, rings concentric, polarise feebly, and have a
symmetrical cross.

In mounting starch granules it is advisable to prepare two
slides for microscopic examination, one in dry cells for the
study of rings and nucleus, and a second in a solution of
Canada balsam in benzole for polarised light.

The Fourth and last Winter Meeting of the season was
held at the

SCIENCE SCHOOL IN GLOUCESTER,

on Tuesday, 27th of February, when a Paper was read by Mr
Epwarp WerTHERED, F.G.S., entitled “ Further Notes on the
Geology of Drybrook.” The section known as the Drybrook
Section is figured in detail in the fourth volume of the “‘Trans-
actions” of the Club, from the measurements of Mr. Lucy and
the late Mr Joun Jones. These beds, 149 in number, and
measuring some 300 feet in thickness, are intermediate between
the “Old Red Conglomerate” and the “Carboniferous Lime-
stone Shales,” and consist of a series of light sandy beds, and
light greenish coloured calcareous Shales, to which Messrs
Lucy and Jonzs gave the name of “Transition” beds. Mr
WETHERED stated that he had examined these beds in detail,
and found the Sandstones to be composed of the constituents
of granitic rocks, while he believed that the Limestone in the
Shale was indicative of life, which however had been dissolved
away beyond recognition by the percolation of water, charged
with carbonic and vegetable acids. The Sandstones pass into
a succession of Limestones and Shales; the actual junction
is, unfortunately, not exposed, but that which is, contains
abundant remains of life. Special attention was called to the
bed which the author has named the “ Polyzoa” bed. This is
a cream-coloured impure Limestone, crowded with stems of
Poteriocrinus crassus, together with a few Rhynconella pleurodon,
Rhabdomeson gracile, Fenestrella tuberculata, and Ceriopora
similis. But the most important find was that of the jaws of

110

an annelid, the first discovered in the Carboniferous rocks of
this country, though Dr Hiypz has recorded two from the
“Lower Limestone” Shale of Scotland.

After briefly referring to the Mountain Limestone, and to
the Shales which mark the close of that formation, the author
passed on to consider the “Millstone Grit.” At the part where
the section was made the dip was at an angle of 45 degrees,
and the lower beds appeared to differ very considerably from
the upper. The former were more sandy, and there were
flagstones, which the author had not observed in the upper
beds. The remains of land plants were numerous, and several
casts of shells were obtained; but these, as well as the plant
remains, were limited to the first 100 feet of these strata.
The author next considered the pebble-bed, to which especial
reference had been made in his previous Paper on the Morse
section. The opinion there expressed. was that it did not
belong to the “Millstone Grit,’ an opinion which had since
been strengthened by the discovery of similar pebbles at other
places, namely, at Plump and at Bailey Hill, where these
pebbles cover a considerable area. The author concluded his
very interesting and instructive Paper by correlating the beds
which constitute the Drybrook section with the Calciferous
Sandstones of the Scotch Carboniferous system. These are
represented by Sandstones and Shales, which undergo litho-
logical change in the various localities where they occur.
Looking at the “Transition” beds of Messrs Lucy and Jonzs,
the author gave it as his opinion that they correspond in time
with the Calciferous Sandstones and Shales of Scotland, and
considers that they should be grouped with the ‘“‘ Lower
Limestone Shales.” In further support of this view it was
stated that the Polyzoa mentioned as occurring in the lower
Limestone Shales at Drybrook, occur also in the Red Limestone
of Arran, which the Geological Surveyors place in the “ Cal-
ciferous”’ series.

In the discussion which followed, Mr Lucy spoke in
confirmation of the views held by Mr Weruerrep, Dr Wricut
read some extracts from Macnaren’s “ Sketch of the Geology

111

of Fife and the Lothians,” published in 1839, in which the
beds under discussion are very clearly defined. The Doctor
considered that the correlation of the Drybrook beds with those
of the Calciferous series in Scotland was a most important
discovery, and showed the value of the work to be done by
local Geologists. Professor Harxer, adverting to the annelid
jaw, considered it to be a most interesting discovery, and that
the character of the organism had been correctly determined.

Mr Lucy brought for exhibition a pair of antlers of the
stag (cervus elaphus,) which had been found in the bed of the
Severn, near Awre, at a distance of a mile from the bank.
They are in fine preservation, and of extraordinary size,
measuring three feet seven inches from base to tip. The
width from tip to tip is three feet one inch and a half, with
seven spurs on each. The brow antler measured fifteen inches
in length; and the beam measured nine inches and three
quarters in circumference at the base. In size this far exceeds
the horns of any stag at present existing in this country :
examples of the same race are occasionally met with in
turbaries, and the dark colour of the portion of skull to which
the horns in question are attached, gives reason to believe that
they may have been derived from some such source.

Mr Ley also exhibited a carefully measured section of the
Hock Crib on the Severn, and promised a future Paper, with a
list of fossils from the different beds.

This was the last Meeting of the season, which was fitly
brought to a conclusion by Mr Werueren’s very important
Paper. Ii is fit, too, that I should bring to a conclusion this
unusually long Address, which owes its length to the large
amount of matter accumulated at our different Meetings, all of
which testifies in the most satisfactory manner to the energy
and vitality of the Cotteswold Club.

On the Occurrence of the Mineral Vivianite in the Ootteswolds, with
remarks. By Freperick Sutras, L.L.D., F.G.S.

I. Inrropvction.—Not one of the least of the functions of
a Natural History Society is to make scientific capital from a
diligent and business-like observation of nature. One of our
Vice-Presidents, with a warm and earnest enthusiasm, has
already attempted to give expression to the idea, by commencing
to do something for the minerals of our county, by citing and
systematically arranging the names, places and geological
position of our more common forms, and so to enlist the
attention of scientific observers as not only to obtain a trust-
worthy census of the minerals of Gloucestershire, some of them
already well known, but to bring to light and record the rarer
and less obvious kinds ;—for there is good reason to suppose
that many species one could name as almost certain to exist in
given localities in the county have yet to be brought to book,
and be catalogued. A case in point is that now laid before the
members of the Cotteswold Club, as a small instalment towards
Mr Lwvcy’s list, in his suggestive article, lately published in the
** Proceedings” of the Cotteswold Natural History Field Club,
(1881-1882,) page 30, entitled “On the Minerals of Gloucester-
shire, with part of the adjacent Counties of Somerset and
Worcestershire, compiled by Mr W.C. Lucy. Also a list of the
Derived Rocks found in the Northern Drift Gravel over the
same area. By Mr W. C. Lucy.”

The mineral now exhibited, as an addition to the catalogue,
is a specimen of Vivianite (Hydrated Phosphate of Iron,) of
which a small portion was last year found by a young friend,
Mr J. Marsprn, at Bowbridge, near Stroud, and was sent to
me, with fossils and other natural history specimens, &c., to be
named. Amongst these objects was the mineral Vivianite,
occurring, in the non-crystallized or earthy state, as a bluish

113

green incrustation, deposited upon a fragment of the shelly
Oolite of the neighbourhood, and it is here recorded with much
pleasure as a native product, to be inserted in the list of the
mineral species of Gloucestershire.

The species given in the list referred to are, for the most
part, of a sober cast, including few if any of the fairer forms
of inanimate nature, and certainly “no agate stone, fit for the
fore-finger of an alderman.” Still, apart from any value in
itself, we may fondly hope that the unexpected discovery of
Vivianite will quicken the student to gain power of vision and
acuteness in detecting similar objects.

A few remarks may be here offered concerning the compo-
nents of the hydrated phosphate of iron. The sources of the
elements of this combination of oxide of iron and phosphoric
acid are clearly evident. The phosphoric acid must have been
derived from the shelly detritus and the ochraceous matter of
the Oolitic rocks; for ochre or limonite is a variety of hydrated
oxide of iron, containing from 30 to 60 per cent. of iron oxide,
and is apt to be combined with phosphoric acid, supposed to be
derived from the decayed vegetation in swamps, acting on the
oxidated iron of the adjacent rocks. Umber, said to be found
abundantly in the Forest of Dean, is also an earthy variety of
it, containing manganese. The union between the phosphoric
acid and the iron is effected in nature’s laboratory. Phosphoric
acid, on account of the number of its modifications and the
facility with which it lends itself to form organic compounds
in the animal system, has been designated by an eminent
chemist the organic acid—a veritable harlequin in disguise.
Whilst iron, the other element in Vivianite, has been termed,
par excellence, the organismal metal, having its special value in
the animal economy;—bones, shells, tissues, and even the blood
itself, contain ferric oxide. Its presence has not been unnoticed
by the poets. Tennyson, in “The Princess,” makes the father
of his heroine exclaim, when his stately daughter shows no sign
of relenting toward the wounded Prince—

‘“‘T’ve heard that there is iron in the blood ;
And I believe it.”

114

For convenience, and to save the reader the trouble of
turning to the pages of a text-book, a short description of
Vivianite, otherwise known as Blue Iron Earth, or Native
Prussian Blue, may be of service.

II. Descriprion.—Vivianite: (3 FeO, PhO® + 8 HO) formula,
(Blue Iron Earth.) When crystallized it belongs to the Mono-
clinic system, and has a hardness of 1°5 to 2, with a specific
gravity of 2°6 to 2:7. In colour it is usually bluish, or bluish
green. The crystals are generally green when seen at right
angles to the vertical axis, and blue when parallel to it; the
streak is bluish, with a lustre pearly to vitreous, transparent to
translucent, and opaque on exposure. Besides the crystallized
state of modified oblique prisms, which mostly occur in metal-
liferous veins, it is found in radiated, fibrous, reniform,
globular and earthy states (Blue Iron Earth,) and often found
coating bodies and as incrustations. This earthy variety is not
uncommon in peat mosses, especially where animal substances
have decayed; and, according to Prof. A. Gurxin, it is some-
times to be observed as a coating on fossil fishes, not unlike
the bloom ona plum. The chemical composition of Vivianite
is computed as—

Hydrous Phosphate of Iron

— Protoxide of Iron ot ... 42:4
Phosphoric Acid Ys a4 out
Water ... * “ta. Eaoro

100

Tt is found at St. Agnes, in Cornwall, Bodennais, in the
veins of gold mines of Véréspatak, in Transylvania, and in the
United States. The fibrous varieties are found in basaltic lava
in the Isle of France, near Kertsch, in the Crimea, and Mullica,
in New Jersey. In peat swamps in the Shetland Islands. In
the Isle of Man occurring with the horns of the elk and deer.
Tt also occurs in clay, mud, and peat; and, as in the present
example, upon fossil shells at Bowbridge, near Stroud, Glouces-
tershire.

a

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Te ie eae

115

III. History.—Not incongruous, or unconnected with this
subject, is the history of Vivianite in reference to a particular
line of research, that of Experimental Mineralogy. The credit
of the distinction which this department has earned is mainly
due to the French chemists, and to the subsidies afforded by
the Government to the laboratories in Paris. It has for its aim
the artificial re-production of rocks and minerals; and the
operations involved in the experiments are far too costly to
be undertaken by private workers in general; for instance,
sometimes it means keeping quantities of refractory material
in crucibles up to a constant white heat for weeks together.

A glance at their experience in the way of re-production of
Vivianite,—I translate from a recent publication, “ Synthése
des Mineraux et des Roches, par F. FouguEé et Micuen Levy.”
Paris, 1882, page 257.

Date of the re-production of Vivianite :—

By Brecqueret,in 1861. (Ann. de ph. et ch. t. LIV, p. 149 ;)
and by Drsray, in 1864. (C. r. t. LIX, 1864, p. 40.)

Accidental re-productions of this mineral have been not
unfrequently noticed. Harprncer has described a case that
fell under his notice, in which it was found in the bones of a
skeleton, dug up under the ruins at Tarnowitz. Nicxies found
it in the tibia of a skeleton, obtained from the cemetery of
EKumont; it appeared as a blue substance, which, seen under
the microscope, was recognised by him as consisting of ortho-
rhombic prisms of Vivianite. ScHtosspercER submitted to
chemical analysis a blue substance which had been developed,
in contact with the air, upon some iron nails that were
extracted from the stomach of an ostrich, and he determined
that this substance possessed the composition of Vivianite.

It appears that the artificial re-production of this mineral
is éffected whenever plates of iron are plunged into an aqueous
solution of phosphate of ammonia; the plate becomes covered
with a white crystalline deposit, possessing the composition and
physical properties of the natural hydrous phosphate of iron.

M. Davsrex has described its presence, under the form of a
blue coating, on the surface of ferruginous objects found in the

116

hot springs of Bourbonne-les-Bains. Finally, Vivianite has
been observed in the products of the coal pits of Commentry,
when under combustion, where it appears to be the result of an
alteration of rhabdite (phosphure de fer météorique.) Vivianite
has been obtained by Becqurren by bringing gently into com-
munication two solutions that were suitable, by their mutual
re-action, to generate this mineral. The operation was made
ina V formed tube, one of whose branches contained a solution
of sulphate of copper, accompanied by a plate of copper, to
maintain it in a saturated state, and of which the other branch
of the tube enclosed a solution of phosphate of soda, with a
thin plate of iron immersed. Between these two liquids a
layer of clay was interposed, whereupon a phosphate of copper
was produced, which the iron decomposed slowly, and in measure
of its production, and on the surface of the iron plate a
group of crystals was developed, which had the composition of
Vivianite, and, like it, assumed a blue colour on contact with
the air.

M. Davsree has also obtained in the laboratory of the
College of France, in 1861, some delicate crystals of Vivianite,
similar to those of Commentry, by subjecting to feeble varia-
tions of temperature the amorphous precipitate which is
produced by bringing into contact two solutions, one of sulphate
of iron and the other phosphate of soda, the latter salt being
in excess.

To ForcnuHammer is due the artificial re-production of a
crystallized phosphate of iron which only differs from Vivianite
in being anhydrous. This substance is obtained by melting
together a mixture of sulphate of iron, phosphate of soda, and
chloride of sodium ;—after washing and decanting the residuum
which is formed, a crystalline powdered substance is left, whose
composition is represented by the formula: 38 FeO, PhO’, and
which assumes on exposure to the air the bluish colours of the
natural mineral Vivianite.

The application of the foregoing results to Geology is this—
Vivianite appears to be re-produced in nature after the manner
of secondary minerals, by a double decompositicn. This natural

117

_ procedure is no other than what has been generally employed
a by the chemist in artificial re-productions, and it affords
especially fine crystals when the materials are subjected in the
process to variable but high temperatures.

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The Terrace Gravels of Auchnasheen, Ross-shire.
By W. C. Lucy, Esq., F.G.8.

During the last three years I have stayed some time at
Auchnasheen, and as the Gravel Terraces there are the most
remarkable I have ever seen, and as I am not aware that they
have been described, I propose to give a brief account of them,
as they contribute much to the history. of the Quaternary
Deposits in our own district.

The route to Auchnasheen is via Inverness and Dingwall,
and after leaving the latter Station, on the Firth of Cromarty,
the line rises considerably to Strathpeffer Station, after which
it runs by the side of several beautiful lochs, and at Achanalt,
eight miles from Auchnasheen, it enters a wide valley, with the
lofty mountain of Scuir Veuillin, rising 3000 feet above the
sea on the one side, and a high range of nearly the same
height on the other.

Auchnasheen is about thirty miles from Dingwall, and at
the Railway Station is 505 feet above sea level. It is situated
where two ways branch off; the one by Railway to Loch Carron
and Stromeferry—the place of departure for Skye—and is
second by road to Loch Maree and Gairloch.

On the Stromeferry route, within a mile and a half from the
Station, is Loch Ledgowan, a mile and a quarter in length; and
by the other way is Loch Rosque, a mile from the Station, and
four miles long. The two Lochs are separated by the mountain
of Leonach, 1521 feet high, and their outflow joins at the
Bridge, which is the commencement of the Bran river.

The Terraces begin not far from the junction of the two
streams, and reach nearly to both Lochs. There are three
well marked divisions, of which by far the largest extends for
three quarters of a mile as Ledgowan is approached, and is fully
sixty feet high, with sloping sides. The second is twelve feet,
and the third about six feet; the latter is recent. (See
Section 1.)

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The upper Terrace is covered with peat, varying from two
to eight feet in depth, in which are large roots of trees, and
the second Terrace is also covered with peat, of about the
same thickness.

Section No. 2 shews the first Terrace, at a place where
gravel is taken away for the Railway, to which it adjoins.
The Terraces contain huge boulders of Quartz, Granite, a good
deal of Gneiss, Laurentian Trap, and a large quantity of
metamorphosed, supposed to be Silurian rocks, full of Mica,
of which the mountains near are mainly composed.

The evidence of ice action is abundant, and some of the
large Gneiss rocks weigh fully half a ton, are polished smooth,
with not an angle left. The Crystalline Schists are very Mica-
ceous, often small in size, and, when water worn, assume very
much the appearance of Celts.

The Section No. 3 shews the Terrace at Loeh Rosque, which
is much smaller than that of Ledgowan.

On the sides of both Lochs are remains of Terraces varying
from 50 to 100 feet, or even more, above the highest Section
I have shewn, and at all levels along the mountain sides are
enormous boulders and masses of detached rock.

The question naturally arises—How were these Terraces
formed, and to what period do they belong ?

My impression is that the upper Terrace Gravels date their
origin from the time when icebergs were floating about, tearing
up, when they grounded, huge masses of rocks, which, on the
re-elevation of the land, when snow was able to rest upon the
surface of the ground, would become frozen in winter, and
form land ice. The summers would be short, but the heat
probably great, as is the case at the present day in Norway
and Sweden. The ice would slide forward, carrying with it
not only the débris which the bergs had left, but also tearing
up the rocks on its way to the lower levels of Lochs Rosque
and Ledgowan, and blocking up their outfall.

The water—and, from the melting of the snow, it would
be of far greater volume than at the present time—being
dammed up, would naturally rise to a point to admit of its

120

exit, and in doing so would, in course of time, level the gravels,
leaving the Terraces as we now see them. The outlets for the
water would gradually widen until the barrier was cut down 60
feet, when a period of rest seems to have occurred.

It would appear the outlet again became obstructed, and
another levelling took place, and most likely afterwards there
was a period of rest, which came to an end, and the barrier was
removed, and the third Terrace represents the present level of
the rivers during high floods.

I have mentioned that the Terraces are covered with peat,
and in the second, by the side of the stream leading out of
Loch Ledgowan, Mr Macxenztr, of Auchnasheen, shewed me
four stages of growth where, three years ago, he found, two
feet below the surface, a large fir stock, with traces of fire
action upon it; and, on its being raised, there was a still larger
one under it, not charred; and when it was removed, a third
was discovered; and, on that being raised, a fourth was seen.
In the peat the hazel, birch, and oak have been found.

To allow of so large an accumulation of peat at different
elevations, great time must have elapsed since the Gravel
Terraces were formed; and I think with M. Beneranp, in his
work on “La Seine,” the Quaternary period is coeval with
the Glacial period, which was brought suddenly to a close with
the low-level gravels.

To this Quaternary period the peat deposits immediately
succeed, and owing to the suddenly diminished rain-fall, leaving
the rivers clearer, under conditions favourable for the growth
of peat, which, he shews, never takes place in river valleys
subject to frequent and heavy floods, but always in valleys
where springs abound, and floods are few and not turbulent.

There are few things which strike a traveller more than
the present treeless aspect of this part of Ross-shire, which
was once a vast forest; and I would refer all who take an
interest in the subject of the history of the decay of the Scotch
Forests to chapter 23rd in Mr James Gerxin’s valuable work
on “ The Great Ice Age.”

An Account of an Ancient Jar, filled with Mercury, found in a
Clif near the Sea Shore, at Fetlar, one of the Shetland Islands.
By Dr Tuomas Wrieut, F.R.S., L. & E., and G.S., Lond.,
one of the Vice- Presidents of the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Club.

_ The group of Islands comprehended under the general
name of Shetland, Zetland, Hialtlandia, or the Thule of the
Romans, exceeds one hundred in number, but of these only
between thirty and forty are inhabited. These Islands are so
far separated from the mainland that they have been described
as the skeleton of a departed Continent, which once occupied
this region of the North Sea. They lie 15 leagues north-west
- of Orkney, 47 leagues north of Buchanness (Aberdeen,) 44
leagues west of Bergen, in Norway, the nearest point of
Continental Europe. Two of the Islands, Fair Island and
Foula, are about 20 miles south-south-west, and 117 miles west
by south of the most contiguous part of the mainland; all the
others form a compact group, and lie 50° 48’ 30” and 602 52’
north latitude, and between 52’ and 1° 57’ longitude west from
Greenwich. The Islands are chiefly formed of Gneissic rocks,
associated with other azoic strata, which were disturbed by
eruptive masses of Granite and Syenite. The Gneiss extends
from Scalloway Bay through the centre of Mainland and Yell,
of which it forms the whole to the north of Unst. This
fundamental rock chiefly consists of Quartz, Felspar and Mica.
sometimes with Hornblende added, or with Talc in place of
Mica. It is laminar, and often distinctly stratified, and at
Lambaness is porphyritic. The strike of the beds is west by
south.

The Islands which fall more immediately under our con-
sideration are two of the most northerly of the group, Unst
and Fetlar. In the latter Island the Jar which forms the
subject of our memoir was discovered. Here are zones of rocks

K

122

running in a north-west direction. The south-west coast
consists of Gneiss, followed by a zone of Serpentine and
Diallage rocks, associated with Mica, Talc, Chlorite Schists,
from Urie to Tresta Bay. The Serpentine varies in colour
from yellowish brown to brownish red, and more rarely to
yellowish green. It divides into large irregular blocks of
cubical or rhombcidal forms. Dr Hisserr considers it as
unstratified, although it is obscurely so near its regular beds.
In the Serpentine Chromate of Iron, a highly prized mineral,
from its use in the arts, is very abundantly disseminated in
granular particles, like gunpowder; these at other times
coalesce into masses of various sizes, some weighing as much
asa hundred weight. This valuable mineral was first discovered
by Dr Hisserzt, in the hill of Cruciefield, north-west of Balta,
scattered in loose fragments over the surface. It is also found
in veins, especially near Hagdale and Buness; but detached
masses appear the most common.

The Diallage rock consists of this mineral in small grains,
disseminated in a basis of whitish Felspar; large crystals
also occasionally occur, along with veins of Amianthus, and Dr
Hispsert regards the larger masses as unstratified.

Such is a general review of the Geological structure of
Fetlar, which is five to six and a half miles long by five miles
broad. In one of the bays along the south-west coast there
are low cliffs of loose sandy deposits, which may have been
formed by Eolian agency, blowing the fine sand of the sea
shore inwards, and in process of time producing low sandy banks
along the more sheltered portions of the coast. It was in one
of these banks that this Jar was discovered. A part of the low
cliff had fallen down and left a gap, into which a little girl
passed her hand and detected the neck of the Jar, as related
by the shepherd.

THE SHEPHERD'S ANNOUNCEMENT MADE TO LADY NICOLSON.
Something strange—the other day the lass now stopping at

Burgh Lodge found a strange shaped Jar in the face of the
banks: the Jar would hold about. a. gallon, and it is full of

=_—_—~——

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123

quicksilver. The spray of the sea and the weighty rains had
brought it in sight. It must have been there for time unknown,
and would be about six feet below the surface of solid grass
and sand. On the side of the Jar opposite the handle is
engraved with droll colours the face, head and shoulders of
some great man, as of a King, and the other three sides have
medallions ornamented with figures in relief of all colours and

shapes.
Hayden Court, 13th Nov., 1882.
Dear Sir,

Ido not think I can add much to what I have said about the place
where the Jar was found, but I have made an outline in small of the whole
Island, and a larger of the particular spot. It is remarkable that the sea
boundary of the coast'both south and north of this is rock, with exception
of the sandy beach in this recess, also the bank, which is its boundary.
About six feet above the sea level, even at high water, is also sand, covered
with a greensward quite different from the soil of. that in its vicinity, or
indeed of the Island generally, which is founded on primitive rock-stone,
abundant everywhere, with a rather fertile soil. The dotted lines are about
the space that is sandy—the spot near where I suppose the Jar to have been
found ; the crooked line a brook, that loses itself in the sand ; the outside
line the park, of about 100 acres, in which our house stands, with landing at
the other recess; the faint lines high and low water mark. It is just possible
that the sea has receded—may have been a deeper bay ; that must be remote
indeed. As to the silver ship there is record of probably early in last
century ; that was quite on the other side of the Island, almost six miles
distant ; I have marked it Hilinabretta. Whether this was carried by hand
or sea to the place where found I leave to wiser heads.

And am, dear Sir,
Yours respectfully,
ELIZA NICOLSON.
Dr Wright.

THE JAR.
Common stone ware was first imported into England from
Cologne in the 16th century. In one of the Lansdowne MSS.
mention is made that in the year 1581 “the potts made at

Cullein, called drinking stone potts, were first imported into

England by Garrer Tynes, of Aken or Acon (Aix-la-Chapelle,)

who had previously supplied the Low Countries.” As this ware

was imported from this region the name “Grés de Flandres”
K2

124

was applied to it. The stone pots with a bearded mask on the
neck, known as greybeards, are mostly of Flemish make. A
vessel of this kind was dug up thirty years ago on the site of
the old gardens of Westminster Abbey; it was in height 8}
inches and in circumference 16} inches. The shape was
_ elegant, but the earthenware coarse, and of a mottled ruddy
brown cast, and the design rudely executed; under the neck
of the Jar was a grotesque mask, and a medallion enclosing
the arms of Amsterdam, the handle was plain and broad.
Another Jar was found at Lincoln in the reign of James I.,
which is also a greybeard. These vessels were called “ Bellar-
mines.” The Jar before you is doubtless one of the class of
greybeards, and is a very fine specimen of the “‘Grés Cérame”
of Bronentart. The earlier specimens of this ware appear to
have been introduced into this country from Flanders, about
the beginning of the 16th century. The earliest document
relating to the importation of such useful and cheap vessels as
the Flemish stone does not go back farther than the reign
of Exizasera, as shewn from MSS. in the British Museum,
in a petition from one Wii.1am Simpson, addressed to Lord
Bureu.ey, to be allowed to import *‘ the drinking potts made
at Cullein into this Realm of England, and sell them to any of
Her Majesties subjects,” for up to this time Garret Tynes
had held the monopoly. The date therefore of the greybeard
now before you may be assumed to be about 1600.

Consult Josep Marryart, “History of Pottery and Porce-
lain, Medizeval and Modern,” 2nd ed., 1857.

Dimensions.—Height eleven inches and one half, circum-
ference round the belly two feet two inches; it contained the
estimated one hundred weight of mercury, of the quality of
that in the sample bottle, sent with the Jar for accurate
determination, according with my request.

The question of how this Jar of Mercury found its way to
Fetlar remains a mystery. There is a story told that a silver
ship was wrecked, long ago off, the opposite coast of the Island,
but there is nothing authentic on record relating to the event
that Lady Niconson could discover.

as

125

[have given capital photographs of two views of the Jar,
~ now in Hayden Court, which will not only be valuable in our
_ “Transactions,” but may lead to more light upon the subject
_ should this Paper fall into inquiring hands ; the photographs
are permanent, so they will not fade.

On the Green Colouring Matter of Animals, and Recent
Researches in Symbiosis. By Auten Harker, F.L.S.
Read 12th December, 1882.

My object in bringing this very interesting question before
the Club is to place on record some few observations, and
experiments bearing upon it, which have been made, firstly, by
my friend Mr W. H. Hottanp, partly at my suggestion, and
secondly, by myself, in the Biological Laboratory of the Royal
Agricultural College.

It has long been known that the bright green colouring
matter of plants which, though composed of several distinct
colouring matters, is called collectively Chlorophyll, is not
confined to the Vegetable Kingdom, but occurs also in certain
Animals. PrissttEy is said to have obtained oxygen from
Euglena viridis, whence it was argued that Huglenz were plants;
but the first accurate observations were made by Max Scuuntze
on a green coloured Rhabdocele Turbellarian, Vortex viridis.
I shall refer again presently to this worm in connection with
some of my own observations. The list of animals which do
contain this colouring matter is gradually being enlarged as
our knowledge of the minute forms of life extends. Ray
LanxesTER has recently given a list (Q. J. M.S., 1879) of all in
which it had been detected up to that date. This list includes
an Infusorian, Stentor Miilleri, several Radiolaria, Spongilla,
Hydra, Anthea, several worms, and a Crustacean.

In some of these the colouring matter is localized in con-
spicuous granules, in others in much finer granules, while in a
third group it is apparently diffused.

To this list it seems not unlikely that many Infusoria will
be added when they have been obtained in sufficient numbers
to give reliable results. I propose to add Euglena viridis to the
list, probably several other species, if not all the members of

:
3 .
i
/
;

127

the genus, and for reasons which it is partly the object of this
Paper to give.

Several Stylonichide, Phacus, and Ophrydium are invariably
coloured green, and probably only await the examination
suggested to be likewise added to the list.

Sorsy has made a most careful examination of Spongilla ;

- he found that the green colouring matter was not a simple one,

but could be separated into a blue and a yellow colouring
matter, in which he found several other substances, Xanthophyll
principally. These were determined by their characteristic
bands on spectroscopic examination, their solubility in alcohol
ether, and castor oil; and their dichroism.

This is precisely what we know the so-called Chlorophyll of
plants to be. What, then, we may ask, is the function of this
Chlorophyll, in animals ?

In 1878 Geppss, working at Roscoff, found a marine plan-
arian, green in colour, Convoluta Schultzii, which, on exposure to
direct sunlight, gave off oxygen gas as much as 45 to 55 per
cent. The green cells further contained starch in abundance.

With these preliminary facts regarding the question, I now
submit a few personal observations.

In a lecture on the Huglenidae which I delivered to the
Natural History Society at Stroud, some short time ago, the
subject of which was the animal nature of those organisms, I
suggested, knowing I had several ardent microscopists in my
audience, that a search for pure gatherings of Euglena viridis
should be made. If such could be found I pointed out the
interest which would attach to a series of experiments similar
to those made by Sorpy on Spongilla, and that, in addition, the
action of sunlight on the animal and the determination of the
gas or gases evolved should be carefully noted. This suggestion
produced a speedier result than could have been expected.
Very shortly after Mr W. H. Hortanp sent me a sample of a
gathering of Euglena viridis, exceedingly rich in specimens,
and asked me to say whether it was pure enough to satisfy us
that any results it might give could fairly be attributed to that
organism and none other.

128

A very searching examination shewed that the sample did
notcontain any other organisms than Huglenidae, chiefly E. viridis,
but with a few of H. deses and Phacus triqueter. Mr Hotuanp then
proceeded to the examination of the bulk of the gathering,
which had, I believe, been obtained from an old tub of rain
water in the vicinity of Stroud. He extracted the colouring
matter with alcohol, ether, and also with castor oil, and
obtained by spectroscopic examination the characteristic bands
of the green colouring matter of plants. He went a step
further than this—he separated out from the alcohol solution
the yellow colouring matter Xanthophyll, one of the constitu-
ents of the compound colour Chlorophyll. Although I had
only a small quantity of the gathering, I proceeded to the
examination of the evolved gases under the action of light,
and, by an experiment used in the examination of plants,
determined the evolution of free oxygen.

I searched diligently for starch, but without success, the
so-called amylaceous bodies of Savirte Kenr giving no starch
re-action. We were unable to obtain a further supply of the
animal in such a pure state, so our further researches were
postponed. We might have proceeded to separate out the
varieties of Chlorophyll, but quite enough had been done to
prove that the colouring matter which gives the characteristic
brilliant green to Euglena viridis is identical chemically and
spectroscopically with the Chlorophyll of plants.

Some five years ago I noticed that on bringing a basin of
tank water into a room, and placing it in a window, the
Euglenz which the water contained collected on the side of the
basin on which sunlight was falling, and on arranging the
incident beams by means of the window blind, I found that
the animals speedily moved into the direct rays, a green tint
marking out the particular spot where the animals were con-
eregated from the rest of the surface of the water.

I now refer you to certain views regarding the presence of
the green coloured bodies or granules in some of the animals
alluded to, as well as to certain yellow bodies which are simi-
larly found within the tissues or structures of other animals.

P
:

129

One of the best known of the marine Radiolaria is Collozowm,
within the sarcode of which are distributed a number of
yellow cells. These have been remarked on by many observers,
among others by Jonannes Miuurr, Huxtey, the Herrwies
and Hicker. The latter, taking them for secreting cells,
found starch in them which confirmed his view that they had
a nutritive function. Crenxowsx1 first advanced the notion
that they were parasitic algae. Dr Branpt, of Berlin, the most
recent investigator, after one or more preliminary papers,
published last year, in the proceedings of the Philosophical
Society of Berlin, a paper on what he terms the “‘ Zusammen-
leben” or Symbiosis of Animals and Algae.

He has made experiments on the green bodies in Hydra
viridis, Spongilla, Stentor; i.e. on some of the animals I have
already described as possessing Chlorophyll coloured granules.
He has crushed out these green bodies, has found they are not
uniformly green, he finds a nucleus in each, and on these
grounds he comes to the conclusion that ‘the Chlorophyll
coloured bodies are not parts of the tissues of the animals
bearing them, but that they are ‘“‘independent organisms.”
He further contends that they are capable of carrying on an
independent existence, and that it naturally follows that the
green colouring belongs not to the Hydra or Spongilla, but to
plants which live within them. He names them Zoochlorella
and Zooanthella.

GerppEs in the meantime, in ignorance of Branpt’s paper,
pursuing investigations into the nature of the yellow and green
cells, contends too that these are algae, with walls of true plant
cellulose, and asserts that the evolution of oxygen from the
animals he has studied is due to the plants living with them in
this novel association. There is, it is sought to be established,
a mutual interdependence between the two organisms; the
vegetable cell contributes nutriment to the animal; on the
other hand, the waste of the animal’s tissue contributes food to
the plant; in addition, the evolved oxygen of the plant is
beneficial to the animal.

My interest in this question was much increased by finding,
in March last, four specimens of a brilliant green Rhabdocele

130

Planarian in the tanks of my laboratory. I found the contents
had been obtained by the gardener from the pond in which the
aquatic plants are grown in our botanic garden. I have no
doubt it was the Vortex viridis of Max Scuuttze. I placed two
of them in distilled water, and another in pond water carefully
filtered. The fourth I kept for microscopic examination. The
pair in distilled water lived for 24 days, the one in the filtered
water was lost by accident after surviving for more than four
weeks. From the remaining one I crushed out the green bodies,
and submitted them to the action of re-agents. It is difficult
to speak decidedly on one experiment with such minute sub- 3
jects, but I am persuaded that starch is present in the cells,
but further persuaded that they do not resemble any form of
algae I have ever seen, either amongst the hundreds of speci-
mens of this or any other pond water examined by me, or in
any description of algae seen by others.

I shall look out with great care for other specimens of
this Planarian, and submit to you any further observations that
may be made by us. It will be manifest that much further
observation is needed before we can come to the conclusion
that this form of symbiosis is an established fact.

Ne ———

Hock Crib, Fretherne. By W. C. Lucy, F.G.S.
Read Feb. 27th, 1883.

In May, 1853, the Rev P. B. Bropiz read a Paper “ Remarks
on the Lias at Fretherne, near Newnham, and Purton, near
Sharpness, with an account of some new Foraminifera dis-
covered there; and on certain Pleistocene Deposits in the
Vale of Gloucester; and which was printed in Vol. I of our
Proceedings.

He did not give a Section, but called attention to having
found a Foraminifera, which he had submitted to Mr Ruprrr
Jones, who had written to him a note on the subject, and
which was added as a postscript to the Paper.

Mr Jones, without giving a very decided opinion, remarked
‘“‘ Provisionally, however, it may be regarded as a Nummulite,
and, should you see no objection, it may be termed Nummudlites ?
liassica.”

Mr Bropr also referred to the occurrence there of a new
and fine species of the Brachiopod Orbicula Townshend: :
named after the discoverer.

The present Paper will be confined to a Section of the cliff,
with a brief description of some of its organic remains.

The length of the cliff where the Section is taken is 910
yards, and at the S. EH. it extends some distance further,
forming a low bank, covered with bushes.

It shews evidence of fissures or faults, and foldings; a slight
fissure occurs at 523 yards from the 8. E., and another 397
yards further on, and a third, of larger size, at 259 yards.

Commencing at the N.W., and where the beds are best
shewn, and attain a thickness of 44 feet, and are nearly
horizontal,—At this point, when the tides are out, there is a

132

remarkably fine floor of Lias rock seen, extending into the river
fully 50 yards, presenting a clean smooth appearance, much
jointed, forming generally long squares, the straight joints
running north and south, and dipping under the Severn at an
angle of about five degrees. The stone is much denser and
harder than the ordinary Lower Lias beds of the district.

This part of the cliff is a good deal exposed to tidal action,
and I am informed by Mr Cuzeram, of Saul Lodge, that
within the last half century it has been washed away 50 feet.

The bed of stone No. 5 at the N. W. is not quite continuous,.
and at the S.E. falls until it forms a shelf or ledge which
indicates there about high water mark, and No. 13, following
the same course, drops to low water mark.

I am indebted to Dr Wricur for naming the following
fossils :—

Bed No. 5: Ammonites Semicostatus, Pentacrinites tubercu-
latus, pecten, probably textorius, Orbicula Townshendi, Ostrea.
No. 11 is literally made up of a mass of organic remains, and
contains Limas antiqua and Gigantea; Avicula cygnipes very
abundant; Pecten, full-ribbed, Rhynchonella variabilis ; small
Terebratula, spines of Cidaris ; Pseudo-diadema (Rotatum) with
two plates and many long spines; Pentacrinites tuberculatus,
with numerous side arms; Ostrea (small,) Modiola, Cardinia,
Ammonites Johnstoni and Conybeari, Gryphea arcuata, &c., &e.,
and some fossil wood.

In No. 13 I found three very large specimens of Nautilus
striatus, encrusted with oysters.

I submitted several pieces of the beds to my friend Mr
Tuos. Suarrer, of Evesham, who has studied the Foraminifera
of the Lower Lias, and he failed to find a true Nummulite. In
No. 5 and 13 he found several Foraminifera, Involutina liassica.

Pentacrinites occur in No. 17, and are to be found in nearly
all the beds.

No. 15 is full of Gryphea arcuata, and they are abundant in
No. 5, and indeed are met with throughout the Section.

On reference to the Note-Book in my possession belonging
to the late Mr Joun Jones, I find he has given a general

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133

Section of Fretherne, made in 1857, and mentions having
found Ammonites angulatus. In the numerous visits I have
made to the cliff during the last two years I have not met with
one, but my impression is that Ammonites are not so abundant
as they were when I first visited the cliff, which would be
about that time; and I see in my notes that in November,
1859, I found angulatus.

After visiting the splendid Section of Rhetic at Westbury,
which is capped with Lower Lias, (the Ostrea Liassica bed)
Fretherne is very interesting, as it shews beds rather higher
in the series, and lower down the Severn at Purton, near to
Sharpness, is a low cliff, much worn away the last few years,
which comes in due order just above Fretherne.

The Rev P. B. Bropre describes Fretherne as near to
Newnham; and so it is, but the latter is on the other side of
the river. The best way to go to Fretherne is from Gloucester
by steam boat to Saul, from which it is not more than a mile
to walk.

Near there is Barrow Hill, from the summit of which is one
of the finest views in the district, as it commands the hills on
both sides of the Severn.

Annual Address to the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club, read on
the 23rd April, 1884, by the President, Sir W. V. Guise,
Bart., F.L.S., F.G.S.

GENTLEMEN,—

Another year has fled, and we are again called together to
ascertain our position in the past, and to make arrangements
for the future.

I have the pleasure to report that the condition of the Club
is in all respects satisfactory. Our meetings last season were
well attended, and resulted in much interest and instruction,
both from our rambles in the field and from the quality of
the papers read at our evening meetings.

The Financial Statement by our valuable Treasurer will be
received with hearty satisfaction, showing as it does a very
large balance—something like £100—to the credit of the
Club.

Our numbers are well maintained. We have lost by death
during the year Srr Samuret Martine, J. D. T. Nisiert,
and R. B. Hate; and by resignation, H. Euwes, and L.
WInTERBOTHAM.

The Annual meeting of the Club was held at the
BELL HOTEL, GLOUCESTER,

on Tuesday, 24th of April, 1883. The chair was taken at 2 p.m.,
when the President read his Annual Address; after which
the usual business, including the election of officers and the
fixing of field meetings for the ensuing season, was proceeded
with. The President, Vice-President, Secretary, and Treasurer
were re-elected. The Treasurer showed that the financial con-
dition of the Club was favourable, but remarked that the list of

136

arrears was still very heavy. It was resolved that in future no
issue of the Society’s “Transactions” should be made to
Members in arrears with their subscriptions.

At the request of the President, Professor Harker read a
Preliminary Note “on the Development of the Frog,” made
during the past term in-the Biological Laboratory of the Royal
Agricultural College at Cirencester. The eggs were taken early
in March, at the time when the glutinous coating showed that
they were but newly spawned. Experiments were also made
with eggs taken from the gravid female, with a view to
artificially fertilising them. These had to be further worked
out. Specimens of the eggs from the separate lots were taken
daily, and hardened for section-cutting. The external appear-
ances each day were noted, and these, on the completion of the
paper, would be compared with the internal changes revealed
by sections. The points to which special attention had been
given were the segmentation of the yolk, the appearance of the
notochord, and its subsequent development; the growth of the
external branchice and their subsequent absorption, the opening
of the mouth and anus, the appearance of the eyes, the growth
of the limbs, and the change in character of the intestines
Several interesting experiments were stated to be still in pro-
gress on the growth of the Tadpole when supplied with
abundant or limited amounts of food, and on the power of
sight, and dates of increasing susceptibility to light. A short
account of the literature of the subject and a promise of
further results were given.

This Paper was followed by one prepared by the Rev Dr
Smuitue, of Churchdown; and, in his absence, read by the Rev
E. Cornrorp, on the “Occurrence of the Mineral Vivianite in
the Cotteswold.” Towards the close of the previous year, the
mineral in question had been detected by the writers amongst
a number of fossils and other natural objects sent for deter-
mination by a young friend from the neighbourhood of Stroud.
The writer gave a description of the properties and qualities of
Vivianite, to which he appended some historical information
concerning the mineral and its artificial reproduction in the

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137

Government Laboratories of Paris, taken from a recent work,
entitled—“ Synthese des Mineraua et des Roches,” par F. Foque
et Micnet Levy, &c. Paris, 1882.

Dr Wriaeut, F.R.S., exhibited for inspection two beautiful
specimens of fossil crustaceans from the Middle Lias of the
Cotteswold.

The First Field Meeting for the season was held at
CIRENCESTER,

on Tuesday, 22nd May, mainly with a view to examine a
remarkable section of rock, which had become exposed at South
Cerney by a deep cutting on the line of the Swindon and
Cheltenham Extension Railway. The party first proceeded to
the residence of Mr Bravenprr, to examine a collection of
fossils, which had been recently obtained from the South
Cerney Cutting. Dr Wriaeut, after a careful examination of
the fossils, remarked that there could be no doubt that they
were about to see that day a formation which had hitherto
been almost unknown in Gloucestershire, as the fossils proved
to be derived from the “Kelloway Rock,” so called by Wizt1am
Smrrn, by whom it had been originally described as occurring
at Kelloway Bridge, near Chippenham, in Wiltshire, which he .
subsequently found in excavations of the Kennet and Avon
Canal, near Trowbridge, the Wilts and Berks Canal, near
Chippenham, and on the Thames and Severn Canal, near South
Cerney ; so that the father of English geology had, fifty years
ago, detected the presence of the very same formation which
had been laid bare in the railway cutting, and which had
remained so long unknown to local geologists. The following
fossils, characteristic of the Kellovian stage were before them—
Ammonites sublevis Sow., Ammonites Calloviensis Sow., Ammon-
ites Gowerianus Sow., Ammonites Khenight Sow., Ammonites
Herveyi Sow., Pholodomya obsoleta, Phol Terebratula ornithoce-
phala Sow., Rhynchonella inconstans Sow., Gryphea dilatata
Sow., &c. From hence the party proceeded to visit the church
at Siddington, which contains much interesting Norman work.
L

138

On leaving the church, Mr CuristorHer Bowty, of Siddington
House, invited the Members to partake of luncheon, which he
had prepared for them under the cool shade of some umbrageous
foliage, which all enjoyed, as it was both an unexpected and
welcome treat. After luncheon the party drove on to South
Cerney, to visit the chief object of the day’s excursion—the
cutting made through beds of Kelloway Rock; and, certainly,
the appearance which the beds presented was very remarkable.
In the bottom were seen a number of large rounded stony
masses, extending in length through two or three hundred
yards. The ferruginous sand which had filled the spaces
between the stony bosses had been removed, so that the
rounded bosses stood out in bold relief in the line of the future
railway, from which they had to be removed by blasting with
gunpowder—so strange and unusual was the aspect presented
by these rocks that the Secretary was instructed to have a
photograph taken of the scene for the next volume of
“Transactions” of the Club. An attentive examination of
these masses showed that they were concretions of a very hard
calcareo-siliceous material, which had formed around some
organic substances, mostly an Ammonite or a cluster of small
shells. The rocky bosses had been covered by an oyster bed,
which was composed of numbers of Gryphea dilatata Sow, in a
state of decomposition; and these fossils were in a stratified
layer conformable to the rounded bosses of Kelloway Rock.

A visit was next paid to the church of South Cerney, which °

contains some good Norman work in excellent preservation.
In the churchyard is noticeable a stone altar tomb, with two
recumbent female effigies upon it, much weathered and worn ;
but, from the style of the head-dress, probably as old as the
thirteenth century. Some wiseacres, mistaking the veils for
wigs, have pronounced them to be judges, and not more than
two centuries old !

The next point of interest was the deep cutting at Golden
Farm, near Cirencester, in which the clays of the Forest
Marble, capped by the Cornbrash, are finely exposed, the Forest
Marble clay being almost barren, and the Cornbrash crowded

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139

with fossils; but the rock was so hard and cross-grained that the
time at their disposal did not permit of forming a collection.

The Club dined at the Fleece Hotel, Cirencester, after
which Professor Harker gave an account of the chief points of
interest that had occurred in the day’s ramble, and stated that
a series of observations were being made on the beds, which
might become subjects for future discussion.

The Second Field Meeting was held at
MITCHELDEAN,

on Tuesday, the 19th of June. The Club assembled at the
Micheldean-Road Station, where carriages awaited the arrival
of the train from Gloucester at 11.27 a.m. The party at once
drove off to inspect the beds known to geologists as the
Drybrook Section, on which a paper read by Mr Weruzrep
had given rise to some controversy. The “Quarterly Journal ”
of the Geological Society contains a report of this paper, in
which some of the leading geologists took exception to the
views propounded by Mr Weruerep. It was, therefore, with
the object of hearing these explained on the spot that the
fixture for the day had been made.

The beds under discussion are a series of arenaceous shales,
in variously coloured bands of a grey, green and purple
colour, lying between the conglomerate at the top of the “Old
Red” series and the Lower Limestone Shales, at the base of
the Carboniferous Limestone. Ascending the hill towards
Drybrook, these sandy beds occur in that part of the road -
known as the “Deep Cutting.” The first point to be noted
was the “Old Red Conglomerate.” This is composed of
rounded quartz pebbles, known as “ veined quartz,” which are
cemented in a matrix of minute grains of silex and oxide of
iron. Special attention was directed to this Conglomerate,
because of the occurrence of similar pebbles of veined quartz
in the Millstone Grit, which formation occurs some hundreds
of feet above. This conglomerate indicates a complete dis-
ruption of previously existing conditions, and may fairly be

L2

140

taken as indicating the termination of the “‘ Old Red” period,
a period which is believed to represent mainly a fresh-water,
or, in parts, an estuarine condition.

Many years ago, Sir Henry pre 1a Becue and, after him,
Sir AnpreEw Ramsay pointed out that the carboniferous rocks
in the south-west of England rest on the Old Red Sandstone,
which they regarded as constituting the base on which rests
the great carboniferous division. But in Scotland the condi-
tions are different—the limestone does not rest immediately
on the Old Red series, but upon an intermediate group of
deposits, to which the term “ Calciferous Sandstones” has been
given. “Now,” said Mr Weruerep, “if we examine the
sandy beds before us, we shall find that they are very distinct
lithologically from the conglomerate and the sandstones of the
“Old Red,’ and that they occupy a position intermediate
between the latter formation and the limestone shales which
follow.” These calciferous beds, as they occur in Berwickshire,
are thus described in the memoirs of the Geological Survey of
Scotland :—“ The sandstones at the base of the group pass into
a remarkable series of sandy shales in rapidly alternating bands
of various shades of green, grey, blue, and a kind of lilac
colour; ordinary black argillaceous shale is of rare occur-
rence.” It was pointed out that, both in stratigraphical
position and in lithological character, the series of sandy beds
in the Drybrook section, correspond closely with the Calciferous
series of Berwickshire.

Dr Wricut strongly supported Mr WeTHERED’s views, and
read a letter from Professor Gerrxiz, written in reply to a
request from the Doctor that the Professor would examine the
section by Messrs Jonzs and Lucy in the published “ Trans-
actions” of the Club, which elicited from the Professor the
reply that he recognised “ the closest resemblance between the
beds below the carboniferous limestone, of Drybrook, and those
which we call the Calciferous Sandstones in Scotland.”

Passing upwards to Mr Bain’s quarry, the party found them-
selves in the Lower Limestone Shales, in which the beds
were crowded with fossils, abounding in Encrinites and

+ » Git -4 ei tb er a) ts eth,

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141

Polyzoa, with Athyris Roiseyi and Rynchonella pleurodon.
Passing over the Mountain Limestone, which is not exposed,
they came to a quarry in the “ Millstone Grit,” a formation
which is considered to define the close of that long period which
elapsed during the deposition of the Mountain Limestone.
Mr WertuHERED here pointed out that there are in the Forest
of Dean a series of beds between the Mountain Limestone and
the Millstone Grit, the lowest of which is a coarse crystalline
rock, locally known as the “ Crease Limestone,” which is over-
laid by a very characteristic limestone, called the “ White
Head,” or “ Lid,” so called by the miners because it covers, or
overlies, the “‘ Crease” limestone, in which the iron-ore mostly
occurs, and is worked at the Edge-Hill mine. To this mine
the party drove by a road which, passing by the Wilderness,
the residence of Mr Cotcurster Wemyss, afforded lovely
prospects over the Severn Valley, the wide river, and the hills
beyond. At the mine, which is worked by the Dowlais
Company, the party was most courteously received by the
manager. Many of the members availed themselves of the
opportunity to descend the shaft—200 yards deep—and pro-
ceeded along the underground workings to the distance of
nearly a mile. Others resorted to the residence of Mrs Gress,
the widow of the late collector of fossils for the Geological
survey, and made some purchases from her late husband’s
stock. But all assembled at the appointed hour of five p.m.
at the George Hotel, Mitcheldean, where a collation of cold
meats awaited their arrival, whence the train at 7.12 conveyed
the members of the party to their different destinations.

The Third Field Meeting was held on Tuesday, 17th July.
The place of meeting was at

FROCESTER STATION,

where carriages were in waiting. Some years previously the
Club had visited Frocester, and a reference to the old Manor-
house and the great conventual barn will be found in the

142

records of the Club at that period; {but as many of those
present were strangers to the locality, it was deemed well that
they should not miss the opportunity of a visit. Mr Lexreu,
of Woodchester, the present possessor of the estate, conducted
the party over the house and grounds. The barn belongs to
the period when the Abbots of Gloucester stored therein their
tithe corn, and it is all that now remains to tell of those times.
The house, which has been largely altered to suit modern
habits of life, is not older than the latter half of the 16th
century, when the Huntley then in possession entertained
Queen Exizaperu, as is recorded in the parish register under
date the 10th of August, 1574, when on her way to Berkeley
Castle. A room was shewn as that in which her Majesty
slept, now completely modernised; but, judging by its size,
situation, and approaches, hardly likely at any time to have
served as a royal bed-chamber. Be that, however, as it may,
the tradition remains, and imparts an historical interest to the
old Manor-house.

The carriages now proceeded to climb the steep ascent of
Frocester Hill, in the course of which beds are successively
passed over, from the Lias in the vale to the lower beds of the
Inferior Oolite, at the summit of the hill. These latter beds,
which are now much overgrown, have been always regarded as
of importance by reason of their presenting an unusually good
exposure of the so-called ‘Cephalopoda bed”—the “ Cynocep-
hala stage” of Dr Lycrtr. The bed is very rich in fossils, of
which a list is given by Dr Lycert in his “ Cotteswold Hills,”
presenting, in this respect, at Frocester Hill, a marked con-
trast to the beds immediately above, which are of a somewhat
crystalline character, and besides their “false bedding,” here
remarkably displayed, are noticeable for the entire absence of
fossils.

Leaving Frocester Hill, the carriages conveyed the party to
Uley Bury, where at a barn by the roadside they found very
comfortable shelter under which to partake of an ample
luncheon, which, by the foresight of the Secretary, had been
brought in a hamper from Stroud. This over, the party

eS a ae

Ss Ss

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zt;

143

divided, some going to examine the well-known tumulus,
while the rest, under the guidance of Mr WrrcneE.t, proceeded
to examine a fine quarried section further on. Here they
found displayed a fine vertical face of oolitic freestones, from
40 to 50 feet in height, in which Mr Wircuet pointed out a
narrow band, but a few inches thick, of “ Pisolite,” which
formed a line of demarcation between the upper and lower
freestones. Descending a few yards along a wagon-road, in
Coaley Wood, they found a man at work with a pick-axe, who
had been set on by Mr Wircuetx to open up a portion of the
underlying “‘ Cephalopoda bed,” which afforded a rich harvest
of Ammonites and a large assemblage of Conchifera. Amongst
the more abundant Ammonites were observed—A. variabilis
@ Orb, A. dispansus, Lyc; A. radians, Rein; and single specimens
only of A. insignis, Schub; and A. Discoidea, Ziet ; were found.
It had been intended to cross over to Cam Longdown, but rain
coming on, this part of the programme was not carried out,
and the party proceeded direct to Dursley, where dinner
awaited them at the “Old Bell.” After dinner Mr WircHett,
on the invitation of the President, proceeded to give some
account of his work at the tumulus, which he had been
engaged in opening in Randwick Wood. The excavations

-showed an oblong horned barrow, with dry walling outside, and

a single wall running down the centre, having two walls
radiating therefrom at different angles, and at some distance
from each other. The small end of the barrow had at some
time been quarried for stone, and the tradition runs that the
workmen came upon a human body covered by flat stones, after
which they abandoned the work. Outside of the dry walling,
the workmen employed by Mr Wircuent came upon portions
of four or five human bodies, heaped confusedly together,
which, from the fact that they were deficient of their due
proportion of heads and limbs, were adjudged to have been at
some time moved from their original place of deposit and re-
buried. Mr Wrrcnet. stated that he had already expended
about £5 on the work, whereupon the Club agreed that the
expenditure of an additional £5 should be sanctioned, and

144

that Mr G. B. Wirts should be associated with Mr Wircuretn
in the further work of excavation.

This brought the proceedings to a close, after which a long
and cold drive of nearly ten miles was needed to carry those
whose destination lay in that direction, to the Stonehouse
station, on the Midland Railway.

The Fourth Field Meeting was held on Tuesday, 14th of
August. The appointed place of meeting was the

NOTGROVE STATION,

on the Banbury and Cheltenham line of railway, where the
party found carriages in waiting. Attention was directed to
the cutting at the station, which shows the Oolite Marl and
overlying Ragstones, resting upon Freestones at the base of
the section. The carriages thence conveyed the party in the
direction of Fox Hill, with a view to examining the “ Hawling
Lodge Fault,” which is described in Hull’s memoir of the
country round Cheltenham as being “ one of the most persistent
faults of the district, traversing the country for a distance of
at least seven miles from the Lower Lias of the Vale of
Winchecomb to within a short distance of Bourton-on-the-
Water. The evidence of this fault may be well studied at Fox
Hill, where the Freestones of the Inferior Oolite will be found
coming against the Fullers’ Earth.” After a short delay at
this point, the carriages moved on. Passing through the
village of Naunton, they presently struck the line of the
“Buggilde Street,” an ancient British trackway, which has
been traced in a direct line from the camp at Salmondsbury,
near Bourton-on-the-Water, to Alcester. It is accompanied
along its course by tumuli on both sides of the way. Halts
were made to examine the beds of ‘‘Stonefield Slate” at
Eyford and at Kyneton Thorns. At Eyford quarries was found
a block of stone, on which were, in relief, two curious cellular
forms several inches in length, on the nature of which none
of those present could throw any light; but opinion was in
favour of their being of vegetable origin. I sent the stone for

le Be ee

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em

145

determination to our colleague, R. E. Eruerinas, F.R.S., who
stated, in reply, “It is one of the Annelid burrows allied to
Scolithus, &c. Some of the so-called plants, Arthrophycus,
Buthotrephis, Russophycus, &c., which are Annelid burrows, and
casts in the Paleozoic series, are quite the same.” At Kyneton
Thorns the upper beds have been largely worked for roofing
slates by the Romans, of whom tracesare found in old workings
and all over the adjoining ground—indeed, wherever the ground
is moved, pottery, coins, and interments are discovered. The
interments are numerous, both by cremation and inhumation,
and indicate that there must have been a large settlement on
the spot. In an adjoining pasture field, Mr G. B. Wirrs had
caused some excavations to be made on the lines of a building
of which the outline of the walls was traceable under the turf
of the meadow. It proved to be a building of large size,
measuring 280 feet in length by 212 feet in width. In front
extended a corridor 17 feet 6 inches wide. It is difficult to
determine to what purpose a building of so large dimensions
could have been appropriated. Whether Roman or not there
was nothing to show; but it was generally assumed to be a
Roman work, and in connexion with the adjacent quarries.
Leaving this—from which they were driven by a sharp storm
of rain—the party proceeded to the village of Condicote,
passing on the way Cow Common, with its numerous barrows,
described by Professor Roxuestone and Canon GREENWELL.
The church at Condicote proved to be well worth a visit. It
has been a very pretty little Norman church, much altered at
different times, but still preserving a very ornamental western
doorway and chancel arch. Near the village are traces of an
early circular entrenchment, the vallum of which is now nearly
levelled, and will soon be undistinguishable. How rich is all
this district in signs of early occupation! Such is the camp at
Eubury, which was next visited. This camp is described and

figured in Vol. VI. of the “Transactions” of the Cotteswold

Club, by the late G. F. Puaynz, in his valuable pape: on the
* Ancient Camps of Gloucestershire.” It is strongly fortified,
and is remarkable for having an outwork so situated and so

146

limited in extent as to be at the present time a complete
puzzle. The time at the disposal of the Club did not admit of
long delay, and the order was given to proceed to Stow, where
dinner was awaiting them.

After dinner Mr G. B. Wirts read a paper on the explo-
ration of the Randwick tumulous. After describing the
structure of the barrow, Mr Wirts showed that their search
had been rewarded by the discovery of a chamber filled with
débris, at the bottom of which was discovered the remains of
at least eight individuals ; but it was evident that the chamber
had been at some time rifled, and its contents scattered—
probably in Roman times—for, along with portions of rude
hand-made pottery, was found a piece of a vessel which had
been turned on a wheel, and part of a Roman horse-shoe. Mr
Wirts considered this barrow to be of earlier date than that
at Uley Bury, but later than that at West Tump.

This terminated the proceedings of the day, and the party
returned from the Stow station by the train at 5.34 p.m.

The First Winter Meeting of the season was held in the
Lecture Theatre of the ;

SCIENCE SCHOOL AT GLOUCESTER,

On Wednesday, January 16th, when a paper was read by Mr
W. C. Lucy, F.G.S., on “The Birdlip Section, with some
observations on the recent boring for water there, by the
Gloucester Corporation.”

On the table were displayed some grand antlers of the great
sub-fossil stag (cervus elaphus var: strongy loceros of Owen) ; one
pair of noble dimensions from the bed of the Severn, near
Purton, doubtless derived from the ‘ Forest’ bed; and a single
antler, much worn, found during the excavation of the New
Docks, at Sharpness.

In illustration of Mr Lucy’s paper, were displayed upon
the wall some carefully-drawn sections of Birdlip Hill, taken
at five different points, which had afterwards been brought
into one vertical section of 20 beds. “The sands which form

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147

the base of the section are found at the height of 833 feet, the
highest point they are known to reach in the Cotteswold range.
These are succeeded by the well-known “ Cephalopoda bed,”
and in seven feet the “ Pea Grit”? occurs, and extends about
30 feet, when the beds become covered up with detritus; the
Lower Coral Bed is then met with, containing, on the authority
of Mr Tomes, the following corals, Chorisastrea rugosa, Latime-
andra Davidsoni, Donacosmilia Wrighti, Thamnastrea Terquemi,
T. Defranciana, Oroseris concentrica, Theocoseris polymorpha, &c.
To this bed succeed 70 feet of Freestone, upon which rest
the “ Oolite Marl,” and the “Middle Coral-bed,” the latter
assuming a dome-like form, which is capped by 20 feet of other
beds, the upper of which contains Clypeus Ploti and Terebratula
globata. Mr Lucy compared the section with others in the
neighbourhood of Stroud, in which the beds intervening between
the “Sands ” and the “ Pea-grit’ are much more developed.
He likewise pointed out the absence of the “ Gryphite ” and
“¢Upper Coral Bed,” so well shown at Leckhampton and Stroud.

Mr Lucy’s notes on the borings undertaken at the instance
of the Corporation of Gloucester, with a view to procuring a
supply of water from Birdlip, are of especial interest, and not
the less so that the project has for the present been abandoned.
There were four bore-holes made, the first of which was sunk
at a distance of 1630 feet from the Painswick-road in the upper
or “Clypeus” bed of the Inferior Oolite. In this water was
tapped at a depth of 195 feet. No. 2 is 1000 feet from No. I.,
with the surface of the ground 30 feet higher; water was found
at 186 feet. No.3, which is below the escarpment, was an
experimental boring undertaken at the suggestion of the En-
gineer in the belief that a “fault” existed which would give
a supply of water at a point much nearer to the present reser-
voirs at Witcombe ; but the operation was abandoned when a
depth of 56 feet had been reached, as it became evident that
the sinking was not through beds in situ, but through a mass
of tumbled oolite. No. 4 is at the edge of the escarpment, and
is 630 feet from No. 2. The water was tapped at 190 feet, and it
rose at ence 10 feet, when it attained a permanent level. It

148

was found in plotting the above sections to scale, that a line
drawn through the points in the several bore-holes Nos. 1, 2,
and 4, at which the waters assume a permanent level, was a
continuous straight line, with a flatter gradient than that of
the strata passed through, from which it was assumed that the
water had a common source.

Mr Lucy acknowledged how much he had been assisted by
Mr Reap, the City Surveyor, in the information he had given
to the Meeting.

The Second Winter Meeting for the season was held in the
Lecture Theatre of the

SCIENCE SCHOOL AT GLOUCESTER,

On Tuesday, 5th of February, when two papers were read,—
the first by E. Wrerueren, F.G.S8.; the second by E. Wircnet1,
F.G.S. The subject of Mr Weruerep’s Paper was “On the
occurrence of the Spores of Plants in the Lower Limestone
Shales of the Forest of Dean, and in the Black Shales of Ohio,
in the United States of America.”

Mr WerHerep commenced by making reference to a paper
which he had brought under the notice of the Club “ On the
Lower Carboniferous Rocks of the Forest of Dean.” In it he
had described an argillaceous bed, to which he had given the
name of the Rhychonella plewrodon bed, because of the abundance
of that fossil found init. At the top of this is a bituminous
layer, a few inches thick, in which he detected a number of
minute yellow discs. On visiting Drybrook last summer he
came across some black shales below the Rhychonella pleurodon
bed, and in these he detected the same yellow bodies before
noticed. A microscopic section of the shale was procured by
first hardening the material in Canada balsam, which revealed
the fact that the shale was full of vegetable remains.

About this time, Dr Dawson, of Montreal was visiting
Cheltenham, and showed to Mr Weruerep some spores of
plants found in the Black Shales, of Ohio, United States;
these Mr Weruerep recognised as similar to those found in

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149

the Forest of Dean. The Spores exhibited by Dr Dawson had
been discovered by Professor Epwarp Orton, Columbus, Ohio,
and had been referred to in a paper read before the American
Association for the Advancement of Science in 1882. The Pro-
fessor on being written to kindly sent specimens of the shales.
The Ohio Black Shales rest upon the uppermost Devonian
Rocks, and represent a thickness of from 250 to 350 feet. The
deposit is considered by the American Geological Society as a

. dividing line between the Devonian and Carboniferous for-

mations, they are of special importance as yielding mineral
oils. It is important to note that the horizon of the beds, in
Ohio, which yield the Black Shales, are precisely similar to those
of the Forest of Dean Shales, which yield the vegetable remains.
Identically similar spores have been found by Dr Dawson in
the Erian formation of Kettle Point on the Huron, which
strata are assigned to the Upper Devonian. The facts are
remarkable, inasmuch as they point to a similarity of conditions
which ushered in the great carboniferous period, and closed
the Devonian over widely separated areas; conditions which
allowed of the accumulated growth of vegetation in dense
masses, and of close relationship in type. As respects the
spores themselves, there is a close resemblance between those
from the Forest of Dean and those from America; some are
certainly of the same genera if not of the same species. From
the Forest two varieties can be made out; those from Ohio are
usually of larger size. Some of those from Drybrook show
triradiate markings, which is a fact of importance in determining
their connection with existing forms of vegetation. In con-
sidering this latter point, it would be rash to class them
definitely with existing plants, having consideration of our
limited knowledge of the vegetation which yielded the spores.
We have then, in the Forest of Dean, the same class of
vegetation which by decomposition has yielded the well-known
stores of mineral oil in America, and the question naturally

- arises “Is oil to be got from the Forest of Dean Shales?” The

Ohio Shales give from 8 to 22 per cent. of organic matter. A
fair example from Drybrook gave 17 per cent., 6 per cent. of

150

which was volatile. At Drybrook the Shales will not exceed
20 feet thick; the Carboniferous rocks, however, in that
district thin out, but there is little doubt that similar Shales of
greater thickness will be found in other districts, probably at
Clifton and in South Wales.

Professor Harker said, Mr Weruerep had kindly asked
him to examine his slides, and they had together made a study
of the remains of plants in the carboniferous beds generally.
The minute spore-like body shown with the triradiate mark-
ings, was, in his opinion, a microspore of some plant closely
allied to Isoétes, An examination of the spore forms of the
higher Cryptograms shows that those of Isoétes are the only
ones at all resembling Mr Werueren’s specimen. With regard
to the larger bodies, with processes and markings indicating a
spinous habit, if we asked ourselves what modern plants do
they resemble ? We were reminded of Coleochaete, which grow
in our aquaria, many of which are spined. Mr Harxer said
that Mr Weruerep had been devoting much labour to the study
of carboniferous sections, and his researches, especially on the
vegetable organisms in certain coal seams, were shortly to be
made public, and would further bear out his views as expressed
to-day.

Mr Wrrcnett then read some remarks on the occurrence
in the neighbourhood of Stroud, of the palmate Newt (Ltsso-
triton palmipes.) Mr Wircneti began by referring to a paper
by the late Jonn Jonus, which will be found in the 3rd Volume
of Transactions of the Cotteswold Club, p. 157,in which is
given a list of the reptiles of the county, where the Palmate
Newt is mentioned as occurring, on the authority of Mr Baxzr,
in the adjoining county of Somerset, but as totally unknown to
the writer. Mr Wrrcuett stated that one of his sons found
the Palmate Newt in ponds near Stroud, and on looking up its
natural history learnt that it was comparatively rare. Further
observation, however, has led to the discovery that, so far from
its being rare, it is in the Stroud neighbourhood the most
common of its genus, in the proportion of 10 to 1. By some
naturalists the Palmate Newt is regarded asa variety of the

151

common Smooth Newt—but the difference was shown to be
considerable, both in form and habit. The fact of the com-
parative abundance of this Newt near Stroud was confirmed
by Major Fisuer from his own observations.

On the table were placed, in illustration of the two preceding
papers, four microscopes, with slides of the sporangia treated

of by Mr Weruezep ; and two tumblers containing water, in

each of which was a living specimen, male and female, of the
Palmate Newt.

The Third Winter Meeting of the season was held at the
SCIENCE SCHOOL IN GLOUCESTER

On Tuesday, 11th March in the present year, to hear a paper
by Professor Auten Harker, of the Royal Agricultural College,
Cirencester, on “A remarkable exposure of the ‘Kelloway
Rock’ in a recent cutting near Cirencester.”’

In the month of May, in last year, a day was devoted toa
visit to the very remarkable beds of which the Professor’s paper
contained a detailed report. About a mile and a half from
Cirencester, near to the village of South Cerney, the new line
of rail from Cirencester to Swindon cuts through a hill, which
proved to contain within it certain beds of stone of extreme
hardness, which have given to the cutting considerable local
celebrity, while to geologists it has presented a problem of no

ordinary interest. “Taking,” says the Professor, “the maxi-

section :—

mum exposure,” the following is a detailed description of the

ft. in.

Surface Soil... Acs ce fee Brie ceed Lae a)
Drift Gravel, varying from . 50 oe .. 209
Clay _ ... rae as ae = “ch ss 3 O
Red Sand : madec 0
Shelly Band (Gryphten ‘dilatata) 0 6
Ferruginous Sandstone soko VeR6
Calcareous Sandstone seen Geees
Yellow Stratified Sand enter

Pees Cana

Clay (so far as exposed)

152

The characteristic fossil of the “red sand” and underlying
“shelly band” is Gryphca dilatata. The remains are in poor
condition, and crumble on exposure to the atmosphere. The
fossils of the “ Ferruginous Sandstone” are not much better.
It is to the band of “‘ Calcareous Sandstone ” that the attention
of observers has been specially attracted; indeed, the interest
of the cutting may be said to centre in that bed.

An analysis of the rock yielded to the Professor the follow-
ing results:

Per cent.
Silica (as insoluble silicates) ... at oe «» 60°74
Calcium Carbonate ... avs aoa Ane «se §=34°35
Ferric Oxide ... ie See wee ae Pree ae S10)
Alumina... ee oe see es oe er 64

In physical character it is of a slaty blue colour, is intensely
hard, and is crowded with remains of animals and plants.
These include five species of Ammonites, many in splendid
preservation. Lamellibranchs belonging to the genera Modiola,
Pholodomya, Myopsis, Isocardium, &c., and two or three species
of Brachiopods. Perhaps the most remarkable remains are
those of plants. Scattered through the rocks are pieces of
wood, varying in size from the merest splinters, to pieces, in
one case reaching 18 inches in length by 3 inches in other
directions. This wood is still in a carbonaceous condition, and
crumbles under the knife or even under the pressure of the
thumb nail. Sections of this wood were exhibited under the
microscope. Another feature of this band of sandstone is its
remarkable coneretionary character. A section shows a series
of concentric coats or shells of regular form round a concentric
nucleus, which was invariably found to consist of either one
or more Ammonites, or occasionally of a great number of
Brachiopods or Lamellibranchs, mixed with bits of wood. The
presence of so much wood points to the proximity of land, and
the condition of the wood supports the theory that the rock
was very rapidly consolidated.

Professor Harxer next drew attention to the special feature
of the cutting which has led to its celebrity. A preliminary
boring made by the contractors did not reveal more than a few

153

inches of the hard calcareous sandstone bed, and it was not
until excavations had proceeded some length that its extent
and thickness were exposed. It was then found that a deep
channel divided this rock into two, exactly on the line chosen
for the railway, and that the channel was filled with sand
easily excavated, in marked contrast to the sandstone rock,
the removal of which proved such an arduous undertaking.
As the sand was removed, the deep channel which it filled was
exposed to view, and its remarkable features at once became
evident. It was shortly after its complete excavation that the
Club visited the section, and photographs were then taken.
These show the sides of the channel (which varies in width
from 6 feet to 15 feet or more) standing in relief; the rock
worn into rounded bosses of various sizes, while in some cases
huge mushroom-shaped masses stand isolated on the underlying
sand. The largest of these is now placed in the garden of the
_ Royal Agricultural College. On the cutting being cleared out,
it was apparent that the sand was very regularly stratified.
The sand, which was very loosely compacted, contains 1 per
cent. of salt. The rock weathers very rapidly. Doubtless some
of the sand which fills up the channel was due to the disin-
tegration of the rock itself. The Professor inclined to the
belief that we have here an old shore line of the Mid-Oolitic
Sea, then slowly sinking, and silting up with its many-coloured
sands.
Drawings of the cutting, a detailed section, microscopic and
other specimens, illustrative of the paper were exhibited.

The Fourth and last Winter Meeting of the season was
held at the

SCIENCE SCHOOL AT GLOUCESTER,

On Tuesday, the First day of April in the present year. Mr
_ Locy occupied the chair, in the absence, through illness, of the
_ President.

Francis Day, Esq., F.L.S., read a paper on “ The Breeding
_ of Fish.” After referring to the difficulties of the subject, and

154

the effect of legislation in promoting the increase of fish in our
rivers and inland waters, Mr Day proceeded to describe the
migrations of fish, the mode in which the ova are deposited,
and the care with which they are watched over by the male
fish. He gave an account of some experiments made in the
artificial breeding of fish, which showed that different species
of the Salmonide may be successfully crossed, but that expe-
rience has yet to ascertain whether the progeny will be sterile
or fertile, stationary or migratory in their habits. Experiments,
he stated, are being assiduously carried out in Scotland by a
single public spirited individual, at his own cost. The United
States Fishery Commissioners have demonstrated how sea fish
can be artificially hatched as readily as those from fresh waters:
while the Fishery Department of the United Kingdom give no
assistance and contribute in no degree to investigate the subject
of fish culture.

Mr Lucy exhibited a large piece of pumice, which fell, red-
hot, on the deck of the Italian barque “‘ Padre Francesco”
during the eruption of the voleano Krakatoa, in the Straits of
Sunda, in the month of August last. The vessel was distant
about three miles from the volcano at the time. This “drop of
the crater” has been presented to the Gloucester Museum by
Mr E. V. Exuis, the Italian Consular Agent.

Mr Lucy then read a Paper on the sinking of a well at
Messrs Roserrson’s brewery, which was illustrated by a care-
fully prepared Section. The well was sunk in the expectation
that at the depth of 200 feet the Rhetic beds would be reached,
but the test of boring, which was made to the depth of 350
feet, showed that at least 80 feet more would have to be passed
through before the Rhetics were pierced. Mr Lucy had been
consulted prior to the sinking of the well, and, in referring to
the error he had made in his calculations, gave his reasons for
believing that the Rheetic beds were nearer to the surface than
they had proved to be. These reasons were founded upon
a knowledge of the surrounding Geological conditions with
reference to the Rhetic beds as established at Highnam,
Wainlode, Elmore, and other points in the neighbourhood.

155

The result of the boring, although very unsatisfactory to Messrs
Rogerson, is extremely interesting and instructive Geologi-
cally. It clearly shows, from the depth of 350 feet having
been reached, that the Lower Lias is probably at this point
400 feet thick. Mr Hutu in his memoir, at sheet 44, states
that under Cheltenham the Lower Lias is supposed to be 600
feet thick, but does not show how that thickness is arrived at,
and states that southward, towards Bristol, the thickness is
only 300 or 400 feet. The boring has givenus more definite
information of the Lower Lias in this neighbourhood, and has
added to our knowledge much that will be of advantage to
future enquirers.

This was the last Meeting of the season, and worthily

__ brings to a conclusion these records of a season’s work of the

Cotteswold Field Club.

2

Randwick Long Barrow. By G. B. Wirts, C.E.

This Barrow is situated on the top of Randwick Hill, within
the entrenchments of an ancient camp. The direction of the
mound is H.N.E. and W.S.W., the highest portion being
towards the E.N.E. The west end has been destroyed by
quarrying operations, leaving the present mound only 113 feet
in length: the original Barrow (comparing it with others in the
neighbourhood) was probably 185 in length. The two external
walls were exposed to view in the quarry at the west end. In
July 1883 Mr Wircuett and myself directed the labourers to
excavate along the outside of the southern wall, commencing
at the exposed point in the quarry. After driving a trench
about eight feet, we came upon several skeletons laid close to
the external wall: these skeletons, though in rather a composed
mass, had evidently been buried in the usual sitting posture—
this was proved by the skulls and knee-pans (patellas) being
found together, and the heel bones and heads of the femurs.
An examination of the bones found at this point showed that
there were nine femurs, and only portions of four skulls, while
a medical gentleman declared there were eleven arms—rather a
curious combination! With the human bones were a few of
the lower creatures, including a peculiar jaw, supposed to be
that of the missing link! The southern wall proved to be very
much perished, and it was only occasionally that its line could
be traced. The northern wall was traced for some distance
from the western quarry, and, as far as the examination con-
tinued, the wall was intact. On a future day Mr WrrcHEeLi
exposed to view the central line of the Barrow; this consisted
of a roughly built wall, in some places 10 to 12 feet in height.
For the first 30 feet from the west end this wall faced towards
the north; it then came to a transverse wall; for the next 40

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feet it faced the south; there were also four transverse walls,
two of which seemed to form an enormous buttress about 15
feet wide. I quite agree with the late Professor Rotuzston,
who, in describing similar walls in one of the Swell Barrows,
attributes them solely to the neolithic labourer who constructed
the Barrow, built up for his own convenience, and that they
are very misleading to modern Archeologists, having no con-
nection whatever with the chambers. But from the excellent
manner in which the walls at Randwick have been exposed,
they prove very valuable in showing the interior construction
of a Long Barrow, and I feel sure there is no other example in
the county so well calculated to throw light on this point. On
August 9th we directed the men to excavate at the south-east
end, to try and find the external wall at that point; but it
may surprise those who have not personally conducted the
exploration of a Long Barrow to hear that we excavated a
trench three feet wide right through the wall without seeing
it! I have seen this done so often, though under the keen eye
of Professor Rotieston, that it was no surprise to me. After
vainly endeavouring to find this wall for several hours, in a
regular downpour of rain, we attacked the central portion of
the E.N.H. end, and were soon rewarded. After excavating to
a depth of three feet we noticed the top of a large stone;
coming to the conclusion that this was the main entrance, we
continued at this spot in August 10. Following the line of the
large stone (placed on end) discovered the previous night, we
soon found that we were excavating in the interior of the
principal chamber, placed exactly in the centre of the east end
_ of the Barrow (E.N.E.,) that, in fact, we were inside the
_ boundary wall, which we had hitherto failed to discover at this
point. The chamber consisted of five upright stones (as the
plan will show)—

ft. in. ft. in. in.
No.1lbeing 5 6 long 3 8 high and 9 thick
a a a) Sy ped | aay rr 10 u
yp S- ow 4 Op Sy Bie ae 7 " 9 "
eA | 2. oo ew y ae | a 2 " 10 "
(TR mv ao. w 7 Ai ee u 4 y

158

The first thing of interest we found in this chamber, about
one foot from the surface, was a piece of Roman pottery, with
the mark of the potter’s wheel, and a well-formed rim. Shortly
afterwards we found a second piece of Roman pottery. Con-
tinuing our excavation in the chamber, which was completely
filled with Oolitic rubble, we found, two feet from the surface,
half of a Roman horse-shoe, and shortly afterwards we came
upon a few scattered human bones. On nearing the bottom
of the chamber, we found several pieces of very old British
pottery, without the mark of the potter’s wheel, three flint
flakes, and an extraordinary confused mass of human bones,
broken up into very small pieces, and utterly defying the
greatest expert in giving any opinion as to the direction in
which the skeletons were originally laid. Possibly the most
remarkable incident connected with this find was that there
were no femurs at all, and only a very few small portions of
skull. With the human bones were a few of the lower
creatures, including birds. The contents of the chamber were
minutely examined, in the hope of finding the usual flint
arrow-head, or heads, but without success.

Now how are we to explain the presence of metal (a horse-
shoe) and Roman pottery in what undoubtedly was the principal
chamber of this Long Barrow? Is their presence to upset the
theory that no metal, or pottery with the mark of the potter’s
wheel, has ever been found, or ever will be found, in connection
with the primary interment of a Long Barrow? Certainly not;
and I venture to put forward the following suggestion as the
true explanation. As stated at the beginning of these notes,
the Barrow lies within the entrenchment of an ancient camp,
and this camp was without doubt occupied by the Romans
during their occupation of the country. Finding in the middle
of their camp a huge mound, and very probably the large stones
of the chamber exposed to view, what would be more natural
to the Roman Archeologist than to employ some of his spare
time in examining the mound, as we do in the present day ?
That the Romans excavated in this chamber I have no doubt
whatever; and we have probably to thank some far-seeing

ea ee

159

Roman officer for the fact that they left their cards! in the
shape of a horse-shoe and some pottery, to inform future
Archzologists that they had already explored this portion of
the Barrow. I further maintain that these Roman Archzolo-
gists were guilty of removing the skulls and femurs. And
what would be more natural? They found that the skulls
were of a remarkable type—clearly defined dolicho-cephalic—
and they no doubt presented them as great curiosities (just as
we do now) to the museums of Glevum and Corinium! The
Romans, however, were kind enough to leave the knee-pans
(patellas.) and these numbering 14, show that there must, at
any rate, have been originally seven skeletons in the chamber.
Having completed our examination of the chamber, and
being of course convinced that we were inside the surrounding
walls, we next commenced a vigorous attack to bring them to
light, nor were we unsuccessful. At a point 20 feet south of
the main chamber we found the wall very irregular and difficult
to recognise, so much so that one of the party suggested
getting a dictionary, and turning to the word wall, read its
proper definition; but, tracing out the line of our supposed
wall on its proper curve to the main chamber, we were at once
rewarded by finding it intact, leading in a gentle curve right
up to the entrance stones. Alas! we had already passed
through this wall in two places without seeing it, but moving a
few stones in the exact line which our friend, 20 feet south,
pointed to us, revealed the wall in good preservation.
Reverting to the skeletons found near the exterior wall at
the S.W. corner, some have supposed that they were subsequent
interments of a much later date, but, looking to the decided
dolicho-cephalic character of the skulls, and the sitting posture
in which the skeletons were placed, I am inclined to agree with
Professor Rotteston and Canon GREENWELL, that it was the
custom to bury slaves and retainers as near as possible to those
of their chiefs, and if they were unable to get leave to place
them in the Barrow, they placed them as near as possible to
the external wall, just as we found them. No less than twelve
skeletons were found by me in this position at the West Tump

160

Barrow (Cranham.) Five flint flakes (rather large ones,) with
several pieces of old British pottery, were found in the centre
line of the Barrow, about 12 feet from the western quarry, on
_ the original surface of the ground, and with them many burnt
stones. I should mention that many of the bones in the
chamber were much burnt, some of them being quite black, and
many stones showed signs of fire, though many were unburnt.
No signs of the stain of manganese were found.

Taking everything into consideration, I should say that the
interesting Long Barrow at Randwick is of earlier date than
those at Uley, Nympsfield and Notgrove, and later in date than
the ones at West Tump, Lower Swell and Eyford. .

By direction of the owner, Mrs Barrow (an odd coincidence,)
the walls and chambers have been covered up to protect them
from damage.

SECTION OF BIRDLIP.

Some Remarks on a Boring for Water near Birdlip, for the City of
Gloucester. By W.C. Lucy, F.G.S. Read Jan. 16th, 1884.

About two years since I had occasion to refer to our
Proceedings, fully expecting to find a complete Section of
Birdlip, as I was anxious to compare it with some other Sections
of the Inferior Oolite of the Cotteswolds.

Although there were several references made to the various
visits of the Club, with general remarks on the beds, yet no
details were given, and I therefore resolved to make a Section,
in which I have been much aided by two of our members,
Messrs Hetrs and Foster, who fortunately reside at Birdlip,
who have accompanied me many times, and who have, at their
leisure, kindly checked and confirmed my observations.

After two unsuccessful attempts to give a horizontal Section,
I determined to adopt five vertical Sections, made at places
easily accessible, and afterwards to shew them in one.

Taking the contour of the hill the distance from

No. 1 to No. 2/is Le Pe: ... 120 yards
pees sume woke Pod A wh. foe Tho,
97 B55 95 bo, Minnie. slates) TBBi: .,,
3” 4 5, 39 5 55 . 155 ”

» 5tothetopof the hill, neartheInn 275 _,,
Making a total length of 740 yards, and shewing a dip to
the south-east of 27 yards.

Section No. 1
Is made at the north-west promontory, which juts out into the
valley, round which is the combe, looking towards Crickley,
and it attains an elevation of 897 feet.

162

Commencing with the top of the Liassic sands, which are
here 833 feet above sea level—the highest point they are met
with in the Cotteswold range, and which in a subsequent paper
I shall have occasion to notice,—the Cephalopoda bed is well
shewn, resting upon the sands, full of broken Belemmnites, and
forms a very hard compact stone, from its being cemented
together by iron, in addition to lime, and contains Myacites,
Ceromya and Pholadomya, Gresslya, Belemnites, &c.; and the
next bed, No. 2, bears a general resemblance to it, but has a
more sandy or arenaceous appearance, while No. 3 is more of a
limestone, still hard, and at its base shows, in the parting, Pea
Grit. 4,5, 6 are hard bands of stone, with Pea Grit gradu-
ally increasing, until, at the top of No. 6, it is abundant; in 7
and 8 it becomes large and well cemented together; and 9
and 10 are shelly limestones, much broken up, and 11 is a
rubbly bed, capped with soil.

Section 2

Is taken at Messrs Heirs and Fosrer’s quarry, and is 130 feet
in a direct line from No. 1, and shews a dip in that distance
of 7°65 degrees. The beds all contain Pea Grit largely dis-
seminated, and I consider them the equivalents of.3 to 8
inclusive.

The difference in thickness of the two Sections is two feet,
No. 1 Section being 29 feet, and this 31 feet. The lower
bed contains numerous large Oysters, Limas, Pentacrinites,
Hinnites, &c.; and in the bed above Bryozoa and Serpule are
abundant, and Terebratula simplex and Pygaster semisulcatus
occur.

Section 3.

A short distance further on, above Messrs Heirs and FosrEr’s
lawn, is the bed of 14 feet shewn in the Section as covered
up by detritus,* and upon which rests the lower Coral bed of

* Most likely a white limestone, similar to what occurs under the coral
bed at Crickley.

CENERAL SECTION

sri as inosa.__ Rh :inconstans
‘liegt Hae faa i dia

SSS ee
——

ee

Lower Coral Bed. Chorisastrea rugosa
Latimeandra Daveisont Donacosndia Wright
Thamnastrea, Terquems.. Th:Defranciana
Oroserts concentrica. Monttivalha

bbl.
lly en
limestone i tid broken mye
Pett Gril, ery (

PeaGrit, ides rartrubily

xu N@QN +>

oon oO Moceo

AT See te\Compact limestone wilh morePea Grit
2 Compact lunestone with lees Pea Gret
\ Hard Shelly C ee limestone wwh

ae PaaGret near the

wn >

Cophalg ae
aN asa I 83sfeet shore Seale

SCALE &ITICH =1 FOOT

t BIRDLIP
aa)
MESS"? HELPS & FOSTER’S LAWN

N92
MESS® HELPS & FOSTER'S QUARRY

i]
ae
\

}
}

163

15 feet, containing the following Corals, which have’ been
kindly named for me by Mr Tomes :—

Chorisastreea rugosa | Thamnastrea Defranciana
Latimzandra Davidsoni _ Oroseris concentrica
Donacosmilia Wrighti Thecoseris polymorpha
Thamnastrea Terquemi Dimorpharea, Lycetti

and an undetermined Montlivaltia

And above this is a Fissile Limestone of 14 feet.

Section 4.

This is a deep quarry of 60 feet of Limestone, with a clear
division near the centre; and I have failed to find any fossils,
and the beds dip 9 degrees to south-east.

Srction 5

Occurs in the plantation, and is not easy of access, and the
top of the beds of the Freestone No. 4 are hard and smooth,
presenting here a glazed appearance, resembling the action of
ice, without, however, any grooving, and the dip is diminished
to 2 degrees.

The Coral bed of the Oolite Marl is a lenticular mass,
assuming a dome-like form, and the lower part has the appear-
ance of having been forced up, throwing off at the time a kind
of bastard Freestone, which is unfossiliferous.

In the numerous visits I have made to this Section, and
also after many diligent searches by Messrs Hetpes and Foster,
only one Terebratula fimbria has been found, and that was a
very imperfect specimen.

Now a most marked change takes place, as the next bed is
a very hard stone, full of fossils, mostly much broken up.
I was able to identify Terebratula globata, Rhynchonella spinosa,
and inconstant, casts of Trigonias, Tancredia ; large Oysters,
Gresslya, Fish palates, &e.

Again is a great lithological difference, as the bed above
is a hard coarse, yet fissile Limestone, destitute of organic
remains.

Then comes No. 20, the Clypeus plottii bed, with Terebratula
globata, Pecten lens, &c., and it extends along the hill, and

164

is well seen at the top of the road, close to the mile stone,
below the inn.

In comparing Birdlip with the important sections in the
Stroud area, so well described by Mr Wrircuett, the principal
point of difference is the thinness of the beds above the
Cephalopoda, which is represented by seven feet. I am not,
however, sure that there is not a bed of about six feet, which
intervenes between 2 and 3, and No.3 perhaps may be regarded
as transitional before the Pea Grit is markedly shewn. I have
failed to satisfy myself how it is that the Pea Grit appears to
be in greater abundance in the partings of the beds, and I have
sometimes thought that if the harder parts were more exposed
and became disintegrated, it would be more observable in them.

That the Pea Grit should be developed to a greater extent
at Birdlip than Stroud, is what might naturally be expected, as
Birdlip has a greater resemblance to the sections north of it
than those to the south.

The Upper Freestone I believe to be represented by what I
have termed the Bastard Freestone, in No. 17, which is shewn
to be forced up by the Coral bed of the Oolite Marl.

The scarceness of Terebratula fimbria is remarkable, as it
is a shell so very abundant in the Oolite Marl of the district ;
and it is difficult to account for the absence of those very
marked beds—the Gryphite and upper Coral bed, both so well
exposed at Leckhampton and Stroud.

The hard unfossiliferous grit, No. 19, I recognised as the
same bed pointed out to me recently by Mr Wrrcwett at
Rodborough Hill.

Birdlip shows greater evidences of large fissures and greater
dislocations than any section I am acquainted with in the
Cotteswolds.

This may arise from two causes—perhaps from both—the
one from an unequal contraction and shrinkage of the beds ;
the other, the Liassic sands having been washed away, causing
cracks and’ faults in the beds upon which they rested.

I hope at some future time to give a supplement, with a full
list of the organic remains.

-

70A9] DAG NOVY OOS UNO

OG ial 240° 19724

TANNA L FO INIT NO NOILIFE. an

165

ON A BORING FOR WATER NEAR BIRDLIP

In 1881 the Corporation of Gloucester, under the advice of
Mr Bareman, determined to apply to the Local Government
Board for power to take water from Birdlip; and a series of
borings were made, which I inspected from time to time with
Mr Reap, the City Surveyor, to whom I beg to express my
acknowledgment for the Sections, which I have had enlarged,
and much valuable information, which I have availed of in this
short Paper.

Mr Bareman’s plan was to construct a tunnel three feet
six inches high by three feet broad, with a rise of one in 500,
and to commence about 240 feet below No. 4 bore hole. The
boring No. 1 took place, as shewn in the diagram, 1630 feet
from the Painswick road.

Unfortunately a diamond borer was not used, and the hole
being made by percussion or stamping, it was impossible to
ascertain accurately the character and thickness of the beds
passed through before the sands were reached.

The boring commenced in the upper bed of the Inferior
Oolite, and I found Clypeus plottii on the surface.

Mr Reap believes the following Section is approximately
correct :—

- ft. in.

Soil ... bd = ee - eG

Rag Stone . ie aa S: eet Di 6
Freestone... “ a Bey hee -. 105 0

Oolite Marl ... oe ee oo See) END)
Freestone and Pea Grit... ise eee UO
Cephalopoda bed... ace ass p 8 0

195 0

At this depth water was found, and
the boring was continued through

Lias Sands ... see aE < oa) THSeLO

Sand and Clay a4. oss =e ..-) (130

Sand ... aa —- Sat Ses aa

Sand and Clay ar on le su One)

Making a total of =e .. 303 6

166

No. 2 is 1000 feet from No. 1, and with the surface of the
ground thirty feet higher; and the water was tapped at 186
feet, and the boring proceeded until it reached 274 feet.

No. 3 boring was undertaken at the suggestion of Mr
Bateman, in the hope that a fault existed, which would enable
a supply of water to be obtained much nearer to the existing
reservoir at Witcombe. Ona reference to the map it will be
seen itis below the escarpment, and at a lower level by 202
feet than No. 2, and 214 below No. 4.

Water was reached at 45 feet, but the boring was only
continued 11 feet, as it was evident, although the sands were
there, the sinking was not through beds im situ, but a mass of
tumbled Oolite. ;

No. 4 is at the edge of the escarpment, and is 630 feet from
No. 2, and at an elevation of 12 feet higher, and 42 feet more
than No. 1.

The water was tapped at 190 feet, and at once rose 10 feet:
its permanent level. The total boring was 300 feet.

Mr Reap informs me that in plotting the above Sections to
scale he found that a line drawn through the points in the
several bore holes Nos. 1, 2 and 4, at which the water assumed
a permanent height, was a continuous straight line, with a
flatter gradient than that of the strata passed through; the
water was therefore assumed to have a common source.

It is interesting to compare the thickness of the several
borings, until the sands were reached, with the Section I have
made of the Birdlip escarpment.

The beds passed through of the latter een 177 feet,
and assuming I am right in adding six feet between No. 2 and
3, would make 183 feet.

Now water was reached at No. 1 bore-hole at 195 feet

2? »” ” 2 ” 186 ”
” ” ” 4 ” 190 ”
and at the latter assumed a permanent level at 180 feet.

Owing to the opposition to the scheme, and the Local
Government Board being uncertain whether they had power to
sanction so large an undertaking, the project, at least for a
time, has been abandoned.

SECTION ALONG CIRENCESTER ROAD

ay
ny £24

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Lower Lias Clay
and

Limestone

= THE PROPOSED TUNNEL

P heel ye TI Ni eS

NS

SPORES OF PLANTS
IN LOWER LIMESTONE SHALES

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Figs. Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.—Spores of Plants from the base of
Lower Limestone Shales, Drybrook, Forest of Dean, x 262

diameters.

Figs. Nos. 6, 7.Spores of Plants from the Black Shales of
Ohio, United States, x 262 diameters.

Fig. No. 8.—“ A large Spore of Tasmanites punctatus, which has
been ruptured, x 50 diameters; shows double contour
and dotted surface.” Copied from Mr E. T. Newron’s
paper, Geol. Mag. 1875, Plate X, Fig. 2.

Fig. No. 9.—“ Portion of T. punctatus, Australian White Coal
x 250 diameters, to show the dots and extremely fine
granulation of the intermediate portion of the surface.”
Copied from Mr E. T. Newron’s paper, Geol. Mag. 1875,
Plate X, Fig. 9.

On the Occurrence of Spores of Plants in the Lower Limestone
Shales of the Forest of Dean Coalfield, and in the Black
Shales of Ohio, United States. By Epwarp WETHERED,
EGS. Ee:

Last year I had the honour of communicating to this Club
some observations on the Lower Carboniferous Rocks of the
Forest of Dean.* In that Paper I showed that the Devonian
Period was brought to a close by a change of conditions which
caused a remarkable series of many coloured sandy beds and
shales to be deposited, and that these gradually passed up into

shales and limestone. I further showed that in parts of Scotland.

there were similar beds, though of greater thickness, which
are known as the Calciferous Series; and I ventured to suggest
that the strata which rests on the Old Red Conglomerate, and
extends up to the base of the Mountain Limestone in the
Forest of Dean, were the equivalents in time of the Scotch
beds. There was, however, one physical feature wanting in
our own district; it was the occurrencet of seams of coal and
bituminous shales in the upper portion of the Calciferous Series
of Scotland.

During the examination of the argillaceous bed at the bottom
of the Lower Limestone Shales in the Forest of Dean, to which
I gave the name of “ Rhynchonella pleurodon bed,” I noticed
some small yellow discs, the largest of which measured about
‘006 of an inch in diameter. As to what these objects were, I
was for a time only able to suggest their being the spores of
plants. Some time after the discovery, Dr Dawson F.R.S., of
Montreal, was kind enough to show me some spores which

* “Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.,” Vol. XX XIX, p. 211.
+ This feature, however, is confined to certain districts.

a

169

occur in the “Black Shales” of Ohio, U.S. On looking at
these I at once recognized them as bodies similar to those
met with in the Rhynchonella plewrodon bed of the Forest of
Dean. ”

That the spores of plants occurred in the “Black Shales”
of Ohio was first noticed by Prof. Epwarp Orton, who referred
to them in a Paper read before the American Association for
the Advancement of Science, in 1882. I, therefore, wrote to
Mr Orron, who very kindly responded ‘by sending me samples
of the material in which they occur. But before I proceed
further I must explain the geological position of the Black
Shales of Ohio, and they will be found to have an interesting
relation to the beds in the Forest of Dean in which the similar
spores can be detected.

Above the uppermost Devonian rocks in the State of Ohio
comes a development of Shales of very considerable extent.
In some parts of the State these deposits are divided into two
divisions by a greenish blue shale, known as the “ Hrie Shales.”
To the lowest division the name “‘ Huron” has been applied,
and to the uppermost “Cleveland.” This division appears to
be uncertain, and towards the west the Erie Shales disappear.
The American Geological Survey have drawn the line between
the Devonian and Carboniferous rocks at the Erie Shales, but,
5 owing to this shale not being constant, Professor Orron points
q out that the line cannot be drawn, and therefore the strata
- becomes debatable ground.

‘Now the “Black Shales” of Ohio are in the same position
_as the shales at Drybrook, in the Forest of Dean. The Rhyn-
_ chonella plewrodon bed of the latter locality is no doubt of true
_ Carboniferous age,—the occurrence of the shell which gives the
name is sufficient to determine that point. But below come
other shales, followed by sandy beds, which rest on the Old
_ Red Conglomerate.

_ The Ohio beds are important as a source of mineral oils ;
_ they are bituminous, and contain from eight to twenty-two
per cent. of organic matter. To account for mineral oils
yarious theories have been advanced. The vegetable origin has
~ ww

170

been suggested by Dr Sterry Hunr,* but at the same time Dr
Honr is disposed to assign the origin in some instances to the
decomposition of animal remains. He says—‘‘ When, however,
it is considered that the lower forms of animals contain con-
siderable proportions of a non-azotized tissue analogous in its
composition to that of plants, and that even muscular tissue,
plus the elements of water, contain the elements of cellulose
and ammonia, it is easy to understand that vegetable and
animal remains may, by their slow decomposition, give rise to
similar hydrocarbonaceous bodies.” Dr Newserry, referring to
the same subject, writest— Waiting the demonstrative solution
of the problem, which patient and exhaustive study will doubt-
less sometimes furnish, I offer as a possible explanation of the
peculiar feature of the Huron Shale the suggestion that its
carbon was derived from vegetation which lined the shores and
covered the surface of a quiet and almost land-surrounded sea.”
A similar view has been expressed by Professor AnprEws;{ but
it was not until the spring of 1881 that any confirmation of the
theory was obtained, when Professor Orton discovered in the
Huron Shales, 1000 feet below the surface, ‘‘ minute trans-
lucent discs, resinous in appearance, and unmistakably organic,”
occurring in great numbers, (Figs. No. 6 and No. 7.) Later on
further proof was produced, by the discovery of these bodies in
the ‘Black Shales” of Columbus, Ohio, and finally they were
found to occur throughout the ‘ Black Shales.”

The Shales in the Forest vf Dean are very insignificant com-
pared with thosein Ohio. They are at the top interstratified with
limestone, and towards the bottom with arenaceous beds; the
total thickness would not exceed twenty feet. Spores of plants
occur, however, in the Shales (Fivs. 1, 3, 4, 5), and though
they are not so large as some from America (Figs. 6, 7), there
is great similarity between them, and a microscopic section
of the beds shows them to be full of decomposed vegetable
remains. The Shales are bituminous; a fair average sample

* “ Chemical and Geological Essays,” p. 179.

+ No. I. Vol. “Geol. of Ohio,” p. 156.
{ ‘“ Report of Progress of the Ohio Geol. Survey for 1869,” p. 65.

ns .
ie a se ee

171

’ gave on analysis 17:15 per cent. of combustible material, 6°85
of which was volatile. I have no doubt that the so called
bituminous character of the Shales is due to the vegetable
matter contained in them.

As to the spores,—In the Forest of Dean, at Drybrook,
two varieties are found, one of which shows triradiate
markings (Fig. 2.) The largest of the two varieties do not show
these markings, and vary in size from 004 to ‘006 of an inch in
diameter. Though much decomposed, some of them still
retain the outlines of a wall and, as in the case of Nos. 4
and 5, show minute rings or dots on the surface. I
was at first inclined to regard these markings as spores,
and the main object as a sporocarp. On examination,
however, of a perfect specimen from Ohio, I found the surface
covered with what appeared to be spines, and where these
seemed to be broken off minute discs, with a black mark

-_ in the centre, remained to mark the spot (Fig. No. 6.)

Mr E. T. Newron, F.G.S., of H. M. Geological Survey of

this country, has described* spores found in Tasmanite and

“ Australian White Coal.” I sent him specimens from the

Forest of Dean and from Ohio, and he recognized them as

similar bodies to those he had described. Mr Newron, in his

description, notices the dots on the surface of the spores,
and gives figures of them, two of which I have copied (Figs.

Nos. 8, 9.) Mr Newron says, in reference to them, “‘ When

examined with a power of about 250 diameters, the dots

ean be resolved into minute circles s955 of an inch in
diameter, with a still smaller dot in the centre. It may
be thought that these dots are comparable to the granules
to be seen upon the surface of some of the macrospores of

Flemingites; but the study of transverse sections shows at

once that these dots are not mere surface-markings, for they

ean be distinctly traced as minute lines (tubes,) passing from
the outer to the inner surface.’”’ The second variety of spore
from Drybrook I have not seen described. They are much

* “Geol. Mag.,” N.S., Decad. 2, Vol. IL., p. 337
n2

172

smaller than those before mentioned, and, as I have said, show
triradiate markings.

Next let us consider to what order of vegetation the spores
described are allied. Principal Dawson, F.R.S., of Montreal, in
a Paper entitled* “Spore Cases in Coal,” has mentioned bodies
found in shale of the Eran formation, at Kettle Point, Lake
Huron, to which he gives the name “Sporangites.” Later on
Dr Dawson identifies the spores discovered in Ohio by Professor
OrrTon as similar to those found at Kettle Point. Still later,
in a Paper read before the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, at Montreal, on “ Rhizocarps in the
Paleozoic Period,” he suggests the possibility of “ Sporangites”
being allied to Rhizocarps, but he leaves the matter open for
further investigation. Mr Newton refers, in his Paper to
which attention has been called, to the relation of the spores in
Tasmanite and Australian White Coal to modern vegetation,
and concludes as follows:—‘‘There can be no question as to
the Tasmanite sacs being of vegetable origin, although at
present we do not know the plant to which they belong: their
size and form seem to indicate that they are more nearly allied
to Lycapodiaceous macrospores than to anything else.” For
my own part I prefer to give no opinion beyond that the larger
spores from the Forest of Dean belong to a lower order of
Cryptogamia.

It may now be well just to summarise the geological position
of the strata in which the spores referred to in this Paper

occur. The Black Shales of Ohio, as I have said, are debatable .

ground. The American Geological Survey consider them as
part Carboniferous and part Devonian: the Erian formation
of Kettle Point, Lake Huron, is looked upon as Upper Devonian.
In the Forest of Dean the shales in which the spores occur are
in part certainly Carboniferous and in part debatable ground.
It is clear, then, that in America and in England, so far as the
Forest of Dean Coal-field shows, there must have been a very
similar state of conditions—a condition which allowed of the
growth of allied vegetation.

* “ Amer. Jour. Sci. ” 1871, and “Canadian Naturalist,” N.S., Vol. V.

ee

173

In conclusion, 1 may say that Iam not aware of the spores
described in this Paper having been found in this county
before. Further, that the occurrence of bituminous shales at
_ the base of the Carboniferous Limestone in the Forest of Dean
adds to the correctness of the view I expressed in my
paper last year, namely, that the beds which lie between the
Old Red Conglomerate and the Carboniferous Limestone are
_ the equivalents in time of the Calciferous Series of Scotland.
It is true we have not seams of coal at the base of the

Carboniferous Limestone in the Forest of Dean, but we have
Z vegetable remains and bituminous shales.

On the Occurrence of the Palmate Newt near Stroud.
By C. A. Wircnett. Read by KH. WitcHeix, March, 1884.

In a paper by the late Joun Jones, which will be found in
Vol. III. of the “ Transactions,” page 157, is a list of the
reptilia of this county, in which the Palmate Newt Lissotriton
palmifies is mentioned on the authority of Mr Baxer, of
Bridgwater, as occurring in the county of Somerset; but was
totally unknown to Mr Jonszs, and he mentioned it “to call
attention to its existence, and to stimulate observation on the
part of other members, in order to render our list as perfect as
possible.”

More than ten years ago I found the Palmate Newt in
the ponds near Stroud. It was plentiful in all the smaller
ponds, and much more abundant than the common smooth
Newt; and on one occasion a bucketful of these Newts was
brought to me from a brickyard pool.

It would be interesting to know if Mr Jones had searched
for the Palmate Newt near Stroud and had not found it;
but had found the common Newt, because it would go far to
show that the one was increasing and the other disappearing.

It is said by some Naturalists that the Palmate Newt is a
variety of the Common Smooth Newt, Lissotriton punctatus ;
but the differences are considerable. They are: (1) shape of
the hind feet, those of the male Palmate being black and
completely webbed during the breeding season, the common
Newt having always distinct toes. (2) In the shape of the
tail, that of the male Palmate ending abruptly with a filament
about } of an inch long, projecting from the end; while the
tail of the Smooth Newt tapers evenly to a point. (3) In the
crest, which is not so high as in the Common Newt. (4) In
size, the Palmate being the smallest English Newt known.

175

In colour, it is mottled on the head with gold and olive
green. It varies from a yellow to an olive green on the back

and sides, and white or yellow beneath. The Common Newt

is darker, and of a more leaden colour, and in spring the male
is red beneath, which is not the case with the Palmate. (6)
In habit, the Palmate takes the water earlier in spring, and
leaves it later in autumn than the smooth Newt.

In mild winters the Palmates are to be found in the ponds
as early as the Ist of January, and are often killed by the
sudden freezing of the surface of the water. The smooth
Newt appears about a month later. In point of numbers, in
any favourable piece of water near Stroud the Palmates are at
least as ten to one of the Smooth Newt.

As regards Newts in general, they may be termed nocturnal,
as it is only in the night that they travel on land. It is clear
that they are not confined to the immediate neighbourhood of
ponds or ditches. When they leave the water in autumn, they
take to damp places, and are often found under stones, as

mentioned by Mr Jonrs. The Triton will move up to the tops
_ of the hills, where it sometimes finds very comfortable quarters,
_ often taking possession of an ants’ nest, and devouring the

ants. I have found young Palmates under stones on dry banks
at a considerable distance from any water.

The Tadpole of the Palmate, in common with that of the
_ smooth Newt, often falls a prey to that of the larger Triton ;
_ but I have seen a full-grown Triton choked in an endeavour to
swallow a full-grown Palmate. The common snake readily
eats the Palmate, but avoids the Triton, possibly on account of
the irritant secreted in its skin, which would be liberated

by the fine piercing teeth of the snake.

On a Remarkable Exposure of the Kellaway’s Rock in a recent
Cutting near Cirencester. By Professor Atten Harker,
F.L.S. Read 11th March, 1884. ;

In the valley of the Churn, about 13 miles 8.S.E. of the
town of Cirencester, there is a spur of rising ground, which
extends almost due North and South, and terminates close to
the village of South Cerney. Its greatest elevation is from
35 to 40 feet above the level of the valley ; its western flank is
abrupt, almost steep, eastward it slopes gently to the lower
ground. The new railway from Cirencester to Swindon, has
cut through this rising ground in a direction almost at right
angles to the trend of the spur, a quarter of a mile from its
southern termination. This cutting has exposed the very
interesting section which it is the object of this paper to
describe—interesting, not only on account of the petrological
and paleontological character of the beds which form this
hill, but further, because of certain remarkable physical
phenomena presented by one bed in particular. At the request
of the Club, made on the occasion of its visit to the cutting in
June last year, I have brought the matter forward for the
discussion of the phenomena alluded to, as they appear to be,
so far as I can discover, of a unique character in our local
geology. The petrological features of the exposed beds,
together with an account of their contained fossils, naturally
demand our first attention. The accompanying section is to

(NadvVd SAAMUVH “AON ALVALSATIL o1)

"$881 ONOC ‘AWNUAO HLNOS LV YNILIAO FHL AO MBIA

UWAISTONTYIO ‘AMOI AUN ‘A AT ‘OLOHA

177

some extent diagrammatic, representing a section at right
angles to the cutting, and gives the maximum exposure :—

ft. in.
1.—Surface soil ... & ane aa Poe lees
2.—Drift gravel... ao < ...varying from 2 9
3.—Clay (Boulder Clay) ; ree ae or 0
4,—Ferruginous sandstone, fossiliferous rete 0
5.—Shelly Band (Grypheea dilatata) Le wer OPNG
6.—Ferruginous sand (dark brown) fossiliferous ... 3 6
7.—Calcareous sandstone cide .. O5ft.6in.to 6 0
8.—Yellow sand a bis wae mo can) OL 0
9.—Clay of this was exposed at W. end of cutting 3 6

The drift gravel (2) is the ordinary flat angular gravel of
the Cotteswolds: in the valley to the west of the small hill
now described, it reaches a depth of six to eight feet, and
forms the sub-soil of all the low grounds from Cirencester Hast
and South-Eastward.

The clay (3) is undoubtedly Boulder Clay. It yields only a
few broken shells and pebbles.

The beds (4 and 6) appear to be identical in character and
composition, but are divided into two by an intervening band
(5) of soft shelly marl. This Ferruginous Sandstone (4 and
6) is very dark in colour, soft and crumbling on exposure to the
atmosphere. The fossils are all in a very poor condition.
They break up readily along with their matrix into a fine
shelly sand. On this account we have not been able to
make any collection of what would be called Museum specimens,
though we have obtained very fine Belemnites hastata, Phola-
— domya deltoidea, and Pecten lens. Soon after the exposure of
_ the beds my friend, Mr F. Bravenpsr, of Cirencester, whose
collection of Kellaway’s Rock fossils the Club had the oppor-
tunity of inspecting, recognised this Ferruginous Sandstone as
being identical with an exposure of the Kellaway’s Rock at
_ Ashton Keynes, some miles further south. The beds there,
_ though apparently the same in mineralogical character, and in
_ their fossils, have the advantage of not crumbling on exposure,
and Mr Bravenper has a large number of fossils collected —
there, including some species we have not yet recognised at

178

South Cerney. This rock was first called ‘‘ Kellaway’s Stone”
by Witi1am Suite; and, in his work “Strata Identified by
Organized Fossils, containing prints on coloured paper of the
most characteristic specimens in each stratum,” 1816, p. 28;
he says—“ The excavations of the Kennet and Avon and
Wilts and Berks canals exposed new outcrops of this stone,
which I afterwards found on the Thames and Severn Canal,
near South Cerney.”” No doubt he here refers to the cutting
which would be made through precisely the same knoll, or spur
of rising ground, when the canal which cuts through it not far
from our railway cutting, was made. There is no trace now on
the banks of the canal of the particular strata, as they have
long been covered by soil and vegetation; but, from the
measured levels there can be no doubt that the beds extend
northwards, beyond the canal. I have evidence of their exten-
sion southward to the end of the spur.

The thin shelly band (5) is composed almost entirely of
Gryphea dilatata, a characteristic Lamellibranch of the Oxford
Clay. These again crumble on exposure, and good specimens
are obtained with difficulty.

The bed of Caleareous Limestone (6) is the particular
stratum of this section to which the attention of students has
been specially drawn. The interest of the cutting may be said
to centre in this one bed. For that reason I may be excused
for giving a more detailed description of it. In physical
characters the rock is of a light bluish grey colour, is exceed-
ingly hard and “obstinate,” blunting the chisel of the
excavators, and resisting any forces but those generated by
dynamite or gunpowder. Our colleague, the Rev Dr Smrtue,
has kindly made a careful microscopical examination of the
rock, and favours me with this report of it:—

“The small piece of Kellaway’s Rock was subjected to
CorpIER’s process, which method answers very well for simple
rocks (see ZIRKEL, die mikroskop. beschaff. &c., p. 7). The
result comes out thus :—Quartzose grit, containing grains of
dirty-coloured quartz, mingled with other grains of hyaline
pellucid quartz—both of them are crystallised in the usual

SECTION OF THE KELLAWAY'S ROCK
AT SOUTH CERNEY

3 inch to the foot

Surface Soil

Gravel

Clay

Sandstone
Gryphea Bed

Sandstone

r a

Calcareous Sand

= = = ———_—
SSS
——

Rena ae
USN

v
q), vy \
ay ey y ors \ ay }
: OD eh Res ne M4 shy WN Cia
shee M Se asa tt Sand

TON? :
; "Ht Bye NAN, Vite
ay

ie ale
Ui AYISYAREN,
“ay v Ane

rt YN \

I : is

RiGee:
VA Ka

Clay

179

hexagonal forms and sections. These grains are accompanied
by smaller comminuted grains of the same quartz, which fill up
the interstices, the whole being feebly cemented together with
diffused Carbonate of Lime, &c. Occasionally a few specks of
iron pyrites occur. The carbonates effervesce with the mineral
acids.”

This description corresponds to the analysis made of the
rock in the Chemical Laboratory of the College here, the result
being as follows :—

Sand (silica present as insoluble silicates) 60°74

Lime (Calcium carbonate)... ss s. 34°35
Iron (Ferric oxide) ... tc a9 Be
Manganese and Alumina ... ae aad 64
Chloride of Sodium ... =p Bc a2
Magnesia (as Carbonate) ... j

It will be seen that the term Calcareous Sandstone, which I
have employed is the correct designation of this stone. The
rock varies both in colour and in specific gravity in certain
defined areas, to be hereafter noticed.

The fact that this stratum is highly fossiliferous and that
its fossils are in excellent preservation contributes to the
interest it has excited. We have made at the College three
separate collections of these fossils, and Mr Bravenper has
made an extensive one as well. The Ammonitidae are very
abundant and of all ages, some reaching enormous dimensions.
One I measured was 1-ft. 10-in. in greatest diameter. The
Lamellibranchie and Brachiopoda are in some cases exceptionally
fine. I have one block which consists entirely of Brachiopods
in such preservation that in some which are broken open the
shelly arm-supports are seen encrusted with minute crystals of
calcite, the rest of the interior being still hollow, or only
partially filled in. Our collection contains, already identified :-—

CEPHALOPODA
Cosmoceras calloviense Cosmoceras cordatus
" modiolaris (sub-leevis) Nautilus hexagonus
” Chamousetti Belemnites hastatus
y Kenigi u Oweni

” Gowerianus

180

LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.
Pholadomyia Phillipsii Ostrea flabelloides
” deltoidea Pecten lens
Isocardia mimina Myacites recurva
Unicardium sulcatum u (?)
Modiola bipartita Gresslya peregrina
Gryphea dilatata Goniomyia (?)
u" bilobata
GASTEROPODA.
Natica punctata Pleurotomaria depressa
BRACHIOPODA.
Rhynchonella varians Waldheimia obovata

The plant remains are equally interesting. Scattered
through the whole rock are innumerable pieces of wood, varying
in size from small splinters not more than a quarter of an inch
long, and no thicker than matches, to large masses, in one case
reaching 18 inches in length and three to four inches in the
other dimensions. The wood is still in a carbonaceous condi-
tion. It is true wood. It crumbles under the action of a
penknife, or eventhethumb-nail. With some small pieces picked
out with a knife I was able to make rough charcoal sketches.
This wood is saturated with Carbonate of Lime; on keeping a
bit of it on a shelf in my dry laboratory, the Ca CO, effloresced
out in thin plates, splitting the wood into long thin strips in
doing so. I made numerous endeavours to get sections of this
wood by rubbing it down, but these were unsuccessful. At
length, by soaking in dilute hydrochloric acid, then in alcohol,
turpentine, and paraffin, I was able to cut thin sections with a
sharp razor (longitudinal and transverse sections were exhibited).
I have not seen finer wood sections. The dicolytedonous
character of the tissues is apparent, and a minute examination
reveals the details of the structure of these tissues. We find
abundance of fossil wood in the Forest Marble of the Eastern
Cotteswolds; but I have never met with any which so nearly
retained its original character—certainly none which cuts so
readily with the knife.

Another noteworthy feature of this band of Calcareous
Sandstone to which I wish to direct your attention, is its

ee es

a

181

remarkable concretionary character. This character has been
noticed first in the beds at Kellaway, and elsewhere Lyeu
describes the rock as being lenticular. He further speaks of it
as an arenaceous limestone, which would hardly apply to the
beds at South Cerney.

A clean section of certain portions of the rock shows a series

:
:
J
.
|

of concentric shells more or less regular in form, the central
mass varying in shape from a sphere to prolate spheroids and
ellipsoids. These central masses vary very much in size,
and the successive eccentric shells vary in thickness, and are
sometimes marked off one from another by a different coloration
of the stone. I have taken several measurements of these
eoncretionary masses. Here is one of the largest, an elipsoid :—

ft. in

Longest diameter ies see tag 2

Diameter of central mass BR oh ys
Thickness of first shell... sro Ol coe:

3 5, Outer ,, ... aes Fa O08 8

The line of junction between the central mass and the first
shell, as well as between that and the outer one, was very clearly
indicated by the varying colours of the stones near to the junc-
tion, a deep reddish brown line varying from 4 in. to 2 in. in
_ width, evidently coloured by iron, marking it out.

q Thave had made a determination of the specific gravities of
pieces of the rock taken from the centre of one of these blocks,
j and from the junction of the first shell and its included core.
The result shows that the latter is of a higher specific gravity
than the central portion, the respective determinations being
9-4 and 2:7. This may be explained, as I have suggested, by
_ the greater amount of iron contained in the dark coloured
_ portions. That the successive layers lying without the central
mass are comparable to the layers of a shell is very clearly
_ proved by the fact that on the weathering of broken masses the
central core in many places separates out, and the successive
shells do the same. Lying about in the cutting were numbers
¥ of these regular shaped cores, called “cannon balls” by the
_ workmen, who put aside for me three or four of those which
- nearly approached a true spherical form. Furthermore, the

182

hollow interiors of these shells were of frequent occurrence,
being revealed constantly after new blastings, the shock
loosening and displacing the interior masses.

Another feature of these concretionary masses, which is very
significant, is this: that in every case where the central masses
were broken up, fossils of one or other of the forms mentioned
were found in the centre, apparently forming a nucleus to the
mass. Over and over again I tested this by getting the work-
men to break up the spheroidal cores they had kept for me, and
in every case, without a single exception, one or more Ammo-
nites, or occasionally a pocket of Brachiopods or Lamellibranchs,
mingled with pieces of wood, occupied the centre of the block.
On each face of the cutting, as one walked along, the same fact
was evidenced in scores of examples. When the Club visited
the cutting, Dr Wrieut gave particular attention to this im-
portant fact, and had several cores broken up for his inspection.
One very characteristic specimen (exhibited) from the centre of
such a core, contains several small Ammonites, scores of small
splinters of wood, and a colony of Brachiopods, showing the
internal structure of the test wherever it has been accidentally
broken into.

So far I have confined myself to a description of the observed
facts. I now submit an explanation to account for the remark-
able features of this bed of Calcareous Sandstone. It is this:
That this bed was very rapidly deposited ; that it was deposited
not far from a land surface; that the Ammonitide and other
animals were entombedalive, or at anyrate justnewly killed; that
the bed rapidly consolidated ; that the concretionary character of
the masses of rock is due to the decomposition of the organic
matter of the entombed animals, the products of decomposition
so affecting the enveloping sand and lime, then in a pasty con-
dition, as to lead to an eccentric disposition around the animal
nucleus, and the consequent formation of the shell-like layers. *

* Since this paper was read, my friend, Dr Sm1rHE, has reminded me of P

a description by JUKES of somewhat similar concretionary masses ; and in the
4th edition of JuKEs’ School Manual of Geology, published recently, p. 143,
there is an allusion to similar occurrences.

183

There is, I think, nothing contrary to our knowledge of
physical processes in this hypothesis. It will be seen that the
per centage of lime in the rock is high. We have innumerable
instances of the formation of calcareous beds in relatively very
short periods, due to the precipitation from solution of Carbon-
ate of Lime. I need hardly refer to the classical instance
recorded by Lyrtx of the discovery of a 14th century cannon
embedded in a hard calcareous rock at the mouth of the Rhone.
Again we know from our text books the effect on beds of
minerals which decomposing animal and vegetable matter
exerts. The re-arrangement of the mineral constituents of a
partially consolidated mass by this means is familiar to the
student of Geology. Our.colleague Mr EK. Wretuerep has made a
series of observations on this subject. Suppose the large
Ammonites and other Mollusca and Brachiopoda were suddenly
entombed in a mass of silt consisting of sand and water highly
saturated with Carbonate of Lime. They would speedily be
killed, and decomposition would set in. The Carbonic Acid
(CO,) of their decaying bodies would dissolve the Carbonate of
Lime (CaCO,) in the presence of water, forming the Bicar-
bonate (CaH, 2CO_,) which would again decompose into Lime
Carbonate, water and Carbonic Acid, and the Carbonate of
Lime would bind the particles of sand together in the manner
in which Dr Smrrue tells us he finds this Kellaway’s Rock to
be formed. The iron would probably undergo a somewhat
comparable decomposition by the action of the Carbonic Acid,

_ and be re-deposited as the Carbonate of Iron. The presence of
_ Tron Pyrites is, we know, a feature of most fossiliferous beds
in the Jurassic system.

Other things being equal the diffusion of the gases from
the dead animals would proceed at the same rates roughly,
solution and re-deposition would follow each other, and the
sand would be bound by the calcareous matrix in roughly

_ defined areas, probably comparable to the successive eccentric

shells I have endeavoured to describe. I submit this explana-

_ tion of the phenomena as one which appears to have at least a
: balance of probabilities in its favour.

184.

One or two isolated observations may be added in support
of this view of the mode of origin of the concretionary bed.
The fossil remains are in a very perfect condition, the extreme
hardness of the stone alone is the cause of our specimens being
so much broken. The condition of the tests of the Brachiopoda
is especially note-worthy. The absence of Serpule on any of
the shells is noticeable. In the neighbouring beds of the
Cornbrash almost every shell has the tubes of Annelids formed
on it, and we know the prevalence of the same organisms
throughout the Oolite formations. The occurrence of such a
large amount of wood points unmistakeably to the immediate
proximity of land, and its condition supports the view that the
rock consolidated very quickly.

The bed of sand (8) underlying this Calcareous Sandstone
is exceedingly friable, and not at all fossiliferous, nor does it
contain any of the wood which is so abundant in the upper
bed. Itis slightly bound together, probably by Ferric Oxide.
The bed of Clay (9) was only exposed at a very short distance at
the west end of the cutting, the dip carrying it under the level of
the cutting in a few yards. It is true Kellaway Clay, cor-
responding, I believe, to the clay near Siddington Windmill,
which is worked for bricks.

This description of the various strata does not com-
plete the account of the exposure. I have to ask your
attention to a phenomenon presented by the cutting which has
given it a wide celebrity, and has led to its being visited by
many Geologists and by thousands of casual sight-seers,
attracted by reports of its singular nature. The interest in it
has been intensified by considerations of an economic or finan-
cial character.

The contractors or their engineers, in making a preliminary
boring, failed to meet in any quantity with the characteristic
bed of Calcareous Sandstone (7) to which I have alluded at such
length, and this bed was not revealed until the excavations
for the cutting had proceeded some considerable length. It
was then found that the preliminary boring had passed
through what appeared to be a channel in the rock, dividing

185

it completely on the particular line chosen for the Railway,
and this channel was filled with a fine and easily excavated
_ sand, in very marked contrast to the rock, whose removal proved
“an exceedingly laborious undertaking. The contractors, Messrs
_Warson, Son, and Warson, have very kindly allowed me to
_ examine the Section of their preliminary boring, which it may
be useful to give :—

ft. in.
1—Soil and gravel, corresponding to (1&2) ... about 3 0
2—Clay oe " w (3) Se Eaetat oewO)
38—Sand =; " uw (A, 5,6) ... inet i
4—Rock (probably upper part of 7) + SE OFKS
5—Sand u u ” (7 & 8) ee S23
6—Clay, corresponding to (9) Jo 3 6

_ The numbers in brackets correspond, as will be seen, with
the numbers in my Section, (p.177.) The fact that this boring
only meets with about nine inches of the “rock” (No. 4 above,)
which is really, as we know, about six feet thick, coupled with

boss of the Calcareous Sandstone on one side of the channel,
and had then continued through the fine sand which fills it up.
As the sand was gradually removed the deep channel which
it filled came day by day into fuller view, and its remarkable
features were at length completely disclosed. It was first
described to me as a collection of gigantic boulders, and so
improbable an occurrence sent me off to examine it at once.
It was shortly after its complete excavation that the Club
paid a visit to it, and the accompanying photograph was taken
few days after, before the blasting operations had destroyed the
n features of the spot. The photograph is taken from near
Kast end of the cutting, and looks on the northern side
westward through the cutting.

The channel varied in breadth from 5—6 feet to 15—18 feet.
[he photograph shows fairly well the sides of the channel stand-
ing out in relief, the rock worn into rounded bosses of varying

izes, while in some cases huge mushroom-shaped masses stand
ed on the underlying sand, but still in continuous line

186

with the sides of the channel. These were known familiarly
to the workmen and the visitors as “boulders.” I succeeded
in securing the largest isolated one, which is so well shown in
the photograph, and it is now in our Botanic Garden at the
College. A blast hole had already been bored in it, and it was
about to be broken up, when I fortunately visited it. Its
weight is about 25 cwts., and its dimensions are 4 ft. 6 in.
in diameter and 1 ft. 9 in. in thickness; a section in hori-
zontal plane would be nearly a circle. :

The question naturally arises in the mind of the observer,
what explanation can be given of these singular conditions ?
Standing at the point from which the sketch is taken, and
looking westward through the cutting, it required but little
stretch of the imagination to fancy oneself in the bed of a
stream which had hollowed out the channel through which
the rails are now laid—the rocky sides of the stream weathered
by wind and water into the fantastic rounded bosses of stone
which furnish the features of this cutting. Or it might well
be that an ancient shore once stretched eastward of the present
outcrop, and that the channel is but one of many excavated by
the tidal wash of an old Middle Oolite sea.

One or two further observations relating to the sand which
filled up the wide channel, as well as the interspaces between
the projecting masses of rock may be useful in helping to a
solution of the problem.

When the channel was quite cleared out it was very notice-
able that this sand was variously coloured in zones of red,
brown, or deep yellow, which zones could be traced continuously
through the whole length exposed. Between the projecting
bosses, in deep recesses, these coloured bands ran uninterruptedly
throughout. The sand is remarkably pure. No fossil remains,
none of the wood which is so plentiful in the upper rock, were
found init. It contains Chloride of Sodium and traces of Iron,
but is otherwise almost absolutely pure sand.

The heavy rains of last spring and summer speedily washed
it down from the hollows of the rock, and left standing in still
higher relief the prominent bosses seen in the photograph.

ee a

4
$
i
.
a
*
x

’

187

There can be little doubt that the rounded character of the
sides of the channel is due to the fact that the weathering
action, whatever it may have been, followed faithfully the
original lines of consolidation of the rock—that is, assuming
that the explanation offered of its concretionary character be
the correct one. It is for that reason that I ventured on so
lengthy a description of the rock itself.

The rock weathers very rapidly, and, doubtless, some of the
sand which fills the channel may be derived from the decom-
position of the rock itself ; but the evidence is, I think, against
this being so to any great extent. One of our students living
close to Cerney, who has visited the cutting very frequently
and regularly, tells me that one of the hardest and most
stubborn masses became in a few weeks so much decomposed
that pieces of it crumbled in the hand.

Until some favouring circumstances occasion a further
exposure of the bed, which, as we have seen, probably underlies
all the southern end of the rising ground N.W. of South
Cerney, it must remain a matter of conjecture as to whether

9 shore action or the work of a stream excavated for the first

_ time this remarkable channel. Could we find that other such
_ channels break up this bed of rock in our vicinity, we should
_ recognise its resemblance to many a well-known broken rocky

shore, daily washed and altered by our own seas, just as I

incline to believe the Middle Oolite sea once denuded and
_ fashioned in so remarkable a manner this hard and intractable
_ Kellaway’s Rock.

02

Notes on the Breeding of Fishes, read at a Meeting of the Cotteswold
Club, April 1, 1884. By Francis Day, F.L.S., and F.Z.S.

Among the varied subjects pertaining to fisheries and how
to lessen the cost of fish to the poorer consumer, by means of
increasing the supply, there is none more worthy of a careful
consideration than their breeding, and what is favourable to
such being successfully carried out. For many causes, some
preventible and others apparently insurmountable, combine to
press hard upon fishes, more especially on such as have to
ascend rivers from the sea in order to attain to a suitable spot
where they may deposit their eggs, and so continue their
race.

Laws, it is true, have been enacted ostensibly to protect
them when breeding, which laws themselves have in many in- .
stances become perverted into means for their destruction.
Officials have been appointed to see these enactments properly
carried out; but some, alas! of these appointments have
merged into what might almost be termed sinecures, and no
official in the United Kingdom takes an active part in the
breeding of the finny tribes. A few of our rivers have been re-
stocked, due to private enterprise, but not from the public
purse, and after this has been accomplished, private riparian
proprietors have at once sprung into existence, and producing
some ancient grant, they have claimed a fishery in a river
they have not contributed to replenish. After they have
proved their so-called rights, they have rack-rented their
fisheries to the highest bidder, while the lessee’s only view is
to obtain all he is able at the least cost to himself, regardless
of seasons or the conditions of fish life. Next comes a protest
that the regulations are pressing severely on the hard-working

189

net fishermen, or those which employ fixed engines,* and in
one district, at least, salutary laws have as a consequence been
relaxed. Possibly the annihilation of the remainder of our
salmon fisheries will be completed when the man who employs
fixed engines knows no law but that of his own will, when he
is permitted to fish when he likes, where he likes, and how he
likes; when the agitator has induced the Legislature to abolish
close time and other regulations now but too loosely attended
to, and the manufacturer and miner are free to employ our
streams to carry away their poisons and their refuse. But the
fish themselves have not invariably acted in accordance with
official theories and Home Office decisions, as they undoubtedly
ought to have done, for they sometimes refuse to ascend fish

_ passes which have received the sanction of the Inspectors of
Fisheries, apparently, but of course erroneously, finding the
gradient to be too steep.

These and many other important considerations I must
defer to a separate paper, restricting myself to-day to the
function of ‘‘ breeding in fishes.”

Fishes are dicecious, the sexes being normally present in
different individuals. Some are monogamous, as the snake-
headed and tropical Ophiocephalus, perhaps also our common

pike, and many other forms. The majority, however, are
polygamous, or perhaps mixogamous when the males and
females congregate for breeding purposes, those of the former
sex being in excess and several attending on one female, or
even changing about to another.

; _ Among most of the cartilaginous fishes, Chondropterygi, as

sharks, rays, and skates, a congress takes place between the

two sexes, the arrangement of the sexual organs being some-

what similar to what obtains among the higher vertebrates.

The male organs are mostly compact, of a circumscribed form,

_ ® Fixed engines for fishing were declared a public nuisance at common
law and ordered to be destroyed, but, when doing so, certain private rights
‘in them were directed to be respected. All ought to have been at once
made away with, the question of compensation being left to subsequent
investigation. ;

190

and placed far forwards in the abdominal cavity. The vasa
deferentia communicate with the ureters and terminate upon a
cloacal generative organ, external to which on either side, and
mostly attached to the anal fins, are the claspers. The female
organs are (as in the male) situated far forwards, and remark-
able by the modification of the two oviducts, which are not
merely distinct from one another, but also from the ureters,
while they terminate upon a prominent urethral clitoris,
situated between the outlet for the oviducts. The ova are few,
and the ovaries occasionally coalescent into one body, are com-
paratively smaller than in osseous fishes. Different parts of
the oviduct may be functionally modified. The ova are
fertilised while still contained within the oviduct, where the
ova are delayed, and the young may be either occluded in horny
cases or even produced alive.

But it is not my purpose to enter upon the breeding of
cartilaginous fishes, but to limit my observations to-day to a
few notes upon this function as observed in the bony or true
fishes (Teleosteans), for it is among this sub-class that we find
most of our eatable forms.

In the Teleosteans or bony fishes, we observe considerable
differances in the form of the male generative organs, but all
have one phenomenon in common, which is a great seasonal
augmentation in size in such as are not sterile. This organ
when arrived at seasonal maturity, is commonly termed the
“soft roe” or “milt.” It is well known that it is not
necessary for fishes to have attained adult size in order to be
capable of the reproductive process, the milt being found fully
developed, as seen in the parr or young of the salmon. Without
detailing the different forms in which these organs exist, it will
suffice to remark that when vasa deferentia are absent in the males,
oviducts are similarly wanting in the females, the parallelism
between these organs in the two sexes being, as a rule, very
close. When the testis is single so is the ovary. But in some
cases, as in the Salmonide, although vasa deferentia are present
in the male there are no ducts in the female. In most osseous
fishes the ovaries form two elongated sacs, closed anteriorly

191

but posteriorly continued into a short and wide oviduct, which
terminates behind the vent, and mostly before the urethra.
The inside of these sacs is more or less lined with the stroma,
or a peculiar tissue, within which the ova are developed. In
those forms in which the ova are hatched, before extrusion, the
stroma does not extend to the hind portion of these sacs, for
this locality serves as a sort of uterus, and is furnished while
internal incubation is going on with a large albuminous
secretion. The products of the reproductive organs may be
set free in the peritoneal cavity, finding their exit at the
abdominal pore or pores. Or these products may be taken up
by the open mouths of the fallopian tubes, or distinct tubes
conduct them all the way to their outlet.

The various modifications of the generative organs in true
fishes are a simple testis or ovary, but no excretory duct; a
_ partial oviduct united to the ureter, but not continuous with
_ the ovary; or a testis having a long and complex duct
distinct from the ureter. Among Teleostean fishes breeding
occurs in one of the following ways :—1. The eggs are hatched
within the female organs, as seen in the oviparous blenny. 2.
Asin the majority of these fishes, the eggs having been ex-
cluded, are subsequently fertilised by the male, the milt or
spermatozoa of the latter being brought into contact in the
water with the ova or eggs of the female, when this microscopic
body (the spermatozoon) obtains access by a minute orifice,
termed the micropyle, into the interior of the ovum. In short
_ in the breeding of osseous fishes the generative organs perform
the following functions :—“ Semination,” “ ovulation,” “ fecun-
dation,” and “exclusion,” to which in some forms is added
that of “ foetation.” :

_- Simple as this process would seem to be, there are many
interesting questions about it which are still unsolved and
quire attention. If all fishes’ eggs were of one size, the
micropyle and spermatozoids identical in all forms, the specific
gravity of all ova without variation, and all kinds of fish
propagated their species at the same period we should soon
arrive at a state of inextricable confusion. There would be

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192

hybrids between salmon and minnows, perches and bullheads,
sticklebacks and carps, and were these hybrids to prove
fertile, in a comparatively very short space of time all land
marks would be obliterated; families, genera, and species
would be things of the past. And if this did occur the result
could be readily foretold, now small forms obtain sustenance in
little as well as in large pieces of water; but were these small
forms to merge into the larger, our brooks, our lesser streams,
and ponds would no longer be stocked with fish for the size of
the stream, and the amount of food would be insufficient
to maintain them in health, even were it sufficient to
sustain life. And could we hope for a hardy race from young
raised under such conditions? Or even were our fishes entirely
restricted to our larger rivers, what would occur? Predaceous
forms of destroyers, perhaps man himself, would soon diminish
and probably annihilate them. I shall presently have to show
that deterioration in the size of parent fish may be equivalent
to diminution in the size of the offspring, such being Nature’s
method of preventing the extermination of the race. For
decreasing their size will cause them to be less sought after,
and it will only be when the larger fish are left for breeders
that larger offspring result. In short, when man or other
causes afford to fish sufficient protection, then Nature assists
in improving the race; when man or other destructive factors
ereedily kills all they are able, then the breed dwarfs, possibly
to prevent its extermination. I will first inquire into what
migrations fish undertake, either in the sea or in the fresh
waters for the purpose of breeding; and, secondly, whether
these migrations can be changed partially or entirely by ex-
traneous causes ?

To whichever division fish belong they are generally per-
ceived at the commencement of their breeding season migrating
to localities most suitable for the reception of their eggs, and
the bringing forth of their young. The majority of marine
forms seek banks, or are found nearer in shore or in shallower
waters than such as they inhabit at other times. This arrival
of gregarious kinds of mature fish occurs when they are ready

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193

for breeding, while their eggs are deposited prior to their
_ leaving, so whether they come to perpetuate their race or seek
food for preventing death in each individual of the species, it
eventuates that at these periods breeding usually occurs, as
may be observed in the herring or in the mackerel. It has
been asserted that anadromous forms, or such as live in the
_ sea but deposit their eggs and mostly rear their young in
_ rivers, do not enter these solely for breeding purposes, but that,
irritated beyond endurance by some marine parasites, they
ascend into fresh waters in order to rid themselves of their
tormentors. And in like manner that they leave rivers in
_ order to cause the death of certain fresh-water forms, which
give them no rest. Putting aside these far-fetched and
theoretical reasons for migration, there is certainly one which
is the chief cause or the necessity for the continuation of the
_ species. For this purpose several anadromous forms pass up
_ rivers, sometimes for long distances, and then deposit their
ova. Among the most widely distributed of such is the shad,
_ of which we possess two species in the British Isles, both found
in the Severn, but up which they now but rarely ascend in
numbers to any considerable extent, due to weirs across the
‘ river, deficiency of water, or else its poisonous condition. The
salmon similarly ascends from the sea to deposit its ova in
rivers and streams, and this instinct of migration or necessity
: p for exchanging its locality to a suitable breeding spot may be
more or less observed among our trout, charr, and, in fact, all
A the Salmonide.
Even some fresh water forms show migratory propensities
_at the breeding season, but which have mainly to be looked for
in larger countries than ours, and where fishes may be observed
‘upon a more extended scale. The mahaseer of India is a barbel
(Barbus,) but in the east it does not deposit its ova, as a rule,
ir the rivers of the plains, but migrates during the rains up
‘such as descend from Alpine origin, when turning into a side
stream it forms its nursery, having done which it rapidly
descends, in order to obviate being cut off by falling waters.
Here the young have the head waters to themselves until

194

the succeeding rains enable them to descend, and at this
period fresh parent fish repeat the operation of the previous
year.

The season at which breeding occurs varies with the family
of fish and the locality. This again is susceptible of further
modification, in accordance with the temperature and perhaps
composition of the water, the amount of food procurable, and
many other local circumstances. Likewise there is some con-
dition in the fish itself, respecting which we know but little,
but which plays its part. It is easy to understand that during
very cold winters breeding is usually late, which may be partly
occasioned by the ova taking longer to hatch, as well as by the
parent fish being later depositing its eggs. The period at
which the Salmonide in these isles breed may be roughly esti-
mated (except under exceptional circumstances) at from the
commencement of September until the middle of January or
February. In 1866 some brook trout eggs were despatched
from Hampshire and Buckinghamshire to Tasmania, and the
first young reared in the Antipodes formed their redds in July,
1869, or during the coldest season of the year. Sir Humpurey
Davey observed in Southern Austria that he found charr just
ready to breed in the summer, and he came to the conclusion
that the waters at that time must be of a temperature best
fitted for the purpose. In Sweden Arrepr remarked that the
salmon spawned in the middle of the summer. Dr Heysnam,
in Cumberland, stated that they prefer breeding in the warmer
streams, leaving the snow-fed ones until later on. Mr Harviz-
Brown, at Loch Gorm. in Sutherlandshire, which is greatly fed
by snow water, has taken trout heavy with ova in June and
July. But easy as this theory would be in order to explain the
different months fishes select for breeding purposes, there exist
many exceptions which are still open to discussion. Some
rivers are stated to have early and others late breeds of salmon.
A correspon dent of the Field, writing from Devonshire, February
2, 1884, observes, upon having taken out of his trap two pairs
of spawning trout, one of the males being nearly 2 lb. in weight.
One pair had partly deposited its ova exactly in the same spot

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195

where some of the November fish had formed its redds, and
_ whose eggs were just hatching.

We see the same thing in marine fishes, thus there is not a
month around the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland that
herrings cannot be found breeding. In the United States the
Fishery Department have ascertained that the cod-fish (Gadus
morhua,) breeds during nine months of the year, namely, from
September until May.

Some fishes merely breed once a year, while others do so
more frequently. During the breeding season some fishes,
as the salmon and the shad in our fresh waters, and the
herrings of our seas, appear to decrease the amount of food
they consume, or even entirely cease feeding; this may be
necessary in some gregarious marine forms, for the following
_ reason: Unless they congregate together at this period there
_ would be great danger in the deposited ova not being fertilised
| by the milt, for we know that should such not take place ina
short time in fresh water they do not become vivified. Should,
_ therefore, fish in this condition have to be roving about in
_ search of food, there would be the possibility that large quan-
_ tities of eggs would be spoiled, while the forms which produce
_ the greatest number of ova are often those which live in large
- communities.
| Whether breeding occasions any deleterious effects upon
Z fish is capable of more than one answer. Fresh-water forms
_ that produce a moderate number of eggs, or do so gradually,
_ or at more than one period in the year, do not appear to be so
- much affected as those which deposit large numbers of ova, and
q complete this process within a short space. As a rule, the
result of breeding is that the parent fish goes out of condition,
and continues so for a longer or shorter period of time.
‘Herrings, as soon as they are “spent,” fall off in condition;
the salmon kelt becomes absolutely unwholesome, or else so
lean and flabby as to be unsuitable for the table.

_ Fishes’ eggs are of various sizes, and which size is not in
relationship to that of the magnitude of the species—thus a
codfish has much smaller eggs than a trout, and a common

196

carp than a charr. While some forms deposit their ova in the
sea, others do so in fresh water, which may be stagnant, semi-
stagnant, or running. Some eggs are of such a light weight
that under certain conditions they may float, as of the cod in
the sea, while those of the herring sink; those of the gar fish
and its allies are attached by filaments or tendrils to foreign
substances, while others are likewise adherent, due to a secre-
tive mucus, as in the lump sucker (Liparis,) which deposits its
ova on the inside of the valves of dead shells, as a butterfly
does on a leaf. While the fresh-water bitterling (Rhodeus
amarus,) of Continental Europe, is furnished with a long
urogenital tube, enabling it to insert its eggs within the valves
of the fresh-water mussel.

Among the curious pipe-fishes the eggs are transferred from
the female to the male, and in most of the species on the latter
sex devolves the duty of hatching them, for which purpose
they are deposited up to the period of the evolution of the
young in ovigerous sacs variously placed. In the horse-fishes
(Hippocampus) in pouches under the tail; in our ocean pipe-
fishes (Nerophis) in rows along the breast and belly. Whether
this phenomenon of carrying about the eggs is to protect them
from danger, or change the water in witieli they are kept may
be questionable, but as these fishes have several times been
hatched in aquaria, it would seem to be for the purpose of
protection against foes. Similarly we perceive siluroids (Ariine)
of the Eastern and other seas in which the males carry about
the ova in their mouths, either continuously or temporarily,
and the young may be observed emerging from the ova while
it is still in the maw of the male fish. Teleosteans, which
have no oviduct, as the Salmonide, deposit their eggs detached
one from the other; but such as possess oviducts often have
them surrounded by a viscid secretion, formed from the lining
membrane of the oviduct, and agglutinating them in lumps or
cords.

Lately Mr Ryper, in the United States, has given some
interesting accounts respecting the breeding of the catfish,
another form of sheat fish or siluroid, in an aquarium. A pair

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197

- were placed in a glass tank, and one morning he saw a mass of
ova, about eight inches long, four wide, and from one-half to
three-fourths of an inch thick, at the bottom of the aquarium.
One of the parents hovered over the eggs, fanning them with
its fins, and this fish subsequently proved to be the male. The
young hatched in from six to eight days, the female taking no
‘notice either of the eggs or of the young. These eggs, each of
which was about one-sixth of an inch in diameter (after it had
become distended with water) were adherent, but not enveloped
with glutinous material, so that lying loosely, like a pile of
shot, they were conveniently placed for aération by the efforts
of the male. An experiment was now tried of taking some of
the eggs from the mass, which were placed by themselves, but
‘none hatched, showing that aération, as carried on by the male,
‘is necessary for their development, and even the young were
similarly fanned until they began to feed, which was about the
fourteenth day after hatching.
The sticklebacks or pricklebacks of this country, whether
marine or fresh-water species, form a nest for the reception of
t heir eggs, which has an entrance on one side, an exit on the
other, so that either parent can readily pass through. When
the eggs have been safely deposited in the nest, and the neces-
sary fertilisation accomplished, the male takes charge, driving
his helpmate off to a safe distance, in order to prevent her
naking a meal of the ova. Mr Warrineton ascertained that
in a few days, in the fresh-water species, the nest was more
and more opened by the male, evidently owing to the necessity
for oxygenation, and he hovered over it, causing a current of
water to be propelled across its surface by fanning it with his fins,
and after about ten days the nest is destroyed, and minute fry
ppear, over which the male keeps guard. Some of our marine
wrasses of the genus Orenilabrus have been observed to con-
str uct nests, in which occupation both sexes assist. The river
bullhead (Cottus gobio) forms a hole in the gravel at the bottom
stream, and here it keeps guard over its eggs as well as
infant progeny.
In India are several species of the amphibious snake-headed

198

striped form (0. striatus) constructs a nest with its tail among
the vegetation at the sides of the tanks, biting off the ends of
the weeds which are growing in the water. Here the ova are
deposited, and the male keeps guard. When the little ones
come forth it is exceedingly interesting to watch them swim-
ming, generally in two lines, above their parent, which at this
time is very fierce, and wages war with all intruders. Other
forms belonging to the same genus similarly protect their
offspring until old enough to shift for themselves.

Another amphibious fish, the gouramy (Osphromenus olfaz,)
at the Mauritius, acts in a very similar manner, frequenting
the sides of the tanks where vegetation is most abundant; it
becomes very active during the breeding season, passing in and
out of its grassy cover, and in some places thickening it by
entangling all trailing shoots, and thus forming a suitable spot
for the eggs. Here both parents keep watch until the young
appear, and over which they keep guard many days. The
hardback (Callichthys,) of South America, have likewise been
observed to construct nests of leaves or grass, where the ova
are placed until hatched, and this spot they carefully watch
over. A. Agassiz tells us that while examining the marine
products of the Sargasso Sea, Mr Mansriexp picked up a round
mass of sargassum about the size of two fists, and having the
appearance of gulf weed, the branches and leaves of which
were closely knit to each other; an elastic thread held the
whole together, and which, on being cut, allowed of the mass
being opened, the inside of which was found to be full of the
eggs of the Chironectes fish.

Passing on to single families of fish, or even restricting our
investigations to genera, it is interesting to see how even
closely related forms differ in the places where they deposit
their ova, or the period when they breed. Among the herrings
we find that the common herring is breeding in some one or
other spot around our coast almost every month in the year,
that it deposits from ten to thirty thousand eggs, which are
agglutinated together in a mass, and subsiding to the bottom,
attach themselves to sea-weeds or other suitable substances: let
this nidus for the eggs be trawled away or otherwise destroyed,

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199

and the herrings may permanently, or at least for an indefinite
number of years, migrate to a more suitable spot. The sprat
gives eggs of about 0:04 in. in diameter, and these likewise
sink to the bottom, but not in a mass or covered with adhering
substance, as in the herring. The shad of our waters has not
yet had this question investigated, but in the United States the
Fish Commission find that in the species which is most prized
there, Clupea sapidissima, the eggs sink, but that they require
to be kept in constant motion. Placed in floating boxes, it was
observed that they experienced this when a strong current
existed, but during slack tides the motion was insufficient, they
rested in masses at the bottom of the box, and being very
liable to fungus, especially during high temperatures, they
became diseased unless stirred up by the hand. Without
entering into the composition of the apparatus employed, it
was found that for their successful hatching constant motion
is necessary. Thus in one genus are forms in which the
eges are agglutinated into a mass, sink, and become attached
_ to suitable fixed objects, in another they simply sink, whereas
in a third, although they sink, they require to be kept in
constant motion.

If we take another family for investigation, as that of the
salmon, trout, and their allies, we find interesting variations.
The common smelt (Osmerus eperlanus) covers stones, planks,
and suitable objects with its adherent ova, which are placed
near the level of high water, for the purpose of adhesion.
These eggs are furnished with fine filaments on their outer
_ surface, which filaments expand at their distal extremities into
_ the form of a sucker for attachment. The grayling deposits
_ its ova, about April or May, or even earlier, on the gravel at
_ the bottom of a suitable stream; they are not placed in a nest,
_ and appear to be very delicate; their size is rather less than
seen in the trout. But the salmon, trout, and charr fan up the
_ gravel, thus forming a trough wherein the ova are deposited,
_ and subsequently the nest, redd or rid, is covered over with the
_ gravel, and here the eggs are left to come to maturity. In all
_ these forms the eggs are heavier than the water in which they

200

are deposited ; still they are treated either by being laid on the
bed of the stream or below the gravel, but the pisciculturist
has ascertained that this placing them within a bed or nest is
not essential to the hatching of any of these forms.

Before passing on from the eggs and how deposited, I must
draw attention to a rather curious phenomenon, but too often
seen, and which in its most fatal form is known as fish being
egg-bound—dying, in fact, unable to void their ova, similarly
to fowls unable to lay their eggs, or higher vertebrates which
cannot bring forth their young. Some fish, as the herrings,
which exude their ova in the open sea, can scarcely be
subjected to any extraneous force in order to assist this
process, but that such does take place in some fishes has been
ascertained. The gold carp (Carassius auratus) is one of these
forms, and the male (or rather relays of them) have been
observed in an aquarium to roll the gravid female like a cask
along the bottom of the tank, and to continue this operation
without relaxation for a day or two until the wearied female
has extruded her ova. The female river lamprey is said to
be assisted by the male twisting himself around her, and so
expressing the ova and milt, the suctorial mouths of both
parents being at this time attached to a stone or other suitable
stationary object. While it does not appear unlikely that the
female salmon or trout, when forming the redd or nest by
lateral strokes of the side and tail portion of the body, is by
such active exertion assisting in ridding herself of her eggs. It
has been asserted that among these latter fish, when the eggs are
ripe there is no power to prevent their escape, but at Howietoun
it is found that if the parents are placed in a wooden tank,
having smooth sides and bottom, and through which a stream
flows, ovulation may be deferred days and even weeks.

But even when fishes’ eggs have been deposited it does not
follow that it is only necessary, in order that they should hatch,
to place them in a hatching box, turn salt water over marine
ones and fresh water over those of our streams and lakes.
The precautions to be taken by the fishculturist I do not
propose alluding to, but certain physical phenomena are very

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201

important. Much capital has been made by the trawlers that
they do not injure sea fisheries because cod eggs float. But
it has been kept as much as possible in the dark that they only
do so under certain conditions of the water in which they are
exuded. If a proportion of fresh water becomes mixed with
that of the sea so as to alter its usual specific gravity, then the
eggs of cod fishes sink. The United States Expedition have
found hake with ova, and the young at from 100 to 200 fathoms
depth. Some marine fishes’ eggs, as that of flat-fish, or
Pluronectide, are recorded to float so long as the water is
agitated, but to subside when it is at rest.

Some fishes are sterile from various causes. Thus the com-
mon eel, a catadromous form, or one which breeds in the sea
but passes its life in fresh waters, is believed only to deposit
ova once during its lifetime, and then either dies or returns to
the rivers, and is sterile for the remainder of its life. It has
been observed that among the Salmonide sterile forms are seen,
but which are believed to be only temporarily so, as for one of
two seasons, while, as far as I have had the opportunity of
_ observing, hybrids between species of Salmonide are sterile.

Fish may also be sterile due to disease. Thus I have seen
in a mackerel the oviduct occluded due to disease having set
q up inflammation and occlusion of the outlet of the oviduct, and
_ thus the preceding years eggs have been retained and formed a
i large tumour.
Eggs, themselves, of course, may fail in hatching, due to
- deficiency of fecundation, injurious surroundings, or consequent
_ upon the effects of disease, or the eggs, (as deposited by some
hybrids) may be incapable of fertilisation. Fishes’ eggs are
more or less circular or oval, and of varying colours, being pea
_ green in some sheat fishes or siluroids, while among the Sal-
—monide they may be coral-red, yellow, or pure white, the
herrings usually have a slight pink tinge, while those of the
-sprat are colourless.
T have already remarked that fishes’ eggs before they are
fertilised have a small orifice or micropyle into which the
Spermatozoon enters, but it is evident. in sea fishes that if the

202

egg floats at the surface and the milt is beneath, the chances
of fertilisation must be diminished, unless some means to
obviate this are in existence. Also that there must exist some
mechanical reason for fish eggs to float in some forms, sink in
others. Of course, the principal cause which makes eggs sub-
side to the bottom is that their specific gravity is greater than
that of the fluid in which they are floating, unless due to some
mechanical arrangement (as the presence of filaments) they are
attached to foreign substances, when they would sink or swim
in accordance with the condition of the body to which they
were attached, as the eggs of the marine gar fish; ora fish (as
a perch) may have its ova in a band-like state, when it selects
rushes, reeds, or grass growing in the water or a piece of wood
or other hard substance, against which it (the female) presses
itself until one end of the band has become attached, then
swimming slowly away the eggs are voided. But sometimes
eggs, as of the cod, float in normally saline water, and questions
have arisen as to the position of the micropyle. Dr Ransom in
1854 found that in the trout, salmon, and grayling it corres-
ponded to the centre of the germinal pole. Here the formative
yelk or germ collects, and having attached to it some oil drops,
always floats uppermost. In the Spanish mackerel and some
other American forms a single Jarge oil sphere keeps them
buoyant, situated at a point immediately opposite the germinal
disk, which is constantly inverted or carried on the lower face
of the vitellus, thus acting exactly the reverse as observed
among the Salmonide. Inthe cod no oil drop exists, but the
egg is so light that it behaves like the foregoing. It is seen in
the cod fisheries that at the period of breeding the egg floats
with the micropyle directed downwards, and as a consequence
the milters are found to swim lower than the spawners, the

milt must consequently ascend. The reverse is observed in the

Salmonide.

It will now be necessary to briefly remark upon the physical
changes which fishes’ eggs have to undergo prior to their being
rendered in a suitable condition to continue the species. If
we examine the ovum of an osseous fish under the microscope

*

203

we may perceive certain structures, as shown in a magnified
form in the diagram on the wall of the egg of the stickleback.

Around the eggs before they are deposited and holding the
mass together, is a viscid layer or secretion from the oviduct of
the female. This secretion will for some time resist the imbi-
bition of water in the unimpregnated ova, so that they have
been observed to remain flaccid at least two and a half hours
after immersion. Subsequently it seems to set round the eggs,
making them cohere firmly together.

The egg itself may be said externally to have a double
cortical layer, the two being divided by an interspace. The
outer of these (which is rather thick) may be termed the yelk
sac, and is in immediate contact with the second internal or
vitelline membrane which surrounds the yelk ball within the
yelk sac. The outer membrane of the egg is distinguished in
one spot by a number of cup-shaped or mushroom-like pro-
cesses which cover about one fourth of its surface and mark
the germinal pole. In the centre of these small elevations is
the micropyle, consisting of a funnel-shaped pit, directed
towards the centre of the egg and continued inwards as a
narrow tube, with the inner end open. This outer covering of
_ the egg is changed by the imbibition of water from an easily
_ torn membrane into a firm elastic one. The yelk-ball, or that
_ portion surrounded by the vitelline or inner membrane, contains
_ those essential portions of the egg which are subsequently
directly transformed into the germ, and into which the
micropyle opens. Between the two layers I have described is
_ aspace, small in the unimpregnated egg prior to the imbibition
_ of water, but which becomes filled, forming what has been
termed the breathing chamber, a space increased probably also
in size by a contraction of the yelk. In the stickleback this
% absorption of water from the outside commences near the

in most osseous fishes, observes Ransom, water enters

f

freely through the yelk sac, and the breathing chamber
E. commence eee at all pare aa the Nanri It

204

fertilisation can take place, and the spermatozoon obtain
access by the micropyle to the germinal spot. When the air-
chamber has been filled with water the outer covering of the
egg hardens and becomes elastic; it is no longer soft and
adhesive,* or, as the Americans term it, “it frees.’? In this
paper it will be unnecessary to enter further into the embry-
ology of osseous fishes, neither will it be required to prove that
the elements for respiration must be received through the outer
coat from the surrounding water. Here, however, it becomes
necessary to point out that as oxygen has to be imbibed
through the outer covering of the egg, certain mechanical
influences may be at work to prevent this necessary absorption,
and so to decrease or altogether cut off the necessary aération.
In some fishes the breathing chamber is very large, swelling
the egg to as much as double its original size, and it is evident
that were these eggs fixed close together prior to distension,
one of two things must occur, either their due expansion must
be checked by one pressing against another, or some must give
way.

I have already mentioned the eggs of the common smelt,
which possess filaments that adhere to contiguous objects, if
these filaments are torn off the egg dies. A number placed
together prior to imbibition give the appearance under the
microscope after the air chamber has become filled that they
are honeycombed, which is due to the number of facets the
egos show owing to pressure one against another. Irrespective
of injury due to pressure, it is obvious that due aération of the
yelk will be stopped, and as a result death will ensue, a subject
I will not pursue further here.

The period which fish eggs take incubating is not only
exceedingly varied among those of closely allied species, but it
is likewise affected by many extraneous causes. Hggs of sea
fishes, as a rule, would appear to hatch in a shorter period than

* Rawsom has observed of the eggs of the trout, pressed from the parent
into water, stick to the dish for a time, but if first left exposed to the air
for a little while, do not. In the stickleback the breathing chamber was

complete in five minutes after impregnation, and the funnel of the micro-
pyle was effaced in fourteen minutes.

205

do those of fresh waterforms. The eggs of the herring normally
incubate in about three or four weeks, but the escape of the
_young can be considerably delayed by keeping the water very
cold, while its saltness or the reverse exercises no appreciable
difference. In the Baltic the German Fish Commissioners
found that with the water at 53 degrees the eggs hatched in a
week, whereas with the temperature of the water at 38 degrees
they took six weeks. In the eggs of the cod fish the American
_ Fish Commissioners observed that hatching took place between
_ the thirteenth and fifteenth days, according to the temperature
of the water, while Sars, in Norway, found some to hatch on
_ the eighteenth day. The eggs of the haddock in the United
_ States required an average of nine days, and the shortest period
observed was eight days, while those of the coal fish (Gadus
pollachius), hatch in four or five days in water of moderate
_ temperature. But if we can find such a difference in the cod
_ family as to the time required for incubation to be from four
or five days to six weeks, still greater variations are perceptible
among those of the salmon family. At Howietoun the eggs of
_ the smelt Osmerus eperlanus) kept in the trout-hatching house
took about forty-two days; but, on the water being a little
q warmer, they came out by the thirty-fourth day. In the same
establishment, with the water kept at about 44-1 deg., the
_ brook and other trout took from seventy-one to seventy-two
days; the American charr (Salmo fontinatis) seventy-three ;
and the salmon seventy-seven. But the foregoing are subject
_ to wide variations of time (by decreasing the temperature of
_ the water) as of the trout up to 114 days, and the hatching of
_the salmon has been delayed to the 145th day, or even more,
and acting upon this knowledge the eggs of members of the
Salmonide have been transmitted in safety to the Antipodes.
‘The eggs of the grayling (Thymallus) normally hatch from the
twelfth to the fourteenth day. Here I would draw attention to
the various attempts which have been made to prove that
salmon can breed in salt water, a proposition advanced by
some estuary and shore fishermen, apparently in order to show
tl at there is no necessity to have any restrictive legislation on

206

salmon fisheries, but that everyone should be permitted to fish
as he pleases, while the fish ought to continue their species in
the sea, and their young to ascend rivers to be captured.

If we turn to the works of RonpELetius and GrsneR, who
wrote upon the salmon upwards of three and a quarter cen-
turies ago, we find they were upholders of the doctrine that
these fish deposited their ova in the sea, WiLLUGHByY, in 1686,
disputing this; but without giving a history of this controversy,
we may well restrict our attention to facts. At the late
Fisheries Exhibition, the Commissioner from Canada, Mr
Wiumort, informed us that salmon can be detained in salt
water until ready to be stripped of their ova and milt, which
can then be raised in fresh water. But several experiments
have all ended in one result, the eggs having died in salt water,
as have also all the young; consequently, if salmon from any
cause are prevented ascending rivers and have to drop their
eggs in saline or brackish water, no young will be hatched,
while young placed in brackish or salt water will die.

I remarked, in 1882, that at Sir James Gipson Marrianpn’s
fishponds at Howietoun the Loch Leven variety of trout pro-
duced eggs of different sizes in accordance with the parent’s
age. Thus fish hatched in 1876, or six-year-olds, gave ova,
thirty-two of which filled the length of a glass grill, whereas
those females which had been hatched in 1875, or seven-year-
olds, furnished eggs twenty-seven or twenty-eight of which
occupied the same space. Not only does this occur in the Loch
Leven variety, but also in the brook trout and the American
charr. Even in the common stickleback Ranson has observed
that not all the eggs of the same batch have exactly the same
dimensions, and still less have those of different individual
parents when ripe.

The same phenomenon has been observed in the United
States, where the fish commissioner on the M‘Cloud river in
1878 remarked that the parent salmon were unusually small,
their average weight being under 8lb. This small size was
stated to be undoubtedly caused in whole or in part by the
fishing at the cannaries of the Sacramento, where the 8in.

Sas eA:

207

meshes of the innumerable drift nets stopped all the larger
salmon, but let all the small ones through. The eggs when
taken proved to be at least a third smaller than those of most
previous years, and the average number of eggs to the fish
was about 3,500, against 4,200 in the previous year. In this
instance the smaller salmon produced the smaller eggs, but
whether the decreased number was not due to the decreased
size of the spawners is not evident. Livineston Stone
adduces another instance, asserting that American trout or
charr living in spring water (which means deficient food)
develop smaller eggs than such as reside in brooks. Or poverty
in food has the same effect as younger and smaller fish in
diminishing the size of ova. This of itself would lead one to
suspect that small eggs which may be caused by deficient
sustenance in the parent will not produce the largest fry.
This difference in the size of fish eggs, which among Salmonidee
increase in bulk up to a certain age, must have very important
bearings upon their artificial breeding. For the size of the
micropyle is in a certain ratio to the size of the eggs, conse-
_ quently larger eggs of the same species will admit larger
_ spermatozoa than smaller ones. It has been maintained by
some fish culturists that very great difficulties, sometimes even
amounting to impossibilities, occur in crossing salmon with
trout, or rather fecundating the eggs of trout with the milt of
the salmon. As this was not found difficult at Howietoun when
the eggs were taken from fish some years in the ponds, and
_ which eggs were approaching in size those of the salmon, it
_ appears to me that the difficulty is merely a mechanical one, due
_ to the size of the micropyle, a difficulty which has disappeared
at Sir Jams Gusson Marrnann’s. Here, I believe is a complete
a solution of how to obtain crosses between the salmon and the
trout.
On November 15th, 1882, 2,000 ova were taken at Howietoun
_ from a Loch Leven trout and fertilised by the milt of an
_ American charr (Salmo fontinalis) ; one in six did not come to
‘maturity, dying duringincubation. On the same day 8,000 eggs
_ were removed from an American charr and milted from a

208

Loch Leven trout, and one in three died, the mortality being

double where the size of the ova of the species from which the

milt was taken is the larger, thus so far confirming the

view that the difficulty in fertilisation is partly a mechanical

one. This brings us to the consideration of whether these

larger eggs, the produce of older or better fed fishes, will

eventuate in an augmented size of the offspring, irrespective of
the question of changing the locality they inhabit, or increasing

the space or amount of water they reside in. Twosets of Loch

Leven trout were stripped on the same day in November, 1882,

the parents of one being six-year-olds, and of the other seven-

year-olds. The eggs were similarly treated, hatched in the
same room, during January and February, 1883, and turned
into two ponds of similar size, each 100 feet long, and fed by
the same stream. In the upper pond were the progeny of the
six-year-old; in the lower, which received the stream after
passing through the upper pond, those from the seven-year-old.
These ponds we examined on November 29th, 1883, and the
fry in the upper appeared to average about 2din. in length, and
in the lower about 3} ins., showing that the offspring from the
older parents had developed the most satisfactory results.
Having drawn a net through both ponds and examined those
captured, it was evident that the averages were much as they
seemed to be when looking into the water. I selected three of
the finest fish from each pond, those from the upper averaged
a little over 3ins., while from the lower they were nearly 4 ins.,
or at nine months of age those which were the progeny of
seven-year-old parents were nearly a quarter longer than those
which were descended from six-year-old parents. In March,
1884, I again visited these ponds, and found the foregoing
results were being still continued.

If the eggs of older fish (up to a certain age) give larger
and quicker growing offspring than do those from younger
ones, it shows us that fisheries in which only small parents are
left as stock may not improbably suffer a deterioration in the
race, and this, irrespective of food, may be one cause of how
fisheries fall off.

ee ee ee a ee ee

atin

-_

hed

.

209

Finally arises the consideration of what benefit to mankind
in general are investigations into the breeding of fishes ?
Here I shall merely enter upon a few, some being now carried
out successfully, some experimentally, and, lastly, some theo-

_ retically suggested.

In a state of nature salmon and trout eggs are subject to
_ destruction from many foes, and it has been computed that
: although each female is provided with many hundreds of ova,
_ only about one in nineteen of such as are left in the natural
_redds ever hatch, and only four or five of these out of 30,000
eggs arrive at maturity and are fit for the table; whereas,
_ taking Howietoun as an instance, it is found that from 90 to 95
per cent. hatch in a well-constructed fish cultural establishment,
_ while the loss among the fry is inconsiderable. Irrespective of
this, the young can be turned into the rivers at times when
_ they would be more able to shift for themselves than if they
_ resided there from their earliest days.

Without entering into the reasons, still it is patent ta the
most casual observer that the interests of the upper riparian
proprietors of salmon rivers are not always in agreement with
_ those of the estuaries and lower waters. The former consider
the fish are reared in their territory, but that the produce is
almost exclusively captured at or near the mouths of the rivers.
The lower proprietors in some places, believing that the upper
_ proprietors are helpless, do not always listen to their complaints |
in an amicable manner, considering themselves masters of the
‘situation. But as a knowledge of fish culture extends, it will
be found that, did they know it, exactly the reverse is the case.
The upper proprietors might obtain such splendid breeds of
trout for their rivers that they would not care to continue
preserving the salmon. Or they might introduce a land-locked
salmon, or one which does not descend to the sea, but passes
all its life in fresh water. Or hybrids between the salmon and
trout might be sterile, and not take on migratory propensities.
I have shown how, by selection of parents, larger and more
‘rapidly growing trout can be raised, and these fish, provided
they can obtain sufficient food, attain to a size now but seldom
‘seen, but when observed being termed Salmo ferox. Thus eggs

210

sent from small brook trout in Hampshire and Buckingham-
shire to New Zealand, have developed into 20]b. and 3801b.
fish. But to obtain these fine breeds, great care must be taken
in keeping the parent fish in suitable ponds; if breeders of
different years can intermix, then the benefits of age will be
lost. Thus it is the finest forms come from seven or eight
year old parents, as has been ascertained at Howietoun, where
the young, the progeny of such, are now being kept to be
breeders in their turn, and it does not seem an unreasonable
expectation to see in a few years such a semi-domesticated
breed as these islands have never witnessed; and all this due
to the enterprise of a single energetic private individual.

Then there are the so-termed land-locked salmon, which
might prove invaluable to upper riparian proprietors, or those
who possess inland lakes, or where descent to the sea is rendered
impossible from any cause. In Maine, in the United States,
there is found a variety of the salmon which has taken ona
lake-life, and never descends to the sea; many of the eggs
were sent over last year to this country, and the young reared
from them were exhibited in the Fisheries Exhibition. The
Canadian Commissioner observed that in some of the rivers of

the Dominion of Canada the same variety obtains. From —

Lake Wenern, in Sweden, a few of the identical land-locked
form were received at the Fisheries Exhibition, some of which
weighed as much as 15lb. All these forms are merely varieties
of the common salmon (Salmo salar,) that has altered its
conditions of life. It has been asserted by some so-called
authorities on fish that no salmon in our country has ever
developed ova without first descending to the sea. Here, again,
facts at Howietoun entirely disprove this assertion. Some young
salmon were hatched in March, 1881, and in December, 1883,
while still in the ponds, some females were found with ova.
These, being bred from, will form the nucleus for a land-locked
race, and which, after one or two generations, will be similar
in all respects to those of Maine and Lake Wenern. As some
(in Canada) are found in the rivers, there does not seem to be
any reason why the same results might not be obtained in this
country.

ee ee See ate ee © oe ee eS

211

Then we have hybrids between the salmon and the trout.
Here it seems probable that the offspring will be sterile, at
least such has been found to be the case in the few instances
- examined at Howietoun. Without detailing all the experi-

ments which are still in progress, I will advert to a few results
which have been ascertained. In December, 1881, 20,000
Loch Leven trout eggs were fertilised by salmon milt, and on
March 18, 1884, 212 fish, the largest six being each above
10 ins. long, were transferred to the Octagon Pond at Craigend.
In November, 1883, 4,500 eggs of the Loch Leven trout were
- milted from a parr salmon which had been raised at Howietoun.
_ Most of the eggs hatched, but all the young were deficient in
vitality, and suffering from dropsy of the umbilical vesicle. At
the same time 3,695 eggs of an American charr (9. fontinalis,)
were milted from another salmon parr, but only a few hatched,
_ seven being alive on my visit in March. A charr, it must be
remembered, is further removed in relationship from the salmon
than is a trout, and has smaller eggs. The next experiment
was made with 1,000 brook trout eggs, milted from a salmon
parr which had been dead some hours, but none of the eggs
were vivified, another proof of the deficiency of power in the
—milt of such young parents.
In November, 1882, Loch Leven trout eggs were milted from
American charr, and American charr eggs were milted from
Loch Leven trout. The result has been a very large per-
centage of monstrosities, deformities, and deaths, and although
between 200 and 300 are still alive, the cross does not appear.
to be satisfactory.
_ In November, 1882, 9,000 eggs of an American charr were
milted from a Scotch charr, and neither monstrosities nor
deformities resulted; ninety-one fine little fish thus bred are
at Howietoun. In November, 1883, this cross was again made,
and about 500 alevins are alive and well; and in December
more were laid down, and upwards of 100 young are preseut.
Appearances would go to the conclusion that these two forms
of charr are merely varieties of one species, differentiated in
colour and by the localities where they live. In short, young

212

mothers or young fathers would seem to give eggs and milt
which are more deficient in vital properties than such as are
obtained from more mature parents. Different species of
Salmonide may be crossed, but experience has yet to ascertain
if the progeny will be sterile or fertile, local or anadromous
in their habits. If sterile, and no longer migratory in their
instincts, will they be in season all the year round? Could
the fishculturist raise a non-migratory sterile form what an
addition it would be to the lake fisheries, also to the upper
waters of our rivers, with, of course, the drawback that the
numbers would have to be occasionally replenished.

So far as I am aware, the Fishery Department of the United
Kingdom—a department which does not carry out experiments
among our fresh-water fishes, nor investigations respecting
those of the sea, gives no assistance and affords no aid. It is
left to a single public-spirited individual to effect everything
at his sole cost, and which he most efficiently does, regardless
of trouble and expense.

The United States, which possesses a competent fishery
establishment, have demonstrated how marine fishes can be
artificially hatched as readily as those of the fresh waters; and
if our fisheries are to supply our growing populations with
food, such will probably have to be effected not by legalising
the massacre of the young of in-shore forms, unless to counter-
balance such destruction artificial culture is brought into
exercise, and man replenishes with one hand the waste which
he is occasioning with the other.

Section of a Well Sinking at the Island, Gloucester, by Messrs
Robertson & Co., and some Remarks upon the Thickness
of the Lower Lias at Gloucester and the Neighbourhood.
By W.C. Lucy, F.G.8. Read Feb. 6th, 1884.

Last year my friends Messrs Roprerrson, consulted me as
_ to the probable depth water could be found by sinking a well,
as they were desirous of having an independent supply for
the use of their brewery.

After much consideration, it appeared to me that the
Rhetic beds would be reached at a depth of not exceeding
200 feet, in which water in fair abundance might be looked for.
As the test of boring has shewn my error, I think it will be
interesting to the Members of the Club to have recorded a
section of the boring, which reached 350 feet, without finding
water, or the Rhetics; and afterwards the ground upon which
I formed my opinion, with a probable explanation of the
cause of my mistake; and then to offer some remarks upon
what seems to me to be the position of the Lias at and near
Gloucester.

_ The boring was commenced on the 9th January, 1883, with
an augur, a well having previously been sunk nine feet; and,
s the clay was soft, it was used for a depth of 90 feet.

The chisel then became necessary, and was employed
th Eioughout the remainder of the work.

_ The size of the boring was sufficient to admit of the intro-
duction of an iron lining pipe, with a seven-inch internal
diameter, until 177 feet was reached, when a smaller pipe of
5} inches was used.

214

From 90 to 165 feet the clay varied in nature, being
alternately soft and hard; but, as will be seen in the section at
170 to 175 feet, hard stone occurred, with, Ithink, some tough
clay, which much retarded progress, and only 11 inches of work
was done in the day—the 17th February.

It was not until the 24th, when the boring was 200 feet,
that the clay which came up was carefully examined.

On the 2nd of March I became very anxious, as the depth
had reached 223 feet, and I sent over a few small but imperfect
shells to Dr Wriceut, with a piece of Pyrites, but he wrote to
me that he was unable to give an opinion from such frag-
mentary specimens.

At 228 feet part of an Ammonite was found, followed by
some broken Gryphwa incurva, and at 243 feet I took Mr Dr
Rance, of the Geological Survey, who was at Gloucester about
the supply of water which the Corporation proposed to take
from Birdlip, but he could not throw any light upon the
exact position of the beds.

At 259 feet I confess I felt quite perplexed, and wrote to
Dr Wricut, who kindly came over on the 14th March, by
which day the boring had been sunk to 264 feet.

We carefully examined the shells, which apparently were
small Cardiums and Cerithiwms, and he thought the Avicula
Contorta zone was reached.

On the 28th, 288 feet depth, I was satisfied the boring was
well in the Rhetic Beds. Dr,Wricur came over on the 30th,
depth 294 feet, and, from the spoil and small shells, we were
both of opinion that the boring was well in the Rhetie.

When I visited the work on the 17th of April, on looking
at the spoil and the shells found, I was much surprised:
instead of the beds being Rhetic, they appeared to me to be
the lower beds of the Bucklandi zone.

Dr Wricut came again on the 21st April, the depth then
being 341 feet; and he was of opinion the boring was in the
Bucklandi beds, or might be in even the Turneri.

The boring had reached 350} feet on tae 28th April, when
it was stopped.

4 Tey ois

PROPRIA series deer,

215

Having occasion to go to town about this time, I took with
~ me some shells, which had been carefully put aside by Messrs
~ Rozerrson, which I shewed to Mr Eruerines, and he named
_ the following :—
At 267 feet—Astarte and Cerithium

» 281/3 1 —Astarte, Cyprina, Avicula inequivalis, Gryphites

vy 292/8 1» —Ammonites semi-costatus

u 340/6 1 —Very hard indurated bed

wv 316 ». —Lima and Avicula, tough bed

» 323/29 » —Ammonites semi-costatus, Gryphites.

uv 340 » —Cerithium, Pleuromya

un 344 » —Tornatella or Cylindrites

The finding of this latter shell satisfied Mr Erurrmper as
to the position of the boring, as it belongs to the lower bed
of the Bucklundi, and he expressed himself confident that if
_ the boring were continued, in 80 feet the Rheetics would be
_ passed through, and he urged it should be resumed ; but, after
- what had taken place, I did not feel justified in advising Messrs
Rozerrson to do so.

I will now state briefly my reasons for believing that the
Bheetic beds were nearer the surface, and the basis upon which
I formed that opinion.

If we look at the map it will be observed that the Lower
‘Lias on the other side of the Severn varies from one to two
‘miles from the alluvium meadows to where it rests against
the new Red Sandstone. »That from the Island at Gloucester
to Highnam Green, wheré, when a well was sunk a few years
ago to a depth of about 20 feet, the bone bed of the Rhetic
was passed through (as the late Mr Jonn Jongs and myself
saw .) Ms
That the Rhetic beds come up at Wainlode, four miles
from Gloucester, on this side of the Severn, and also three
niles south, at Elmore.
At Wainlode the Ostrea bed is 83 feet above the Tea-Green
Marls, and at Westbury 35 feet, with a dip of 3 degrees.

Tn a field near to Mr Cuartes Wa.xker’s, at Norton Court,

vm)

about three quarters of a mile from Wainlode, the Planorbis

216

beds are met with, as far as I could estimate, at 70 feet above
the sea, and at Lassington, 23 miles distant from the boring,
the Rheetic beds occur.

These several places and heights shew a general concur-
rence in the position of the beds.

My impression certainly was that—considering as the
boring was less than two miles from Highnam Green, and
that north and south of Gloucester the Rhetic beds were
brought to the surface, and that the Bucklandi beds were in the
cutting of the South Wales Railway, just after leaving High-
nam; and that I had, at a considerable elevation at Maisemore,
found Lima gigantea—I thought the upheaval which brought
the new Red Sandstone against the Lias, exposing the Rhetics,
would probably have affected the bottom beds of the Lias at
Gloucester, and brought them nearer the surface.

Lately, in making the railway to Ledbury, at Over, near
Gloucester, in the cutting there, slightly exceeding half a mile
from the boring, Ammonites stellaris has been found; and
about 12 miles further, at Lassington, the Planorbis beds are
exposed, and close to is the White Lias, containing Monotis
decussata, forced up at an acute angle—the paper shales of
Westbury being absent—and resting on the Tea-Green Mars.

Ammonites stellaris was found some years since, in forming
a wharf in the Gloucester and Berkeley Canal, at Hempsted,
at a depth of about eight feet below the level of the water.

There is a difference in level at Over compared with the
Canal of 25 feet, which is about the normal dip of the Lias
and Oolite, and therefore this area was outside the upheaval
referred to; but it is evident that its effect was considerable at
Lassington, as the Rhetic beds occur there, and at an eleva-
tion of 26 feet higher than at Over.

The result of the boring, although very unsatisfactory to
my friends Messrs Roserrsoy, is extremely interesting and
instructive geologically.

It clearly shews—from the depth of 350} feet having been
reached—that the Lower Lias is most likely at this point 400
feet thick.

217

There is no positive evidence as to what the upper bed is;
but, as far as I can now judge, it was the top of the Buckland
beds, or the lower beds of the Turnert zone.

The beds of the Lower Lias above are difficult to trace, but
at Brookthorpe, four miles from Gloucester, at an elevation of
150 feet above the boring, the lower bed of the Middle Lias
occurs.

_ I think we may, therefore, assume that the depth of the
Lower Lias is about 550 feet.

Mr Hout, in his memoir of Sheet 44, states that under
Cheltenham the Lower Lias is supposed to be 600 feet; but
does not give any information as to how the thickness is
arrived at; and that southward, towards Bristol, the thickness
is only 300 to 400 feet.

The boring has, I believe, added much to our knowledge of
the Lower Lias in this neighbourhood, and which will be of

advantage to future observers.

‘Now it may not unnaturally be asked, How it was that Dr
_ Wricut and myself were unable to determine the position of
the beds long before the boring ceased, and so have saved
_ Messrs Rozertson considerable expense ?

To this I would remark that there is always much difficulty
in ascertaining where shells come from in a boring, more
j particularly when only a small-sized augur is used.

__—*‘The pieces of Gryphea we thought might have fallen in
_ from the beds above, and we felt justified in thinking such was
_ the case, as the character of the small shells brought up in the
core shewed so marked a resemblance to those occurring in the
_ Avicula contorta series, and which probably have a wider range
than is generally supposed.

__. The moral, perhaps, to be drawn is this :—That whenever
you are near to a great line of disturbance which, in this case,
Professor Parxures was of opinion extended for 120 miles, from
Flintshire into Somersetshire, and probably at least the major
part took place at the close of the Permian; and as there is
“unquestionable evidence of a considerable upheaval occurring
after the Lias was deposited, as is shown at Purton, the greatest
Q

218

care is needed in forming an hypothetical opinion under such
conditions.

It is extremely difficult to realise how great the dislocation
must have been in this neighbourhood. To the west are the
older formations, and all eastward are the secondary rocks,
under which doubtless are the rocks of the west, which have
probably been much depressed by a great fault, as there is every
reason to believe that, if the Lias in the plain were pierced to a
sufficient depth, the older formations would be found, as in the
neighbourhood of London, at Kentish Town, and recently at
Richmond, where a well has been sunk 1,310 feet—150 feet
lower than that of any well within the London basin; and,
strange to say, no Lias was met with, or Inferior Oolite; a

bed, 874 feet thick, was passed through, supposed to be Great
Oolite.

SECTION OF A WELL BORING
MADE AT Mrssrs ROBERTSON’S BREWERY,
{ WESTGATE STREET, GLOUCESTER

_ Bore Hole 7 inch diameter to 177 feet, from 177 feet to 350 53 inch diameter

BORE
HOLE

Made ground. 15 ft.

Gravel with sand at
the base, 1 ft.

Ordnance Datum 39ft

Clay not so hard but
tougher, 6 ft. 6in.
Soft blue clay until
near the bottom when
it became harder 74

feet

Clay hard 6 ft. 6 in,

Clay softer and greyer
7 ft.

Clay very hard but blue
20 ft.

Hard blue clay, 35 ft.

5 ft.

5ft. very hard stone, it
took 34 blows of the
18 cwt. monkey, with
an 18 inch drop, to
drive the pipe barely
an inch,

Clay 2 feet

1 foot 6inches of stone
below which the clay
was soft and dark, it
then became harder

iar dull 14

lumps 5
pieces of shells an
pyrites, 21 ft ;

Clay same character

i.

Clay tougher, 2 ft.

Clay, light coloured
and very soft, 6 ft,

ae

Small shells and
pyrites, 6 ft.

Band of stone 3inche
thick with fragme
of an ammonite, and

at the base part of a
Grypea incurva and
small Pecten. 7

Blue Clay more frag-
ments of Gryp#a —
14 ft, 9 in.

Several small fossils

PE ee

Clay very soft, 4 ft.

Soft clay rather
shaley,14ft.

Shaley clay, Astarte,
Cerithium, cyprina,
avicula, incequivalvis
gryphite, 24 ft.

Ammonite semicos-
tatus, 6 it.

10 inches of very hard
light grey clay, it then
yaenee much softer

5 ft.

2 feet 2 inches of grey
stone,

Very hard clay 4 ft.

221

BORE
HOLE

ieBel ee eleiaiial fteean PES ee Cea a)

330

Clay softer, broken
hea, ammonite

t.
Clay soft with a hard
veinin it Limaavicula
2 ft. 6in.

Soft Clay without
fossils, ammonite
semicostatus,gryphite
12 ft, 6 in.

Clay, very soft, with-
out fossils, 8 ft.

Hard Clay, Cerithium,
Pleuromya. 3 ft.

Very hard Clay, 1 ft.

Hard clay, Tornatella
or Cylindrites
9ft.6in,

42 FED 1099

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

FIELD CLUB

For 1884—1885.

President :
Pim WiLEIAM V. GUISE, ‘Bart., F.L.S., F.G.S:

Vicez Presidents :
feb. ie, BAKER, -Eso:, F.S:S:
WELLTAM C) LUCY, 2G.>

Honorary Arceretarp:

Honorary Creasurer :
BMWINSWITCHELL, <P.G.S._—

Contents :

ent’s Address, 1885.

1e Southerndown, Dunraven and Bridgend Beds. By W. C. Lucy, F.G.S.

t e Forest Marble and Upper Beds of the Great Oolite, between Nailsworth

n the Structure and Formation of certain English and American Coals.

c

JOHN BELLOWS, GLO'STER. 134503

oo

}
:
.

_ Address to the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club, read by the
President, Sir Wiiu1am V. Guisz, Bart, F.L.S., F.G.S., at
Gloucester, on Wednesday, 22nd April, 1885.

GENTLEMEN ,—

The return of Spring calls us together again to take a
review of the past, and to arrange our plans for the future.
I am glad on the present occasion, as heretofore, to congratulate
the Club on the work accomplished—on the financial condition
and general prosperity of the Society. The numbers of the
Club are well maintained, but death has been busy amongst us,
and has removed two of our original members, whose names
have been associated with our Transactions from the date of
our formation—I allude to the late Professor Buckman and
Dr Wricut. Professor Buckman acted as secretary to the Club
under the Presidency of Mr Barwick Baker. On reference to
the Club records I find that James Buckman was elected a
member of the Club on the 18th August, 1846. For many
years he was a frequent contributor to the Transactions of the
Club. He ceased to be Secretary in 1859, and shortly after-
wards he retired into Dorsetshire, where he aided in the
formation of the Dorsetshire Natural History Society, of which
_he continued to be Secretary until his death, which occurred
in November last. For many years he had ceased to attend
our meetings or to contribute to our Transactions, which caused
his loss to be less felt than it would have been at an earlier
pe iod of his career. Not so, however, of his great colleague,
Dr Wrieur, whose loss to the Club may be said to be irreparable.
Open a volume of our Transactions where you will and you
will find records of the Doctor’s keen intelligence, acute powers
observation, clearness of intellect, and perspicuity of expres-
: The records of the Club bear evidence of the Doctor’s

224.

zeal in the pursuit of science, and of his skill as a Paleon-
tologist, a skill which, making its first mark in the Transactions
of the Cotteswold Club, blossomed forth into those splendid
monographs published by the Paleontographical Society, with
which the Doctor’s name will be honorably associated through
all time. He was a strong man, and held to his opinions
strenuously ; he was vehement when aroused, and an able and
eloquent disputant, but there was no bitterness in his heart,
which was ever warm and genial. His memory will ever be
cherished by his friends, and by the members of the Cotteswold
Club, with reverence for his powerful intellect, and with
affection for his memory. He died on November 17th, 1884,
and lies buried, by the side of his wife, in the new Cemetery at
Cheltenham. .

Besides these we have lost by death Dr Wasuxourn, M.D.,
and Mr Jonn Mippueton; while Dr Woop and Mr Epwarp
Cripps have retired. The Club now reckons eighty-seven
ordinary members, six honorary members, and five officers—
total ninety-eight.
_ The financial statement by the Treasurer, Mr Wircuett,
shows that we have in the bank £70, to which when the in-
coming subscriptions are added, will shew a very handsome
balance to our credit.

I will now proceed to read the record of the proceedings

of the Club during the past season.

THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE CLUB

was held at the Bell Hotel, Gloucester, on Wednesday the 23rd
of April, 1884. The Chair was taken at 2 p.m., when the
President read his Address, after which the election of officers
was proceeded with. Sir Wiii1am Guise was again elected
President, with T. B. Lu. Baxer, Dr Wrieut, F.R.S., and W.
C. Lucy, F.G.8., Vice-Presidents; Dr Parnr, M.D., Honorary
Secretary, and E. Wircuert, F.G.8., Honorary Treasurer.
The Treasurer’s accounts showed a balance of about £100,
besides considerable arrears yet to be got in. The favorable
condition of the finances brought up again the question of

225

; re-printing some of the earlier portions of the Society’s Trans-
_ actions, which it was determined to proceed with.

There being time to spare before dinner, a party proceeded,
_ under the guidance of Mr Lucy, to inspect the cutting at Over,
on the new line of rail from Gloucester to Ledbury. This
_ section shows at the base a band of stone one foot thick, much
jointed, in which are found Ammonites stellaris, with Lima
_ gigantea, and Gryphea arcuata ; then follows a bed of clay, eight
inches, upon which rests one foot six inches of clay with peat,
_ which is succeeded by ten feet of “Boulder Clay,” formed out
_ of the Lias, in which are numerous pockets of Quartzose Sand,
_and on the top is four feet of “Till,” with “Northern Drift”
_ pebbles in great abundance. Mr Lucy called attention to a drift
7 about ten yards in width, which crossed the cutting in the ten
feet bed of “Boulder Clay” ata very acute angle, and was
composed of “Northern Drift,” with much Quartzose Sand, and
he pointed out that it came ina direct line from Sandhurst,
_ which is capped by the same drift, which extends to Hempstead,
where it is again met with. Mr Lucy expressed his belief that
this quaternary deposit took place at the three localities at the
‘same time, and showed, by its relation to the present low-lying
meadows, how great and extensive must have been the denu-
dation which has since taken place. Mr Lucy showed by a
section at Lassington, at a distance of a mile and three
uarters from Over, that the Ammonites planorbis, rare in this
district, occurs, and that the “Rhetic” beds are there repre-
sented by a thin band of stone six inches thick, which contains.
Monotis decussata, and about three feet of “Tea-green Marls,”
the “bone bed” and “ paper shales” of Westbury being absent.
_ The members dined together at the Bell Hotel.

THE FIRST FIELD MEETING
of the season was held on Tuesday, 27th May, at
CHIPPING NORTON.
% This locality is somewhat outside the boundary of the

county, but it offered special attraction to the Geologists of
a2

226

the party, inasmuch as it afforded them an opportunity of
comparing the Inferior Oolite on the north side of the Great
Oolite plateau with those more familiar beds of the Cotteswolds
to the south of the same region.

The party assembled at the White Hart, Chipping Norton,
where carriages were in waiting. Their attention was first
directed to the cutting on the Cheltenham and Banbury
Railway at Hook Norton. Here they were joined by Mr E. A.
Watrorp, the author of a paper in the Quarterly Journal of
the Geological Society on “'The Relation of the so-called North-
ampton Sand” of north Oxon to the ‘‘Clypeus-grit.” Some
opposition was manifested by the contractor to the inspection of
the cutting, but on the President and Vice-President giving
their names, the party was permitted to proceed without further
molestation. Those who would master the details of these
remarkable sandy beds, so different from any of the Cotteswold
type, should study the paper by Mr Watrorp in the number
for May, 1883, of the Quarterly Journal. At the point examined
the cutting presented a section of about thirty-six feet of
Inferior Oolite, resting upon Upper Lias Shales. Of these
Oolites the lower six feet consist of rock, in which has been
found Rhynchonella cynocephala, which in the Cotteswold charac-
terises the lowest bed of the series. The upper sandy beds
have yielded Ammonites Parkinsoni, which is characteristic of
the upper beds of the Inferior Oolite. It would thus seem that
the middle series is absent, and that only the highest and
lowest beds are represented in the section. These arenaceous
beds are so entirely dissimilar to any in the Cotteswolds that it
is evident that totally different conditions prevailed in the
relations of land and water at the period of their respective
deposition.

The party having despatched a very welcome luncheon,
gipsy fashion, under a sheltering hedge, proceeded to the
Church at Hook Norton, which has been much altered at
various periods. Besides the remains of Norman work it
contains a remarkable round font, on which are figures of
Adam and Eve and other rude sculptures.

rr 6 ai She.

227

The carriages now took the direction of the Rollright Stones,
stopping by the way to examine Rollright Church, in which the
most noteworthy object is the richly decorated tympanum and
arch of the western doorway, of late Norman work. Presently
the Rollright Stones came in view. These are treated by all
writers on British antiquities, and various are the opinions of
- Antiquaries as to their object and origin. FrEreuson, in his
_ Rude Stone Monuments,” and CampEn regard them as memo-
rials of battle, and of post-Roman date, while others conceive
them to have been temples of the Druids in times long before
the invasion of Cesar. The latter is mere guess-work, but
Fereuson adduces proofs and illustrations of his theory, which
will go far to satisfy enquirers. It is a 100-foot circle, having,
as is usual, one stone in the circuit taller than the rest. This
_ stone has certainly been partially dressed on the surface.
Northwards is a detached monolith, called the “ King-Stone,”
and at the distance of a quarter of a mile in a different
_ direction is a dolmen, the cap-stone of which has fallen. These
_ go by the name of the “Five Knights.” A view of the circle,
taken from the representation in Puror’s “Oxfordshire,” will
_ be found in Puriuips’s “ Geology of the Thames Valley.”

The horses’ heads were now turned in the direction of
. d Chipping-Norton, halting by the way at Langdon Bridge, over
_ the railway, where a somewhat doubtful section presented itself
for elucidation. The base showed a thickness of white Oolitic
_ Limestone, wholly unfossiliferous, the position of which is above
_ the “Clypeus-grit,” and below the Great Oolite. On this rests
a band of blue clay, overlaid by sandy beds and a layer of small
oysters. It was determined that the Oolite rock constitutes
the upper member of the Inferior Oolite, and that the blue clay
band represents the “ Fuller’s Earth” at the base of the Great

Haste was now made for Chipping Norton, where some of
e party had to catch an earlier train than the rest. The
ainder stayed to dine at the White Hart, and had leisure

228

“ Geology of the Thames Valley.” It was an enormous reptile,
dragging upon the earth a length of between sixty and seventy
feet, and of proportionate bulk. The quarry was found to
exhibit a section identical with that at Langdon Bridge, namely,
Oolitic rock, overlaid by a band of blue clay, and a bed of small
oysters. The Saurian remains come out of the blue band, which,
with the sandy beds above, may represent estuarine conditions
very favorable to a reptile of such magnitude.

THE SECOND FIELD MEETING
for the season took place on Tuesday, 24th of June, at

DURSLEY.

The members assembled at Dursley Railway Station, on the
arrival of the 10.55 train, and drove to Cam Longdown, up
which hill they climbed, and Mr Wrrcuetz described the features
of the surrounding district. They were, he said, standing on
strata which marked the commencement of the Oolitic period,
and on the dividing line between the Oolitic and the Liassic
series. Below them the sand was some 200 feet thick, and
overlaying the sand were the “ Cephalopoda” beds, so.called on
account of the number of “ Cephalopoda” which characterised
them. Above these beds succeeded the basement beds of the
Inferior Oolite, the lowest of which consisted of sandy Lime-
stone, very hard and compact, and to this bed was due the
preservation of the ridge on which they were standing. The
same bed extended through the Cotteswolds, and was found at
Leckhampton hill. In the section of the quarry at the south
end of the Down they would be able to trace the bed from the
base upwards, showing the gradual development of the Oolitic
structure. The absence of the remarkable bed known as the
“Pea Grit,’ which at Leckhampton presents so striking a
feature, was specially remarked upon. Mr Wrrcenent then
called attention to the grand example of denudation which the
country around exhibited. The whole of the Dursley valley
has been excavated by denuding influences. Some Geologists
attributed the denudation to glacial action, but the glaciers, if

,s oe

229

they existed, have left no trace behind them. Other Geologists
attributed it to marine action, but the sea had left no trace,

_ and in the combes and hollows of the hills no trace of a marine
beach could be found. In the beds of gravel the shells found
belong to land and fresh water species; so that there only
remain sub-aérial agencies to account for the changes which
have taken place.

The party then visited the various sections on the hill,
making a prolonged stay at the “Cephalopoda” bed, which
had been purposely quarried to enable members to obtain
characteristic fossils.

On leaving Cam Down the Club partook of luncheon at the
Bell Inn, Dursley, after which the carriages conveyed the party
by way of Stinchcombe and Nibley to near Westridge Wood,
to enable the members to see a British Camp on the summit of
the hill. The Camp occupies an area of about four acres,
enclosed by two ramparts. Surrounding it are numerous
remains of pit dwellings, which have been brought to view by

_ the clearance of the woods. At one spot there isa group of
four large pits, nearly circular in form, having a diameter of
_ 100 feet. They appear to have been from seven to ten feet
deep, but are now filled with stones and stumps of trees. Mr
_ Wirrs remarked that previous to the examination of this Camp
_ he had entertained some doubts as to the genuineness of these
pit dwellings, but that now his doubts were entirely removed.
_ Some tracings from the map of the Geological Survey, sent by
Mr J. H. Cooxs, proved very useful as a guide to the Camp,
_ the paths to which were very accurately shown.

The party having re-entered their conveyances, drove to
-Tait’s Hill quarry, near Dursley. This quarry is placed in the
_ zone of the “ Middle Lias,” which is divided by Geologists into
. five sub-zones, each distinguished by an Ammonite, which is
regarded as characteristic of the zone in which it is found.
The quarry has been regarded as belonging to the second or
zone of Ammonites margaritatus, the upper or zone of A. spinatus
_ being thought to be wanting. Mr Wircneti and others were
however of a different opinion, and it was not long before

230

doubts were set at rest by the finding of the fossil in situ. The
question was thus determined, and it is now certain that the

top beds in the quarry are those of Ammonites spinatus, while ,

the beds at the base are those of A. margaritatus. Some other
good fossils were obtained, including Belemnites pazillosus,
Pecten cequivalvis, Rhynchonella tetrahedra, Terebratula punc-
tata, &c.

The party dined together at the Prince of Wales Inn, near
the Berkeley Road Station.

The Club held their
THIRD FIELD MEETING
for the season on Monday, 21st July, at
LEDBURY,

with the view of visiting the “ Passage Beds” between the
“Old Red” and the “ Silurians,” and of inspecting the beau-
tiful and interesting parish Church. The party travelled by
train to Ledbury, where they were met by Mr Grorce Piper,
a local Geologist, who has during many years made a continuous
study of the rocks in question. The section which has been
laid open by the railway presents the finest, perhaps the only
complete display of these beds known to Geologists, and as
such is deserving of the most careful study. Ascending a hill
on which a rail is laid for the transport of stone, the entire
succession of beds, here nearly vertical, with a slight dip to
the west, is displayed to view. To the westward the ‘* Old
Red” stretches in unbroken continuity as far as Milford Haven.
At Ledbury it is met conformably by the Silurian beds, which
are connected with the “Old Red” by the so-called “ Passage-
Beds,” which are here displayed in their entire extent. The
recent cutting at the eastern end of the great excavation near
the railway station, has laid bare the lowest of the “ Passage
Beds,” and has exposed to view all the upper Silurian strata
down to the “‘ Lower Ludlow” beds, which here attain a thick-
ness of many hundred feet, and rest immediately on the solid
beds of the “‘ Wenlock Limestone.” To describe the “ Passage

EE

231

Beds” in detail would require .more space than is here admis-
sible, but they have all been carefully measured and described
by Mr Pirzx, in a paper read by him to the Cotteswold Club.
They consist of a series of red and white bands, forming a
very extensive succession of beds, some of which are wholly
unfossiliferous, while others contain fish of ‘‘ Cephalaspidean”
type, known as Auchenaspis Egertont and A. Salteri. These,
owing to the gritty nature of the rock in which they are found,
are more or less obscure, though numerous, and consist almost
invariably of the head and neck plates, but Mr Piper has had
the good fortune to obtain two bodies, the only examples as
yet discovered. These fossils were first discovered by a cobbler
at Ledbury, since dead, of the name of Brooxss, an enthusiastic
_ and successful worker in these beds. Besides these organisms
these beds have also yielded rims of Cephalaspidean head-
shields, and examples of Cephalaspis Lightbodu, Pterygotus, a
large Lingula, and Onchus. Other beds contain Cephalaspis and
— Lingula, which latter seems to run through them all. Twenty-
- four beds of Sandstone, Shale and Marl are enumerated by Mr
‘ Preer as forming the true ‘‘ Passage Beds.” To these succeed
_ the Downton Sandstone, fifty-eight feet in thickness, then the
Upper Ludlow Shales, Aymestry Limestone, and Lower Ludlow,
which terminates the section.

After luncheon, at The Feathers, the party proceeded to
‘Visit the Church, under the guidance of the Rector, the Rev.
rz. Jackson, who told the story of the modifications it has
undergone witha mastery of detail which a long and loving
_ study could alone have enabled him to do. In the first place
there was a Norman Church of the same length as the present
one, as is shown by the remains of architecture of that period
at both ends. The old Norman Church had low and narrow
aisles. The choir shows Norman windows below, and circular
ones of the same period above, surmounted externally by the
iginal corbel-table, once without the Church, and now within
The north aisle was removed and widened, and the beau-
al lancet window introduced at the east end. The Norman
piers and arches of the nave were next altered to their present

232

form. The chapels were thrown out, that of St. Ann on the
south, and of St. Carnerine on the north, the latter a perfect
gem of Decorated architecture, encrusted all over with the
“ball flower.” The Norman south aisle was removed, widened
to the extent of St. Awn’s chapel, and continued to the west
end at two intervals, the last south-west window having been
evidently the last inserted. There are many other curious
details—as those of the angular hood-moulds over the door-
‘ways, and the lychnoscope, which may /possibly belong, as
suggested by Mr Jackson, to an earlier Church, but this is
doubtful. In St. Carnerine’s chapel is a figure of a lady in the
dress of the early part of the 14th century; she reposes on
an altar-tomb, over the edge of which her drapery falls in
graceful folds. The tomb is of a date altogether later than
the figure, and on closer examination it is seen that the figure
and the slab on which it rests have been moved from somewhere
else to their present resting-place, with which they have no
connection. On the monument are carved armorial escutcheons,
but to whom either the figure or the tomb were erected there
is neither evidence nor tradition to show.

The party dined at The Feathers, after a day of unusual
interest and instruction.

THE FOURTH FIELD MEETING

of the Club for the season was held, by the kind invitation of
Hanpet CossHam, Hsq., on Tuesday, the 12th of August, at

KINGSWOOD,

Carriages were in waiting for the party on the arrival of the
train at Fishponds Station, where Mr Hanpet CossHam met
them, in company with their old and valued colleague, R.
Erueriper, F.R.S.

The route lay through Frome valley and Stapleton to Stoke
House, a dower-house, belonging to the Duke of Bravrort, now
leased to Admiral Cuosz, a son of the late Dean of Carlisle.
The house occupies an imposing position on a lofty knoll,

233

overlooking the country around Bristol to the far-away Mendips,
in the blue distance. On arrival they were met by Admiral
_ Ctosz, who led them through the lower rooms of the house
and along the noble stone terrace, from whence an extensive
panorama over the surrounding country lay spread before them.
From this commanding elevation the party was addressed by
_ Mr Cossnam and Mr Erueriper on the geological features of
the district. They were told that they were looking on the
“New Red Sandstone,” which lay under the grassy slopes of
the park at their feet, to which succeeded the Pennant Sand-
q stone of great thickness, overlying the coal-field of Kingswood
and the Bristol basin. Beyond Bristol the eye rested on a
bold ridge of Carboniferous Limestone, which runs out into the
Bristol Channel at Portishead, and forms a portion of the great
7 ‘ring of that formation, which, passing by way of Wickwar,
Wick Rocks, &c., forms a boundary to the Bristol coal-field.
The party rested here for some time, enjoying the beautiful
prospect, and the courteous attentions of Admiral and Mrs
_ Crosse, until it was time to move to Kingswood, where, under a
_ tent near Holly Lodge, the residence of Mr CossHam, they
_ found an ample and most attractive repast set out for their
_ refreshment.

The good things being duly enjoyed and grace said, Mr
_CossHam proposed ‘“ The Queen,” after which he proceeded to
read a paper which he had prepared on “ A late discovery in
the Kingswood coal-field.” He alluded first to the very com-
plicated structure of the Bristol coal-field, and to the difficult
_ problem that it presents for solution. Some twenty years ago
Mr Cossuam challenged the accuracy of the geological maps of
_ the district, which up to that time had shown a large develop-
ment of “Millstone Grit,” (the Farewell Rock of the miners)
_ that was supposed to have been protruded across the coal-field
between Bristol and Wick; and by proving that this supposed
“Millstone Grit” was in reality only one of the siliceous Sand-
stones of the coal-measures, made room for the suggestion,
which has since proved to be correct, that the coal-bearing
strata extended south of Kingswood and St. George, under the

234

river Avon, and probably on continuously to the Mendip hills.
* But to-day,” said the speaker, “it is my good fortune to be
able to tell you of a discovery I have lately made that will, I
think, have a much more important bearing on the future of
mining industry in this district than the one I have already
referred to.”

After describing the early shallow workings, Mr CossHam
stated that it was only fifty years ago that the “Great Vein”
series was discovered, which has since been largely worked on
a south dip, and over a considerable area. With a view to
exposing the whole of the area (about 2000 acres) the mineral
freehold of which Mr CossHam purchased some years ago, an
exploring drift was driven to the south at a depth of 68
fathoms, to cut the upper section of seams that lie over the
ordinary Kingswood series; and at the same time another drift
was started to the north, at a depth of 500 yards from the
bottom of the Speedwell Pit, and it was the discovery made by
the latter which formed the subject of the present notice.

For some 200 yards the drift was driven through strata
nearly upright, and showing proofs of enormous disturbance
and displacement. The object in driving this deep tunnel was
to strike the lower or Ashton series of veins. About 250 yards
north of the Speedwell Pit a seam of coal was cut about two
feet four inches thick, lying in an upright position. As the
drift was extended northwards the strata became horizontal.
Other veins of coal were met with, still supposed to be in the
lower series, but further experience showed them to belong to
the “Great Vein” group which had been worked 300 to 350
yards overhead, up to the outcrop of the vein near the surface.
Hesitating to accept the conclusions to which this led, Mr
CossHam caused drifts to be driven above and below, and on
the 21st of the previous February discovered the Kingswood
“Great Vein” lying in situ of an average thickness of five
feet. Since then these veins have been worked north, south,
east and west, and are found to constitute the original floor of
the coal-field, with a gentle dip of three inches in the yard to
the west. Not the least interesting feature of this discovery

235

to the proprietor lies in the fact that it has revealed the exist-
_ ence of from six to eight millions of tons of coal in his mineral
_ estate which he had no expectation of having.

The explanation of these facts is this—that there has been

in the past history of this district a time when the whole of
_ the Paleozoic strata, including the coal-measures, have been
_ pushed by a force, exerted on the south, bodily over the
top of the coal-field of the district. Mr Hanpex Cossnam
j believed that the centre or focus of the force which has thus
_ thrust a portion of the coal-field over itself is to be sought in
the up-thrust of the Mendips after the deposition of the coal-
‘Measures, and prior to the deposition of the secondary rocks,
_by which the whole country to the north, and possibly to the
‘south, was thrust forward. Mr Cossnam concluded his very
Pr nteresting paper, illustrated by maps and sections, by a
reference to the important bearing which this discovery has
‘upon the mining industry of the district, an industry which is
so intimately associated with the future of our country.
Mr R. Erneriver, F.R.S., in reply to the toast of his
health, which was very cordially received, made some remarks
‘upon the more salient points of Mr CossHam’s paper, in the
importance of which and of Mr Cossnam’s splendid discovery,
he entirely concurred. P

The health was likewise drunk, and very warmly received,
of the President, of their munificent entertainer, Mr CossHam,
and of Admiral Ciosz, after which the party separated and

dispersed to their different destinations.

THE FIRST WINTER MEETING

C. Lucy, F.G.8., on “The Sutton Southerndown and
Dunraven Beds, in Glamorganshire,” and by Mr E. Wircue tz,
FG .S., on “The Forest Marble and Great Oolite between
Nailsworth and Wotton-under-Edge.”

236

The President opened the meeting by addressing a few
words to those present on the great loss just sustained by the
Society in the death of their old friend and Vice-President,
Dr Weieut, a loss which he described as irreparable.

The paper by Mr Lucy on “ The Sutton and Southerndown
Beds,” was the result of a week’s study of the ground, in
company with Mr Tomes. These beds have formed a erua for
Geologists, and have been treated by Messrs Tawney, ErHEripes,
Moors, Bristow and others, and it would seem that the last
word has not yet been said upon them. The main object of
Mr Lucy’s paper was to show that the beds at Sutton belong
to the “ White Lias,”’ and that some conglomeratic beds which
occur east of “ the caves,” and belonging to the Lias, had been
mistaken for the “Sutton Stone,” to which the beds in question
bear a great resemblance; and Mr Lucy is of opinion that
many of the supposed “ Sutton-Stone” fossils have been derived
from these liassic beds. An extract was given from a recent
paper by Mr Tomes, in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological
Society, which shows that the corals collected at Sutton are of
St. Cassian species, none of which occur at Brocastle.

This paper was illustrated by several inland and coast
sections.

Mr Lucy exhibited a well preserved tooth of Mammoth
(Elephas primigenius) from the gravels of Cainscross, near
Stroud.

Mr Wircenett then read his paper on the “ Forest Marble
and Great Oolite between Nailsworth- and Wotton-under-
Edge.” The paper was the result of work done in the previous
month of October, when the author went over the ground, in
company with Mr C. Puayne and Mr Aurrep Smirx. He
found the Geology exceptionally interesting, inasmuch as it
enabled him to trace the thinning out of the beds of white
limestone, (Great Oolite) and of the shelly beds of Minchin-
hampton, belonging to the same formation. The limestone
ceases near Kingscote, and in the same locality the shelly beds
lose their shelly character, and become weatherstone beds,
formed of shelly detritus ground down into fine particles of

a al

PiPyety-

237

sand and oolitic granules. The junction between the White
Limestone and the “Forest Marble” was well shown in the
quarries at Tiltup End, and the upper bed of White Limestone,
and a thin band in one of the quarries lying upon the Lime-
_ stone, contained a large assemblage of fossils, chiefly of the
_ genus Nerinea. The shells, specimens of which were exhibited,
were exceptionally large. Corals were also found in the bed,
and small round concretionary lumps covered with Bryozoa.
From the discovery of this assemblage of fossils, and a similar
one recorded by Dr Lycrrr on the same horizon, but on the
east side of Minchinhampton, Mr Wircue.t thought there was
_ evidence of a pause in the Oolitic deposits, and a change of
level and of marine conditions between the Limestone period °
and that of the overlying “ Forest Marble.”

THE SECOND WINTER MEETING
_ of the Club for the season was held in the Lecture Theatre of the

SCIENCE SCHOOL IN GLOUCESTER,

on Tuesday, the 3rd of February, 1885, when a paper was read
by Enwarp WeruereD, F.G.S., on the “ Structure of Carbon-
iferous and Cretaceous Coal.” Much has been written on the
subject of the structure of coal since De Luc, in the year
17935, first contended that it was the product of vegetation
which grew on the spots where the seams now rest. An
important addition to our knowledge of the question was made
by Sa Woi14m Logan, in 1841, who pointed out that under
every seam of coal there was.a stratum of clay, known as the

was always to be found, and subsequent discovery proving it to
be the root of Lepidendroid plants generally, led up to the idea
that coal was formed mainly from the submergence of forests of
Lepidodendra. Inthe year 1870 Professor Huxuey modified this
view by attributing the formation to accumulations of spores of
that class of vegetation, the wood forming the mineral charcoal.
Among those who advocated the submerged forest theory were

238

Sir William Dawson and Mr Carruruers. In the discussion
of a paper read by Mr Weruerep before the Geological
Society last year, Mr Carrutuers said: “‘ Seams of coal are
the remains of forests that grew upon swampy ground, and
were subsequently covered by clay.” Sir Wirzt1am Dawson,
in his “Acadian Geology,” says: “The plants which have
contributed the vegetable matter of coal are principally Sigil-
larie, with Cordaites Ferns and Calamites. With these however
are intermingled remains of most of the other plants of the
period, contributing in an inferior degree to the accumulation
of the mass.” Without in any way wishing to undervalue the
great work done by these eminent men, it is necessary to under-
* stand how they came to their conclusions ; bearing in mind that
in a previous paper read to the Club mention was made of the
connection of Cordaites with coal.

Sir Witt1am Dawson’s method of examining the mineral
was to submit pieces containing the tissue of a single plant to
the action of boiling nitric acid, the residue being washed
and submitted to microscopic examination. Mr CarrurHers
obtained his information from certain mud-balls in the British
Museum, said to have been derived from seams of coal in
which Mr Carrutuers finds the remains of carboniferous forest
growth. Mr Weruerep objects to both of these processes as
giving unreliable results as to the nature of coal in general,
and appeals to the evidence of recent bogs to show how future

coal-deposits are accumulating at the present day. In a recent

peat-bog, the vegetation which constitutes the mass of the bog
is formed by the peat-mossess (Sphegnacee). Growing on the
top, however, are Conifers and other trees.. Such a bog being
submerged, would pass from peat to lignite, and thence to coal;
such coal would contain the trunks of trees; but were it thence
to be concluded that the coal owed its origin to the trees, a
very erroneous idea would be formed. Mr Weruerep objected
to Sir Wi11am Dawson’s method of selecting a portion as
representative of the mass, and likewise to the treatment in
boiling nitric acid, which must ensure loss and destruction of
substance and structure.

ou _—— — ee ———

239

Seams of coal are spoken of as if they consist of a solid and
uninterrupted mass of mineral, and this is often true in cases
of thin seams; but for the most part seams are found to be
_ made up of more than one layer, separated by earthy partings ;
from which it is clear that in the case of thick seams there is a
break or breaks in the accumulation of the mass. Next, as to
_ microscopic structure. If we examine a piece of coal we find it
to be built up of layers, which may be divided into bright and
j dull layers. In the latter, as a rule, the spores of plants are
met with ; some indeed may be said to be made up of them. In
the bright layers, and in bright coals generally, these bodies
are less numerous, and wood tissue becomes more abundant.

Of the spores themselves there are two kinds, macrospores and
microspores. Assuming that they belong to plants allied to the
Lycopodiacee, it is clear that they cannot belong to the Lycopo-
diec, as the latter have but one kind of spore. The Selaginellee is
the only other family of the Lycopodiacee which are terrestrial
plants. They have macrospores and microspores, and are
considered by Mr Carruruers to be represented in carbonife-
‘rous times by Triplosporites (Brown), but it is a question yet to

be decided whether the coal plants were allied to that genus.
There is another class of plants belonging to the Lycopodiacee ;
these are the Isdetee which are of aquatic growth, and they
have macrospores and microspores, which are very similar in
appearance to those detected in coal.

Coming to the cretaceous coal, the specimens of which were
collected by the lecturer from a cretaceous coal or lignite,
_which extends under a portion of the third Prairie Steppe of
the north-west of Canada. It is difficult on inspection to
believe that one is not looking at carboniferous coal; there are
the bright and dull layers well defined, which at once suggests
a like mode of deposition. The bright layers show, on
microscopical examination, the same structureless material as

240

plants. In the dull layers, wood tissue is met with, but the
specimens are too much decomposed to admit of drawing any
conclusion from them. The cretaceous coals are, however a
confirmation of what has been before stated in respect of the
carboniferous coals, namely, that they have been accumulated
‘in much the same way as the lignites and peat bogs of more
recent times, further modified by time and pressure.

Professor Harxer had examined the slides prepared by Mr
WETHERED, and was of opinion that the spores are more nearly
allied to those of the Iséetew than to those of the other families
of Lycopods.

The paper was illustrated by a fine series of diagrams, while
three or four microscopes on the table enabled the members to
verify the forms, of which the diagrams presented enlarged
representations.

THE THIRD WINTER MERTING
of the Club for the season was held in

GLOUCESTER

on Wednesday, March 11th, in the present year, when a paper
was read by Professor Harker on “ The Habits of some
Annelids found in Gloucestershire.”

This paper arose out of certain queries addressed to the
lecturer in the spring of last year by the President of the Club,
whose attention had been called to the subject by a lady who
had collected a quantity of these obscure forms of animal life
from an adjoining pond. This animal, the tubifex rivulorwm,
is of common occurrence in the mud of ponds and streams; it is
of a red colour, from one inch to an inch-and-a-half in length.
Where it is prevalent it colours the mud red, but so sensitive is
it that the stamping of a foot in the neighbourhood will cause
the whole colony to disappear, in which action it withdraws to
such a depth and with such rapidity that it is not easy to

241

_ obtain specimens for examination. Professor Harxer finds
two species inhabiting the mud, one selecting decayed vegeta-
_ tion, and another very active and handsome, dwelling in the
_ eolonies of Spirogyra and Vaucheria in canals and lakes. He
- described at some length the anatomy of the species. He then
described his experiments and observations made on the worms
when kept in tanks in the laboratory of the College at Ciren-
cester. The result of his experiments led him to conclude that
_ the Tubifex rivulorum does not make tubes of any kind, though
all writers on the subject, notably Donner, Lamarcr, and
D’Upexem have described it as a tube maker. He explained in
detail his reasons for arriving at this conclusion. The life-
history of these small annelids is, owing to their habits, a
_ matter of some difficulty ; indeed, the investigations can hardly
be carried on by continuous observations under natural con-
ditions. Professor Harxrr stated that he had caused some
tanks to be fitted up, with a view to carry on such observations,
and he hoped to have some further remarks to communicate to
the Club on a subsequent occasion.

— Mr Wircuett exhibited a nodule from the Inferior Oolite
of the neighbourhood of Stroud, which, on being fractured,
revealed the ink-bog of a Sepia.

THE FOURTH WINTER MEETING
of the Club for the season was held on Tuesday, March 31st, in
GLOUCESTER,

when a paper was read by Mr Francis Day, F.L.S., entitled,
Notes on the Breeding of the Salmonide.”’ Mr Day observed

that although he had been favoured with permission to visit
regularly the experiments in fish culture now being conducted

at Howietoun, N.B., he had arrived at the conclusion that he
might, with very simple apparatus, carry out additional experi-
ments of his own at Cheltenham. The object of his experi-
nents was to ascertain—(l.) Can Salmon spawn in the sea?
(2.) Are the eggs of fishes of the same species identical in size,
no matter the age and weight of the parent, and if they differ,

s 2

242

on what does such difference depend? (3.) Are all the eggsin _
any one fish of the same size? and (4.) What is a Par? The .
apparatus employed consisted of a paraffin cask having a tap
near its lower end, a supply tank made of deal, and two
hatching-trays, all the foregoing being charred inside and .
painted externally with Brunswick Black; these, with an extra
tub to contain a further supply of water, a bucket and a leech-
glass as an egg-picker, constituted the whole of the articles
used, which were raised to their proper positions on old empty
boxes in an unused coach-house. On November 28th he
received from Howietoun 500 eggs of the Loch Leven trout,
which had been spawned on the previous day; these were sent
by rail, and, on arrival, the end of the cigar-box in which they
were contained was found to have been broken in, and a
portion of the cover cracked, owing to the rough usage which
it had met with in transit. The eggs were in layers on muslin,
packed in damp moss; and as it has been asserted that injury
to the eggs during the first few days after they have been
taken, is likely to cause malformation or monstrosities in the
young, it is worthy of remark that in only one instance was
such effect perceived, and in that one the young fish had two
heads, but still lives. On February 17th, being the 82nd day, ~
eleven hatched in the trays, and one on the 20th, while on
visiting the trays upon the following morning the young were
all found dead and the waters smelt strongly of paraffin; so all

was at once thrown out, and fresh used; the cask which was
suspected of being the cause, was rejected. On the 22nd some
hundreds of young fish presented themselves, and they con-
tinued hatching until the 29th. As so many have described the
appearance of the young fish when just hatched, a detailed
account was not gone into, but a coloured diagram was exhi-
bited, giving in a highly magnified form the appearance of the
salmon on the day of hatching. The young fish mostly come
into the world head first, the egg splitting down the back, but
in one instance the young was choked before it could make its
exit. Another young fish emerging tail first, had its head
caught in the shell, and there for five days was held a prisoner,

243

like a cat with its head in a stocking, but was relieved by a
sharp pair of scissors. In order to ascertain whether light
exercised any deleterious effect upon eggs, several were
_ placed upon a white earthenware palette in a hatching-tray, the
cover of which was removed, but in due time all of them
hatched. It has been from time to time promulgated that
_ Salmon can spawn in the sea; in fact, one of the luminaries
of the Scottish bar, distinguished for his grave eloquence,
declared that were all the rivers in the kingdom blocked up,
E they could then be forced to spawn in the sea. Here, then, was a
_ question that seemed worthy of investigation, so having, through
the kindness of a friend, obtained salt water from Weston-
_ super-Mare, it was employed for this purpose, dilution being
_ effected by means of pump water. On January 9th, 1885, two
eggs of Loch Leven trout were placed in a pint tumbler of sea
water, having a specific gravity of 1,019 degrees; there were
2h inches of water above the eggs, while the tumbler was
placed in a hatching-trough, through which water was kept
flowing, but not sufficiently deep to reach more than two-
thirds of the distance up the outside of the glass; this water
was changed daily. They were dead in 48 hours. This experi-
ment was repeated on the 21st, but they succumbed in about
‘Ak days. On January 23rd two more Loch Leven trout eggs
were similarly placed in saline water standing at 1,012 degrees;
they lingered on but never hatched. January 24th two more
e ges were placed in a tumbler of brackish water diluted to
1,008 degrees, and treated as the preceding ones; on the 28th
‘one hatched, and on March Ist the other, but scarcely in a
normal manner. First the yolk-sac appeared, and, when the
little one emerged, it was found to have dropsy, and lived only
afew days. As dropsy of the sac is a disease due to want of
vi ality, and as this was the only fish so affected, it is reason-
able to conclude that the residence of the egg in brackish water
had proved detrimental to the vigour of the offspring. To make
ure that the plan adopted had not been injurious, two Loch
Leven Trout-eggs were placed in a tumbler of fresh water, and
hatched in due course. Salmon eggs having likewise been
received from Howietoun, showed results very similar to those

244

from trout. On January 18th three Salmon-eggs were placed
in tumblers of salt water at 1,021 degrees; all were dead in
three days. On the 22nd this was repeated, but none survived
the third day. On the 19th three were placed in salt water at
1,012 degrees, and died in three days and two hours. On the
28th this was repeated, but the eggs were dead at the end of
the fourth day. On the same day two more eggs were placed
in brackish water at 1,007 degrees, but they died in four days.
This was repeated on February 1st,and on the 9th one hatched
and the other was alive. On the 18th and 21st two eggs were
placed in tumblers of fresh water, and hatched out in due
course. In the report of the Commission on the Salmon
Fisheries in 1824, we find witnesses asserting, as did Mr
Srravenson, that “there cannot be a doubt that Salmon spawn
in the sea;” but Mr Hocarrs tried the experiment in 1824,
and found that such treatment was fatal to them. Sir Jonny
Marueson, in 1861-62, again tried the experiment, but it
failed; and Dr Joun Davy, employing a solution of common
salt at 1,007 degrees, found some alive on the fourth day.
Brown dropped some eggs into sea water, and they at once
turned white and died; and Sinctarr’s endeavours met with
no better success. Respecting the size of the eggs of these
fishes, we find that in 1767 Harmer wrote in the transactions
of the Royal Society a paper on the “‘ Fecundity of Fishes,”
remarking that the size of the eggs is nearly the same in great
and small fishes of the same species at the same time of the
year; others have asserted that the size of those of each species
is unvarying. Professor Matmeren, in 1862, ventured to assert
that the salmon in the Scandinavian lakes were a land-locked
race, the relicts of some which in a former condition of the
country had been able to migrate into the glacial ocean; and
among other things, that they were smaller in size, and gave
eggs which were less than those normally seen in the salmon.
A celebrated museum ichthyologist snubbed the unfortunate
professor in a way it is not worth while to repeat, while the
poor man was probably in the right. Then M. Buancuarp, in
1866, tells us that the eggs of the grilse are smaller than those
of the salmon. Livineston-Stone states that brook trout on

245

_ limestone formation, which means a diminished food supply,
give eggs much smaller than those of more highly-favoured
localities, while it has been conclusively proved at Howietoun
that their size increases with the age of the parent, so long as
their fertility is unchecked ; while in every fish about five per
ent. of the eggs are below the average size; also that the
thickness of the shell (zona radiata) of the egg increases with
_ the increased age of the mother. It has been proved at Howie-
toun that larger eggs give quicker-growing offspring ; con-
sequently, those who wish to obtain the finest forms should
obtain them from where care and attention are paid to the
segregation of the parents. At Howietoun the old trout give
eggs the same size as do the grilse.

_ The last subject entered upon was, “What is a Par?”
This is a question on which learned divines, lawyers, doctors,
naturalists, magistrates, and poachers, have all differed, and
which difference has caused the arousal of a vast amount of ill
blood, and all because no one would take the trouble to hatch
out a few salmon eggs, and trace the various phases through
which the fish passes. It was not until Mr Saw did this
that science became satisfied, but even then some individuals,

History and even in law books. Also how at Howietoun, in 1880,
eges of salmon were obtained and hatched in the establishment,
and in 1884 eggs and milt were taken from fish so reared, which
had never gone to the sea, and now over 2,500 young fish have
emerged from those eggs. Mr Day also exhibited under the
microscope scales of the par, smolt or grilse, and of the salmon,
showing that the scale of the par is not so broad as are those of
its older relatives. He also showed the micropyle of the eggs
of the salmon and trout, the first having depressions around
the orifice, but not so the trout in any of its varieties.

_ This terminates the records of our proceedings during the
yast season, which, I venture to say, compares favourably with
its predecessors, and manifests no falling off in the energy and
activity of the Cotteswold Club.

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Paper on the late Discovery in the Kingswood Coal-field. Read by
Hanpet Cossuam before the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field
Club, August 12th, 1884.

The Bristol Coal-field, and especially the northern portions
of that field, is a very complicated piece of Geology—very
difficult to read accurately—and has had repeatedly to be
‘re-written, in order to conform it with ascertained facts, and
make it consistent with new discoveries. My business relations
have brought me into close, and constant, contact with the
Geological problems of this portion of the county; and I
‘onfess that the endeavours to unravel the Geological intricacies
the country lying between Bristol on the south, and

It has been my singular good fortune to make one or
two discoveries that have considerably extended the boun-
daries of the Coal-field, and of laic under tribute large
quantities of valuable mineral, where such deposits were not
supposed to exist.

_ Iclaim no particular credit for this; it has been the result
the fortunate, and favorable, position in which I have been
placed for making observations, and conducting under-ground
investigations.

Some twenty years ago I challenged the accuracy of the
xeological Maps of this district, which up to that time showed
large development of Millstone Grit (or Farewell Rock) that
as supposed to have been protruded across the. Coal-field
etween Bristo] and Wick, and by proving that this supposed
fillstone Grit was only one of the Silicious Sand Stones of
he Coal Measures lying between, and dipping conformably with,
ttain well known beds of Coal that lie below the Pennant

248

rock, made room for the supposition which has since proved to
be correct, namely, that the Coal-bearing strata extended south
of Kingswood and St. George, under the river Avon, and on
(so far as I know) continuously to -the Mendip Hills. That
discovery has had an important bearing on the mining industry
of this district, and will help, in the future, to unlock the mineral
resources of the neighbouring county of Somerset south of the
Avon. .

But to-day it is my good fortune to be able to tell you of a
discovery I have lately made that will, I think, have a much
more important bearing on the future mining industry of this
district than the one I have already referred to.

And first, let me trace the steps by which I have been
able to make the discovery which I am about to explain; and
to make it quite clear I must ask you to remember that the
Kingswood section of the Bristol Coal-field contains the most
ancient Coal workings not only of this county, but probably
they are older than those of South Wales, Somerset, or
Dean Forest. We have authentic records of Coal workings
as far back as 1371, when Epwarp III issued a mandate to the
Keepers of the Chase of Kingswood to allow Epwarp the son
of Huexu Buunt, Lord of the Manor of Bitton, to take, sell,
and carry away wood, gorse, and sea Coat found within the
demesne, and by the second half of the 17th century I see
by a map (that has passed to me as Lord of the Manor) that
in the year 1672 there were no less than seventy small Coal
pits at work in the Chase of Kingswood.

The workings down to the early part of this century were,
of course, confined to shallow depths, chiefly drained by levels
into the Avon or the Frome rivers, and were mainly confined
to the upper section of the seams now working in the district.

About fifty years ago the Great Vein Series was discovered,
and have been largely worked ever since on the south dip and
over a considerable area.

Some time ago I resolved to explore the whole of the area —
(about 2500 acres,) the mineral freehold of which I purchased _
some years ago. To do this I commenced an exploring drift to —

249

the south, at a depth of sixty-eight fathoms from my Belgium
pit, to cut the upper section of seams that lie over the ordinary
Kingswood series and between those and the Pennant rock;
at the same time I started a drift to the north, at a depth
of 500 yards from the bottom of Speedwell pit; and it is the
discovery made by the latter, or north drift, from Speedwell,
that I now venture to lay before you.

For some 200 yards this drift was driven in strata nearly
upright, and exhibited traces of great disturbance and enor-
mous lateral pressure, and in fact the whole of the Kingswood
district has in past workings exhibited proofs of enormous
disturbance and displacement, chiefly, as I some time ago
explained in a paper which I published, having been produced
by lateral pressure, and not by vertical movement.

I should explain that my object in driving this under-
ground tunnel was to strike, as I expected, the lower or Ashton
series of veins—in other words, the lowest section of seams in
_ the Coal-field. With the assistance of a Section which two of
the students of our Bristol Mining School have prepared, [|
_ shall be able to show you the steps by which I have reached
the discovery we have lately made. Some 250 yards north of
Speedwell pit we cut a seam of Coal about two feet four inches
thick, in an upright position, and for a long time I sup-
posed this to be the first of the lower, or Ashton, series of
_ veins.

But extending the drift some 50 to 100 yards farther to the
‘north we found the strata became horizontal, and we struck a
second seam of Coal, in several separate beds, the thickest of
which was about twenty inches thick. For some time I sup-
posed this vein to be a second vein in the lower or Ashton series ;
but after following the vein for some 50 to 100 yards I found
that it was one of our old Great Vein group that had been
worked 300 to 350 yards overhead up to the eater of the
vein, near the surface.

I hesitated for a long time to accept the conclusions to
which this fact pointed, it was so difficult to explain or account
for, that I resolved before coming to any decided conclusion
T 2

250

to drive cross measure drifts to the veins above and below,
so as to prove the fact beyond doubt, before accepting it
myself, or announcing it to others. I accordingly drove to the
proper distance below this second vein, (known as the Giller’s
End Vein) and in the roof of which there is always found a
particular, and remarkable bed of strata, known in the district
as the “worm bed,” and which we found in its proper position
above this vein. I also knew that if I was correct in my opinion
I should find at a distance of some thirty yards vertical above
this vein the splendid seam, or bed of Coal, known as the
Kingswood Great Vein (and which I have no doubt is the equi-
valent of the celebrated four feet Aberdare Steam Coal Vein.)
Accordingly I drove a drift across Measures, (as it is called)
and on the 21st of last February discovered the vein known as
the Kingswood Great Vein, lying in splendid situ, and an aver-
age of about five feet thick or from that to five feet six inches.
Since that time I have been driving on these veins north,
east, south and west, and find that Iam on the floor of the
eriginal Coal-field, with a gentle dip to the west and rise to the
east of from three to six inches to the yard, and apparently
extending to the north and east far beyond the bounds of my
mineral estate. Ido not want to trouble you with anything
that is merely personal and commercial, but I am sure you will
pardon me for saying that not the least interesting feature of
this discovery to me is, that it has revealed the existence of
from eight to ten million tons of magnificent Steam Coal in
my mineral estate that I had no expectation of having, and that
I can see clearly that for the next fifty to a hundred years at
least the Collieries I work can go on landing a large quantity
of splendid coal, at a cost that will enable those who work
them to hold their ground against all competitors, come from
where they may, and thus continue to develop one of the
important industries of the district.
2nd. I now come to the more interesting and important
enquiry as to how this Coal-field (and which I believe will prove
to be the original floor of the district, though never seen or
worked before this year) came to be found lying in the position I

251

have described. One thing you may take as proved beyond all
controversy, namely, the seams of Coal we have found are the
same seams that have been worked, under considerable difficulty,
_ the last fifty years, arising from the dislocated and disturbed
character of the district, and which have been worked for
_ hundreds of yards to the north, over the head of the veins we
have lately discovered.

That being the proved and ascertained fact, the aid of the
Geologist, and Scientist, is required to account for and explain
the phenomena before us; and I now venture to give you the
best explanation I can, and ask your criticism and aid in trying
to solve the problem with which we are confronted.

The only explanation that I can give is this,—

That there has been in the past history of this district a
time when the whole of the Paleozoic strata, including the Coal
Measures, have been pushed by some force exerted on the south
bodily over the top of the Coal-field of the district; and, strange
-asit may sound, I believe it to be strictly true, that though
_ this Kingswood Chase Coal-field has been worked more or less
for some four or five centuries, the real Coal-field, or rather the
original level of the Coal-field, has never been seen before the
year 1884. It seems bold and almost rash for me to say this;
but Iam so satisfied that I am correct that if I were starting
life again and had £100,000 to spare, I would willingly risk it
on the correctness of this opinion. Fortunately, however, I
have no need of expending any great amount of money to
develop this new Coal-field, for, by singular good luck, my pits,
machinery, and general arrangements, could not have been
better placed for working this new field, if I had laid them
out with that object, and with special regard to the state of
things recently discovered.

If I am right in the opinion I have given, I must accept the
responsibility of pointing out the probable centre and focus of
the force that has thus pushed the Coal-field and all the inter-

I can spot the site of the force that has led to this remarkable
seological phenomenon.

252

The Mendip Hills, as you know, form the southern boundary
of the Bristol Coal-field, but our distinguished President,
Sir Wm. Guise, Mr Erxeriper, and myself, were able two or

three years ago, to gather proofs from the rocks of Carrington —

Park, near Bridgwater, that those rocks, which had previously
been regarded as Devonian Limestone, were, after all, the Car-
boniferous Limestone, though in a highly crystalline condition,
and very sparse of fossil remains. Being, however, genuine
Mountain Limestone, they show almost certainly the existence
of a Coal-field south of the Mendips.

My object in referring to this is to recall your attention to
a fact that was proved by our friend Mr Ernerinesr and the late
Mr Cuartes Moors, of Bath, beyond all question, namely,
that the Mendips were lifted after the deposition of the Coal
Measures, but prior to the deposition of the Secondary Rocks;
and that when those Hills were thrust up by the volcanic force
that in some portions has pushed the lava right through the
Limestone and Old Red Sandstone, the whole country to the
north, and possibly to the south as well, was thrust forward.

We know at Radstock, five miles north of the Mendips, this
thrust has given Lady Wa.preerave a double deposit of the
Radstock or Upper Series of Veins. We must, however, I think
look for the force that has thrust the Kingswood Coal-field
over itself at a nearer point than the Mendip Hills; and I think
if you will look at the enormous development of Carboniferous
Limestone at Blackdown, Bourton, and in that district, we shall
see the seat of the force that has caused this displacement.

It is singular and exceedingly interesting to note the effect
of this thrust to which I am calling attention. If you will look
at the map you will see that south of where we stand the river
Avon has been pushed a mile to the north out of its natural
course—by the same force (as I think) that has thrust the Coal-
field over itself. And I happen to know that two or three miles
below Bristol the level course of the seams of Coal, in the
Coal-field, has been turned almost at right angles to its regular
course by the same upheaval of Carboniferous Limestone and
the displacement caused thereby; and the level course of the

Ries

253

workings on the south dip of the Coal-field at Kingswood, at a
great depth, follows the remarkable bends in the river Avon to
_ which I have called your attention; thus showing, as I think,
pretty conclusively, that the force that has caused the one has
produced the other; and I also know that the level course of
_ the workings at the south liberty of the Ashton Colliery has
been turned round by the same cause.
Allow me, Sir Wix114m, in conclusion, to apologize for the
imperfect way in which I have, I fear, explained this, to me,
intensely interesting problem. It is one that will have a
very important influence on the future of this district; and, as
you well know, it is associated with an industry upon which
the future of our country largely depends. Whenever England’s
mineral resources fail, her commercial supremacy must end,
therefore every discovery that widens the area, and increases
_ the extent, of our mineral resources should be regarded with
interest.
_ The very pleasant visits to our district that you and the
Cotteswold Naturalist Field Club have occasionally paid us
have left on my mind such sunny memories that I felt that
to-day you would allow me to place my first contribution rela-
tive to this recent discovery in our Coal-field at your service,
with a hope that you may long continue the President of the
Club, and that you may always be surrounded by the distin-
guished gentlemen you have round you to-day.

Southerndown, Dunraven and Bridgend Beds. Read before the
Cotteswold Club, Nov. 16th, 1884, by W. C. Lucy, F.G.S.

In the Autumn of 1867 the Cotteswold Club met at
Bridgend, and under the able guidance of our President, Dr
Wricxt, Mr Erurriper, Mr Cuas. Moors and the Rev. W. S.
Symonps spent two days in examining the sections of the
district, in order to form an opinion of the position of the
beds, which had been rather warmly contested by Messrs Moors,
Tawney, Duncan, and Bristow; and the result of the investi-
gation is recorded as follows, in the President’s able address
for March 1868 (Volume IV, 1866-68.)

“The Grey beds, forming the so-called Southerndown series,
immediately underlie the Bucklandi beds, and are themselves
an abnormal development of the zone of Ammonites angulatus,
which fossil is found throughout, of all sizes from that of
a crown piece to that of a small cart wheel.

“At the base of these beds, immediately above the White
Sutton-stone, was found Am. Johnstoni, the ribbed representa-
tive of Am. planorbis, and probably marking the same horizon.
The White Sutton beds were considered by a majority of those
present to represent the White Lias, though Mr Moors insisted
strongly on their true Liassic character, and was certain he had
taken Am. angulatus in situ, out of these beds; but the most
searching investigation failed, upon the present occasion, to
establish that point.”

In July, 1883, accompanied by Mr Tuos. Starrer and Mr
R. F. Tomzs, we spent eight days in the district, making our ~
quarters first at Bridgend, and afterwards at Southerndown. —

255

Mr Tomes suggested the excursion, as he was anxious to re-
examine the beds, which he had visited two or three times
before, once with Mr Moors, and with the special object of
collecting Corals, and to see what Paleontological evidence they
would give on the subject of this debateable area, and which he
has since shown, in an exceedingly carefully written paper,
communicated to the Geological Society on the 19th of March,
1884, which is published in the Quarterly Jowrnal for August in
the same year; and his views, I am glad to find, are in accord-
ance with my own observations.

We took with us the papers of Messrs Moorsz,* Bristow,t
Tawney,{ Duncay,§ and’ Tars,|| carefully reading them on the
spot, and we arrived at the conclusion, with the exception of
Tare’s, (which is purely Paleontological) they were rather too
controversial, and that the Geology had yet to be satisfactorily
worked out.

I first visited the beds near to the Railway Station at
Bridgend, which show a great development of Lower Lias, and
in Mr Moore’s section he has divided them into 476. In three
places the Clinometer gave the dip to be 23° 20° and 17° to
the south east. Saw a large Am. sauwzianus ; and when with
the Club in 1877, it was from this section I found the fine
specimen of Am. angulatus, which is now in the Ammonite case
at the Gloucester Museum.

Mr Tawney has certainly fallen into an error in describing
this section as Middle Lias, as it clearly belongs to the Lower
Lias beds. . ;

The next day by train to Cefn Station, and from there
walked over a high ridge of Millstone Grit, and descended on
_ the other side to the Stormy Cement Works, a distance of about
two miles. The surface the whole way was fairly covered with
large boulders of the same formation.

= Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. XXIII, p. 449, 1867.
Toy ” " uw Vol. XXIII, p. 199, 1867.
eT " ” » Vol. XXII, p. 69, 1866.

Siva. " ” » Vol. XXIII, p. 12, 1867.
cama " ” w Vol. XXIII, p. 305, 1867.

256

The beds in this Section are most important, as giving the
key to explain the coast sections, and show a good exposure
from the Keuper Marls to the Planorbis and Johnstoni beds;
and I believe the Conglomerate is the same bed as is seen at
the coast. (See Section A.)

Mr Bristow admits at p. 204 of his paper that the lowest
bed but one represents the White Lias. The fracture of the
stone resembles the Estheria bed, but both belong to the Rhetic
series. This Section is so important that I cannot forbear, at
the risk of repetition, from giving an extract from Mr Tomzs’s
paper :—

“The regular succession of the lower beds of the Lias and the upper
ones of the Rhetic formation is very clearly shown. The Conglomerate
takes exactly the place beneath the Ostrea-beds, and, if I am right in my
determination, the precise position above the Estheria beds which is proper to
the White Lias or its admitted equivalent. At any rate the mere fact of its
occurrence under beds which cannot be otherwise than the Ostrea beds must
be taken as indubitable evidence of its position below the. Hettangian series
of beds. My own conviction is that the Conglomerate bed is the true repre-
sentative of the Sutton-stone of Sutton and West, of the Guinea bed of
Binton and Grafton, in Warwickshire, and of the White Lias of that county
and the west of England. A comparison of the Section at Stormy with the
lower part of the Section I have elsewhere given of the Binton Lias* will
show how considerable is the resemblance between the two.”

Walked on to Lalestone, and saw a considerable quantity of
drift on the surface of the ground. The boulders were still of
Millstone grit. In the churchyard there is a small quarry
mentioned by Mr Moors, and which is now nearly filled up with
rubbish. The upper beds belong to the Ostrea series, and I found
in them Ostrea liassica. Underneath are the Conglomerate beds,
again showing they are below the Hettangian series. About
half way from Lalestone to Bridgend, near the toll-bar, is a
quarry in the Bucklandi beds, which will well repay examination.

Brocastle is clearly marked on the map on the road from
Bridgend to Cowbridge, but the quarry is some distance from
the few houses which form the village, and I had some difficulty
in finding it. Mr Tomss visited it with Mr Moors, and thought

* Quart. Journ. of the Geol. Soc., Vol. XXXIV, p. 182.

SECTION A.
STORMY CEMENT WORKS.

Deter mirn tarcé Boutoers of Munsrone bpir
RESTING UPON A Wurte LIMESTONE IN PLACES

MUCH BROKEN UP BY DENUDATION.

LIMESTONES DIVIDED BY A BED OF SHALE,
IW BOTH ANMONITES, IMPERFECT, PROBABLY
PLANOREIS AND SOKNSTON/

Béos of Grey LIMESTONE WITH

THIN BANDS OF SHALE.

Compact LIMESTONE.

LIMESTONE WITH
Osrrea.

OSTREALIASSICA

FESEMBLING THE
WARWICKSHIRE HIRESTONE
CONGLOMERATE LIKE THE
Warmcnswure Gumta Béo

ESTHERIA.

- ~ -
CAR: | yourareo cree
MARLS

BELLOWS, /EFSO3,

“Sahin ©

257

a good deal had been since taken away. It is on the slope of a
small hill rising about eighty feet above the flat ground of Lias,
and rests upon the Mountain Limestone, but it was clear to my
mind that it was merely a large mass of drift; indeed it has
that appearance in Mr Moore’s figure, page 521, Quart. Journ.,
Dec., 1867. Thence to St. Mary’s Hill Common. It was a long
time before we could find Termydd, which lies a little west of
the Common, to which we were at last directed by the Clergy-
man, two of whose parishioners we had before asked, but they
were both so deaf that we could not make them understand.
It is referred to by Mr Bristow, page 204, as containing Sutton
stone, and as beds intermediate between the ordinary Lias and
Carboniferous Limestone. He gives the dip as 25° in a direc-
tion west of south. I confess I could not satisfy myself as to
_ the position of these beds.

On to Paulline, and from there walked to Cwrt, near which
are the old lead mines, and in a wood near the Rhetic shales
come up to the surface. On the way back to Bridgend, at
Tythegstone, there is a quarry in the grounds of the Rev. G.
Kyieut, which appears to be Dolomitic Conglomerate.

About a mile and a half from Bridgend is Angleton, where
there is a quarry, out of which the new Lunatic Asylum, close

to, was built. There are cappings of Millstone Grit drift, and
underneath are some apparently Rhetic shales: then comes
the building stone, which Mr Tawyey. regarded as the base of
the Keuper, but which Bristow says represents the upper part
of the Rhetic, and explains (in p. 205 of his paper) that “the
replacement by Sandstones of the ordinary Calcareous and
_ muddy sediments of which the Rhetic series is generally com-
posed indicates here a coast-line and shallow water,” but without
expressing a definite opinion, I am inclined to accept Mr
- Tawney’s view.

Crossed the Ogmore by the bridge, and on returning to
Bridgend, passing along the bank of the river, in the bed the
_ Rheetics are again seen, and within half a mile of Bridgend is
the-Quarella quarry, the top covered with a thick bed of drift,
underneath which are Rhetic shales of about three feet,

258

succeeded by a hard good building stone like that at Angleton,
fully thirty feet thick, and the lower part is used for grindstones.
These beds certainly seem to belong to the Keuper.

Left Bridgend for Southerndown, and proceeded from thence
to Sutton. Near the point where the Sutton stone ends, before
getting on the Mountain Limestone, found a very fossiliferous
bed, seven feet from the surface, very compact, and apparently
near the bottom, as we could only get five feet below it, con-
taining in great abundance EHlysastrea fischeri. It had all the
character of a reef, and many of the corals were converted into
Carbonate of Lime. In the bed underneath they also occur,
but not to the same extent. Pecten Suttonensis abounded in
both beds, and Ostrea interstriata was fairly abundant; also
some lead and Chalcedony. |

At Dunraven Point, about half way round the corner east,
there is an arch, showing, in a very instructive manner, the
Conglomerate resting on the Mountain Limestone, with which
in some places it is intermixed; and a short distance further on
nodules of the Limestone occur in the Conglomerate. A line
of fault is afterwards seen, which appears to pass through or
near where the Castle stands, and when the fault is down on
the coast the beds become very deceptive, and what at first
sight appears to be the Conglomerate is altered Lias, with
Conglomerate in it. It much resembles the Sutton stone
Conglomerate, which Messrs Bristow and Tawnry considered
it to be; it also contains nodules of Carboniferous Limestone.
From some of the Lima beds large blocks have fallen on the
shore, showing four courses like jointed masonry, as distinctly
as if the several layers were laid by masons. The true position .
of the junction of the Conglomerate and the Lias is best seen
ina cave just west of a shake in the beds, and, owing to it,
the Lias beds are brought down and occupy a lower position
than the Conglomerate; hence I believe the reason of some
discrepancies in the reading of the beds by some who have
described them.

Having examined the Sutton stone from west of Sutton to a
point east where we could not proceed further, owing to the then

ROSery “SMOTITe

Y7LYy HOLY

TINOLSTWI] = SNOYTHNOGHY)

—ISVP FHL STYUMOL ALVYFIWOTINO)) AYIA FNOL 4 NOLLNGE

SECTION: C.

NEAR TO THE Caves WEST.

50 - 60 LiaAs BEDS.
fucolb BEDS
=. oO BEDS MORE DENSE ONLY SLIGHTLY
- | LWIWATED, SHOWING CHANGED
| CONDITIONS WITH MUCH CHERT.
oo ConcLomerare LIMESTONE
(suTrow)
9 oO

| Careomeseus
LMESTONE.

SeLLows 434503

eee

‘INOLSTWIT SLIOYTSINOGY VD
‘INOLS NOLLNS

‘STINVD LVIH9 SO LSIM SOKA OF
“d. NOtLDg9S

SECTION E.

HALF WAY FROM THE CAVES TO THE ROAD
FROM DUNRAVEN TO THE SHORE.

Lima BEobs.

PROBABLY
ANGULATUS.

FULL OF
\ Grrenea incur

Cowetoncranic Las
(MUCH LUKE
—| THE SUTTON STONE)
CONTAINING
_ OYSTERS AND
Woon.

SLLOWS, 158503

259

state of the tide, we selected low water to fill up the gap from
there to the caves, and thence eastward to the opening of the
Combe near Dunraven. (See Section B, west of the caves.)

A little further to the west from there is a remarkable bed
of brownish clay stone, which, when I first saw it, I took to be
Rheetic, as it looked much like the beds in Ogmore river, north
of Bridgend. The bed above and below is Carboniferous Lime-
stone, and [ found in ita fossil of that formation,—another
instance of how deceptive the beds are in this area.

Now proceeding eastward, near the west of the cave is
Section marked C, which is important, as showing so well the
position of the fucoid bed, a very marked horizon. Further
on there is a section where the Sutton stone has overlapped the
Carboniferous Limestone, and comes down to the shore; it
occurs thirty yards west of the centre of the opening to the
Great Cave. (Section D.)

Hast of the cave is an upheaval or mass of Carboniferous
Limestone, and I observed, as we went more eastward, the beds
become greyer and more Conglomeratic, (Southerndown series)
and which seems to me to be owing to the old sea having
washed over, denuded, and carried forward what was once a
high surface of Carboniferous Limestone. There is a very
marked change in the condition of the beds east and west from
this point. Nowa great difficulty occurs in tracing the beds
eastward, owing to the change of dip and slight faults or shakes
in the cliff.

About half way between the caves and the road from
Southerdown, which comes down to the shore at Dunraven,
the Lias beds dip at a considerable angle from the cliff, and at

_ low water are down on the shore; and this has, I believe, caused
_ error on the part of some writers on the subject, not being able

to distinguish and follow the beds, and consequently not seeing

_ their true position, they might readily be mistaken for Sutton

stone. (See Section E.)
On a careful examination of the bottom bed the colour is
found to be darker than it appears at first sight, and when

broken it shows its true Liassic character.

260

Ll agree with Mr Bristow that you cannot separate Sutton
stone and Conglomerate, in the way Mr Tawney has done it,
and also that the measurements of thickness by the former are
accurate, viz. 35 to 37 feet. I made it 36, while Mr Tawney
shows 89:9. I cannot, however, bring my mind to consider the
lower series of Sutton stone west of the caves as true Lias, and
I believe it represents the White Lias, and that the lower bed
at the Stormy Cement Works is the same. We certainly found
neither Ammonites nor Gryphea incurva in it. There were many
sections of shells which might be mistaken for them, but we
believed they were probably Ostrea wirregularis. The Pecten
Suttonensis and Ostrea interstriata abounded, and higher up I
found a good Modiola, much like those occurring at Westbury cliff.

With regard to the evidence of the beds as furnished by
the corals in the long list of Madreporia which Mr Tomes has
made in his communication to the Quarterly Journal of the
Geological Society, and which, with his permission, I have given
at the end of this paper, it will be seen that nearly all the
species hitherto determined from the White Lias are also St.
Cassian species, the only exception being Montlivaltia Rhetica
and the branching Thecosmislia from Long Sutton; also that
a certain number of St. Cassian and White Lias are common
to those formations and to the Sutton stone, but that none
of them occur in the Brocastle Conglomerate. Furthermore a
most important difference will be observed between the coral
faunas of the Sutton stone and Brocastle, not a single species
being common to both.

Paleontological evidence of the age of the Sutton stone
would, no doubt, be conclusive, if no uncertainty existed
respecting the precise spot from which the fossils were obtained,
but the difficulty of collecting them, excepting corals, and
the doubt as to their position, owing to the diversity of opinion
of the several collectors respecting the definition of the Sutton
stone proper, diminishes very greatly the value of their evidence.

Mr Tomes mentions in his paper in the Quart. Journ., p. 361,
“that Mr Moors has expressed the opinion that a great thick-
ness of Conglomerate exists below the Sutton stone. This, he

261

believed, might have been accumulated contemporaneously with
Liassic beds elsewhere. Furthermore he has made the remark-
able statement that the shaft of the Langan lead mine was
sunk, first through beds of fine Conglomerate, afterwards
through the Sutton stone, and then to a depth of 150 feet into
an unstratified Conglomerate, the bottom of which was not
reached. This latter was supposed by Mr Moors to be identical
with beds observed by him under the Sutton stone in the coast
section. Bearing this statement in mind, I made a most careful
examination at Sutton, but could not perceive the least evidence
of any deposit in the position indicated by him. What Mr
Moore observed at cave No. 2 (see page 528 of his paper) was,
I believe, nothing more than a part of the Sutton stone itself,
which, as Mr Bristow observes, ‘becomes hard and blue near
that place.’”’*

What I believe has led to great misapprehension in working
out the beds is that the Lias Conglomerate has been taken for
the Sutton Conglomerate, an error which could readily be made
from the peculiar position of the beds along the shore.

In the Section D, thirty yards west of the caves, it will be
seen how the Sutton stone falls over a dome of Carboniferous
Limestone and dips underneath the sea. Now near the caves
the beds are shown fairly in sequence, and, as Mr Tomes
mentions of the beds forming the upper two-thirds of the
Section, that their lower limit is clearly defined by the fucoid bed
mentioned by Mr Bristow, and by the line of fragmentary chert
noticed both by him and Mr Tawney, but that No 2, although
3 very decidedly Conglomeratic, is unquestionably true Lias, and
that it contains characteristic Lias fossils.

‘Going from the east, about half way from the caves to the
_ road from the Dunraven Arms leading to the shore, the bottom

© The statement made by Mr Moore, and here alluded to by Mr Tomes,
is certainly a very remarkable one, and the more so as one object of Mr
_ Moore’s paper was to show that the Sutton stone was nothing more than
ordinary Lias, altered by contact with Mountain Limestone. Yet here we
have one hundred feet of Conglomerate interposed between it and that

_ formation, and its lithological character, for anything we are informed to the
contrary, fully preserved.

262

beds are Conglomeratic, and in appearance much resemble the
Sutton stone. They are Lias; and I believe they have been -
mistaken for the Sutton stone, and many of the supposed
Sutton stone fossils were probably taken out of these beds. I
think it likely it was from these beds that Mr Cuartzes Moore
found Am. angulatus, a form he well knew, and which he was
not likely to mistake; but he may have made an error in the
formation, which here is certainly deceptive.

Itis of course of paramount importance in the interpretation
of this interesting coast section that the exact stratigraphical
position of the Sutton stone, so peculiar lithologically, as well
as paleeontologically, should be made clear; and in addition to
what has already been said in favour of its similarity in so many
respects to the upper Rhetic beds, we may remark that we
believe there is very direct stratigraphical evidence of its lying
below all those beds exposed in the section. If we take a position
when the tide is out, immediately in front of the cliff, and far
enough away to take all in from Sutton to the road leading
from Southerndown to the shore, we shall see that all the beds
east of the caves, from top to bottom, dip eastward and pass
out of sight. West of the caves the dip is the same in all the
upper beds, but less distinct in the lower or Sutton Stone beds;
yet it may be traced in the lower ones too, and a little reflection
will show that one of three alternatives must be accepted.
Hither the Sutton stone is conformable with the overlying Lias,
and is inclined at the same angle with it,—or it must thin out
very rapidly to the east and present a wedge-shaped mass,—or,
if it does not dip eastward, it must be wholly uncomformable
with the overlying Lias. That the Sutton stone, as Mr Moorg
supposed, passes horizontally into the Conglomerate, and thence
into the true Lias, is only possible when the beds of all are
horizontal also; and we know that they are not. And as there
is not the slightest evidence of the thinning out of the Sutton
stone, or of its being uncomformable with the beds above, we
can only conclude that it occupies a perfectly normal position
below the Lias, and with it dips to the east, and is speedily
lost sight of.

263

In conclusion, Iam deeply sensible of presuming to differ
from many former writers of much greater knowledge than
myself, but it is the privilege of science—and without it the
_ number of new discoveries would be limited—not to blindly
accept authority when it appears to be at variance with your
_ own observations; and I would respectfully suggest to the
Director of the Geological Survey that he should send one of
his staff, wholly unconnected with the controversy, to carefully
work out the beds, keeping an accurate record of the fossils
found in each, which would set at rest the true position of these
much disputed beds.

Mr Tomes’ list of the Madreporia of the White Lias,
Sutton Stone, Brocastle Conglomerate, and of the St. Cassian
beds.

St. White Sutton

Cassian Lias Stone | Brocastile

Montlivaltia capitata ... Ke

u obliqua ... +

" recurvata =

" acaulis ... 2

" crenata ... S

" perlonga te hg

" radiciformis =

” granulata %

" cellulosa es ee =

" Wallize eee ose Seni tenes sescary | iseaney +

simplex... ae 2ed|\0 y cecepenid Meee ei aeteste =
Omphalophyllia gracilis J
boletiformis

uv cyclotiformis

” deformis

" pygmea
Peplosmilia triassica ...
Calamophyllia cassiana ww} ww] Fa. =
Rhabdophyllia recondita ... 0 «J Fe *
Thecosmilia Hérnesii... %

" Zietenii ...

” granulata

” rugosa ba +

W confluens S 3 £

4 irregularis, Laube

” neglecta... = aa

” major ... ae Merliiceeeocens | scéves, 2| Prsabece <;

” suttonensis coo|| A Baeecoe ll Eecenece =

y mirabilis ace Beliuiesesee: =|! “asveas #

” serialis ... aan cfe|| © cpseece Ol) rede bad

” Terquemi oa Bee eiestecea ys (Pl wer eaMllN Goeaee =

W Brodiei ... ded peel ce cceee | ‘Secccs =| Useders *

dentata ... wee taA|P ea eon ere abel aes a

264

St. White Sutton
Cassian Lias Stone | Brocastle

Thecosmilia Duncani, Tomes (= irre-

gularis, Duncan) —..-|_seeeee | eveee | neers =
from Long Sutton *
Cladophyllia subdichotoma. ... *
SUPLSVISe oe Mires A becs| coatee @ l]lcusecaes >
” gracilis ... SC
Tsastreea sinemuriensis - nas Ball ebewesy’ ileucestest oll keameed bd
” globosa coe sac Bes|| siasszee | Subcescs™ S| UReesren .
" Giimbelii_... oa Boy See rdlipes ecient bd
" Haueri ee eke we
y splendida_... wee zi
Latimeandra Bronni .. mas :
u labyrinthica a
plana ae *
Siytina Reuss oe oc
Elysastrea Fischeri ... 9.1 | % | sae : 2
Stylastrea sinemuriensis... Se) Lies : ‘a
uv Martini ... Raat lh eolntrsdwevee ll|- Recess ae\|iiceertan ned
" plana xe aoc cca paiaes saepen|| asesasen a
u gibbosa eee eee sec) fovncsa | vrarnc %
" reptans ... ae Bale isegtes eal) sovnce : ke
” parasitica .. see aa scnore $ z
w insignis cee] ceveee “| weeeee oasres *
" pedunculata aor = setkch eae %
” dendroidea SM esl coesccey | | tcaceseseelMemoneas 3 *
minuta ... Aen veere|meececetoae |p imrrcinc : Saeed &
Crthoodmia decipiens ae sa id
” dendroidea cee, | —s sesil cavene | coccen |, | emanen oh
W incrustans ess Seaeen casucs %
” costata 25 Peper ye Fe =
Astrocoenia Oppelli ...
Microsolena ramosa ... Ses
" plana... aes
“ sp. sseeee od

Septastreea excavata es

On the Forest Marble and Upper Beds of the Great Oolite, between
Nailsworth and Wotton-under-Edge. By E. Wrrcuett, F.G.S.

The country situate between Nailsworth and Wotton-under-
Edge has hitherto received little attention from Cotteswold
Geologists.

Lycert, in describing it in the “Geology of the Cotteswold
_ Hills,” selects, as an example of its Geology, the large quarry on
_ the summit of Wotton hill, which, he says, “yields stone fitted
_ for rough walls and road mending, but shells are absent””—that
_ there are occasional layers of fine shelly detritus, together with
single plates and spines of Echinoderms joints of Pentacrinites,
and, rarely, the teeth of fishes.” That similar Sections are
_ met with commonly over the plateau of the Great Oolite between
_ Bath and Minchinhampton. “Oolitic Limestones, forming beds
of no great thickness, destitute of clay or marl partings, and
without a trace of organic life, are commonly met with.”

This description always appeared to me so unattractive that
fora long time I thought that an examination of the rocks

trouble, consequently I have never until recently examined
them, nor am I aware that any member of the Club has done

few years ago, went over a portion of the ground to visit Calcot
‘Barn, two quarries at Tiltup’s End were passed by, as they

were not supposed to contain anything worth halting to examine,
v2

266

but I am now inclined to think that there are few Geological
Sections in the Cotteswolds that will not repay the observer
for the time he may spend in their exploration, and the quarries
at Tiltup’s End are examples in point.

Recently, in company with two of our colleagues, Mr Cuas.
Puayne and Mr Aurrep Smits, of Nailsworth, I went over the
ground between Nailsworth and the top of Wotton hill. Our
object was chiefly to see if there was sufficient material for a
programme of one of the Summer meetings of the Club. The
result of our examination, so far as it relates to the Geology of
that part of the Cotteswolds, is contained in the following
notes, which I have put together, thinking that they might be
interesting to the Geologists of the Club. .

The area which I have mentioned is shown on the map of
the Geological Survey as occupied by the Forest Marble and
Great Oolite. In the neighbourhood west of Kingscote the
Forest Marble occupies the high ground, but in that locality the
two formations resemble each other so closely on the surface
that it is not easy to trace the boundary lines without the aid
of the Map. The White Limestone of the Great Oolite in that
part of the area nearer to Nailsworth is more distinctive. These
Limestone beds, which constitute the upper part of the Great
Oolite, have their greatest development in the neighbourhood
of Sapperton Tunnel, where they have a thickness of twenty
feet, and they are probably very little thinner as they approach
Minchinhampton. Dr Wricur describes them briefly in his
paper on “The Correlation of the Jurassic Rocks of the Céte
D’or with those of the Cotteswolds;” he mentions them as
occurring at Minchinhampton, Cowcombe, and Sapperton, but
does not allude to their extension south-westward beyond
Minchinhampton.

Dr Lycerrr gives a full description of the Limestone, and
speaks of it as passing through the village of Avening and the
Minchinhampton district, but he does not appear to have
traced it in the direction of Wotton-under-Edge. This has
now been done, and it is found to gradually thin out in that
direction, and to disappear near Kingscote.

oe ee ee ee a a

267

The first quarry on the hill south-west of Nailsworth is on the
Bath road at Tiltup’s End. The following is the Section :—

No. ft. in.

iJ 2 0—Surface rubble.
2 7 O—Beds of Forest Marble, fissile near the top, but thicker and more
Fy regularly bedded beneath. Some of the beds appear as if they
had been originally consolidated in thick blocks, but had subse-
quently split into thin beds. These beds are composed of sand,
lime, and shelly detritus, highly crystalline, and of a greyish
white in colour. They contain few fossils. The upper beds
are more Oolitic, and light brown in colour.

o's Q 4—Marly and sandy band, in places replaced by reddish clay. (In
q the next quarry described this band is highly fossiliferous.)
' 4 0—White Limestone (Great Oolite) in thick beds ; some parts are
white and chalky, others are very hard, having a conchoidal
fracture, and varying in colour from white toa pale straw or
creamy white. It contains in its upper part numerous fossils,
in a highly cyrstalline condition. The fossils include some
large examples of Nerinza. The base of the beds is not exposed.

At the distance of about 300 yards in the direction of
Calcot Barn there is another quarry, now disused, in which the
Forest Marble has been denuded, so that the White Limestone
is within three feet of the surface, and is about seven feet
thick. The upper stratum of the Limestone contains three or
_ more species of Nerinza, one species in large numbers. They
occur in a layer about six inches thick, which is almost made

remarkable, especially as in the quarry first mentioned the
hin band between the Limestone and Forest Marble beds does

Tiltup’s End and Kingscote. Ina small quarry near Lasborough
it forms the surface rubble, and probably thins out at no great
st ance beyond. In a road-side quarry south of Kingscote its
kness can be measured, and it appears to be only 10 inches;

268

quarry, now disused, two miles beyond, towards Wotton-under-
Edge, it does not appear, and has thinned out altogether. I
believe it does not again occur in that direction. It may also
be remarked that when the Club visited Beverstone Castle some
time ago, it was noticed and recorded that the Limestone beds
had thinned out in that direction also, as no trace of them
could be found in the Great Oolite quarry near Beverstone.

The following fossils have been found by me in the White
Limestone at Tiltup’s End. Those marked with an asterisk
were found only in the Nerinea bed :—

BRACHIOPODA.
*Terebratula maxillata, Sow. Waldheimia bullata, Sow.. var.
*Waldheimia ornithocephala, Sow.
GASTEROPODA.

*Nerinza Voltzii, Desi. Alaria trifida, Phil.

complicata, n. ap. Nerita hemispherica, Ram.
—-—— intermedia, n. sp. Natica, sp.

simplex, n. sp. Acteonina Luidii, Wor. (qy.)

n. sp. Purpuroidea, fragments of

(Trochalia) Eudesii, Z.dZ. *Amberleya,sp.
Cerithium, casts of *Phasianella conica, IW. & L.
*—_—__ quadricinctum, Gold. Monodonta Labadyei, Archiac sp.
#*—_—— sp.

CoNCcHIFERA.
Cardium pes-bovis, D’ Arch Lima Cotteswoldiensis, n. sp.
Lucina bellona, D’ Orb. Cyprina Loweana, VW. & L.
subglobosa, nov. sp. *Ostrea costata, Sow.
*Pecten arcuatus, Sow. — -- sp.
- vagans, Sow. *Tsocardia minima, Phil.
EcuHINoDERMATA.

Kchinobrissus clunicularis, Wr.

ANTHOZOA.

Serpula socialis *TIsastrea Beesleyi

* Anabacia, sp.

It may be here remarked that Lycert, in his: description of
the White Limestone, speaks of it as upon the whole remarkably

PAY. :

269

destitue of organic remains,but he mentions two exceptions, first,
the Pachyrisma bed at Bussage and Cowcombe, at the base of
the Limestone, in which that shell, two species of Natica, and
two of Purpuroidea are abundant,—and secondly, a single
locality east of Minchinhampton, where the uppermost bed of
the series, described as a sandy buff-coloured rock, contains
Pholadomya socialis, Lucina Bellona, Ceromya concentrica, C.
Symondsii, C. undulata. Cyprina Loweana, Purpuroidea Morrissti,
P. nodulata, Nerita rugosa, Nerinea funiculus, Alaria armata,
A. paradoxa, Cardiwm pes-bovis, and Goniomya litterata, in greater
or less abundance. It is singular that our Nerinea bed, which
is exactly on the same horizon, contains a larger assemblage of
shells, but all except two, or at the utmost three, are of different
species. The existence of these beds of fossils on the same
horizon but some five miles distant from each other, suggests
the probability that other like assemblages occur in the sur-
rounding neighbourhood, and that the close of the Limestone
period was marked by an accumulation of shells in patches on
the floor of the Oolitic sea, constituting a zone of life not
altogether identical with that of the period of the shelly
Weatherstones, which preceded the formation of the Limestone.

A mile beyond Tiltup’s End, on the Bath road, and near
Calcot Barn, there is a small quarry, used for obtaining road-
stone. Itis about ten feet deep, of which the lower five feet
consist of thick compact beds, which at first sight somewhat
resemble the White Limestone, but on closer examination they
are found to differ in structure and colour, and are identical
with the lower beds of Forest Marble at Tiltup’s End. The
formation is coloured “Forest Marble” on the Geological
‘Survey Map. From the resemblance of these beds to those at
—‘Tiltup’s End I have no doubt that they occupy a similar
‘position, and that the White Limestone is beneath. It confirms
the opinion I have before expressed that the Forest Marble of
‘this area was originally thick bedded and not fissile, as it is
usually seen in the neighbourhood of Cirencester.

All the fossils in these beds are either in the form of casts
or are so highly crystalline as to defy almost every effort to

270

extract them. An accidental fracture may expose the internal
structure, or the external surface of part of a shell, which
may possibly with very great care and patience be cleared. In
this way I obtained a very fine specimen of a Trigonia, belong-
ing to the wndulate. T consider it to be a variety of T. wndulata,
as it differs in form from that shell, as described by Lycert in

the monograph of the Trigonie, published by the Palzonto-
graphical Society. It is much higher in comparison with its
breadth, and has a narrower area and more curved umbones
than is shown in the published figures, and is much larger in
size. (Plate IV., fig. 6.)

The shelly Weatherstones of the Great Oolite do not
appear on the surface in the area under description. They
occur in the greater part of the Cotteswolds, and come next to
the White Limestone, which they underlie. They extend beyond
the margin of the Limestone area in almost every direction.
At Minchinhampton Common they are about fifteen feet thick.
At Tiltup’s End the Section is not sufficiently deep to expose
them, but they may be seen in the road-side quarry near
Kingscote, as before mentioned, where they appear to have
become less shelly, except the upper two feet, which contain a
fair assemblage of shells. Here they agree with a similar bed
in the village of Nympsfield, half a mile south of Frocester hill,
where there is a small section of Great Oolite, containing a
shelly bed, three feet thick. A mile west of Kingscote, on the
Wotton-under-Edge road, the beds are well exposed in a large
road-side quarry, but they are no longer shelly, as at Minchin-
hampton ; a few fossils, chiefly small valves of Oysters, occur,
but the character of the beds is that of a rock composed of
shelly detritus Oolitic granules and sand.

At the Ridge, and not far from the top of Wotton hill, is
the quarry probably alluded to by Dr Lycerr, whose description
of the rock as quoted above, is perfectly accurate. The shelly
beds therefore may be described as commencing west of
Kingscote, and a line drawn from thence to Frocester hill will

sufficiently indicate their western extremity. Possibly they did ~

not quite thin out at this line, but owing to the denudation of

271

the Uley valley and the escarpments of Frocester hill and Uley
Bury, no trace of the shelly Great Oolite can now, so far as I
am aware, be found to the south-westward of the line. The beds
gradually increase in importance towards Minchinhampton
Common, where the typical section is seen. From thence they
extend eastwards through the hills north and south of the
valley of the Frome at Chalford, and finally dip under the White
Limestone in the Edgeworth valley.

From the circumstance of these beds merging into Weather-
stones, composed chiefly of sand and shelly detritus, it seems
probable that the shells were originally deposited not far from
a shore, and were ground up into fine detritus, which was spread
over a large area, and eventually consolidated into the Weather-
stones, as described by Lycrrr.—that another large deposit of
shells took place, under conditions more favourable to their
preservation, as will appear from an examination of the shelly
beds of Minchinhampton Common, but even in these favoured
areas the conditions ultimately changed, as is shown by the
condition of the shells found in the planking beds, which are
usually worn, and appear to have undergone much rolling before
they were finally deposited. Other evidence of the proximity

of land is seen in the abundance of plant remains in the
Weatherstones, as well as the Forest Marble, throughout the
area I have described. ,

The break between the White Limestone and the overlying
beds is well defined in the Sections at Tiltup’s End, and the
occurrence of a layer of fossils in two localities just at the
line of junction—the beds above and below not being very
fossiliferous—followed by a change in the character of the
deposits from a pure fine-grained chalky Limestone to a coarse
sandy rock, made up of shelly detritus, sand, and Oolitic
granules, points to a period of cessation of deposits, followed
by a change of conditions, and probably of elevation of sea
bottom. The Geological Surveyors were therefore right in
making this horizon the line of separation between the Great
—Oolite and the Forest Marble, although this line is now con-
sidered merely as one of sub-division; and the Forest Marble is
more usually regarded as a member of the Great Oolite series.

272

DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIES FIGURED

Luctna suseLoposa, n. sp. PI. IV., fig. 1

Shell orbicular, globose, umbones tumid, mesial, curved,
hinge margin nearly straight, oblique, lunule moderately large,
concentric folds regular, nearly flat, having fine longitudinal
striations. The thickness through both valves is equal to two
thirds of the lateral diameter, height and breadth each ten
lines. :
The concentric folds resemble those of LDucina Bellona,
D’Oxs., with which it is found, and it may possibly be a variety
of that species, but it is very much smaller, is more globose in
comparison with its diameter, and is destitute of the oblique

obscure elevation from the umbones to the inferior and posterior

border, which is one of the characteristics of that species.
Locality.—Tiltup’s End, near Nailsworth, in the White
Limestone (Great Oolite.)

Nerin#a compiicata. n.sp. Pl. IV., fig, 2, 2a

Shell very long, slender, conico-cylindrical, upper whorls
concave, ornamented with five transverse minute ribs; the
lower whorls gradually become flatter and smooth—the last
few whorls thickened at the suture, which gives a slight con-
vexity to the whorls. Columella solid, with three folds, the
anterior fold bifurcated, the anterior branch of the bifurcation
angulated, or slightly bifurcated; the middle fold angulated,
the posterior fold bifurcated, there is also a small fold, some-
times scarcely visible, on the posterior wall. The outer
wall has three principal folds, the upper or posterior fold is
simple, the middle fold is sharply angulated and broad at the
base; the anterior fold is also broad, and is more produced
anteriorly. There is also a minute fold between the upper and
middle principal folds; aperture sub-quadrate; length about
five inches. The diameter of the whorls is slightly greater
than the height.

‘en ~. 5 «

ye

273

The external characters of this shell resemble those of
_ Nerina implicata, D’Orz., and the internal characters approxi-
~ mate closely to those of that shell, as also to N. bacillus, D’Ors.,
and N. Trachea, Dest.; they do not however quite agree with
those species. In N. implicata and N. bacillus the posterior
fold on the outer wall is broad and angulated, in N. complicata it
is narrow and rounded at the end. The fold next below, which
_ isalmost obsolete in N. complicata, is acute and deep in the
_ two other species; the anterior fold is bifurcated in N. compli-
_ cata, in the other species it is angulated only. There are also
differences in the folds on the columella; in N. complicata the
posterior fold is strongly bifurcated, in the other species it is
_ merely angulated; the middle fold is angulated, in N. bacillus
- itisa round knob, larger than its base. WN. trachea differs in
having simple folds on the columella, and the posterior fold
on the outer wall bifurcate.

Locality.—Tiltup’s End, near Nailsworth, in the Great
— Oolite, where it is abundant.

Nerivza (Trocwaria) Evpesu. Pl. IV., fig. 3, 3a, 3b, 3¢

Nerinea (Trochalia) Eudesti, Mor. & Lyc., G. Ool. Mon.
Pl. 7, fig. 6

This shell is figured and described by Morris and Lycerv,
the figure drawn is that of a young form. It is described as
_turreted, conical, excavated, whorls (ten) concave, narrow, with
numerous transverse lines, sutures carniated, carnize elevated and
smooth, base flattened, canal short, aperture sub-quadrate. It
issaid to be rare. The internal characters were not fully known
to the authors, but as far as they could observe them they
described the outer lip as simple, the columella plicated with
one fold, and the upper portion of the volution having a very
slight fold.

The external description given is correct, but Morris and

adult shell, which cannot be less than seven inches in length.
The internal structure as described is inaccurate. The shell
has a columella imperforate, with a blunt rounded fold upon it,

274

rather below the middle of the volution; the outer wall has a
large conical acute fold at the middle of the volution; the
slight fold referred to on the upper portion of the volution is
doubtful.

Locality.—Tiltup’s End, near Nailsworth, in the White

Limestone (Great Oolite.)

NV. Colemrom 7 Nerrxma| snrnpx, 9 : » SBe | PL. IV., fig. 4, 4a.

Te pv %

obec Shell smooth, conico-cylindrical ; whorls flat, numerous, the
pee height equal to two-thirds of the diameter, sutures moderately
deep; columella perforated ; outer wall with one small mesial
fold; there is also a small fold in the posterior wall.

This shell is closely allied to Nerinea gracilis, Lyc., but is
more conical, the whorls are much greater in diameter as com-
pared with their height, the fold on the posterior wall also .
distinguishes it from that species.

Locality.—Tiltup’s End, Nailsworth, in the White Limestone

(Great Oolite.)

NERIN#ZA INTERMEDIA, n. sp. PI. IV., fig. 5, 5a, and Pl. V.
fig. 1, la.

Shell conical, volutions smooth, flat, suture slightly shown ;
aperture elongated, terminating in a channel, which is some-
what lengthened and curved backward; columella perforated,
having one acute conical fold anterior to the middle of the
volution ; on the wall one deep blunted fold; on the posterior
wall one deep acute fold. Length of adult specimen four to
five inches.

Although specimens of this shell are exceedingly numerous ;
in the Nerinea bed, it is difficult to obtain them otherwise than }
in fragments, and the best examples are somewhat worn on the
surface, and are not sufficiently well preserved to enable me
fully to show the external character of the species. |

Locality.—Tiltup’s End, near Nailsworth, in the Nerinea
bed, between the Great Oolite and Forest Marble—abundant.

i

275

Nermnma Vourzu, Desl. Pl. V., fig. 3.

This shell is believed to be a full grown example of N. Voltzii,
_ but in consequence of its crystalline condition its internal struc-
ture cannot be ascertained, it must therefore be judged only
from its external appearance, but it differs only in size from
some of the examples of that species from Minchinhampton.
If this view be correct, it would seem that the shells figured
by D’Oxsreny and Morris and Lyczrr were immature forms ;
_ the specimen now figured is many times larger than either of
those figured by the authors named.

Locality—Tiltup’s End, near Nailsworth, in the Nerinea bed,
between the White Limestone and Forest Marble.

Nerin#a. sp. Pl. V., fig. 2, 2a.

Shell elongated, conico-cylindrical, volutions nearly flat,
their height one-fourth less than the diameter; suture sub-
obsolete, aperture nearly quadrate, outer lip angulated, channel
small, curved backward, height probably four inches. .
The form of the aperture distinguishes this species from
_N. intermedia, with which it is associated ; there are traces of
~ ornamentation upon the surface, in the form of encircling lines.
The internal character is unknown. Having found only one
fragment of this shell, I defer naming it until further specimens
have been obtained.

Locality —Tiltup’s End, near Nailsworth, in the White

Limestone (Great Oolite.)

Nermvma ? pusia,n. sp. Pl. V., fig. 9, 9a.

k 3 Shell small, acute, volutions (eight) ornamented with very
faint encircling lines, the last volution equal to two-fifths of
the entire length, aperture small, sub-quadrate, channel slightly
curved.

_ This shell may perhaps be only a young example of Nerinea;
its crystalline condition prevents an examination of its internal
structure. It may possibly be a Cerithiwm.

Locality —Bussage, in the Great Oolite.

276

Ceriruium Bussacensis, n. sp. PI. V., fig. 5, 5a, 5b.

Shell small, inflated, sub-cylindrical, volutions (seven)
convex, having perpendicular ribs, narrow, slightly curved,
crossed by four encircling coste, the posterior of which is
crenulated, the others elevated, giving a rough appearance to
the surface; there are additional coste round the base, suture
deep, aperture nearly circular.

Locality.—Bussage in the Great Oolite.

CerirHium CorreswoLpiensis, n. sp. PI. V., fig. §, 8a.

Shell small, sub-cylindrical, volutions (seven) convex, orna-
mented with very numerous oblique ribs, which disappear on
the anterior part of the volution; each volution has six encir-
cling lines; suture deep; aperture ovate ; canal short.

The large number of ribs will readily distinguish this from
contemporaneous species.

Locality.—Bussage, in the Great Oolite.

PHASIANELLA CONOIDEA, n. sp. PI. V., fig. 6, 6a.

Shell small, smooth, conical, spire acute, volutions (five)
flattened, the last volution inflated and slightly angulated near
the middle, aperture ovately rounded ; height four lines.

The outline of this shell is more angular than is usual in
this genus, by which feature and by its more rounded base it is
distinguished from P. parvula, M. & L., to which it bears some
resemblance.

Locality.—Bussage, near Stroud, in the Great Oolite.

CHEMNITZIA SPARSILINEATA, n. sp. PI. V., fig. 7.

Shell turreted, spire regular, elevated, volutions concave,
transversely costated, cost widely separated, longitudinally
striated; strie faintly marked, suture deep, aperture nearly
round.

Se ee eee ee ee ee ee ee)

|

pinbix.t. 45

277

This shell may be readily distinguished from contempo-
_ raneous species by its general aspect. The cost are fine lines,
five on the penultimate volution; the height of each yolution
_ is rather less than the diameter. In the only example discovered
the upper part of the spire is broken off, its hei ght cannot
_ therefore be determined, but it is probably about nine lines.
Locality.—Bussage, in the Great Oolite.

TRIGONIA UNDULATA, FROM. var. PLayNet, Witc. PI. V., fig. 6.

_ Shell sub-ovate, erect, convex, umbones curved and bent
_ forward, area convex, crossed by transverse plications, marginal
_ carina nearly obsolete; median furrow without carina; rows of
cost numerous, moderate in size, tuberculated, tubercles dis-
_ tinct on the upper rows of coste, more obsolete on those below ;
_ costze irregular over the lower half of the shell. Compared with
_ the examples of this species figured by Lycerr (Brit. Foss.,
_ Trigome, Pl, XVI, figs. 9, 10, 11, and Pl. XVII, figs. 5, 6,) this
shell is more erect, larger and more convex; the umbones are
much more curved. Its length in proportion to its diameter is
as four to three, whereas Lycerrr’s figures are nearly as wide
aslong. These differences are considered sufficient to consti-
tute this shell-a variety of T. undulata.

_ Locality,—Calcot, near Kingscote, from the lower beds of
the Forest Marble (abundant.)

_ have named this shell after my late esteemed friend and
colleague G. F. Puayne, deceased, who was an indefatigable
member of the Cotteswold Club, and the author of several
va uable papers which appear in the Transactions.

Lima CorrEeswoLDIEnsis, n. sp. Pl. V., fig. 4, 4a, 4b.

_ Shell tumid, nearly upright, umbones sub-mesial, ribs (52 to
54) regular, rounded, moderately elevated, but nearly obsolete
in amity to the umbones, the diameter equal to the inter-
titial spaces, which are striated, strize rather closely arranged,

278

auricles moderately large and obliquely striated; lunule exca-
vated; height two and a quarter inches, diameter two inches,
thickness through both valves 17 lines.

This shell differs from L. cardiiformis, Sow., in being more
equilateral and upright, more tumid, and the ribs more regular.
In outline the figure approaches L. impressa, Lyc., but the
ribs are quite different. There is a Lima in the lower beds of
the Freestone in the Inferior Oolite as yet undescribed, which
seems to be closely allied to this shell, but it has smaller ribs
and is slightly more oblique.

Locality.—Tiltup’s End, near Nailsworth, in the White
Limestone, (Great Oolite) and in the overlying Nerinza bed,
where it is somewhat rare. .

Addendum to the description of Fossils from the Clypeus Grit of
the Inferior Oolite. Vol. VII., page 128.

Nerinaza Guise1, Witc., Pl. V., fig. 10, 10a, and Vol. VII.,
Pl. IV., fig. 2a, 2b, 2c.

I have found a fragment of this shell which, though not
well preserved, indicates the character of the aperture, which
may be described as sub-quadrate, widening at the termination,
the outer lip having a sharp angle; channel small. The
specimen now figured shows that in the young forms the rela-
tive height of the volution to the diameter is greater than in
a more advanced stage of growth. Fig. 10a shows the internal
characters more clearly than they are represented in the previous

figures.

h
=
us
cad
mal
jae

WITCHELL. Sef.

1.

279

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Prats IV.

Lucina sUBGLOBOSA, n. sp., natural size. Great Oolite,
Tiltup’s End, near Nailsworth. (Page 272.)
NERINZA COMPLICATA, Nn. sp., natural size. Great Oolite,
Tiltup’s End. (Page 272.)
a5 a section magnified.
= (Trocnaria) Evpesu, M. & L., natural size.
Great Oolite, Tiltup’s
End. (Page 273.)

$6 5 > another example, natu-
ral size.
7” ee > another example, show-

ing the aperture.
a a 5, section of the interior of
Cplhenree one of the volutions.
9 [= SIMPLEX, |n. sp., natural size. Nerinea bed,

Great Oolite, Tiltup’s End. (P. 274.)

s e section of the interior.
ay INTERMEDIA, n. sp., natural size. Nerinea bed,

Great Oolite, Tiltup’s End, and
Pl. V., fig. 1, la. (P. 274.)

Sg 99 section of the interior.

TRIGONIA UNDULATA, From. var. PLaynet, natural size.

Forest Marble, Calcot. (P. 277.)

Puate V.

NERIN#A INTERMEDIA, 0. sp., natural size. Nerinea
bed, Great Oolite, Tiltup’s End,
near Nailsworth. (Page 274.)
and Pl. 1, fig. 5.

et & section of the interior.

2a.

10a.

280

Nerin#a n. sp., natural size. Nerinea bed, Great
Oolite, Tiltup’s End. (Page 275.)
+ », section of the interior.
x vo.trzu, Desl., natural size. Great Oolite,
Tiltup’s End. (Page 275.)
Lima CoTrEswoLDIENsIs, n. sp., natural size. Great
Oolite, Tiltup’s End. (Page
277.)
3 ae side view of same.
ae - portion of the coste.
Ceriruium BussaGensis, n. sp., natural size. Great
Oolite, Bussage. (Page 276.)
os is another view of same.
S = volution enlarged.
PHASIANELLA CONOIDEA, n. sp., enlarged. Great Oolite,
Bussage. (Page 276.)
= = another view of same.
CHEMNITZIA SPARSILINEATA, n. sp., enlarged. Great
Oolite, Bussage. (Page 276.)
Crriraium CorrEswoLpDIENsIs,n.sp.,natural size. Great
Oolite, Bussage. (Page
276.)
re s volutions magnified.
NeERIn#/A ? DUBIA, un. sp., natural size. Great Oolite,
Bussage. (Page 275.)
= i volution magnified.
i GuisE1, Witc., natural size. Inferior Oolite
Rodborough. (Page 278.)
section of interior of another example.
(Slightly enlarged.)

39 39

ge ts is

PLATE .V.

4
a
=
e
=

he My, =
x! j tam -*
| ee ET :

2 ; ew?
: : —-

On the Structure and Formation of certain English and American
Coals, read at a Meeting of the Cotteswold Club, on Tuesday,
February 3rd, 1885. By E. Weruerep, F.G.8., ere.

Much has been written on the subject of the structure of
coal since Dr Luc, in the years 1793—5, contended that it was
the product of vegetation which grew on the spots where the
seams are now found. To do justice to the researches of
Horron, Sir James Hatt, Mc Cuntocs, Goprert, Sir Win11aMm
Logan, CarrutHEers, Wititiamson, Huxtey, Newton, Dawson,
Prestwich, Binney, Rernscx, Bronenrart and others, would
be to compile a volume. I must therefore confine myself to
brief references to those points which are material to the
present paper.

An important addition to our knowledge of the question
was given by Sir Witt1am Loean in 1840, when he pointed
out that under every seam of coal there was a stratum of clay,
called the underclay, in which a fossil vegetable, Stigmaria

_ ficoides, was always to be found. Later on Mr Bryyney
_ discovered this vegetable to be the root of the Carboniferous
genus Sigillaria; and it is now generally regarded as the root of
the Lepidodendroid plants generally. Accepting then the views
_ of Dr Luc, in conjunction with the discovery of Stigmaria and
its relations, it was assumed that seams of coal were formed
by the submergence of forests of Sigillarie and Lepidodendra,
with, perhaps, other forms of terrestrial vegetation. Thus
- Gérrrrr,* after examining the coal-fields of Germany, remarks
that “many seams are rich in Sigillarie, Lepidodendra and

* Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. V., Mem. p. 17.
x2

282

Stigmarie, the latter in such abundance as to appear to form
the bulk of the coal. In some places almost all the plants
were Calamites or other ferns.”

Sir Witt1am Dawson, of Montreal, who stands second to
none as a specialist in Carboniferous Geology, referring to the
plants which have contributed the vegetable matter of the
coal says,* ‘“‘these are principally the Sigillarie, with Cordaites
Ferns, and Calamites. With these, however, are intermixed
remains of most of the other plants of the period, contributing,
in an inferior degree, to the accumulation of the mass. This
conclusion is confirmed by facts derived from the associated
beds, as, for instance, the prevalence of Stigmarve in the
. underclay, and of Sigillarie and Calamites in the roof-shales
and erect forests.” Mr Carrutuers expressed his views on the
subject in the course of some remarks on a paper which I read
at the Geological Society during the early part of this year.+
“Coal-seams,” said Mr Carrururers, “are the remains of
forests which grew upon swampy ground, and were subsequently
covered by clay.” The views as expressed by Gorrert, Dawson
and CarrutTuers, are fairly typical of those generally enter-
tained on the subject of the origin and formation of coal. In
1870, however, Professor Huxtry announced in the pages of the
Contemporary Review that coal was simply the sporargia and
spores of certain plants, other parts of which have furnished
the carbonized stems and the mineral charcoal, or have left
their impressions on the surface of the layer. This, however,
was not the first time that the spores of plants had been
detected in coal. Professor Morrison, in a note appended to
Mr Prestwicu’s papert{ on the Geology of Coalbrook Dale,
called attention to the occurrence of what he considered to be
spore cases of plants in coal. The late Professor J. H. Batrour
noticed similar bodies, and referred to them in the Transactions
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh for 1854, and in the same
volume Professor J. H. Bennett figured sections of coal in

* Acadian Geology, 3rd Edition, p. 471.
+ Quart. Jour. Geol. Society, Vol. XL., p. 60, Proc.
+ Geol. Trans., 2nd Ser., Vol. V.

283

which spores are present. Mr Carrurners, too, refers to
them in the Geol. Mag. for 1865, page 433; but the first
person who noticed the occurrence was the late Dr Firmine.

Without wishing in the least to lessen the value of the
investigations of some of the observers just referred to, it is
necessary to understand on what basis they arrived at their
conclusions. Professor Huxtry examined the coal microsco-
pically, the sections having been cut by Mr KE. T. Newton,
F.G.S. Sir Witxiram Dawson’s method was to examine the
mineral charcoal by a process described on page 494 of his very
able and valuable work on Acadian Geology. Specimens of
coal were selected containing the tissue of only a single plant.
These were boiled in strong nitric acid, and after the fumes
had subsided the residue was washed and submitted to micro-
scopic examination. Next, as to Mr Carrurners’s source of
information, if I understand him correctly, there are in the
British Museum a number of mud balls, said to have been
derived from seams of coal. In these Mr Carruruers finds
the remains of Carboniferous forest growth; and he assumes
that therefore the seams of coal have been formed by like
vegetation to that preserved in the mud balls.

Let us now test the above sources of information. Professor
Hovx.ey’s is, I contend, the only reliable one. If a transparent
section of true coal can be obtained, nothing can disprove what
it reveals. But even this method may lead one astray if the
investigation be only partial. Sir Wizziam Dawson pointed
this out to me, and suggested my preparing microscopic
sections from various positions in a seam. I adopted this
hint, and am much obliged for it: the results will be presently
stated. Sir Wr11am Dawson’s method of treating selected
specimens with nitric acid is, in my opinion, liable to mislead
as to the general structure of the coal. First, I object
to the principle of specially selecting a piece of coal for
examination ; if we detect a fragment in a seam better
preserved, with regard to structure, than the rest of the mass>
the very fact should invoke caution, as there must be a cause
_ for the preservation. It may be due to the fragment being a

284

foreign element, (foreign, I mean, so far as the general mass
of the coal is concerned) which has resisted decay better than
the mass of vegetation which has formed the deposit. Second,
when coal is treated with nitric acid dense fumes come off,
this implies that something is undergoing destruction, and the
importance of the loss is only known when we obtain microscopie
sections. Sir Wizti1am Dawson has, however, figured* well
preserved portions of tissue, obtained by the nitric acid
process; but whether all can be regarded as the tissue of
the coal-forming plant is, I think, uncertain. Sir Witiiam
Dawson, with his usual candour, admits that two difficulties
have impeded his investigations, “and have in some degree
prevented the attainment of reliable results.” ‘One of these,”
he says, “is the intractable character of the material as a
microscopic object; the other the want of sufficient informa-
tion with regard to the structure of the plants known
by impressions of their external forms in the beds of the coal
formation.” Then as to Mr Carrutuers. In my opinion the
evidence on which he relies can only be regarded in the light
of circumstantial evidence, and by no means clearly proves
what Mr Carrutuers claims for it. Take, for instance, a
modern peat bog. The vegetation which has mainly contributed
to it are the bog-mosses (Sphagnacee.) Growing in the bog,
however, are to be found conifers and other vegetation. Suppose
such a bog to be submerged, as bogs sometimes are, what would
be the result? The vegetable mass would undergo decay, it
would pass from peat to lignite, and thence to coal. If it
were worked in the distant future, the Geologists and miners
of the period would doubtless find the remains of conifers and
of other vegetation, but if the deduction were drawn that,
because these remains could be recognised, that therefore the
coal originated from that form of vegetable growth, then a
very wrong idea would be gathered as to the main origin of the
mineral. I may add that it is by no means improbable that
coal seams may not have originated in some such manner as
peat.

* Acadian Geology, 3rd Edition, p. 464.

285

I will now proceed to record my own investigations, and
will take first the Shallow Seam of Cannock Chase, South
Staffordshire. For the stratagraphical section and informa-
tion concerning the seam I am indebted to Mr A. H. Baryarp,

of Chase Town.

SECTION OF THE SHALLOW SEAM.

DESORIPTION - Ft. In. STRUCTURE

“ Harders” or Top Bed. Dull layers, chiefly a mass
Dull lustre, with occasional of microspores and macros-
bright layers pieietonsiy LTS pores, with wood tissue in

bright layers.

“Upper Spire ... .. «| 9 2 A Carbonaceous argilla-

ceous parting.

“Bright Coal,” or middle Brown structerless hydro-
bed. Bright lustre through- carbonaceous material, with
out ... Cee Bane OTE occasional microspores and

macrospores.

“Tower Spire ... «+ -+| 0 22 Carbonaceous arenaceous

‘ parting.

“Best Coal,” or bottom Hydrocarbon, macrospores
bed. Dull and bright lus- and microspores ; the two lat-
trous layers ... -- «+ «| 4 3 ter chiefly in the dull layers.

Underclay... s,s Argillaceous bed, with Stig-

maria.

This seam is divided by partings into three distinct beds of
coal. In the top one, called ‘“‘ Hardens Bed,” two layers could
be very clearly defined, a bright and a dull. In the latter
minute specks were detected, somewhat resembling iron rust.
By polishing a portion these specks were distinguished as
macrospores, Figs. 1 and 2, anda microscopic action showed the
spaces around and between them to be filled with countless
numbers of microspores, Fig. 8. In the bright layer of the
«‘ Hardens” spores were also detected, but were much less
numerous, and there was also present, as the chief constituent,
a brown structerless material to which T have given the name

hydrocarbon. Vegetable tissue was also recognised.

286

Between the top and middle beds of the seam came a
carbonaceous parting locally termed ‘‘Spire,” and in which was
a considerable quantity of pyrites. The middle, or “ Bright
Coal,” is a true cannel. It readily polishes, and when this
is done a few macrospores may be distinguished. A micro-
scopic section shows the presence of microspores, but they
were scarce, compared to the quantity in the upper bed. The
main mass of this coal was made up of the material which
I referred to under the name of hydrocarbon, and before pro-
ceeding further it may be as well to say something respecting
this substance. It is generally structerless and presents a
dark brown appearance. It is an important constituent in the
structure of some coals; the so called bituminous varieties
being the richest in the possession of it. I believe it to
consitute that which has erroneously been termed bitumen.
I need, however, hardly say that coal contains no bitumen
whatever, and the sooner we strike such a misleading term,
as applied to coal, out of our vocabulary the better.

Below the “ Bright Coal” is a second parting of “ Spire,”
with an arenaceous stratum running through the centre.

Next comes the “ Best Coal,” or bottom bed, which is the
chief one of the seam. The lustre is fairly bright which
appears to be due to the numerous thin bright layers which
travers the dull portion. In the dull layers macrospores and
microspores were numerous, but in the bright hydrocarbon
was the chief constituent.

The variations in the beds which constitute the “ Shallow
Seam,” illustrate the importance of investigators taking a
complete stratagraphical section of each seam to which they
turn their attention. The top bed is not a freely combustible
fuel, but when combustion has fairly commenced considerable
heat is generated. The “Bright Coal” is mainly worked for
gas purposes, and the “Best” for gas and household use. A
mixture of the ‘“ Hardens” and “Best” beds makes an
economical house coal, but requires a good draught.

I next take the Welsh “Four Feet Seam,” celebrated
throughout the world for its smokeless properties. For samples

287

and permission to inspect the seam underground I am indebted
to the owners, (Messrs Guo. Inson & Son.) and to the manager
of the Cymmer Colliery, near Pontypridd, South Wales. At
this Colliery the “Four Feet” presents the following section:—

SECTION OF THE FOUR FEET SEAM, CYMMER COLLIERY, -
NEAR PONTYPRIDD, SOUTH WALES.

DESCRIPTION Ft. In. STRUCTURE
Top Bed. Coal brittle, with Carbonized vegetable tissue,
bright lustre... ewe 2 0 with a little hydrocarbon.

Minature underclay. Stig-
maria (?)

Oo

Argillaceous Parting ... ... | 1

Highly carbonized vegetable
Middle Bed. Medium lustre | 4 6

tissue.
Argillaceous Parting ... ... | 0 5 Minature underclay.
2 0 Close under the parting well
Lower Bed... 1. ve vee preserved scalariform tissue.
Sections from the centre showed
numerous spores, spore cases
and structerless vegetable tissue.
Argillaceous Parting ... ... 0 2 Stigmaria
Bottom Bed ... rk ves 1 6 Inferior Coal, not worked.
Wiiderclay .02 3e) a vcey cose 4 0 Stigmaria.

From the fact of this seam being termed the “ Four Feet”
persons may be led to regard it as four feet of Coal only;
that, however, is not the case. The above section shows
the. seam to be made up of four distinct beds. The lowest
one, unfortunately, I have not had an opportunity of examining.
The top bed of all is mainly a mass of carbonized vegetable
tissue, with a little hydrocarbon, but the coal was so brittle
that no very satisfactory slides were mounted, though a fair
idea of the structure was gained during the process of en-
_deavouring to prepare them. The bed, four feet six inches
thick, following in descending order, is the chief one of

288

the seam; it may be said to be a mass of highly carbonized
vegetable tissue, with a small proportion of hydrocarbon.
The structure of the next bed is most interesting, and was
clearly defined in the microscopic sections made of it. At
the top, just under the parting, sections showed well preserved
scalariform tissue, (Figs. 5 and 6). Lower down a number
of small spores, (Figs. 4 and 37) were found. Very little of
the material was carbonized, but was either in the form of
or passing into hydrocarbon.

The “Four Feet” is a further illustration of the necessity
of taking stratagraphical sections of the seams of coal to
be examined when attempting to ascertain the structure. If
this be not done very imperfect information may be gathered.

It was while submitting the microscopic sections of this
last seam to Sir Witi1am Dawson that he suggested to me
that possibly important results might be obtained by the
microscopic examination of a seam in different parts. An
opportunity of this was afforded me by Mr Woopuerap, colliery
manager to the Low Moor Iron Company, near Bradford,
Yorkshire, who, by the kind permission of the Company, sent
me a portion of the “ Better Bed” coal intact for a thickness
of ten inches from the top; I therefore determined to examine
it inch by inch. I was fortunate in the selection of this seam,
as it has been rendered famous by Professor Huxiey, who from
it deduced what may be termed the spore theory for the
formation of coal. The section of the seam, as sent me by
Mr Woopueap, is as follows :—

SECTION OF THE “BETTER BED” SEAM OF COAL,
LOW MOOR IRON COMPANY’S COLLIERY,
NEAR BRADFORD, YORKSHIRE.

Ft. In.
Shales ...
Coal (Laminated) eee Pree US CGY :
Coal... “se Saag 64 Itt, 10m
Seat Stone (oredepelay) 1 0

The lustre of the first three and a half inches at the top was
dull, the remainder, with the exception of a layer half an inch

289

thick at four inches from the top, was a medium brightness. In
describing my own investigations, I cannot do better than record
them as written down at the time of observation.

Within the first two inches from the top.—Mainly made up of
macrospores and microspores, somewhat similar to those
detected in the “Harders” bed of the “Shallow Seam” of
_ Cannock Chase, (Figs. 7, 8, 9, 10). Well preserved scalariform
tissue detected.

Three inches from the top.—Spores less numerous. Some of
the macrospores have caudate appendages. The mass chiefly
made up of hydrocarbon and decomposed vegetable tissue.

Four inches from the top.—Spores again numerous, but do
not constitute the whole mass. The predominating macrospores
(Figs. 12 and 13) show the caudate appendages, and are smaller
than the predominating varieties above.

Between four and five inches from the top.—Spores less
numerous. Vegetable tissue appears, generally carbonized.
Hydrocarbon contributes largely to the composition of the
whole mass.

Between siz and seven inches from the top.—Spores form but a
small proportion of the whole coal; it is mainly made up of
tissue and hydrocarbon. Carbonized scalariform tissue was met
-with, the first I have noticed in that state of preservation.

Eight inches from the top.—Spores scarce, though they were
searched for by cutting horizontal and transverse sections.
The coal was made up chiefly of tissue in various stages of
decomposition. Some of it appeared to yield a resinous material.
The structure here exhibited is the first I have noticed of the
kind.

Nine inches from the top.—A few spores noticed. The coal
practically built up of tissue and hydrocarbon, the passage of
the former into the latter clearly demonstrated. The resinous

looking material, noticed above, again present but disappearing.
Ten inches from the top.—Spores few in number; the coal
made up of hydrocarbon and tissue. (Fig. 11).

From a perusal of the evidence afforded by the examina-

tion of the uppermost ten inches of the “Better Bed,” I am

290

not able strictly to endorse Professor Huxuey’s statements.
Undoubtedly the first three inches at the top of the seam is
largely made up of spores, but below other vegetable constituents
form an important part of the whole. It is also important to
note that below the first three inches the spores are, for the
most part, apparently of different species to the predominating
variety above.

The last English Coal to which I shall draw attention is
that of the “Splint Coal” from Whitehill Colliery, near Edin-
burgh. In the discussion of the paper which I read before the
Geological Society of London, on the “Structure and Forma-
tion of Coal,” one of the speakers said that sporangia were rare
in Scottish Coal. Strange to say, Mr James Bennin, of the
Scotch Geological Survey, a few days after the reading of the
paper, sent me some specimens of the above Coal, and on
examining them, I found spores in great numbers, though it is
true no perfect sporangium was found. I therefore wrote to
the owners of the Whitehill Colliery, who kindly responded
by sending me very good typical samples of the seam.
The following is a section sent me by Mr Joun Bueas, to
which I have added my notes :—

DESCRIPTION Ft. In. STRUCTURE
Splint Coal. Dulllustre,with| 1 10 The dull layers a mass of
a few bright layers ... ... ... microspores, macrospores and

fragments of spore cases.

Rough Coal. Alternation of | 0 10 Hydrocarbon in the bright
bright and dull lustrous layers layers ; a few spores in the dull,
of about the same thickness. of different variety to those
below and above.

Splint Coal. Dulllustre,with| 9 4 The dull layers a mass of

: microspores, macrospores and
a few bright layers ... noes 1

fragments of spore cases.

The “Splint Coal,” as worked at Whitehill Colliery, has
three distinct beds not, however, separated by partings, as in
the case of the ‘‘Four Feet” and “Shallow” seam. Micro-
scopic sections of the “ Lower Splint” bed show the dull lustrous

291

portion to be a mass of microspores and macrospores, (Figs.
14, 15, 16,17 and 18) with numerous remains of spore cases.
No sign of tissue was discovered. The bright layers were made
up of hydrocarbon, and spores were not detected in them. As
the bright layers were thin, a good chance was afforded of
testing the doubt as to whether spores did enter into the
structure of them. I, therefore, cut a vertical section in which
one of the bright layers was bounded on either side by dull
ones. On placing it under the microscope spores were numerous
on both sides of the bright layer but were not observed in it,
they were confined to the dull. (Fig. 21.)

There would appear to be two varieties of macrospores and
microspores represented in this ccal. The largest variety of
macrospore measured about °047 of an inch in diameter, and
a triradiate ridge appears on the surface of some. (Figs.
14, 15,16.) They are larger than those seen in the “ Shallow”
and “Better Bed” seams, but in other respects very similar.
My attention was first called to the other variety of spores by
what I have represented in Fig. 19, where two macrospores,
measuring ‘003 of an inch in diameter, are seen surrounded by
hundreds of minute microspores, measuring *0005 of an inch
in diameter.

The lower bed of the “Splint Coal” is replaced abruptly,
and without parting, by the “ Rough coal,” or middle bed of
the seam. The transition in the structure of the Coal is most
striking, and deserves careful attention, (Fig.26.) The “ Rough
Coal” was made up of two layers alternately one with the other
and of about the same thickness (half an inch.) One of these
had a bright lustre, the other a medium dull. In the dull
layers spores were fairly numerous, but for the most part were
a distinct variety to those which appear in the bed below.
(Figs. 22, 23, 24,25.) By far the greater portion of the coal is
made up of vegetable tissue and hydrocarbon.

The “Rough Coal’ is followed, without parting, by the
“Upper Splint”? bed. The lustre was dull, and the coal may be
said to be practically a mass of macrospores and microspores,
and are notall of the same species as those in the Lower Splint.
(Figs. 27, 28, 29, 30.)

292

I now pass to the American coals. The samples which if
have examined were not selected for making microscopic
sections; they were collected by myself, eight years ago,
simply as specimens of American coal. I am, therefore,
unable to give the stratagraphical section of the seams from
which they were taken. In one way there is an advantage, as
it is a guarantee of their being ordinary samples, and in no
way selected for the purpose to which they have been turned.

The first coal to which I shall draw attention was taken
from the Black Warrior Coalfield of Alabama. And I may
here state, by way of parenthesis, that the mineral wealth of
that State is but little appreciated. The future of Alabama
cannot be otherwise than of great importance. The coal
presented a brigh lustrous appearance throughout, though
some layers were more lustrous than others. Macrospores and
Microspores were present, (Figs. 34, 35, 36, 37) but they did not
constitute the whole mass. Vegetable tissue was detected, and
a large quantity of hydrocarbon. The Microspores exhibited
the triradiate markings before referred to in English coals, and
they appeared to be identical with those found in the lower bed
of the Welsh “Four Feet,” (Figs. 4 and 38.) The Macrospores
were not numerous, the most perfect one found is shown
in Fig. 34. .

The next coal examined was collected near Pittsburg,
Pennsylvania. The lustre was bright, and the chief structural
constituent discovered was hydrocarbon. Vegetable tissue was
also present, some having the appearance presented by decom-
posed scalariform tissue. Spores were numerous in some
layers; these were chiefly microspores, (Fig. 33) resembling
those of the “ Better Bed,’ and measuring about :0015 of
an inch in diameter. Macrospores were present, but mostly in
a fragmentary state, (Fig. 31.)

Comparing the structure of English and American Coals,
the material which I have referred to as hydrocarbon is present
in both; the same class of vegetable tissue was detected, and the
spores were allied. It is, therefore, clear that some seams of
coal in both countries had a common origin—vegetable origin.

293

The chief points brought out in my observations are—

Ist. That some English and American Coals originated from
the same class of vegetation.

2nd. Seams of coal do not consist of one continuous bed
of the mineral; sometimes the mass is divided into distinct
divisions by a stratum of clay, as in the Welsh “ Four Feet.”
At other times the divisions are clearly defined, without clay
partings, as instanced by the “Splint Coal” from Whitehill
Colliery, near Edinburgh.

drd. Where a seam is made up of more than one bed, in no
case that I have examined have those beds been identical, in a
structural point of view.

4th. The dull lustrous layers in some coal may be said to
be made up of vegetable spores and spore cases. In the bright
layers, and in bright coals generally, spores are much less
numerous; in these the material which I have termed hydro-
carbon is the chief constituent, associated with vegetable tissue.
I have never yet seen a seam built up entirely of spores and
spore cases, though certain portions may be.

A knowledge of the structure of coal has a practical value.
The occurrence of certain vegetable remains endow the mineral
with certain properties; therefore a knowledge of this enables
experts to pronounce on a typical specimen submitted to them.
For instance, I have made a series of chemical analyses of spore
and non-sporous coal. I know the effect upon the mineral of
the presence, or non-presence, or scanty presence of spore layers.
A pocket lens enables me to detect these bodies if there, and I
can thus base certain conclusions on what I see. The same with
regard to the occurrence of hydrocarbon. This knowledge is
especially useful where a rough opinion is needed,

I now come to another important part of my subject, and it
is one which is necessarily somewhat speculative: it is the
relation and character of the coal-forming vegetation. Among
those who have made the matter a special study is Mr
CaRRUTHERS, and anything which falls from him deserves
careful consideration. In 1865 he published* a paper “ On an

* Geol. Mag., Vol. II, 1865, p. 433,

294.

undescribed cone from the Carboniferous Beds of Airdrie,
Lancashire,” and, referring to the occurrence of spores in coal,
says, (p. 434) “not only do these bodies exist in quantity in
many coals, but some beds even of considerable thickness are
almost entirely made up of them. Their relation, however, to
any organism that could have produced them was unknown
until the discovery of a cone by Mr James Russexy.” This
cone was submitted to Mr Carruruers, who described it as a
new genus under the name of Flemingites, and allied it to the
modern family of Lycopodiee. It would therefore appear that
Mr Carrurners included in this genus all the spores discovered
in coal up to that time. It seems, however, that all previous
observers had fallen into an error in supposing that the coal-
forming plant possessed but one kind of spore, namely
microspores. This Professor J. 8. Bennett, in his paper “ An
Investigation into the Structure of the Torbarehill Mineral and
of various kinds of Coal,” * refers to the microspores as “‘rings
of a transparent yellowish or reddish colour, with an opaque
centre ;” + and, referring to the macrospores, says, “ there
are also visible circles or rings of a rich golden yellow matter,
much larger, and varying in size from the 50th to the 60th of
an inch, which have been described by some as seeds or spore
cases.” His conclusions as to the structure of coal are “that
the various organic appearances found in the sections and ashes
of coal are explicable by the supposition that coal is wood
chemically altered, and for the most part coniferous wood, or
wood allied to it in structure.” Professor J. H. Batrour, in
his paper{ “On certain Vegetable Organisms found in coal
from Fordel,’? mentions the occurrence of seed-like bodies
which he considers “‘ to be the sporangia or spore cases of some
plant allied to Lycopodium, perhaps Sigillaria.” Later on, in
1872, Prof. Batrour refers § his coal spores, and those which

* Trans. Royal Society Edinburgh, Vol. X XI, p. 173 (185-34.)

+ From the plates illustrating Prof. BENNETT’s paper I should judge
that his sections were not made sufficiently transparent to enable him to
judge fairly of the spores and true structure of the coal examined.

t Proc. Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. X XI, p. 191.

§ Paleontological Botany, description of, Plate III, Fig. 1.

295

had up to that time been detected in the mineral, to Mr
CarRUTHER’s genus Flemingites. But what Professor Batrour
looked upon as a sporangium (Figs. 15, 16, 17, 18, Plate II of
his paper) is really not a sponargium but a macrospore, and he
has made no mention of the occurrence of the microspores
which I have represented in my figures. In describing the
genus Flemingites Mr Carrutuers also fell into the same
error, that is to say, he figured it as possessed of but one kind
of spore, namely microspores. Like Professor Batrour the
bodies which Mr Carrutners took for sporangia are really
macrospores.. The macrospores which I represent in Fig. 19
very closely resemble Flemingites Pedroans. Mr CarruTHERs
has himself found out his mistake, and withdrawn the genus,
which I cannot but regret, as its re-establishment with fresh
description would have prevented the confusion caused by the
withdrawal.

It then becomes a question as to whether the coal spores
are still to be allied with Lycopodiee, or if not with what ?
In solving this problem we unfortunately have to deal with
imperfect and unsatisfactory information. Several Lepidostrobi
have been figured and described, some of them containing both
kinds of spores. There can be but little doubt the Lepidostrobi
is the fruit of some Lepidodendroid plants, but there is such a
variety of forms included under that head that it is not likely
those discovered are the only ones which existed. As to
which of the individual Lepidodendra the known Lepidostrobi
belong is a matter of doubt, and in support of this assertion I
will quote authorities. Mr Carrorners* says, “A cone is
very rarely found connected with its supporting branches, the
evidence, therefore, of the connection between a Lepidodendron
and its own Lepidostrobus is consequently of a very unsatisfac-
tory nature.” Sir Wiii1am Dawson says, “I cannot pretend
that I have found the fruit of Sigillaria attached to the parent
stem.” + Among those which have been figured I may name
Triplosporites, which was described by Mr Roserr Brown,} and

* Geol. Mag., Vol. II, p. 437, 1865.

+ Acadian Geology, 3rd Edit., 1878, p. 437.
¢ Trans. Linnean Soc., Vol. XX, p. 469.

296

which Mr Carruruers looks upon as the Carboniferous repre-
sentative of Selaginella.* The history of this fossil is, very
vague. It was brought to this country by a dealer, who had
obtained it from the collection of a Baron Roget, where it
had been for about thirty years. Nothing more seems to be
known about the fossil, and it is not noticed by Sir JosrepH
Hooxer in his “ Remarks on the Structure and Affinities of
some Lepidostrobi,” in the second volume of the Memoirs of
the Geological Survey. Other fruits have been figured by
Bronenrart, Linpiey, Hurron, Bryney, Professor WILLIamson,
and others. The latter was the first to point out the occur-
rence of both macrospores and microspores in coal, in a paper
read before the Geological Section of the British Association at
York, but I am not aware that the paper has been printed
except in abstract. In the Philosophical Transactions Professor
Wituramson figures a Calamostachis Benneyana, which shows
two kinds of spores. The microspores measure about -0031,
and the macrospores occur as large as .01. However the
imperfect specimens figured in Plate LIV, figs. 25 and 26,
prevent any reliable comparison, and those figured in the
strobilus are not sufficiently magnified to render comparison
possible. Professor Wiitr1amson has also found some Lepidos-
trobi, together with ferns and an articulate plant, which he
believes to be Asterophyllites, and remains of Lepidodendra in
some remarkable beds in Burntisland, Scotland. The beds
occur in the upper part of the Calciferous Sandstones of the
Burdiehouse Series, which in stratagraphical position correspond
with lower portion of the English carboniferous Limestone.
Professor Witi1amson states that the beds appear to have been
patches of peat, which are now imbedded in masses of
voleanic amygdaloid. The general aspect of longitudinal
sections of these strobili is that common to Lepidostrobus.
“They usually have a diameter of from less than half an
inch to nearly an inch.”+ The fruit contains both macros-
pores and microspores, the latter measuring about -0007

* Geol. Mag., Vol. VI, p. 298.
+ Phil. Trans., 1872, p. 294.

=" as ae

297

of an inch, and the macrospore figured has a large diameter
of ‘027. The triradiate feature of the microspores described
by Professor Wiit1amson is common to the coal micros-
pores, and is also shown in those figured by Sir Joseru
Hooxer in the Memoirs of the Geological Survey.* The
absence, however, of macrospores in Sir JosepH Hooxer’s cones
renders an alliance out of the question. With Professor
Wuiamson’s Burntisland strobilus, however, both spores are
present. The size of the microspores nearly corresponds with
the small variety of microspore detected in the Scotch “Splint”
coal, but the macrospores are far too large to correspond with
my smaller variety; they more nearly correspond with my
larger varieties. Professor Wiiuiamson does not mention
anything about a triradiate ridge or marking on the surface
of these macrospores, which is a conspicuous feature in those
from the coal. He states that the characteristic peculiarity of
the macrospores from the Burntisland beds “‘is the projection
from every part of their external surface of numerous caudate
appendages.” This isa feature common to some of the coal
macrospores. In the coal, however, the appendages are not
well preserved, and frequently only the roots or base remains,
giving to the walls of the spore a tuberculated appearance ;
indeed I at first took the appearance for tubercles. The
appendages are seen in Fig. 13B, where a few of them remain.
Professor. Wiiuramson thinks the strobili referred to are the
fruit of Diplozylon, though he does not appear to have found
them.-attached to the stems of that plant. I would call special
attention to Professor Witi1amson’s remark that the beds in
which the remains occur “appear to have been patches of peat.” _

I cannot say that I am satisfied that the coal spores
referred to in this paper are identical with any that have been
discovered. I have been told that they are those of Triplospo-
rites. Mr Carruruers,t in referring to that genus, points out
that the microspores occur in triple form, and, to show the close
alliance with the Selaginellee, he figures the triple microspores of

* Vol. II, Part 2.
t+ Geol. Mag., Vol. VI, p. 298.

298

Selaginella spinulosa. This is a feature, however, which I have
never noticed in the coal spores, and had it been common to
them I should certainly have seen it. I think, however, that
coal spores more closely resemble in appearance the Selaginellee
or Isdéetec than to any other class of modern vegetation, but there
are now classed by Sacu apart from the Lycopodiacee, under
the head of the LIngulate. Quite recently Professor P. F.
Retyscu has figured a number of Carboniferous spores, some of
which are closely allied, if not identical, to some of mine,
and he gives to them the name Triletee. In speaking of
them he says,* ‘‘ The Triletee are spores of Cryptoganic plants
more highly developed, and if this supposition be correct the
Triletee can only be derived from Lycopodia and plants much
resembling them. Future investigation will no doubt throw
more light on the problem, but one thing seems clear from
my investigations, as far as they have gone, namely, that coal
originated from one class of vegetation; and I venture to predict
it will be found to be of aquatic habit, and that seams of coal
originated in a manner not unlike that of modern bog growth.

In concluding this paper I desire to return my thanks
to Professor Harker, of the Royal College of Agriculture
Cirencester, for his kindness in helping me examine my slides.
He considers that some of the coal spores may be allied to the
modern genus Isdetew, and suggests the generic title of Isdetoides
pending further investigation.

* Micro-Palaeo-Phytologia. Formation Carbonifera. Introduction, p. iv.

PEATE

Q
o
rt
*
°
So
aw
Fy

THE STRUCTURE of COAL

E.WETHERED del et nat

—

PLATE I.

Fig.5x 1242

THE STRUCTURE or COAL

E.WETHERED delet nat

299

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PLATE I.

Figs. 1 and 2.—Macrospores from the Shallow Seam of Cannock
Chase, x 22 diam.

Fig. 3.—Microspores from the Shallow Seam of Cannock Chase,
x 262 diam.

Fig. 4.—Spores of Plants from about the centre of the lower
bed of the Welsh Four Feet Seam, x 262 diam.

Fig. 5.—Horizontal section of the same from the top of the
coal close under the “ parting,” x 124 diam.

Fig. 6.—Scalariform Tissue from the same, x 160 diam.

Fig. 7.—Macrospores from uppermost three inches of the Better
Bed Seam, x 22 diam.

Fig. 8.—Microspores from the same, x 262 diam.

Fig. 9.—Transverse section of the same two inches from the

roof of the seam, x 12} diam. Shows the macrospores,

the spaces between them are occupied by microspores and
other vegetable material.

Fig. 10.—Horizontal section of the same, x 12} diam.

Fig. 11.—Horizontal section of the same ten inches from the
roof. Shows one macrospore, carbonized vegetable tissue
and hydrocarbon, x 124 diam.

PLATE II.

Fig. 12.—Horizontal section of the Better Bed Seam, four
inches from the roof, x 124 diam.

Fig. 13.—Macrospores and microspores from Fig. 12, x 50 diam.

Figs. 14, 15, 16.—Macrospores from the lowest bed of the Splint
Coal from Whitehill Colliery, near Edinburgh, x 22 diam.

Fig. 17.—Microspores from the same, x 262 diam.

Fig. 18.—Horizontal section of the above coal, x 124 diam.

Fig. 19.—Other macrospores and microspores from the same,
x 262 diam.

Fig. 20.—A space between macrospores in Fig. 18, x 160 diam.

300

PLATE III.

Fig. 21.—Transverse section of the lower bed of Splint Coal
intersecting a bright layer between two dull ones, showing
the occurrence of spores of plants in the two latter, but
not in the bright layer, x 124 diam.

Figs. 22, 23.—Macrospores from the middle bed of the Splint
Coal, x 22 diam.

Figs. 24, 25.—Microspores from the same, x 262 diam.

Fig. 26.—Horizontal section of the coal constituting the middle
bed of the Splint Coal, x 124 diam.

Figs. 27, 28.—Macrospores from the upper bed of the Splint
Coal, x 22 diam.

Fig. 29.—Microspores from the same, x 262 diam.

Fig. 30.—Horizontal section of the coal constituting the upper

bed of the Splint coal, x 123 diam.

PLATE IV.

Fig. 31.—Macrospores from coal taken from near Pittsburg,
Pennsylvania, U.S., x 22 diam.

Fig. 32—Another spore from the same, with minute spine-like
projections on the surface, x 262 diam.

Fig. 33.—Microspore from the same, x 262 diam.

Fig. 34.—Horizontal section of the above coal, x 160 diam.,
showing microspores and fragment of a macrospore. Should
be compared with Fig. 20.

Fig. 85.—Macrospore, in transverse section, from the Black
Warrior Coalfield of Alabama, x 160 diam.

Fig. 36.—Microspores from the same coal, x 262 diam. Should
be compared with Fig. 4.

Fig. 37.—Other apparent microspores from the same, x 160
diam.

Fig. 38.—Horizontal section the Welsh Four Feet Seam, lower
bed, x 160 diam.

Fig. 39.—Horizontal section of Alabama coal, x 160, which
should be compared with Fig. 38.

> of Oe PO ba...

PLATE.3

Fig 30

cee -FiG29
Fig.28

THE STRUCTURE or COAL

ERED del et nat

PLATE 4

co
>
-

THE STRUCTURE or C

E.WETHERED del et nat

ry

»

Notes on the Breeding of Salmonide, read at a Meeting of the
Cotteswold Club, March 31st, 1885. By Francis Day, F.L.S.,
and F.Z.S.

About this time last year I read a paper before this Society
on “The Breeding of Fishes,” since that period I have had
the opportunity of continuing my observations on the interesting
fish cultural experiments which are being carried on with such
success at Howietoun, and a few months since it entered my head
that even at Cheltenham I might endeavour to accomplish
a little work in the same direction.

Although treatises on “ Fish Culture” describe many excel-
lent plans for hatching eggs of the Salmonide, I came to the
conclusion that my time would not be wasted if I ascertained
at how cheap arate I could do so, and that in a manner suitable
to the capacity of any gamekeeper or watcher, who might be in
possession of a modicum of common sense.

In the course of my enquiries I extended my investigations
into some debateable subjects, which I propose to briefly lay
before this meeting, and which may be chiefly comprised under.
the following heads :—

(1.) Are the eggs of these fishes, when pertaining to the
same species, invariably identical in size? or if they differ, on
what does such depend? (2.) Do larger eggs produce superior
offspring ? (3.) Can salmon spawn in the sea? (4.) What is
@ par ? ;

My apparatus* for egg hatching consisted of a paraffin cask,
(well burnt inside) as a reservoir, having a tap fixed near its
base, through which water passed into the water-supply tank,
which latter had two taps fitted, one near either end and close
to its base, so that each tap would be projecting over a hatching

® The cost was as follows :—One cask, well burnt out or charred inside
3s. 6d., tap 5s., supply tank and two hatching trays 15s., taps 4s. 6d., a second
cask to keep a supply of water in 3s. 6d., a bucket 1s. 6d., as an egg extractor
a leech glass 6d. ; or an outlay of £1 13s. 6d.

302

tray. Each hatching tray near its lower end had a leaden
overflow pipe, which projected over the tray next below it. A
wooden cover fitted the top of each tray, with a hole to receive
the water flowing down from above.

The cask, thirty-three inches high, was raised on empty
boxes, and contained thirty-six gallons. The supply tank
(inside) sixteen and a quarter inches long, six and a half inches
deep, and seven inches wide. Each hatching tray (inside
measure) eighteen inches long, six inches deep, and three and
a half inches high, the water standing two inches deep, above
this level the overflow pipe acting.

For the purpose of charring the inside of the casks they
were filled with shavings, which were then set alight, the fear
being not that the inside would be too much burnt, but more
likely too little. As soon as sufficiently burnt the cask was
inverted, to put out the fire, and when cold the inside was well
scraped, and then washed out with water in which a little soda
had been dissolved, and finally scrubbed with a birch broom.
As any remains of paraffin would be deleterious to the young
fish, it is best to let the cask stand full of water for some time
before using it.

The insides of the supply tank and hatching trays were also
burnt, while the outsides and covers were painted with Bruns-
wick black. The water supply was from a contiguous pump,
which doubtless, owing to having been mostly unused, soon got
out of order, and gave a considerable amount of trouble, as I
shall have to detail. The whole apparatus, raised on empty
boxes, was placed in an unused coach-house, so also was the
extra water cask from which the reservoir was replenished, in
order that the newly added water might be of about the same
temperature as that going to the hatching trays.

The water having been obtained from the pump in buckets,
it was easy to calculate the amount used daily, because every
bucket-full equalled the capacity of two hatching trays, or was
equivalent to the water passing once through them, so twenty-
four buckets-full in twenty-four hours was equal to the water
going twenty-four times over the eggs. Although it is doubtless

303

true that these eggs may be hatched with the water being
changed only once a day, that is not likely to produce vigorous
fry. At Howietoun there is about one and a half inches of
water flowing over the eggs, and which does so 160 times every
twenty-four hours.

For the purpose of this experiment I was kindly supplied
from Howietoun with about 500 eggs of the Loch Leven trout,
averaging 0°21 inch each in diameter; they arrived on November
28th, about mid-day, having been spawned the previous morn-
ing from fish in pond No. 11. The eggs were ina cigar box,
between layers of muslin in damp moss. The railway company
had subjected the package to rather rough usage, the end having
been broken while en route. The temperature of the inside
of the box among the eggs was 50° F., and of the water in the
hatching trays 45°. Nine of the eggs were removed as dead,
and three the next day. Having to be absent from Cheltenham
for five days, the eggs remained unpicked, the supply of water
however being constantly renewed. On my return, on the 13th,
the water from the pump had become so thick it could not be
used, and some clean from elsewhere had to be obtained to
wash the eggs, which was done with a watering pot. The eggs
being deposited in the charred boxes, (which had only recently
been prepared) had their surface covered with the remains of
the charcoal or charred wood, as well as the mud from the
pump water, which would evidently be much more probably
fatal than when glass grilles are employed, for in these latter
‘there is a space filled with water below the grilles, and although
mud may be deposited on the top of the eggs, there is generally
a clear space beneath, where it rests on the interspace between
two glass rods. Irrespective of this, eggs deposited in flat trays
are more subject to motion from the current of water than
they are when laid down in trays in which glass grilles are
fixed. |

I do not propose detailing from my daily diary the various
little mishaps which had to be detected and remedied, but
some may well be noted, as these remarks are intended mostly
_ for those who have never practically attended to fish-hatching.

304

On December 26th the eggs required another good washing,
and the leech glass, used as an egg extractor, sucked up
two good eggs at one time, and with such force that they
became jammed together at its orifice, and had to be pushed
out with a feather. Anticipating that this might possibly
injure the embryo, they were placed by themselves, but eventu-
ally hatched out satisfactorily. January 26th, the water from
the pump was coming up very clouded, and on the 28th the
eggs had again to be washed. On the 3lst the pump finally
struck work, the sucker being choked with sand, so I determined
to have the well cleared out. On February 4th had to move
the entire apparatus, as it stood in the way of digging down to
the well, the cleansing of which was completed during the day,
and on the 5th everything was reinstated as before. Feb. 6th,
had again to wash the eggs. On the 15th some of the ova had
become of the clear-muddy colour, seen shortly prior to hatch-
ing. On the 16th two came out, and eleven more the next day.
On the 20th only one more egg hatched, and on the 21st, on
looking closely at the trays, most of the young fish were dead ;
some deleterious effects might have been due to a fall in the
temperature, which commenced on the 19th, but it seemed to
me to be more probably caused by some paraffin from one of the
tubs having poisoned the young fish. For when the pump gave
out an extra tub had been procured for spring water and
allowing the sand to settle, consequently as only one tub full
was used every twenty-four hours, the water remained forty-
eight hours in each settling tub before being used. It seemed
to me as if the water smelt slightly of paraffin, so every drop
was got rid of, and the reservoir and trays filled up with fresh
from the pump, which, if dirty, was not chemically dele-
terious.
On the morning of February 22nd, or the eighty-sixth
day after the eggs had been taken from the fish, I found
the great majority had hatched, and the question suggested
itself whether hatching can be retarded should the condition
of the water they are in be unfavourable? is it possible that
the embryo have now burst their shells consequent upon the

:
:
:

305

fluid they are in being now suitable for their existence? But
another cause may have been the real one, viz., that the tem-
perature had risen from 3° to 6° during the preceding twenty-
four hours, and it is well known that warmth as much hastens
hatching as cold retards it. A few still continued hatching
daily, fifteen on the eighty-seventh day, five on the eighty- .
eighth, two on the eighty-ninth, twenty-nine on the ninetieth,
and fourteen on the ninety-first day. The eyes of the embryo
were first very distinctly visible with a magnifying glass on
the fiftieth day, but had been so for some time under the
microscope.

The appearances presented by young trout when just hatch-
ing have been frequently described, consequently only call for
a few remarks. Some embryos are stronger than others, and
sometimes while looking at an egg it splits; first the head of
the fish emerges, and a good plunge or two causes the shell
to open along the back, or should the embryo not be very
strong, it may be choked with its head emerging from the shell.
Or one may be seen with its head entirely enveloped in the
shell, but the rest of its body free, then with a dart it passes
to another portion of the tray leaving the shell en route, at other
times requiring more exertions for this purpose. In one case
the yelk sac protruded first, and the young was a long time
hatching.

A number of young fish huddled together, as they commonly

are in one corner of the hatching tray, occasion a constant
current with their pectoral fins, which is clearly beneficial, not
merely as preventing dirt attaching itself to their gills, but
also in driving away their now vacated shells. Having closely
watched these fish when hatched, I do not find the gills this
year partly uncovered by the opercles, as I have often seen in

former years.* Short gill covers may permit irritation of gills

* Respecting young char Davy observes, “when first hatched the bran-
chial arches are naked, that is, fully exposed to view, the gill-covers as yet
not being sufficiently developed to hide them. As in the instance of Sal-
monide and of other osseous fishes, no branchial filaments are known to
exist in the foetus. May not this place be supplied by this naked state of the
branchie ?”—Phil. Researches, p. 241.

306

and occasion gill fever, or some think gill fever may cause
shortening of the gill covers.

On being hatched the appearances presented are peculiar.
A large ovoid sae, the yelk sac, equal in length to about half
that of the fish, passes from below the throat backwards and
downwards, its posterior end sometimes being rounded, but in
‘some instances ending in a sort of nipple-shaped point. Over
its surface ramify numerous blood vessels, and the large umbilical
vein conveys blood from it to the heart. Numerous oil cells are
visible through its thin walls, also the liver and the vessels
which supply it. Although the formation of the fins is fore-
shadowed, distinct rays are not visible. The various blood
vessels, the pulsation of the heart, and the appearance of
contractions in the caudal sinus are very distinct. The entire
length of these little fish averaged about half of an inch.

On March 13th I found, different from what I had observed
for the last few days, that the pectoral fins were no longer in
constant motion, so I concluded that their necessity for thus
assisting respiration had normally ceased. So I took one of
these fish, now measuring 0°85 inch in length, and at 11.7 a.m.
placed it in a tumbler of still water inside a room, the water as
removed from the hatching tray being 42°. which rose in the
room to 45° at 11.20. The fish had only been seven minutes
when the pectoral began to be worked at the rate of three
times to every movement of the gill covers, but as the little
fish evidently became distressed, it was returned to the hatching
tray, when its pectoral movements gradually ceased.

Among the hatched fish I have only observed one mon-
strosity, it having two heads, while after the hatching was
completed only twelve bad eggs remained.

March 20th, the little fish in the trays seem not altogether
comfortable, a few having died, so I turned in a heap of fine
sand in each, which appeared to give great satisfaction.*

December 23rd, three of the eggs having been placed in
a half cell containing water under the miscroscope, and in a

* Up to May 26th, no further deaths occurred. The double headed one
died May 25th.

— oe

Se) ar p aeye

sss SS

307

strong light, gave the following appearances:—In one and a
half hours an opaque spot showed itself in each, which rapidly
spread and death ensued, caused possibly by light, by a raised
temperature, or deficiency of respiration. On December 23rd
placed three eggs in a hatching tray, on a white earthenware
palette, putting one into each partition, one and a half inches
of water flowing over them. The cover of the tray was left
off, and the coach-house door put open, so as to give a good
amount of light to the ova. Three more eggs were put into
the dark part of the tray for comparison, and which hatched in
due time. On February 23rd, observing that most of the eggs
in the trays had hatched, but that the three on the palette were
still in the ova state, I tried, as an experiment, a plan I had
been informed of at Howietoun of transferring eggs near the
hatching period from glass or metal substances to wood, which
usually expedites hatching. I placed them in the tray at 10a.m.,
and in about two hours one had assumed the peculiar colour
showing that it would soon hatch, and by one o’clock it came out;
a second hatched at five p.m., and a third during the night. I
have reasons however for believing that light is injurious to
the eggs of the Salmonide during the incubating stage.

January 8th, 9.30 a.m., two trout eggs were put into a
tumbler of salt water, of the specific gravity of 1019°. This
water had been received from Weston-super-Mare, through the
kind offices of Mr WerseErep, but, owing to the journey, was
rather turbid. The water in the tumblers was three inches above
the eggs, and changed every morning. 9th, 2 p.m., eggs look
as if dead, but took them over to Mr Weruerep’s, to put
under the microscope, as my glass case had been broken. One
was found to be dead, (the eyes being prominent and the mouth
open) the other to be alive. As the condition of the water
may have acted deleteriously, determined to try this experiment
over again.

January 9th, 2 p.m., placed two more trout eggs into a
tumbler of salt water, which was now clear, the tumbler in this
and the other experiments being placed in a hatching tray, so

308

that the water stood about half way up its sides. 10th, 3 p.m.,
one egg looks a little cloudy, but the other is clear. 11th,
9 p.m., one certainly dead, but a little vitality in the other:
2.30 p.m., both dead, or 48 hours from the commencement of
the experiment.

January 9th, 2 p.m., placed two eggs, under exactly similar
conditions, in a tumbler of brackish water, of 1008° specific
gravity. 21st, eggs have been going on pretty satisfactorily, so
changed the water to 1019°, and so continued it for two days,
‘and then reverted to 1008°. Feb. 24th, 10 a.m., as they had
not hatched, they were put into a tumbler of fresh water, and
brought in-doors, when the temperature of the water rose from
48° to 60°: at 1 p.m., one of the eggs began to look as if it
would probably hatch, and at 4 p.m., the young came out. I
now removed it to another tumbler, and gradually cooled the
water down, and returned the fish to the tray, where it did well.
March Ist, 10 a.m., the other egg commenced to hatch, the
yelk-sac coming first; at 5 p.m., it hatched, and was seen to
have dropsy of the sac. This little fish was likewise returned
to the tray, but did not do well; the movements of the heart
were very languid, pulsations 84 per minute, and under a strong
glass various congestions were seen in the course of the blood
vessels as at the upper side of the orbit, but in most parts of the
body it was very anemic. The clear interspace between the
yelk-sac and its outer covering was very distinct. It died on
March 7th. As dropsy of the sac is usually considered a result
of constitutional weakness, and no other example suffering from
it, it is reasonable to conclude that such must have been the
effect of the brackish water in which the egg was kept.

January 9th, 2 p.m., for the sake of comparison placed two
trout eggs in a tumbler of fresh water, under the same con-
ditions as the foregoing, changing the water daily. February
24th, eggs not having hatched, they were placed in one of the
hatching trays, on the wooden floor of which they both came
out in twelve hours’ time.

January 21st, 10 a.m., placed two trout eggs in salt water,
at 1019°; 25th, 4 p.m., both were dead, or within four and a
half days.

“a

309

January 23rd, 3.30 p.m., two more eggs were put in brackish
water, at 1012°; 26th they appeared to be a little dull; 27th,
placed in a cell under the microscope found to be alive, but
languid. Feb. 24th, one appears to be dead, but not so the
other; both placed in hatching trays, but with no alteration.
Feb. 28th, both brought into house in tumbler of fresh water,
which increased the temperature from 48° to 60°; one of the
ova seemed inclined to hatch, but finally did not do so.

March 12th, 8.20 a.m., a fine frosty morning. Removed
forty-two young trout and four young salmon in a live bait
can, which I carried to the rail and went by the 8.40 train to
Churchdown, arriving at 8.52 a.m. I then carried them to the
Badgeworth stream, accompanied by Mr. Exuis Viner, hides
having been constructed in some nice gravelly spots where the
water did not exceed five or six inches in depth, and the stream
was about three or four feet wide. The hides were made by
placing two bricks pretty close together, parallel to each other,
and to the course of the stream, while on the up stream end
another brick was placed transversely to break the force of the
current. This was covered by an eave-roof tile. They may do
well, as the elvers do not abound until May, and although some
crayfish were turned into the brook two years or more ago, all
appear to have died. Possibly the bull-heads and sticklebacks
may prove serious enemies.*

March 19th, took 3864 young trout to Colesbourne, starting
at 9.20 a.m. As the road is rather hilly and not over smooth,
carried the fish in two bait cans, slung on strong sticks hanging
across from one seat to the other of the pony carriage. On the
surface placed some ice, while with an umbrella kept off the
sun. At 11.30 a.m. turned 304 into two spring heads, and sub-
sequently about thirty in the stream near the fish ponds, where
there was a nice pond-like piece of backwater fenced off to
prevent the access of large fish. About thirty more were placed
in the large fountain, the water of which was run off, the place
cleansed, and, having put some stones in for hides, the water

* April 14th, took about 100 more young trout and salmon to Badgeworth

stream.

310 -

was turned on again to six inches in depth. If moorhens and
“tommy culls”? (Cottus gobio) do not destroy those in the
stream, or frogs those in the fountain, these Loch Levens ought
to be a good addition to the local race of trout. *

OUT OF DOORS

INDOORS ATR EGGS Water
DATE eae Hee eee ok it ae Le a Pao sts ee bm see,
asa open Maxim) Minin, "| Died, © | Hatched
1884.

Nov. 28 440 40° 9 6
Fee) 38 30 3 4
BO 38 24 3

Dec. 1 38 32 3.
Bee: 41 34 4
& Sel) ahs 50 2
ee 45 41 3
aa Lek 52 39 or
TG 52 42 4
5 "7 53 47 3
eae 53 45 2 8
ieee 45 40 3 5
eel 50 354 2 6
pegs | 50 45 5
5 02 51k 434 2 6
als 54 455 4
par 53 494 8 7
Sas 53 41 2 4
» 16 53 33a 5
bP Ez, 412 335 6
8 50 32 6
has | 46 37 4
singo 42 36 5
i 38 335 7
ee 39 334 6
tae 38 344 1 5
oy 1A 36 34 4
hos 37 313 5
“ie 20 36 325 8 10
sa $744 35 31 i! 7
tS BY) 33 8
oo 35 33 il 10
Pei) 34 32 1 8
mu fio ae 28 5 6

1885.

Jan. 1 344 31 8
te 2 34 29 1 5
a 353 29 13
re: 41 33 5
ioe 504 37 7

6 414 254 10

* April 28th, turned 22 young trout into the Chelt. May 15th, turned 6
young trout into the stream above the Pittville Lake.

INDOORS EGGS Water

Water Air duly throu
1 ‘ oug!
9.30 a.m. | 9.30 a.m. Died Hatched en

312

January 17th, received from Howietoun a box containing
45-eyed salmon ova, varying in size from 0:20 to 0°25 of an inch
in diameter, the large ones having been taken November 19th
from a 16lb Teith fish, and the small eggs from one of inferior
size from the same river. About four were dead on arrival.

February 8th, three of the eggs out of twenty-three were
found to have hatched. As these were taken on November
19th they were eighty-one days up to the period of hatching,
and on being hatched they were half an inch long. On the
16th two eggs hatched, and they were all out by the 21st
except one. Most came forth head first, the shell splitting
down the back.

On February 21st one of the fish was completely out of the
shell except its head. It had attempted to enter the world tail
first, and was now like a cat with its head in a stocking.
Several ineffectual attempts were made to release it by means
of brushes, and so on the 27th, feeling satisfied that unless
freed it would die, took a sharp pair of scissors and succeeded
in inserting one end and then dividing the shell. As the fish
constantly wriggled about care had to be taken not to cut it.
This fish subsequently did well. There were no monstrosities
among these fish.

January 19th, 1 p.m., placed three eggs in a tumbler of salt
water, of the specific gravity of 1,021°. On the second day
they became slightly cloudy, and they were found to be all
dead after three days’ time. The water having been changed
daily, similarly to the experiment on trout eggs, as well as in
the following ones.

January 22nd, 10 a.m., repeated the foregoing experiment.
All were dead at the end of three days.

January 19th, 10 a.m., placed three eggs in a tumbler of
salt water at 1,012°. They were all dead in three days and five
hours.

January 28th, 11.30 a.m., placed two eggs in a tumbler of salt
water at 1,012°. Next daya little cloudy. Died on the eighth day.

January 28th, 11.30 a.m., placed two eggs in a tumbler of
brackish water at 1,007°. The water seemed dirty, and on
February Ist they were dead.

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February 2nd repeated the experiment. One hatched in
seven days and two hours, and on the 9th, having to leave
Cheltenham, the remaining one was transferred to spirit, and
the embryo was found to be alive.

January 18th, placed three eggs in a tumbler of fresh water,
changed daily. On the 26th all the others similarly treated
with salt water being dead, these were returned to the trays
and hatched in due time.

January 28th, 11.30 a.m., placed two eggs in a tumbler of
fresh water, and on February 7th, as they had not hatched,
transferred them to the wooden tray, and they subsequently
hatched. 3

SIZE OF EGGS OF SALMONIDZ.

We will now pass on to the eggs of Salmonide, premising
that size is no criterion as to locality where ova are deposited.
The Siluroid Ariine deposit their eggs, which are very large,
in the salt water along the sea coasts. Those of the Arius
are as large as any of the family, whereas the closely allied
Bagrus, which deposits it in fresh water, have them very
small, The carp genus Barilius in some species, at least, has
large eggs, which is not the general rule in the carp family.

If, however, we restrict ourselves to the eggs of the salmon,
trout, and char, there is an excellent fieid for observation,
respecting whether the size is in comparison with that of the
mother ; if it is dependant on her age; whether local circum-
stances affect it; and lastly, whether such have any influence
on the future offspring. Many have written on this question,
but not a few have simply copied the remarks of others, and
thus erroneous opinions have been more prevalent than such as
are simply exponents of well-ascertained facts. When this
phenomenon is examined, it offers at least three distinct points
for investigation. 1. Are the eggs of the Salmonide of one
species invariably of the same size, or do they differ in
accordance with the age of the parent? 2. Is there any differ-
ence in the size of the eggs in two parents which are of the
same age? 3. Can we detect any variation in the size of the
eggs from a single parent ?

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314

I think I can produce conclusive evidence that a widely-
received opinion of the eggs of each species being of identical
size, no matter what the age or size of the parent may be, is
founded on error and not the result of observation.

In the year 1767, Harmer wrote in the “Transactions of
the Royal Society,” an exceedingly interesting paper on the
“Fecundity of Fishes.” He remarked, “from this table it
appears that the size of the eggs is nearly the same in great
and small fishes of the same species at the same time of the
year.” Passing over the remarks of numerous naturalists in
this country, some being their own observations, and others
merely copies of those of their predecessors, we may well com-
mence extracts about 1864, when the ‘‘ Zoological Record ”’ was
began. Professor Matmeren having ventured to assert that
certain Salmonoids in a Finland lake were descendants of the
common salmon, whose access to the sea had been cut off owing
to the elevation of the land, mentioned as one of the differences
that this dwarfed breed had smaller ova than seen in the Salmo
salar. Criticising this opinion of Professor Matmeren, Dr
GUNTHER observed that “ the last character,” or size of the ova,
“will be considered very significant by all who may have
a more extended knowledge of fishes, as the size of the ova is
not only invariably the same in individuals of whatever size,
but, as far as our experience reaches, is even often character-
istic of the species of a genus.”

BuancuarD (Poissons des Eaux Donces de la France, 1866,
page 461) observed that “the eggs of the grilse are always
sensibly smaller than those of the adult salmon.”

Livineston Srone, “ Domesticated Trout,” third edition,
1877, remarked that in American trout, Salmo fontinalis, which
reside in spring water, which is equivalent to a diminished
supply of food, smaller eggs are developed than in such as
reside in brooks. In the report of the United States Fish
Commission on the McCloud river, California, “it was noted in
1878 that the parent salmon were unusually small, their
average weight being under 8lb.” This small size was stated
“to be undoubtedly caused in whole or in part by the fishery
at the canneries of the Sacramento, where the 8-inch meshes

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of the innumerable drift nets stopped all the large salmon, but
let all the small ones through. The eggs when taken proved
to be at least one-third smaller than those of most previous
years, and the average number of eggs to the fish was about
3,500, against 4,200 in the previous year.”

Subsequently (1880) Dr Guyrner observed, in the “ Intro-
duction to the Study of Fishes,” that “the ova of teleostean
fishes are extremely variable in size, quite independently of the
size of the parent species. The ova of large and small indi-
viduals of the same species, of course, do not differ in size.”
(Page 159). Livrvesron Srons, in the “ Bulletin of the United
States Fish Commission,” 1882, vol. ii., page 11, observed,
respecting the eggs of the Salmo fontinalis, that those taken
from the larger breeds are fully twice the size of those given
by such as reside in mountain rivulets. From this period
several observers have noticed that the eggs of Salmonoids
undoubtedly differ in size consequent on certain physical causes,
consequently the author who would characterise a species by
the size of the eggs, would possibly be merely adding another
synonym to the confusion previously existing. A certain excuse
may be offered that prior to the formation of the Howietoun
fishery either very little or no pains had been taken to segre-
gate the fish of different ages, consequently means were not
available for solving the question. I now propose to give the
size of the eggs of these fishes as observed during November
this year, premising that besides measuring individual eggs,
care was taken to measure six, eight, or ten in a row, and take
the mean as the average size.

Salmon eggs were from 0-20 to 0°30 of an inch in diameter ;
from smolts or grilse raised in the Howietoun ponds, from 0-20
to 0°22 inch; from a small sea trout, 0°175 to 0°18 inch. Loch
Leven trout, at eight years old, 0-20 to 0-24 inch; at seven
years old, 0°19 inch; at six years old, 0:185 to 0°19 inch; at
two or three years old, 0-17 inch; thus clearly showing that
the average diameter of trout eggs increases with the age of
the parent at least up to the eighth year. The American char,
S. fontinalis, at two year old, 0°13 to 0°14 inch; at three year

316

old, 0°17 inch; at four years old, 0°18 inch. <A hybrid char
being a cross between the British and American forms, the
diameter of the eggs, at nearly two years of age, was 0.13 of
an inch.

DO LARGER EGGS PRODUCE SUPERIOR OFFSPRING ?

The next question is whether there is any difference in the
size of the eggs in two parents which are of: the same age and
kept under the same conditions? In two Loch Leven trout,
each six year old, a difference did exist, the diameter of the
eggs in one being 0°19 of an inch, and in the other 0°18 of an
inch. And that such might occur would even theoretically
appear highly probable; for, as I have remarked, Livineston
Srone observed that where food existed to a minimum amount
the eggs were small; in fact, a deficiency of nutrition may
occasion diminution in the magnitude of the ova. Also the
size of the parent ought possibly to be likewise taken into
account, for disease, crowding them when young, or other
causes, may dwarf fish, and such a one would doubtless furnish
comparatively small eggs. Can we detect any variation in the
size of the eggs from a single parent? In this I exclude
abnormal or diseased eggs, and still find that a variation in
size does occur among the eggs from one fish. Such in 1854
was pointed out by Ranson as observable among the eggs of the
stickleback. I had eighty eggs of a Loch Leven trout
spawned direct into a glass tube containing water, wherein
they were kept for a week, the water being changed daily, and
they became more distended than when first taken. Seventy-
five were 0.25 of an inch in diameter, three were 0°20 of an
inch, one was 0°175 of an inch, and one 0°15 of an inch. In
looking through a large number of eggs of Salmonide, it
seemed that from four to five per cent. are mostly smaller than
the average size. Irrespective of the foregoing proving that
the size of the eggs varies with the age and condition of the
parent in the Loch Leven trout, I should mention that along
with augmented sizes of the ovum is an increased thickness of
the shell, a rather important subject for the fish culturist,

a Fe i i i i i

wegum

317

because such shells require a strong embryo in order to hatch,
which is obtained by augmenting the water supply during the
eyed period.

Eggs of Salmonide differ not only with the age of the fish,
but from various causes, and it is-now necessary to show why I
believe that the offspring from large eggs are superior to such
as are reared from small ones, and why fish culturists should be
careful to obtain their stock from the best sources, unless the
water in which they are going to be placed is deficient in
amount or in food when the source from whence the breed is
obtained is of very little, if any, consequence. Two batches of
Loch Leven trout were spawned on November 2, 1882, at
Howietoun, the parents of one lot having been hatched in 1875,
and of the other in 1876; the eggs were similarly treated, and
the young came out during January and February, 1883. At
Craigend are two ponds, which have been constructed for the
reception of young fish, each 100ft. long and of the same
width ; one is nearly on a level with the other, and the iden-
tical stream passes through both. Into these two ponds the
two lots of fry were turned, those from the older parents (1875),
or seven-year-old parents, having the lower pond; those from
the younger or six-year-old fish having the upper pond, while
they were fed and otherwise similarly treated. At the end of
November, 1883, those in the lower pond were about one-fourth
larger than those in the upper pond, and it seemed as if the
produce of the older parents or larger eggs were decidedly
superior to those from the younger parents, or smaller eggs.

In 1884 a second experiment was tried in the same two
ponds, which were stocked with young Loch Leven trout, bred
from parents of the same age, spawned the same day and
hatched in the same room. I saw these fish both in August
and also in November, but no difference in size or appearance
was perceptible between them. It would, consequently, seem

that the larger eggs produced from older parents produce

fry which grow faster than do those from the smaller eggs
furnished by younger parents.

In the evidence taken before the Salmon Commission of
1824, Mr Lirrie observed that “the Shannon fish are very

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large, few of them under 20lb., and many of them 30lb. and
40lb. and upwards. The salmon that are bred in the Bush
never get larger than 9lb. or 10lb. A large salmon never will
come from a small breed. A Bush salmon could never grow to
the size of a Shannon fish, though he were to live to any age.”

These are subjects that I believe are worthy the attention
of fish culturists and naturalists, and replies to which can only
be given by an attentive consideration of the fish in their
breeding and rearing grounds. Of course, without perfect
segregation, as is now carried on at Howietoun, observations
will not be of any material value. It is the field, and not the
museum naturalist who must be expected to solve these points,
and, if the propositions I have made are correct, it would be
worth while for an investigation to be properly carried out into
whether the same phenomena occurs in other families of fishes,
or even in other orders of animal life. Will, in short, the spat
of a small oyster produce an equally fine race to that from
larger and better fed molluscs ?

CAN SALMON SPAWN IN THE SEA ?

Although my main object in undertaking a small trout and
salmon hatchery at Cheltenham was to ascertain the expense
such would really entail, and the trouble which would be
required in bringing such to a satisfactory conclusion, I was
also, as I have observed, desirous in a small way of trying a few
experiments which might be practically useful, or solve any
unsolved question. One of these is, Can salmon spawn in the
sew? I do not propose entering into the history of all who have
written for or against this theory or conjecture, but if we turn
to GesneR (A.D. 1598) we find he remarks that the salmon was
quite unknown to the Greeks. It is a fish belonging to
Germany and the inhabitants of the coasts of the German
Ocean, for from the sea only do such fishes come. Its form is
well known to the Germans, for which reason but little will be
said concerning it. It is only necessary to observe that they
change their name according to the time of the year, or their
age; that in the spring and through the summer, until St.
James’s Day, they are called Salm; after that they receive the

el te

319

name of Lachs, at which period also they have a curved knob
at the end of the lower jaw, and are beautifully spotted. The
crook on the lower jaw is much larger in the male than in the
female. They are only found in rivers which empty themselves
into the German Ocean. Sometimes they are of great size,
even reaching 36lb. The shoulders are fleshy. Internally,
they are formed so that one sees two openings from the mouth
down the throat, the one into the stomach, the other, which is
closed by a thin white skin, not proceeding far. These fish may
be regarded according to the way that they ruminate or chew
their food, after the manner of some four-footed animals. They
have many teeth upon the tongue, which is short and broad. |

The Nature and Properties of the Salmon.—Those who have
written on the properties of the salmon are not unanimous.
Some write that the salmon spawns only in the sea, then comes
to fresh waters to grow. Others, again, say that as the salmon
grow up from the eggs, towards winter in the fresh water, in
which they grow a little, subsequently returning to the sea,
where they become full grown, and afterwards they ascend the
fresh water streams, which opinion is not only that of expe-
rienced fishermen, but is confirmed by our daily experience, for
salmon are largely caught by us. After Christmas Day, that
is, at the end of the 12th month, they are no more seen. There
are two reasons advanced for the salmon doing this; first, that
they spawn and spend their youth, and grow large in the sea;
the second is, that they return to the river and spawn when of
suitable size.

Pontorripan (Natural History of Norway, 1755) asserted
that he was well assured that salmon chiefly eject their roe at
the mouths of rivers, where they empty themselves into the sea,
or else a little above the salt water.

If this last opinion were correct a question might arise
whether there is any necessity for protecting salmon rivers, as
did they spawn in the sea many of their young could be raised
in the same localities.

It is useless pointing out to the advocates of this opinion,
who are mostly net fishermen, that could they do so, why do

320

they push up into rivers for breeding purposes, and that as far
as they can ascend from salt-water influences ? They do not
select a spot between high and low-water mark along our
inlets and bays, for there their nests would be liable to be
disturbed by the ebb and flow of the tides, whereas if they
selected the deeper portions of the ocean it does not seem clear
how the eggs would be sufficiently erated.

It is true that if we refer to the Report of the Committee of
the House of Commons on Salmon Fisheries (1824-25) we find
them asking a witness, Mr Jonnstonse—‘Is the committee to
understand that there are salmon which frequent the friths,
and go out to sea again without going up the rivers?” To this
he replied, “‘ Yes,” and he also remarked that although they
generally spawn above the influence of the tides they may
spawn where the tide reaches. And they subsequently interro-
gated Mr Hatumay thus—“Are there a great many salmon
which come into the friths that do not go to the rivers but
return again to the sea ?”—“ There aré a great many.” While
Mr Sreavenson, of Fortrose, deposed “ that there cannot be a
doubt that salmon spawn in the sea.”

During the winter of 1824 Mr Hoearra found that salmon
ova taken from the river Don and put into salt water, never
came to life, from which he inferred that if salmon spawn were
deposited in the sea it would not be evolved.* Sir Humpurey
Davy observed of the salmon: “ Sometimes, indeed, in very
small streams it deposits its spawn almost close to the sea in
gravel, where the stream meets the waves at high-water mark
(Le., p. 144).

Sir James Maruesont has recorded a similar instance at
the mouth of the Greamster in the Island of Lewis, continuing
that the spot is covered with “ brackish water” only for about
two hours at each high tide, but not at all during the neaps,
while this brackish water is so diluted as to differ but little
from fresh water in specific gravity, the tide serving as a dam
to the river water, and, by obstructing its free outflow, causing
its accumulation and overflow.

* Parliamentary Committee on Salmon Fisheries, 1824, page 62.
+ Davy, Physiological Researches, page 261.

+
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321

Doubtless, salmon and sea trout will spawn in salt water at
times, but should an investigation be instituted such is gener-
ally found to be consequent upon a want of sufficient water in
the rivers to enable them to ascend to their spawning beds,
while they cannot retain their ova for an indefinite period. Mr
Jacxson* recorded that ‘‘ the salmon-trout cast their ova in the
salt water at the Southport Aquarium, without assuming the
appearance of kelts, or even leaving off feeding greedily on
shrimps. They did not attempt to make a bed, and the spawn
was immediately eaten by their fellows.” It would seem in
this case that the fish, aware of the uselessness of forming a
redd, did not take the trouble to do so.

About 1862 My Sinciair made some experiments in Ireland
on the effects of salt water on salmon ova, remarking} upon
having taken about one hundred eyed salmon ova, of which
two portions were enclosed in wicker baskets and buried in
separate streams, one of which was reached every tide by salt
water, whereas the other was entirely fresh. They were
examined in about three weeks after one set of spring tides,
when all which had been reached by salt water were found to
be dead; not so those in which the stream was entirely fresh
water. The remaining third were hatched in a wash-hand
basin, in which was fresh water changed once a day. He sub-
sequently observed t that since then he had two or three times
seen salmon redds in the same tidal water, and bad been
assured by his head water bailiff that he had seen one a quarter
of a mile lower down, where the gravel was covered over by
neap tides; also, he had been told that in another river, on a
particular ford which is affected by spring tides, but only in a
slight degree, half-a-dozen redds are generally to be found
every winter.

Mr J. Jackson, § writing of the Yorkshire Esk, recorded,
respecting salmon ova, that “it is an interesting question,

* Land and Water, June 10th, 1876.
+ “ Field,” Feb. 4th, 1882.

£“ Field,” March 7th, 1885.

§ “ Field,” Dec. 20th, 1884.

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however, as to what amount of brackish water will destroy it;
and, as we have a lot of spawning fish depositing their ova in
the stream, just below Ruswark Mill dam, over which they
cannot get when heavy in spawu, and up to which spring tides
rise about two or three feet, covering the spawn beds for about
two hours each tide for some three or four days at each period
of high tides. Some ova from fish spawning there was pro-
cured and placed in a box in the gravel at that spot. This was
done in order to ascertain whether it would come to life.
Though nothing came of the experiment for the first two years,
it was found that this year a good portion of it was hatched,
thus showing that it was not all killed by salt water. Another
account states that some of the ova were removed from this
box, and hatched in a basin of fresh water in the village brook,
whereas all that were left in the box died.

Sir J. Marueson, during the winter of 1861-62, had two
portions of impregnated salmon eggs used, one for trial in
brackish water of specific gravity 1,015, the other in fresh.
They were held on a wire cloth in a glass vase with a tap at its
bottom, and the water was changed daily. During the first ten
days the ova in the brackish water did not appear to suffer, and
no longer; no foetal development was observed in them, and
they all died, while those in the fresh water made progress, and
in due time were hatched.

Dr. Davy tried the effects of a solution of common salt
in water, having a specific gravity of 1:026° on a salmon egg,
the embryo in which appears to have succumbed in a few hours
over two days. The ovum of a Dee salmon in similar water,
of a specific gravity of 1:007° was hatched at the end of about
forty-eight hours ; the young was very languid, but at the end
of the fourth day was still alive.

Brown, in his account of the Stormontfield experiments,
observed :—‘* We have also taken ova which had been recently
manipulated upon, and dropped it into sea water, which destroyed
it almost instantaneously, only a few of them becoming opaque;
in the greater portion of them the yolk became shrivelled up
and contracted.”

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323

Mr Branper, in The Field, remarked upon having observed
during the preceding summer some holes scooped out in the
gravel close to the mouth of the small river Lossie (near the
Spey) and within the reach of the salt water, and here he found
in January, 1882, a few salmon working at their redds, which
were within a mile anda half of the sea, and covered once a
fortnight, at spring tides, with quite salt and undrinkable
water for perhaps an hour’s time.

Several correspondents to The Field and elsewhere appear
to be sanguine that in time they will hatch salmon in such
localities; and in fact, it has been asserted that they must
have done so in the Yorkshire Esk.

Under the conflicting accounts representing sea water as
certain death in all instances wherein the experiments had
been brought to a conclusion, and only conjecture being the
ground for a belief that Salmonoid eggs would hatch in such a
situation, I thought it well worth endeavouring to come to a
decision onthe point. My experiments were certainly primitive
ones, and it may be objected that the ova being in tum-
blers and the water being only changed once daily, placed
them under unnatural conditions, but the eggs similarly placed
in tumblers of fresh water hatched. Also two trout eggs kept
in brackish water at the specific gravity of 1008° (except for
two days at 1019°) from January 9th hatched February 28th
and March Ist, but one had dropsy of the sac, apparently
due to the medium in which they had been kept, It would be
better if in future experiments the water be kept flowing.

WHAT IS A PAR?

The young of the salmon in Acts of Parliament were
formerly designated as fry and smolts, while of late years the
term par has been commonly used, and which has been said to
be calculated to mislead, because there are salmon par and
trout par. This brings us therefore to the consideration of
what isa par? And I think a short history of the controversy
this question has raised will be interesting, for in such Zoolo-
gists, fishermen, learned divines, doctors, lawyers, poachers, in

324

fact almost every class has joined. Arguments for and against
their being the young of the salmon have been employed,
invectives against opponents have been freely indulged in, and
all because no one would hatch the little.fish from the ovum,
and ascertain the various changes it went through in the course
of the first few years of its life.

As this history is a most instructive one I propose giving a
short summary of it, as well as exhibiting the fish as it has
been reared direct from the egg of the salmon, also as it
is turning into a smolt, and after it has become a grilse.

Isaak Watton Compleat Angler, 1653, remarks that ‘in
divers rivers, especially that relate to or be near to the sea,
as Winchester or the Thames about Windsor, is a little trout
called a ‘ samlet’ or ‘skegger trout,’ and that these be by some
taken to be young salmons,”’

We find WiuLovcuey (Historia Piscium, 1686, page 192)
giving a description of the Salmulus or ‘* samlet”’ of Hereford-
shire, which, he tells us, inhabits the Wye, and all which he has
examined were males; he however places it as a distinct species.
In the next page he gives it as branlins or fingerins, and asserts
that he is persuaded that they interbreed with the salmon, and
are only found in such places as are frequented by the salmon.
WILLouGHBY was persuaded that all the various species of the
genus Salmo interbred.

Ray (Synopsis Methodica Piscium, 1718, page 63) classes the
samlet of Herefordshire and the branlin and fingerin of York-
shire all as one species, and of which it is affirmed all are males.

Captain Francxs (Northern Memoirs, 1658, page 301) describes
‘‘the various brood of salmon, so to distinguish them according
to mode, or as some will have it the custom of the country.
In the south they call him ‘samlet,’ but if you step to the west
he is better known there by the name of ‘skeggar;’ when in
the east they avow him ‘penk;’ but to the northward ‘ brood’
and ‘ locksper,’ so from thence to a ‘ tecon,’ then to a ‘ salmon.’”

J. Wituramson (The British Angler, 1711, page 138) considers
“the ‘samlet,’ or ‘salmon-smelt,’ or, as they are called by
some, ‘salmon-fry,’ are only so many different names for the

‘ young salmon.’ ”

525

Pennant (British Zoology, iv., 1776, page 303) says the
samlet is the least of the trout kind, it is by several imagined to be
the fry of the salmon, but from which he dissented, first, because
salmon fry vanish on the first vernal flood after they have been
born, and which sweeps them into the sea, leaving scarce
one behind; and secondly, because the growth of the salmon
fry is so quick and so considerable as suddenly to exceed the
size of the largest samlet. That the salmon attains to a con-
siderable size before it breeds, while samlets on the contrary
are found male and female, although it has been vulgarly
imagined that there were no other than males of this species.
That they are present all the year round in the rivers, and

spawn in November and December. He concludes “these fish

are very frequent in the rivers of Scotland, where they are
called ‘ pars ;’ they are also common in the Wye, where they
are known by the name of ‘skirlings’ and ‘lasprings.’” He
gives a short extract from Mr Ports respecting the salmon of
the Tweed,—“ about the latter end of March the spawn begins
to exclude the young, which gradually increase to the length
of four or five inches, and are then termed ‘ smelts’ or ‘ smouts.’
About the beginning of May the river is full of them, it seems
to be all alive; there is no having an idea of the numbers
without seeing them; but a seasonable flood then hurries them
all to the sea, scarce any or very few being left in the river.”

Turron (British Fauna, 1807 page 104) admits Salmo sal-
mulus as a distinct species.

Should we now turn to the “Reports on the Salmon
Fisheries of the United Kingdom,” drawn up by a Select
Committee of the House of Commons, in 1824 and 1825, one
finds a considerable amount of evidence as to what par were
considered in those days. One witness (G. Lirrue. page 113,)
on being asked if he had ever known them found in any river
where there were no salmon? replied, “ I do not know that I
have, I never took particular notice as to them, but I consider
them a fresh water fish, unconnected with our salmon fisheries
altogether.” But on being asked at what season of the year
does the salmon fry begin to go down to the sea? he at once

326

answered that “when the natural warmth comes into the water
in the month of March, the fry generally rise, and they continue
going down from that time until the lst May; sometimes I
have seen them going down till the month of June,” (page 115.)

Mr Hoearrts, in May, 1824, when samlets were descending
the Don, had a number of them captured and marked, by
cutting off the mort or dead fin. During the month of July
several grilses were taken without that fin, whence he inferred
that they were some of the fishes which he had previously
marked. Not only did samlets thus become grilses in a few
weeks, but in the following year, 1825, he got three salmon,
marked in the same way, which he also considered to be some
of those individuals he had marked originally as samlets. In
September, 1824, he caught ten or twelve grilses, which were
put into a salt water pond. Owing to high tides some escaped.
but there were three alive the following May; these were taken
out and: examined in the presence of many competent judges,
who were all decidedly of the opinion that they were real
salmon. These experiments showed not only the growth of the
smolt or samlet into grilse or botcher, but also that of the grilse
into the gilling or salmon of one year’s growth.

One must however decline assenting to some of Mr Extis’s
conclusions (“‘ Natural History of the Salmon,” in the Edinburgh
New Philosophical Journal, 1828, page 250 et seq.) viz., that
salmon “frequently propagate their kind during the first year
of their age,” or that “in the first five months of its existence,
that is, from April to August, both inclusive, it reaches, in
favourable circumstances, to about eight pounds in weight, or
grows at the average rate of about 1 lb. 9} oz. a month; that
from September following to March, seven months, it acquires
seven pounds additional weight, which is at the average rate of
about 1b. 12 oz. per month; and lastly, that through the next
twelve months it gains ten pounds more, or weighs thirty-five
pounds, which is somewhat more than 13} oz. per month.”

Furmine (History of British Animals, 1828, page 179) speak-
ing of the young of the salmon, remarks, “the fry leave the
spawning groove about March, retire to pools, and proceed

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according to circumstances in myriads along the easy water at
the margin of the river, with their heads against the stream,
until they reach the tide in the estuary, where, like the kelts,
which frequently go down at the same time, they retire to the
deepest part of the channel and disappear in the sea. These
samlets, smoults, or smouts, are regarded by many as re-
appearing in the estuaries a few months afterwards in the
character of ‘grilses,’ of from three pounds to four pounds
weight, according to the lateness of the season.”

Sir Humpury Davy (Salmomia, 1832, page 68) considered
par to be hybrid offspring of a salmon and a trout; also that
“ pars are exceedingly numerous in those rivers where they are
found, which are never separated from the sea by impassable
falls; from which I think it is possible that they are produced
by a cross between sea and river trout,” (page 70.)

Sroppart (Scottish Angler, 1831) strenuously advocated the
theory that par are the young of the salmon.

Mr Burst (Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, 1832,) observed
“the par is a compact fish, with firm scales, small head and
eye, and from every appearance a fish come to maturity. The
smolt is evidently a young tender fish, its scales come off with
the slightest touch; its head and eyes are large, like other
young creatures that are destined to be of a much greater size.

But the greatest and most decided difference is this,
that pars are found in our rivers at all seasons of the year, and
‘smolts,’ or what we reckon salmon fry, only from March to
about the middle of June. The difference between the fish, even
in this respect, is almost sufficient to prove that they are not
the same species.”

Sir W. Jarpine* says of the Salmo salmulus, or par, ‘ the
greatest uncertainty, however, latterly resolved itself into
whether the par was distinct, or a variety, or young of the
common trout, S. fario. With the migratory salmon it has no
connection whatever. ‘“‘ In the markings they are so distinct
as to be at once separated from the trout by any observer.”
«‘T have no hesitation in considering the par not only distinct,

Ons Edinburgh New Philos. Journal, 1835, page 56.

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but one of the best and most constantly marked species we
have, and that it ought to remain in our system as the S. sal-
mulus of Ray.” He also says, “from the migratory salmon it
is separated entirely by its habits. The correct distinguishing
marks to be seen by a person who has not leisure to make a
minute examination are the great size of the pectoral fins, the
shortness of the maxillary bones, and consequently small gape,
and the narrow breadth between the rami of the lower law.” *
Jenynst gives the Salmo salmulus, which he remarks is now
pretty well ascertained to be a distinct species, always remaining
of a small size. It is called in some places a “ par,” in others
a “skirling” or “brandling.” According to Dr HrysHam
(Catalogue of the Animals of Cumberland. page 31) the adult fish
go down to the sea after spawning, which takes place, as in the
other migratory species of this genus, in the depth of winter.

Sir Jonn Ricnarpson (Encyclopedia Britannica, Ed. 1835,

page 205) says, “the ova continue covered by the gravel during
the winter, and begin to vivify from about the end of March to
the commencement of April. The fry remove from under the
gravel when nearly an inch in length, with the ovum still
attached ; and at this period, if the spawning bed or furrow be
turned up, it will appear in motion. When disengaged from
the ova the fish increase in size more rapidly, and about the end
of April and during May commence and perform their first
migration or journey to the sea. At this time they are from
four to six inches in length.”

YaRRELL (History of British Fishes, Edition 1, 1836, i. page
15,) observes of the fry of the various species of Salmonide
that “it is this similarity in marking and appearance of the fry
which has caused the difficulty in distinguishing between the
various species when so young; and experimenters, believing
they had marked young par only, have been surprised to find
some of their marked fish return as grilse, young bull-trout, or
whitling, salmon-trout, river-trout, and true par.” ‘The las-
pring of some rivers is the young of the true salmon, but in

* “ Berwickshire Naturalists’ Field Club I, page 84.
+ ‘Manual of British Vertebrate Animals,” 1835, page 426.

a

ray
~

)
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529

others, as I know from having had specimens sent me, the
laspring is really a par.” At page 42 he gives a good figure of
the par, and remarks “that this little fish, one of the smallest
of the British Salmonide, has given rise to more discussion
than any other species of the genus.” Continuing that it has
frequently been insisted upon as the young:-of the salmon, and
local regulations have as generally been invoked for its preser-
vation. That the par is not the young of the salmon, or
indeed of any other of the larger species of Salmonide, as still
considered by some, is sufficiently obvious from the circumstance
that pars by hundreds may be taken in the rivers all the sum-
mer, long after the fry of the year of the larger migratory
species have gone down to the sea; and the greater part of
those pars, taken even in autumn, do not exceed five inches in
length, when no example of the young of the salmon can be
found under sixteen or eighteen inches, and the young of the
bull-trout and salmon-trout are large in proportion.” He also
alludes to an opinion which prevailed that pars were hybrids,
and all of them males. HeysHam found 196. females out of
395. YarReEwt likewise remarks the ‘skegger’ of the Thames
is the par or samlet.”

Russet remarks that about ten years before what were really
the first decisive experiments, (1824 or 1825.) Mr Scrorz (Days
and Nights of Salmon Fishing) wrote a long letter to the Right
Hon. T. F. Kennepy, M.P.,in which the theory or rather fact
that the par is the young of the salmon was stated with posi-
tiveness and argued with great clearness and force. Also
‘the finding in spring of the distinctive marks of the par under
the silver scales of the smolt.”

About eight years later, and still previous to the decisive
experiments, he continued, “‘James Hoae, the Ettrick Shepherd,
gave the world some very good reasons of his own for holding
the par to be the young of the salmon, reasons founded on
observation and experience, partly on his having observed the
gradual assumption of the migratory dress by the par in the
spring months, partly on his having caught a grilse fish which
he had marked when a par, or when in their transition-state

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from par to smolt.” Previously, he had held a different opinion,
believing the par not to be the young of the salmon, but was
convinced to the contrary by Mr Suarpe.

Suaw (Edinburgh New Philosoph Journal, 1836, page 99) com-
municated certain experiments which he instituted on the par as
to what its relations really were, for he had always believed it
to be the young of the salmon. On July 11th, 1833, he caught
seven pars, and put them into a pond supplied with a stream of
wholesome water. In April, 1834, they became of a beautiful
blue on the back, and a delicate silvery appearance on the sides,
while the scales came readily off on their being handled. In
March, 1835, he took twelve more pars, averaging six inches
each in length, from the river which took on the smolt dress in
April, 1835, which species he concluded these fish to be. “The
salmon fry has hitherto been erroneously supposed to grow to the
size of six or eight inches in as many weeks, and to take its
departure for the sea after this brief period has elapsed. The
rapidity with which the par of two years old assumes the
appearance of the salmon-fry has led to this error, the par
taking about the same time to perfect its new dress, as the
young salmon is supposed to take in attaining the growth at
which it has arrived at the period of its migration.” In May,
1834, he caught some young about one inch in length with a
gauze net, and put them into two separate ponds provided with
a proper supply of running water. In May, 1835, they averaged
34 inches long, and corresponded to the par of the river, and in
the second week of that month assumed the smolt living and
measured about 63 inches in length each.. On January 10th,
1836, he saw a female salmon about 16lbs. weight, and two
males of at least 25lbs. engaged in depositing their spawn, and
three days subsequently he obtained ova from the spot where
he had observed these fishes, and which ova he placed in gravel
under a stream of pure spring water. On April 8th he found
they had hatched, and after 140 days more corresponded with
the little fishes he had taken in May, 1834. In January, 1836,
he took a male and female salmon, apparently from 16lbs. to
20lbs. in weight, and which were in the act of spawning, he

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dug a trench in the gravel, through which he caused a current of
water to flow, two inches deep. He then had these two living
fishes held in this trench side by side, while with the hands he
pressed the ova and milt out of their bodies, which mixed freely
together in the stream. A few minutes subsequently he
removed the ova to a stream to which no other fish had access,
and ninety-four days subsequently young fish were hatched.
Passing on to a paper read by Mr Suaw before the Royal.
Society of Edinburgh, December 18th, 1837, he observed that
his former paper on ova taken from the Nith had been objected
to, as there was not sufficient evidence that these were the eggs
of the salmon, the same stream being accessible to other fish.
So he repeated his former experiments, preserving the skins of
the parent fish, also laying his experimental basins dry, not
only for the purpose of removing any young fish which might
remain, but likewise to fit them up on such a principle as would
exclude the possibility of confusion, either from the over-
flowing of the ponds themselves, or from the flooding of the
river Nith, on the banks of which they were situated. On
January 4th, 1837, he captured a pair of salmon engaged in
depositing their spawn. Before proceeding to take the fish he
formed a small trench in the shingle at the edge of the river,
through which he directed a small stream of water two inches
deep. At the end of this trench he placed an earthenware
basin of considerable size for the purpose of ultimately receiv-
ing the ova. Having drawn the fish ashore he placed the
female, still alive, in the trench, and pressed from the body a
quantity of the ova. Then the milt was similarly obtained
from the male, thoroughly impregnating the eggs. The eggs
were now transferred to the earthenware basin, and deposited
in a stream connected with a pond previously formed for its
reception. On the 28th of April, or 114 days after being
removed from the parent fish, the eggs hatched. On May 24th,

_ or twenty-seven days after being hatched, the young had

absorbed the yelk-sac; they died a few days subsequently,
caused, he supposed, from a deposition of mud, the same result
having been more than once produced when the pond had not
been sufficiently embedded with gravel.

332

The next experiment was conducted with more success. The
parent fish were similarly captured on January 27th, 1837, sub-
sequently killed, and their skins preserved. The male when
taken weighed 16lbs., and the female 8lbs. On May 7th, or
101 days after removal from the parent fish, the eggs hatched.
He gave illustrations, life size, from examples ten days old,
forty-eight days, two months, and six months of age, while no
marked difference could be observed between them and the par
in the river of a corresponding age.

ParwneEu (“ Fishes of the District of the Forth,” 1838, page
298) gives the Salmo salmulus, or par, as a distinct species
observing “that if we compare a young salmon of eight inches
in length with a par of equal size, both taken from the same
river in the month of May, we shall find them to differ in the
following respects ;” and then follow his reasons for this
opinion. He remarks that “it is generally supposed that those
small fish, from four to five inches in length, which are found
so plentiful in many rivers during the autumn months, and
which are marked on the sides with from ten to eleven trans-
verse dusky bands, and a black spot on each gill-cover, are
either all pars or the young of the salmon. But from a minute

examination of several hundreds of these fish, taken in various

rivers in England and Scotland, I am induced to consider them
as not all of one species, but the young of various species
or varieties of migratory trout, in company with the young of
the salmon, with the Salmo salmulus or par, and with different
varieties of the common fresh-water trout; all of which have
received the names of Heppers, Brandlings, Samlets, Fingerlings,
Gravellings, Lasprings, Skirlings, and Sparlings.” ‘There are
still great doubts as to the par being a migratory species, since
no instance has been recorded of its capture in the sea. Nor
does it appear to me to be so common a fish as is generally
considered.”

Tompson (“Natural History of Ireland,” 1856, being a
reprint of many of his papers, written at various dates) terms
the par a gravelling, the young of the salmon (vol. iv., page
148). “The remark of Pennant, that ‘the adipose fin is

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333

never tipped with red, nor is the edge of the anal white,’ can
only be considered as generally correct. Two of my pars do,
though very faintly, show red on the adipose fin, and one half
of them have the base of the anal fin white.” ‘The three
most striking characters of the par in contradistinction to the
common trout, are—its tail being more forked, its having only
two or three spots on the opercula, and its want of dark-colowred

“spots beneath the lateral line. The pectoral fin of the par is

larger, and the hinder portion of the operculum less angular
than in the common trout.”

Yarrewu (“British Fishes,” 1841, ii., page 14, &c.) says,
“Tn order to prevent any misconception of the terms employed,
I shall speak of the young salmon of the first year as a pink ;
on its second year, until it goes to sea, as a smolt ; in the
autumn of the second year, as salmon-peal or grilse ; and after-
wards as adult salmon.” ‘“ Mr SHaw’s experiments have gone
very far towards convincing many that the par, as a distinct
species, does not exist” (page 84).

In the “ List of the Specimens of British Animals in the
Collection of the British Museum,” “ Fish” was written by Mr
Apam Waite in 1851, and at page 76 the par is given as the
young of the salmon and sea trouts.

Mr Youne, the Manager of the Duke of SuTHERLann’s
Fisheries, was experimenting as to whether par were or were
not the young of the salmon, at the same time as Mr Suaw,
and he asserted that they certainly were the young of Salmo
salar. In a letter from Invershin, dated January, 1853, and
which was published, he observed: “The fry remain in the
river one whole year, from the time they are hatched to the
time they assume their silvery coat and take their first departure
to the sea. All the experiments we have made on the ova
and fry of the salmon have exactly corresponded to the same
effect, and none of them have taken longer in arriving at the
smolt than the first year.”

In the evidence given in the case of GALBRAITH versus SHAW,
at Dunblaine in January, 1858, some river watchers deposed
as follows: —‘“‘I have not seen a female par with spawn

334

at all. The male par will spawn, or, as I mean, have
milt the first year of its existence.” “I have seen smolt go to
sea in shoals. I wont swear that I ever saw par going down
with them.” “Par sometimes remain more than a year in the
river after they are hatched. They then become smolts with a
silvery skin, and in that state descend to the sea. When a
smolt is stripped of its scales, it is a par below” (Jamus
Marure). “The marks of a par are finger marks. The number
of marks vary. I have found eleven, and I have found sixteen.
The pars thus observed were of the same ages. The number of
marks does not depend on the size. I never saw par with
fewer than eleven. I have never seen par taken from any river
but the Tay.” ‘The par of the trout has the dead fin orange ;
the rudder fin is white at the bottom and yellow at the top.
They have not so many par marks as the par. I do not think
they have ever more than six marks” (PereR Marsuatt).
«‘ There is not a pool or stream on the Teith where par are not
(I confine myself to smolts). Every pool at a certain time has
par. It is my opinion that pars are the fry of salmon. They
assume the silvery scale when they go down the river. I
have seen kelts taking on the same silvery coat at repeated
times, in the end of March and April, preparing to descend the
river; but before this I have seen them of a different colour”
(James GREENHORN).

Of the 1854 salmon hatching at Siabedonnalde Mr Buisr
reported “that the first of the fry that left the pond as smolts
in 1855 was on the 19th of May; the last on the 7th of June.
No more left that year. The first of the same brood which
remained as par all last season assumed the smolt scales in
August, 1856. The first division went off on the 28th of April,
and the last on the 26th of May. In both years they went off
daily in divisions from the first to the last day. About 1,300
were marked in 1855, and several returned, as stated in my
report. The number marked in 1856 was 300 with rings, and
800 with cuts in the tail. Taking one in each hundred as
marked it may be reckoned thus:—Left the pond in 1856,
130,000; in 1856, 100,000; total, 230,000.” Although many

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335

grilse were reported to the superintendent as captured, having
this year’s mark, not one having the ring was among those
taken. The grilse in 1856 were very numerous, but marked
ones were not detected. A few of the fry that left the pond in
May or June, 1855, were reported as having been caught this
season as salmon.

Dr J. Davy (“ Physiological Researches,” 1863, page 221)
concludes “ that a par—a distinct species—is a creature of the
imagination, and that the idea of such a species ought to be
opposed, both as founded in error, and as affording a pretence
to allow of the wasteful, mischievous capture of the salmon and
sea-trout fry.”

Russet (“The Salmon,” 1864, page 33) observes that the
chief questions are, or have been :—Ilst. Is the par the young
of the salmon in earliest infancy? 2nd. At what age does the
smolt emigrate to salt water? 3rd. After what length of
absence does the emigrant return to fresh water? 4th. In
what state does he return, “‘grilse or salmon?” Continuing,
“that the par is the infant young of the salmon was a fact so
clear, or a conclusion so inevitable, before the experiments
(Suaw’s) were made, that it would not be hard to conceive how
it could ever have been in doubt. Were it not that, even after
the experiments have furnished the most ample demonstration,
there are still to be found a considerable number of people who,
instead of having been convinced, have only been enraged.”
_“ Every schoolboy on the banks of the Tweed (where almost
alone the S. salar and S. eriow are found together in plenty)
knows at a glance the difference between the smolt of the
salmon and of the bull-trout—the black-fin and the orange-fin.”
_ Covcu (“British Fishes,” iv., 1864, page 245) observed,
“The question at present, therefore, is not whether the young
of the salmon—and, we may add, of some others of the same
family—may not remain in fresh water for more than a year,
during which they may bear on the sides a series of dusky
marks at this time, denominated Par-bands, but whether there
be not also a distinct species which bears those marks, and
which, by something like arrested development, is never

336

deprived of them.” ‘ Mr Suaw’s conclusions, in some particulars,
appear to be far from satisfactory; and, as regards the true
nature of a fish he terms the par, the question appears to be
exactly where he found it.”

Bertram (“The Harvest of the Sea,” 1865, page 105)
observed: “Indeed, the experiments conducted at the Stor-
montfield ponds have conclusively settled the long-fought
battle of the par, and proved indisputably that the par is the
young of the salmon, that it becomes transformed to a smolt,
grows into a grilse, and ultimately attains the honour of full-
grown salmonhood. The anomaly in the growth of. the par was
also attempted to be solved at Stormontfield, but without
success. In November and December, 1857, provision was
made for hatching in separate compartments the artificially
impregnated ova of—(l.) par and salmon; (2.) grilse and
salmon; (3.) grilse pure; (4.) salmon pure. It was found, when
the young of these different matches came to be examined early
in April, 1859, that the sizes of each kind varied a little; Mr
Buist, the superintendent of fisheries, informing us that—(1st.)
the produce of the salmon with salmon are four inches in
length ; (2nd.) grilse with salmon, 3} inches; (3rd.) grilse with
grilse, 34 inches; (4th.) par with grilse, three inches; (5th.)
smolt from large pond, five inches. These results, of a varied
manipulation, never got a fair chance of being of use as a proof
in the disputation; for, owing to the limited extent of the
ponds at the time, the experiments had to be matured in such
small boxes or ponds as evidently tended to stunt the growth
of the fish.”

Dr Gunruer (“Catalogue of the Fishes of the British
Museum,” vi., 1866, pp. 11-34) places the Salmulus of WitLovcHBY
as the young of a variety of sea trout, which he termed
S. cambricus ; while the Salmulus of Ray he considered an
immature salmon, observing in a note that “ under these names
the young not only of the salmon, but also of other salmonoids,
have been described.” Ray’s description is almost verbally
identical with that of WiLLouGHBy; and in the “ Introduction
to the Study of Fishes,” by Dr Gunrusr, 1880, it is observed

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337

that “ the Historia Piscium,” which bears WiLLoucHBY’s name
onthe title page, and was edited by Ray, is clearly their joint
production.” He also says: “Saw has demonstrated in the
most conclusive manner that those small Salmonoids, generally
called Par, are the offspring of the salmon, and that many
males, from seven to eight inches long, have the sexual organs
fully developed, and that their milt has all the impregnating
properties of the seminal fluid of a much older and larger fish.
That this Par is not a distinct species—as has lately been again
maintained by Covcn—is further proved by the circumstance
that these sexually mature Pars are absolutely identical in their
zoological characters with the immature Pars, which are un-
doubtedly young Salmon, and that no Par has ever been found
with mature ova. But whether these Par produce normal
Salmon, impregnating the ova of female Salmon, or mingle
with the River-trout, or whether they continue to grow and
propagate their species as true Salmon, are questions which
remain to be answered.”

In 1869 commenced the case of the Tay Fishery Board
versus Minter, who was accused “‘in so far as, upon Saturday,
the 26th June, 1869, or about that time, the said Rosrerr
Minter had in his possession nine smolts or salmon fry.”
First decided against the Fishery Board, who appealed, when
the case was remitted back to the sheriff to enquire whether
par was salmon fry? On the 8th of October, 1869, the sheriff
found that “the defendant had in his possession certain fish
commonly known as pars, but which are not named in the pro-
hibitory and penal clauses libelled; but finding it not proved
that he then had any fish known as smolts, the only fish named
in the same section of the statute libelled, and declines to
enquire and decide the question in natural science, whether
par be, or be not, salmon fry.” The Sheriff-substitute, July
12th, 1870, “ finds it not proved that, in the popular and well-
understood sense, any of the pars found in the possession of
* the accused on the day libelled were salmon fry.” He, how-
ever, admitted that the evidence as a naturalist “would have
led him to decide, as a point of science, that par, or at least

338

certain of that family, were the young of salmon.” Another
appeal was now made on July 20th, 1870, that as the pars
““were the young of salmon, or salmon fry, the Sheriff-sub-
stitute ought to have given effect to said proof by a judgment
against the respondent.” The case was tried at Perth, Sep-
tember 7th, 1870, and the defendant was finally convicted.
June 4th, 1872, an individual was summoned before the
Sheriff in so far as, on the 24th of April last, he did, on the
right bank of the river Allan, by means of a rod and line, take
or have in his possession six smolts or salmon fry. As the first
witness observed, salmon fry meant the smolt of the salmon
proper. The yellow-fin was the sea-trout smolt. One witness,
Mr G. Youna, of Berwick, deposed that the orange-fins of the
Tweed were identical with the yellow-fins of the Allan, and
that they were the par or young of the sea-trout. Very exten-
sive experiments had been made in the river with regard to
these fish. He was a Tweed Commissioner, and also belonged
to the experimental committee. They had marked these fish
for a great number of years, and had traced them into all
stages of their growth, from the egg to the full-grown bull or
sea-trout. The orange -fin is the young of the sea- trout.
They were known as “black - tails,” just before passing
from the orange-fin into the whitling or bull trout. Mr
Bruce remarked: “They have par to account for the young
salmon, the small yellow trout to account for the young of the
yellow trout, and it seemed to him that the yellow-fin could be
nothing else thau the young of the sea-trout.” Dr GUnrHer
deposed that “there is a distinction between the young of
Salmo salar (the salmon) and a member of the Farios (trout).
In the par of the former I have counted as many as nine or ten
cross bars, and in the latter only six or seven.” “Iam not
quite sure but that milt and ova might be found in a hybrid.
It has been found in pars, and my theory is that where this is
so, the first is the product of a hen salmon and a male river
trout, as it was frequently found that a hen salmon was
spawning on the same gravel bed with a male river trout. This
hybrid would come to maturity sooner than a pure-bred salmon,

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339

and thus give the appearance of ova or milt being found in
the par.”

Mr Buisr (Stormontfield’s Piscicultwral Experiments, 1867,)
altered his mind with respect to pars, due to his having been
engaged at the Stormontfield ponds, where experiments were
being carried on, and which gave him an opportunity of observ-
ing the transformations in the par with age. After remarking
that at one time he was an advocate of the popular dogma that
the par was a distinct fish by itself, one proof being that in
the month of November, 1832, a male par had been brought to
him with the milt flowing out. “The par in question was really
the young salmon of the second year, which had not then gone
to the sea. At Stormontfield we have repeatedly seen a young
salmon, which remained in the rearing pond till the time of
migration in the second year, though not the size of a man’s
finger, yet with such a state of milt in the breeding season that
we have impregnated eggs of the full-grown salmon with it,
and thereby produced young fish. Such is not the case with
the sister fish of the second year in the pond, as not even the
rudiments of roe can be traced in them.”

I do not intend referring further than I have, at present, to
the par of the sea trout and the experiments which have been
tried with reference to it, except to observe that on May 17th,
1874, 133 fish, averaging about seven or eight inches in length,
were selected as good examples of “ orange-fins,” and placed
in artificial ponds at Carham. On May 2nd, 1879, after five
years’ confinement, 30 of them were weighed, measured, and
marked, and returned to the Tweed. On June 4th one of these
fish, marked with silver wire, was captured near Birgham, on
June 4th or 5th, and sent to Mr Brorugrston, of Kelso, and
was a common trout; and he states another was taken near the
same place, on or about July 17th. The question of identity
or the reverse of all the forms of fresh water and sea trout as
one species, subject to great variation in races and even indi-
viduals, is too long to be treated of in this place in its various
bearings.

I will now briefly allude to the investigations carried on by
Sir James Ramsay Greson-Marrianp, Bart., most of which

340

experiments he has kindly allowed me to be present at, and
also furnished me with specimens at various times for my
collection of fishes. ;

In December, 1880, the owner of Howietoun obtained eggs
and milt from salmon in the Teith, which were hatched in
March, 1881: the young were transferred to a plank-lined
pond, 100 by 15 feet, eight feet deep in its centre and six and
a half on either side, while one and a half millions of gallons
of water a day passed through it. In July, 1883, there were
par and smolts and in 1884 eggs were obtained from grilse like
smolts, and which were hatched in the establishment.

I do not propose in this paper discussing grilse, but I wish
to draw attention to the variations observed in the scales of par,
smolts or grilse and salmon. |

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE

. Upper Figure.—Scale of a par 32 months old, taken from the
row just above the lateral line and between it and the
adipose fin; the scale is magnified 74 times.

Middle Figure.—Scale of a grilse 34 months old, taken from
the same locality and magnified 12 times.

Lowest Figure.—Scale of a 16 Ib. salmon, taken from the same
locality and magnified 12 times.

49 FER 1886

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