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Ms Sel 4 ae 15. hy bee ae et mens eryreeney - sey bat 8 v6 ofl 4 the Laedusasacgsan ebibneeons Ae eerhat obo heg af of 0 perereeere.dutenresd ch Delaware County Institute of Science Museum Cata- logue. Section: Reptiles, Batrachians, Etc., Notes on Painters’ Arboretum, By H. S. Conard, - PROCEEDINGS OF THE Delaware County Institute of Science VOLUME VII NUMBER I THE EDUCATIONAL FAILURE AND ITS MEANING. BY ALBERT W. BARKER. That our system of general fundamental education is a failure is recognized by those in a position to see. In spite of increased school facilities and vast expenditures we bring our pupils to the test in active life or in the higher and special schools to find that we have built neither character nor a body of precise, available knowledge; that in the fundamentals of education we have been and are retrograding rather than advancing. As the matter stands, no teacher is surprised at the student who ‘‘had’’ Physics last year, as well as ‘‘ Laboratory work,’’ and when asked to tell what she knows of gravitation answers that there are three laws, but she has forgotten them. The teacher, asking not for laws, but everyday instances (having in mind the pendulum, weight, specific gravity, flo- tation, and such) the student ‘‘can’t remember.’’ In fact, can’t remember last year’s laboratory experiments. She has also ‘‘had’’ Latin, but it appears to have been a light case and left no scar. Yet it meant, with other ‘‘studies,’’ mid- night work, eye strain, headache and nervous breakdown in a state where child labor for useful ends is strictly limited by law. She does not know what is meant by specific gravity, ‘‘did know; the definition is about so long’’ (three inches), but after explanation confesses that she never really knew ¢ 2 BARKER : before. The High School work has been in one sense a light case, though at a fearful cost in the total to students and teachers, all at the heartbreaking business of useless work. And it has served, like vaccination, to keep them from any- thing more serious. If the boys had been in the shop and the girls in the house they might have been accomplishing something. They might have learned to work and to do a great many things well. But the child is sent where a vast and complex system is at work; where its instruction is sprung on it; where it is hurried from one unfamiliar fact to another, seldom under- standing clearly even for the moment; never returning to get a permanent hold on these facts or their relation to one another. Learning, however, to memorize, and after recita- tion, so one student confessed, to discharge the mind of its undigested contents to prepare for another recitation. The worst of the school system is that it makes no continued demand for knowledge which it is supposed to impart, and that demand is made nowhere else. The study work is left to limp after the recitation in the tired hours, the forms of study are made needlessly abstract and out of relation to the daily life of the community, the school itself supplies no atmosphere for the informal and spontaneous use of the newly acquired idea, and diplomas and marks come to be the dasired end. ‘‘ Why didn’t I ask the teacher?’’ said one Normal School girl, ‘‘I had my mark already and I had to look out for my diploma; you can’t teach without you get that.’ These are some of the conditions and contributory causes of our recognized failure to educate. Let us see which is really fatal. If we find that without systematic instruction, or set hours for the free use of suitable room and instruments, the boys do learn one thing well, perhaps we can also find the reason and profit thereby. For if one half of the passionate devotion that is given to the study and practice of the pre- cious truths of base ball were given to the acquirement of any EDUCATIONAL FAILURE. 3 valuable knowledge, a craft or art or a science, the world would be full of skilful young men. Nor is it only because it is play that my neighbors’ boys rush for their bats and balls; they make work of it, hard work, and go ‘‘ hungry and unwashed,’’ as Marcus Aurelius says all do who have a violent affection for a thing. It is, I believe, because there is an available social interest in it; what interests others inter- ests us the more; we find ourselves understood ; knowledge defines and clarifies itself, emulation begets emulation and skill comes with enthusiasm. It sets standards higher and affords continual and evident respect as a reward. I am confirmed in this opinion by seeing that the stand- ards of the household generally give the character to the edu- cation of the child, though not always its details. The same girl who didn’t understand specific gravity did show in speech and action that her real education had concerned itself with just relations to those around her in matters of conduct. The field of her education was not scientific but social. She had been brought. up among polite people, and her education had strengthened and confirmed the manners of civilization. Now, for the subjects supposed to be taught in school there is very little interest outside of school. Few read the classics, and a dealer in scientific apparatus says that the race of amateurs in science is almost extinct; we must now send to London for certain supplies where twenty years ago it was well worth while for dealers to carry a stock on hand. But I remember a family, and have read of others, where the standards were literary and scientific; where base ball had no exclusive charm, but where it was necessary to the standing of a boy of twelve that he should be able to speak good English as a matter of course, and use a considerable knowledge of physics, chemistry, botany and astronomy, and to be familiar with their applications. These and the allied sciences were frequent subjects of household talk and house- hold recreation, and work related to them was part of their play. I judge, therefore, that our school courses do not ¢ 4 BARKER : include more than might be learned thoroughly by the aver- age boy or girl under favorable conditions; that is, with an atmosphere in which such ideas could live. But, as it is, we must either cut the program mercilessly to the few things for which there is an adequate general appreciation, or we must cut enough to leave us of the teaching profession sufficient time for that spontaneous and _ not-too-much-systematized association with and among our students that will create an atmosphere. We must do the work of a better social environ- ment as well as our own work as teachers. The boys and girls must have a chance to play at the sciences and become active instead of merely passive agents in their own educa- tion. Otherwise, we will still have classes, like one I know, composed of some twenty-odd students, all over eighteen years of age, several of whom are teachers. They have enough diplomas and certificates to paper the ceiling, but not one could give the least idea as to how steam may be made to turn a wheel. The characteristic tool of the age is utterly unknown to them. One young teacher explained the action of a pump, but added that she learned it on the back porch. That, of course, was the best place to learn, and the scientific explanation, when it came, was not an abstraction of only special and momentary interest, but an illumination of per- fectly familiar facts, and being associated with them, was retained. Compare this rational and effective method with the fol- lowing, quoted from the annual catalogue of a High School in one of our principal cities : — ‘“The steam engine is considered primarily as a means of transforming heat energy into mechanical work. ‘The intro- duction of this course is consequently the study of the ele- ments of thermo-dynamics. After this theoretical introduc- tion the construction and action of the essential parts of the steam engine are carefully worked out.’’ That word ‘‘con- sequently ’’ shows the weak spot in the school end of the problem. ‘‘ Consequently ’’ we begin as far from the engine EDUCATIONAL FAILURE. 5 as possible, and by the time we are lost in the ‘‘ theoretical introduction ’’’ we are glad enough to get through and forget the whole unpleasant experience. To deliberately plan that education should be chiefly of that other sort; that explanation should follow upon experi- ence, and that we teachers should supply that experience ; that an atmosphere should be created in which such know- ledge should find life, exercise and value, would seem to be sane and reasonable, if possible, however opposite to the prevailing methods. Clearly we cannot look to the family for anything better than negative help in this; in general it supplies no interest in nor knowledge of scientific, scholarly or even mechanical affairs ; seriousness of interest or purpose seems to be lack- ing, and at least a generation would be required to build it up, even if the willing spirit were present. Nor are all of the certificated members of our profession prepared to do such work, their whole training being toward a different end. Even. the text books of to-day show the same effort to separate life and education by omitting more and more the references to the practical applications of scientific law that gave such interest to books like Ganot’s ‘‘ Physics,’’ of blessed memory. Av immediate change of method on the large scale is no doubt impossible; to do the right thing on the small scale is not only feasible, but as I have already said, it has been carried out in several instances under my own observation. If not under perfect auspices in all respects, the essential con- ditions of the problem have been met, and an essential success has followed. To take ‘‘ manual training,’’ as a subject, out of the list of studies completely, —to let it grow with its equally sickly sister, ‘‘nature study,’ in healthier fashion until they con- stituted the foundation of the whole work of the school, would be radical enough, but I believe neither foolish nor impossible in the right hands. To turn the boys, little and big, into the shop and laboratory and field every afternoon 9, ¢ 6 BARKER: to make or do according to age and skill, taking advantage of any existing scientific or mechanical interest as a mainspring, would be to enlist the boy’s impulse in his own education. Boys, all about us to-day, without help, are trying to build ‘‘ wireless stations.’’ Others are building canoes, tables ; others are collecting insects, and so on. That much of this healthy desire to know, to coliect, to do and to make, is wasted, is true, and the reason lies in our failure to utilize this force as we might utilize it by taking it into our schools (or out of our schools), and directing it into what we easily might of mental discipline and precise knowledge. The supervisory work of the teacher would be to see that the pupil did not attempt too much, and, on the other hand, that he should not be content with work fundamentally wrong or inadequate. It would be right to require that he should make things involving enough science to develop his mind, enough design to train his eyes and requiring enough mechanical skill to give him a clever hand, but that is a matter of our attitude toward his work rather than the sub- ject of his work. It matters little what science he plays at provided he plays well. The scientific method and preci- sion of thought once gained, and familiarity with scientific and mechanical processes once made, the particular use of these is related to the special vocational training rather than to the fundamental general education. Moreover, in the shop and laboratories where others, including surely the teacher himself, were working at other hobbies, he would learn as much by contact as from his own work. The teacher’s own hobby would be to devise experiments, machines and instru- ments out of hand for the little fellows — for those too young to do more than pass him the hammer, or to read a descrip- tion from an elementary text book of the old sort, yet so taking part, and feeling that they were. The mornings might well be spent in book studies, as directly connected with the afternoon’s work as convenient, but in study altogether ; EDUCATIONAL FAILURE. 7 no formal recitations above all, no home study to be required, and no night work to be permitted. The details of such a plan as this would have to be worked out —they would have to work themselves out in the course of the teaching, but in that working out we might confi- dently expect to prepare children to enter upon the study for their chosen life work, able to read and write English accu- rately, and even to speak it accurately (which our college men do not, always). They should be able to draw as freely as they speak, to use freely the ordinary arithmetical pro- cesses (which our High School graduates cannot), and above all to look with interested intelligence and scientific under- standing upon the processes of nature and the methods of work of men. This also our High School graduates cannot, and the fault is in those schools in that they have recognized neither the value of spontaneous interest, the natural order in which ideas are assimilated, nor the failure of the home as an educational factor. Of course it will be easier to create this atmosphere for the scientific and mechanical interests than for purely cultural studies because the instinct to make and to do is strong, and needs little more than guidance. Yet at this time it seems necessary to reaffirm the value of those cultural studies. The test of craftsmen or professionals is apt to be only that, and it is just those studies which do not bear directly on a man’s work that make him more than the ‘‘ tool of some superior intelligence.’’ That is what Aristotle calls a slave, and I am willing to grant that if the schools can do no more it is right that they should help people to be better slaves. But I am not yet willing to grant that that is all we can do. I think we must confess error of method, and an almost complete failure as to results, but this is still far from abject surrender as to the general plan. I do not think there are yet many teachers worthy of the name who are ready to step aside and make way for a teaching body of mechanics and stenographers, nor to see the school library reduced to a ¢ 8 BARKER : EDUCATIONAL FAILURE. ‘‘compendium of shop practice,’’ a commercial arithmetic and the files of the daily newspapers. How, then, are we to make occasion for the informal and not too much systematized use of the results of cultural study? Again, I grant that we must feel our way, but not blindly. Anyone who has studied a Shakespearean play in order to pass an approaching examination will remember how little he gained by his expe- rience ; atyone who has had the good fortune to watch, and in turn to take part in a series of well managed rehearsals — even though without costumes or scenes — can tell how much remains, especially if these rehearsals were held for study and pleasure alone, and were not the feverish preparation for a public presentation. Here the study of /u/ius Cesar would lead easily, almost necessarily, into discussions of Roman his- tory, customs and costume, Plutarch’s ‘‘ Lives,’’ and as much farther as convenient. It would also open up the discussion of English drama and literature, the Elizabethan epoch, its vitality and force, the survival of that vitality and fresh- ness in the exceptional conditions existing in the American colonies, and so bring us home again in good time. This, as a suggestion merely —the one that occurs first. Almost any starting point would do as a starting point and would be justified by its results. “ BAGILECS PRODIGIOSUS. BY C. M. BROOMALL. Bacillus prodigiosus occurs usually as egg shaped, non- motile cells, about one micron in diameter; sometimes they are distinctly rod-shaped ; sometimes they are found in long chains. The cells are colorless, the red color being due toa pigment which appears in the surrounding medium. This pigment is little or not at all soluble in water, but freely sol- uble in alcohol. The bacillus grows well on gelatine plates, potatoes, cooked meat, in milk, etc. Probably the best medium, however, for its culture is moist, sterilized bread. The writer has many times wondered at the vigor of its growth on moist bread in cases where, despite the fact that as a result of contamination a mass of bacterial life of all kinds had almost obliterated the signs of Bacillus prodigiosus, the latter survived and remained in control of the situation. The faculty of the bacillus for growing on bread and similar farinaceous compounds is said to account for the appearance of ‘*Blood on the Host,’’ a phenomenon referred to in church history. Indeed, the resemblance of a colony of Bacillus pro- digiosus to a mass of blood is startling. When fresh, the colony appears covered with red drops as intense in color as arterial blood. Tater, as the colony loses vigor, or becomes contaminated with other bacteria, it takes on the darker red of clotted blood. Bacillus prodigiosus is a saprophytic organism, and in pure culture is probably harmless to man. The colonies pro- duce no odor, and the energies of the bacterium seem to be turned principally to the production of the red pigment. Under certain conditions its color producing faculty seems to be held in abeyance, the protoplasmic energy being devoted principally to the production of lactic acid. The ordinary growth of the bacillus produces acid sufficient to curdle milk. It is claimed by some that it can only produce lactic acid in the presence of some form of sugar. @ Io BROOMALL : What the coloring matter produced by Baczllus prodigiosus is seems not to be known. Indeed, the students of the subject do not seem yet to have finally settled the question whether it is secreted within the cell or produced in some way in the sur- rounding medium. The latter, however, is probably the more current belief. Light and darkness, in the experience of the writer, seem to have little effect on the intensity of the color or vigor of the colony, except in so far as they affect the growth of interfering bacteria. If anything, darkness seems to favor the more vigorous growth. The writer, in two instances, while growing com- parison colonies in light and darkness, has been unfortunate in losing the ‘“‘light’’ colony. In each case, however, con- tamination by other bacteria was pronounced and may have been the real cause of the trouble. The purer and more vigorous the growth of the bacillus, the brighter red does the color seem to be. As the colony wanes in vigor, owing to auto-intoxication, exhaustion of the medium, contamination, or some other cause, the color becomes darker red, and finally strongly resembles clot- ted blood. In cases of colonies infected by other victorious bacteria, the dark red color gradually turns to a grey or some unpronounced color. Even in this case, however, the bacillus can be easily resuscitated by a few successive inoculations on sterilized bread. As stated, Bacillus prodigtosus is non-pathogenic, although it has been pointed out by Fehleisen and Coley that its growth in conjunction with the strepticoccus of erysipelas greatly increases the virulence of the latter. Certain other sapro- phytic bacteria which flourish at bodily temperature have the same effect upon the strepticoccus. Despite the above example of the pernicious effect of bad associations, Bacillus prodigiosus is not only harmless to man, but the attempt has even been made to make practical use of it. Thus, in examining the bacterial efficiency of water supply filters, the introduction of Bacillus prodigiosus or BACILLUS PRODIGIOSUS. Il some other easily recognizable bacterium outside the filters, and its subsequent identification in the filtered water, was at one time expected to become a method of practical import- ance. In modern water supply work, however, dependence is usually placed on the colony counts of total bacteria, regardless of kind, to determine the bacterial efficiency of the filters. Bacillus prodigiosus is not an inhabitant of this locality. Its occasional appearance is usually shrouded in mystery and its occurrence ‘‘running wild’’ naturally attracts interest. In the Spring of tg12 Mr. John Semple, a druggist of Chester, Pa., in the course of some chemical operations in which meat entered as a component, was struck by the peculiar red color that appeared upon some of this substance. Becoming much interested in the subject, he called the attention of Mr. T. Chalkley Palmer, President of the Institute, to the phenom- enon. Mr. Palmer cultivated the growth and submitted it to microscopic examination, finding it to be Bacillus prodigtosus. From Mr. Palmer the writer obtained inoculations, and has had continuously growing since that time more or less pure colonies of the bacillus. The ease of culture and vigorous growth of the bacillus have made it easy to observe. As illustrating the vigor of its growth may be mentioned the fol- lowing: In one instance, due to absence, the proper time for re-inoculation of the colony was long allowed to pass and the piece of bread serving as culture medium became so badly infected as to appear nothing but a dried up mass of bacteria and fungi. The writer supposed the colony lost, and was most agreeably surprised, a few days later when the Petri dish was opened up for cleaning, to find that the inside of the putrefying mass of bread was like so much raw mieat, so intense was the growth of Bacillus prodigiosus within. Jn other instancee, cultures of Pacillus prodigiosus which had been allowed to dry up and apparently die out in the Fall, and which were left without care until the following Spring, @ I2 BROOMALL: BACILLUS PRODIGIOSUS. developed once more a vigorous growth when reinoculated on fresh bread. As stated, milk makes a natural culture medium for Bacillus prodigiosus, and causes the phenomenon of ‘‘ bloody milk’? sometimes met with. Some experiments of the writer indicate that the bacillus grows better in sterilized milk than in raw milk, but this is probably because contaminating bac- teria are killed off previous to inoculation. Successful cul- tures have also been made in fermentation tubes charged with dextrose bouillon. It was found that the liquid in the tubes became strongly red, giving after filtration through ordinary paper filters a clear red solution. Little or no gas was formed in the tubes, showing that Bacillus prodigiosus was not one of the ‘‘ gas producers.’’ DELAWARE COUNTY INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE MUSEUM CATALOGUE. SECTION: REPTILES, BATRACHIANS, ETc. I. Tropidonotus sipedon, Linn. Water Snake. Delaware River at Chester. Very common. 2. Tropidonotus sipedon, Linn. Young of above species. Chester. 3. Eutainia sirtalis, var. dorsalis, Baird and Girard. Common Garter Snake. Length, 32 inches. Taken along the river front in Chester. This snake had been observed for some time in the neighborhood. It had the rep- utation of having stolen several young chickens during the summer. In captivity it swallowed a small snake (Storeria Dekayi) kept in the same box. 4. Eutainia sirtalis, var. dorsalis. A smaller specimen of the same species. Length, about 14 inches. It was captured in April, 1892, while swimming along the bottom of a shallow meadow stream in Ridley township, and evidently pursuing minnows. It attempted to escape by burying itself in the mud, beneath the water. It was certainly quite at home in the water. 5. Pituophis melanoleucus, Daudin. Pine Snake. Tom’s River, N. J. 6. Ophisaurus ventralis, Linn. Glass Snake. Joint Snake. No data. Old collection. 7. Nodata. Old collection. 14 MUSEUM CATALOGUE. REPTILES, ETC. 8. Tropidonotus sipedon, Linn. Water Snake. No data. Old collection. g. Eutainia sirtalis, Linn., var. Garter Snake. No data. Old collection. 10. Sceloporus undulatus, Daudin. Common Lizard, Swift. Nelson County, Virginia. Il. a Cyclophis aestivus, Linn. (Scales keeled.) b Liopeltis vernalis, DeKay. (Scales not keeled.) Green or Grass Snakes. No data. Old collection. 12. Nodata. Old collection. 13. Nodata. Old collection. 14. Ophibolus doliatus, Linn., var. triangulus, House Snake. No data. Old collection. 15. Diadophis punctatus, Linn. Ring-necked Snake. No data. Old collection. 16. Ophibolus. No data. Old collection. 17. Agkistrodon contortrix, Linn. Copperhead. No data. Old collection. 18. Nodata. Old collection. Ig. Crotalus horridus, Linn. Common Rattlesnake. No data. Old collection. MUSEUM CATALOGUE. REPTILES, ETC. 15 20. Ophisaurus ventralis, Linn. Glass Snake. No data. Old collection. 21. No data. 22. Ophisaurus ventralis, Linn. Glass Snake. No data. Old collection. 23. Nodata. Old collection. . 24. Anolis principalis, Linn. Chameleon. No data. Old collection. 25. Hyla versicolor, Le Conte Tree Toad. Tree Frog. No data. Old collection. 26. Ophibolus doliatus, Linn., var. triangulatus. House Snake. Young. oD 27. Necturus maculatus, Rafinesque. Mud Puppy. No data. Old collection. 28. Amblystoma. No data. Old collection. 29. Hyla versicolor. Le Conte. Tree Frog. No data. Old collection. 30. Nodata. Old collection. 31. Spelerpes ruber, Daudin. Red Salamander. No data. Old collection. 32. Remora remora, Linn. Sucking Fish. No data. Old collection. ¢ 16 MUSEUM CATALOGUE. REPTILES, ETC. 23. Cobra. o India. 34. Prionus sp. Larval form. From the stump of a decayed chestnut tree. 35. Nodata. Old collection. 36. Rattles of two Rattle Snakes. Macon County, North Carolina. 37. Eumeces fasciatus, Linn. Blue-tailed Lizard. No data. Old collection. 38. Young Alligator. Nodata. Old collection. 39. Chameleon. Cuba. 40. Anolis principalis, Linn. Chameleon. No data. Old collection. 41. Bull Frog. 42. Bascanion constrictor, Linn. Black Snake. Four feet, six inches. Concord. 43. Bascanion constrictor, Linn. Black Snake. Young of No. 42. 44. Rana catesbiana, Shaw. Bull Frog. Pond at Ridley Park. 45. Rana virescens, Kalm. Spring Frog. Leopard Frog. Delaware River shore at Chester. 46. Rana virescens, Kalm. Spring Frog. Leopard Frog. Augustine Pier, Delaware. Two jars. MUSEUM CATALOGUE. REPTILES, ETC. 17 47. Rana palustris, Le Conte. Pickerel Frog. Streams near Ridley Park. 48. Rana clamata, Daudin. Green Frog (young.) Sy g Augustine Pier, Delaware. 49. Acris gryllus, Baird, var. crepitans. Cricket Frog. Knee Deep. Ridley Township, McCall’s Ferry. 50. Scorpion. 51. WHyla versicolor, Le Conte. Tree Toad. Ridley Park. 52. Puff Adder (young. ) New Jersey. 53. Storeria Dekayi, Holbrook. Moore, Delaware County, Pa. 54. —— From Jamaica, in logwood, to Chester, Pa. 55. Head of a young Alligator (Crvocodilus luctus.) St. John’s River, Florida. 56. Rana clamata, Daudin. Green Frog. Near Media, in summer time. 57. Jelly Fish. Annapolis Harbor, Maryland. Liquid is sea water, containing about two per cent. formalin. 58. Sead of Watermelon, germinating within the melon. Solution : Formalin, two tablespoonfuls to three pints of water. 59: 18 MUSEUM CATALOGUE. REPTILES, ETC. 60. Larva. Maple tree, Media. Solution as in No. 58. 61. Egg of species of Shark. Newport, Rhode Island. 62. Regina leberis, Linn. Water hole, quarry on Ridley Creek, near Fox’s bridge. 63. Skin of Jguana. Panama. 64. Newt. Found in cellar of Institute building. NOTES ON PAINTERS’ ARBORETUM.* BY He, S. CONARD:. Painters’ Arboretum, so named from its founders, Jacob and Minshall Painter, is a tract of about four acres, situated in Middletown Township, Delaware County, Pennsylvania, about twenty miles west of Philadelphia, and three miles from Media, the county seat. The planting of the garden began about 1825, and continued until some time in the sev- enties. It is now one of the richest and rarest collections of trees and shrubs in this vicinity. Jacob and Minshall Painter were brothers, sons of Enos Painter and his wife, née Hannah Minshall. Jacob was born in 1814, Minshall in 1801, at the house which still stands on the Arboretum property, where also they both died in the sev- enties. They were of Quaker origin by both parents. The farm on which they lived was taken up by patents from the Penn proprietorship, and settled in 1701 by Jacob Minshall. It has never been sold, but descended by will to the botanists from their mother. As they were both single men, it passed at their death to their nephew, John J. Tyler, who now owns and cares for it, and spends his summers there. Jacob and Minshall Painter received pretty freely of the education which the times afforded. They attended school in a little house, long since gone to decay, on the grounds of Middletown Friends’ Meeting. Minshall finished off with two winters at Samuel Gum- mere’s school at Burlington, New Jersey, and then returned to his home for the rest of his long life. Jacob was sent to a (This paper was first read in April, 1898, before the Lansdowne, Pa., Natural History Club. It is printed by request, essentially as read at that time. The facts were obtained mostly from Mr. John J. Tyler, the then owner of the Arboretum, and Dr. Samuel Trimble, of Lima., Dela- ware County, Pa. To both of these friends I gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness.—H.S.Conard, Grinnell College, Grinnell, lowa, March, 1914). ¢ 20 CONARD: school or college at Troy, New York, after which he went by the public stages to Chicago, then a mere village. This was his only trip until he was sixty years of age. Minshall and Jacob Painter were strong and able men, physically and mentally. Minshall was rather tall, heavily built, broad shouldered, and of fine figure and carriage. Jacob was shorter, and quite corpulent. They were active, even in age, and seldom drove anywhere, preferring to go dis- tances of a few miles on foot. A neighbor says that to see Jacob on a slushy, winter day, with his pantaloons tucked in, his boot tops, walking briskly to the post office (a mile or so) was odd at least, his large body tapering off so suddenly to his comparatively slender boots. These quiet men in their secluded home were yet keen observers of nature, and deeply interested in all human pro- gress, both scientific and literary. The latter was Jacob’s especial fort, the former Minshall’s. They kept abreast of the times by taking the leading periodicals, and by the pur- chase of the best books; they had a library of one thousand volumes, not one of which was fiction. Minshall Painter very early in life began the study of nature, and was always a student. While he tended the saw at his father’s mill, his book was his companion. Although actively engaged as farmer and miller, he devoted at least one day_a week to long tramps over the surrounding country. He took notes of everything he could see, and collected plants, minerals and insects. His herbarium included nearly all the flowers of this part of the country and many from other places. He was for a number of years a careful meteorological observer, and when the Smithsonian Institu- tion took interest in this subject, he forwarded reports to them. He understood the movement of storms, and made charts and maps showing the progression of storm areas from the Gulf of Mexico along our eastern coast. The microscope also was his companion. With all this he was an excellent farmer; he could weld PAINTERS’ ARBORETUM. 21 iron or shoe a horse, and was carpenter enough to make his own carts and wagons. His brother, Jacob, was no less a student and scholar, being also interested in meteorology and the botanic garden. ; The voluminous notes of their reading and observation were arranged at once, in a system invented by themselves and called ‘‘ The Cycle of Knowledge.’’ This was a large drawer with radiating partitions like the spokes of a wheel. Each space was for notes on some special topic. The head- ings were carefully selected so as to comprise practically every branch of human knowledge and thought. The notes on each subject were held together by a wooden spring clothes pin. They wrote a book explaining their ‘‘ Cycle of Know- ledge,’’ and printed it themselves on a press which they had at their home. Some copies of the book are still extant. They were much interested in the sexdecimal system of notation, based upon 16 instead of 10. Sixteen can be halved indefinitely without making mixed numbers, whereas 10 becomes a mixed number, or improper fraction, on the second division. There are other obvious advantages of using 16 for the decimal unit. The Painter brothers wrote and printed a pamphlet on this subject. They also printed essays on a new system of scientific nomenclature, and on etymo- logy. he first of these is prefaced by a quaint apology for the press work, in which Jacob explains that it was his first attempt at printing, and that his font of type included no italics. Minshall was interested in genealogy and spent much time in tracing to their sources many of the old Quaker families of Delaware and Chester Counties. He took active part in pre- paring the History of Delaware County, published in 1862, in the preface of which we read that ‘‘ To his long tried friend, Minshall Painter, the author is largely indebted for liberal and constant aid in the examination of voluminous manu- scripts, and for the contribution of many local facts.’’ While working up this, it is said that he knew the exact his- ¢ i) iS) CONARD: tory of every farm between his home and Chester, on each side of the main road —a distance of some ten miles. He could tell when and by whom they were first settled, and how each had descended to the owners at that time. His papers on this subject are in the possession of the Delaware County Institute of Science. Evidently the Painters did not believe in specialization. They were professors of ‘‘ things in gen- eral,’’ and very little went on in the world that they did not get hold of. There were other men of similar interests scattered about that neighborhood, and they were naturally more or less inti- mate. Dr. George Smith, father of A. Lewis Smith, Ksq., was one; he compiled the History of Delaware County, men- tioned above. George Miller, Jr., Minshall Painter, John Miller, Dr. George Smith and John Cassin, on goth month 21st, 1833, founded the Delaware County Institute of Science, which now flourishes in Media. ‘They obtained a charter for the Institute and held their first meetings in a little house still standing at Lewis’ (Sycamore) Mills, on Ridley Creek. A fter- ward they took more roomy quarters near the Rose Tree Inn, and in 1867 moved to their ample accommodations in Media. The Painters, at their death, left the Institute on a sound financial footing —a matter of no small importance. During the latter part of their lives, Jacob and Minshall Painter lived in the old homestead with a hired housekeeper to care for them. They spent most of their days reading in a little, fire proof, library building, a few rods from the dwell- ing. On the second floor of this stone structure the books and papers were kept. They had Darwin, Huxley, Spencer, Tyndal, Draper, and other standard writers of the day. They took up with Appleton’s Scientific Series, and had as many of those volumes as had been published. The ‘‘ Cycle of Know- ledge’’ was also kept in this room, and the printing press was in the same building. They did not hide their talents under a bushel, but freely dispensed their knowledge by social con- versation, by contribution of scientific articles for societies PAINTERS’ ARBORETUM. 23 and magazines, and by the editing of books. They willingly loaned books from their library to their neighbors, but on the inside of each volume was inscribed, ‘‘ Reader, please soon return this book.’’ One of the brothers, suffering somewhat from indigestion on account of coarse fare and lack of exer- cise, borrowed a book on the subject from Dr. Trimble; but he soon returned it, remarking that it required a dictionary to make anything out of it, and he thought it not worth while. Probably his dyspepsia was better. When alone in their dwelling they occupied mostly the back part. A neighbor tells me he never was in the front rooms until Minshall’s funeral, though frequently at the house on errands. One evening the same neighbor arrived with a message while the botanists were at supper. He entered as usual by the back door. The kitchen was a large room, half of it paved with big, flat stones, the rest board. On the stone portion was an old fashioned ‘‘ ten plate’’ stove, in the other part, near one side was the dining table. The old men were finishing their meal of cold, fat pork and vegetables, and were so absorbed in some discussion as hardly to notice the young man’s entrance. When through, Minshall crossed the room and stretched out on a wooden bench against the wall behind the fire, and Jacob drew up a chair and tipped back with his feet up against the well filled stove. Thus comfort- ably fixed, they were so interested in everything going on, and plied the visitor so actively with questions and remarks, that he could scarcely get in a word on the business for which he came. Both of the brothers were decidedly talkative, and if one met them on the road, it meant a conversation of an hour or so. Jacob, like other stout people, was quite jolly, and had a good store of anecdotes. He used to tell about his trip to Chicago, and what he saw by the way. The stages travelled on mere trails across the prairies, and the soil was so soft that a few wagons cut it into ruts. Then a new track would be made beside the old one, until the roads were so wide that ¢ 24 CONARD: drivers were satisfied if they got anywhere near the original line. One day at the hotel a Dutchman remarked that his stage had found a new route. All were anxious to hear of something better, and were informed that ‘‘it was about two feet under the old one.’’ Jacob Painter always remembered this. One time he was about to hire a farmer, when he was told that the man in question was sure to rob him of his chickens and eges. The bargain was not closed, but Jacob went on to tell his informant about a neighbor whose colored servant was skillful in purloining eggs. The employer was unable to catch him. One evening when the old man had just received his pay, his master noticed that his hat was barely touching his head —just loosely poised on top. He called him back as though intending to confer some favor, and when they were close together, clapped the servant smartly on the head. A stream of broken eggs ran down over his face. The botanists entertained a good deal of company in summer, and enjoyed taking their visitors through the arbore- tum and the conservatory back of the house, in which the more delicate species were wintered. Dr. Trimble writes, “I shall never forget the pleasure they took in showing me around the grounds, calling attention to almost every tree and shrub we passed, though it was almost impossible to get through the undergrowth in many places.’’ It is evident the Painters did not have to depend on their farm for a living. Nor did they use their means only to gratify their intellectual desires, but were generous to help any one in need. ‘Their alms were given in secret; many an aged or unfortunate family received gifts of flour, wood, or money, unknown to any but themselves and the givers. As to character and religion, I quote a tribute written of Min- shall Painter by his nephew, John J. Tyler, who had a high personal regard for him. He says:—‘‘ He was a Christian in a ¢vue sense of the word —demanding reasons for every- thing —through Nature he worshipped Nature’s God. He = PAINTERS’ ARBORETUM. 25 was exceptionally truthful and just in all his dealings —and morality was a part of his religion. * * * His tension of life was not drawn taut by enervating excesses, but in his sol- itude he would meditate upon and study Nature in all its phases—glad to assist his fellow man—not ambitious to over-reach him — but to advance him.’’ In 1873 Minshall Painter, the elder of the two, was stricken with apoplexy at his home, and died on the 2st of 8th month (August). He was buried within a short distance of the house in which he had spent all his life, in Cumberland Cemetery, adjoining the meeting house grounds where he received his early education. Jacob erected over his grave a marble tomb, and, being somewhat of a poet, had inscribed upon it, with suitable floral carving, the following original verses. On one side : — My brother, ’round thy place of rest Well may thy once loved flowers entwine, No heart that throbbed in mortal breast Was kinder or more true than thine. On the end : — For thee no more shall vernal Spring Renew the leaves on trees and bowers ; For thee no more shall Flora bring Her choicest gifts of rarest flowers. And on the reverse side : — ’ Tis sweet for him who knew thee best To cherish thoughts of thee that keep Thy mem’ry fresh, with hope of rest Near by thee in unending sleep. After his brother’s death, Jacob was much alone. In the winter of 1874-5 he went to Florida for his health. This was a wonderful trip to him. One can imagine with what interest an aged botanist would view for the first time the semi- ¢ 26 CONARD: tropical vegetation of the South. One of his workmen said that he never ate a meal with him afterward that he did not have something to say about Florida. So delighted was he that he planned to go again the following winter. But the excitement of preparation proved too much for him. On the evening before his proposed departure, he also was stricken with apoplexy, followed by paralysis of one side. From this he partly recovered, and he lived a year, but a second stroke carried him off in rrth month (November), 1876. He left plans for his tomb and the following verses to be inscribed over him : — When he who lies beneath this tomb Felt life’s warm currents through him flow, He was the sport of hope and gloom, Of joys that come and go. Where truth and nature seemed to lead That path in hope and faith he trod. From nature’s laws he drew his creed, As taught by nature’s God. Also : — If for his kind some good he wrought, Perchance relieved another’s pain, If he one useful moral taught, He has not lived in vain. If graceless deeds have marred his fame, Made sad his life that else was fair, He sins no more, withhold thy blame, In charity forbear. In my study, I have come to love these quaint, old men, and that is why I have gone with so much detail into their biography. Their graves are marked with the costliest tombs in the little cemetery. But their spirits are far more beau- tifully commemorated in the living monument which is still increasing at their old home. The Painter Arboretum is most favorably situated. It lies at the head of a narrow valley which runs eastward to PAINTERS’ ARBORETUM. 27 Ridley Creek. It is thus protected by hills on the north, west and south. A piece of old, native timber protects it on the east. There is ample variety of high and low, wet and dry. A spring pours out cold water in the midst of the garden, and a slow rivulet crosses the area. The luxuriant growth of a great variety of plants attests the excellence of the location. One may well ask how these men who never travelled obtained so many hardy plants. It was largely through exchange with other botanists—with John Evans, whose arboretum still remains at Radnor—though not nearly so rich as Painter’s — with Bartram’s Gardens — with the second Humphrey Marshall, of Marshallton, some of whose trees also remain—with Meehan of Germantown—with the Hoopes brothers of West Chester—and with Prof. Hooker, of Kew Gardens, England, to whom many American specimens were sent. PARTIAL LIST OF PLANTS IN AND ABOUT PAINTERS’ ARBORETUM IN 1898. Abies balsamea Acer campestre negundo platanoides laciniatum rubrum saccharinum saccharum Large tree, with broadly winged bark. Aesculus glabra Amelanchier canadensis Aristolochia clematitis Introduced at the Arboretum, but now found only beside the Middletown Road, about one mile away. Arundinaria tecta ? ¢ 28 CONARD: Asimina triloba Several trunks about twelve feet high, usually with fruit. Azalea A large, orange colored flower. Perhaps A. pontica x A. nudiflora. Benzoin aestivale Berberis aquifolium vulgaris ? Betula alba lenta nigra Buxus sempervirens The old, dwarf box bush beside the dwelling was planted by Minshall Painter’s mother about 1790. Calycanthus floridus Bears fruit and seed. Carya ovata Castanea dentata pumila A real tree, perhaps twenty feet high, with trunk three or four inches through. Catalpa bignonioides Cedrus hbani Trunk eight feet, six inches around. Cercis canadensis Very large specimen. Cladrastis lutea About one foot in diameter. Cornus spp. Crataegus spp. Cryptomeria japonica Two large trees. PAINTERS ARBORETUM. 29 Cynanchum nigrum Naturalized in field south of garden. Deutzia scabra Dirca palustris Eleagnuus argentea Naturalized in surrounding woods for at least half a mile. The edible berries are probably eaten by birds, and the seeds thus carried about. Eranthis hyemalis Euonymus americanus obovatus Fagus grandifolia Forsythia viridis Fraxinus americana Ginkgo biloba Five feet, four inches in diameter. pee Gleditschia triacanthos Gordonia pubescens Two plants, about fifteen feet high. Gymnocladus dioica Halesia carolina Very large specimen. Hedera helix Covers the ground in some places. ascends the large Taxodium. Hibiscus syriacus Hydrangea quercifolia Ilex aquifolium ? verticillata Juglans nigra regia A large, but ill shapen They bloom freely. A stem three inches thick 30 CONARD: Juniperus communis recurva ? virginiana Kalmia latifolia Koelreuteria paniculata About one foot in diameter. Larix decidua laricina Leucothoe catesbael Ligustrum vulgare Liquidambar styraciflua Ten inches in diameter. Liriodendron tulipifera Maclura pomifera Tree eight feet, four inches around ; eight feet, six inches to lowest branch; about 45 feet high. Full of fruit in 1897. Magnolia acuminata conspicua fraseri glauca macrophylla Leaves nearly three feet long. purpurea tripetala Pachysandra procumbens Paulownia imperialis Petasites vulgaris Picea abies canadensis orientalis A large and very perfect specimen. Leaves persist on its branches as much as fourteen years, making the tree exceed- ingly dense. PAINTERS’ ARBORETUM. 31 Pinus sp. inops laricio austriaca strobus Platanus occidentalis orientalis Populus alba erandidentata Pyrus americana communis japonica nialus Quercus alba A large tree just outside the south-east corner of the Arbore- tum is fourteen feet around and thirty feet to the lowest branch. falcata About 12 inches through. macrocarpa About eighteen inches through. phellos robur sp.— Perhaps Bartram’s Oak. Retinispora pisifera and vars. Rhododendron hybridum maximum Ribes sp. Rosa sp. A large, single, white rose near corner of dwelling, planted by Minshall Painter’s mother about 1790. Salixialba?. babylonica lucida 32 CONARD: PAINTERS’ ARBORETUM. Sassafras variifolium Saxifraga pennsylvanica Sequoia gigantea This tree flourishes on a dry hill top south of the Arboretum. The trunk is about one foot through. About 1895 the top was cut out by some ignorant person for a ‘‘Christmas tree.”’ tree is rapidly recovering, but seems to be making two lead- ers, which may spoil its growth. Sequoia sempervirens A small, forked tree in south part of Arboretum. It is one of six which were brought from California—two for Meehan, two for John Evans and two for the Painters. I am told that all died save this one. Spirea spp. Symphoricarpus spp. Taxodium distichum Tree over two feet in diameter. with many ‘‘knees.’’ Taxus baccata canadensis Thuja occidentalis Tilia americana tomentosa vulgaris Tsuga canadensis Ulmus americana Vinea minor Covers the ground in some places. Wisteria chinensis frutescens Yucca filamentosa The nomenclature of this list follows Gray’s Manual, ed. 7, and Bailey’s Cyclopedia of American Horticulture. - OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTE: - 1. Chalkley Palmer C. Edgar Ogden Dr. B. M. Underhill Carolus M. Broomall Henrietta K, Broomall Board of Curators, 3 ‘Homer E. Hoopes, Albert S. Barker and the Officers ~ a : DELAWARE COUNTY oe Bae oe 3 PUBLICATION COMMITTEE : T. Chalkley Palmer, Chairman; Trimble Pratt, M. D., J. C. Starbuck, M. D., B.. M. Underhill, V. M. D., ice : M. H. Hoyt, Edward V. Streeper, Jr. : ; Carolus M. Broomall, Editor. ‘MEDIA, Pa, Issued at intervals. Limited edition for free distribution on application. : Address all correspondence to the Editor. Issued October 15th, 1915 UN Pe . An Annotated eis of the Cola blonded MeTIeDEa tes i: of Delaware County, Ge Nae Institute Notes, PROCEEDINGS OF THE Delaware County Institute of Science VoLuME VII NUMBER 2 AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE COLD-BLOODED | VERTEBRATES OF DELAWARE COUNTY, PENNSYLVANIA. BY HENRY W. FOWLER. While studying the various local collections of fishes, amphibians and reptiles in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, I found considerable material representative of this section. As many of the localities have not been given before, and are of value in studies of geographical dis- tribution, I prepared the present paper as a slight contribution to science. It is believed that the list is fairly representative, though inevitably a number of other forms will be added with future studies and collecting. Several scattered records are given for species likely to be overlooked. Among the species included as most likely to be discovered within the county limits, and which occur in adjacent or contiguous districts, are: — Acipenser brevirostrum, Lepisosteus osseus, Schilbeodes insignis, Carphophiops amenus and Regina leberis.* ‘The only complete paper dealing with a portion of the present subject is the interesting account of the tailless amphibians, published in these PROCEEDINGS, in 1908, by Mr. T. Chalkley Palmer. *T am later informed that the Museum of the Institute contains one of.the last named species, taken from a water hole in a quarry on Ridley Creek near Fox’s Bridge, below Moylan, Pa. ¢ 34 FOWLER : Petromyzon marinus (Linnzeus )—Laniprey. Taken in the shad and herring nets during the spring. No specimens were obtained, though doubtless the lamprey is abundant in the Delaware in this section. It ascends tributary streams, where no obstructions occur, during the spring, for the purpose of spawning. Acipenser sturio ( Linnzeus )—Sturgeon. Formerly abundant in the Delaware, though now rarely seen. Examples have been secured at Chester and Tinicum. Acipenser brevirostrum (Le Sueur )—Short-nosed Sturgeon. Doubtless occurs in the Delaware, though no records have been obtained. Lepisosteus osseus (Linnaeus )—Gar-pike. Though no records have been given, this species also may occur in the river, in Delaware County limits. Pomolobus pseudoharengus (Wilson )—Alewife. Generally known as “‘herring’’ by the fishermen, the ale- wife is abundant in the Delaware during the spring run. Numbers have been found land-locked in the river ditches on Tinicum Island and about Lester. Alewives were also seen at Marcus Hook and Chester. Two other species (P. mediocris and P. estivalis) likely occur in the Delaware, the former sometimes in the fall, and the latter a little later than the alewives. Alosa sapidissima (Wilson )—Shad. Fisheries are located along the Delaware, mostly as gillers. Shad were seen at Marcus Hook, Chester and Tinicum. Men- haden (Brevoortia tyrannus) are not known from these limits, though they have been found on the opposite New Jersey shore at Washington Park. Dorosoma cepedianum (Le Sueur )—Mud-shad. Found in the Delaware and tidal reaches of its tributaries. Found at Chester, Marcus Hook and Tinicum. COLD-BLOODED VERTEBRATES. 35 Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill )—Brook Trout. Formerly brook trout were doubtless to be found in the cooler streams, though now where they occur are largely the result of restocking. Native trout were reported from the basin of Crum Creek, at least in a tributary known as Trout Run, in earlier times. Though the salmon (Salmo salar) was introduced in the Delaware River many years ago, and a few subsequently reported, none were ever noted from these limits. Osmerus mordax ( Mitchill )—Smelt. Ascends the Delaware in small numbers during the spring to the head of tide. Smelts have occasionally been found near Chester. Anguilla chrisypa (Rafinesque )—Eel. Conimon in most all waters. Marcus Hook, Marcus Hook Creek ; Chester, Chester Creek ; Wawa, Rocky Run; Ridley Creek, Media; Crum Creek, Darby Creek, Whetstone Run, Cobb’s Creek; Tinicum Island, Long Neck. Hybognathus nuchalis regius (Girard )—Silvery Minnow. Abundant in the Delaware tide-water. Found at Tinicum and Chester. Semotilus bullaris (Rafinesque )—Fall-fish. Common in most all waters, where it is the largest and most vigorous cyprinoid. Brandywine Creek, Chad’s Ford, Painter’s Run, Brandywine Summit; Marcus Hook Creek ; Chester Creek, West Branch at Concordville, Markham and Chester Heights, Green Creek, East Branch near Wawa and Rocky Run; Ridley Creek; Crum Creek, tributary above Reese’s Run; Darby Creek, Whetstone Run, Collar Brook, Broomall, near Manoa and above; Cobb’s Creek, Naylor’s Run. Semotilus atromaculatus ( Mitchill )—Creek Chub. Abundant in the smaller streams, where it often associates with small fish, as suckers, dace, red-fins, etc. Brandywine Creek, Chad’s Ford, Painter’s Run, Brandywine Summit ; Chester Creek, West Branch at Chester Heights, Markham and Concordville; Ridley Creek ; Crum Creek and Trout Run ; Darby Creek, Fawkes Run vear Newtown Square, head of north branch of Langford Run, Collar Brook, Cobb’s Creek. 36 FOWLER : Abramis crysoleucas (Mitchill )—Roach. Common in still water, often about weedy places. Brandy- wine Creek, Chad’s Ford; Chester, Chester Creek; Ridley Creek, Media; Crum Creek; Darby Creek, -Naylor’s Run, ditches about Tinicum Island, Lester and Long Neck, Col- lingdale. Notropis bifrenatus (Cope)—Brindled Minnow. Found in the Delaware, or well above tide, and frequent in this section. Brandywine Creek, Chad’s Ford; Darby Creek, Collar Brook, Collingdale, Lester, Naylor’s Run. Notropis procne (Cope)—Swallow Minnow. Only found in the basin of Darby Creek at Collingdale, where they were abundant several years ago. Doubtless it occurs in other regions. Notropis hudsonius amarus (Girard )—Hastern Gudgeon. Common in the Brandywine at Chad’s Ford. Likely to be found in the Delaware and other streams. Notropis whipplii analostanus (Girard )—Silver-fin. Abundant in most waters, and a very attractive little fish. Brandywine Creek, Chad’s Ford, Painter’s Run, Brandywine Summit; Chester Creek, West Branch at Chester Heights, Markham and Concordville; Darby Creek, Collingdale. Notropis cornutus (Mitchill)—Red-fin. A very abundant and characteristic minnow. Brandywine Creek, Painter’s Run, Chad’s Ford, Brandywine Summit ; Chester Creek, West Branch at Chester Heights, Concordville and Markham, Kast Branch, near Wawa, Rocky Run; Ridley Creek, Media; Crum Creek, Swarthmore, Trout Run, small brook just above Reese’s Run; Darby Creek, Collar Brook, ' Whetstone Run, Addingham, head of north branch of Lang- ford Run, Naylor’s Run. Rhinichthys atronasus (Mitchill )—Black-nosed Dace. Common in small brooks and runs. Brandywine Creek, Chad’s Ford, Painter’s Run, Brandywine Summit; Chester COLD-BLOODED VERTEBRATES. 2Y/ Creek, West Branch at Chester Heights, Markham and Con- cordville, Wawa; Ridley Creek, Media; Crum Creek, Trout Run, Reese’s Run near Central Square and first small tribu- tary above, Swarthmore; Darby Creek, Collingdale, Fawkes Run, Collar Brook, Whetstone Run, head of north branch of Langford’s Run, Addingham ; Cobb’s Creek, Naylor’s Run. Cyprinus carpio ( Linneeus )—Carp. Introduced in many waters, the carp is now found in most suitable localities. I met with it in the Brandywine Creek, Chad’s Ford; Chester; Ridley Creek, Media; Darby Creek; Cobb’s Creek and about Tinicum Island. Catostomus commersonnii (Lacépéde )—Sucker. Found in all the creeks, which it ascends in the spring to spawn. Brandywine Creek, Chad’s Ford; Marcus Hook Creek; Chester Creek, West Branch at Markham, Rock Run at Wawa; Ridley Creek, Darby Creek, Collingdale, Collar Brook, Addingham, Fawkes Run, Whetstone Run, head of north branch of Langford’s Run, Cobb’s Creek, Naylor’s Run, Tinicum Island, Lester. Mullet. Frequent in some streams, and doubtless more abundant than here determined. Brandywine Creek, Chad’s Ford; Chester Creek, Cheyney, on East Branch; Ridley Creek ; Darby Creek, Collar Brook. Erimyzon sucetta oblongus ( Mitchill) Ameiurus catus (Linnzeus )—White Cat-fish. Occurs in the tidal regions of the Delaware. Marcus Hook, Chester and Tinicum Island. Ameiurus nebulosus (Le Sueur)—Yellow Cat-fish. Common in most all waters. Brandywine Creek, Chad’s Ford; Marcus Hook, Marcus Hook Creek; Chester Creek, near Wawa, Rocky Run, Cheyney; Ridley Creek, Trout Run, Media; Crum Creek; Darby Creek, Whetstone Run, Cobb’s Creek, Tinicum Island, Lester, Long Neck. Schilbeodes gyrinus (Mitchill)—Stone Cat-fish. This small species has not yet been recorded from these limits, though doubtless occurs in the region of Tinicum Island. 38 FOWLER : Ksox americanus (Gmelin )—Pike. Frequent in suitable waters. Ridley Creek, Media; Darby Creek, Tinicum Island, Long Neck, Lester. Umbra pygmza (De Kay )—Mud Minnow. Abundant in muddy pools and ditches of Tinicum Island, Moore’s and Chester. Fundulus heteroclitus macrolepidotus (Walbaum )—Mummi- chog. Common in tidal ditches and streams. Marcus Hook, Chester, Long Neck, Moore’s. Fundulus diaphanus (Le Sueur )—Barred Killifish. Common in tidal waters and above, in which last the pre- ceding species does not occur. Brandywine Creek, Chad’s Ford; Ridley Creek, Media; Darby Creek, Tinicum, Moore’s. Tylosurus marinus (Walbaum )—Green Gar. Found in the Delaware River and its tidal reaches. Chester, and Tinicum Island, about Lester. Apeltes quadracus (Mitchill)—Stickleback. Common in tidal regions, especially in weedy situations. Chester and Tinicum Island near Lester. Aphredoderus sayanus (Gilliams )—Pirate Perch. Occasional in the ditches of Tinicum Island. Pomoxis sparoides (Lacépéde)—Calico Bass. Found rarely, living in tidal waters or above. Ridley Creek, Media; Darby Creek, Broomall. Ambloplites rupestris (Rafinesque )—Red-eyed Bass. Though introduced within the limits of this region, I have not obtained any localities. Enneacanthus gloriosus (Holbrook )—Blue-spotted Sun-fish. Occurs in streams on Tinicum Island, about Lester and Long Neck. COLD-BLOODED VERTEBRATES. 39 Lepomis auritus (Linnzus)—River Sun-fish. Abundant, and mostly above tidal regions. Brandywine Creek, Chad’s Ford; Chester Creek, West Branch near Mark- ham and Concordyville, near Wawa; Ridley Creek, Media; Darby Creek, Broomall, Collingdale, Whetstone Run, Cobb’s Creek, Naylor’s Run. Eupomotis gibbosus ( Linnzeus )—Sun-fish. Common in most all waters. Brandywine Creek, Chad’s Ford, Painter’s Run, Brandywine Summit; Chester Creek, Wawa, Cheyney; Ridley Creek, Media; Darby Creek, Col- lingdale, Whetstone Run, Cobb’s Creek, Tinicum Island, Long Neck, Lester. Micropterus dolomieu ( Lacépéde )—Small-mouth Bass. This species was originally introduced, and is now to be found in various stocked waters. Brandywine Creek, Chad’s Ford; Darby Creek, Addingham, Whetstone Run. Perca flavescens ( Mitchill )—Yellow Perch. Occasional in Darby Creek. I found it near Lester on Tini- cum Island. Boleosoma nigrum olmstedi (Storer )—Darter. Very abundant in most all waters, especially on gravel bot- toms. Brandywine Creek, Chad’s Ford; Painter’s Run, Brandywine Summit; Chester Creek, West Branch at Mark- ham and Concordville, near Wawa, Green Creek, Cheyney ; Ridley Creek; Crum Creek, Swarthmore, first small run above Reese’s Run; Darby Creek, Collingdale, Collar Brook, head of north branch of Langford’s Run, Cobb’s Creek, Nay- lor’s Run, Tinicum Island, Lester. Roccus lineatus (Bloch )—Striped Bass. Frequent in the Delaware River. Marcus Hook, Chester, Darby Creek, Tinicum Island. Morone americana (Gmelin )—White Perch. Abundant in the Delaware and its tidal reaches. Marcus Hook, Chester and Tinicum Island. 40 FOWLER : Achirus fasciatus (Lacépéde )—Sole. Though found in the Delaware tidal region, I have no record for these limits. It doubtless occurs about the river shores. Necturus maculosus (Rafinesque)—Mud Puppy. Some years ago a living specimen was brought to me from Darby Creek, near Essington. It may have been an introduc- tion, as I stated then.* Ambystoma punctatum (Linnzeus )—Spotted Salamander. Known from Stone’s record for Clifton.f Plethodon erythronotus (Green )—Red-backed Salamander. An abundart species in woodland, often in villages. Chad’s Ford, Brandywine Summit, Wawa, Chester Heights, Lang- ford’s Run, Cobb’s Creek. Plethodon glutinosus (Green )—Sticky Salamander. Recorded by Cope from Delaware County. + Spelerpes bislineatus (Green )—Two-lined Salamander. Rather scarce. I have met with it at Brandywine Summit. Spelerpes longicauda (Green )—Long-tailed Salamander. Occurs under logs or stones in woodland. Found at Bran- dywine Summit. Spelerpes ruber (Daudin )—Red Salamander. Found about springs, and though searce in my experience, doubtless more abundant when thoroughly sought for. I found it along Fawkes Run. Cope first records it from the the county.4 * Science, XI, 1900, p. 555. t+ Amer. Nat., XL, 1906, p. 160. t Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 34, 1889, p. 139. G14.(6., Pacer. COLD-BLOODED VERTEBRATES. 41 Desmognathus fusca ( Rafinesque )—Dusky Salamander. Abundant. The aquatic young may be found in most spring-fed streams. Chad’s Ford, Concordville, Wawa, Whet- stone Run, Fawkes Run, Collar Brook, Naylor’s Run, Cobb’s Creek. Diemictylus viridescens ( Rafinesque )—Newt. I found the aquatic form of this species at Wawa. Bufo americanus (Holbrook )—Toad. Common. Chad’s Ford, Wawa, Chester Heights, Trout Run, Collingdale, Collar Brook, Media. Scaphiophus holbrookii (Harlan )—Spade-foot Toad. This retiring animal is rarely seen, and lives under the ground during the day, coming forth mostly at night. In the spawning season, during the spring, the males call vocifer- ously. It is only known from Delaware County from the record of Cassin by Cope.* Acris gryllus crepitans ( Baird )—Cricket Toad. Common. Chad’s Ford, Brandywine Summit, Concord- ville, Markham, Chester Heights, Wawa, Langford’s Run, Collingdale. Hyla pickeringii (Holbrook )—Pickering’s Tree-toad. Common, especially in chorus during the Spring. Mr. Palmerf found it about Chester Heights. I met with it at Wawa, Collingdale, Trout Run and Collar Brook. Hyla versicolor (Le Conte )—Common Tree-toad. Abundant. I met with it at Collingdale and Wawa. Hyla andersonii ( Baird )—Anderson’s Tree-toad. This interesting coastal species is only known from these * Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1867, p. 85. t Proc. Del. Co. Inst. Sci., IV, Nov. 25, 1908, p. 20. 42 FOWLER : limits, and in fact those of the State, by Mr. Palmer’s record.* This is based on two specimens found in a gravel pit some years ago. Mr. Palmer writes me, ‘‘ Unfortunately both these frogs got away. I was at Haverford College at the time, and had them in my room. One was quite small, the other full- grown. They were companionable, and sat about my desk, crawled over my hands, ete. How they got out of the room I cannot say, but go they did. * * This gravel pit was in the Bryn Mawr gravel of Carvill Lewis, on the northeast out- skirts of Bryn Mawr. Icould not gothe place now * * * and doubt if I could any longer know it when I sawit. The whole country is so altered, what with chateaux, etc., since 1882. But I remember thinking at the time, that the sandy, gravelly bank, the hole full of cracks, and all, looked like a tiny patch of New Jersey, and that here was the proper frog.’’ Rana pipiens (Schreber )—Leopard Frog. Common about tidal marshes. I met with it on Tinicum Island about Lester. Rana catesbeiana (Shaw )—Bull Frog. Abundant. Mr. Palmer found it at Ridley Park. -I met with it at Lester, Media, Wawa and Collingdale. Rana clamata (Daudin )—Green Frog. Common, and very variable. Chad’s Ford, Brandywine Summit, Markham, Concordville, Chester Heights, Wawa, Trout Run, Collar Brook, Media, Lenni, Fawkes Run, Col- lingdale, Lester. Rana palustris (Le Conte)—Pickerel Frog. Common, especially in long grass. Chad’s Ford, Brandy- wine Summit, Markham, Concordville, Chester Heights, Wawa, Collar Brook, Collingdale, Trout Run, Lester and Tinicum Island. Rana sylvatica (Le Conte)—Wood Frog. No definite locality has been given for this species, though it is included in Mr. Palmer’s account. It doubtless occurs in woodland. * Proc. Del. Co. Inst. Sci., IV, Nov. 25, 1908, p. 20. COLD-BLOODED VERTEBRATES. 43 Carphophiops amznus (Say )—Worm Snake. Though no locality has ever been given for this species in Delaware County, it doubtless occurs. It lives under logs and in the ground. - Regina leberis (Linnaeus )—Leather Snake. Found around streams and in meadows. Reported from near Moylan. Natrix sipedon (Linnzus )—Water Snake. Abundant about the river marshes, and along most water courses. I found it at Wawa, Markham, Langford’s Run, Swarthmore, Collingdale, Collar Brook, Tinicum and Lester. Storeria dekayi (Holbrook )—De Kay’s Snake. This small snake is likely more frequent than the few records suggest. It often occurs about old dumps. I met with it on Tinicum Island, and in the vicinity of Lester. Liopeltis vernalis (Harlan )—Green Snake. Known from the record Dr. Henry Tucker gave me of an example taken near Swarthmore some years ago. It doubtless occurs in other sections of the county. Coluber constrictor ( Linnzeus )—Black Snake. Apparently rare. I have seen examples from Collingdale, Wawa and Aldan. Thamnophis sauritus (Linnzeus)—Ribbon Snake. Sometimes abundant. Dr. Francis Pennell and the writer found a number about Chester Heights and Wawa, several years ago. Thamnophis sirtalis (Linnzeus )—Garter Snake. Common. Chester Heights, Wawa, Collingdale, Collar Brook, Swarthmore, Naylor’s Run. Iampropeltis doliatus triangulus (Daudin)—House Snake. In my experience not common. My examples from near M yi Wawa and Concordville. 44 FOWLER : Agkistrodon contortrix (Linnzeus )—Copperhead. Reported from near Haverford about 1913 by Mr. EK. R. Dunn. Sceloporus undulatus (Latreille)— Pine-tree Lizard. Known from Cope’s records,* given as Delaware County and Upper Darby. No recent material has been obtained. It is apparently rare. Chelydra serpentina (Linneeus)—Snapping Turtle. Abundant in some sections. Found at Wawa, headwaters of Ridley Creek and on Tinicum Island. Sternothcerus odoratus (Latreille)—Musk Turtle. Though likely abundant along the more sluggish streams, but few examples have come to notice. Wawa and Lester. Chrysemys picta (Schneider )—Painted Terrapin. The most abundant of our aquatic species. I found it at Wawa, Lester and Chad’s Ford. Clemmys guttata (Schneider )—Spotted Terrapin. A common species, and usually found in similar situaticns as the preceding. Wawa, Markham, Chad’s Ford, Lester, Collingdale. Clemmys muhlenbergii (Schoepff)—Muhlenberg’s Terrapin. This is less frequent than most of our terrapins, and usually occurs about swamps and ditches. First recorded by Bou- langert from Upper Darby. Subsequently Dr. Stone{ obtained it from Tinicum. I found it at Media, and it was reported from Lester and Lazaretto. *Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1898 (1900), p. 370. + Cat. Chelon. Brit. Mus., 1889, p. 108. { Amer. Nat., XL, 1906, p. 169. COLD-BLOODED VERTEBRATES. 45 Clemmys insculpta (Le Conte)—Wood Terrapin. Reported from Foxcroft.* Terrapene carolina (Linnzeus )—Box Tortoise. Common in woodland. Fernwood, Wawa, Darby, Chester Heights. *Copeia, March 15, 1915, No. 16.. Mr. EK. R. Dunn gives a list of ‘*Some Amphibians and Reptiles of Delaware County, Pennsylvania,’’ mainly from near Haverford. INSTITUTE NOTES Another number of the PROCEEDINGS ! The Museum of the Institute, through the kindness of William R. Newbold, of Panama, has recently received a number of interesting relics from the ruins of an ancient Convent in the old City of Panama. This Convent, which is situated some nine miles from the present City of Panama, was sacked and burned by the celebrated Buccaneer Morgan in one of his raids and has remained a ruin since that time. Morgan, or Sir Henry Morgan, it may be remembered, was probably the most celebrated commander of buccaneers ever known. He was born in Wales about 1635 and died in Jamaica in 1688. In 1671 he sacked and burned the old City of Panama. It was probably at this time that the Convent in question was destroyed. The remains of the old Convent, left untouched up to the present day, are almost covered with heavy undergrowth, and little can be seen but some standing walls. It was practically unknown or forgotten by people of the neighborhood. Mr. Newbold, in one of his Sunday rambles around Panama, came upon the ruins and started to investigate. After much difficulty he succeeded in cutting his way through the under- growth and gaining access to the old ruins, of which a portion of the walls still stands. In examining: the locality he observed the top of an archway which appeared to be the entrance to an underground passage, now completely filled with débris. After a great deal of work he succeeded in get- ting to the bottom of it, and found it to be part of an under- ground entrance. The floor of this passage was covered with a sort of tile floor in mosaic design, a number of samples of which Mr. Newbold has presented to the Institute. The pavement seems to be about an inch and a half thick, appar- ently of some kind of burned clay material and covered with a thin layer of vitrification or enamel in bright colors and INSTITUTE NOTES. 47 handsome design. How this surface was ever made is not clear, as the pavement was apparently laid in one solid piece, as far as could be observed. Mr. Newbold took a number of photographs of the ruins, which he has also presented to the Museum. Another recent acquisition to the Museum is a historical relic from the old ‘‘ Covered Bridge’’ on the Baltimore Pike, over Ridley Creek, just west of Media, donated through the kindness of Mr. Warren A. Baker, of Media, Pa. During the present Summer, 1915, this old bridge was torn down to make way for a modern concrete bridge. Mr. Baker, who was engaged as inspector on the new bridge, was much inter- ested in examining the timber from the old bridge and noting how well it had stood the ravages of the weather during its fifty or sixty years of existence. In looking over this old timber he came upon some pieces containing pairs of peculiar wooden plugs, apparently serving no purpose. These plugs were some five or six inches long, one piece of each pair being more or less round and the other rectangular in cross section, the two pairs of plugs being located probably a foot apart. Not knowing what they were he made inquiries, and from an old raftsman found out that they were the plugs and the ends of the bows used in lashing the logs together when they were floated down the Susque- hanna or some other river. The method of operation was to bore two holes in the ends of an occasional log, a foot or so apart, insert in these the ends of a bow of wood and fasten the ends of the bow into the log by driving in wedge shaped plugs. Cross logs were then passed through the bows of these logs interspersed throughout the raft, thus binding the whole mass of logs together. Later when the wood was finished up for building, the bow and plugs were sawed off flush with the surface and left in place. Mr. Baker was good enough to cut out a couple of these plugs, together with the corresponding ends of the bow and present them to the Institute. ¢ 48 INSTITUTE NOTES. The removal of the old ‘‘ Covered Bridge’’ marks another step toward the disappearance of a type of bridge now no longer built. These were timber bridges, pin connected, com- posed of a combination of truss and arch fastened together at each intersection of the arch rib with the truss members, and the whole covered with shingle roof and board sides to give protection from the weather. There are but few of such bridges now left standing in the county, where formerly there were many. The bridge under consideration is supposed to have been built about 1854. It was about 130 feet long and of one single span. With the next number of the PROCEEDINGS the Jnstitute will begin the publication of a series of articles by Edward V. Streeper, Jr., entitled ‘‘Archives of Delaware County.’’ Mr. Streeper is an earnest student of local history, and his contri- butions will be well worth putting into available form for the benefit of local historians. OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTE: : | str - TT. Chalkley Palmer ice President, BU Ea ee c. Edgar Ogden ecre' esas Dr. B. M. Underhill Carolus M. Broomall aes _ Henrietta K. Broomall as - Board of Curators, PROCEEDINGS ° ‘OF THE DELAWARE COUNTY oe - INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE ot PUBLICATION COMMITTEE : ee C. dariack ‘M. D., B. M. Underhill, WM oD a ie aM Fb. Hoyt, Edward V. Deas Tr: 7 ‘A Carolus M. Broomall, Editor. : ne ge: . . - Mupia, Pa. ssued a at ere Limited edition for free distribution on application. Address all correspondence to the Editor. oe February ist, 1916 CONTENTS : Solar Halo of May 20, 1915, By Merwyn R. Lewis, Page 49 Report on a Typhoid Epidemic, By David Wilbur Horn, Ph.D., ‘‘ 67 PROCEEDINGS OF THE Delaware County Institute of Science VOLUME VII NUMBER 3 SOLAR HALO OF MAY 20, 1915. BY MERWYN R. LEWIS. Very often, immediately after some important event has taken place, or an unusual demonstration of the limitless forces of nature has occurred, the whys and wherefores, the causes and effects, and the signs and omens, are generally and freely debated by men and women who are in any degree interested in scientific matters. For a time, then, the subject is fresh, the details clear, and the causes satisfactorily settled in the mind. But Time is an impatient fellow and passes swiftly by, and with his passing he obscures the wonderful details — distorts, if he can, the important causes, and too often unsettles and disconnects the whole fabric of things. Men care to keep pace with the tireless rover and do not turn aside to foil him by making a record of events and things that he will otherwise destroy. The commission of making such a record of the Solar Halo of May 20th, 1915, was delegated by the Jnstitute to the writer, who has endeavored to carry out the wishes of the society by preparing a record in as comprehensive and as con- cise a manner as possible. The duty has proven to be a most pleasant one, and it is with an earnest expression of hope that this short paper will be as interesting, in a measure at least, to those who may care to read it, as it was to prepare. On the following pages it is not the intention of the writer 50 LEWIS: to advance new theories and ideas in contradiction of the sci- entific, underlying and arbitrary, yet generally accepted, causes of the phenomenon that have been revealed to us by the authorities who have made the sun, or solar, and the moon, or lunar, halos and kindred phenomena a subject of years of careful study and exhaustive investigation. Rather is it the purpose to avoid as much as possible the purely tech- nical treatment of the various and intensely interesting feat- ures in connection with the subject, and confine the discussion to observations taken in a very simple manner with the ori- ginal intention of preserving for private record as full and as complete a description as possible of the most unusual and brilliant spectacle that attracted the attention of thousands of people on Thursday morning, May 2oth, 1915. The observations taken by the writer are supplemented by and are compared with those made by several other members of the Institute, and their kindness is acknowledged for sup- plying necessary data. The courtesy of Mr. George S. Bliss, Director of the United States Weather Bureau at Philadel- phia, is also acknowledged for his kindness in furnishing department records and data. It is certain that this addi- tional information will add very materially to the interest and value of this paper as a record. Compound solar or lunar halos are due to the refraction and reflection of rays of light from the sun or moon, respect- ively, through a comparatively thin plane or cloud composed of innumerable particles or crystals of frozen moisture. In this latitude these conditions, occurring usually in very filmy cirrus cloud strata, are produced by abnormally low tempera- tures of the upper atmosphere, which convert the minute globules of water into ice crystals of many varied forms and shapes. The general form of these crystals is that of a hex- agonal prism. Simple or single halos, often seen around the luminary, are due to the refraction of light rays only. ‘The cause of and the wonderful effects that appear in the display of double SOLAR HALO. 51 or more complex halos will be briefly described more in detail on the following pages. In the more northerly regions the phenomenon is frequently observed and in so many different forms that but to mention them and to attempt to describe their detail would require a volume. In the polar regions, of course, the atmosphere is always at a low temperature, and consequently the stage is almost always set for a demonstration. The solar halos on May 20th were visible only in the extreme eastern section of the Middle Atlantic States—#in fact, so far as can be ascertained, the area from which they could be seen was confined to a region included within a circle having a radius of about 130 miles. Philadelphia Was apparently the centre of the circle. Accounts appear- ing in the daily press at that time developed the fact that the halos were visible in New York, Atlantic City, as far south as Baltimore and westward as far as Lewisburg, Pennsylvania. Farther west than this point the phenomenon was, however, much less striking than in the neighborhood of Philadelphia, and doubtless beeause of its dimness was not generally observed as being anything out of the ordinary. A twelve year old boy claims to have seen ‘‘two rings around the sun ’’ during noon recess in May, at Sodus Point, New York. He could not remember on what day it occurred, however, nor did a careful inquiry develop any further facts or any other persons who were as fortunate as this school boy. It is consequently impossible to connect the two halos as the same display. The halos first attracted attention between 10.00 and 10.15 A. M., and from that time rapidly increased in brightness and coloring until about 11.00 o’clock, when the point of greatest brilliancy was reached. During the next twenty or thirty minutes little or no change could be noticed, but at 11.30 the circles began to lose lustre, slowly at first, and then more rapidly the wonderful and rare sight faded from view. At 11.00 A. M. a series of observations was taken by the writer with an engineers’ transit, the results of which are ¢ LEWIS: n No shown by Figure 1. At this hour the rings were so bright that to look at them with the naked eye was blinding—it was quite impossible to study them carefully without the aid of smoked or colored glass. The temperature as registered by the standard thermometer at the office of the Superintendent of the Media Division, Pennsylvania Railroad, was 68° Fahrenheit, but at 12 0’clock noon the temperature had fallen several degrees and the halos had almost entirely disappeared, owing to the slowly accumu- lating clouds of an approaching rain storm. Between 12.30 and 1.00 P. M.a heavy, cold rain began falling. Rain or snow may always be expected following the display of a halo, but usually several hours will elapse before precipitation occurs. The general weather conditions during the month of May, up to and including the 20th, were very unseasonable, being unus- ually cold and wet. ‘The forenoon of the 20th was, however, apparently cloudless until about 11.30 A. M., although a pro- nounced haze pervaded the atmosphere from early in the morning. The following statement, furnished by Mr. Bliss, of the local United States Weather Bureau at Philadelphia, sets forth the actual weather conditions existing for a period of four days from May 16th to May 21st. The table was prepared as an item of additional interest, and supplies data that are believed as having considerable and direct bearing on the causes attending the display of the halos. TABLE SHOWING WEATHER CONDITIONS \ Max. 16 Mi. S. W. Day | eee | Direction and | Be | Normal as emp. Velocity of Wind Cloudy Unnormal aw | [{ Naa [eondy | oa Ue eee cer || ene BY | 62 | iss W. 8.3 Miles Part Cloudy | — 2 deg. SOLAR HALO. 53 Mr. Bliss is quoted as authority for the statement that solar or lunar halos are not, as is commonly supposed, unfre- quent or unusual in the Temperate Zone. The phenomenon in most cases, however, consists of a single circle around the luminary. Since 1890 the Philadelphia Weather Bureau has observed and recorded 208 solar and 205 lunar halos, accord- ine to Mr. M. B. Summers, first assistant of the Bureau. A single halo was observed around the sun only a few days before the one under discussion. Halos most frequently occur during the Winter and early Spring months, the reason for which is obvious. Such wonderful displays as were seen on May 2oth are extremely rare at points so far south in the Temperate Zone, but are, as stated before, quite frequent and brilliant beyond description in the northern latitudes, where both explorers and scientists have made careful observations, and have prepared long reports pertaining to them. Inquiry in many quarters and information obtained from various sources in the vicinity of Philadelphia in regard to the halos of May 2oth developed considerable difference of opinion as to the size, scope and the number of circles com- posing the phenomenon, as well as to the position of the var- ius halos and circles relative to the sun, also the relative posi- tion of the circles, one to another. Many of these opinions were held by persons whose views in the matter cannot be taken into serious consideration, yet not a little difference of opinion as to what was actually visible was expressed by pro- fessional men who by reason of study and experience have trained powers of observation. These men after viewing the spectacle, more from a scientific standpoint than that of simply an interested spectator, still disagree one with another. The points of disagreement were on matters of detail, since all the important features as described in this paper were not questioned. Later on in this article an acceptable theory will be advanced, which will attempt to assign reason- able causes for the different details as observed by inter- ested persons at various points in the vicinity. As viewed @ 54 LEWIS: from any given point within the area where the halos were visible it is possible, indeed it is very probable, that the details of the phenomenon would assume as many varied shapes and forms as there were observers (taking into consideration dis- tances), and from the very nature and causes of the halos, it logically follows that local conditions would necessarily have a material effect, more or less favorable, for a perfect observ- ation of them. The elevation, at Media, from which the observations were obtained as shown in Figure 1, is 340.29 feet above mean tide at Sandy Hook (Pennsylvania Railroad datum), and was at a point very near 39° 55’ North latitude and 75° 25’ West longitude. At 11.00 A. M. the sun’s shadow was cast North 35° 00’ West. The axis of the poles of the halos was, therefore, North 55° 00’ East. The entire design formed by the display was perfectly symmetrical about the line bearing in the same direction as the shadow of the sun. The point of intersection of the line bearing North 35° oo’ West and the extreme outer edge of the outer, or great halo (observations being taken toward the southeast), was 20° 40’ above the eastern horizon. The intersection of the same line and the outside edge of inner of small halo was discovered to be 44° 45’ above the horizon. The altitude of the sun was found to be approxi- mately 70° oo’ above the eastern horizon as measured on the same line as were the readings on the halos. Very satisfact- ory results were in this manner obtained in determining the distances of the two halos from the sun, and these distances conform within a degree or two with the measurements as cal- culated by the various authorities as to the angular distance of the respective circles from the sun. The inner circle is usually distant about 22° oo’ from the sun, while the outer halo is, according to the authorities, about 46° 00’ away. It is therefore evident that the phenomenon in question was in this detail characteristic. The outer halo, it will be observed, Figure 1, did not form SOLAR HALO. 55 ae Se WHITE PARHELIC if \ CIRCLE /\ {= NS | V ll are “NQINNER HALO \ . Spectrum | IN \\ y Colors Baas OUTER HALO] J (very Dine) Spectrum Colors (Confused) fHORIZOM FIGURE 1 Observations taken by the writer near the Railroad Passenger Station at Media 56 LEWIS: a complete circle around the sun, but was more in the shape of a rainbow with an arc of about 180°, the tangent of the centre of which was parallel to the southeastern horizon. This are had another peculiar feature more closely resembling the rainbow, in that the colors of the spectrum were very much more pronounced and much less confused than in the inner halo. Red, however, as is typical of phenomena of this nature, was most predominant in the outer as well as the inner circle, and fringed the inside of the halos. At Media and at some other localities within the field where the halos were visible, there were three additional circles that could be plainly seen. All of the additional circles were greater in diameter than the small halo, but considerably smaller than the outer halo. The most pro- minent of these three rings was a circle of dazzling white, without a tinge of coloring, that fairly outshone either of the halos. This circle was more narrow and more clean cut than the rings encircling the sun, and is one that is common and can most always be seen in compound displays of solar or lunar halos. This band of light is known in science as the parhelic circle, and always, as in this case, passes through the exact centre of luminary. Unlike the halos, this circle is due, not to refraction, but to reflection of light. According to Thomas Young the parhelic circle is caused by the reflection from the vertical faces of long prisms and from the bases of the short ones. The centre of the parhelic circle fell on the same line as that assumed by the shadow of the sun, and was at a point 10° or 15° outside and northwest of the inner halo. The other two circles were but slightly smaller than the parhelic circle and also lay to the northwest of the sun. Both of these rings of light were decidedly less brilliant than the other circles and intersected the parhelic circle and were tangent to each other on the shadow line, as well as being tangent to the inner halo. Of the two, the circle that appeared on the northeastern side of the line of symmetry was the brightest and was pure white. The circle on the SOLAR HALO. 57 southwesterly side of the line was quite faint and would have been unnoticed by one making only casual observation. This ring was also white, and of the same size as its ‘‘twin.”’ Both the last described circles’ were due to the reflection of light rays from faces of the many and varied shaped crystals existing at that time. In Philadelphia both the small and large halos were observed by several persons to be complete rings; we are led to believe, however, that the parhelic circle was confused with and mistaken for the outer halo, but as the statements are very positive the point will not be disputed nor contra- dicted. The circles that were tangential to the inner halo were not generally noticed in the city. Often only parts or arcs of the later mentioned circles are visible in displays of solar halos, and appear as elliptical arcs, and may be noticed at any point on the small halo and always tangent to it. These arcs are known as the Arcs of Lowitz, having first been discovered and described by the eminent scholar and scientist, Johanon Tobias Lowitz. A careful search of vari- ous records and papers treating on this subject fails to find a description of these arcs appearing as complete circles as they did during the display on May 20th. There can be no doubt, however, that these circles in the recent phenomenon were, in fact, the same features, and were caused by the same or sim- ilar conditions as the arcs described many years ago by Dr. Lowitz. The phenomenon being described was not so complete in detail as displays of this kind usually are in the higher lati- tudes, in that several of the interesting features generally observed were missing. Images known as parhelia, and some- times known as mock suns, are not unfrequently seen at the intersections of the inner halo and the parhelic circle. These images did not appear, or if they were present were too dim to attract attention. Other images similar to the parhelia, and known as paranthellia, are often visible at the intersec- tion points of the outer halo and the parhelic circle. The ¢ 58 LEWIS: latter images were also missing, and in this particular spec- tacle could not have occurred even had atmospheric condi- tions been perfect for their formation, since the outer halo had a radius so large that it would have passed entirely outside of the parhelic circle. A third image may also be observed, in some cases, in the more brilliant displays. It is known as the anthelion, and derives its name from the Greek on account of the position it occupies on the outer halo opposite to the sun. All of these images may appear as glowing spots, but some noted writers on these subjects describe them as having flam- ing tails and state that they are most clearly visible when the sun is near the horizon. To account for the presence of the mock suns would appear to be a simple matter if the anthe- lion image could be ignored and eliminated from the discus- sion, for then they could be explained as the result of one band of light crossing another band, causing at the points of intersection, as it were, a double thickness of light that would naturally and necessarily appear as bright spots or high lights. These images are, however, the result of intersecting, or rather focal, points of innumerable rays of light that are reflected through the many shaped ice particles at various angles and those that are reflected from the vertical sides and the bases of different length prisms. The failure to see a complete outer halo in Media may be attributed to any one of the following possible causes : — (1) A very thin or rare area may have existed in the field or cloud curtain that contained the ice crystals, which was suspended between the sun and the points of observa- tion in the vicinity of the town; (2) There may have been an unusual scarcity of the certain shaped crystals necessary to refract the rays of light the required amount to form a complete circle ; (3) The thickening haze or the heavy clouds of the approaching storm may have obscured the rays of the sun to such an extent that they were so greatly diffused or intercepted that they could not penetrate sufficiently to SOLAR HALO. 59 produce a visible refraction through the ice crystals. As the cloud strata containing the frozen moisture were com- paratively very near the earth, any one or all possibie condi- tions mentioned might exist in the cloud formation in the vicinity of Media. If the condition was a local one it would in no manner affect a more perfect display at a point so far away as Philadelphia, if the particular portion of the clouds above the city contained all of the essential elements neces- sary to form a complete figure. The last reason is the most satisfactory and acceptable one, for if the ice field is admitted to have been not more than four miles above the earth, the thickening haze or the storm clouds which slowly (the maxi- mum wind velocity on the 2zoth was 16 miles per hour) approached from southwest, would certainly have obscured the ice strata as viewed from Media at an earlier hour than at Philadelphia, a distance of 14 miles eastward. The clouds of the storm had doubtless commenced to concentrate in the sky in the neighborhood of Media before the phenomenon was first noticed, and had partly interfered with the display. Of course, at points further east the halos might not have been so obscured and may have appeared as perfect circles. These reasons, taken into consideration with the different effects that were possible where observations were taken from different angles and elevations and from points considerable distance apart, will establish a tenable and satisfactory expla- nation for the apparent discrepancies in the minor details of the phenomenon as observed at one place when compared with those observed at another. Several observers reported that the sky inside the small halo was unusually dark. This was, of course, an optical illusion due to the effect of the radiance of the rings of glow- ing light. If a careful study of the display had been made, no difference in the shade of the sky inside or outside of the halos could have been detected. Figure 2 shows the halos of May 20th as observed from the Weather Bureau at Philadelphia, and it will be noted that the ¢ 60 LEWIS: HORIZON FIGURE 2 Arcs of Lowitz were not seen from that station, although in all other features the observer recorded the same general details as were visible in Media. It is quite possible that the arcs were obscured from that point of view by clouds of smoke overhanging the city or on account of an irregular condition in the strata of frozen moisture. It will also be noted that the arc formed by the outer halo is not so great as was observed at Media, and that it occupied a somewhat different position relative to the line passing through centre of the sun SOLAR HALO. 61 and the parhelic circle. The phenomenon was visible from the Weather Bureau from 1o A. M. until 12.30 P. M. Figure 3 represents conditions as observed by Mr. M. H. Hoyt, of Media, from a point on the roof of the Belmont Iron Company Building in Philadelphia. Mr. Hoyt’s observ- ations as to the inner and outer halo are similar to the halos shown in Figures 1 and 2. The parhelic circle, however, appeared between the two halos; that is, on the southeast side instead of the northwest side of the sun, and in addition SAS INNER HALO PARHELIC CIRCLE Warre-a/ OUTER HALO HORIZON FIGURE 3 62 LEWIS: to these features the arcs of two other circles were seen. The two arcs that appeared to be about tangent to the outer edge of the sun curved in opposite directions from each other and intersected one another at a point on or near the line of sym- metry, or 180° from the sun. The arcs formed approximately half circles, and were doubtless caused by the same general condition in the clouds that caused the complete circles seen at Media. The marked difference is very interesting, yet rather confusing and difficult to definitely explain, but was PARHELIC CIRCLE PARHELIA * (OUTER HALO HOR)ZON FIGURE 4 SOLAR HALO. 63 probably due, as has been set forth, to local atmospheric con- ditions. Figure 4 is added to the list simply that a comparison can readily be made of the recent halo with a typical display in the past, as observed and described by F. N. Sawyer, of Brighton, England, on June 5th, 1875. (See Enc. Brit., IX Ed., Vol. XI, p. 356). In support of the opinion that local and irregular condi- tions existing in the cloud plane would materially affect the view of such a phenomenon, attention is called to Figure 5. The long horizontal lines represent the cloud strata, or atmos- phere charged with innumerable, minute ice crystals. The distribution of these crystals is represented by short horizon- tal and slant lines. The rays of sunlight before passing through the plane are shown by long vertical lines, and their direction by arrowheads. The long, converging lines repre- sent the refracted and reflected rays entering the eye after passing through the cloud. The phenomenon is considered as being observed ‘from points A, B and C, at say ten mile intervals apart. If the cloud is to be considered as being of uniform thick- ness throughout its whole extent and the distribution of the crystals is considered as similarly uniform, the observer at A, B and C, if on the same lz2vel would, of course, see the same details in every respect. It is not reasonable to suppose, however, that the cloud was of uniform thickness when so many currents and tremendous pressures are continually dis- turbing the balance of the upper air. One has but to recall the almost countless, varied shapes of snow flakes he has seen to readily accept the statement that the varieties of ice crystals in cloud formations, such as cause halos, are quite as numerous in size and shape. Fur- ther, it is not to be expected that an equal number of each of these different shaped ice particles could be found grouped in all parts of the cloud, even if the cloud was of uniform thickness — much less than if, as it is fair to assume, would ¢ ras 7 PO qnoa ( io} eS BE BIE a = (asta! Ir | Wak ee | IO Mi@es ee KO, NM) SM 7 SOM bey q a i ‘I ct ie A : Ne RiGUiRE > SOLAR HALO. 6 On an equal distribution of crystals be found if the cloud be heavy at one point and light in another, as shown in Figure 5. Take, then, an ununiform thickness of cloud strata and an unequal distribution of crystals, then observers at A, B and C would each see vastly different details, although difference in cloud thickness and in crystal distribution might not be great enough to seriously affect the principal features of the phe- nomenon being seen with little or no change from each of the points of observation. It is considered of interest in connection with the descrip- tion of the sun halo of May 2oth, as well as all others, to remember that the tiny ice crystals that are formed by extreme cold, from the moisture suspended in the clouds, usu- ally assume the shape of hexagonal and right hexagonal prisms. These prisms have been discovered to have many varied shapes, that may be thin like a pane of glass or a snow flake, long and slender like a pencil, cone shaped, etc. Of course, their position in the air depends upon their shape, and they will fall or attain their suspended position in such a way as to offer the least resistance to the air, but will in every case maintain the same general positions on their axes. In right hexagonal prisms there are three possible angles from which light may be refracted, namely, 60°, 90° and 160°. Light refracted between two alternate faces would form the angle of 60°; between any side and the base of a perfect right prism the angle would be go°, and between adjacent faces 120°. The different angles of refraction account for the double halos. Edmé Marriotte explained the inner halo as being due to refraction through a pair of alternate faces, also that the minimum deviation of a ray of light through an ice prism having a 60° refracting angle is approximately 22°. The outer halo, 46° from the luminary, is in a similar manner accounted for by Henry Cavendish as due to refraction between the base and a side of a right prism, at go°. Marriotte also explained the fact that red invariably 66 LEWIS: SOLAR HALO. appears on the inside of the halos as due to the fact that the least refrangible rays (red) are least turned aside in minimum deviation of light and that violet, being the most refrangible, is deflected in such a manner that it always appears on the outer edge of the rings. In ‘‘American Weather,’’ by General A. W. Greely, Chief Signal Officer of the United States Army, is found the follow- ing quotation : —‘‘ Probably the most remarkable series of solar halos seen in the United States were those of December 29th and 31st, 1880, in the Ohio and upper Mississippi and lower Missouri valleys. At the time the temperature was below zero Fahrenheit. The halos were frequently double, being 22° and 46° radii, with brilliant contact arches. © Gen- erally the prismatic colors showed with great distinctness, and mock suns varying in number from two to five were frequent.’”’ An exhaustive treatise on solar halos, by Dr. Louis Besson, of the Paris Observatory, appeared in the National Monthly Weather Review of July, 1914, together with a supplementary article by one of the United States officials in the Weather Bureau at San Francisco. Librarian, - - T. Chalkley Palmer C. Edgar Ogden Dr. B. M. Underhill Carolus M. Broomall Henrietta K. Broomall Board of Curators, Trimble Pratt, M. D., J.C. Starbuck, M. D., and the Officers PROCEEDINGS OF THE Delaware County Institute of Science Carolus M. Broomall, Editor. PUBLICATION COMMITTEE : T. Chalkley Palmer, Chairman; Trimble Pratt, M. D., J. C. Starbuck, M. D., B. M. Underhill, V. M. D., M. H. Hoyt, Edward V. Streeper. Volume VIII MEDIA, PA. oy jl Sig a A eee ce ee maleic eae Volume VIII Number 1 PROCEEDINGS OF THE DELAWARE COUNTY INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE oo PUBLICATION COMMITTEE : T. Chalkley Palmer, Chairman; Trimble Pratt, M. D., J. C. Starbuck, M. D., B. M. Underhill, V. M. D., M. H. Hoyt, Edward V. Streeper. Carolus M. Broomall, Editor. MEDIA, Pa. | Issued at intervals. Limited edition for free distribution on application. ; Address all correspondence to the Editor. oa ; Issued May 15th, 1916 CONTENTS : Archives of Delaware County. II. Burial Records of the Sandy Bank Burial Ground. Compiled by Edward V. and Margaret S. Streeper, - Page 1 Stress and Strain, By C. M. Broomall, : - Ba Institute Notes, - - - - Es 3 “27 SSS tT ae ee oe ee PROCEEDINGS OF THE Delaware County Institute of Science VOLUME VIII NUMBER I ARCHIVES OF DELAWARE COUNTY. COMPILED BY EDWARD V. AND MARGARET S. STREEPER. 1) BURIAL RECORDS OF THE SANDY BANK BURYING GROUND.* Leaving the Providence Meeting Burying Ground and wending one’s way northwestwardly along the Providence Road, you pass on the left the old ‘‘Sandy Bank Burying Ground,’’ or Upper (or older) Ground. Many burials have taken place in days agone, but the graves and stones were in such a dilapidated condition when these records were obtained that it was next to impossible to tell what the inscriptions were in many cases; while other stones were badly broken and only partly decipherable. There are also a number of graves marked only by rough sandstone monuments. In a number of cases, graves have been opened by descendants or relatives of the deceased, and the bodies have been removed and reinterred in other burying grounds, and where these removals are known mention will be made in a later article. It is said that on many occasions the bodies of old soldiers of the War of 1861-65 have been interred here, but there are no markers to verify same. * Since these notes were obtained nearly every stone in the burying ground has been more or less damaged, and in some cases the informa- tion contained herein is the only known record in existence.—E. V. S. LEBRARQ Naw Tor BST ANIC, Ge Rows STREEPER : The stones decipherable give the following information :— Headstone SARAH BALDWIN died Dec. 4th 1852 aged 72 yrs 5 mos & 18 days IOHN MORGAN DECEKSED 1791 OCTOB THE 7TH In memory of JOANNA M. Daughter of Isaiah & Sarah Moore Died Nov. 21, 1855 In the 6th year of her age In Jesus Breast My Soul Doth rest Footstone Ww jee) The next two stones apparently belong to the same family of Moores as the above, as they seem to be in the same lot :— 1860 Ww mM 1860 H M The next stone is also of the same family : — In memory of Isaiah Moore Died Feb 14th 1866 In the 53 year of his age Also ALJERN Son of Isaiah Moore Died March Igth 1866 In the 23 year of his age * Have footstones. DELAWARE COUNTY ARCHIVES. 3 The preceding stone is of marble and is lying face up on the ground, and apparently away from its original grave. ROBERT BARLOW who departed this life November 3rd 1834 In the 64th The above grave is the last or farthest to the east of the known burials, and is but a few feet from the old sand quarry. A stone bearing the name of Robert McClure has fallen into the old sand quarry on the edge of the ground (east side). Headstone Footstone MARY FLOUNDERS Died Feb 22, 1856 M F aged 69 years J GORMAND aged 84 6 mo. 1835 In Memory of William Briggs fT who departed this life August 5th 1851 in the 46th Year of his age In memory of RICHARD BRIGGS Died Feb 19, 1845 in his 44 year The next two stones are apparently erected to the memory of some of the Worrall family : — M W ey W, 1795 and 1791 ie + This headstone is now broken, the piece containing the first four lines having disappeared entirely (3-12-1916). 4 STREEPER : Headstone Footstone In Memory of . WILLIAM BLAIR Died July 24th 1860 In the 61 year of his age REBECCA wife of CALEB MARTIN Born Jan 15th 1821 Died Jan roth 1854 Aged 33 years PUSEY MALIN Died Sept 30, 1883 Father & Mother aged 86 years & 27 days EMMOR MALIN died April 3, 1848 es aged 33 yrs & 7 mo SIDNEY EMMOR daughter of EK. & S. Malin died July 6 1848 aged 10 mo & 28 days The next stone is hardly decipherable, but the inscription appears to be: — iyi ES 1839 M CHROSLEY May 1848 W CHROSLEY April 1848 DELAWARE COUNTY ARCHIVES. 5 There are a number of small stones containing the fol- lowing inscriptions : — Headstone EN 1789 M AW N 1846 WwW WwW HANNAH YARNALL Died toth mo 2oth 1819 EZRA TAYLORT A descendant of PETER TAYLOR One of the first settlers of where now is the seat of Justice of Del. County. Born June 26th 1781 Died May 5th 1825 Footstone Hy ls 1825 His headstone has been broken since these notes were taken, and the two parts lie on the ground. 1 Sarah, wife of Ezra Taylor, died in South Media, April 22nd, 1864, aged 82 years. 6 STREEPER : In what appears to be the Robinson Burying Lot the fol- lowing inscriptions have been taken from the stones : — Headstone Footstone ELIZABETH ROBINSON Died roth mo. 16th 1849 E R In her 1oth year ER 1849 eBACER: 1825 $$ WR 1816 SR 181g Wm Robinson Died 1813 Aged 76 years ROBINSON LOT S R&R 1826 S Robinson 1856 Joye SR 1856 JOHN ROBINSON t+ Died Octr roth 1861 * l aged 74 years 6 mos & 4 days ft Died ‘‘in Philadelphia, on the roth inst. (October roth, 1861), John Robinson, formerly of this county, in the 75th year of his age.’’— “Delaware County American and Media Advertiser,’’ October 16th, 1861. DELAWARE COUNTY ARCHIVES. 7 / Headstone Footstone JAMES EDWARD JONES Died Nov 11th 1863 Aged 5 years 9 mos and 5 days WILLIAM H. } Son of P. & M. Rudolph Died March 2nd 1854 Aged 7 years & 2 months Stone lying flat on the ground P RUDOLPH Died July 24th 1853 y Stone lying flat on the ground Aged 77 years \ RB x MR Died May Io, 1840 Aged 70 years L. DOWELL Aged 91 1851 H. GORMAN Aged gI 1853 Pak * IDA WIFE OF WILLIAM SPENCER Died April 30th 1883 Aged 20 years JOHN R. WORRELL ) Died Feb 17 1859 aged 78 years Stone lying flat on the ground 6 months and 22 days 8 STREEPER : DELAWARE COUNTY ARCHIVES. JOHN POWELL DECHISED JU JON INEG, sates 1734 ELIZABETH wife of John Powell lyeth Here Dyed 17th 1741 Maye. Died May Io, 1840 Aged 70 years ee: 1839 LNE (?) WORRALL Died 1837 Wit, 18% 1843 Sip. A ele les 1725 1861 S. M. In this burying ground was also interred the body of Ellen Jones, who was foully murdered, together with a man named John Blair, on Saturday night, 10-17-1863, but no stone marks the location. George Wilkinson, a man of about 22 years, was accused of the crime, but was found not guilty on February 26th, 1864. Three serpentine stones, one marked D C, the others illeg- ible, are to be found along the Providence Road side of the burying ground. STRESS AND STRAIN. BY C. M. BROOMALL. It is hoped that the following notes may be of interest as treating of certain phases of stress and strain not commonly dealt with in text books. For example, in the case of a body subjected to direct tension or compression, we are accustomed to consider the applied stress as distributed over the cross section, neglecting any lateral stresses that may be brought into existence by lateral deformation. Again, in the same case, we speak broadly of certain 45° maximum shears, with small heed to the effect of ‘‘internal friction’’ in altering this angular value when rupture occurs. As a_ further example, in considering the case of a beam under flexure, the stresses are seldom thought of as being other than those given by the ‘‘Common Theory,’’ namely, bending moment and vertical shear, and perhaps horizontal shear. We are familiar with stresses in the vertical-longitudinal plane and appreciate lines of maximum stress which result from the combination of direct stress and vertical and horizontal shear. But the fact that stresses exist in the vertical-transverse plane, that is, in the cross section of the beam, does not come often to mind. These considerations suggest an interesting line of thought and it is to them that attention will be directed in what follows. In order to properly appreciate the subject, however, it will be necessary to begin with certain funda- mentals and lead up logically to the question in hand. Consider the case of a prismatic body subjected to direct tension. If such body were absolutely inelastic, so that it suffered no deformation, the total stress would be distributed over its cross section as a uniform unit stress. But no body is perfectly rigid, and deformation, lengthening, results, accompanied by lateral contraction in all directions at right angles to the axis of stress. The ratio of the unit lateral strain to unit longitudinal strain, is known as Poisson’s Ratio and has been determined experimentally for many materials. Io BROOMALL : For steel its value is about 1/3, so that a bar of steel 12” long and 2’’ square in section, if stretched 1/100’’, producing a unit elongation of 1/12 . 1/100’ = 1/1200”, would suffer a unit lateral contraction in all directions of 1/3 . 1/1200 = 1/3600”, making a total lateral contraction of 2 * 1/3600 = 1/1800”. The longitudinal stress brought into play by a given length- ening or shortening of the bar is known from experimental values of Young’s Modulus. But it is evident that this mod- ulus is not a modulus of pure stress and strain, but must be a function of the cubical elasticity of the material and its rigidity. In other words, the actual state of deformation which results may be produced by the combination of cubical expansion and shears. By a simple geometrical demonstra- tion it can be shown that the value of Young’s Modulus in terms of the coefficient of bulk elasticity, k, and the coeffici- ent of rigidity, n, is given by the expression nk E — ice! ee 3k + on It may also be shown the Poisson’s Ratio has the value k — 2n ee = Gk > 1) 2 “ Upon substitution of the coefficients of pure strain in these expressions, results surprisingly close to the directly deter- mined experimental value of Young’s Modulus and Poisson's Ratio are obtained. The existence of lateral contraction shows that the mate- rial is subjected to an internal lateral unit stress in all direc- tions at right angles to the axis, the value of which stress equals the coefficient of elasticity multiplied by the unit late- ral strain. That this lateral strain brings into existence a very real compressive stress is evident from the fact that a STRESS AND STRAIN. II very considerable lateral expanding force we know would be necessary in order to prevent the bar from contracting later- ally. This lateral compression is probably produced through the medium of the lateral diagonal shears resulting from the applied direct stress, these producing in turn the lateral strain and its accompanying direct stress. If we consider a bar subjected to an applied longitudinal stress and at the same time to various combinations of lateral applied stresses, it is evident that each applied stress increases or decreases the other applied stress at right angles to it. If we assume proper values for Young’s Modulus and Poisson’s Ratio it is not difficult to determine the actual stresses. As an example, consider a steel bar 2” « 3” 24’ subjected to a longitudinal pull of 100,000 Ibs., and at the same time to a total compressive force on the 3’’ face of 100,000 lbs., and a total expansive force of 100,000 lbs. on the 2” face. Assume e = coefficient of lateral strain — 1/3, and E — Young’s Modulus — 30,000,000. The apparent unit stresses will be : — : Sie: : : 100,000 in the longitudinal direction S1 — + z — -+ 16,666 lbs. er sq. in.; in a direction perpendicular to the flat face, p q perp 100,000 ; : : : SS —— = 1389 lbs. / sq. in., and in a direction 72 : j 100,000 perpendicular to the narrow face Sn — 4 centee +2083 4 Ibs. / sq. in. The corresponding lateral unit stresses would be equal to one-third of these values, and would be added or subtracted as circumstances required. The actual unit stresses in the three directions would be Se — ot — 1/3: Sa. 2/3. ob — 16,666 — 1/3 «-2083. -F 1/3 . 1389 = + 16,435 lbs. / sq. in. SF = — St — 1/3 .S1 — 1/3 . Sn = — 1389 — 1/3 . 16,666 — Lipa 2 ei —= — 7638 lbs. / sq. in. SN = Sn — 1/3 1/445 (58 = 2083).>= 4/3" ..) LO,e00 | ei : ae —= — 3009 lbs. / sq. in. I2 BROOMALL : It is seen in this case that the actual lateral stresses exceed the values calculated by the ordinary methods, even causing a reversal of stress in a direction perpendicular to the narrow face. In the case of a bar under compression analogous inverse results are met with. Again let us consider the question of shear in a bar under tension. Under the assumption of no distortion, in the case of the bar subjected to direct tension, the direction of the two. maximum shears will be at 45° with the axis of the bar and at right angles with each other, the shearing unit stress being equal to one-half the longitudinal unit stress. This resolu- tion may be made in any and all planes passing through the longitudinal axis. Such is the common theory of diagonal shear. In the actual bar, however, distortion takes place, and it is necessary to know in what manner this affects the shears. In the actual case with lateral contraction the effect is as if a lateral compressive stress was acting upon the bar in all direc- tions at right angles to the axis in addition to the applied longi- tudinal stress. The forces to be resolved would therefore be in any chosen longitudinal plane. Without going into the proof it may be shown that the direction of the maximum shears in the actual case still remains 45°, but that the values of the unit shears become one-half the algebraic difference between the applied longitudinal unit stress and the lateral unit compressive stress resulting from contraction. For example, assume a steel bar 2” 1” in section subjected to a pull of 20,000 lbs., and take the coefficient of lateral contrac- STRESS AND STRAIN. 13 20,000 tion as one-third. The longitudinal unit stress = 2 = 10,000 lbs. / sq. in., while the lateral unit stress due to contraction is 1/3.. 10,000 = — 3333 lbs. / sq. in. ‘The maxi- mum unit shearing stress, neglecting contraction, equals one- half the direct unit stress, or 5000 lbs. / sq. in., and acts at 45°. The maximum shearing unit stress when contraction is considered is found to still act at 45°, but its value becomes now one-half the algebraic difference between the longitudinal and lateral unit stresses, or, 1/2 [10,000 — (—3333)] = 6666 Ibs. /sq.in. Thus it is seen that the actual unit shear con- siderably exceeds the value found by the Common Theory. Let us take up now the case of a beam under flexure. Here, at the start, it is necessary to distinguish between two distinct phases of stress to which the beam is subjected, namely, local stress and stress due to general bending and shear. ‘The effects of local stress are especially pronounced under the points of application of concentrated loads and over points of support. These effects are superposed upon the general stresses. The results are different with different loadings, and in the present article no attempt will be made to consider them. Our efforts, therefore, will be confined to the general internal stresses due to bending movement and shear, which is all that can be done if general results are to be obtained. Later, if it be found desirable, the local effects for special cases may be considered, and we shall have only to add these to the general results already found to complete the investigation. In the case of a beam subjected to bending moment the upper fibres are in compression and the lower fibres are in tension. According to the Common Theory, no deformation is considered, and the stresses are assumed to vary directly as the distance from the neutral axis. From the principles of statics the horizontal stresses necessary to equilibrate the external forces are calculated. Further, at most points in T4 BROOMALL : the beam a vertical shear is assumed to act, a stress neces- sary for equilibrium in conjunction with the horizontal stresses. This vertical shear is assumed to produce a uniform shearing unit stress over the cross section of the beam. These horizontal stresses and vertical stresses are all that we need assume as far as the equilibrium of the external forces is con- cerned. This is the Common Theory of Flexure. In the development of the theory of stresses probably one of the first steps in advance was the recognition of the exist- ence of horizontal shear. The necessity for its presence is easily seen, for example in the case of a number of boards lying face to face and made use of to act asa beam. Natur- ally such a composite beam has little strength or stiffness until the boards are spiked or bolted together so that they cannot slide upon one another. When this sliding is prevented the structure becomes nearly as strong and stiff as a solid beam of the same size. But the existence of horizontal shear, by the principles of statics, necessarily requires the presence at each point in the material of an equal vertical shear of opposite character, in order to prevent the rotation of the infinitesimal elements around their own axes. In the same way the existence of horizontal shear might have been predicted from the known existence of the external applied vertical shear. However, when we calculate the value of the horizontal shear in a beam by the usual method, it is found to be zero at the upper and lower surfaces and a maximum at the neutral axis. This being so, it follows, since the vertical shear at each level must have the same value as the horizontal, that the vertical shear is not uniformly distributed over the section, but is zero at top and bottom and a maximum at the neutral surface. Ina rectangular beam the value of the horizontal and vertical shears at the neutral axis is 50 per cent. greater than the value found by assuming the shear distributed equally over the vertical cross section. Having now recognized and calculated the shears, the STRESS AND STRAIN. 15 next step in the development was perhaps the realization of the fact that the actual maximum stresses in the beam were not horizontal (flexural) stresses together with horizontal and vertical equal shears, but that the maximum stresses are usu- ally in some other direction. That is, the horizontal stresses and horizontal and vertical shears must be resolved in differ- ent directions and the direction of their maximum resultants for tension, compression and shear ascertained. The forces to be resolved are indicated in Figure 1. If we plot the directions of the maximum stresses as found from the above resolutions, curves somewhat similar to those of Figure 2 are obtained, the heavy lines being ten- sion and compression and the dotted lines representing shears. The two direct stresses are at right angles to each other and also the shears are mutually at right angles, while the two systems of lines make angles of 45° with each other. This was a long stride in the development of the theory. Yet it must be borne in mind that up to this point the theory does not take into consideration the question of strain. Hence in the actual beam where deformation does take place, it is evident that some modification of the theory must be made. The lines and calculated stresses of Figure 2 are based upon statically determined horizontal stresses and vertical and horizontal shears unaffected by lateral stresses. The hor- izontal stresses themselves produce 45° shears which, however, appear in the general resolution when the horizontal stresses are combined with the applied vertical and horizontal shears in order to find the amount and direction of maximum shears. So much for statical conditions without lateral deformation. When, however, lateral strain is considered, vertical and hori- zontal forces at right angles to the axis come into play. Hence, limiting ourselves to the vertical-longitudinal plane, the forces to be resolved are those of Figure 1, together with vertical compression or tension, as the case may be. We might resolve the new combination of forces as before and find corrected directions and values for maximum stresses Zz aunol4g SZ FEES, re 18 BROOMALL : were it not for another modification, to be mentioned later, which must be considered. This point will be taken up at the appropriate time. Let us now consider another phase of the subject of flex- ural stresses, that is, the question of the existence of stresses in the plane of the cross section. As already noted, the upper portion of the beam being subjected to compression, expands, while the lower portion contracts under the tension. The result is, that the cross section of a rectangular beam, for instance, tends to take a trapezoidal form, as indicated in Figure 3. FIGURE 3 The position of the neutral axis (passing through the centre of gravity of the section) is raised, producing a change in the amount of the longitudinal stresses. The value of the distance to the ‘‘remotest fibre,’’ and the value of the mom- ent of inertia of the cross section are both altered by the shifting of the neutral axis, so that there must exist a differ- ence between the true longitudinal components of stress and those calculated on statical principles. This change of value of the stresses is an effect to be superposed upon the stresses of Figure 2, already modified in amount and direction by the existence of stress due to lateral deformation. ‘The calcula- tion of the actual stresses in the absence of exact information as to the change in form of cross section, is impossible. STRESS AND STRAIN. 1g Let us return, however, to the more or less trapezoidal section of Figure 3. Every point above the neutral axis expands, and we may consider, hence, that it is subjected at each point to a uniform dilating stress in all directions at right angles to the axis. Likewise, every point below the neutral axis is subjected to a uniform compressive stress in all directions. These stresses have a real existence in the plane of the cross section. Further, it will be noted that the lateral expansion and contraction are different at different levels, since the longitudinal stresses increase as the distance from the neutral axis increases. It is to be noted, also, that the lateral deformations are symmetrically disposed as regards the vertical axis of the cross section. As a result of the dif- ferent value of this lateral strain at different levels, it follows that successive horizontal lamina in the cross section must have slid laterally one upon the other. In other words, hori- zontal shearing deformation has taken place, that is, a hori- zontal lateral shearing stress must exist in the plane of the cross section. This shear will vary as the distance from the middle vertical line, being in opposite directions on opposite sides, as shown in Figure 4. ane rarer FIGURE 4 20 BROOMALL : A horizontal shear, however, necessarily requires the pre- sence of an equal vertical shear at each point. And together with these shears there exist the transverse direct stresses already referred to, acting in all directions at right angles to the axis, and which may be resolved vertically and horizon- tally for convenience. Hence, the total of forces in the cross section may be represented after the fashion of Figure 5. | “te | oe cane FIGURE § Let us examine now the effect of these forces on the shape of the cross section. The direct stresses alone would produce no change in shape other than the change from rectangular to trapezoidal, since the lateral stress and accompanying unit deformations vary as the distance from the neutral axis. In the case of the shears, however, a different result is to be pre- dicted. As already noted, a horizontal shear at any point necessarily requires the presence of an equal vertical shear. So much for points in the interfor of the body. When, how- ever, points near or at the boundary of the body are consid- ered, one of the two right angle shears is seen to disappear because of the absence of material on the outside. Thus, STRESS AND STRAIN. 2I instead of the shears of Figure 5, at the boundaries there will only exist the shears indicated in Figure 6, the missing shears having become converted into various direct stresses or shears in other directions. | FIGURE 6 The effect of this is to produce near the bounding surface a tendency to rotation of the elements and a warping of oth- erwise plane interior surfaces as indicated in Figure 7. FIGURE 7 22 BROOMALL : The effect of this warping is to produce a modification of the previously assumed trapezoidal cross section, resulting in a shape probably somewhat as shown exaggerated in Figure 8. FIGURE 8 It is interesting to note in passing, that at the ends of a beam under flexure the horizontal shear has a similar effect. Thus, at the right end of the beam, for instance, right handed, unbalanced, horizontal shears exist, having a maximum value at the neutral axis and zero value at top and bottom. The result is that the end of the beam shows a tendency to bend downward, Figure 9. This effect is quite noticeable in many cases. FIGURE 9 STRESS AND STRAIN. 2B As we have seen, in the cross section of a beam under flexure there exist horizontal and vertical shears and a gen- eral direct compression or tension in all directions. The effect of the shears is to produce tension and compression at angles of 45° with the shears. These would be superposed upon the general direct stress, as indicated in Figure 10 (the general direct stresses being resolved for this consideration at 45°). In each quadrant of the cross section one of the direct stresses due to shear is opposed by the general direct stress. FIGURE 10 The prevailing maximum direct stresses would, therefore, be at angles of 45°, and at the same time there would exist the two right angle shears already noted. We may indicate the general nature of these stresses as in Figure rr. Having called attention, in the case of a beam subjected to flexure, to the transverse or lateral stresses in the plane of the cross section brought into a play by the process of deform- ation, the question of their magnitude presents itself. The evaluation of these stresses is problematical, yet by certain approximate methods it is possible to show they have a not inconsiderable value. 24 BROOMALL : Assume a steel beam 6” 6” in cross section subjected to such bending moment that its outside fibre sustains a stress of 30,000 lbs. /sq. in. Let the factor of lateral deforma- tion be 1/3. The unit shortening of the upper surface of the beam and the unit lengthening of the lower surface are I ‘ : : —_—______ = ———_ jin. each. The lateral unit expansion of 30,000,000 1000 the upper surface and the lateral unit contraction of the lower surface will be each 1/3 . 1/1000 = 1/3000’’. The total widen- ing of the upper surface and total lateral contraction of the FIGURE 11 lower surface will be, each 6 . 1/3000 = 2/1000”. This means tension in the upper surface and compression in the lower sur- face, both at right angles to the axis, equal to S"— si = 2/1o0Gy.1/6). 30,000,000 — 10,000 Ibs. /;sq-jam: This is one-third of 30,000 lbs., as it should be. A very approximate value of the shearing stress may be found by assuming a trapezoidal cross section, and taking the distortion to be equal to one-half the expansion on one side at the top divided by the half depth of beam and multi- 25 STRESS AND STRAIN. > — Dad SAIEAR | h: born Oct. 5th, 1792 died July 18th, 1857 *Cyrus Cadwallader Sellers, son of James and Elizabeth Cadwalla- der Sellers, was born in Philadelphia, Pa., 6-27-1825. Was an energetic farmer and real estate operator. He married at “Wlld Orchard,’ in Upper Darby Township, Delaware County, Pa., on 10-15-1851, Rachel, daughter of Harvey and Elizabeth Sellers Lewis, of Philadelphia, Pa., and on the 11-5-1862, he was married a second time to Emmeline Bost- wick Sellers, of Upper Darby Township, Pa. His second wife died on June 12th, 1916, at her late residence, Stoneleigh Court, 207 South Forty- sixth Street, Philadelphia, Pa., in her 83rd year. Issue by the first wife: Alfred Lewis Sellers, born at South Orange, N. J., 4-20-1853. He married, 4-11-1878, Alice Sellers Powell, daughter of Joseph and Marga- ret Sellers Powell, of Upper Darby Township, and had issue: Joseph Powell Sellers, born at Middletown, Delaware, 5-29-1879; Rachel Lewis Sellers, born at Lansdowne, Pa., 10-10-1886, and died at the same place, 7-22-1887, and was buried in Darby Friends’ Burying Ground, and Margaret Sellers, a twin to Rachel Lewis Sellers. By the second marriage there was issue: Edward Herman Sellers, born at ‘‘Springton,’’ in Upper Darby Township, 12-25-1863, who became the husband of Lucy Noble, of Kins- ley, Kansas, on 5-14-1896. By this union there was issue: Emmeline Sellers, born in Philadelphia, Pa., 9-15-1897. Katharine Floyd Sellers, born in West Chester, Pa., 1-10-1866. Elbertine Cadwallader Sellers, born in West Chester, Pa., 5-4-1868. + First wife of C. Cadwallader Sellers. t Daughter of William and Hannah Sonntag, of Philadelphia, Pa. Died at ‘‘ Wild Orchard,’’ in Upper Darby Township. 42 STREEPER : In Footstone memory of Samuel Sellers * who departed this life Sb Sk June 2nd, 1850 in his 7oth year Sacred to the memory of Klizabeth t daughter of Harvey and Elizabeth Lewis of Philadelphia who departed this life 3rd of June, 1849 in her 23d year Just outside and to the west of the Samuel Sellers lot lies the following stone: James Sellers Junior { born July 8th 1823 died February 24th 1854 *Samuel Sellers, elder brother of James Sellers, and son of David and Rachel (Coleman) Sellers, was born in Philadelphia, Pa., 9-10-1780. With his brother, James, and cousin, Coleman, entered the wire estab- ment of N. & D. Sellers, at an early age, afterwards succeeding to the business along with them. He was interested in the Phiiadelphia and Apprentices’ Libraries in Philadelphia. He was a mathematician and somewhat of an astronomer. His observations and calculations are said to have been exceedingly accurate. Was an influential member of the New Jerusalem Church of Upper Darby, being one of the founders of the Delaware County organization. A Whig in politics. { Inscription on stone lying flat on grave. t James Sellers, Junior, was the son of James and Elizabeth Cadwal- lader Sellers, a farmer, physician, hygienist and philanthropist, inter- ested in all movements for the uplifting of humanity, of literary taste, an able and lucid writer, independent in opinion and morally courage- ous. Was born in Philadelphia, Pa., and married, 1-18-1853, Emmeline (Bostwick) Smith, of New York, who was born, 9-3-1833, in Stamford, Conn. He died at South Orange, N. J. Had issue, one son, James DELAWARE COUNTY ARCHIVES. 43 iy Footstone memory of Nathan Sellers t who departed this life December 23rd 1867 in the 7gth year of his age. In memory of Euphrosyne S. Sellers the beloved and affectionate wife of E. S. S. Nathan Sellers who departed this life on the 7th day of June, A. D. 1856 in the 63rd year of her age. My Mother Maria Franklin died M. F. March 5th 1870 in her 72nd year. Cadwallader Sellers, the first, born at South Orange, N. J., 5-4-1854; married, first, at West Chester, Pa., 4-25-1878, Elma Anita Townsend, daughter of Washington Townsend, Esq., of West Chester, Pa. His first wife died in Philadelphia, Pa., 4-5-1881, and was buried in the bury- ing ground of the Episcopal Church, at West Chester. They had one son, James Cadwallader Sellers, born in Philadelphia, Pa., 8-26-1880, and who became a civil engineer. James Cadwallader Sellers, the first, was married the second time to Eleanor Cresson Barber, on 6-18-1889. The second Mrs. Sellers was the daughter of William E. and Lydia Cresson Barber, of West Chester, Pa. They had issue: Marie Sellers, born at West Chester, Pa., 6-10-1890, and Elizabeth Sellers, born at the same place, 8-14-1896. + Nathan Sellers was the son of Nathan and Elizabeth (Coleman) Sellers. He was born in Philadelphia, Pa., 10-19-1788; married Euphro- syne Sonntag, who was born in the year 1790, and died in Upper Darby Township, Delaware County, Pa., 6-7-1856. He built the ‘‘ Wild Orch- ard’’ home on the Marshall Road, adjoining his father’s home, ‘‘ Mill- bank,’ in Upper Darby Township. After his wife’s death he removed to Burlington County, N. J., about 1857, where he died, 12-23-1867. 44 STREEPER : My Father Footstone George Franklin died Guky March 16th 1870 in his 80th year In the David Snyder lot the following appear : Hannah S$. Snyder born Dec. 30, 1820 died Sept. 21, 1856 Hess: also her two infant Jo S: children Sacred to the memory of Christianna L. daughter of Thomas & Martha Emily Snyder born June 15th 1842 died July 7th, 1844 also Jane Elizabeth daughter of Thomas & Martha Emily Snyder born July 8th, 1847 died July 2nd 1848 Father and Mother David Snyder Mary A. Snyder Died Jan. 4th, 1865 died Nov. 19th, 1855 Dist M, A. S. in the 74th year in the 4oth year of his age. of her age. Death did not separate them Samuel Sellers Snyder born Oct. 11, 1845 SB Sb St died Feb. 28, 1857 DELAWARE COUNTY ARCHIVES. 45 Lieut. Thomas G. Snyder died in the service of his Footstone Lieut. T. G. Snyder —country Co F Dec. 28, 1862 aged 45 years Thomas Longshaw of Pendlebury, England died Dec. 5th, 1859 aged 34 years He was much regretted Sacred to the memory of Thomas Burton died Aug. 12, 1848 aged 66 years Also Esther, his wife died Noy. 29, 1854 aged 63 years. 20 Pa Cave Farewell children Farewell all For our Savior did us call From this earth of trial and pain With our Jesus forever to reign. In November, 1905, when the writer was at these grounds, he came across a headstone erected to a daughter of George Edward Burnley, but upon the last pilgrimage (5-21-1916) it could not be located. The inscription upon the headstone read : Annie Hope daughter of George Edward and Sarah Ann Burnley died May 1g, 1871 aged 8 years, 3 mo and 4 days. 46 STREEPER; DELAWARE COUNTY ARCHIVES. At that time, also, there was a stone bearing inscriptions, and which probably belonged to some of the Sellers family, but it, too, has disappeared. It was engraved as follows: WwW Dn DD wD S) J S Also, a stone with Error: Page 35, note, 4th line, for Maskell M. Carll read Markell. STRESS AND DEFORMATION IN THE I BEAM. BY C. M. BROOMALL. The internal stresses and deformations in the loaded I Beam differ radically from those in the beam of rectangular cross section. In a previous article* the writer has attempted a short treatment of the stresses and strains in the rectangu- lar beam and called attention to those cases where the Common Theory of Flexure may lead to dangerous results. In the present writing it is intended to treat the I Beam in a somewhat similar manner, and attempt to ascertain wherein the Common Theory differs from the true theory. As a preliminary to the subject in hand it is well to exam- ine particularly into the mechanics of internal stress in the ordinary rectangular beam. To this end we may classify the various forces under consideration into : — 1. Theexternal forces,vertical loads and vertical reactions, 2. The forces brought to play by such loads and reactions upon any chosen group of elements of the body, and, 3. The maximum internal stresses produced in these ele- ments by the external forces. The forces of (2) are really the internal resultants of the forces of (1) and will obviously (since the loads and reac- tions are vertically directed and the beam is horizontal) con- sist of horizontal compressions and tensions, and vertical shear. [hese horizontal forces and the vertical shear, as stated, are the true resultants of the external forces. The actual maximum stresses produced by these forces in the sub- stance of the elements is found by resolution in the various directions. Of course, stresses exist in these elements in all directions simultaneously, but it is only the maximum values which interest us. In general, any element of the body will be acted upon (a) by direct horizontal compression or tension, (b) by verti- PROG. DET. Co. INST: Scr, Vol. VILL, No: 1: 48 BROOMALL : cal shear, and (c) by a secondary right-angled horizontal shear necessary to equilibrate the vertical shear. These forces are indicated to the left in Figure r. FIGURE 1 If these forces are resolved for maximum values in the usual way, lines of maximum stress will be found after the fashion indicated in Figure 1, solid lines indicating direct stress and dotted lines shear. A complete diagram of lines of internal stress may be found in the article already men- tioned. Let us look further into the group of applied forces (2) which is the keynote to an understanding of the theory of internal stress. At any point these forces produce primarily vertical shear and direct stress, and secondarily horizontal shear. The direct stresses will be of large value near the middle of the beam and zero at the supports. The shears, on the contrary, have their maximum value at the supports, and become zero at the middle. The variation of these forces is interesting, and in Figure 2 the attempt is made to show the varying values of the forces acting on a finite, rectangular portion or block of the material at various points. It will be noted that the sum of the horizontal forces acting on the block is greater on the side toward the middle of the beam THE I BEAM. 49 than on the other. It is this difference between the horizon- tal forces which produces the horizontal shear along the bottom of the block, the value of which can be calculated in the ordinary way. In this calculation it is usual to assume the block of infinitesimal length in order to avoid the consid- eration of the direct load on top of it. This is a matter of convenience only, and for simplicity we will assume in what follows that the block is sufficiently small to neglect conside- ration of any direct load effect. If we consider points at the same level beginning at the middle and moving towards the support, it is seen that the FIGURE 2 decrements of horizontal stresses measure the value of the horizontal shear. When the end of the beam is reached the horizontal stresses will have all been ‘‘spilled off’? in the shape of horizontal shear, the latter having now reached its maximum value. This effect appears at all points in the beam, the difference of horizontal stresses on the block under consideration producing the total horizontal shear on the bottom of the block. If desired we may also consider the block as situate below the level under consideration, and find the shear along the top of the block. Naturally, the value will be the same in either case. 50 BROOMALL : The relation between horizontal forces and _ horizontal shear may be expressed by the equation : where V;, = total horizontal shear on bottom of block, S = algebraic sum of horizontal forces on one side of block. Let v = unit horizontal shear b = thickness or width of beam Wie dS Then V = 28 == —— = = byt b. dl dS O b is — — E Vv qhoccccttsts () Equation (2) shows that the absolute value of the hori- zontal unit shear (and hence also the vertical unit shear) at any point is proportional to the rate at which the horizontal forces on the block are changing value. As we pass from the middle toward the support, along any level line, the hori- zontal forces become less and less by regular decrements from the previous value, true subtractions. By the time the end of the beam is reached these decrements have reduced the hori- zontal forces to zero. The values of the horizontal and verti- cal shear also change, becoming greater, but not by regular additions to a previous value. The horizontal shear may be regarded as the physical lever arm of the couples formed by the direct stresses in the upper and lower portions of the beam. Without this hori- zontal shear the parts of the beam would not work together as a harmonious whole. Let us consider the question of horizontal shear as regards its vertical distribution. In Figure 3 is indicated the manner of production of horizontal shear, and its effect upon an ele ment of the body at the shearing plane. The lower arrows in A and B and upper arrow of C represent the companion force of the shear couple produced by the resistance of the adjacent € aunoli4 THE I BEAM. 51 52 BROOMALL : material. It will be seen that the effect is to produce counter- clockwise shear (for sections on the left of the middle), and that a rotation of the element would result were it not for the vertical shear distributed over the vertical cross section of the element. The total vertical shear furnishes the necessary vertical unit shear at each point to equilibrate the horizontal unit shear and prevent rotation of the various elements. The value of the horizontal unit shear, in a rectangular cross section beam, varies according to the parabolic law, as sug- gested by the dotted lines. Its value can be calculated for any point according to the well known formula : le ENE aby {Ay ee (3) lb —z For rectangular beams there is little doubt the result so obtained is quite close to the true value. In beams of other cross section it is questionable whether the formula is reliable, and as regards the I Beam it will be evident from subsequent considerations that the formula does not represent at all the true relationship between the forces, even though the results may be approximately correct. Up to this point we have been confining ourselves mainly to the relationship between the direct stresses and shears, the resultants of the external loads, which act upon the elements in a beam of rectangular cross section. By resolving these forces for direct stress and shear, the direction and amount of the maximum stresses may be found, as already mentioned. So much for the stresses in the beam of rectangular section. Taking up the I Beam, it is evident that the first step in the investigation is, as before, to ascertain the relation of direct stress and shear in our second group of forces. As stated, these forces are the resultants of the external loads acting upon the elements of the body, and from them the maximum stresses in these elements are found by resolution. In what follows we will consider only the solid, one-piece THE I BEAM. 53 u I Beam wherein the forces may take whatever directions may be necessary for equilibrium. The built-up I Beam or Plate Girder, wherein the stresses are limited in direction by the various artificial planes of shear due to the arrangement of the plates, will be left for future treatment. A loaded I Beam has its upper flange in compression and lower flange in tension, the horizontal direct stress decreasing in value and the horizontal and vertical shear increasing in value as the neutral axis is approached. Ordinarily the straight line law of variation of stress is assumed to apply, but on account of the small vertical thickness of the flanges the horizontal force may be con- sidered as uniform throughout the flange cross section. Now we know that the horizontal force in the flanges gets less and less towards the ends of the beam and that in the flanges something akin to the horizontal shear in beams of rectangu- lar cross section must operate in order to connect up the forces in the edges of one flange with the forces in the edges of the other through the intermedium of the central portions of the flanges and of the web. Horizontal shear in the ordi- nary sense of the Common Theory would increase slowly from the outer to the inner surface of the flange and then would suddenly and largely increase in value as the width suddenly decreased to that of the web. But this is not the true state of affairs and the Common Theory does not explain what is really happening and how it is, for instance, that the stress at the outside edge of the flange gets tied in with the stresses in other parts of the beam so as to make it act as a whole. In order that all the elements in the flange shall work together, some sort of shear must act between them. Assum- ing uniform stress throughout the flange, and knowing as we do that externa! equilibrium requires that these forces decrease towards the ends, there must evidently exist a horizontal shear, with shearing planes vertically disposed, between the elements of the flanges. This shear transforms the excess of horizontal forces acting on ‘‘ blocks’’ of the flanges outside 4 BROOMALL : On the point considered into this verticaliy planed horizontal shear. Jn other words, the unbalanced part of the forces is transmitted, by virtue of the shear, from the outside of the flanges to the web and through the web to the neutral axis. The shearing planes for the horizontal shear in the flanges and the web are indicated in Figure 4. FIGURE 4 The relationship between direct stress and shear in the flange of the I Beam is the same as that existing in the rec- tangular beam and in the web of the I Beam. The law of variation of stress, however, is not the same. In the flange of the I Beam the direct stress varies according to the rectang- ular law and the shear according to the triangular law. In the web, on the other hand, the direct stress varies according to the triangular law, while the shear varies more or less para- bolically. In Figure 5 is indicated, for the upper flange and for the web, the nature of this variation of forces. From what has preceded we see that in the flanges of the I Beam the effect of the external loads is to produce horizon- tal shear with vertical shearing planes, together with the com- panion right-angled shear likewise with vertical shearing planes, and also direct stress, compression in upper flange and tension in lower flange. In the web there exist the ordinary horizontal and vertical shear and direct stress. These forces are shown in Figure 5. 55 THE I BEAM. ELEVATION. FIGURE 5 56 BROOMALL : In order to find the lines of maximum internal stress pro- duced in the material, the above forces must be resolved for the various kinds of stress and the direction of the maxima determined. ‘The formulas for determining the direction of the lines are: Shear : Pa 2G == SOV cin i ae (4) Direct Stress: cot 26. 1S ov. ee eee (5) where ¢ — angle of shearing plane with longitudinal direction, 6— angle of direct stress with longitudinal direction, s — direct unit stress, tension positive, compression negative, v = unit horizontal shear. These are the ordinary formulas used to determine lines of maximum stress in beams, and by their use lines more or less similar to those of Figure 5 are obtained. In the case of the web of the I Beam the lines will have the general character- istics of those in the rectangular beam. ‘These lines, how- ever, do not cut the inner surface of the flanges at 0° and go® for direct stress, and 45° and 135° for shear, as at the upper and lower surface of the rectangular beam, since the horizon- tal shear is not zero at these points. To find the direction of the lines of maximum stress in the flanges we can obviously use the same formulas, for we are again dealing with two right angled shears and with direct stress, the only difference being that the forces vary by another law, the shears following a triangular variation and the direct stress the rectangular law. If we plot these lines they will be found to have the characteristics indicated in Figure 5. They will cut the outer edges of the flanges at 0° and go°, and at 45° and 135° just as at top and bottom of a rectangular beam. They do not, however, cut the sides of the web at these angles, because the direct stress does not reduce to zero at these points. In Figure 6 the attempt is made to show the general char- 58 BROOMALL : acteristics of the lines for web and flanges for the whole length of the beam. The upper sketch represents the upper flange viewed from above, the middle sketch shows the eleva- tion of the beam, and the lower sketch shows the lower flange viewed from below. The value of the internal stresses can be calculated by the ordinary internal stress formulas. A little consideration of Figure 6 will show which way the forces vary along the lines of maximum stress. In the web, the tension is a maximum below and a minimum above, the compression is a maximum above and a minimum below, while the shear is a maximum at the neutral axis and a minimum above and below. In the flanges, generally speaking, all the stresses increase as the lines approach the web. The nature of the stresses at the junction of web and flange, as the plane of the horizontal shear changes from hor- izontal to vertical, is very problematical. The combination of two pairs of right angled shears respectively in vertical and horizontal planes together with direct stress, makes the complexity such that it is impossible to generalize as regards the stresses in this region. The lines of maximum stress, as so far sketched out, are lines determined from statical considerations only. In the actual I Beam, however, deformation takes place, and from what we know of the deformation of the rectangular beam, it is easy to predict what will occur. As the I Beam deflects, the upper flange and upper part of the web shorten, expanding laterally in all directions. A reverse result follows in the lower portion of the beam. A tension, therefore, exists in all directions at right angles to the axis of the beam in its upper portion. Similarly, in the lower portion, a compressive force acts in all directions at right angles to the axis. This lateral change of dimensions shifts the centre of gravity of the cross section upward and alters the leverage and amount of the horizontal stresses. In the web the lines of stress and the values of the THE I BEAM. 59 stresses differ from the statical values in amounts determined (1) by the lateral expanding or compressing stress in all directions, and (2) by the change of value of horizontal forces due to change of lever arms. The effect of deformation on the flange stresses is as fol- lows: The dilating or compressive force due to deformation may be resolved vertically and horizontally. The vertical component may be neglected as not affecting the horizontal system of lines in the flange in which we are interested. The horizontal lateral component will have the effect of adding one more force to the internal forces acting on a given ele- ment. The internal forces instead of being as indicated in Figures 5 and 6 will have a lateral direct stress in addition to those indicated. The general effect of this horizontal stress will be to modify the maximum stresses in the material and alter the curves somewhat. The general nature of the lines, however, remains the same, so that qualitatively speaking the lines already plotted will represent well enough the character- istics of the lines of maximum internal stress. In the foregoing, no attempt at quantitative results has been made. It would not be difficult to obtain definite results, at least approximately true, for given loadings. The ordinary assumption of putting all the shear in the web and most or al] the bending moment in the flanges, is probably a safe method of design, although the results are by no means correct. The existence of horizontal shear, with vertical shear planes in the flanges, should not be overlooked, nor should the large horizontal shear in the web at its junction with the flange be neglected. If the web is thick enough for this the flanges will usually be ample, since the maximum horizontal shear with vertical shearing planes in the flange, on either side of the web, will be only one-half the shear in the web itself. The common assumption of average vertical shear over the web, in some cases may give a value of the horizontal shear at junction of web and flange less than its true value. Evidently the junction of web and flange is 60 BROOMALL : THE I BEAM. a region of danger which should not be underestimated. In conclusion, although the foregoing considerations have not led to results of much practical importance, it is hoped they may at least direct attention to a phase of the subject of internal stress but little treated of in the literature of engin- eering. When the same method of investigation is extended to beams of unsymmetrical cross-section, very interesting and suggestive results are obtained. In a subsequent article the writer hopes to be able to deal with this branch of the subject. TRAILING ARBUTUS FROM SEED. The idea of obtaining trailing arbutus plants from seed instead of by the often attempted and usually unsuccessful method of transplanting from the woods, was first suggested to me by Mr. Frederick V. Coville, of the United States Department of Agriculture. I was much pleased by his beautifully blooming pots which I saw in April, 1913, in the Department greenhouses at Washington. Mr. Coville gave me full cultural directions, and my subsequent partial success with arbutus has been the result of his advice. The follow- ing notes are a summary of the steps in its culture. July 9th, 1913, a small quantity of arbutus seed, obtained after much searching from the white, fleshy berry of wild plants in New Jersey, was planted in soil composed of two parts peat to one of white sand. About August 13th the first minute seedlings appeared. They were wintered in a shady corner of a rose greenhouse. In February, 1914, fifty plants ranging from one-eighth to three-eighths of an inch in diam- eter were transplanted to two-inch pots in soil composed -of nine parts peat, one part sand and three parts broken crock. By July, 1914, the plants were just beginning to send out side shoots and were shifted to three-inch pots. They spent that summer and the following winter plunged in the ground in a shady, outdoor spot. In July, 1915, they had reached suffi- cient size to be put into five-inch bulb pots, and in the fall of Ig15 many of the plants, though not all, set flower buds. After thorough freezing, two or three pots as an experiment were brought into a cool, shaded greenhouse. On February 22nd, 1916, one plant with four flower clusters was in bloom, after having been in the greenhouse just two weeks. Others bloomed later, according to the treatment they received. The sensation of smelling real arbutus in pots in midwinter fully repaid for the two and a half years of waiting and watering. Anna D. WHITE. Lansdowne, Pa., May oth, 1916. INSTIDULE | NOLES! During the coming season, 1916-1917, it has been decided to hold two meetings of the Institute each month, the first being devoted to business and miscellaneous scientific discus- sion and the other to formal lectures on scientific matters of current interest. Meetings will be held, during the season, on the following dates: December 13th and 27th, January roth and 25th, February 14th and 21st, March 14th and a2rtst, April r1th and 18th, May 16th and 3oth. The Electrical Section, composed of Junior Members, with Albert J. Williams, Jr., as President, is in flourishing condi- tion. Regular meetings are held twice a month for the dis- cussion of electrical subjects. Through the kindness of Francis Beekley, the organizer of the Section, its members have the use of a first class wireless outfit. Those desiring special back numbers of the PROCEEDINGS may obtain the same upon application to the editor, provided the supply is not too nearly exhausted. A number of the Institute members have been regular attenders on the weekly Saturday outings of the Pennsylvania Botanical Society and the Academy of Sciences. Delaware County is a favorite locality for the botanists and geologists. The present number contains an interesting article by Anna D. White on ‘‘Trailing Arbutus from Seed.’’ ‘The writer is a member of the Lansdowne Natural History Club. It is hoped that other members of the Delaware Valley Natu- ralists’ Union will likewise take the opportunity to make use of the PROCEEDINGS. OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTE: President, - - - - ‘T. Chalkley Palmer Vice President, - - C. Edgar Ogden Secretary, ae - - Dr. B. M. Underhill Treasurer, - : - - - Carolus M. Broomall Librarian, - - - Henrietta K. Broomall Board of Curators, Trimble Pratt, M. D., J. C. Starbuck, M. D., and the Officers oo DELAWARE COUNTY INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE ‘ _ PUBLICATION CommrrrEs : Chatktey Palmer, ‘Chairman; » Trimble. Pratt,::Mé Dz; MEDIA, Pa. \ Limited edition for free distribution on application. | Address all correspondence to the Editor. Issued April 25th, 1917 CONTENTS wit The Milestones of Delaware County, ekg ie Neer ee ee . By F. H. Shelton, ‘ The Institute, os eae ems PROCEEDINGS OF THE Delaware County Institute of Science VOLUME VIII NUMBER 3 THE MILESTONES OF DELAWARE COUNTY. BY F. H. SHELTON. In the early days the distances on nearly all the principal roads leading out of Philadelphia were marked with mile- stones. The straggling remainders of these stones can still be found on most of the roads. It is the purpose of this paper to give all the information that I have been able to collect about the milestones’'in Delaware County, Pennsylvania. It will help in understanding them, if one will bear in mind that these stones can be divided into three separate classes, as to the time or period : — ) First, The ‘‘ Turnpike Company’’ stones, set up from 1794 on, and in the next fifty years or so, by the various turnpike companies ; Second, The ‘‘Insurance Company’’ stones, set up a generation earlier—1764 and later—by the two early insurance companies, so far as known, and Third, Some very early Colonial stones—if apparent dates be correct—set up by private enterprise in 1705 and later. THE TURNPIKE STONES. Leading out from Philadelphia there are four principal roads or pikes that more or less cross our County—Lancaster, West Chester, Baltimore and Chester. I will take them in order. 64 SHELTON : LANCASTER PIKE. This road is within our County a dis- tance of about five miles, in the township of Radnor. It has the distinction of being the first turnpike or improved stone road in the United States. It was chartered in 1792 and completed about 1794. The milestones were presumably set up then or soon after. I understand that in recent times they have been reset, and more or less restored by the Colonial Dames. As at present appearing, they are of white marble, of uniform size, about six inches thick by twelve inches face, and of uniform pattern. In the sixty-two miles of road to Lancaster there are five that interest us because of being in our County. No. to is west of Rosemont, and has a wire fence and a rose bush back of it. No. 11 is west of the Spring Mill or Villa Nova road. No. 12 is a little east of the toll gate, near the St. David’s Golf Club. No. 13 is at the northwest corner of the main street inter- section, in Wayne. No. 14 is in Strafford, a little beyond the toll gate, and a trifle outside the County line. These are all in good condition and are on the present Lan- caster pike. The course of this old road has been changed somewhat, however, in the two centuries and more of its exist- ence. There are no stones now visible on what is known as old Lancaster road, where such runs through our County. That there were stones, however, at least, on the east end of the old road is shown by Hill’s map of 1808, and stones No. 6, 7 and 8 still stand. No. 6 is about 150 vards east of Wynnefield Avenue, on Fifty-fourth Street, and shows the pattern of that original Lancaster series, before the pike days. It is interesting to think of what changes these old Lan- caster stones have witnessed, even if only in the matter of transportation. First, the old Conestoga wagons that rapidly grew in numbers as a good road became available, with their six and eight horse teams that took three weeks to make the MILESTONES. 65 trip to Pittsburg, and were a large source of revenue to the old taverns that averaged one to every mile in the old days on that road. Read Julius Sachse’s book on ‘‘ The Wayside Inns of the Old Lancaster Road.’’ It is delightful in its account of the conditions of those days, of the stage coaches, the horseback riders, the wagoners and drovers and the gentry. Then the first railroad, the Philadelphia and Columbia, which later became—and now is the main line of—the Pennsylvania Railroad, and is close to the pike for many miles. This rail- road, upon which the first cars were drawn by horses, and which was soon double tracked, largely because of the fights that occurred between drivers of opposing ‘‘trains,’’ who wouldn’t get out of the way for one another. And it was alongside this old Lancaster Pike that the first locomotive in the County was used, the ‘‘ Black Hawk,’’ said to have been imported from England in 1834, but which didn’t do very well, and was soon junked and lost track of, as well as another early locomotive, the ‘‘America,’’ of interest to us as having been built in our County, at Cardington by Cole- man Sellers, in his machine shop and foundry that was estab- lished there about 1831 on Cobb’s Creek. This ‘‘America’’ is listed in the first seventeen engines that the railroad com- pany owned, and was used in 1836. And these old, white milestones since have witnessed—but half a generation ago— the coming of the gasoline devil cars, that now tear by at more miles an hour than the old Conestoga days could conceive of, only to be presently eclipsed and distanced by the marvel wonder-birds of the heavens —the aeroplanes — that seem to take heed of neither speed nor distance. West CHESTER PIKE. This pike runs for some thirteen miles through the County, and in these days begins at the Phil- adelphia City line, at Sixty-third and Market Streets. In the old days it began at Thirty-second and Market. These stones, too, are of uniform size and design, but appear to be made of a Leiper granite or similar stone. 66 SHELTON : No. 4, at the Sixty-ninth Street Terminal, seems to have disappeared. No. 5, at the University of Pennsylvania’s Astronomical Observatory, seems to have disappeared. No. 6 is in the bank, at the corner of the toll gate house at Llanerch. No. 7 is deep in the grass between two telegraph poles, in front of a small hall in Manoa. No. 8 is built into the east end of the north side girder of the bridge over Darby creek. No. 9 seems to have disappeared, It was near the old Buck Tavern building, still standing. No. 10 is in front of a picket fence —and is also white- washed —a little east of toll gate No. 5. No. 11 is under a three rail fence, near the octagonal school house, east of Newtown Square. No. 12 is west of Newtown Square and is broken off, only the stump remaining. No. 13 seems to have disappeared, perhaps the result of heavy grading and road cutting at that point. No. 14 seems to have disappeared. No. 15 is in the roots of a big walnut tree, west of the William Penn tavern, just beyond the Edgmont and the County line. This old pike was also characterized in the early days by many taverns and the old Conestoga wagons — now replaced by speeding trolleys and huge motor trucks—and it was a favorite resort of the County’s choicest scalawag, that much famed desperado and road highwayman of Revolutionary days, James Fitzpatrick, especially near Castle Rock, where the road crosses the beautiful little valley of upper Crum Creek. (Climb to the top of the rock and see for yourself, and you will agree with me.) He was popularly known as ‘‘ Sandy Flash,’’ and his story is interesting reading, as retold, for instance, in Bayard Taylor’s ‘‘The Story of Kennett.’’ But as this adventurous gentleman was hung on September 26th, 1778, MILESTONES. 67 from the public gibbet that stood at the intersection of Edg- mont and Providence Avenues, in Chester, as an edifying and warning spectacle to all people (who no doubt turned out ex masse on that occasion), and as the milestones were not erected until some two generations later, ‘hey at any rate were never used as rendezvous nor as places whereat the timorous traveler was relieved of his valuables by the County’s notable villain in question. The pike incorporation was in 1848. BALTIMORE PIKE. This road was incorporated as a pike in 1811 under the name of the Philadelphia, Brandywine and New London Turnpike Company. A tablet still easily visible in the north wall of the stone bridge over Stony Brook, in Springfield Township — where the road crosses the brook — relates how John Thomson ‘‘ built gratis’’ the bridge for the company. And Thomson was a notable, too, in engineering work in that section, and was the father of J. Edgar Thom- son, for nearly a generation the president of the Pennsylvania Railroad in its great formative period from 1852 to 1874. The old family place stands just west of the bridge. For some reason, though, that I have not yet ascertained, there seems to never have been, at least in recent days, either milestones or toll gates on this road. Friend L. D. Pyle, the genial blacksmith of Ivy Mills, Concord Township, says that during fifty years’ residence in that neighborhood he never heard of any; though he added, with a quiet humor, ‘‘ There are plenty of stoves to the mile.’’ I have traveled this road many, many times, from its beginning in the County at Cobb’s Creek, at Angora,*to its end at Chadd’s Ford, twenty miles, and the longest stretch of road in the County, and have never seen a milestone on it excepting just one. That one stands a little east of the trolley station of the Collingdale branch of the Philadelphia and West Chester trolley com- pany, in Clifton Heights, but was probably erected — when, there is nothing whatever to indicate— by some private indi- vidual. Very likely it was near some tavern of those days, 68 SHELTON : for it was rather usual and convenient to have them near. The stone is old and dirty looking, but seems to be of marble and measures four inches thick by seventeen inches face and reads simply ‘‘ 6 M to P.”’ CHESTER PIKE. Chester pike, variously called the ‘‘ post road,’’ or the old King’s or the old Queen’s road, was one of the first laid out in the Province of Pennsylvania, dating from about 1706. The pike company was organized, I believe, in the 1840's, and the stones presumably date from that time. They are about the same uniform size and appearance as the Lancaster and West Chester pike stones, viz.: about twelve inches face and six inches thickness, but are of Leiperville granite, I think, same as the West Chester pike ones. It is more than probable that this stone was used, for the pike passes close to several notable quarries of such stone in this district, and it is quite likely that some one stone cutter, first and last, made all of the turnpike stones in that vicinity. Their similarity would indicate it. This pike has been the most built upon of any of those in the County. It is, in fact, almost continuously built up from Darby, where it begins, to the far end of Marcus Hook, where it ends its dozen mile stretch in the County. As a result of grading, paving, sidewalk construction, etc., most of the stones have disappeared. There are but three left. No. g is about a block east of No. 5 toll gate, in the bank, and likely to be undisturbed. No. 15 is against the wall of Chester’s famous old Court- house, at the west corner of the building, on the inner edge of the sidewalk. Mr. Ashmead thinks it has been reset in that position, from its original location. No. 16 is at the northeast corner of Third and Howell Streets, Chester. Its face is illegible. There is a No. 7 stone in Colwyn, in the small front yard of the premises No. 211 Main Street — which is part of the old pike road and the right location for the No. 7 stone. It MILESTONES. 69 is of different appearance, however, from the stones above named, in size and style of letters and in other ways, though why it should be different I have no reason to offer. It scarcely seems to be one of the regular pike series, neither is it one of the Contributionship or ‘‘Penn arm’’ stones, referred to later. On account of grading and sidewalk construction and its present position, it has manifestly been moved a little from its original position and reset in its present one. This old Chester road was the original through road to New Castle, Wilmington, Baltimore and Washington, and it, too, has witnessed the stirring episodes of early days, notably the retreat of Washington’s troops, after the battle of Bran- dywine, as well as numerous trips over it of Washington pro- ceeding from his Virginia home at Mount Vernon to his inauguration and to the early Congresses, etc. His coach and four and postillions and outriders, as well as those of John Quincy Adams and other notables, more than once pulled through the holes and mud or dust of this old line of travel from the north to the south. And milestones marked their progress, though not the turnpike company stones, but even earlier ones that I am about to tell of. All of the stones on the three pikes, Lancaster, West Chester and Chester, appear on Dr. Joshua Ash’s map of Del- aware County of 1848, the map made by the Doctor himself by personal survey, as he trudged with chain and instruments and wheelbarrow and notebook throughout the County, a map that is wonderfully accurate, the base of practically all suc- ceeding maps and an enduring monument to its maker. And the fact that no stones are shown on it on Baltimore pike, con- firms the belief that there never have been any set up there. INSURANCE COMPANY STONES. The Philadelphia Contributionship, the oldest fire insur- ance company in the United States and with which Benjamin Franklin had something to do in its inception, was incorpo- 70 SHELTON : rated in 1752. It had a system of fines for its Directors. Those who were late to a meeting were fined a shilling. Those who were absent, two shillings. In May, 1764, with the accumulated fund resulting from these fines, milestones were set up on the road to the north to Trenton, and as these were no doubt similar to ones set up later by the same com- pany on the road to the south in our County, the report of the committee is somewhat apropos and certainly interesting. It is taken from the minutes of May 18th, 1764, and was given me by Mr. J. Somers Smith, the present secretary of the com- pany :— ‘*Peter Reeve, Joseph Saunders, and Thomas Wharton, who were requested by the Board of Directors to apply the Fines arising from non- attendance of the Directors since the year 1761 in purchasing Mile- stones, made the following Report, viz: ““We the Subscribers beg leave to Report to the Directors of the Fire Insurance Office, That, Agreeable to their Request ‘ That we would procure a sufficient Number of Mile Stones, and fix them on the Road leading to Trenton Ferry and apply to such persons as would be capable of Measuring the Distance and placing them properly’ That you would pay the Cost and’ expence thereof out of the Fines that were paid by the Directors for Non attendance since the year 1761. ‘“We procured the Stones, and apply’d to John Lukins, Surveyor General, Philip Syng, Jacob Lewis, and Thomas Gordon, Gentn to join us in Measuring the Distance from Philadelphia, to the Edge of the River at the Ferry leading to Trenton, who Cheerfully undertook the Serving, and on the 15th instant at 5 oclock in the Morning we began to measure from the Middle of Market Street in Front Street, and at the Distance of each Mile, affix’d or planted a Stone marked with proper Characters to describe the Distance from this City, and when arrived at the Ferry found it to be 29 Miles & 24 Chains to the Edge of the River, having passed thro’ the New Road leading thro’ Pennsburg Mannor, as it is the most direct and likely to be used, the distance being shortened more than One Mile. “The Cost of the Stones, with the expence attending the planting them amounts to Thirty three pounds Seven Shillings, and five pence, We having purchased two Stones more than was Necessary, being numbd 30 & 31 Gave them to Nath! Parker who promised to fix them on the Road leading to New York.”’ MILESTONES. 71 Between the date of setting up the stones on the road to Trenton, as above, and the years 1770 or 1772, a reference is found in the minutes to the setting up of stones ‘‘on the road to Newcastle,’* Delaware; that is, the main road to the south, just referred to, although no report at length or in detail appears. Two of these old stones, at any rate, yet remain. On the post road, an eighth of a mile south of where it crosses the main street (Market Street) in Marcus Hook, is No. 19. It is fifteen inches wide, five and a half inches thick, twenty-two inches out of the ground, and in the grass plat between the cement sidewalk and the curb, where it is likely to be undisturbed for years. It is not of the uniform Leiper granite—those quarries were but little opened and worked at that date—but of apparently a ‘‘ Baltimore granite,’’ so called. A more mixed and rougher stone. A mile further, perhaps an eighth of a mile over the State line and in Delaware, stands, in a bank, in front of a house, No. 20. Both these stones are in a good state of preservation, are different in the markings from the turnpike stones, in the kind of stone as stated, in the size and dimensions, and are palpably not of the turnpike series. And in addition, they have the ‘‘ Penn arms’”’ on the back, that I will refer to later. The State in Schuylkill, or historic old fishing club of early days, had its first ‘‘ Castle’’ at the Falls of Schuylkill, and later at Rambo’'s rock, opposite John Bartram’s place, below Gray’s Ferry. In 1887 it removed to its present location on the Delaware, near Cornwalls, taking its original building with it. In the extended history of the Club, of 1889, it is stated, page 214, that two of the above milestones were acquired by it. ‘At the March meeting, of 1862, the Chairman of the Boat Commit- tee reported that they had secured for the Company two valuable relics, viz.: two original milestones of the Gray’s Ferry road bearing the ‘Penn coat of arms,’ one of which was brought from a few rods below the U. S. Arsenal (its original position), and was placed at the corner of the Castle and the other from opposite the old Gray’s Ferry House, on 72 SHELTON : the west side of the Schuylkill, on the premises of Dr. Samuel Thomas by whom it was presented to the Company; this was placed on the south-east corner of the Castle.’ These stones were first relocated at the ‘‘Castle’’ at Rambo’s rock, in 1862, and were later also moved and relo- cated on the north and south sides of the old relocated build- ing, where it now stands on the Delaware. No. 4, from the west side of the Schuylkill, has the ‘‘arms’’ on the back, but the other stone, which is much worn and hard to read, but coming from near the Arsenal must have been No. 3, has not the ‘‘arms.’’ Somewhere near Claymont, Delaware, is the stump of No. 21 or No. 22, and this, and the four above described are the five only, that I have:been able to trace, of the presumably original thirty-three that were set up on ‘‘ the road to Newcastle.’’ There is another very old insurance company of Philadel- phia, the Mutual Assurance Company, the ‘‘ Green Tree.’’ It dates from 1784, was chartered in 1786, and the charter was amended in 1801. In Watson’s ‘‘Annals of Philadel- phia,’’ page 420, reprint edition of 1884, it is stated that on the Haverford road and on the adjoining Gulph road, stones were placed ‘‘ by the Mutual Assurance Fire Company, as a price for their charter, from the Penn family.’’ While it is possible that the Mutual Company followed the example of the Contributionship and set up these stones, there is nothing to bear the statement out. The Company’s minutes have been gone through, but without finding any reference to the matter. Through the courtesy of Librarian Thomas L. Montgomery, of Harrisburg, a search was made in the records of the General Assembly as well as in the Department of Internal Affairs, but without the disclosing of any informa- tion. It is therefore felt that Watson made his statement as to charter payment or consideration on hearsay, or without sufficient warrant. Watson also says that on the Chester road are old stones with the ‘‘ Queen’s insignia’’ thereon. Noth- ing of this sort has ever been remarked by any one I have MILESTONES. 73 ever heard of, and I believe the reference to be a loose one to the ‘‘arms’’ on the back of the old New Castle stones described, which were there. These ‘‘arms’’ to which I have thus frequently referred, are the three balls that form the central feature of Penn’s armor- iai shield, as appearing ou his seal and elsewhere. Jocularily they are said to stand for the apple dumplings enjoyed at treaty feasts between Penn and the Indians. There are three Separate roads in the County and one outside, in Montgomery County, that I know of, that still have such ‘‘ Penn arm’”’ stones standing. And the stones are all of the same character, of coarse, rough, Baltimore granite, all of about the size of fifteen inches width, with rounded corners, (instead of the twelve inch, square cornered, later stones of the turnpike class), and all with the all important ‘‘arms’’ as stated. It takes but little, therefore, to make one believe that such stones were all erected by the Philadelphia Contributionship interests, separate, apart from, and prior to the turnpike stones. These four roads are: — . First, Chester pike. The ‘‘road to Newcastle’’ as above described. Second, The old Haverford road. Stones No. 9, 10 and 11 are the only ones within our County. The others are in Philadelphia or Montgomery. This road ran as far as old Whitehall, now Bryn Mawr, where it tied into Lancaster pike and ended. No. 11, at that point, was thrown out by a side- walk contractor last year, but I happened along and saved it. No. 10 still stands in place, back of Haverford College. The face is so worn as to be illegible. The ‘‘arms’’ on the back, however, are plain. I have not seen No. g and 8, though I believe Mr. F. P. Powers says they still stand. No. 7 is in position just south of City Line road, in Philadelphia County. No. 4 is in the cellar of the Historical Society of Pennsyl- vania. No. 5 is in the grounds of the ‘‘Grange,’’ that famous old country seat in the extreme eastern corner of Hav- erford Township, now the property of Mr. B. R. Hoffman. It 74 SHELTON : is under the trees near the drive, as it turns at the foot of the hill, near the house. In a book entitled ‘‘ Colonial Homes of Philadelphia, etc.,’’ by Eberlein and Lippincott, it is stated, page 165, that this stone was removed from the old Haverford road, ‘‘where it had been set up in 1793.’’ I wrote both of the editors, asking the authority for that date of erection, but got no satisfactory answer or statement except that it ‘‘was a mis- print and should have read 1703.’’ Which latter date I believe to be a total error and not right at all. All of these Haverford road stones are characterized by a square panel or recess cut in the face of the stone, in which panel is cut the single, large, distance figure alone, without any ‘Mor usual) words’ *):to' P.’? Third, The Coopertown road, as now called; also known as the old Darby and Radnor road. ‘There still stands a single stone, No. 10, of the same pattern as the Haverford road stones. It cannot have been removed from Haverford road, as No. ro on that road is also still in place back of the College, as stated. It stands a little west of the road from Eagle tavern, on West Chester pike, to Ardmore, and not very far from the Haverford Meeting House, which latter is the oldest one in the County, having been built in 1700. The meeting houses, we know, were centre points, and objectives of highway communication. The only reference to the stones on this old road, perhaps — and I think, probably, relating to such —is in what is known as an ‘‘ Historical Atlas of Dela- ware County,’ published in 1875, in which —in the text on page XIX — is the following : — ‘‘The road from Haverford to Darby, commonly known in early times as the Goshen road, was laid out in 1687. On it are still some of the old milestones which were doubtless imported from Kngland about the time the road was constructed.”’ This surmise as to having been imported, I believe to be wrong. There is plenty, of stone locally available and stone cutters were not lacking; the stone is similar to the Contribu- MILESTONES. he tionship stones or the supposed Mutual Assurance Company stones, and no reference to importing appears in the report of the committee of that first named company. There are no other stones now visible on this Darby road. ‘The ten miles to Philadelphia would be found by the route via Llanerch and the West Chester pike in to the city. From the old meeting house via Darby, where the road would tie into ‘‘the road to Newcastle,’’ and thence lead by Gray’s Ferry to the old Court House at Second and Market, would be fourteen miles. Fourth, The Gulph road is the fourth in which these ‘‘Penn arm’’ stones appear. While outside of the County (in Montgomery ) it is immediately near it. It branches from Lancaster pike, near the eighth stone on the latter. These Guiph road stones differ from the Haverford road stones in pattern by not having the panel, but otherwise they are like them. No. 12 and 13 may still be seen east and west of Spring Mill road crossing (Mueller’s ‘‘Main Line’’ Atlas shows the locations), and No. 15, 16 and 17 are in their proper locations between the King of Prussia tavern and Gulph Mills. I have an old and rare book, ‘‘ The Traveller’s Directory,’’ second edition, dated 1804, in which are thirty-eight quaint little section maps, showing the road routes on the main high- way from Trenton to Philadelphia, and also the road south to Washington; and on these old maps the milestones are marked, which must give the original locations of the Contri- butionship stones. Unfortunately, apparently, not one stone on the road to Trenton yet remains. More than one person has hunted for such, but fruitlessly. There are plenty of milestones on that road, but they are considered as the ones erected by the Philadelphia and Bristol turnpike company, that was chartered in 1804. I also have an interesting old map by John Hill, dated 1808, showing Philadelphia and an area within a ten mile circle adjacent. In this area many stones are shown, presum- 76 SHELTON : ably as standing at that date on the then roads. This map helps much in identifying and locating these old stones. It is interesting to note—and I think that it is without exception — that in every case in Delaware County the stones that yet remain are on the right hand side of the road, as one goes away from the city. Not one stands on the left hand side. Whether this was merely custom, or for a definite reason, I have neither found nor attempted to guess. The starting point from which the distances were meas- ured differed on different roads. The earliest counted from the old Court House that stood at Second and Market Streets, Philadelphia. The stones on ‘‘the road to Newcastle,’ the old Haverford road, the old Lancaster road and the Gulph road, all start from there. The present Lancaster pike stones start from where that pike first began, viz.: the ‘‘ Middle Bridge,’’ now Market Street bridge. This is why the No. 6 stone is more or less abreast of but No. 4 on the old Lancaster road, there being two miles distance between the bridge and the Court House; and why, a couple of miles beyond No. 8 on the pike, where the Gulph road leads off, No. 12 is found instead of No. 10. West Chester pike, that branches off Lancaster at Thirty-second Street, starts the count of distance from that point. EARLY COLONIAL STONKS. There are in our County stones on the old Providence road, from Chester to Providence Meeting House, near the place called Providence on Dr. Ash’s map, now Media, that may antedate all the turnpike stones and even the earlier insurance stones. Then again they may not. So far the suf- ficient facts and evidence have not been dug up to settle the question. What we know about them is as follows, and it leaves a pretty question to be perhaps happily solved by some later milestone lover. The Providence road was laid out in 1684. It is exactly five miles long from the old Chester Court House to the meet- MILESTONES. 77 ing house. On it are four stones. The first, or No. 1, seems to be missing. It would be quite within the now thickly set- tled portion of Chester. No. 2 is in front of the entrance to Senator Sproul’s home, ““Lapidea.’’ It has the initials I. W. upon it, which by Miss Sharpless are said to be the initials of Isaac Weaver, a schoolmaster of that vicinity, who taught her father in the school house near by. Her father was born in 1811. What connection, if any, Isaac Weaver had with this stone, bear- ing such initials, is not stated. Its great size, very quaint let- tering and general appearance would indicate it as no recent stone, but a very old one. It is two feet wide, five to six inches thick and forty-eight inches high. No. 3 is a reproduction. The old stone was gone, and the Colonial Dames had a stone cutter of Media find a similar one, and cut in the ‘‘3 M.toC.,’’ and re-erect it in 1915. It is seventeen inches wide, four to four and a half inches thick, and eighteen inches high. No. 4 is believed to be the original stone. It was found near the blacksmith shop near Wallingford bridge and reset in place. It is about thirteen inches wide, two and a half inches thick and fifteen inches high. It reads ‘‘4 M. to C.’’ No. 5. This is the stone of greatest interest because of the date of 1705 and initials ‘‘T. N.’’ It stood until 1915 inside the wall of the Providence Meeting House. It was then reset outside in the road, and the initials and date recut or deepened. I have photographs of it both before and after. The ‘‘5’’ is the correct distance to Chester. The initials of ‘““'T N.’’ are presumed by some to refer to Thomas Nossiter, who was a man of prominence and an early settler in that vicinity. In fact, the road was laid out by a jury which met at his house, according to Ashmead, who states, in his ‘‘ His- tory of Delaware County,’’ page 652:— ‘“‘Seventeen persons composed the Grand Jury empanelled to look out a convenient highway leading from Providence to Chester and the 78 SHELTON : Court ordered that Grand Jury doe meet on the 22nd instance at Thomas Nossiter’s, then to consider the premises.”’ This was around Eighth month 17th, 1683. The road was opened in 1684 and the theory is that the milestones were set up later, by individuals by common agree- ment, which would explain the diversity of size and shape and markings, and the fact of No. 5 stone with the date 1705 and Nossiter’s initials on it, either cut by himself or by some one else later, in recognition of his having had much to do with the making of the road. Mrs. Isaac L. Miller has stated that both Edgar T. Miller and Miss Sharpless said the date should read ‘‘ 1795,’’ and that the letters apply to a Thomas Nasson or Nassome, who had a farm there. There is nothing to bear this out, and there is no suggestion of a tail to the cipher, indicating that it was a ‘‘9,’’ and Mr. Miller told me that the date was 1705. Mr. F. P. Powers thinks that the date is 1767 and that the tail was above, and that it was broken off, leaving only the cipher portion. The upper corner of the stone has been broken above, but in fixedly looking at the stone, before the recutting, I could not see any evidence of a ‘‘6.’’ Mr. Powers believes in general that milestones started around 1760, and he has no theory as to the ‘‘T. N.’’ initials. But in a paper of great interest on milestones before the City History Society of Philadelphia, he speaks of several around Boston, that date in the 1730’s. So the net fact is, that no one knows whether the date of the stone is 1705, 1765 or 1795. It is in any event a very old one and very interesting, and if the 1705 theory is correct, the County possess in that little, old stone, fifteen inches wide, three inches thick and sticking out of the ground but eighteen inches, the oldest milestone of any place and any sort that I have heard of in the United States. The Nossiter theory is as plausible as any, and in fact has more to bear it out than any other; why not enjoy that as long as no one can show anything more definitely to the contrary ? MILESTONES. 79 There is another set of stones in our County that might be termed milestones, and these are the monuments set up along the boundary line between our State and Delaware. While set up a mile apart, they are not, however, intended to indi- cate distance, as does a real milestone, but rather the location of the line. You may remember that the boundary line between Penn- sylvania and Delaware is a circular line. This came from the fact that when Charles II made his grant to Penn, New Castle and the Delaware territory was in the possession of his bro- ther, the Duke of York, and he said he didn’t want Penn too near him; with the result that the line was defined as twelve miles from the centre of New Castle, in every direction. This made a circular boundary. It was surveyed in 1701, but the tree marks, etc., of that work were not permanent. It was not long before the exact location of the line became uncer- tain, and for generations such was the condition. Not until 1892, or after Igt years, was a later survey made. In that year, however, monuments were set up by a joint Commission of Pennsylvania and Delaware, after the line had been relo- cated and determined, one every mile. It is interesting to note that in this survey it was agreed that the line would have to run through at least some places that had become settled and fixed in the public mind and in the original survey, as being on the boundary, and that it was found that a true twelve mile circle would not fit or run through such. A com- pound curve, or circular line, was therefore adopted. This starts all right, with a twelve mile radius, at the east end of the Mason and Dixon line, where Maryland, Delaware and Pennsylvania come together, but continues with an increasing radius until it comes out on the Delaware, where the official terminal point is 3000 feet north of the theoretical point and, as determined and adopted in 1701 and in 1892, with the result that about 5000 acres are in Delaware that ought to be in Pennsylvania. But every body seems satisfied. The State boundary ‘‘ milestones’’ are made of Leiper- 80 SHELTON : MILESTONES. ville granite, are marked on opposite sides with the initials of the States, ‘“P’’ and ‘“‘D’’ respectively, and oh the other sides with ‘‘1892’’ and the serial number, 1, 2, 3, etc. There are twenty-two of them on the line, which is 22.57 miles long, about eight and a half miles of which, from No. 14 near the Brandywine at Smith’s Bridge to the stone on the bank of the Delaware, are along and form the south-west boundary line, as well, of our County. The stones are six and a half feet long, set four feet in the ground. They are twelve inches square, tapering to ten inches. Between them are smaller half mile stones, projecting two feet from the ground, ten inches square, tapering to eight inches, with simply the inscription ‘“r.’’? At each end of the line are special larger stones, known as the ‘‘initial’’ and ‘‘terminal’’ stones, that carry the names of the Commissioners, surveyors, etc. These stones are nine and a half feet long, project five feet, are eighteen inches square, and taper to twelve inches. The sur- veyor for Pennsylvania was Benjamin H. Smith, the son of Dr. George Smith, the historian, and himself the author of the splendid ‘‘Atlas of Land Grants’’ in our County, of 1884. Milestones have much of sentiment and tradition attach- ing to them, and it was an appropriate thought, indeed, that the marker stone set up to indicate the place where Penn landed in Chester in 1682, (on West Front Street, near Chester Creek), should have been made of milestone form; for his landing and creation of the Colony of Pennsylvania —that has now become one of the three great Commonwealths of the United States — was certainly one of the important milestones in the history of the United States. LOE SINSTELUTE. The present building occupied by the Delaware County Institute of Science was erected in 1869. The work was done by days’ labor and not by contract, with the natural result that the edifice is one of the most substantial in the Borough. Lewis Kirk, of Upper Providence, Delaware County, was Treasurer of the Institute and Superintendent of Construction during the operation. Through his kindness we are enabled to publish the following report of the Building Committee, found among some old papers in his possession. It. shows the total cost of the building to have been about $12,000. Report of the Building Committee of the Delaware County Institute, Receipts and Expenditures. DR. AMOUNtLOL appro priatlON See)... /fojors chery oniel ...-....-..---- 46 00 Handrailing, balustrades, newel postand labor 126 20 Discount atiMediay Bank~ s-5sn ion eee 103 18 Total expenditures, April 30th, 1869.... $12,072 70 THe TeN-MILE STONE ON THE LANCASTER PIKE, Tue FirreEEN-MiLte STONE ON THE West CHESTER PIKE, One of the present series, in distinction from the earlier Imbedded in the roots of a black walnut tree. stones on the o/d Lancaster Road. PIKE, npike company’s stones left. A Stx-MtLte Stone on BALTIM Tue Nine-MILe The only one found or known on this highway. One of the few of the t ON THE Tur Ten-Mite Srone on Oxtp TaAverrorp Roan. LB Showing the ‘Penn Arms’? on the back. EN-MiILE STONE ON “tHE RoAD TO NEWCASTLE.” “Post” or old “Queen’s Road’ to Wilmington. Has “Penn Arms” on_ back. Tue Nine’ Now the . 4 b ge aos ve : > - tes 7 ; y Te wae j fa mt nd al an ies . . uF se ; a : iy : 7 & i b : - 5 i 7 : — ‘a ; 7 v : eo Ld ok ee ee ENT CoorpERTOWN ROAD. Tue ELEVEN-MILE STONE ON T Ortp Taverrorp Roan. a ae . Tur Ten-Mire Stone on P As relocated 1 Chiles is) ring characteristic panel. ‘ aod Bei elegstediei i? howing (characteristic: panel Of virtually similar pattern to the Haverford series. at AE te 7 Tue SEVENTEEN-MILE STONE ON THE GuULPH ROAD. Tur Two-Mire Stone: ProvipENce Roan. This series has no panel. ‘Penn Arms’ are on_ back. Photograph made just after the recutting of the letters in 1915, when the ‘1’? was cut in, instead of “2” as should have been. Error since corrected. ‘eorfdadt yuoo01 VW oy} ION AONACIACUT 110 Ss ri “yeul I ‘ ‘ I [VUISIIO 9} 9q 0} PadaTla “‘ynool “dvOy aH J :ANOLG A@TIPY-¥N0 ACL AOU FON? ‘avoy Tue Five-MiLre StToNE: PROVIDENCE Roap. Tue Five-Mire Stone: ProvipENCE Roan. In its location inside the wall of the Providence Meeting As relocated in 1915 and after recutting. House, up to 1915 and before the recutting. ~ Rosh ~~ re 4s o~ 4 at Tue Fourteentu-Mite MARKER STONE ON THE PENNSYL- A Vatr-Mice STone oN THE CiRCULAR BouNpDARY LINE. VANIA-DELAWARE CrrRCULAR BouNpDARY LINE, Penn LANbDING-PLACE MARKER STONE. ve- form, West Front Street, Chester, SOUNDARY LINE, Tire t the end Of m Tre S i ON THE On the | The Dixon Li OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTE: ~~ pipes are T. Chalkley Palmer ice President, ek C. Edgar Ogden ecretary, = Dr. B. M. Underhill Carolus M. Broomall ae - = Henrietta K. Broomall ae Board of Curators, rimble Pratt, M. D., im Sa Starbuck, M. D., and the Officers Volume VIII Number 4 PROCEEDINGS | OF THE DELAWARE COUNTY INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE PUBLICATION COMMITTEE : T. Chalkley Palmer,-Chairman; Trimble Pratt, M. D., J. C. Starbuck, M. D., B. M. Underhill, V. M. D., M. H. Hoyt, Edward V. Streeper. Carolus M. Broomall, Editor. MEDIA, PA. Issued at intervals. Limited edition for free distribution on application. Address all correspondence to the Editor. Issued January 15th, 1919 CONTENTS : Stress Lines in Beams of Facaep angie: Cross Sec- tion, By C. M. Broomall, - - - - Page 83 Additional Notes on the Milestones of Delaware | County, By F. H. Shelton, : - - 2S ge eae ls PROCEEDINGS OF THE Delaware County Institute of Science VOLUME VIII NUMBER 4 STRESS LINES IN BEAMS OF UNSYMMETRICAL CROSS SECTION. BY C. M. BROOMALL. Following up the method already made use of in treating of Stress and Strain in beams of symmetrical cross section,* it is proposed in the present article to extend the same meth- ods to beams of unsymmetrical cross section. As a typical beam of this character, the Channel with web vertical will be first considered. As a preliminary to the treatment of the Channel Beam, a brief résumé of a few of the facts brought out in the articles mentioned may be useful. These facts may be summarized as follows : — 1. The horizontal unit shear at any point of the beam is always accompanied by an equal right-angled vertical (or transverse) unit shear. 2. The total horizontal shear at any point is equai to the difference between the horizontal forces acting on the two *«* Stress and Strain.’’ Proc. Del. Co. Inst. Sci. Vol. VIII, No. 1, May, IgI6. ‘“Stress and Deformation in the I Beam.’’ Proc. Del. Co. Inst. Sci. Vol. VIII, No. 2, December, Ig16. 84 BROOMALL : ends of the elementary ‘‘ block’’ of material lying above or beyond the element of length under consideration. 3. Passing from the middle towards the ends along any level line, the above horizontal forces are all ‘‘ spilled off’”’ in the shape of horizontal shear, becoming reduced to zero at the ends. The horizontal forces become less and less by reg- ular decrements or subtractions from a previous value. The horizontal shear usually increases towards the ends, but not by additions to a previous value. 4. The horizontal shear may be regarded as the physical lever-arm of the couples in the upper and lower part of the beam. Without this shear the parts of the beam would not work together as a harmonious “‘ resisting moment.”’ 5. Inthe I Beam the compression in the right-hand edge of the upper flange, for instance, must work in conjunction with its most remote comrade, the tension in the left-hand edge of the lower flange. This can only be through the medium of some kind of shear. Hence we must assume the existence of horizontal shear in the flange as well as in the web. The horizontal shear in the flanges, however, has its shearing planes vertically disposed, while in the web the shearing planes are horizontal, Figure 1. FIGURE 1 As a definite problem for the application of these and other principles to beams of unsymmetrical cross section, let STRESS LINES IN BEAMS. 85 us take up the determination of the general character of the stresses and deformations in the Channel Beam, set with web vertical and loaded uniformly. For the present let us assume this loading to be in a narrow line along the web, so as to avoid consideration of the bending of the flange by the direct load. In order to balance the external forces and reactions, each element of the body will be acted upon by certain forces which for convenience we will resolve vertically, transversely and longitudinally. These are the resultants of the various external forces acting upon the body, and necessary to equilibrium. By resolving the forces acting upon the ele- ments in various directions the actual direction and amount of the true internal stresses acting in the material may be found. In the present article we will consider more particu- larly the direction and characteristics of the lines of maxi- mum stress rather than the absolute value of the stresses. As the Channel stands on edge subjected to its load, we know it is acted upon by vertical shear and bending moment. Further, we know that if a vertical unit shearing stress exists at any point, an equal and opposite longitudinal unit shear- ing stress must exist also, as required by the principles of statics. This opposing longitudinal unit shear is produced by or results from the decrements in the value of the horizon- tal direct stresses already mentioned. Hence, each element of the body must be acted upon by two equal right-angled shearing unit stress. As a consequence of the bending moment we know also that each element must in addition be acted upon by direct stress, tension or compression. As far as the web is concerned these are the same forces as are met with in a beam of rectangular cross section. In the flanges we meet a rather different array of forces, similar to those already mentioned in connection with the I Beam. A longitudinal shear, with vertically arranged shearing planes must exist in order to transfer the decrements of longitudinal stresses to the web and thence by ordinary 86 BROOMALL: horizontal shear to the neutral axis. Along with this longi- tudinal shear in the flange there must also exist its right- angled companion shear likewise with vertical shearing planes. As regards the variation in value of the stresses in a given cross section of the Channel, it is evident that in the web the direct stress varies as the distance from neutral surface and the horizontal and vertical shear vary inversely as the square of the distance from the neutral surface. It is also evident that in the flanges the direct stresses are independent of the distance from web and are constant, while the longitudinal and cross shears vary inversely as the distance from the web. Knowing the resultant forces acting upon the elements of the body, it is easy to predict the characteristics of the actual lines of maximum internal stress. In Figure 2 are indicated the forces above enumerated which the elements must resist, and the nature of the resulting lines of maximum stress. The formulas for tracing these lines may be found in any advanced work on the mechanics of materials, and are S Direct Stress > cot 26 = — —._- 7.2 2 (1) 2Vv s Shear : tan) 2.) eee ee (2) 2Vv Where 6 = angle of direct stress with longitudinal direction ¢ = angle of shearing plane with longitudinal direction s—direct unit stress, tension positive, compression negative v = unit longitudinal shear The figure shows respectively top view, elevation and bottom view of the beam. The various forces are represented by arrows or by the letters T for tension, C for compression and $ for shear. So far the stress lines as determined are based upon stat- ical principles. When the Channel deflects under its loads these lines of stress will vary to a small extent. Under n wy a4 88 BROOMALL: deflection the upper portion of the beam expands in all direc- tions, while the lower portion contracts. This means that a transverse unit tension in all directions must exist in the upper portion of the beam and a transverse unit compression in the lower portion. These forces may be resolved vertically and horizontally and their effect considered. The vertical components in the web and the horizontal forces in the flanges are those which will act to modify the lines of maxi- mum stress as already found. The actual effect, of course, is small, and if the deformation were known these forces might be added to those of Figure 2 before making the reso- lution. Another effect of the expansion and contraction just men- tioned is to raise the centre of gravity of the section and con- sequently the neutral axis. This alters the amount of the horizontal forces, producing another modification in the lines of maximum stresses. These modifications in the stress lines are naturally small, and for all practical purposes may be neglected. Let us now consider the Channel used as a beam with web horizontal and flanges vertical, for example, turned upward. The position of the neutral plane will usually be in the lower part of the flanges. The lines of maximum stress in the flanges will be calculated in the usual way, and will have the general characteristics shown in Figure 3. The figure also suggests the forces acting on the elements of the body and the manner in which they vary in value from top to bottom. The lines of direct stress cut the upper edges of the flanges at 90° and o°, and they cross the neutral axis at 45°. They do not, however, intercept the upper surface of the web at go° and 0°, since the horizontal shear does not fall to zero. The lines as sketched are only meant to indicate the general char- acteristics of the curves. The lines of shear in the flanges cut the upper edge of flange at 45°, and the neutral axis at go0° and o°. They do not cut the upper surface of the web at 45°, because ee sain STRESS LINES IN BEAMS. 39 go BROOMALL : the horizontal shear, as before, does not reduce to zero. As regards the lines of stress in the web, another method of reasoning must be used. In the first place, we will encounter longitudinal shear with vertical shearing planes, as only in this way can the two flanges be tied together to work in harmony with the web. The planes of shearing for the whole section are more or less as indicated in Figure 4. FIGURE 4 The distribution of forces acting on the elements of the body in the four quadrants of the web and their variation in value are indicated in Figure 5. The resolution of these forces will give lines of maximum internal stress for the plane of the web after the manner shown to the left in the figure. The lines of direct stress cut the middle line of the beam ato° and go°. They cut the edges of the web at angles dif- fering from 45° a certain amount, since the ratio — = does not reduce to zero. The lines of shear cut the middle line at 45° and approach o° and go° at the edges of the web. As mentioned, the lines of stress cut the boundaries in cer- tain cases at angles differing more or less from limiting values. These angles may be found by substitution of the proper values in Formulas (1) and (2). They will depend, of course, upon the relative values of the unit direct stress and unit horizontal shear. If the flange and web are of same thickness, the shear and direct stress, at A and B, Figure 4, have nearly the same G AYNISIY STRESS LINES IN BEAMS. gI 92 BROOMALL : values. The maximum stress lines in the web would, there- fore, cut the junction of web and flange at nearly the same angles as the corresponding lines in the flange. As commonly the web is thinner than the flange, it results that the unit longitudinal shear on plane B is greater than on plane A, which means a different angle of cutting. A consideration of Formulas (1) and (2) will show. whether the lines in the web will make a greater or less angle with the longitudinal direction than the corresponding lines in the flanges. In case the Channel is used the other side up, that is, flanges directed downwards, the same line of reasoning may be used and lines corresponding to those already shown may be easily sketched. We will leave it to the fertile imagination of the reader to picture them. Another common unsymmetrical cross section to examine is that of the Angle Beam. We will consider it in one posi- tion only, for example, horizontal leg on top, and vertical leg directed downwards, referring to same as flange and web respectively. Since the Angle is to all intents nothing more than part of a Channel, the nature of its stresses may be easily indicated by reference to the previous figures. In the Angle Beam the shearing planes will be similar to those in the web and upper half flange of the I Beam or in the web and upper flange of Channel Beam on edge. The maximum longitudinal shear will occur at the neutral axis, which of course passes through the centre of gravity of the section. The lines of maximum stress in the web of the Angle will resemble those of the flanges of the Channel Beam laid flat. Figure 3 inverted and with stresses appropriately reversed will indicate them very well. In the flange, looked at from above, the lines can be eas- ily shown to have the characteristics of the corresponding lines in the upper flange of the Channel Beam on edge, Figure 2, upper sketch. In beams of thin cross section with the parts vertically and horizontally disposed, it is not difficult, as we have seen, STRESS LINES IN BEAMS. 93 to determine the characteristics of the lines of maximum internal stress. In the foregoing the underlying principles have been sufficiently developed to clearly exemplify the method of treatment. In the case of thick cross sections, other than the rectangular, the matter is by no means so simple. In a subsequent article it is expected to treat of cir- cular, triangular and other cross sections. ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE MILESTONES OF DELAWARE COUNTY. BY F. H. SHELTON. I find that the statement on page 64, Volume VIII, Number 3, of these PROCEEDINGS, that there are no mile- stones still standing on the ‘‘ Old Lancaster Road’’ (as dis- tinguished from the Lancaster Pike), within our County limits, is an error. There are yet four, viz. :— No. 12. A few yards west of the intersection of Roberts Road, Rosemont. No. 13. About a third of a mile east of Ithan Avenue. No. 14. Should be close to the bridge at Ithan, but appears to be missing. No. 15. A little west of the intersection of Iven Avenue and Church Roads: ‘‘ Five Points.’’ No. 16. West of West Wayne Avenue, close to South Devon Avenue, and close to the steps of a private house. All these are on the north side of the road. The shape is the same throughout, viz.: A 12 inch face with a 9 inch semi- circular top, and Nos. 15 and 16 are made of ‘‘ greenstone ”’ or ‘‘soapstone.’’ No. 16 is quite unusual in having the date of ‘‘1769’’ also upon it. WEST CHESTER PIKE. Page 66. No. g stone is still . there, just a little east of being directly opposite the building that used to be the old Buck Tavern, east of Broomall. The statement that the West Chester Pike stones were pro- bably put up about 1848, when the Pike Company was char- tered, must be modified, as Hill’s map of Philadelphia and surrounding territory within a ten mile range, published in 1808, shows stones on this road, and in the same location as at present. The fact, however, that most of the stones at the east end are well cut, smooth and symmetrical, while some of the stones at the further end are not, being rougher and with cruder shaped letters and figures, and the fact that more SHELTON : MILESTONES. 95 or less of this Pike is the route of the old road to Goshen and Strasburg, laid out in 1770, suggests that the stones may be of two periods? The older ones, on Hill’s map, may be those of the time of laying out, in 1770, while the newer appearing ones may be these installed by the Pike Company (which did not operate or extend beyond Newtown Square, while the stones do) in replacing, evening up or equiping, in 1848. CHESTER PIKE. Page 68. The stone at Third and Howell is legible and reads ‘‘ 16 M. to P.”’ OLD HAVERFORD ROAD. Page 73. I am advised that stone No. 9g, heretofore missing, is—or is about to be— reset, (having been found) at its location, near the Eagle Road intersection. COOPERTOWN ROAD. Page 74. The No. to stone that has none accompanying and which has been assumed as reading to Philadelphia via Llanerch and the West Chester Pike: It has been pointed out that this would also read cor- rectly via the Old Haverford Road. For travelers leaving Philadelphia via that old road, and bound for the Goshen road above referred to, and following the old Eagle Road, branching off at the ninth milestone and going via the Hav- ford Meeting House (one of the oldest), and on via the old Coopertown Road, towards Radnor, or towards old Newtown Square, on the then old Goshen road, would find this No. 1o milestone, correctly reading after leaving the No. 9 Haverford road stone, by a mile. Being of the same pattern exactly as the ‘‘ Penn Arm’’ stones of the latter road, it seems likely that this No. 10 Coopertown road stone might have been placed at the same time as the No. 1o—and the other Haver- ford stones — each being a mile from the fork of the road at the ninth stone. GuLpH ROAD. Page75. There are several more of the 96 SHELTON : MILESTONES. stones standing than named in the paper, though these are all out of the County. No. 10 is unusually interesting in being within the fork of two roads, and having the number “ 10”’ on each face, as well as the ‘‘Arms,’’ and in addition the date of ‘‘1770’’ cut on the upstream edge. (The stone stands close to Mill Creek, a little north of Mill Creek road, a mile or more from Ardmore.) It is said that the date was cut on the stone in recent days, but if this is so, it is none the less close to the probable date of the setting up of all these ‘*Penn Arm’’ stones. iil a No. 12 Stone: Otp LANcASTER Roan. No. 16 Stone: Oxtp LANCASTER Roan, STRAFFORD. The only one with a date. Just west of Roberts Road, Rosemont, INDEX LOMVOLUME, Vili: Archives of Delaware County. Compiled by Edward V. and Margaret S. Streeper. II. Burial Records of the Sandy Bank Burial Ground. - - - = - - Page I III. Burial Records of the Swedenborgian or New Jerusalem Church, Upper Darby Township, Delaware County, Pa., - - - - =) 29 Institute Notes, - - . - - Pages 27, 62 Milestones of Delaware County, The, By F. H. Shelton, Pagei63 Milestones of Delaware County, The. Additional Notes on, By F. H. Shelton, - - - Page 94 Stress and Strain, By C. M. Broomall, - - =i) ee 9 Stress and Deformation in the I Beam, Bya CMa Broomall a e47 Stress Lines in Beams of Unsymmetrical Cross Sec- tion, By C. M. Broomall, - - - eee sites Trailing Arbutus from Seed, By Anna D. White, ‘‘ 61 The Institute, - - - - - . stale Aaa ge | OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTE: 1, Chalkley Palmer 3 | . | C. Edgar Ogden ; etary: ; Pie _ Dr. B. M. Underhill ee “Treasurer, ie ) Carolus M. Broomall © ey wuer: Henrietta K. Broomall ‘ Board of Curators, - . Trimble F Pratt, M. De 2 Ie OF peg oe M. 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